JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL An EU strategic approach in support of Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration of former combatants
Date: 2021-12-21
Institutions: European Commission, European External Action Service
Subjects: armed forces, disarmament, establishment of peace, international cooperation, social integration, social rehabilitation, the EU's international role, war

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION HIGH REPRESENTATIVE OF THE UNION FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND SECURITY POLICY Brussels, 21.12.2021  JOIN(2021) 35 final  JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL An EU strategic approach in support of Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration of former combatants   
 
 
1. Introduction  

The changing nature of conflict, the proliferation of armed groups and growing violence cause 
enormous pain and suffering, and deeply affect the lives of men, women, boys and girls across 
the globe. Whenever peace recedes and armed conflicts destabilise states and entire regions, 
the  European  Union  (EU)  often  faces  direct  or  indirect  consequences  and  new  security 
challenges. Therefore, more than ever, the EU needs to  hone its response as a  global peace 
actor addressing instability and conflict beyond its borders.  

The EU has a longstanding tradition of providing support to enhance the security and human 
development of communities and individuals searching for a way out of conflict. In transitions 
from  conflict  to  peace,  facilitating  accountable  exit  opportunities,  political  processes  and 
alternative  livelihoods  for  those  involved  is  essential.  Support  to  the  peace  processes  in 
Colombia or in the Indonesian province of Aceh, seeking exit opportunities from conflict zones 
in north-eastern Nigeria or strengthening the reintegration of veterans of the conflict in eastern 
Ukraine show some of the ways the EU can adapt and support these undertakings.  

Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former combatants (DDR) plays an essential 
role in stabilisation and building lasting peace. It can prevent further exploitation of grievances 
and  instability  stirred  by  armed  groups,  some  of  which  may  be  designated  as  terrorist 
organisations. DDR is thus an integral part of the EU’s contribution to the non-reoccurrence of 
violence  and  to  broader  stabilisation,  as  it  addresses  the  risks  posed  by  armed  groups  and 
supports  the  transition  from  armed  confrontation  to  political  engagement  and  inclusive 
governance.  

DDR initiatives  sometimes  hit specific obstacles,  facing  inter alia: weak  local  and national 
ownership; a fragmented approach to peacebuilding; unrealistic or unsupported provisions or 
expectations  from  ceasefires  or  peace  agreements;  short-term  approaches  to  reintegration; 
ineffective security and justice sector governance. The EU’s experience has demonstrated the 
need  for  early  engagement  with  a  long-term  perspective,  flexibility  and  a  capacity  to  react 
swiftly, connecting diplomacy, development, peace, security and defence efforts in high-risk 
contexts.  

To meet the challenges posed by armed groups and to maximise the impact of its actions, the 
EU decided to update its DDR policy1, drawing on its Global Strategy and its EU Integrated 
Approach to External Conflicts and Crises2 (hereinafter: ‘Integrated Approach’). The updated 
EU DDR policy will match the ambition of a stronger Europe in  the world,  building on its 
commitment to the United Nations (UN) sustaining peace agenda3 which focuses on conflict 
prevention and pro-active pathways to peace and development. By doing so, the EU contributes 
to the prevention of spill-over effects from neighbouring and surrounding regions that could 
affect the EU’s internal security4.  

1 The European Commission and the Council of the European Union approved the EU Concept for Support to 
DDR (doc. 13727/4/06 REV 4) in December 2006. 
2 Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe – A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and 
Security  Policy  and  the  Council  Conclusions  on  the  Integrated  Approach  to  External  Conflicts  and  Crises 
(5413/18). 
3 See United Nations General Assembly and Security Council Resolutions 70/262 and 2282 respectively. 
4  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  European  Council,  The  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the EU Security Union Strategy 
(COM(2020) 605). 

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Definition and aim 

DDR refers to the voluntary engagement of male and female members and associates of armed 
forces and groups in laying down their weapons, breaking away from command and control 
structures, and transitioning to civilian life. Sustainable (re)integration is the main aim of DDR. 
This entails multiple considerations related to security, social and psychological needs and to 
future  socio-economic,  educational,  health,  legal  and  political  prospects,  not  only  for  the 
former combatants and their associates, but also for the families and the communities in which 
they (re)integrate. As such, DDR is at the crossroads of humanitarian, development and 
peace efforts5.  

This Joint Communication sets out an EU-wide comprehensive policy to assess and engage 
in  DDR processes, and  proposes  means  to frame and deliver support to  DDR in  affected 
countries  and  regions,  in  a  coordinated,  conflict-sensitive  manner6  and  in  line  with 
international law, directly and in tandem with partners, including the UN7, the World Bank, 
regional organisations and third countries.  

This Communication therefore: 

  presents the EU approach to DDR and highlights the types of contributions that the EU 

and its Members States may bring; 

  strengthens links with other key policies and instruments across the whole conflict cycle; 

  outlines guiding principles for EU actors;  

  proposes dedicated tools and actions.  

2. Adapting the EU’s DDR approach to changing contexts 

Contemporary  conflicts  see  increasingly  fragmented  armed  groups  with  fluid  command 
structures, transnational dimensions and links to organised criminal and terrorist organisations. 
The dynamics  that lead  to  radicalisation  exploit  social, ethnic, cultural,  economic, political, 
religious and security grievances, magnified by weak rule of law, state structures and public 
administrations,  inequitable  access  to  land  and  natural  resources,  climate  change  and 
environmental fragility.  

