Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other ocean-related agenda 2030 targets : final report.
Date: 2021-05-10
Institutions: European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency
Subjects: EU Member State, EU action, EU energy policy, EU policy, added value, maritime area, protected area, report, resources of the sea, sea fish, sustainable development

Assessment of the 
existing EU policy tools in 
the field of Sustainable 
Development Goal (SDG) 
14 and other ocean-
related Agenda 2030 
targets 

Final report 

Written by: 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency 
Unit D.D3 — Sustainable Blue Economy 

Contact: Unit D.D3 — Sustainable Blue Economy  

Email:  CINEA-EMFAF-CONTRACTS@ec.europa.eu  

European Commission 
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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2021 

PDF  

ISBN 978-92-9460-564-1 

doi:10.2826/560165 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Contents 

Abstract .......................................................................................................... 1 

Résumé .......................................................................................................... 2 

Executive summary ........................................................................................ 3 

1.  About this report .................................................................................. 22 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

Point of departure ................................................................................ 23 
  Global ocean challenges ............................................................................................... 23 
  Sustainable Development Goal 14 ........................................................................... 23 
  A  framework  for  the  integrated  implementation  of  the  17  Sustainable 
Development Goals ........................................................................................................ 24 
  Working together is key ............................................................................................... 27 

Progress towards the 2030 Agenda and SDG14 in the EU ..................... 29 

SDG14.1 – Marine pollution .................................................................. 33 
  State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 33 
  Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 38 
  Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 40 

SDG14.2 – Marine and coastal ecosystems ........................................... 42 
  State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 42 
  Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 46 
  Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 48 

SDG14.3 – Ocean acidification .............................................................. 50 
  State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 50 
  Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 53 
  Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 54 

SDG14.4 – Fisheries .............................................................................. 56 
  State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 56 
  Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 60 
  Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 61 

SDG14.5 – Marine protected areas........................................................ 62 
  State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 62 
  Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 66 
  Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 67 

9. 

SDG14.6 – Fishery subsidies ................................................................. 68 
  State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 68 
  Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 70 

 
 
Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

  Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 71 

10.  SDG14.7 – Economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources 

to SIDS and LDC ................................................................................... 72 
 State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 73 
 Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 76 
 Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 77 

11.  SDG14.a – Scientific knowledge, research and technology for ocean 

health ................................................................................................... 78 
 State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 78 
 Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 85 
 Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 86 

12.  SDG14.b – Small-scale fisheries ........................................................... 87 
 State of play in achieving the target ....................................................................... 87 
 Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 89 
 Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 89 

13.  SDG14.c – international law of the sea ................................................. 90 
 1.1 State of play in achieving the target ............................................................... 90 
 Remaining challenges .................................................................................................... 94 
 Possible ways forward ................................................................................................... 94 

14.  High-level assessment and horizontal recommendations ..................... 95 
 Relevance ........................................................................................................................... 95 
 Effectiveness ..................................................................................................................... 95 
 Efficiency............................................................................................................................. 95 
 Coherence .......................................................................................................................... 96 
 EU added value ................................................................................................................ 96 
 Horizontal recommendations ...................................................................................... 96 

References.................................................................................................... 99 

 
 
 
 
 
Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Glossary 

Acronym  

Definition 

ABNJ 

Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction 

Barcelona Convention 

Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment 
and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean 

BBNJ 

BSC 

[Marine] biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction 

Black Sea Commission 

Bucharest Convention 

Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution 

BWD 

CBD 

CFP 

CITES 

Bathing Water Directive 

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 

Common Fisheries Policy 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 

COVID-19 

Coronavirus disease 2019 

DG 

EBCD 

EEA 

EEZ 

EFCA 

EMFF 

EQSD 

EU 

FAO 

FPDD 

GES 

GFCM 

GHG 

HELCOM 

ICCAT 

ICEP 

ILO 

IMO 

IOC 

Directorate-General 

European bureau for Conservation and Development 

European Environment Agency 

Exclusive Economic Zone 

European Fisheries Control Agency 

European Maritime and Fisheries Fund 

Directive on Environmental Quality Standards 

European Union 

Food and Agriculture Organization 

Floating plastic debris density 

Good Environmental Status 

General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean 

Greenhouse Gases 

Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (Helsinki 
Commission) 

International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas 

Index of Coastal Eutrophication 

International Labour Organization 

International Maritime Organization 

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 

IUU fishing 

Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing 

LDAC 

LDCs 

MPA 

MSFD 

MSP 

NASCO 

NEAFC 

NGO 

OECD 

OSPAR 

Long Distance Advisory Council 

Least Developed Countries 

Marine Protected Area 

Marine Strategy Framework Directive 

Maritime Spatial Planning Directive 

North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization 

North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission 

Non-Governmental Organisation 

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development  

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the 
North-East Atlantic 

 
 
Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Acronym  

Definition 

REACH 

RFMOs 

RSCs 

SDG 

SFPAs 

SIDS 

TFEU 

UNCLOS 

UNEP 

UNFCCC 

UNSD 

WFD 

WTO 

WWF 

Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals 

Regional Fisheries Management Organisations 

Regional Sea Conventions 

Sustainable Development Goal 

Sustainable Fisheries Partnership Agreements 

Small Island Developing States 

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union 

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 

United Nations Environment Programme 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

United Nations Statistics Division 

Water Framework Directive 

World Trade Organization 

World Wildlife Fund 

 
 
 
 
Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Abstract   

This study assesses whether the policy instruments put in place by the European Union 
(EU) and its Member States have helped achieve progress in the implementation of SDG14 
and other ocean-related targets of the 2030 Agenda. It identifies potential policy gaps and 
explores concrete actions that could support the path towards conserving and sustainably 
using the oceans, seas and marine resources. 

The  evidence  collected  shows  that  the  EU  policy  framework  contributing  to  the 
achievement of SDG14 and other ocean-related targets is largely relevant and coherent, 
as well as strongly linked to the ocean-related targets. The EU and its Member States are 
taking strong action to improve the status of the marine environment. They can look back 
on  a  number  of  achievements,  for  instance the  restoration of some fish  stocks  and  the 
establishment of marine protected areas. However, they are far from reversing negative 
trends, for example on ocean acidification, where tangible results and impacts are yet to 
materialise. 

While  no  significant  gaps  in  the  policy  framework  were  identified,  qualitative  and 
quantitative results show that most SDG14 targets are unlikely to be met by the stipulated 
timelines. There is therefore clear added value in the continuation and even strengthening 
of EU action. 

1 

 
Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Résumé 

Cette étude évalue dans quelle mesure les instruments politiques mis en œuvre par l’Union 
européenne  et  ses  États  membres  ont  permis  de  réaliser  des  progrès  dans  la  mise  en 
œuvre de l’ODD14  et celle des autres objectifs contenus dans  l’Agenda 2030  ayant  un 
lien avec les océans . L’étude identifie les lacunes potentielles de ces politiques et explore 
les  actions  concrètes  qui  pourraient  faciliter  la  voie  vers  la  conservation  et  l'utilisation 
durable des océans, des mers et des ressources marines. 

Les données recueillies montrent que le cadre politique de l'UE contribuant à la réalisation 
de l'ODD14 et des autres objectifs liés aux océans est largement pertinent et cohérent, et 
qu'il est fortement lié aux objectifs spécifiques aux océans.  

L’Union  européenne  et  ses  États  membres  prennent  des  mesures  d’envergure  pour 
améliorer  l'état  du  milieu  marin.  Ils  peuvent  se  prévaloir  d'un  certain  nombre  de 
réalisations, comme la restauration de certains stocks de poissons et la création de zones 
marines protégées. Cependant, ils sont loin d'avoir inversé les tendances négatives, par 
exemple  en  ce  qui  concerne  l'acidification  des  océans,  où  les  résultats  et  les  impacts 
tangibles se font encore attendre. 

Bien qu'aucune lacune importante dans le cadre politique n'ait été identifiée, les résultats 
qualitatifs  et  quantitatifs  montrent  que  la  plupart  des  cibles  de  l'ODD14  ne  seront 
probablement pas atteints dans les délais prévus. La poursuite, voire le renforcement, de 
l'action de l'UE présente donc une valeur ajoutée évidente. 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Executive summary 

About the study 

This study was launched as a part of the preparations for the 2020 UN Ocean Conference 
(subsequently postponed due to COVID-19 outbreak). The intention of the study is to take 
stock of the developments in the European Union and make a high-level assessment of 
the contributions made by the EU and its Member States’ policy tools towards achieving 
SDG14 and other 2030 Agenda ocean-related targets. This study focuses specifically on 
SDG14 and presents an analysis of each of the 10 targets making up that goal. In contrast 
to other measurements, it takes a  hybrid approach that  looks at quantitative  indicators 
but also assesses progress qualitatively. 

A detailed mapping and categorisation of policies supporting SDG14 were undertaken at 
EU  and  Member  State  level.  In  total,  170  EU  policy  tools  and  417  Member  State  policy 
tools were identified. 

It is challenging to assess progress towards meeting SDG14 targets and the other goals 
of the 2030 Agenda, due to their complexity and gaps in data. There are different reporting 
initiatives  that  try  to  measure  progress  towards  achievement  of  2030  Agenda,  each  of 
which uses their own methodology for calculating aggregated scores for each SDG. This 
includes  the  annual  Eurostat  Report  on  ‘Sustainable  development  in  the  European 
Union – Overview  of  progress  towards  the  SDGs  in  an  EU  context’,  and  the  annual 
‘Sustainable  Development  Reports’,  which  include  an  SDG  Index  and  Dashboards.  The 
reports  use  different  quantitative  indicators  to  assess  progress  towards  achieving  the 
SDGs. They show that, compared to the rest of the world, the EU generally performs well 
in  implementing  the  2030  Agenda  as  a  whole,  while  there  are  differences  between  the 
delivery of individual goals. 

Looking qualitatively beyond the indicators is considered crucial in the study, since there 
are  several  complexities  relating  to  each  target.  The  main  findings  resulting  from  this 
approach are presented below. 

SDG14.1 – Marine pollution 

By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from 
land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. 

Data  collection  for  the  indicators  proposed  by  the  UN  to  measure  SDG 14.1  will  be 
launched in 2021, and the indicator currently used in the EU for this target is bathing water 
quality. In recent years, the proportion of coastal bathing sites with excellent water quality 
has increased in some Member States (e.g. Belgium and Denmark), while it has decreased 
in others (e.g. Ireland and Poland). 

The EU has one of the most advanced environmental policy frameworks in the world for 
minimising contaminants, pollution-causing eutrophication, and avoiding marine litter. The 
target draws on a very complex policy framework, since ‘pollution of all kinds’ entails a 
wide range of chemical and physical sources and factors. A total of 59 EU policy tools or 
groups of policy tools have been identified that directly influence the achievement of this 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

target. The policy framework will, in the near future, also be further enhanced through the 
European Green Deal and the zero pollution action plan to address the cumulative impacts 
of pollution in air, water and soil. 

However, despite the elaborate policy framework, further efforts will be needed from the 
EU  to  achieve  SDG14.1  by its  deadline  in  2025.  Challenges  include the  presence  of  old 
deposits  of  pollutants,  but  also  new  entries,  including  the  sheer  number  of  different 
synthetic  chemical  substances.  Notably,  only  a  fraction  of  these  pollutants  is  regularly 
monitored  and  new  substances  are  being  discovered  extremely  rapidly.  Eutrophication, 
together  with  marine  litter  and  noise  pollution,  remain  major  challenges  in  some  sea 
basins. 

Coherent  policy  implementation  across  different  policies  is  key  to  achieving  this  target 
when  also  taking  into  account  the  cumulative  effects  of  different  pollutants.  The  zero 
pollution action plan represents a major step  in tackling this challenge by  looking more 
systematically  at  all  relevant  policies  and  regulations  and  addressing  interlinked 
challenges. 

For marine litter, the EU has put in place an ambitious programme of actions and will now 
focus on its implementation and  on developing further cooperation  with third countries, 
Regional Sea Conventions (RSCs) and other international organisations to tackle the global 
problem of marine litter. 

Coherent policy implementation is crucial for the achievement of SDG14.1, to ensure there 
are  no  gaps  in  the  policy  framework  and  that  both  land-based  and  sea-based  policies 
jointly contribute to reducing marine pollution. Increased cooperation among the different 
authorities in charge of implementing this policy framework would be welcome, together 
with additional guidance from the EU on how to improve this cooperation in practice. In 
addition  to  this, more  coherent  monitoring  of  marine pollution and  better knowledge of 
the cumulative effects of different pollutants would support the development of accurate 
assessments  of  the  current  status  of  the  ocean,  as  well  as  appropriate  measures  and 
targets  set  under  relevant  policy  instruments.  The  Commission’s  forthcoming  zero 
pollution action plan could represent an opportunity to address these challenges. 

SDG14.2 – Marine and coastal ecosystems 

By  2020,  sustainably  manage  and  protect  marine  and  coastal  ecosystems  to  avoid 
significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action 
for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans. 

Data collection for the global SDG14.2 indicator (as developed by the UN Statistical Office, 
the  proportion  of  national  Exclusive  Economic  Zones  managed  using  ecosystem-based 
approaches) has not yet begun. However, the ecosystem-based approach is at the heart 
of  EU  marine  environmental  policy.  Through  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive 
(MSFD),  this  became  a  legally  binding  and  operational  principle  for  managing  the  EU’s 
marine environment. It has also been incorporated into other EU legislation, including the 
Common Fisheries Policy and the directive on maritime spatial planning. 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

The MSFD is the environmental pillar of the Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP). It requires 
EU Member States to achieve Good Environmental Status in all the EU’s marine waters by 
identifying the main pressures and impacts on the marine environment and assessing the 
health and status of the ecosystems. Other important pieces of European legislation for 
the  management  and  protection  of  marine  and  coastal  ecosystems  come  under  EU 
environmental  policy,  and  the  Birds  and  Habitats  Directives.  A  recent  implementation 
report  on  the  MSFD  established  that  despite  good  progress  under  the  directive,  it  is 
‘doubtful  that  both  the  measures  taken  and  the  knowledge  available  are  sufficient’ 
(European Commission, 2020). The report also mentions that loss of biodiversity could not 
be halted in Europe’s seas over the past few years and that the main pressures include 
non-indigenous species, overfishing, eutrophication, contaminants and litter. 

Although the ecosystem-based approach is at the heart of EU marine and maritime policy, 
there seems to be a lack of clarity in Member States about how the concept translates into 
coherent policy implementation across different policies. A way forward could include, for 
example, more guidance by the European Commission for policies for which no concrete 
guidance yet exists for implementing an ecosystem-based approach. 

SDG14.3 – Ocean acidification 

Minimise  and  address  the  impacts  of  ocean  acidification,  including  through  enhanced 
scientific cooperation at all levels. 

The  indicator  for  measuring  this  target  is  average  marine  acidity  (pH)  measured  at  an 
agreed  set  of  representative  sampling  stations.  This  data  shows  a  continued  trend  of 
increasing  acidification.  In  addition  to  minimising  the  impacts  of  ocean  acidification, 
SDG14.3  also  requires  measures  to  minimise  and  address  the  impacts.  The  current 
indicator does not provide insight into local effects and potential adaptation measures. 

Because ocean acidification is a result of the higher CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, 
minimising ocean acidification requires successful global climate policies on mitigation and 
adaptation. The EU policy framework consists of a broad set of policies that aim to reduce 
GHGs  in  the  atmosphere  from  different  sources.  The  EU  is  where  the  world’s  most 
ambitious climate policies have been  implemented at the fastest pace over the last few 
decades.  

However, while being at the forefront in addressing the causes and challenges of climate 
change  and  strengthening  a  concerted  global  response, the  EU  is  still  the  third-biggest 
emitter of GHGs worldwide, behind China and the USA. In addition to this, the impact of 
pH  changes  on  organisms  and  at  ecosystem  level  is  not  monitored  sufficiently  nor 
consistently  across  EU  regions,  and  these  still  represent  crucial  challenges  for  the 
achievement  of  SDG14.3.  Overall,  the  EU  framework  for  understanding  and  addressing 
the impacts of ocean acidification needs to be strengthened. 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

SDG14.4 – Fisheries 

By  2020,  effectively  regulate  harvesting  and  end  overfishing,  illegal,  unreported  and 
unregulated  fishing  and  destructive  fishing  practices  and  implement  science-based 
management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least 
to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological 
characteristics. 