Within  this  context,  DDR  processes  are  often  left  without  their  traditionally  required 
frameworks  –  lasting  ceasefires  and  viable  peace  agreements.  Furthermore,  other  key 
conditions for DDR – the conflicting parties’ mutual trust in the peace process, their willingness 
to  engage,  and  minimum  levels  of  security  –  may  be  eroded.  Thus,  individuals  and  groups 
exiting armed conflict may require assistance and support when there is a peace agreement as 
well as when conflict is still ongoing. 

Participation in DDR processes 

To manage expectations and enhance trust in a peace process, participation of men, women, 
boys  and  girls  in  a  DDR  process  should  be  based  on  context-specific,  clear  and  steady 

5  The  concept  and  practice  of  the  Humanitarian-Development-Peace  Nexus,  at  times  referred  to  as  the  Triple 
Nexus, allows different actors to work and engage in a sequenced and integrated manner while respecting each 
other’s mandates, tools and principles. 
6 For the definition of Conflict Sensitivity, see the 2020 Guidance Note on the Use of Conflict Analysis in Support 
of External Action. 
7 The EU can also benefit from the revised Integrated DDR Standards (IDDRS). 

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eligibility  criteria,  responsive  to  age,  gender  and  diversity.  Although  roles  may  overlap, 
relevant categories for DDR include:  

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

combatant members of armed forces and/or armed groups, and individuals filling support 
roles, often referred to as associates; 

civilian returnees and self-demobilised individuals; 

families and other dependants associated with members of armed groups; 

abductees, children, survivors and other victims; 

communities in which former combatants and their associates (re-)integrate. 

International human rights law (IHRL), international humanitarian law (IHL) and international 
criminal law set restrictions on the eligibility to DDR processes of perpetrators of war crimes, 
genocide, crimes against humanity and gross violations of human rights. For this reason, an 
individual initially deemed eligible for a given DDR process may be excluded and prosecuted 
following the outcome of a criminal investigation. Furthermore, groups designated by the UN 
Security Council or the EU as terrorist organisations8 or returning foreign terrorist fighters and 
their families remain outside the realm of DDR.  

The unconditional and immediate protection, release and (re)integration of children associated 
with armed forces and groups9 (CAAFAG) with their family and community should be planned 
for and prioritised at all times, irrespective of the armed group’s potential designation, in line 
with IHRL and IHL. Children at the age of criminal responsibility, and who are suspected of 
having committed a serious crime, shall be handed over to civilian actors, and justice should 
be provided within juvenile justice frameworks. 

Key components of DDR 

The EU regards DDR as a political, non-military and transformative process that relies strongly 
on national and local ownership, peace and development efforts, and on resilience building. 
EU engagement in support of DDR, its emphasis on specific components, their sequencing and 
articulation need to be tailored to each specific context.  
The EU may support initiatives that are not explicitly referred to as DDR10 but that still aim to 
reduce violence or increase resilience at community level and enhance individuals’ capacity to 
resist  (re-)recruitment  by  armed  groups.  Creating  prospects  for  accountable  exits  –  be  they 
spontaneous or structured – from armed groups and returns to civilian life may contribute to 
environments more conducive for DDR.  

Disarmament is the safe assessment, collection, documentation, control and disposal of arms, 
ammunition and explosives used by combatants and their associates, and sometimes also by 
the  civilian  population,  to  reduce  the  illicit  circulation  of  primarily  small  arms  and  light 
weapons (SALW)  and related items.  Disarmament  may take place at  all stages of DDR, be 
transitional11 or conditioned on broader political developments or a progressing peace process. 

8  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  European  Council,  the  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A Counter-Terrorism Agenda for 
the EU: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, Respond (COM(2020) 795). 
9 The EU Guidelines on Children and Armed Conflict. CAAFAG have at times been referred to as child soldiers.  
10  DDR  may  include  components  or  references  to  Decommissioning,  Disengagement,  Disaffiliation, 
Reincorporation, or Reconciliation, depending on specific contexts. 
11 Transitional management of weapons and ammunition may include safe storage controlled jointly by the parties 
concerned. 

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The EU can support disarmament and/or weapon and ammunition management through policy 
and political dialogue or by providing assistance measures and expert advice to national or 
local  authorities.  Joint  disarmament  operations  within  the  framework  of  a  CSDP  mission 
and/or operation could be envisaged, if the Council so decides, in line with Article 43 TEU, in 
addition  to  contributing  to  UN-mandated  or  regionally  and  nationally-led  initiatives. 
Operational  cooperation  between  EU  and  non-EU  law  enforcement  authorities  should  also 
continue to take place within the Firearms priority of the European Multidisciplinary Platform 
Against Criminal Threats (EMPACT)12. 

Demobilisation refers to the separation and/or disaffiliation of adult members13 of armed forces 
and armed  groups  from  command structures and their transition  to  civilian status.  It  entails 
changes of legal status, and may require psychosocial counselling and health care support. It 
can happen spontaneously or be organised through legislation or political agreements14. The 
processing  and  discharge  of  eligible  combatants  and  their  associates  includes  transitional, 
short-term and targeted assistance, referred to as reinsertion support, for those undergoing a 
demobilisation process. This process should take into account victims of trafficking in human 
beings exploited for armed conflicts and war purposes. 

The  EU  can  support  demobilisation  through  rapidly  deployable  assistance  and  specific 
provisions  under  EU  external  action  funding  programmes,  actions  under  Article  28  TEU, 
contributions from CSDP and other engagements reinforcing authorities’ capacities in areas 
such as verification, logistics and digitalisation. Reinsertion support measures could include 
training to prepare for future social and professional life challenges, in parallel to specific 
provisions to link reinsertion and reintegration by, for example, participation in economic and 
development projects related to infrastructure, health services, green energy, etc.  

Reintegration is the process through which former combatants and their associates make the 
transition  to  living  as  civilian  community  members.  This  open-ended  process  has  security-
related,  psychological,  social,  health,  cultural,  religious,  economic,  political  and  legal 
dimensions,  and  takes  place  at  individual,  family  and  community  levels  as  part  of  wider 
recovery, peace and development processes. 

Under  specific  circumstances,  eligible  and  vetted  former  combatants  may  integrate  into  the 
national security sector. This process should be nationally owned, promote greater inclusion 
and fair representation, and respond to the security needs of the population, in addition to taking 
account of accountability issues, rightsizing and the absorption capacity of the security sector. 

EU  reintegration  actions  will  be  combined  with  broader  development  and  peacebuilding 
efforts to support former combatants and their associates in their transition to civilian life and 
increase the absorption capacity of the recipient communities and authorities, including by 
strengthening local governance structures, capacities and processes.  

As  broader  dysfunctionalities  of  political  systems,  state  institutions,  education  and  health 
systems and public administration further reduce prospects for successful reintegration, the 
EU will envisage structural approaches. Supporting other populations affected by conflict and 

12  Council  Conclusions  on  the  permanent  continuation  of  the  EU  Policy  Cycle  for  organised  and  serious 
international  crime:  EMPACT  2022+  (6481/21)  and  the  EU  action  plan  on  firearms  trafficking  2020-2025 
(COM/2020/608). 
13  Children  under  the  age  of  15  are  seen  as  being  released  from  armed  groups  rather  than  undergoing 
demobilisation. 
14 A formal demobilisation process is often framed by a political agreement and marks a change in the legal status 
of  the  individual  from  combatant/associate  to  civilian,  whereas  self-demobilised  individuals  directly  achieve 
civilian status. 

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an equitable sharing of peace dividends (e.g. through reparations to victims and survivors, 
including victims of trafficking in human beings) enhances local communities’ and national 
actors’ buy-in to the process and contributes to reconciliation. 

To support socio-economic reintegration, the EU is committed to addressing the multi-sectoral 
nature of these processes, covering aspects as diverse as overcoming insecure land tenure and 
ensuring  access  to  health  care,  to  supporting  access  to  financial  and  banking  services. 
Therefore,  certain  key  factors  of  socio-economic  vulnerability,  such  as  structural 
macroeconomic deficits and obstacles to sustainable development, well-being and decent job 
creation, educational gaps, and ineffective or inaccessible social and health protection systems, 
will need to be considered and addressed, together with other relevant dimensions such as the 
role of organised crime, illicit economies, risks of re-recruitment, etc.  

Through  its  development,  humanitarian  aid  and  trade  cooperation,  the  EU  supports  the 
promotion of decent work, sustainable livelihoods and economies, to help countries recover 
from emergencies and build back better. This approach should be more systematically applied 
to processes of reintegration, including of internally displaced people, refugees and returnees. 

In its efforts to promote a culture of peace that is conducive to political reintegration, the EU 
assists  individuals  and  communities  in  acquiring  the  skills  they  need  to  engage  in  political 
activities through a political party,  a social movement, or as independent activists, allowing 
pluralistic debate as well as prospects for wider reconciliation and peacebuilding without fear 
of violent reprisals. 

3. A holistic EU engagement matching the challenges of DDR  

A wide reach  

To match the challenges of DDR, the EU will leverage its multi-dimensional contributions to 
peace, security and development: 

  As a global actor with an enhanced mediation profile, the EU plays a strong convening role 
in peace processes and conflict prevention, with human security at the centre of its action. 
Therefore, the EU is well-placed to provide effective and flexible support to DDR processes 
through country or regional strategies. A realistic approach based on policy and political 
dialogue,  which  also  addresses  state  security  actors,  can  lower  the  likelihood  of  the 
resurgence of tensions and improve the stability and resilience of the EU’s partners in the 
neighbourhood and beyond. 

  Upholding  the  multilateral,  rules-based  international  order,  the  EU  remains  strongly 
engaged with bilateral, regional and international partners to ensure and promote respect 
for international  law, notably full  respect  for  IHRL and  IHL. Promoting the  rule of law 
(RoL), including through concrete initiatives on protection of civilians and support to civil 
society organisations and human rights defenders, will foster inclusivity and enable more 
effective implementation of the EU’s Strategic Approach to Women, Peace and Security15 
and the Youth, Peace and Security agenda16. 

15 Council Conclusions on Women, Peace and Security (15086/18). 
16 See e.g. Council Conclusions on Youth in External Action (8629/20) and UNSC 2250 (2015). 

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  As  a  major  humanitarian17,  development  and  peace  actor,  the  EU  supports  national 
institutions  and  organisations  working  to  alleviate  human  suffering  and  promote 
sustainable development, enhance human security and facilitate long-term reintegration of 
various conflict-affected groups beyond DDR.  

  The EU and its Member States make a pivotal contribution to peace and security. They also 
create better prospects for the overall management of risks related to armed groups through 
the unique role of civilian and military CSDP missions and operations and the networks of 
defence, security and counter-terrorism (CT) advisers in EU Delegations.  

  Making  use  of  research  and  innovation  for  evidence-informed  policymaking  improves 
support  to  DDR  processes  and  requires  the  management  of  knowledge,  lessons  and 
experiences. 

A coherent use of the EU’s toolbox  

DDR initiatives are more effective if supported by the policies, tools and instruments of the 
Integrated  Approach,  provided  that  they  follow  adequate  sequencing,  realistic  objectives, 
budgeting and timelines for each specific context.  