The official global indicator for measuring SDG 14.4 relates to the proportion of fish stocks 
within biologically sustainable levels. Across different sea basins in the EU, the trends in 
fish stocks are two-fold. In the north-east Atlantic, North Sea and the Baltic, analysis of 
long-time data series shows clear signs of improvement. In contrast, in the Mediterranean 
Sea  and  the  Black  Sea,  the  situation  remains  critical,  with  a  high  percentage  of  the 
assessed stocks being overfished and a lack of solid knowledge about fishing pressure and 
reproductive capacity. 

Within the EU, the Common Fisheries Policy aims to ensure that fishing and aquaculture 
are  environmentally,  economically  and  socially  sustainable.  Between  2015  and  2020, 
sustainable catch limits were set to maintain fish stocks in the long term. The most recent 
reform of the Common Fisheries Policy has brought important governance improvements, 
including  the  introduction  of  maximum  sustainable  yield  as  a  management  objective, 
regionalisation and the landing obligation. 

In addition to the overfishing mentioned above, destructive fishing practices continue to 
significantly disturb EU marine ecosystems, and this is recognised in the EU’s biodiversity 
strategy for 2030. Other notable challenges include the availability of scientific knowledge 
and its use in policy-making, as well as the implementation and enforcement of the policy 
framework. 

SDG14.5 – Marine protected areas 

By  2020,  conserve  at  least  10  per  cent  of  coastal  and  marine  areas,  consistent  with 
national and international law and based on the best available scientific information. 

The  official  indicator  for  measuring  the  achievement  of  SDG14.5  is  the  coverage  of 
protected  areas  in  relation  to  marine  areas.  In  2016,  the  spatial  coverage  of  marine 
protected areas (MPAs) in the EU was 10.8% of the total marine and coastal surface area. 

Different policy tools support the development of MPAs in Europe, including the Birds and 
Habitats  Directives.  MPAs  are  also  designated  under  national  and  regional  programmes 
undertaken  to  meet  the  objectives  set  by  the  MSFD.  Other  influential  policies  in  this 
context include the Common Fisheries Policy and the EU’s biodiversity strategy for 2030. 

While the EU as a whole achieved the target for spatial extent of marine protected areas 
ahead of schedule, not all regional seas have reached the target of 10% coverage of MPAs. 
The achievement of SDG14.5 requires that MPAs are managed effectively and that their 
conservation objectives are established based on the best available scientific information. 
Additional  efforts  are  needed  to  establish  and  effectively  implement  MPA  management 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

measures, to ensure the EU MPA network is coherent, as well as to gather information on 
actual conservation achieved within these areas. 

To promote compliance with existing provisions on MPA designation and management, as 
well  as  provisions  on  ecological  coherence,  several  options  can  be  envisaged,  including 
increasing public knowledge on the benefits of MPAs, improving follow-up and monitoring 
on MPAs, increasing the science base and other means. 

SDG14.6 – Fisheries subsidies 

By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity 
and  overfishing,  eliminate  subsidies  that  contribute  to  illegal,  unreported  and 
unregulated fishing and refrain from  introducing new such subsidies, recognising that 
appropriate  and  effective  special  and  differential  treatment  for  developing  and  least 
developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries 
subsidies negotiation. 

The  indicator  for  SDG 14.6  measures  progress  in  the  implementation  of  international 
instruments  aimed  at  combating  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated  fishing.  The  data 
collected  for  this  indicator  show  that  all  EU  Member  States  have  a  ‘very  high’  level  of 
achievement.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  indicator  for  SDG14.6  has  spurred  some 
criticism,  as  it  presents  no  direct  link  with  the  overall  level  of  harmful  subsidies  that 
contribute to  overcapacity  and overfishing,  and  is  considered  inadequate  for  measuring 
achievement of the target. 

Trade  policy  is  an  exclusive  competence  of the  EU,  which  is  tasked  with negotiating  on 
fisheries subsidies on behalf of Member States in international fora such as in the current 
negotiations on the prohibition of harmful fisheries subsidies in the framework of the World 
Trade Organization (WTO), where the EU plays an active role. In 2017, following the new 
impetus  in  negotiations  provided  by  the  adoption  of  2030  Agenda,  the  EU  revised  its 
proposal  on  the  prohibition  of  certain  fisheries  subsidies  by  adding  provisions  on 
strengthening  transparency  and  providing  guidelines  on  differential  treatment  for 
developing and least developed countries. Within its borders, the EU banned one of the 
most harmful types of fisheries subsidies as early in 2004, by phasing out public subsidies 
for the construction of new vessels and for increasing fishing capacity. 

Despite the good progress achieved, overfishing is still happening for certain fish stocks in 
parts of Europe, and this can also be a consequence of fleet overcapacity. No agreement 
has been reached at international level with regard to the prohibition of harmful fisheries 
subsidies yet, and the deadline for the achievement of SDG14.6 expired in 2020. While 
WTO  members  confirm  their  commitment  to  continuing  negotiations  despite  the 
impediments  related  to the  COVID-19  outbreak,  it  remains  uncertain  whether  it  will  be 
possible to reach an agreement in the near future. 

7 

 
 
Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

SDG14.7 – Economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources to small 
island developing states (SIDS) and least developed countries (LDC). 

By  2030,  increase  the  economic  benefits  to  small  island  developing  states  and  least 
developed  countries  from  the  sustainable  use  of  marine  resources,  including  through 
sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism. 

Target 14.7 aims to increase the economic benefits to SIDS and LDC from the sustainable 
use  of  marine  resources  through  fisheries,  aquaculture  and  tourism.  However,  the 
indicator for measuring progress towards the achievement of SDG14.7 only measures the 
‘fisheries  aspect’  of  the  target.  It  is  not  currently  possible  to  draw  conclusions  on  the 
achievement of SDG14.7 due to a lack of holistic data. 

Since none of the EU Member States are SIDS or LDCs, its contribution to the achievement 
of SDG14.7 can be assessed by looking at different aspects of its relationship with SIDS 
and  LDCs:  trade  relations,  the  EU’s  fishing  activity  abroad  (e.g.  Sustainable  Fisheries 
Partnership Agreements), and the partnership and cooperation activities it engages in with 
these countries, including development aid activities (e.g. activities undertaken in a post-
Cotonou Agreement context). 

Trade in fish and seafood is a key aspect when it comes to increasing the economic benefits 
to  SIDS  and  LDCs  from  marine  resources.  Access  to  global  trade  routes  can  generate 
significant  value  and  create  employment  opportunities  along  the  fisheries  and  seafood 
value chains for local communities. The EU is the largest importer of seafood in the world, 
and  import  conditions  have  an  influence  on  the  economic  benefits  garnered  by  these 
countries  through  their  export  activities.  Imports  of  fishery  products  into  the  EU  are 
subject  to  official  certification  based  on  meeting  predefined  conditions  in  the  exporting 
country.  The  EU  regulation  to  prevent,  deter  and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and 
unregulated fishing ensures that only marine fisheries products validated as legal by the 
competent flag state can be imported into the EU. Within the scope of this regulation, the 
EU  has  entered  into  dialogue  with  several  countries,  including  SIDS  and  LDCs,  and 
supported the improvement of their systems to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated 
fishing (IUU) fishing. In addition to this, the EU provides training and technical assistance 
to help developing countries comply with overall EU rules regarding market access. The 
EU  has also put in place a set of rules to  ensure the sustainability of  its fishing activity 
abroad. 

Transparency  regarding  fishing  and  other  activities  undertaken  within  SIDS  and  LDCs’ 
waters  is  often  an issue when  it  comes  to the  sustainable management  of  their  marine 
resources.  The  EU  could  increasingly  use  its  leverage  and  build  on  existing  ongoing 
cooperation to ensure the activities of different fishing players, both EU and non-EU, do 
not  hinder  the  achievement  of  SDG14.7.  In  addition  to  this,  the  EU  could  further 
strengthen and streamline the support it already provides via different channels to SIDS 
and LDCs to improve their capacity to sustainably manage their marine resources. 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

SDG14.a – Scientific knowledge, research and technology for ocean health 

Increase  scientific  knowledge,  develop  research  capacity  and  transfer  marine 
technology,  taking  into  account  the  Intergovernmental  Oceanographic  Commission 
Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean 
health  and  to  enhance  the  contribution  of  marine  biodiversity  to  the  development  of 
developing countries, in particular SIDS and LDC. 

The indicator for measuring SDG 14.a is the annual national research budget allocated by 
governments  in  the  field  of  marine  technology,  relative  to  the  overall  national 
governmental research and development budget in general. To date, data for this indicator 
is only available for the years 2009 to 2013, and for 25 countries only. Over this period, 
the marine technology research budget in the five EU countries for which data is available 
increased from 0.35% (2009) to 0.56% (2013) of the total research budget. 

When  looking  at  other  indicators,  the  EU  is  at  the  forefront  of  efforts  to  support  ocean 
science  globally.  EU  Member  States  are  among  the  top  producers  of  ocean  science 
publications, and their research outputs are also making substantial impact, as indicated 
by the number of citations they receive. 

Several EU policies support the development of marine knowledge and research capacity, 
and the importance of research and innovation was further underscored with the adoption 
of the European Green Deal and the new Horizon Europe. 

Ocean science has evolved rapidly in recent years, but the challenges our oceans face are 
also  growing  exponentially.  In  light  of  this,  and  despite  the  notable  efforts  made, 
knowledge and research capacity gaps still persist in this field, both in the EU and globally, 
and  the  potential  for  improvement  in  the  EU  and  Member  States  actions  to  achieve 
SDG14.a  is  virtually  endless.  In  this  context,  the  UN  Decade  of  Ocean  Science  for 
Sustainable Development, to be launched in 2021, could represent an opportunity for the 
EU to promote a coordinated, strategic and holistic approach to ocean research worldwide. 

SDG14.b – Small-scale fisheries 

Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets. 

The indicator for measuring SDG 14.b is progress by countries in the degree of application 
of  an  institutional  framework  that  recognises  and  protects  access  rights  for  small-scale 
fisheries. All EU Member States score highly in the official data. 

The  Common  Fisheries  Policy  is  the  main  EU  policy  governing  small-scale  fisheries.  It 
recognises the  importance  of ensuring a fair standard of living for small-scale fisheries, 
and  it  includes general considerations and guiding principles that are  relevant for these 
actors. Financial support is provided to small-scale fishers through the European Maritime 
and Fisheries Fund. 

During  the  course  of  this  study,  sufficient  information  was  not  identified  for  making  an 
assessment of remaining challenges and possible ways forward. 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

SDG14.C – International law of the sea 

Enhance  the  conservation  and  sustainable  use  of  oceans  and  their  resources  by 
implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law 
of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use 
of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of ‘The future we want’. 

The  indicator  for  measuring  SDG  14.c  is  defined  as  the  number  of  countries  adopting 
international legal instruments for ocean conservation as reflected in the United Nations 
Convention  on  the  Law  of  the  Sea  (UNCLOS).  The  EU  and  all  EU  Member  States  have 
ratified UNCLOS and its two implementing agreements. This treaty forms part of the EU 
acquis  and  all  EU  Member  States  have  therefore  committed  to  the  obligations  under 
UNCLOS. 

Ahead of the adoption of 2030 Agenda, the EU had already put in place a comprehensive 
policy framework for implementing UNCLOS provisions, e.g. through the MSFD and other 
policy instruments, as well as its participation in different bodies such as RFMOs, the FAO, 
IMO  and  RSCs.  The  EU  also  plays  an  instrumental  role  in  filling  existing  gaps  in  the 
international  legal  framework.  For  instance,  the  EU  signed  the  Agreement  to  prevent 
unregulated high seas fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean in 2018, and it is currently very 
active in negotiations on a legally binding instrument under UNCLOS on the conservation 
and  sustainable  use  of  marine  biological  diversity  of  areas  beyond  national  jurisdiction 
(BBNJ). 

Overall conclusions 

The high-level assessment is structured around the evaluation criteria set out in the Better 
Regulation guidelines, to provide a summarised overview of the contribution of EU policies 
towards achieving SDG14. 

  Relevance:  Although  most  major  policies  predate  the  2030  Agenda,  the  analysis 
shows a strong link between EU policies and ocean-related targets. Since the adoption 
of 2030 Agenda, policies have further evolved or been adapted to better address the 
issues  facing  the  oceans.  No  significant  policy  gaps  have  been  identified  and  the 
remaining  challenges  relate  more  to  the  correct  and  effective  implementation  of 
existing policies. 

  Effectiveness:  Important  data  gaps  persist  for  several  SDG14  indicators,  and 
measuring progress on achievement of the targets is challenging. If the assessment is 
based on the agreed indicators for SDG14 targets, most appear unlikely to be met by 
the  stipulated  timelines,  indicating  that  the  contribution  of  EU  policies  to  SDG14 
achievement  is  moderate.  When  looking  beyond  the  indicators,  it  can  be  concluded 
that the EU and  its Member  States are taking strong action, with tangible results  in 
some areas. However, we are still far from reversing some negative trends. Continued 
strong  and  urgent  efforts,  including  increased  international  cooperation,  will  be 
necessary  to  address  pressures  from  human  activities,  as  well  as  their  cumulative 
impacts, and therefore to protect the oceans within the EU and beyond. 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

  Efficiency: Considerable investments are being made from the EU and Member States’ 
budgets.  No  clear  funding  gaps  have  been  identified  in  the  study,  and  thus  lack  of 
funding is not considered a major issue. 

  Coherence: No major gaps were identified in the policy framework that could hamper 
the achievement of the SDG14 targets. The study found that coherence is sometimes 
lacking  in  policy  implementation  between  the  different  policy  areas  and  governance 
levels. 

  EU added value: Effective action to achieve SDG14 requires concerted global effort, 
since oceans are a shared resource and suffer the impacts of global activities, including 
on  land.  In  this  context,  unilateral  action  at  Member  State  level  would  likely  be 
ineffective towards achieving SDG14. Hence, there is a clear added value of EU policies 
to guide and lead the process. 

Supporting  materials  for  this  study  are  available  in  a  separate  publication  via  the 
publications office of the EU. 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

Synthèse 

À propos de l’étude 

La présente étude a été lancée dans le cadre des préparatifs de la conférence des Nations 
unies sur les océans prévue en  2020 (ensuite reportée en raison de l’épidémie de COVID-
19). L’étude vise à faire le point sur l’évolution de la situation dans l’Union européenne et 
à  procéder  à  une  évaluation  générale  des  contributions  apportées  par  l’UE  et  les  outils 
politiques  de  ses  États  membres  à  la  réalisation  de  l’ODD 14  et  des  autres  cibles  du 
Programme de développement durable à l’horizon 2030 liées aux océans. Cette étude se 
concentre spécifiquement sur l’ODD 14 et présente une analyse de chacune des 10 cibles 
qui composent cet objectif. Contrairement à d’autres travaux, elle adopte une approche 
hybride  qui  examine  les  indicateurs  quantitatifs  mais  évalue  également  les  progrès  de 
manière qualitative. 

Une  cartographie et  une catégorisation détaillées des politiques soutenant l’ODD 14  ont 
été  entreprises  au  niveau  de  l’UE  et  des  États  membres.  Au  total,  170 instruments 
politiques de l’UE et 417 instruments politiques des États membres ont été recensés. 

Il est difficile d’évaluer les progrès accomplis dans la réalisation des cibles de l’ODD 14 et 
des autres objectifs du Programme à l’horizon 2030, en raison de leur complexité et des 
lacunes dans  les données. Différentes initiatives d’établissement de rapports tentent de 
mesurer les progrès accomplis dans la réalisation du Programme à l’horizon 2030, chacune 
d’entre elles utilisant sa propre méthodologie pour calculer les scores agrégés pour chaque 
ODD. Il s’agit notamment du rapport annuel d’Eurostat intitulé «Développement durable 
dans  l’Union  européenne  –  Aperçu  des  progrès  vers  la  réalisation  des  ODD  dans  un 
contexte  européen»  et  des  «rapports  sur  le  développement  durable»,  publiés  chaque 
année, qui comprennent un index et un  tableau de bord des ODD. Ces rapports utilisent 
différents  indicateurs quantitatifs  pour  évaluer  les  progrès  accomplis  dans  la  réalisation 
des ODD. Ils montrent que, par rapport au reste du monde, l’UE obtient généralement de 
bons résultats dans la mise en œuvre du Programme à l’horizon 2030, mais qu’il existe 
des différences dans la réalisation des différents objectifs. 

L’étude considère qu’il est crucial d’examiner la qualité au-delà des indicateurs, car chaque 
cible  présente  plusieurs  complexités.  Les  principales  conclusions  résultant  de  cette 
approche sont présentées ci-après. 

ODD 14.1 - Pollution marine 

D’ici  à  2025,  prévenir  et  réduire  nettement  la  pollution  marine  de  tous  types,  en 
particulier  celle  résultant  des  activités  terrestres,  y  compris  les  déchets  en  mer  et  la 
pollution par les nutriments. 

La collecte de données pour les indicateurs proposés par les Nations unies afin de mesurer 
l’ODD 14.1  sera  lancée  en 2021,  et  l’indicateur  actuellement  utilisé  dans  l’UE  pour  cet 
objectif est la qualité des eaux de baignade. Ces dernières années, la proportion de sites 
de baignade côtiers présentant une excellente qualité de l’eau a augmenté dans certains 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

États membres (par exemple, en Belgique et au Danemark), tandis qu’elle a diminué dans 
d’autres (par exemple, en Irlande et en Pologne). 

L’UE dispose de l’un des cadres de politique environnementale les plus avancés au monde 
pour réduire au maximum les contaminants, l’eutrophisation polluante et éviter les déchets 
marins. La cible 14.1 s’appuie sur un cadre politique très complexe, car la «pollution de 
tous types» englobe toute une série de sources et de facteurs chimiques et physiques. Au 
total,  59 instruments  politiques  ou  groupes  d’instruments  politiques  de  l’UE  ont  été 
recensés  comme  ayant  une  influence  directe  sur  la  réalisation  de  cette  cible.  Dans  un 
avenir proche, le cadre politique sera également renforcé par le pacte vert pour l’Europe 
et le plan d’action «zéro pollution», afin de traiter les effets cumulatifs de la pollution de 
l’air, de l’eau et du sol. 

l’UE  devra 

le  cadre  politique  élaboré, 

Cependant,  malgré 
fournir  des  efforts 
supplémentaires pour atteindre l’ODD 14.1 avant l’échéance de 2025. Les défis à relever 
comprennent la présence d’anciens dépôts de polluants, mais aussi de nouvelles entrées, 
notamment  le  nombre  considérable  de  substances  chimiques  synthétiques  différentes. 
Plus particulièrement, seule une fraction de ces polluants est régulièrement surveillée et 
de  nouvelles  substances  sont  découvertes  extrêmement  rapidement.  L’eutrophisation, 
ainsi que les déchets marins et la pollution sonore, restent des défis majeurs dans certains 
bassins maritimes. 

La mise en œuvre cohérente des différentes politiques est essentielle pour atteindre cette 
cible, si l’on tient également compte des effets cumulatifs des différents polluants. Le plan 
d’action  «zéro pollution»  représente  une  étape  importante  dans  la  résolution  de  ce 
problème  en  examinant  de  manière  plus  systématique  toutes  les  politiques  et 
réglementations pertinentes et en s’attaquant aux problèmes interdépendants. 

En  ce  qui  concerne  les  déchets  marins,  l’UE  a  mis  en  place  un  programme  d’action 
ambitieux et va maintenant se concentrer sur sa mise en œuvre et sur le développement 
d’une  coopération  plus  poussée  avec  les  pays  tiers,  les  conventions  régionales  pour  la 
protection  du  milieu  marin  (CMR)  et  d’autres  organisations  internationales  afin  de 
s’attaquer au problème mondial des déchets marins. 

Une  mise  en  œuvre  cohérente  des  politiques  est  essentielle  pour  la  réalisation  de 
l’ODD 14.1, afin de s’assurer qu’il n’y a pas de lacunes dans le cadre politique et que les 
politiques terrestres et maritimes contribuent conjointement à la réduction de la pollution 
marine.  Une  coopération  accrue  entre  les  différentes  autorités  chargées  de  la  mise  en 
œuvre  de  ce  cadre  politique  serait 
la  bienvenue,  ainsi  que  des  orientations 
supplémentaires de l’UE quant à la manière d’améliorer cette coopération dans la pratique. 
En  outre,  une  surveillance  plus  cohérente  de  la  pollution  marine  et  une  meilleure 
connaissance  des  effets  cumulatifs  des  différents  polluants  favoriseraient  l’élaboration 
d’évaluations  précises  de  l’état  actuel  des  océans,  ainsi  que  de  mesures  et  d’objectifs 
appropriés  fixés  dans  le  cadre  des  instruments  politiques  pertinents.  Le  prochain  plan 
d’action «zéro pollution» de la Commission pourrait être l’occasion de relever ces défis. 

ODD 14.2 - Écosystèmes marins et côtiers 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

D’ici  à 2020,  gérer  et  protéger  durablement  les  écosystèmes  marins  et  côtiers, 
notamment en renforçant leur résilience, afin d’éviter les graves conséquences de leur 
dégradation et prendre des mesures en faveur de leur restauration pour rétablir la santé 
et la productivité des océans. 

La collecte de données pour l’indicateur mondial de l’ODD 14.2 (tel qu’élaboré par l’Office 
statistique des Nations unies, la proportion de zones économiques exclusives nationales 
gérées  selon  des  approches  écosystémiques)  n’a  pas  encore  commencé.  Cependant, 
l’approche écosystémique est au cœur de la politique environnementale marine de l’UE. À 
travers la directive-cadre «Stratégie pour le milieu marin» (DCSMM), elle est devenue un 
principe  opérationnel  et  juridiquement  contraignant  pour  la  gestion  du  milieu  marin  de 
l’UE. Elle a également été intégrée dans d’autres actes législatifs de l’UE, notamment la 
politique  commune  de  la  pêche  et  la  directive  relative  à  la  planification  de  l’espace 
maritime. 

La  DCSMM  est  le  pilier  environnemental  de  la  politique  maritime  intégrée  (PMI).  Elle 
impose aux États membres de l’UE de parvenir à un bon état écologique dans toutes les 
eaux  marines  de  l’UE  en  recensant  les  principales  pressions  et  incidences  sur  le  milieu 
marin et en évaluant  la santé et l’état des écosystèmes. D’autres pans de la législation 
européenne importants pour la gestion et la protection des écosystèmes marins et côtiers 
relèvent  de  la  politique  environnementale  de  l’UE  et  des  directives  «Oiseaux»  et 
«Habitats». Un récent rapport sur la mise en œuvre de la DCSMM a établi que, malgré les 
progrès  accomplis  dans  le  cadre  de  cette  directive,  il  est  «peu  probable  que  tant  les 
mesures  adoptées  que  les  connaissances  disponibles  soient  suffisantes»  (Commission 
européenne, 2020). Le rapport mentionne également que la perte de biodiversité n’a pas 
pu être arrêtée dans les mers d’Europe au cours des dernières années et que les principales 
pressions  incluent  les  espèces  non  indigènes,  la  surpêche,  l’eutrophisation,  les 
contaminants et les déchets. 

Bien  que  l’approche  fondée  sur  les  écosystèmes  soit  au  cœur  de  la  politique  marine  et 
maritime de l’UE, il semble que les États membres ne sachent pas très bien comment ce 
concept se traduit pour une mise en œuvre cohérente des différentes politiques. Une voie 
à suivre pourrait consister, par exemple, à ce  que  la  Commission européenne fournisse 
davantage  d’orientations  pour  les  politiques  pour  lesquelles  il  n’existe  pas  encore 
d’orientations  concrètes  pour  la  mise  en  œuvre  d’une  approche  fondée  sur  les 
écosystèmes. 

ODD 14.3 - Acidification des océans 

Réduire au maximum l’acidification des océans et lutter contre ses effets, notamment 
en renforçant la coopération scientifique à tous les niveaux. 

L’indicateur  de  mesure  de  cette  cible  est  l’acidité  moyenne des  mers  (pH)  mesurée  à 
plusieurs  points  de  prélèvement  représentatif.  Ces  données  montrent  une  tendance 
continue  à  l’augmentation  de  l’acidification.  Outre  la  réduction  des  incidences  de 
l’acidification  des  océans,  l’ODD 14.3  exige  également  des  mesures  pour  minimiser  et 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

traiter ces  incidences. L’indicateur actuel ne  permet pas de se faire  une  idée  des effets 
locaux et des mesures d’adaptation potentielles. 

L’acidification des océans étant le résultat de l’augmentation de la concentration de CO2 
dans  l’atmosphère,  la  réduction  de  l’acidification  des  océans  nécessite  des  politiques 
climatiques  mondiales  efficaces  en  matière  d’atténuation  et  d’adaptation.  Le  cadre 
politique de l’UE consiste en un vaste ensemble de politiques visant à réduire les GES (gaz 
à effet de serre) dans l’atmosphère provenant de différentes sources. C’est dans l’UE que 
les politiques climatiques les plus ambitieuses du monde ont été mises en œuvre au rythme 
le plus rapide au cours des dernières décennies.  

Cependant, bien qu’elle soit à l’avant-garde de la lutte contre les causes et les défis du 
changement climatique et du renforcement d’une réponse mondiale concertée, l’UE reste 
le troisième plus grand émetteur de GES au monde, derrière la Chine et les États-Unis. En 
outre,  l’incidence  des  changements  de  pH  sur  les  organismes  et  au  niveau  des 
écosystèmes n’est pas surveillée de manière suffisante ni cohérente dans les régions de 
l’UE, ce qui représente toujours des défis cruciaux pour la réalisation de l’ODD 14.3. Dans 
l’ensemble, le cadre de l’UE pour comprendre et traiter les incidences de l’acidification des 
océans doit être renforcé. 

ODD 14.4 - Pêche 

D’ici à 2020,  réglementer efficacement  la pêche, mettre  un terme à la surpêche, à la 
pêche illicite, non déclarée et non réglementée et aux pratiques de pêche destructrices 
et exécuter des plans de gestion fondés sur des données scientifiques, l’objectif étant 
de rétablir les stocks de poissons le plus rapidement possible, au moins à des niveaux 
permettant d’obtenir un rendement constant maximal compte tenu des caractéristiques 
biologiques. 

L’indicateur mondial officiel pour mesurer l’ODD 14.4 concerne la proportion de stocks de 
poissons dont le niveau est biologiquement durable. Dans les différents bassins maritimes 
de l’UE, les tendances des stocks de poissons sont doubles. Dans l’Atlantique du Nord-Est, 
la mer du Nord et la mer Baltique, l’analyse des séries de données à long terme montre 
des signes clairs d’amélioration. En revanche, dans la mer Méditerranée et la mer Noire, 
la  situation  reste  critique,  avec  un  pourcentage  élevé  de  stocks  évalués  qui  sont 
surexploités et un manque de connaissances solides sur la pression de pêche et la capacité 
de reproduction. 

Au  sein  de  l’UE,  la  politique  commune  de  la  pêche  vise  à  garantir  que  la  pêche  et 
l’aquaculture sont durables sur le plan environnemental, économique et social. Entre 2015 
et 2020,  des  limites  de  capture  durables  ont  été  fixées  pour  maintenir  les  stocks  de 
poissons à long terme. La dernière réforme de la politique commune de la pêche a apporté 
d’importantes  améliorations  en  matière  de  gouvernance,  notamment  l’introduction  du 
rendement maximal durable comme objectif de gestion, la régionalisation et l’obligation 
de débarquement. 

Outre la surpêche mentionnée ci-dessus, les pratiques de pêche destructrices continuent 
de perturber considérablement les écosystèmes marins de l’UE, ce qui est reconnu dans 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

la  stratégie  de  l’UE  en  faveur  de  la  biodiversité  à  l’horizon 2030. Parmi  les autres défis 
notables,  citons  la  disponibilité  des  connaissances  scientifiques  et  leur  utilisation  dans 
l’élaboration des politiques, ainsi que la mise en œuvre et l’application du cadre politique. 

ODD 14.5 - Aires marines protégées 

D’ici à 2020, préserver au moins 10 % des zones marines et côtières, conformément au 
droit national et international et compte tenu des meilleures informations scientifiques 
disponibles. 

L’indicateur  officiel  pour  mesurer  la  réalisation  de  l’ODD 14.5  est  la  surface  des  aires 
marines protégées, en proportion de la surface totale. En 2016, la couverture spatiale des 
aires marines protégées (AMP) dans l’UE était de 10,8 % de la surface marine et côtière 
totale. 

Différents outils politiques soutiennent le développement des AMP en Europe, notamment 
les directives «Oiseaux» et «Habitats». Les AMP sont également désignées dans le cadre 
de programmes nationaux et régionaux entrepris pour atteindre les objectifs fixés par la 
DCSMM.  Parmi  les  autres  politiques  influentes  dans  ce  contexte  figurent  la  politique 
commune de la pêche et la stratégie de l’UE en faveur de la biodiversité à l’horizon 2030. 

Si  l’UE  dans  son  ensemble  a  atteint  l’objectif  d’étendue  spatiale  des  aires  marines 
protégées avant la date prévue, toutes les mers régionales n’ont pas atteint l’objectif d’une 
couverture de 10 % des AMP. La réalisation de l’ODD 14.5 exige que les AMP soient gérées 
efficacement et que leurs objectifs de conservation soient établis sur la base des meilleures 
informations scientifiques disponibles. Des efforts supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour 
établir et mettre en œuvre efficacement des mesures de gestion des AMP, pour assurer la 
cohérence du réseau européen des AMP, ainsi que pour recueillir des informations sur la 
conservation effective réalisée dans ces zones. 

Pour  promouvoir le  respect  des  dispositions  existantes en  matière de  désignation  et  de 
gestion des AMP, ainsi que des dispositions relatives à la cohérence écologique, plusieurs 
options peuvent être envisagées, notamment l’amélioration des connaissances du public 
sur  les  avantages  des  AMP,  l’amélioration  du  suivi  et  de  la  surveillance  des  AMP,  le 
renforcement de la base scientifique et d’autres moyens. 

ODD 14.6 - Subventions à la pêche 

D’ici à 2020, interdire les subventions à la pêche qui contribuent à la surcapacité et à la 
surpêche,  supprimer  celles  qui  favorisent  la  pêche  illicite,  non  déclarée  et  non 
réglementée  et  s’abstenir  d’en  accorder  de  nouvelles,  sachant  que  l’octroi  d’un 
traitement spécial et différencié efficace et approprié aux pays en développement et aux 
pays les moins avancés doit faire partie intégrante des négociations sur les subventions 
à la pêche menées dans le cadre de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce. 

L’indicateur relatif à l’ODD 14.6 mesure les progrès réalisés dans la mise en œuvre des 
instruments  internationaux  visant  à  combattre  la  pêche  illicite,  non  déclarée  et  non 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

réglementée.  Les  données  recueillies  pour  cet  indicateur  montrent  que  tous  les  États 
membres de l’UE ont un niveau de réalisation «très élevé». Il est important de noter que 
l’indicateur relatif à l’ODD 14.6 a suscité certaines critiques, car il ne présente aucun lien 
direct avec le niveau global des subventions néfastes qui contribuent à la surcapacité et à 
la surpêche, et est considéré comme inadéquat pour mesurer la réalisation de l’objectif. 

La  politique  commerciale  est  une  compétence  exclusive  de  l’UE,  qui  est  chargée  de 
négocier  les  subventions  à  la  pêche  au  nom  des  États  membres  dans  les  enceintes 
internationales, comme dans les négociations actuelles sur l’interdiction des subventions 
néfastes à la pêche dans le cadre de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), où l’UE 
joue un rôle actif. En 2017, suite au nouvel élan donné aux négociations par l’adoption du 
Programme  à  l’horizon 2030,  l’UE  a  révisé  sa  proposition  sur  l’interdiction  de  certaines 
subventions à la pêche en ajoutant des dispositions sur le renforcement de la transparence 
et  en  fournissant  des  lignes  directrices  sur  le  traitement  différencié  pour  les  pays  en 
développement et les pays les moins avancés. À l’intérieur de ses frontières, l’UE a interdit 
dès 2004  l’un  des  types  de  subventions  à  la  pêche  les  plus  néfastes,  en  supprimant 
progressivement  les  subventions  publiques  destinées  à  la  construction  de  nouveaux 
navires et à l’augmentation de la capacité de pêche. 

Malgré  les  progrès  accomplis,  la  surpêche  se  poursuit  pour  certains  stocks  de  poissons 
dans  certaines  régions  d’Europe,  ce  qui  peut  également  être  une  conséquence  de  la 
surcapacité de la flotte. Aucun accord n’a encore été conclu au niveau international en ce 
qui  concerne  l’interdiction  des  subventions  néfastes  à  la  pêche,  et  le  délai  pour  la 
réalisation  de  l’ODD 14.6  a  expiré  en 2020.  Si  les  membres  de  l’OMC  confirment  leur 
volonté de poursuivre les négociations malgré les obstacles liés à l’épidémie de COVID-
19, il n’est pas certain qu’il soit possible de parvenir à un accord dans un avenir proche. 