All relevant EU actors, engaging in accordance with their competences, need to coordinate, 
consult and cooperate on the political, strategic and operational levels to link long-term policy-
driven development support with short-term actions and other assistance measures. The EU is 
now  better  placed  to  deliver  in  this  field,  thanks  to  the  adoption  of  the  Global  Europe: 
Neighbourhood,  Development  and  International  Cooperation  Instrument  (NDICI)18  and  the 
European Peace Facility (EPF)19.  

Peacebuilding and development cooperation 

The  EU  invests  in  conflict  prevention  and  peacebuilding  initiatives  globally,  and  aims  at 
mainstreaming  conflict  sensitivity  and  resilience  in  its  external  action,  including  through 
specific requirement20 applying to development cooperation and international partnerships in 
fragile and conflict affected countries. This includes systematically addressing the root causes 
of  conflicts  and  crises  through  long-term  approaches  to  conflict  transformation  and 
peacebuilding. In fragile environments, efforts to create space for political dialogue and respect 
for the RoL, and to prevent or reduce violence and extremism at community level, are key. In 
these  contexts,  investment  focused  on  former  combatants,  their  associates  and  recipient 
communities has a preventive effect on relapsing conflicts and violence by building resilience 
and resistance to re-recruitment by armed groups.  

The EU plays a fundamental role in the Colombian peace process, both by stimulating trust 
and dialogue among former FARC-EP representatives and the Government of Colombia, and 
as  a  main  donor  to  the  social  and  economic  reincorporation  (reintegration)  of  former 
combatants, through projects as well as budget support. Reinforced by the prominent role of 
the EU Special Envoy for  the peace process,  the  EU’s support  was designed with a human 

17 EU humanitarian aid adheres to the principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence. See the 
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council – EU’s humanitarian action: 
new challenges, same principles (COM(2021) 110). 
18  Regulation  (EU)  2021/947  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  9  June  2021  establishing  the 
Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument – Global Europe, O.J. L 209/1 (2021). 
19 Council Decision (CFSP) 2021/509 of 22 March 2021 establishing a European Peace Facility. 
20  According  to  Art.  12  (2)b)  of  Regulation  (EU)  2021/947  establishing  the  NDICI,  when  drawing  up  the 
programming documents for countries and regions in crisis, and for fragile and vulnerable situations, a conflict 
analysis shall be conducted to ensure conflict sensitivity, and due account shall be taken of the special needs and 
circumstances of the countries or regions concerned and their population. 

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rights-based approach and was in line with the principles of leaving no one behind. It pursues 
the  economic  reintegration  of  ex-combatants  through  support  to  productive  projects  and 
vocational training, housing and access to public basic services, rehabilitation of persons with 
disabilities, child care and women’s economic empowerment. 

The  main  challenges  of  the  Colombian  peace  process  relate  to  security  issues  affecting  ex-
combatants,  redistribution  and  access  to  land  for  projects  and  housing,  sustainability  of 
income generating initiatives, budgeting at local and regional levels for reincorporation needs 
in local development plans, stigmatisation and access to EU funding via the banking system. 

Preventive diplomacy and mediation  
As noted in the concept for EU Peace Mediation21, arrangements related to armed actors are 
key  in  mediation  and  peace  negotiations.  When  possible,  negotiating  delegations  should 
include  representatives  of  armed  groups  and  of  communities  affected  by  DDR  processes. 
Implementable  and  realistic  DDR-specific  provisions,  including  cessation  of  hostilities, 
ceasefire and power-sharing mechanisms, and security arrangements, increase the chances for 
successful reconciliation and stabilisation. It is therefore important to involve DDR expertise 
at an early stage of negotiations. 

Security sector reform and rule of law support  
In line with the EU-wide SSR framework22, SSR and DDR can be closely intertwined. Actors 
may condition their engagement in one process on the adversary’s credible commitments to 
the other process, as SSR might be perceived as weakening states’ uniformed forces and DDR 
as undermining armed groups.  

The reform  of the security sector should lead to  improvements  in  the accountability of the 
security  sector  and  its  human  rights  record,  as  well  as  better  support  for  the  RoL  and 
democratic governance, thereby addressing the core underlying grievances exploited by armed 
actors.  

In Côte d’Ivoire, the EU played a key role in the DDR process starting in 2013, particularly 
on reintegration. The government focused on disarmament and demobilisation, while the EU 
focused  on  reinsertion  and  reintegration  through  different  projects.  It  also  provided 
complementary support to the State Building Contract, with a focus on justice sector reform, 
national reconciliation and conflict prevention projects supporting civil society organisations 
and local authorities. 

CSDP missions and operations and networks of security and defence advisers 

DDR  efforts  need  to  be  in  synergy  with  EU  activity  in  the  security  and  defence  sector.  In 
accordance with their mandates, civilian and military CSDP missions and operations should 
contribute to an environment favourable to a DDR process by supporting national and local 
actors. In addition to their direct contribution to specific DDR components, CSDP missions 
may contribute to long-term reintegration of former combatants that have gone through a DDR 
process by training and mentoring activities.  

Relevant  Commission  services,  EU  Delegations,  EEAS  military  advisers  and  counter 
terrorism/security experts’ networks, as well as defence attachés and security advisers from EU 

21 Concept on EU Peace Mediation (13951/20). 
22  Joint  Communication  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  –  Elements  for  an  EU-wide  strategic 
framework to support security sector reform (JOIN(2016) 31). 

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Member  States,  should  be  key  players  in  reaching  out  to  national  armed  forces  and  law 
enforcement agencies from partner countries engaged in DDR processes. 