ODD 14.7  -  Avantages  économiques  de  l’utilisation  durable  des  ressources 
marines pour les petits États insulaires en développement (PEID) et les pays 
les moins avancés (PMA). 

D’ici à 2030, faire mieux bénéficier les petits États insulaires en développement et les 
pays  les  moins  avancés  des  retombées  économiques  de  l’exploitation  durable  des 
ressources  marines,  notamment  grâce  à  une  gestion  durable  des  pêches,  de 
l’aquaculture et du tourisme. 

La cible 14.7 vise à accroître les avantages économiques que les PEID et les PMA tirent de 
l’utilisation  durable  des  ressources  marines  par  la  pêche,  l’aquaculture  et  le  tourisme. 
Cependant,  l’indicateur  permettant  de  mesurer  les  progrès  vers  la  réalisation  de 
l’ODD 14.7 ne mesure que l’aspect «pêche» de la cible. Il n’est pas possible actuellement 
de tirer des conclusions sur la réalisation de l’ODD 14.7 en raison d’un manque de données 
globales. 

Étant donné qu’aucun des États membres de l’UE n’est un PEID ou un PMA, sa contribution 
à la réalisation de l’ODD 14.7 ne peut être évaluée qu’en examinant différents aspects de 
sa relation avec les PEID et les PMA: les relations commerciales, l’activité de pêche de l’UE 
à  l’étranger  (par  exemple,  les  accords  de  partenariat  pour  une  pêche  durable)  et  les 
activités  de  partenariat  et  de  coopération  qu’elle  mène  avec  ces  pays,  y  compris  les 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

activités d’aide au développement (par exemple, les activités entreprises dans un contexte 
post-Accord de Cotonou). 

Le  commerce  du  poisson  et  des  fruits  de  mer  est  un  aspect  essentiel  lorsqu’il  s’agit 
d’accroître les avantages économiques des ressources marines pour les PEID et les PMA. 
L’accès aux routes commerciales mondiales peut générer une valeur importante et créer 
des opportunités d’emploi le long des chaînes de valeur de la pêche et des fruits de mer 
pour  les  communautés  locales.  L’UE  est  le  plus  grand  importateur  de  fruits  de  mer  au 
monde, et les conditions d’importation ont une influence sur les avantages économiques 
que ces pays retirent de leurs activités d’exportation. Les importations de produits de la 
pêche  dans  l’UE  sont  soumises  à  une  certification  officielle  fondée  sur  le  respect  de 
conditions prédéfinies dans le pays exportateur. Le règlement de l’UE visant à prévenir, à 
décourager et à éliminer la pêche illicite, non déclarée et non réglementée garantit que 
seuls  les  produits  de  la  pêche  validés  comme  légaux  par  l’État  du  pavillon  compétent 
peuvent être importés dans l’UE. Dans le cadre de ce règlement, l’UE a entamé un dialogue 
avec  plusieurs  pays,  dont  des  PEID  et  des  PMA,  et  a  soutenu  l’amélioration  de  leurs 
systèmes de lutte contre la pêche illicite, non déclarée et non réglementée (INN). En outre, 
l’UE  fournit  une  formation  et  une  assistance  technique  pour  aider  les  pays  en 
développement à se conformer aux règles générales de l’UE en matière d’accès au marché. 
L’UE a également mis en place un ensemble de règles visant à garantir la durabilité de son 
activité de pêche à l’étranger. 

La transparence concernant la pêche et les autres activités entreprises dans les eaux des 
PEID et des PMA est souvent un problème  lorsqu’il s’agit de la gestion durable de leurs 
ressources marines. L’UE pourrait user de plus en plus de son influence et s’appuyer sur 
la coopération en cours pour veiller à ce que les activités des différents acteurs de la pêche, 
qu’ils  soient  ou  non  membres  de  l’UE,  n’entravent  pas  la  réalisation  de  l’ODD 14.7.  En 
outre,  l’UE  pourrait  encore  renforcer  et  rationaliser  le  soutien  qu’elle  apporte  déjà,  par 
différents canaux, aux PEID et aux PMA pour améliorer leur capacité à gérer durablement 
leurs ressources marines. 

ODD 14.a  -  Connaissances  scientifiques,  recherche  et  technologies  pour  la 
santé des océans 

Approfondir  les  connaissances  scientifiques,  renforcer  les  capacités  de  recherche  et 
transférer les techniques marines, conformément aux Critères et principes directeurs de 
la  Commission  océanographique  intergouvernementale  concernant  le  transfert  de 
techniques marines, l’objectif étant d’améliorer la santé des océans et de renforcer la 
contribution de la biodiversité marine au développement des pays en développement, 
en  particulier  des  petits  États  insulaires  en  développement  et  des  pays  les  moins 
avancés. 

L’indicateur de mesure  de l’ODD 14.a est le budget national annuel de recherche alloué 
par les gouvernements dans le domaine des technologies marines, par rapport au budget 
national global de recherche et développement des gouvernements en général. À ce jour, 
les données pour cet indicateur ne sont disponibles que pour les années 2009 à 2013, et 
pour  25 pays  seulement.  Au  cours  de  cette  période,  le  budget  de  la  recherche  sur  les 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

technologies marines dans les cinq pays de l’UE pour lesquels des données sont disponibles 
est passé de 0,35 % (2009) à 0,56 % (2013) du budget total de la recherche. 

Si  l’on  examine  d’autres  indicateurs,  l’UE  est  à  l’avant-garde  des  efforts  déployés  pour 
soutenir l’océanographie au niveau mondial. Les États membres de l’UE figurent parmi les 
principaux producteurs  de publications en sciences océaniques, et les résultats de  leurs 
recherches  ont  également  une  incidence  considérable,  comme  l’indique  le  nombre  de 
citations qu’ils reçoivent. 

Plusieurs politiques de l’UE soutiennent le développement des connaissances marines et 
des capacités de recherche, et l’importance de la recherche et de l’innovation a encore été 
soulignée avec l’adoption du pacte vert pour l’Europe et de la nouvelle stratégie Horizon 
Europe. 

La science océanique a évolué rapidement ces dernières années, mais les défis auxquels 
nos océans sont confrontés connaissent également une croissance exponentielle. Dans ce 
contexte, et malgré les efforts notables déployés, des lacunes en matière de connaissances 
et de capacités de recherche persistent, tant dans l’UE qu’au niveau mondial, et le potentiel 
d’amélioration  des  actions  de  l’UE  et  des  États  membres  pour  atteindre  l’ODD 14.a  est 
pratiquement  infini.  Dans  ce  contexte,  la  Décennie  des  Nations  unies  pour  les  sciences 
océaniques au service du développement durable, qui doit être lancée en 2021, pourrait 
représenter une occasion pour l’UE de promouvoir une approche coordonnée, stratégique 
et globale de la recherche océanique dans le monde entier. 

ODD 14.b - Pêche artisanale 

Garantir aux petits pêcheurs l’accès aux ressources marines et aux marchés. 

L’indicateur de mesure de l’ODD 14.b est le progrès des pays dans le degré d’application 
d’un cadre institutionnel qui reconnaît et protège les droits d’accès des petits pêcheurs. 
Tous les États membres de l’UE obtiennent un score élevé dans les données officielles. 

La  politique  commune  de  la  pêche  est  la  principale  politique  de  l’UE  régissant  la  pêche 
artisanale.  Elle reconnaît  l’importance de  garantir  un  niveau de  vie  équitable  aux  petits 
pêcheurs et comprend des considérations générales et des principes directeurs pertinents 
pour ces acteurs. Un soutien financier est apporté aux petits pêcheurs au moyen du Fonds 
européen pour les affaires maritimes et la pêche. 

Au  cours  de  la  présente  étude,  il  n’a  pas  été  possible  de  recenser  suffisamment 
d’informations pour évaluer les défis restants et les moyens possibles d’aller de l’avant. 

ODD 14.C - Droit international de la mer 

Améliorer la conservation des océans et de leurs ressources et les exploiter de manière 
plus  durable  en  application  des  dispositions  du  droit  international,  énoncées  dans  la 
Convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, qui fournit le cadre juridique requis 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

pour la conservation et l’exploitation durable des océans et de leurs ressources, comme 
il est rappelé au paragraphe 158 de «L’avenir que nous voulons». 

L’indicateur de mesure de l’ODD 14.c est défini comme le nombre de pays qui adoptent 
des  instruments  juridiques  internationaux  pour  la  conservation  des  océans,  comme  le 
reflète la convention des Nations unies sur le droit de la mer (CNUDM). L’UE et tous ses 
États membres ont ratifié la CNUDM et ses deux accords d’application. Ce traité fait partie 
de  l’acquis  communautaire  et  tous  les  États  membres  de  l’UE  se  sont  donc  engagés  à 
respecter les obligations découlant de la CNUDM. 

Avant  l’adoption  du Programme  à  l’horizon 2030, l’UE  avait  déjà  mis  en place  un cadre 
politique complet pour la mise en œuvre des dispositions de la CNUDM, par exemple au 
moyen de  la DCSMM  et d’autres  instruments politiques, ainsi que par  sa participation à 
différents organismes tels que les ORGP, la FAO, l’OMI et les CMR. L’UE joue également 
un  rôle  déterminant  en  comblant  les  lacunes  existantes  dans  le  cadre  juridique 
international. Par exemple, l’UE a signé en 2018 l’accord visant à prévenir la pêche non 
réglementée  en  haute  mer  dans  l’océan  Arctique  central,  et  elle  est  actuellement  très 
active dans les négociations sur un instrument juridiquement contraignant au titre de la 
CNUDM  sur  la  conservation  et  l’utilisation  durable  de  la  biodiversité  marine  des  zones 
situées au-delà des limites de la juridiction nationale. 

Conclusions générales 

L’évaluation  générale  s’articule  autour  des  critères  d’évaluation  définis  dans  les  lignes 
directrices pour une meilleure réglementation, afin de fournir une vue d’ensemble résumée 
de la contribution des politiques de l’UE à la réalisation de l’ODD 14. 

  Pertinence:  Bien  que  la  plupart  des  grandes  politiques  soient  antérieures  au 
Programme à l’horizon 2030, l’analyse montre un lien étroit entre les politiques de l’UE 
et les objectifs liés aux océans. Depuis l’adoption du Programme à l’horizon 2030, les 
politiques ont encore évolué ou ont été adaptées pour mieux répondre aux problèmes 
auxquels  sont  confrontés  les  océans.  Aucune  lacune  politique  importante  n’a  été 
recensée  et  les  défis  restants  concernent  davantage  la  mise  en  œuvre  correcte  et 
efficace des politiques existantes. 

  Efficacité:  D’importantes  lacunes  dans  les  données  persistent  pour  plusieurs 
indicateurs  de  l’ODD 14,  et  il  est  difficile  de  mesurer  les  progrès  accomplis  dans  la 
réalisation  des  cibles.  Si  l’évaluation  se  fonde  sur  les  indicateurs  convenus  pour  les 
cibles de l’ODD 14, il semble peu probable que la plupart d’entre eux soient atteints 
dans les délais impartis, ce qui indique que la contribution des politiques de l’UE à la 
réalisation de l’ODD 14 est modérée. Si l’on regarde au-delà des indicateurs, on peut 
conclure que l’UE et ses États membres prennent des mesures énergiques, avec des 
résultats  tangibles  dans  certains  domaines.  Toutefois,  nous  sommes  encore  loin 
d’inverser certaines tendances négatives. Des efforts continus, vigoureux et urgents, 
y  compris  une  coopération  internationale  accrue,  seront  nécessaires  pour  faire  face 
aux pressions exercées par les activités humaines, ainsi qu’à leurs effets cumulatifs, 
et donc pour protéger les océans dans l’UE et au-delà. 

  Efficience: Des investissements considérables sont réalisés sur les budgets de l’UE et 
des  États  membres.  Aucun  déficit  de  financement  n’a  été  clairement  recensé  dans 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

l’étude, et le manque de financement n’est donc pas considéré comme un problème 
majeur. 

  Cohérence: Aucune lacune majeure n’a été établie dans le cadre politique qui pourrait 
entraver la réalisation des cibles de l’ODD 14. L’étude a révélé que la cohérence fait 
parfois  défaut  dans  la  mise  en  œuvre  des  politiques  entre  les  différents  domaines 
politiques et niveaux de gouvernance. 

  Valeur  ajoutée  de  l’UE:  Une  action  efficace  pour  atteindre  l’ODD 14  nécessite  un 
effort mondial concerté, car les océans sont une ressource partagée et subissent les 
effets  des  activités  mondiales,  y  compris  sur  terre.  Dans  ce  contexte,  une  action 
unilatérale au niveau des États membres serait probablement inefficace pour atteindre 
l’ODD 14.  Les  politiques  de  l’UE  présentent  donc  une  valeur  ajoutée  évidente  pour 
guider et diriger le processus. 

Les supports de cette  étude  sont disponibles dans  une publication distincte via le  office 
des publications de l'Union européen. 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

1.  About this report 

was 

study 

launched 

This 
the 
2020 UN Ocean Conference (subsequently postponed due to COVID-19 outbreak). The intention of 
the  study was to take  stock  of  the  developments  in  the  European Union  and  make  a  high-level 
assessment  of  the  contributions  made  by  the  EU  and  its  Member  States’  policy  tools  towards 
achieving SDG14 and other 2030 Agenda ocean-related targets. 

preparations 

part 

the 

for 

as 

of 

a 

Even  a  high-level  assessment  of  the  extent  to  which  and how  EU  policies  contribute  to achieving 
SDG14 is a daunting task. The approach taken to assessing progress towards targets has been to 
use robust data and facts on the status to date, taking into account the SDG14 indicators whenever 
possible. 

In the assignment, a comprehensive mapping and categorisation of policies was undertaken at EU 
(see the high-level assessment in Appendix 2 in the Supporting Materials document) and Member 
State level (see the high-level assessment in Appendix 3 in the Supporting Materials document). The 
sheer number of policies involved, and the complexity of the field, makes it impossible to conduct 
an in-depth assessment of how each policy contributes to the ocean-related targets. 

The aim of this report is therefore not to evaluate each policy tool per se, but rather to take a ‘birds’ 
eye’ perspective on what the EU and its Member States are doing to conserve and improve the status 
of the ocean and seas and their sustainable use, as well as on the achievements made so far. To 
this end, the study team has used available evidence combined with consultations with a wide range 
of stakeholders. 

In the report, the analysis is presented by SDG14 target, providing the following for each target: 

1.  State of play in achieving the target; 
2.  Remaining challenges; 
3.  Possible ways forward. 

Finally, the study provides a set of more horizontal findings and recommendations, together with a 
synthesised high-level assessment of the current policy framework in place. 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

2.  Point of departure 

  Global ocean challenges 

Oceans  account  for  approximately  71%  of  the  Earth’s  surface.  They  are  home  to  the 
largest continuous ecosystem and provide habitats for rich marine biodiversity1. Oceans 
provide invaluable services; they provide half the oxygen we breathe, store excess carbon 
dioxide, and are an essential source of food. They perform a vital regulatory function in 
the global weather and climate systems. 

Oceans also contribute to our lives in countless other ways, for example by providing jobs, 
transport and trade, tourism, renewable energy and others. 

However, ocean biodiversity and services are under threat from numerous human-induced 
stressors including overfishing,  increasing  events of eutrophication, pollution from land-
based and marine sources including plastics and microplastics, growing ocean acidification 
and ocean warming. 

Marine environments have been impacted by human activities for centuries. Historical acts 
of  overfishing,  waste  disposal,  pollution  and  shipping  have  all  left  a  mark  beneath  the 
waves. Today, such  uses are  multiplying and  expanding to previously untouched areas, 
further  out  and  deeper  than  previously  explored.  Emerging  activities  such  as  marine 
renewable energies, desalinisation and blue biotechnology are demanding more from the 
oceans alongside traditional activities like shipping, coastal tourism and fishing. Some of 
those emerging activities currently fall outside current global frameworks and agreements. 

As humans increasingly turn to the ocean for food, energy and raw materials, as well as 
recreational activities, the impacts of such uses are also expanding and introducing new 
threats such as nutrient and plastic pollution, invasive alien species and climate change. 
At the same time, some human activities such as developing offshore renewable energy 
also have great potential to benefit humanity and the oceans in the long run. 

 Sustainable Development Goal 14 

Box 2.1 Agenda 2030 

The  rise  and  acknowledgement  of  multiple 
threats facing the oceans have demanded action 
be taken on all fronts, in an effort to safeguard 
critical  marine  ecosystems  and  natural  capital, 
and the services they provide. Driving this tide is 
the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable 
Development  and  its  Sustainable  Development 
Goal (SDG) 14 to ‘Conserve and Sustainably Use 
the  Oceans,  Seas  and  Marine  Resources  for 
Sustainable Development’. 

SDG  14  aims  to  tackle  the  conservation  of  the 
oceans and seas, as well as some of humanity’s 
interactions  with  the  oceans  and  to  respond  to 

23 

contains 

In  September  2015, 
the  UN 
adopted  the  2030  Agenda,  which 
came  into  force  on  1  January 
2016. Agenda 2030 is a universal 
framework 
achieving 
for 
sustainable development by 2030. 
It 
ambitious 
Sustainable  Development  Goals 
and  169  associated  targets  to  be 
achieved  by  2030.  The  goals  and 
targets are not legally binding, but 
governments  are  expected 
to 
commit to, take ownership of and 
create 
for 
frameworks 
implementing the SDGs. 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

the urgent need for transformative change towards more sustainable practices. It covers 
a range of issues concerning the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans. 

SDG 14 recognises the environmental, economic and social benefits that healthy oceans 
provide. At the same time, it reflects the human-induced pressures that the oceans are 
subject  to,  and  which  need  to  be  managed  to  ensure  that  oceans  continue  to  provide 
current and future generations with their invaluable ecosystem services. 

SDG 14 is divided into 10 targets which are shown in the figure below. Targets A, B and C 
are so-called ‘means of implementation’, i.e. means for achieving the other targets. 

Figure 2.1 The 10 targets of SDG14 

  A framework for the integrated implementation of the 17 

Sustainable Development Goals 

The 2030 Agenda consists of 17 Goals and 169 associated targets which all interact and 
impact upon each other in different ways. 

Figure 2.2 The 17 Sustainable Development Goals 

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Assessment of the existing EU policy tools in the field of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 and other 
ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

SDG  14  inherently  relies  on  the  implementation  of  the  other  SDGs.  To  promote  the 
sustainable use and management of the ocean, actions must be taken to address pressures 
and threats both on land and at sea. 

At the same time, the SDG 14 has a cross-cutting role in the 2030 Agenda; implementing 
and promoting actions relevant to achieving SDG 14 also supports the wider 2030 Agenda 
goals – the conservation and sustainable use of the ocean is reinforcing and enabling in 
relation to the other 2030 Agenda goals. 

The  interlinkages between the respective targets of SDG14  and the other 2030  Agenda 
goals are complex and manifold. In general, there are two types of interlinkages: those 
with upstream targets and those with downstream targets. 

Box 2.2 Definition of upstream and downstream targets 

Upstream  targets are  those  which,  when  achieved,  will  have  an  impact on  SDG14 
targets. 

Downstream  targets  are  those  that  are  impacted  by  the  achievement  of  SDG14. 
targets. 

All those upstream and downstream targets are ‘ocean-related’, meaning that they either 
have an impact on the oceans, are impacted by what is happening in the oceans – or both. 
This study identified 44 ocean-related targets (other than the SDG14 targets). Of those, 
32 are upstream targets and 21 are downstream targets. Nine targets are both upstream 
and downstream. 

The interaction can be positive, negative, or both, as shown in the example below. 

Box 2.3 Upstream and downstream interactions between SDG 14 and SDG 11 

Upstream: Cities are an important driver for reducing marine pollution (14.1). About 
65%  of  all  megacities  worldwide  are  in  coastal  areas.  Basic  public  services  such  as 
wastewater treatment and waste management are a necessity for reducing discharge 
from debris and pollutants into the oceans (11.1 and 11.6). Sustainable urbanisation 
driven  by  strong  planning  and  management  capacities  are  key  to  achieving  those 
services  (11.3),  and  therefore  achieving  SDG11  would  positively  contribute  to  the 
achievement of SDG14.1 (positive interaction).  

Downstream:  This  relationship  is  bi-directional.  Efforts  to  prevent  marine  pollution 
(e.g. integrated coastal management, maritime spatial planning, etc.) go hand in hand 
with  the  achievement  of  the  above  targets  and  require  an  integrated  planning  and 
management approach between urban areas and the ocean. Actions to tackle marine 
pollution under target 14.1 reinforce and overlap with actions to ensure safe housing, 
basic services and to upgrade slums (11.1). It is therefore possible to conclude that 
progress in the achievement of SDG14.1 could enable progress in the achievement of 
SDG11 (positive interaction). 

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The interlinkages identified in this study are shown in the figure below. A more detailed 
view is included in the Supporting Materials document of this report. 

Figure 2.3 Interlinkages between SDG14 and other ocean-related goals 

The  mapping  of  Member  States’  policies  for  SDG14  (see  the  high-level  assessment  in 
Appendix  3  in  the  Supporting  Materials  document)  also  demonstrated  that  often  these 
policies  also  jointly  address  the  targets  under  SDG2,  SDG6,  SDG8,  SDG11,  SDG12, 
SDG15, which further highlights how these goals are closely interlinked in practice. 

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Box 2.4 Recent report by the EC on the Sustainable Development Goals 

In November 2020 the European Commission approved and adopted the Staff Working 
Document ‘Delivering on the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals – A comprehensive 
approach’, whose purpose is to explain how the European Commission is taking forward 
its commitment to the 2030 Agenda through its internal and external action policies. 

The Staff Working Document:  

  Reiterates  that  the  Commission’s  approach  to  implementing  the  SDGs  is  holistic 

and focused on delivering concrete actions that will bring tangible progress. 

  Highlights that the SDGs are integrated into all Commission proposals, policies and 
strategies, and that the implementation of the European Green Deal will contribute 
directly to achieving 12 of the 17 SDGs, including SDG14. 

  States that the European Semester will further be refocused to integrate the SDGs. 

  Stresses that additional efforts will be made to track the contribution of EU finance 

to the SDGs and strengthen reporting thereof. 

  Underlines  how  the  Commission’s  approach to  domestic  and  international  policy-

making contributes to the coherent implementation of the SDGs. 

  Confirms the EU’s commitment to playing a leading role in the implementation of 

the 2030 Agenda globally through its external action. 

  Working together is key 

To achieve SDG14 and the other ambitious goals and targets set out in the 2030 Agenda, 
the  international  community  needs to  work together.  Countries,  regions  and  continents 
need to cooperate, but all actors within countries also need to take action. 

The oceans are connected 

All oceans are part of a connected system, and achieving the targets of SDG14 therefore 
requires action across the globe. 

Pollution does not stop at borders and it is not enough for one country or region alone to 
limit it. It instead needs to be prevented worldwide. Furthermore, many marine species 
are migrant and move across the oceans, where they depend on healthy ecosystems along 
their routes. 

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The  2030  Agenda  connects  all  dimensions  of  sustainable  development  and  all 

sectors 

The  2030  Agenda  is  integrated  and  indivisible,  and  balances  the  three  dimensions  of 
sustainable  development:  economic,  social  and  environmental.  The  close  interlinkages 
between all targets and goals have already been illustrated in the previous chapter. 

The 2030 Agenda also needs to be implemented as a whole – no goal is more important 
than  the  other.  This  requires  close  cooperation  across  all  sectors,  since  an  activity 
benefiting  only  one  dimension  of  sustainable  development  cannot  be  considered 
‘sustainable’ when it does significant harm to others. 

To achieve the 2030 Agenda, all levels of government need to take action 

Actions and policies related to the SDGs need to take place across all levels of government, 
from global to local levels, including EU institutions, national institutions and ministries, 
regions, counties, cities and small territories. 

Even  though  the  oceans  are  connected,  tackling  all  aspects  of  ocean  governance  and 
management on a global scale would be slow and unrealistic. Though some elements need 
to be addressed on this scale, due to the interconnected nature of the oceans, a regional 
or local approach to ocean management sometimes better reflects the specific challenges 
and issues faced within oceanic regions. 

The engagement of stakeholders around the world is key to achieving the 2030 

Agenda 

The 2030 Agenda will not be achieved without meaningful action by citizens and businesses 
around  the  globe.  As  the  oceans  and  their  biodiversity  and  services  are  threatened  by 
numerous human-induced pressures, behaviour change and  individual responsibility are 
essential to addressing  the current challenges and implementing the 2030  Agenda. The 
establishment of transparent and inclusive debates with citizens and businesses, and the 
reinforcement  of  citizen  engagement  activities  and  educational  opportunities  on 
sustainable  development  will  consequently  be  important  to  achieving  progress  on  the 
SDGs. 

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3.  Progress towards the 2030 Agenda and SDG14 in the EU 

In general, and compared with the rest of the world, the EU performs well in implementing 
the 2030 Agenda2. 

Evaluating  detailed  progress  towards  meeting  SDG14  and  the  other  goals  of  the 
2030 Agenda is challenging, due to their complexity and gaps in data. 

There are different reporting initiatives that measure progress towards achievement of the 
Agenda, each of which uses their own methodology for calculating aggregated scores for 
each SDG. 

This  includes  the  annual  Eurostat  Report  on  ‘Sustainable  development  in  the  European 
Union  —  Overview  of  progress  towards  the  SDGs  in  an  EU  context’3,  and  the  annual 
‘Sustainable  Development  Reports’4,  which  include  an  SDG  Index  and  Dashboards.  The 
reports  use  different  indicators  to  assess  progress  towards  meeting  SDG14,  and  this 
influences the analysis of progress. 

The Eurostat assessment 

The assessment by Eurostat5 shows that the EU has made progress towards most of the 
SDGs over the past five years. 

Unfortunately,  SDG14 (together with SDG6)  is one  of two goals for  which Eurostat was 
unable to calculate a trend, due to the lack of sufficient data over the past five years6. 

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Figure 3.1 Overview of EU Member States’ progress towards the SDGs over the past 5 years 

Source: EUROSTAT (2020). Sustainable development in the European Union: overview of progress towards the SDGs in an EU 
context, 2020 edition 

The UN Sustainable development report 

The annual ‘Sustainable Development Reports’ present an SDG Index and Dashboards for 
all UN member states. At the end of 2019, a special edition of the report was published, 
focusing on the EU’s progress towards Sustainable Development Goals7. 

This  report  found  that  the  European  Union  leads  globally  on  the  implementation  of  the 
SDGs, and that according to the SDG Index, all 10 countries closest to achieving the SDGs 
are EU Member States. At the same time, the report found that despite this remarkable 
achievement, no European country is on track to fully achieve the SDGs. 

The authors found that the greatest challenges in achieving the 2030 Agenda remain in 
goals ‘related to climate, biodiversity, and circular economy’, including SDG14. 

More specifically for SDG14, the report found that this is the only goal for which moderate 
improvements took place, and major challenges remain. 

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Figure 3.2 Dashboard for the performance of the European Union 

Source: ESDR (2019). Europe Sustainable Development Report. Towards a strategy for achieving the Sustainable Development 
Goals in the European Union 

This report 

This report focuses on SDG14 and presents an analysis of each of the 10 targets that form 
the  goal.  In  contrast  to  other  measurements,  it  takes  a  hybrid  approach  that  looks  at 
quantitative  indicators,  but  also  assesses  progress  qualitatively.  The  table  below 
summarised the evidence from the quantitative indicators used in the study and makes a 
preliminary assessment of the extent to which the SDG14 targets are likely to be met by 
their stated deadlines. 

Looking  beyond  the  indicators,  there  are  many  nuances  around  each  target  and  the 
detailed assessments are described in the next chapters. 

Table 3.1 Overview of the EU’s progress towards achieving SDG14 

Target 

Deadline  Likely to be met 

2025 

2020 

SDG14.1 – 
Marine 
pollution 

SDG14.2 – 
Marine and 
coastal 
ecosystems 

The  indicator  used  is  data  on  water  quality  at  bathing  sites,  based  on 
Member State reporting under the Bathing Water Directive. In general, the 
indicator shows a positive trend. 

No  data  is  available  yet  for  this  indicator.  However,  within  EU waters in 
general  the  ecosystem-based  approach  is  at  the  heart  of  marine 
environmental  policy.  Under  the  MSFD  it  became  a  legally  binding  and 
operational principle for managing the EU’s entire marine environment, in 
complementarity with the Water Framework Directive. 

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Target 

Deadline  Likely to be met 

SDG14.3 – 
Ocean 
acidification 

SDG14.4 – 
Fisheries 

2030 

2020 

2020 

2020 

SDG14.5 – 
Marine 
protected 
areas 

SDG14.6 – 
Fishery 
subsidies 

SDG14.7 – 
Economic 
benefits 
from 
sustainable 
use of 
marine 
resources to 
SIDS and 
LDCs 

SDG14.A – 
Scientific 
knowledge, 
research 
and 
technology 
for ocean 
health  

SDG14.B – 
Small-scale 
fisheries 

SDG14.C – 
International 
Law of the 
Sea 

The indicator for measuring this target is the average marine acidity (pH) 
for which a continued decline in pH is observable, i.e. ocean acidification 
is continuing. 

The indicator looks at the proportion of commercially exploited fish stocks 
within  biologically  sustainable levels (not  overexploited), for which  rates 
are declining globally. Within the EU, the indicator shows a mixed picture, 
with some regions showing a positive trend and others a rather negative 
one. 

The target of  designating at least  10% of marine sites as protected has 
been  achieved.  Challenges  nevertheless  persist  in  terms  of  ecological 
coherence and effective management of the EU network of MPAs. 

The  indicator  shows  that  all  EU  Member  States  and  the  UK  had  a  ‘very 
high’ level of implementation of relevant international instruments. 

2030 

No data for this indicator is available. 

2030 

2030 

2030 

This  indicator  is  the  annual  national  research  budget  allocated  by 
governments  to  the  field  of  marine  technology,  relative  to  the  overall 
national  governmental  research  and  development  budget  in  general.  To 
date, data for this indicator is only available for the years 2009 to 2013. 
Over  this  period,  the  EU  marine  technology  research  budget  increased 
from  0.35%  (2009)  to  0.56%  (2013)  of  the  total  research  budget 
worldwide. 

This  indicator  is  progress  by  countries  in  the  degree  of  application  of  a 
legal/regulatory/policy/institutional 
recognises  and 
protects access rights for small-scale fisheries. 

framework 

that 

This  indicator  is  defined  as  the  number  of  countries  making  progress  in 
ratifying,  accepting  and  implementing  ocean-related  instruments  that 
implement  international  law  through  legal,  policy  and  institutional 
frameworks, as reflected in UNCLOS, for the conservation and sustainable 
use of the oceans and their resources. 
The EU and its Member States ratified the United Nations Convention on 
the Law of the Sea and its two implementing agreements. 

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4.  SDG14.1 – Marine pollution 

The SDG14.1 target is to be reached by 2025 and focuses on preventing and reducing 
pollution.  It  does  not  aim  to  achieve  specific  target  values  but  instead  promotes  a 
continuous pollution reduction and prevention effort. 

  State of play in achieving the target 

 What the indicators say 

The indicators proposed by the UN for measuring  SDG  14.1 are the Index  of Coastal 
Eutrophication and Floating Plastic Debris Density8. Data collection for both will begin in 
2021 and the  European Environmental Agency  (EEA) for the time being uses bathing 
water quality9 as a proxy. The figure below shows the trend for this indicator between 
2011 and 2018 at EU level. 

Figure 4.1. Proportion of coastal bathing sites with ‘Excellent’, ‘Good/sufficient’ and ‘Poor’ 
water quality for the EU Member States over the 2011 to 2018 period10 

TThe indicators proposed by the UN for measuring SDG 14.1 are the Index of Coastal 
Eutrophication and Floating Plastic Debris Density. Data collection for both will begin in 
2021 and the  European Environmental Agency  (EEA) for the time being uses bathing 
water quality as a proxy. The figure below shows the trend for this indicator between 
2011 and 2018 at EU level. 

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Figure  4.1),  between  2011  and  2018,  the  proportion  of  coastal  bathing  sites  with 
excellent  water  quality  has  increased  in  some  Member  States  (e.g.  Belgium  or 
Denmark), while it has decreased in others (e.g. Ireland or Poland). 