The EU-led Aceh Monitoring Mission (AMM) was launched in 2005 to monitor and support 
the peace process in the Indonesian province of Aceh. The AMM was a civilian mission tasked 
with the decommissioning of Free Aceh Movement (GAM) armaments and the relocation of 
non-organic military and police forces. After completing its decommissioning mandate in early 
2006,  the  AMM  continued  to  monitor  the  human  rights  situation,  the  process  of  legislative 
change and the reintegration of GAM members until the completion of the mission in 2006. 

Prevention and countering of violent extremism  

Many  DDR-related  processes  take  place  in  contexts  where  violent  extremism  has  gained  a 
stronghold in the dynamics of a conflict. In such contexts, in complementarity with the external 
dimension of the EU’s Counter-Terrorism Agenda23, initiatives on prevention and countering 
of  violent  extremism  (P/CVE)  contribute  to  the  general  prevention  of  terrorism  and  violent 
extremism  -including  (re-)recruitment  by  armed  groups-  for  which  elements  aiming  at  de-
radicalisation  might  be  considered.  When  in  full  compliance  with  IHRL  standards,  such 
initiatives aim to equip governments, civil society, communities and local authorities with the 
necessary knowledge and skills to better deal with such dynamics and enhance communities’ 
resilience  and  local  capacities  for  the  prevention  of  conflict  and  violent  extremism. 
Practitioners working in these contexts should be well aware of DDR and P/CVE initiatives 
relevant  to  the  countries  or  regions  in  which  they  work,  understand  the  aims  and  specific 
working methods, and seek synergies between different engagements.  

P/CVE  initiatives  may  contain  coercive  elements,  for  instance  when  authorities  pursue 
rehabilitation and reintegration strategies following prosecution. This makes P/CVE initiatives 
different  from  DDR, which under all circumstances has a voluntary  character that must  be 
safeguarded.  

Transitional justice 

Transitional justice (TJ) refers to the full range of processes and mechanisms associated with 
a  society’s  attempt  to  come  to  terms  with  a  legacy  of  large-scale  past  abuses,  to  ensure 
accountability, serve justice and achieve reconciliation and peace24. To help prevent  the re-
occurrence of violence, DDR frameworks often operate simultaneously and may rely on TJ-
related processes and commitments. As such, TJ and DDR are mutually reinforcing processes 
that share the long-term goal of contributing to sustainable peace and respect for the RoL.  

The Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed between the Government of the 
Philippines  and  the  Moro  Islamic  Liberation  Front  (MILF)  in  2014  and  includes  a 
normalisation annex, pertaining to the DDR-related aspects of the conflict. The normalisation 
track  entails  four  key  components,  including  security  (with  the  formal  decommissioning 
(demobilisation)  of  40 000  combatants),  socio-economic  development,  confidence-building 
measures, and transitional justice and reconciliation. The EU’s holistic approach linked early 
recovery  efforts  to  the  longer-term  accompaniment  of  the  local  authorities,  to  lay  the 
foundations for sustainable development through the strengthening of governance, the RoL, 
and of the local economic capacities. These programmes were aligned with other EU initiatives 
which also support communities, institution building and rural development in Bangsamoro 

23  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  European  Council,  the  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A Counter-Terrorism Agenda for 
the EU: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, Respond (COM(2020) 795). 
24  The  rule  of  law  and  transitional  justice  in  conflict  and  post-conflict  societies  –  Report  of  the  UNSG 
(S/2004/616). See also Council Conclusions on EU’s Support to Transitional Justice (13576/15). 

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and  Mindanao.  The  EU  is  also  supporting  reconstruction  in  Marawi  city,  a  programme  to 
support the Bangsamoro Transitional Authority, which also covers civil society and TJ issues, 
rural development programmes and agri-enterprise programmes. 

Small arms and light weapons, weapon and ammunition management, and mine action 

The proliferation and diversion of small arms and light weapons (SALW) and their ammunition 
in a conflict context facilitate re-armament and the mobilisation of armed groups, and hamper 
any effect a DDR process may have on preventing reoccurrence of conflict. It also bears a long-
term risk for the internal security of the EU, with the possibility of stockpiles being diverted to 
criminal groups in the EU or in the region. Consequently, disarmament within a DDR process 
should build on wider political weapon and ammunition management (WAM) processes. This 
will help to reinforce post-conflict recovery strategies, arms embargoes and gender-responsive 
regulatory,  operational  and  technical  SALW  control  efforts,  in  line  with  the  EU  SALW 
Strategy25. To achieve this, the involvement of EU Member States and cooperation with non-
EU countries is key.  

DDR relates closely to mine action initiatives that could help to enhance overall trust in a peace 
process.  It  may  form  part  of reinsertion  and  reintegration  activities,  i.e.  through  mine  risk 
education initiatives. Humanitarian demining also allows access to land and livelihoods, and 
improves the security situation of the affected communities. 

Tackling organised crime and combating illegal exploitation of natural resources  

The active presence of organised criminal groups dealing with illicit and war economies often 
fuels  conflicts  and  can  play  a  decisive  role  in  the  re-mobilisation  of  armed  groups  or  as  a 
general conflict driver. Criminal structures thrive in the absence of functioning state institutions 
and might find symbiotic relationships or convergent objectives with armed forces and groups. 
As  such,  tackling  organised  crime  and  corruption26  can  contribute  to  more  effective  DDR 
processes and the overall objective of sustainable peace.  The EU can leverage its impact in 
these  settings  by  reinforcing  cooperation  in  this  field  with  third  countries  and  international 
organisations. 