Figure  4.2  Proportion  of  coastal  bathing  sites  with  ‘Excellent’  water  quality  by  locality  in 
2011 and 2018 (source: Eurostat, 2020) 

 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

The EU has one of the most advanced environmental policy frameworks in the world in 
place to minimise contaminants11, pollution-causing eutrophication, and to avoid marine 
litter12. 

Of  all  SDG14  targets,  it  draws  on  one  of  the  most  complex  policy  frameworks,  since 
‘pollution of all kinds’ entails a wide range of chemical and physical sources and factors. 
A total of 59 EU policy tools or groups of policy tools have been identified that directly 
influence the achievement of this target. 

Below is an overview of the most significant policies and how they have developed over 
the last years. The policy framework will also be strengthened in the near future through 
the  European  Green  Deal  and  the  zero  pollution  action  plan13  to  address  the 
cumulative impacts of pollution in air, water and soil. 

Contaminants and eutrophication 

In  addition  to  addressing  cumulative  pressures  and  impacts,  the  Marine  Strategy 
Framework Directive14 (MSFD) has specific components that focus on contaminants: 
its descriptor 8 aims to keep concentrations of contaminants at levels that do not give 
rise to pollution effects; descriptor 9 focuses on making sure that contaminants in fish 
and  other  seafood  for  human  consumption  do  not  exceed  levels  established  by  EU 

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legislation  or  other  relevant  standards.  In  addition,  descriptor  5  looks  specifically  at 
minimising eutrophication. 

The central objective of the Water Framework Directive (WFD)15 is to achieve ‘good 
ecological status’ in all water bodies. This includes achieving ‘good chemical status’ in 
coastal waters by 2015. In general, the WFD is considered to be an efficient instrument 
to address pressures related to inputs of nutrients and chemicals in EU water bodies. 
The WFD covers surface water pollutants in two ways – by identifying and regulating 
those  of  greatest  concern  across  the  EU  (the  priority  substances)  and  by  requiring 
Member States to identify substances of concern at national level or for specific river 
basins. To support the achievement of ‘good chemical status’, the 2008 Directive on 
Environmental  Quality  Standards  (EQSD)16  sets  out  environmental  quality 
standards for priority substances and other pollutants. 

Another  specific  directive  supporting  implementation  of  the  WFD  is  the  Urban 
Wastewater Treatment Directive17, which has been successful in reducing the loads 
of the targeted pollutants from urban point sources, as found in a recent evaluation of 
the  directive.18  This  has  clearly  improved  the  quality  of  EU  water  bodies  (freshwater 
bodies  and  subsequently  marine  waters).  The  directive  is  also  the  main  factor  in 
ensuring that the EU’s bathing water sites are safe. In addition, the required treatment 
also  reduces  several  non-targeted  chemicals,  thus  also  reducing  the  influx  of 
contaminants into the environment. 

The  Nitrates  Directive19  has  the  objective  of  preventing  nitrates  applied  for 
agricultural purposes from causing harm to (drinking) waters and of inhibiting damage 
from  eutrophication.  It  regulates  Member  States’ reporting  on  nitrates,  outlines good 
agricultural practices, defines nitrate vulnerable zones, and provides standards for water 
monitoring  and  for  the  establishment  of  action  programmes.  The  Common 
Agricultural  Policy  (CAP)20  has  an  important  role  to  play  in  regulating  inputs  of 
nutrients and chemicals in the inland waters. 

Industrial production processes account for a considerable share of overall pollution in 
Europe  due  to  their  emissions  of  air  pollutants,  discharges  of  wastewater  and  the 
generation of waste. The Industrial Emissions Directive21, adopted in 2010, is the 
main  EU  instrument  regulating  pollutant  emissions  from  industrial  installations  (this 
includes  contaminants  and  substances  causing  eutrophication).  The  directive  aims  to 
achieve a high level of protection of human health and the environment as a whole by 
reducing  harmful  industrial  emissions  across  the  EU,  in  particular  through  better 
application of Best Available Techniques. 

The 7th Environment Action Programme (EAP)22 guided EU environmental policy 
until 2020, though it has operated with a long-term vision for the EU for 2050. As part 
of achieving EU policy goals and visions, it has also set a few more specific targets for 
chemicals, e.g. the preparation of a strategy for a non-toxic environment. 

The Regulation on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction 
of Chemicals (REACH)23 is the cornerstone of the EU’s regulation of chemicals. It aims 
to improve the protection of both human health and the environment from the adverse 
effects  of  contaminants.  It  encompasses  all  industries  and  the  entire  supply  chain, 
making  use  of  the  ‘producer  pays’  principle.  REACH  has  contributed  to  significant 

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progress  in  closing  data  gaps  on  the  potential  hazardous  properties  of  over  100,000 
substances in the EU. 

In 2019, the Commission adopted a strategic approach to pharmaceuticals in the 
environment24  that  is  expected to address the pollution of water by pharmaceutical 
substances. 

Marine litter 

Like other pollutants, plastic litter can originate from land-based and sea-based sources. 
The EU is addressing the problem of marine litter through the MSFD25 as overarching 
instrument, with descriptor 10 (‘Marine litter does not cause harm’) looking specifically 
at marine litter. 

For land-based sources, the EU’s waste management legislation has a major influence 
on the reduction of plastic pollution. The EU’s Waste Management Legislation26 was 
established over 40 years ago and has since led to a considerable number of regulations 
and directives. 

More recently, the policy approach has shifted towards a circular economy. In a circular 
economy, the value of products and materials is maintained for as long as possible. This 
can bring major economic benefits, contributing to innovation, growth and job creation. 

To  this  end,  in  2015,  the  European  Commission  presented  the  Circular  Economy 
Action Plan27, which aimed to stimulate the transition towards a circular economy. It 
included a comprehensive work programme with a detailed time schedule for over 50 
actions. All actions had been completed by 2019. Part of the action plan was the revision 
of the legislative framework, which included ambitious aspects such as an EU target to 
recycle 65% of municipal waste by 2035; a target to recycle 70% of packaging waste 
by 2030; and a target to reduce landfill to a maximum of 10% of municipal waste by 
2035. 

The first ever European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy28 adopted in 
January  2018  transforms  the  way plastic  products  are designed,  used, produced and 
recycled  in  the  EU.  The  strategy  is  part  of  Europe’s  transition  towards  a  circular 
economy. 

For  sea-based  sources,  the  revised  Directive  on  port  reception  facilities29  goes  a 
long  way  towards  ensuring  that  ship-generated  waste  is  delivered  to  suitable  port 
reception  facilities,  instead  of  being  discharged  at  sea.  The  Directive  regulates 
discharges of waste from all ships at sea, including from fishing vessels and recreational 
craft. The Directive creates the financial incentive for ships to deliver all their waste to 
shore by providing for a fee to be paid, irrespective of the volumes of waste delivered. 
Fishers have, in addition, the obligation under the Control Regulation to retrieve or 
report lost gear30. 

A key additional policy was adopted by the Council and European Parliament in 2019: 
The Directive on single-use plastics31. It addresses 70% of marine litter items by 
targeting the top 10 single-use plastic products most often found on Europe's beaches 
and in seas, as well as fishing gear containing plastics. 

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The EU is also currently seeking a ban on the addition of microplastics to certain products 
sold  in  Europe  as  well  as  putting  measures  in  place  that  reduce  other  sources  of 
microplastics, e.g. from spills of pre-production plastic pellets. 

What other observations can be made? 

Despite  the  positive  picture  of  the  Eurostat  indicators  and  the  elaborate  policy 
framework, achieving SDG14.1 by 2025 still requires considerable effort. 

In terms of contaminants, the same report goes on to say that ‘hazardous substances 
above  agreed  threshold  levels  are  found  across  all  of  Europe’s  seas  […]’,  but  that 
‘concentrations of specific substances and/or groups of substances have declined’. The 
2018 assessment showed that ecosystems are disturbed by contaminants in almost all 
parts of European seas. In fact, 95% of the Baltic, 91% of the Black Sea, 87% of the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  75%  of  the  north-east  Atlantic  have  been  classified  as  being 
‘problem areas32’. In addition, based on the 2018 assessment of the WFD33 river basin 
management plans, only 38% of EU water bodies have good chemical status34. 

The recent MSFD implementation report35 also reports that, regarding seafood, certain 
fish  and  fishery  products  from  the  Baltic  Sea  region  regularly  exceed  the  maximum 
limits of several contaminants, which has led to the prohibition of sale of salmon in the 
area. 

In  terms  of  eutrophication,  a  recent  pan-European  assessment36  found  that,  while 
eutrophication caused by inputs of  

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nutrients remains a large-scale problem, positive effects from the significant efforts put 
into nutrient management strategies can be seen in all EU regional seas. However, the 
report also found that policy targets for reducing nutrient inputs remain unlikely to be 
met within the agreed timeframe for all of Europe's seas. The assessment found that 
there are large regional differences; while 7% of the north-east Atlantic and 12% of the 
Mediterranean Sea are  estimated to be a ‘problem area’37 in terms of  eutrophication, 
this number climbs to 53% in the Black Sea and 99% in the Baltic. 

Finally, marine litter is today still a key pressure for marine waters, of which plastic 
items,  including  microplastics,  are  the  most  abundant  and  damaging  components 
because of their persistence, accumulation and toxicity38. That being said, the full scale 
of the impact is hard to gauge since only limited data is available39. 

  Remaining challenges 

The  SDG14.1  target  covers  a  wide  range  of  topics.  While  it  specifically  highlights 
eutrophication  and  marine  litter,  it  also  aims  to  reduce  ‘pollution  of  all  kinds’,  which 
entails a wide range of chemical and physical sources and factors – both land-based and 
sea-based. 

General 

Once  in  the  environment,  pollutants  (including  contaminants,  litter  and  substances 
leading to eutrophication) will in most cases accumulate, react, or trigger impacts, and 
it takes time for them to disappear. This implies that long timeframes might be needed 
to see the effects of policies put in place to achieve SDG14.1. 

A large part of the relevant EU policy tools for fighting pollution were in place well before 
2015,  and  the  targets  are  to  a  large  extent  ‘being  delivered  through  a  series  of  EU 
policies and legislation pre-dating the adoption of SDG 14’40. Consequently, while time 
still  might  be  a  factor  in  seeing  the  full  success  of  environmental  policies  (which,  as 
shown earlier, clearly address sources of pollution), the presence of pollutants across 
all European seas also suggests that pollutants continue to be deposited. With this in 
mind, the EU also updated and improved the policy framework several times after 2015, 
with  new  measures  that  tackle  current  and  upcoming  challenges.  These  measures 
include the European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy (2018) and the Single-
use Plastics Directive (2019), which address plastics leakage into the environment, and 
the Port Reception Facilities Directive (2018), which regulates discharges of waste from 
all ships at sea. The effects of these newly adopted policies on SDG14.1 are likely to be 
seen in the future. 

As shown, the policy framework is highly complex and includes a mix of sea-based and 
land-based  policies,  making  coherent  policy  application  across  Member  States  and 
institutions  a  challenge.  This  criticality  is  also  reflected  in  the  results  of  the  self-
assessment  by  Member  States  (Appendix  5  in  the  Supporting  Materials  document), 
which indicate that SDG14.1 is the target towards which least progress has been made, 
despite the fact that most of the policies identified in the course of the policy mapping 
(see  the  high-level assessment in  Appendix  3  in  the  Supporting  Materials document) 
address this target directly. 

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Contamination 

As stated, it is very likely that at least part of the reason why some known hazardous 
substances have yet to reach the agreed thresholds or concentration levels is explained 
by the ‘persistent properties of some of these substances and also because emissions 
and discharges still occur in some instances’41, i.e. contaminants in the environment are 
a mix of old deposits and new entries. 

For  old  deposits,  the  accumulated  hazardous  substances  and  heavy  metals  are 
impacting  marine  ecosystems  and  will  continue  to  do  so  in  the  future42,  since  the 
removal  and  remediation  of  contaminated  sediments  on  a  large  scale  is  regarded  as 
technically infeasible43. 

For new entries into the seas, there is an array of pathways that the contaminants can 
take. This includes sea-based point sources (e.g. aquaculture), inputs from land-based 
sources (e.g. wastewater treatment plants and run-off from land areas), atmospheric 
deposits from sea-based sources (e.g. combustion of fuels from ships) and land-based 
sources  (e.g.  cars  with  combustion  engines).  Blocking  these  pathways  is  a  major 
undertaking already reflected in the complex policy framework. 

One important issue highlighted by the EEA44 is the stunningly high number of synthetic 
chemical  substances.  There  are  currently  over  150,000  of  those  substances  in 
commercial  use.  It  is  stated  that  the  ‘extremely  fast  discovery  of  new  substances, 
followed  by  an  ever-increasing  production  and  consumption  of  chemicals  […]  have 
reached such a scale that scientists have become concerned about whether we are at 
risk of breaching a planetary boundary for “novel entities”’. 

Of  those  over  150,000  substances,  it  is  estimated  that  less  than  1,000  are  regularly 
monitored.  While  REACH45  has  contributed  significantly  to  closing  data  gaps  on  the 
potential hazardous properties of over 100,000 substances on the market, unfortunately 
there  are  no  environmental  monitoring  requirements  under  REACH46,  meaning  that 
under the regulation no information is provided on contaminants in the environment. 

This is in line with the findings in the last MSFD implementation report47, which points 
out  that  across  all  EU  waters  little  information  is  available  for  non-regulated 
contaminants or substances with the potential for accumulating in fish and seafood used 
for human consumption. 

Stakeholders have pointed out that the WFD might not be flexible  enough because it 
lacks an easy process (including the consent of the qualified majority of Member States) 
for including new contaminants on its list of main pollutants of water bodies. This is in 
line with more general findings by the EEA which state that ‘the root of most problems 
suffered by European seas in regard to contaminants is the low rate and speed of policy 
implementation’48 and that ‘new substances are being developed and marketed faster 
than before. These may or may not pose a future threat’49. 

Eutrophication 

Despite  a strong  policy  framework  targeted at  limiting  eutrophication,  this remains  a 
widespread problem in some marine regions of the EU. 

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As stated by  the  EEA,  the challenge  is  ‘to  identify  relevant  measures,  because  many 
measures  have already been implemented, especially to  reduce emissions from point 
sources50, while the emissions from diffuse sources (e.g. agriculture and urban areas) 
are more challenging to tackle’51. As highlighted earlier, eutrophication problem areas 
were  assessed52  as  being  ‘found  near  densely  populated  areas  or  catchments 
downstream from agricultural activities’. Indeed, in Europe, agriculture continues to be 
an essential source of discharge into the environment53. 

Marine litter 

Although  known  for  a  long  time,  the  complex  problems  surrounding  plastics  in  the 
environment,  and  more  specifically  the  accumulation  in  the  seas  and  oceans,  have 
recently found fresh impetus in the international policy arena as their negative impacts 
have become increasingly visible to the wider public. 

Two key pieces of legislation have only very recently been revised (the Directive on port 
reception  facilities54)  or  newly  introduced  (the  Single-use  Plastics  Directive55),  and 
Member  States  are  required  to  transpose  them  into  national  law  by  2021.  The  new 
single-use  plastics  legislation  will  address  70%  of  marine  litter  items,  including  land-
based  and  sea-based  ones.  The  Directive  on  port  reception facilities56  will  specifically 
target sea-based litter. 

  Possible ways forward 

General options 

The policy framework for reducing marine pollution is complex, since it spans countless 
pollutants from different sources. At the same time, coherent policy implementation is 
crucial to ensuring there are no gaps. This includes land-based and sea-based policies 
that are often implemented by different authorities at Member State level, local level or 
at both levels. A good understanding among the stakeholders involved in these different 
levels of policy-making about the wider policy framework they operate in could lead to 
more  coherent  implementation  of  the  different  policies  (e.g.  through  better 
cooperation). To achieve this, guidance could be provided by the EU or other actors on 
how  to  achieve  better  cooperation  and  more  coherence  across  different  policy  fields. 
This could lead to more efficiency and effectiveness in policy implementation and could 
also benefit other issues outlined below (e.g. more coherent monitoring of pollution). 

As  highlighted  the  latest  MSFD  implementation  report57,  the  monitoring  of  pollution 
could be addressed through more effective data mining and joint monitoring networks 
(especially in the Mediterranean and Black Sea), as well as harmonised methodological 
approaches on a regional scale. 

The complexity of the policy framework could also challenge policy-making to effectively 
address cumulative effects. The zero pollution action plan could represent a major step 
forward in tackling this challenge by looking more systematically at all relevant policies 
and regulations and addressing interlinked challenges. 