Moreover, the illicit control or unregulated exploitation and management of natural resources 
may  exacerbate  vulnerabilities  to  climate  change  and  natural  disasters,  as  well  as  causing 
environmental degradation. However, when managed in a sustainable, conflict sensitive and 
inclusive way, including through due diligence regulatory frameworks, natural resources may 
contribute to processes of socio-economic reintegration and wider development by attracting 
investment and sustainable employment opportunities. Therefore, a crucial aspect is to assess 
vulnerabilities  and  risks  in  relation  to  environmental  degradation  and  climate  change  when 
planning  socio-economic  reintegration,  for  example  in  relation  to  agricultural  development, 
fisheries, forestry, land use, water management, etc.  

Combating trafficking in human beings 

Conflict zones create fertile ground for the flourishing of trafficking in human beings, further 
affecting  vulnerable  groups.  The  increasingly  desperate  economic  circumstances,  the 
weakening  or  even  breakdown  of  the  RoL,  and  fewer  available  social  services  increase  the 

25 Joint Communication to the European Parliament and the Council – Elements towards an EU Strategy against 
Illicit  Firearms,  Small  Arms  &  Light  Weapons  and  their  Ammunition  ‘Securing  Arms,  Protecting  Citizens’ 
(JOIN(2018) 17). See also the 2020-2025 EU action plan on firearms trafficking (COM(2020) 608). 
26 See the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic 
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the EU Strategy to tackle Organised Crime 2021-
2025 (COM(2021) 170) and the Council Conclusions on the Permanent Continuation of the EU Policy Cycle for 
Organised and Serious International Crime: EMPACT 2022+ (6481/21). 

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isolation of populations based on factors such as gender inequality, poverty, social exclusion 
and  ethnicity.  This  in  turn  increases  the  vulnerability  of  local  populations  to  trafficking, 
especially  women  and  children.  Children  are  often  exploited  as  soldiers,  or  to  perform 
associated servitude roles, e.g. as porters, cooks, lookouts and intelligence gatherers, and as 
sexual slaves. The cross-border nature of trafficking is of particular importance, as criminal 
organisations often operate through well-structured and professional networks, both offline and 
online. The EU will continue to focus on breaking the criminal business models of traffickers 
and protecting and empowering victims, especially women and children27. 

4. Guiding principles for the EU’s support to DDR  

The  approach  to  supporting  DDR  varies  widely  depending  on  the  phase  of  the  conflict,  its 
dynamics, the type of cessation of hostilities and the level of involvement of the international 
community. The support provided by the EU in line with international law should be realistic, 
flexible, conflict-sensitive and guided by the following dedicated principles: 

  Policy-driven and well-coordinated with partners 

A  strengthened  policy-driven  approach  will  allow  the  EU  to  effectively  integrate  and 
coordinate  efforts  and  mitigate  related  risks28,  while  engaging  with  key  actors  from  the 
peacebuilding, diplomacy, development and humanitarian fields. EU Delegations, EU Special 
Representatives,  CSDP  missions  and  operations  and  Member  States’  representations  in  the 
partner  countries  play  a  key  role  in  laying  the  foundations  for  a  stronger,  more  joined-up 
contribution by the EU. 

As a supporter of effective multilateralism, the EU will capitalise on valuable partnerships with 
the United Nations, the World Bank, regional organisations such as the African Union and the 
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, third countries and national actors, in 
addition to local actors, communities, private sector entities and civil society actors. The EU 
will further support DDR efforts by promoting accession to and use of multilateral instruments. 

  Nationally and locally owned 

Whilst  external  contributions,  including  at  regional  level,  may  facilitate  an  environment 
conducive to DDR, the ownership, commitment and work of national, local and community 
actors  remain  fundamental.  To  achieve  sustainable  results,  the  EU’s  coordination  of  efforts 
through  national  and  regional  strategies  will  aim  to  reinforce  ownership,  including  in  areas 
with porous borders. This should help build the RoL and strengthen accountable institutions 
and capacities, such as DDR-related agencies and bodies, and relevant community and civil 
society initiatives.  

  People-centred and voluntary 

The EU will apply the ‘do no harm’ and ‘leave no one behind’ principles, and exercise due 
diligence on human rights, as well as conflict sensitivity.  

27 See the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic 
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the EU Strategy on the EU Strategy on Combatting 
Trafficking in Human Beings 2021-2025 (COM(2021) 171). 
28 DDR may have unintended negative impacts or exacerbate conflict and tensions. The risks associated with DDR 
could be of a political, reputational and/or security nature. They could, for instance, inflate expectations, create 
the  perception of rewarding participation in armed groups,  fuel the trade in  weapons and ammunition, expose 
former combatants, their associates and their communities to retaliation, or be seen as promoting impunity, lack 
of transparency and injustice.  

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The  decision  to  leave  an  armed  group  is  contextual  and,  although  it  may  be  facilitated  or 
incentivised,  neither  individuals  nor  groups  can  be  forced  to  partake  in  a  DDR  process; 
preserving  the  voluntary  nature  of  their  engagement  is  fundamental.  The  EU  will  promote 
respect for IHRL and IHL in all settings, including in situations like detentions and battlefield 
captures where individuals may lack alternatives. 

People entering and engaging in DDR processes often face social exclusion and stigmatisation. 
They may have broken family ties, educational gaps, health problems, including mental health 
issues  that  may  involve  substance  abuse,  violent  behaviour  and/or  individual  or  collective 
trauma, including from sexual and gender-based violence and human trafficking. They may 
lack skills and networks to sustain themselves through (self-)employment and/or to participate 
constructively in the political arena, while facing stigmatisation, legal and practical obstacles 
to  reintegration.  Simultaneously,  recipient  communities  may  suffer  from  collective  trauma, 
fear and mistrust, and may experience a deteriorated security situation, which could enhance 
suspicion towards former combatants and their associates.  