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In general, it will be important to ensure that effective implementation of past and newly 
adopted measures for addressing the discharge of pollutants in the marine environment 
delivers on the targets set. 

First attempts at developing quantitative tools to measure the current cumulative effects 
of  different  pollutants  on  EU waters have  already  been made58.  They  should be  used 
more stringently when  further developing the policy framework  impacting the marine 
environment,  to  provide  quantitative  information  to  the  public  and  to  policy-makers. 
Such an assessment of cumulative effects in the forthcoming zero pollution action plan 
could  also  be  used  for  future  projections  (in  addition  to  the  assessment  of  current 
status), to provide a clearer picture of the expected pathway towards achieving SDG14.1 
while  also providing a valuable tool  for steering policy ambition, including targets set 
under different policy instruments. 

Options regarding contamination 

As shown, the sheer number of different chemical substances creates huge challenges 
for policy-making. As suggested by the EEA, ‘The simple solution for addressing these 
complex, intertwined scientific and policy challenges may be to focus on precautionary 
and preventive actions’59. The report goes on to say that a major step towards informing 
‘actions  regarding  contaminants  in  Europe's  seas  is  to  understand  the  extent  of  the 
challenge  we  face  across  our  marine  regions’.  This  ties  in  with  the  suggestion  above 
that  more  comprehensive  assessments  of  the  challenges  arising  from  different 
pollutants are needed, combining information from several sources and providing policy-
makers with comparable data throughout the EU. 

Options regarding eutrophication 

Regarding  the  potential  impact  of  agriculture  on  eutrophication,  an  evaluation  of  the 
impact  of  the  Common  Agricultural  Policy60  on  water61  was  recently  conducted. 
Among  other  things,  it  was  found  ‘that  the  Member  States’  implementation  choices 
determine the extent to which the CAP measures and instruments meet the EU objective 
of  sustainable  management  of  water’  and  that  ‘a  considerable  amount  of  the  CAP62 
budget  is granted to  holdings  independently  of their  agricultural pressures on water’. 
Both of these points, when addressed, provide impetus for reduced eutrophication. 

Options regarding marine litter 

With  an  ambitious  programme  of  actions  already  being  put  in  place  by  the  EU  (the 
European  Strategy  for  Plastics in a  Circular Economy), the focus should be placed on 
effective implementation and on developing further cooperation with third countries and 
other international organisations to tackle this global problem. 

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5.  SDG14.2 – Marine and coastal ecosystems 

Target 14.2 calls for sustainable management and protection, as well as the restoration 
of marine and coastal ecosystems by 2020, i.e. by this year. 

  State of play in achieving the target 

 What the indicators say 

The indicator used to  measure  SDG 14.2  (Index 14.2.1)  is the proportion of  national 
Exclusive Economic Zones managed using ecosystem-based approaches. However, data 
collection for this indicator has not started yet63 and no official data is available64. 

Box 4.1 Origin of the ‘ecosystem approach’ 

The ‘ecosystem approach’ is a term introduced during the Rio Summit in 1992 and 
indicates  an  integrated  approach  to  the  management  of  ecosystems  that  aims  to 
achieve sustainable development. 

However, within EU waters in general, the ecosystem-based approach is at the heart of 
marine  environmental  policy.  Under  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive65 
(MSFD),  it  became  a  legally  binding  and  operational  principle  for  managing  the  EU’s 
marine environment, complementary to other legislation. 

 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

The  ecosystem-based approach  is central  in  the  MSFD66.  In  a  nutshell,  the  Directive 
helps identify the main pressures and impacts acting on the marine environment, assess 
the ecosystem health, and act on drivers of change to conserve the marine environment 
and make sustainable use of the seas possible. Ultimately, it requires EU Member States 
to achieve Good Environmental Status in all the EU’s marine waters by 2020. 

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Box 4.2 Definition of Good Environmental Status 

Good Environmental Status is defined as ‘the environmental status of marine waters 
where  these  provide  ecologically  diverse  and  dynamic  oceans  and  seas  which  are 
clean,  healthy  and  productive  within  their  intrinsic  conditions,  and  the  use  of  the 
marine environment is at a level that is sustainable, thus safeguarding the potential 
for uses and activities by current and future generations’ (Article 3) 

Article  1  of  the  Directive67  requires  that  ‘Marine  strategies  shall apply an  ecosystem-
based  approach  to  the  management  of  human  activities,  ensuring  that  the  collective 
pressure of such activities is kept within levels compatible with the achievement of Good 
Environmental Status and that the capacity of marine ecosystems to respond to human-
induced  changes  is  not  compromised,  while  enabling  the  sustainable  use  of  marine 
goods and services by present and future generations’. 

Other important European legislation for the management and protection of marine and 
coastal  ecosystems are  the  Habitats68  and Birds69  Directives  which, together  with 
the MSFD, form the  environmental pillar  of the wider Integrated Maritime  Policy. The 
main  objective  of the  Habitats Directive is to maintain and restore  natural  habitats 
and species of wild fauna and flora of Community interest at a favourable conservation 
status.  The  Birds  Directive  has  similar  objectives  for  all  wild  birds.  As  the  main 
contribution to reaching these goals, the Directive requires the designation and effective 
management of Natura 2000 sites and, for some species, the implementation of a strict 
protection regime. 

Box 4.3 Definition of favourable conservation status 

Conservation  status is defined as ‘favourable’ when ‘population dynamics data 
on the species concerned indicate that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis 
as a viable component of its natural habitats, and the natural range of the species is 
neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced for the foreseeable future, and there 
is,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be,  a  sufficiently  large  habitat  to  maintain  its 
populations on a long-term basis’ (Article 1). 

The above directives have proactive and reactive elements, in that they not only address 
the  protection  and  management  of  specific  elements  of  biodiversity  but  also  the 
restoration  and  recovery  of  habitats  and  species  where  possible.  Most  of  the 
stakeholders  consulted  for  this  study  viewed  EU  policies  in  the  field  of  marine 
conservation as very strong and effective  in working towards the achievement  of the 
Sustainable Development Goals. 

A wide range of different economic sectors compete to use (and thus impact) marine 
waters,  including  fisheries  and  aquaculture, tourism,  maritime  transportation,  energy 
and  raw material  extraction, which can cause increasing pollution and degradation  of 
ecosystems.  For  this  reason,  maritime  spatial  planning  is  needed  to  organise 
activities at sea, making sure that marine resources are used in a sustainable way and 
that  wealth  is  produced  without  jeopardising  the  long-term  sustainability  of  marine 
ecosystems. Maritime spatial planning in the EU is regulated by the Maritime Spatial 
Planning Directive (MSP)70, which establishes that by 2021 all Member States need 

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to prepare  maritime  spatial  plans that  take  into  account  land-sea  interactions.  These 
plans need to be  revised at least every 10 years. Article 5 of the Directive71 requires 
that  maritime  spatial  plans  are  prepared  using  an  ecosystem-based  approach  to 
promote  the  coexistence  of  relevant  activities  and  uses,  and  to  support  sustainable 
development. It is expected that the EU Member States will be gradually advancing in 
their implementation of the Directive as we move towards 2021. Some Member States 
have already established their national plans. 

The MSP Directive72 is viewed by the consulted stakeholders as a clear tool that aims 
to support the objectives of the Common Fisheries Policy73 and MSFD74, and in this 
regard it is a notable improvement. 

Marine  spatial  planning  under  the  Directive  is  a  complex  undertaking.  The  MSP 
platform,  financed  by  the  European  Commission,  is  viewed  by  stakeholders  as  a 
successful tool for supporting processes with the creation of guidelines, the sharing of 
information  and  good  practices,  and  for  developing  meaningful  cross-border  spatial 
plans that indirectly benefit marine conservation. 

Furthermore,  the  implementation  of  an  ecosystem-based  approach  in  fisheries 
management is also enshrined in the EU Common Fisheries Policy75. The Common 
Fisheries Policy also provides various tools for the conservation and proper management 
of  fish  stocks  and  the  protection  of  ecosystems  that  support  the  implementation  of 
environmental obligations under the directives referred to above. 

More  recent  policy  initiatives  such  as  the  European  Green  Deal76  or  the  EU 
biodiversity strategy for 203077 will also play a role in the achievement of SDG14.2 
in the future. 

EU  Member  States’ action  is  also crucial  for  the  achievement  of  SDG14.2.  The policy 
mapping  undertaken  in  the  course  of  the  study  (see  the  high-level  assessment  in 
Appendix 3 in the Supporting Materials document), shows that this target is addressed 
by most of the identified policies immediately after SDG14.1. 

What other observations can be made? 

Policy objectives – Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)78 

The MSFD requires that Member States assess the status of the marine environment, 
set their objectives and targets, monitor and take measures to reduce pressures on the 
seas and ensure their protection and proper management to achieve or maintain Good 
Environmental Status by 2020. The use of the ecosystem-based approach is enshrined 
in this Directive. 

In  line  with  the  2020  deadline,  a  report  was  published  on  the  implementation  of  the 
MSFD79. The report issued in June 2020 revealed that, despite good progress under the 
Directive, it is ‘doubtful that both the measures taken and the knowledge available are 
sufficient’80.  The  report  also  mentions  that  loss  of  biodiversity  could  not  be  halted  in 
Europe’s  seas  in  recent  years,  and  that  the  main  pressures  include  non-indigenous 
species, overfishing, eutrophication, contaminants and litter. 

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Policy objectives – Habitats Directive81 

Despite  the  efforts  towards  sustainable  management,  protection  and  restoration, 
marine and coastal ecosystems are still under pressure today. 

According  to  the  latest  reporting  under  the  Habitats  Directive82,  only  20%  of  coastal 
habitats have achieved favourable conservation status at EU level83. 

Figure 4.3 Proportion of assessments in categories of conservation status and conservation 
status trends by habitat category 

*Light blue indicates a favourable conservation status, blue indicates a stable/unknown conservation status, dark blue 
indicates a decreasing conservation status 

The conservation status and trends in each marine region are shown in the figure below. 
As can be seen, only between 10% and 35% of the assessments of habitats protected 
under the Habitats Directive84 have  favourable conservation status in the five  marine 
regions85. 

Figure 4.4 Conservation status and trend in conservation status by marine region 

*Light blue indicates a favourable conservation status, blue indicates a stable/unknown conservation status, dark blue 
indicates a decreasing conservation status 

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Regarding the designation and management of Natura 2000 sites, the marine part of 

the  network  still  needs  improvement,  since  many  sites  still  lack  appropriate 

management measures, which is preventing the network from reaching its full potential. 

Policy objectives – MSP Directive86 

EU Member States have until March 2021 to adopt national maritime spatial planning. 
However, so far, only six Member States have adopted a national maritime spatial plan. 
Furthermore, the  implementation of  ecosystem-based approaches  in maritime  spatial 
plans is still lacking. 

  Remaining challenges 

The ecosystem-based approach underpins key EU legislation, and literature on this topic 
is  growing.  SWD(2020)62  outlines  its  relevance  in  relation  to  the  determination, 
assessment  and  achievement  of  Good  Environmental  Status  under  the  MSFD.  There 
seems, however, to be a limited understanding of how to apply the ecosystem-based 
approach in practice for some parts of the EU legislative framework (e.g. how it can be 
applied under the MSP Directive), according to some of the stakeholders interviewed. 
In  addition,  as  a  directive,  the  MSP87  does  not  specify  how  the  ecosystem-based 
approach is to be applied in maritime spatial planning, and it leaves the initiative to the 
Member States. 

Member States could therefore benefit from additional evidence-based information on 
how  maritime  spatial  planning  can  help  them  deliver  sustainable  growth  for  their 
maritime economies, and more concretely, how to apply the ecosystem-based approach 
in maritime spatial planning and other activities. The European Commission is currently 
carrying out a study on the ecosystem-based approach in maritime spatial planning. Its 
outcomes  will  support  the  Member  States  in  their  efforts  to  better  implement  the 
Directive. 

Environmental pressures 

Despites the policy efforts, there are still a wide range of pressures impacting marine 
and coastal ecosystems. 

Fishing  is  among  the  most  widespread  pressure  on  the  environment.  In  the 
Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas,  at  least  87%  of  the  commercially  exploited  fish  and 
shellfish species are overfished. In other sea basins, overfishing is a less pronounced 
pressure, while others such as pollution and eutrophication are pressing issues88. 

In  general,  despite  partial  improvements,  extraction  and  cultivation  (aquaculture)  of 
biological living resources is still the second most frequently reported pressure89 under 
the Habitats Directive90 in marine regions91. In addition, according to MSFD92 reporting, 
fisheries-related impacts have been listed as key pressures in all sea basins93. 

Seabed  habitats  are  under  significant  pressure  across  European  seas  from  the 
cumulative impacts of bottom trawling, coastal developments and other activities such 

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as solid  waste disposal. In particular, pressure from the energy sector  is expected to 
increase  as  the  growth  in  extraction  of  offshore  energy  fossil  fuels  is  continuing  and 
emerging,  notably  in  Africa.  Disturbance  to  the  seabed  is  also  expected  from  the 
development  of  offshore  energy  technologies  in  coastal  regions.  Recent  research 
indicates that about 43% of Europe’s shelf/slope area and 79% of the coastal seabed is 
considered to be physically disturbed, mainly caused by bottom trawling94. 

As described in the previous chapter, contaminants and eutrophication are still an issue. 
This is also clear from the reporting under the Habitats Directive95, in which almost half 
of all reported habitats assessments list pollution as a pressure. However, according to 
the assessments a positive trend is expected in the future96. 

Marine litter is still a pressure on marine ecosystems and this is expected to continue in 
future97. 

Finally,  climate  change  has  begun  impacting  marine  ecosystems  through  changing 
weather  patterns  warming  the  seas,  and  increasingly  acid  waters.  Those  drivers  of 
marine ecosystem degradation appear not to be improving while related pressures are 
worsening.  Reporting  under  the  Habitats  Directive98  shows  that  while  only  30%  of 
habitats assessments reported climate change as a current pressure, this number raises 
to  almost  50%  for  expected  future  impacts.  For  impacts  such  as  ocean  warming  or 
ocean acidification, there is currently no coherent policy framework in place for reporting 
or addressing those effects. 

Pressures from human activities – the challenges of the blue economy 

Human  use  of  marine  resources  (the  blue  economy)  causes  several  pressures  on 
ecosystems as the use of Europe’s seas continues to increase, with some established 
sectors declining or stagnating while new sectors are emerging. For example, emerging 
activities such as marine renewable energies, desalinisation, and blue biotechnology are 
adding  pressures  to  the  seas  alongside  traditional  activities  like  shipping,  coastal 
tourism, fishing and aquaculture. As stated by the EEA ‘This puts marine ecosystems at 
risk and could undermine the sea’s capacity to supply ecosystem services’99; this was 
also a concern which often voiced by stakeholders during the consultations. 

For  example,  the  interests  of  the  tourism  industry  can  run  counter  to  marine 
conservation  objectives.  There  are  concerns  among  stakeholders  that  some  Member 
States disregard relevant regulations to favour this economic activity. 

In November 2020, the Commission published its offshore renewable energy strategy. 
The  strategy  sets  out  actions  to  ensure  that  offshore  renewable  energy  sources  can 
develop and contribute in a significant way to achieving the EU’s ambitious climate and 
energy targets. As part of this strategy, the Commission will foster regional cooperation 
for the long-term planning and deployment of offshore renewable energy, while ensuring 
its coexistence with other activities at sea (fisheries, shipping, tourism, defence etc.), 
as well as environmental, social and economic sustainability. 

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Programmes of measures under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive100 

By March 2016, Member States were required to set up and implement programmes of 
measures  to  achieve  Good  Environmental  Status  in  their  marine  waters,  addressing 
each  of  the  Directive’s  descriptors,  which  together  should  ensure  that  Good 
Environmental Status is achieved or maintained by 2020101. 

The assessment of those programmes of measures has shown that, while considerable 
efforts have been made by Member States, not all pressures were properly addressed 
by the measures. 

In addition, as noted in the report assessing Member States’ programmes of measures 
under the MSFD102, ‘Member States often present existing initiatives or ongoing policy 
implementation  as  measures.  This,  for  example,  includes  actions  taken  under  EU 
environmental legislation or other laws […]. Existing international commitments, such 
as  those  under  the  International  Maritime  Organisation,  have  also  been  included  in 
Member States’ programmes. Additionally, Member States frequently refer to initiatives 
taken under the Regional Sea Conventions’. 