For  these  reasons,  the  EU  will  apply  a  multi-sectoral  approach  to  DDR,  considering  the 
different,  specific  and non-homogenous needs,  capacities and  expectations of men, women, 
boys  and  girls  of  different  ages,  including  those  belonging  to  national  or  ethnic,  religious, 
linguistic and  political  minorities and indigenous peoples.  In these  endeavours, the EU  will 
also factor in disability-related issues as well as healthcare challenges in fragile settings. 

i.  Protective of children and their rights 

A child perspective, founded in the best interest of the child and focusing on the protection of 
boys and girls against the six grave violations during conflict29 is central to DDR processes and 
remains a priority at all stages of the conflict cycle.  

Children  associated  with  armed  forces  or  groups  must  always  be  considered  primarily  as 
victims of these six grave violations, irrespective of their role and the designation of the group. 
Children’s  release  from  armed  groups  and  separation  from  adults  in  DDR  processes,  their 
protection, rehabilitation, (re)integration and reunification with relatives and/or communities 
require a swift response and a long-term engagement. Where reunification of the child with 
his/her family is not immediately possible, interim care should be made available until a long-
term solution is found. Specific attention should be paid to challenges faced by children born 
within armed groups as well as to those recruited as children and demobilised as adults. 

Specialised child protection agencies should be involved early in DDR processes and the EU’s 
support framed within a broader child protection intervention. Families and communities, as 
well as state institutions and local authorities, need to be prepared for the reintegration of the 
children, including through social, educational and healthcare institutions providing age- and 
gender-specific services, in an individualised way when so required. The specific psychosocial 
and  healthcare  needs,  the  security  considerations  and  the  risk  of  stigmatisation  need  to  be 
addressed, both for the children and for communities where they (re)integrate, especially in 
cases where children have been subjected to radicalisation processes or military training. 

29  See  UNSCR  1261  (1999)  and  1612  (2005).  The  six  grave  violations  are:  killing  and  maiming  of  children; 
recruitment or use of children in armed forces and armed groups; attacks on schools or hospitals; rape or other 
grave  sexual  violence;  abduction  of  children;  and  denial  of  humanitarian  access  for  children.  The  forced  or 
compulsory recruitment of children under the age of 18 and their use in hostilities by both armed forces and armed 
groups is illegal and one of the worst forms of child labour. Furthermore, the recruitment of children under 15 
constitutes a war crime. 

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Moreover, children should not be kept in detention. The EU should support the negotiation, 
adoption and implementation of handover protocols30 by partner national authorities, to swiftly 
transfer children allegedly associated with armed groups to civilian child protection agencies 
for reintegration.  

ii.  Gender-responsive 

DDR processes must consider men’s, women’s, boys’ and girls’ different needs, capacities and 
opportunities,  and  the  contextual  expectations  placed  on  them,  to  ensure  their  equally 
meaningful  participation  in  all  stages  of  DDR  processes.  The  mainstreaming  of  a  gender 
perspective  should  rely  on  a  thorough  and  gender-responsive  analysis  across  development 
cooperation  programmes.  Responses  should  take  into  account  the  diversity  of  roles  that 
different gender and age groups may have had during their association with armed groups31 
and tackle stereotypical gender roles, inequalities and gender-based stigmatisation. 

iii.  Youth-engaging 

The roles of young people should be duly considered, be they survivors and victims of conflict, 
agents  of  positive  change,  and/or  targets  of  radicalisation  or  (re-)recruitment.  The  specific 
needs, opportunities and expectations of male and female youths in DDR settings should be 
addressed across DDR processes through active consultation, engagement and participation32. 

  Well planned 

Planning for supporting a DDR process should be initiated at the earliest possible stage. Based 
on  the  coordinated  DDR  assessment,  the  EU’s  engagements  in  terms  of  humanitarian  aid, 
stabilisation, peacebuilding, development, CSDP and CSFP should be articulated in line with 
the Integrated Approach. Contributions can combine actions by the EU, its financial institutions 
and its Member States.  

Whenever required, EU Delegations should benefit from specialised expertise and support in 
DDR, as well as related fields such as peacebuilding, mediation, child protection or security. 
When  appropriate,  they  should  also  draw  on  the  participation  of  security  or  military 
advisers/attachés  and  EEAS  CT/security  experts,  and  on  the  CSDP’s  presence  in  the  same 
country or region, or benefit from temporary reinforcements though dedicated assignments.  

The environmental and climate contexts in which DDR processes unfold need to be properly 
accounted for. This requires, in particular, vulnerability or fragility assessments to make sure 
that economic and social opportunities designed throughout DDR processes are resilient and 
long-lasting, and that environmental or climate change risks are mitigated where possible and 
do not further exacerbate existing vulnerabilities or conflict risks. 

The EU should communicate clearly its support to national and local authorities, participants, 
stakeholders and to potential spoilers. Communication should be responsive to age and gender, 
and adapted to recipients and local cultures and contexts. For this purpose, political, military, 

30 Handover protocols are practical tools to prevent or reduce the detention of children in armed conflict. They are 
agreements to swiftly transfer children allegedly associated with armed groups to civilian child protection agencies 
for reintegration. Handover protocols are not guarantees of immunity. See e.g. Watchlist on Children and Armed 
Conflict, 2020. A Path to Reintegration: The Role of Handover Protocols in Protecting the Rights of Children 
Formerly Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups. 
31 Council Conclusions on Women, Peace, and Security (15086/18) and the Joint Communication to the European 
Parliament and the Council – EU Gender Action Plan (GAP) III – An Ambitious Agenda for Gender Equality and 
Women’s Empowerment in EU External Action (JOIN(2020) 17). 
32 UNSCR 2250 (2015) and the Council Conclusions on Youth in External Action (8629/20). 

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traditional and religious leaders, as well as civil society, are important partners, albeit taking 
into account conflict sensitivity issues and human rights standards. 

  Adaptable 

Engagements  in  support  of  DDR  should  be  informed  by  evidence  and  flexible,  using 
monitoring, evaluation and learning, and should harness opportunities for digitalisation, as well 
as capitalising on best practices and lessons.  

Translating  this  policy  into  action  requires  raising  general  awareness  and  capacity  building 
with respect to DDR, including through training that connects practice, policy and research. 
This will enable the EU to put knowledge, talent and expertise at the service of peacebuilding 
and development. 

5. Actions to assess and engage, frame and deliver effective EU DDR engagement  

The EU will coherently combine rapid responses with geographic, regional and thematic long-
term commitments in support of DDR. It will seek to maximise its impact through partnerships 
with third countries and international organisations, based on shared values, common interests 
and mutual benefits.  

  The High Representative and the Commission will strengthen their coordination on DDR 
support  by  promoting  exchanges  among  relevant  EU  stakeholders.  All  related  policies, 
instruments  and  facilities33  will  be  considered  when  engagement  in  support  of  DDR  is 
planned. As part of the Integrated Approach, EU Member States’ contributions will also be 
sought.  

  A  dedicated  permanent  informal  inter-service  Task  Force,  with  representatives  from 
relevant thematic EEAS and Commission services, will be created to oversee EU DDR 
activities,  advise  and  support  EU  Delegations,  EEAS  and  Commission  services  and 
CSDP  missions.  The  creation  and  functioning  of  the  DDR  Task  Force  will  follow 
similar procedures as those for the permanent informal inter-service SSR Task Force34. 

  DDR expertise will be included in the teams of EU mediators to ensure peace and cease-

fire agreements include realistic DDR-related clauses. 

  The EU will enhance its internal capacity to support DDR processes, e.g. through DDR 
training  and  strengthened  collaboration  with  relevant  training  institutions,  and  with 
research and expert networks. 

  Whenever DDR support is envisaged, a specific EU DDR coordinated assessment should 
be conducted at the earliest possible stage to enable a policy-driven, conflict-sensitive and 
flexible engagement. 

  To support this, the EEAS and Commission services will develop an analysis module 
focused on DDR, building on the methodology for conflict analysis for programming 
in fragile states and regions. The module will help develop, when needed, specific DDR 
options, including by assessing the risks and the available EU tools. 

  The  design  and  implementation  modalities  to  support  DDR  processes  will  rely  on  a 
thorough age and gender analysis. Within the broad support to partner authorities and 

33  For  example,  the  EU  Security  Sector  Governance  (SSG)  facility,  EU  Facility  on  Justice  in  Conflict  and 
Transition, and European Resources for Mediation Support (ERMES). 
34  Joint  Communication  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  –  Elements  for  an  EU-wide  strategic 
framework to support security sector reform (JOIN(2016) 31), pp 12-13. 

13 

 
 
 
                                                           
to  communities, the EU will  seek to  protect  children and their  rights and to  adopt  a 
gender-responsive approach, and a youth perspective.  

  The regional dimensions will be further explored together with the linkages between 

DDR and P/CVE in regional contexts, such as the Sahel or the Horn of Africa. 

  Cooperation will be pursued in specific frameworks with key partners: 

  DDR will feature in cooperation with multilateral partners, the UN and the World Bank, 
as well as with regional organisations and structures. The EU-UN Steering Committee 
will be a privileged forum for early consultations on DDR approaches and actions, and 
to develop joint assessments whenever possible. Interaction with the UN Inter-Agency 
Working Group on DDR and other similar fora will also be intensified.  

  With partner  countries,  the EU and its Member  States will  make best  use  of policy, 
political and technical dialogues, advice and capacity building, including at local and 
regional  level.  To  provide  this,  EU  Delegations,  EUSRs  and  CSDP  missions  and 
operations, and EMPACT Firearms, as appropriate, will play a key role. 

  The EU will enhance its dialogue and cooperation with civil society, DDR experts and 

researchers and communities of practice.  

  The  EEAS  and  relevant  Commission  services  will  develop  monitoring  and  evaluation 
criteria  and  systematically  conduct  lessons  processes  based  on  the  aforementioned 
principles  and  work  strands.  They  will  regularly  map  and  review  the  EU’s  overall 
engagement in support of DDR, in synergy with related engagements whenever possible.  

6. Final remarks  

The European Commission and the High Representative will pursue all the above-mentioned 
actions  to  better  meet  challenges  posed  by  armed  groups  and  complex  conflict  drivers  in 
specific context cases. Whenever political and peacebuilding opportunities arise and a conflict 
sensitive involvement can be ensured, the EU stands ready to fully engage in support of DDR.  

As the success of DDR is often closely linked and dependent on broader processes, the EU will 
maximise its impact on DDR processes and deliver sustainable results by making full use of 
available policies, tools and instruments, in an integrated approach  

To achieve the objectives outlined in this Joint Communication, the EU can leverage its multi-
dimensional contributions to peace, security and development, and the full engagement of EU 
Member  States  is  indispensable.  Relevant  national  experiences  provide  useful  insights  into 
these  complex  processes,  and  the  diplomatic  networks  of  peacebuilding  and  development 
cooperation expertise can bring valuable contributions. 

The European Commission and the High Representative jointly invite the European Parliament 
and the Council to endorse and support the approach set out in this Joint Communication and 
to engage fully in the move towards more coherent and effective support to DDR processes. 

14