In fact, only 25% of measures have been defined as ‘new’ measures, meaning that they 
were put into place specifically for the purposes of the Directive. This is not inherently 
negative, and the report also points out that a positive effect of the Directive was that 
‘Member States have progressively moved from a piecemeal approach to protecting the 
marine environment to a more strategic approach, by bringing together various work-
strands’. However, this also shows that Member States did not demonstrate very high 
ambitions  in  going  beyond  existing policy  obligations  when developing  their  ambition 
under  the  Directive.  This  was  also  a  point  raised  by  stakeholders  during  the 
consultations for this project. They have sometimes criticised the limited ambitions of 
the Member States in their programmes of MSFD measures. 

  Possible ways forward 

Support implementation of the ecosystem-based approach 

As stated,  the ecosystem-based approach  is at  the  heart  of  EU  marine  and  maritime 
policy. However, there seems to be a lack of clarity in Member States on how the concept 
translates  into  policy  implementation  across  different  policies  (e.g.  marine  spatial 
planning)  in  a  coherent  manner.  Guidance  for  the  ecosystem-based  approach  was 
developed in the context of the MSFD, but there is a need to provide additional guidance 
to better implement the other policies that are based on the ecosystem approach. The 
work  being  done  in  the  marine  spatial  planning  context  is  to  be  welcomed  for  the 
implementation of an ecosystem-based approach. 

This could include, for example, more guidance by the European Commission for policies 
for which no concrete guidance yet exists for the implementation of an ecosystem-based 
approach. 

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Address environmental pressures 

There  is  a  need  for  better  integration  of  climate  change  concerns  such  as  ocean 
acidification and ocean warming into marine policy, e.g. through better monitoring and 
addressing  of  those  impacts.  This  is  especially  relevant  since  there  is  evidence  that 
marine  ecosystems  affected  by  climate  change  may  also  become  more  vulnerable  to 
other anthropogenic pressures103. 

Efforts should continue to ensure that environmental impacts from economic activities 
are properly monitored and have no adverse effects on marine ecosystems. This is the 
case for traditional activities, but especially also for emerging activities. 

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6.  SDG14.3 – Ocean acidification 

SDG  14.3  focuses  on  minimising  and  addressing  the  impacts  of  ocean  acidification. 
104 by the ocean, which 
Ocean acidification is caused by the uptake of atmospheric CO2
changes  the  chemical  composition  of  the  seawater.  Climate  policies  are  therefore  a 
crucial tool for reducing ocean acidification. 

In addition to being a separate target in the 2030 Agenda (i.e. 14.3), ocean acidification 
is  also  recognised  in  the  ‘Aichi  Biodiversity  Targets’105  in  Target  10:  ‘By  2015,  the 
multiple  anthropogenic  pressures  on  coral  reefs,  and  other  vulnerable  ecosystems 
impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimised, so as to maintain their 
integrity and functioning.’. 

  State of play in achieving the target 

 What the indicators say 

The indicator for measuring this target is the average marine acidity (pH) measured at 
an agreed set of representative sampling stations106. 

This data on yearly average can be viewed below. As can be seen, a continued trend of 
acidification is observable. In total, long-term observations of ocean acidification over 
the past 30 years have shown an average increase in acidity of 26% since pre-industrial 
times. 

Figure 6.1 Average marine acidity (pH) over the 2011-2016 period 

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In addition to minimising the impacts of ocean acidification, SDG14.3 also points to the 
need  for  addressing  them.  The  current  indicator  does  not  provide  insights  into  local 
effects and potential adaptation measures. 

 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

Ocean  acidification  results  from  higher  CO2  concentration  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
minimising  ocean  acidification  requires  successful  global  climate  policies.  Ocean 
acidification is also often called ‘the other CO2 problem’. Global climate policies to reduce 
atmospheric CO2 concentrations are key to halting ocean acidification. 

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change107 (the UNFCCC) 
– agreed in 1992 following the first global Earth Summit of the same year – put in place 
the first global agreement to tackle global warming, now widely referred to as climate 
change. The agreement of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol108 to the UNFCCC provided a basis 
for a more ambitious response to climate change by placing quantified greenhouse gas 
(GHG) emissions limitation and reduction targets on developed country parties. 

The  EU  ratified  the  UNFCCC109  in  1992  and  the  Kyoto  Protocol110  in  1998.  Under  the 
Kyoto Protocol111 the EU adopted the target to reduce emissions by 20% by 2020. 

In 2008, the climate and energy package112 established binding legislation to ensure 
the EU meets a number of targets by 2020, including to cut in GHG emissions by 20% 
compared to 1990 levels. 

International  climate  discussions  culminated  in the  Paris  Agreement113  at  the  2015 
Paris  Climate  Change  Conference.  The  Paris  Agreement114  introduces  a  new  global 
regime for climate change where all countries are expected to contribute towards the 
Agreement’s  new,  more  ambitious  goals  to  prevent  dangerous  anthropogenic 
interference  with  the  Earth’s  climate  system.  Consequently,  all  signatory  parties  are 
expected to align their long-term climate change mitigation efforts with keeping global 
temperature  increases  within  2°C  of  pre-industrialisation levels,  make  efforts to  limit 
temperature increase to 1.5°C, and to achieve a balance between emissions of GHGs 
from sources and the removal of GHGs from the atmosphere by sinks by the second half 
of this century. This latter goal is widely referred to as ‘net-zero emissions’ or ‘carbon 
neutrality’. 

In  2015,  the  EU  ratified  the  Paris  Agreement115  and  communicated  a  nationally 
determined  contribution  under  the  Paris  Agreement116  of  a  domestic  GHG  emission 
reductions of at least 40% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels. 

In 2018, the EU adopted legislation on the Climate and Energy Framework117 for the 
2021-2030  period,  implementing  the  mitigation  target  of  40%  and  increasing  the 
targets for the share of renewable energy and energy efficiency. 

The EU policy framework consists of a broad set of specific policies aimed at reducing 
GHGs in the atmosphere from different sources. The EU is the region of the world where 
the  most  ambitious  climate  policies  have  been  implemented,  and  practical  policy 

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experimentation  in  the  field  of  the  environment  and  climate  change  has  been  taking 
place at a rapid pace in recent decades118 119. 

Through  this  extensive  policy  framework,  by  2018  the  EU’s  GHG  emissions  had 
decreased by 23% compared to 1990 levels. The EU therefore is on track to achieve its 
target under the UNFCCC120 of reducing GHG emissions by 20% by 2020121. 

Furthermore, the policy framework put in place by the EU for achieving the 2030 target 
under the Paris Agreement122 is also expected to deliver on the EU commitment. Current 
projections  indicate  that,  if  current  policies  are  fully  implemented,  GHG  emission 
reductions by 2030 would be around 45% compared to 1990 levels when excluding land 
use  emissions  and  absorptions,  and  around  47%  when  including  land  use.  In 
December 2020, the European Council endorsed a binding EU target of a net domestic 
reduction of at least 55% in GHG emissions by 2030 compared to 1990123. 

What other observations can be made? 

It  is  estimated  that  the  oceans  have  absorbed  about  30%  of  emitted  anthropogenic 
124.  While  ambitious,  the  EU  policy  framework  for  climate  change  mitigation  until 
CO2
2020  only  aimed  at  reducing  emissions  and  not  at  achieving  carbon  neutrality.  This 
means  that  emissions,  while  decreasing,  are  still  high,  and  that  the  oceans  are  still 
absorbing  parts  of  this  surplus.  Although the  EU  is at  the  forefront in  addressing  the 
causes and challenges of climate change and strengthening a concerted global response, 
it  is  still  the  third  biggest  emitter  of  GHGs  worldwide,  behind  China  and  the  United 
States125. 

As shown earlier,  ocean  acidification  continues  to  worsen  globally  as  average marine 
acidity has been constantly increasing. It is estimated that the current rate of change 
in acidity is about 100 times faster than any change in acidity experienced during the 
past 55 million years126. 

Looking  into  the  future,  models  also  consistently  project  further  ocean  acidification 
worldwide,  while  marine  surface  pH  is  projected  to  decrease  to  values  between  8.05 
and 7.75 by the end of the 21st century, depending on future CO2 emission levels127. 

Ocean  acidification  has  wide-ranging  impacts  on  marine  ecosystems.  A  reduction  in 
carbonate availability has major impacts on the organisms relying on it, such as reef-
building corals, shellfish and plankton. 

Changes  in pH affect biological processes, e.g. enzyme activities and photosynthesis, 
which in turn affects primary production. These changes may be exacerbated by rising 
seawater temperatures. Changes in marine primary production will have an impact on 
the global carbon cycle and the absorption of atmospheric CO2 in the ocean, as well as 
on the overall capacity of the ocean to mitigate climate change128. 

According to the EU Member State representatives consulted in the course of the study 
(see Appendix 5 in the Supporting Materials document), SDG14.3 is one of the targets 
perceived as having larger gaps in achievement. 

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  Remaining challenges 

Missing knowledge 

Target 14.3 aims to tackle ocean acidification, among other means, ‘through enhanced 
scientific  cooperation  at  all  levels’.  This  is  important  to  highlight  because  coherent 
scientific knowledge in this field is still lacking. 

A  recent  report  under  the  Nairobi  work  programme129  summarises  the  gaps  as 
follows130:  ‘The  impact  of  pH  changes  on  the  organismal  and  ecosystem  level  is  not 
monitored  sufficiently  or  consistently  across  geographies,  while  it  is  important  to 
develop  a  case  and  effect  understanding  through  identifying  the  physiological  and 
biochemical  mechanisms  and  understand  the  higher  level  ecosystem  responses  to 
ongoing  acidification  as  well  as  improving  projections  of  future  changes  and  risks 
including  irreversible  shifts  in  ecosystem  structure  and  functioning.  Ocean  pH 
monitoring as well as the monitoring of impacts is needed as ocean acidification affects 
the overall ecological state of ocean regions, with the potential to affect all trophic levels. 
This  also  concerns  the  identification  of  adaptation  limits  and  the  capacities  of 
ecosystems to adapt.’ 

It can be hoped that the forthcoming effort by the UN as part of its Decade of Ocean 
Science  for  Sustainable  Development  (2021–2030)  will  be  instrumental  in  further 
prioritising this pressing problem at EU level131. 

Missing international framework addressing ocean acidification 

Despite  the  urgency  of  the  issue  and  the  role  of  the  ocean  in  climate  regulation  and 
human  livelihood,  ocean  acidification  has  generally  been  ‘side-lined’132  in  the 
development of climate change and related environmental policies at national, regional 
and international level. However, some work is done, for example, by the Regional Sea 
Conventions. This includes the OSPAR expert group on acidification. 

The UNFCCC133 is considered by many as being capable of addressing ocean acidification 
as it regulates carbon dioxide emissions – the root cause of the problem134. 

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)135 also only touches upon the issue 
indirectly by addressing marine pollution through the atmosphere (Article 212), while 
not specifically mentioning CO2 or acidification. The Convention on Biological Diversity136 
mentions acidification in one of its targets and is therefore relevant because it addresses 
the impact of ocean acidification on marine species137. 

This issue is also addressed in the IPCC ‘Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere 
in a Changing Climate’138 which argues, under a heading entitled ‘Policy Responses to 
Ocean Acidification: Is there an International Governance Gap?’, as follows: 

‘Ocean  acidification  is  not  specifically  mentioned  in  the  Paris  Agreement  on  climate 
change  […]  and  has  only  been  given  limited  attention  to  date  in  other  UNFCCC 
discussions.  Nevertheless,  ocean  acidification  is  widely  considered  to  be  part  of  the 
climate  system  […].  Although  many  bodies  have  interests  in  ocean  acidification,  no 

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unifying treaty or single instrument has been developed […] and there has been only 
limited governance action that is specific to the problem […]. One possible response to 
the  fragmented  responsibilities  for  ocean  acidification  governance  would  be  the 
development  of  a  new  UN  mechanism  specifically  to  address  ocean  acidification  […]. 
This option would take time and political will and has not been widely supported […]. 
One  pragmatic  approach  could  be  enhancing  the  involvement  of  UNFCCC  with 
acidification  governance  […]  together  with  increased  use  of  multilateral  environment 
agreements’. 

Patchy EU framework for understanding and addressing the impacts of ocean 

acidification 

As pointed out above, the policy framework for mitigating GHG emissions in the EU is 
very strong. However, there seems to be limited focus of policy tools on understanding 
and addressing the impacts of ocean acidification within the EU. This is accompanied by 
a  lack  of  coordination  between  European  and  national  policies  addressing  ocean 
acidification139. 

Acidification  is  not  recognised  in  relevant  key  EU  environmental  policy  tools.  For 
example,  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  ‘EU  BIODIVERSITY  STRATEGY  to  2020140’  or  ‘EU 
biodiversity strategy for 2030’141142. In the 7th EAP143, acidification is mentioned once, 
but only as a pressure for achieving Good Environmental Status under the MSFD. The 
latest implementation report of the MSFD144 points out that the link between the MSFD 
and climate change, both at monitoring and policy development levels, is not obvious, 
and that key topics such as the monitoring of ocean acidification in European seas and 
the impacts of marine heatwaves on marine biodiversity are not yet well established. A 
recent article assessing the current status of ocean acidification governance within the 
EU  also  found  that  there  is  no  strong  policy  framework  directly  addressing  ocean 
acidification at either EU at Member State level145. 

Moreover,  emissions  from  ships  are  not  sufficiently  addressed,  and  this  remains  a 
challenging  issue.  European  shipping  is  a  large  source  of  GHG  emissions  and  air 
pollution.  Maritime  transport  emits  around  940  million  tonnes  of  CO2  annually  and  is 
responsible for about 2.5% of global GHG emissions. By signing the Paris Agreement, 
the EU committed to ‘economy-wide’ emissions reduction efforts. However, shipping is 
currently the  only sector  not  yet contributing to the EU’s emissions  reduction targets 
and efforts. As such, international shipping stands in the way of the EU fulfilling its Paris 
commitment  and  increases  pressures  on  ocean  ecosystems  by  contributing  to  ocean 
acidification. 

  Possible ways forward 

Improve knowledge base 

Monitoring and scientific insights on the impacts and dynamics of ocean acidification are 
crucial in order to address them. 

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Initiatives  to  measure  ocean  pH  in  a  greater  number  of  locations  are  underway.  For 
instance,  ‘the  Global  Ocean  Acidification  Observing  Network’  is  a  collaborative 
international  network  to  detect  and  understand  the  drivers  of  ocean  acidification  in 
estuarine, coastal and open ocean environments. This includes data collection through 
a variety of sources across the globe – such as data collection on biological responses 
to ocean acidification.  The  EU should continue ensuring support and partnership with 
such global initiatives. 

Within the EU, Copernicus provides data on all EU sea basins and to Eurostat. Coastal 
resolution  still  needs  to  be  improved,  but  work  is  being  done.  A  reference 
biogeochemical  buoy  exists  in  Europe  and  two  new  devices  will  be  developed  by 
Copernicus within the next four years. In addition, EMODNET, a web portal for marine 
data 
for 
initiated  by  the  European  Commission,  provides  datasets  relevant 
acidification146.  The EU is therefore making progress in terms of monitoring. 

Support international governance 

Ocean acidification is a global and increasing problem and there is an urgent need to 
act at international level to provide a governance framework. However, there seems to 
be uncertainty on the best way to do this. The EU could play a driving role in this process 
by calling for more coordinated international action. 

One  step  in  this  direction  could  also  be  for  the  EU  to  become  a  member  of  the 
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) which is a strong advocate for more awareness 
and action on ocean acidification. 

The  Regional  Seas  Conventions  already  carry  out activities  related  to  climate  change 
and  some  participate  in  the  preparation  of  regional  reports  (Med  ECC  –  Barcelona 
Convention). 

EU support to these types of initiatives should be continued, with a view to coordinating 
action to counteract ocean acidification. 

Improve the EU policy framework 

Ocean  acidification  entails  high  risks  for  marine  ecosystems.  These  risks  should  be 
sufficiently highlighted and acknowledged at EU policy level to raise awareness of this 
pressing issue. 

The EU could also improve the policy framework by putting in place specific actions or 
tools  (including  additional  research,  streamlining  and  proactive  planning)  to  enhance 
and better coordinate the abatement of ocean acidification. 

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7.  SDG14.4 – Fisheries 

SDG 14.4 focuses on restoring fish stocks through a range of different measures and 
management tools. 

  State of play in achieving the target 

 What the indicators say 

The  official  global  indicator  for  measuring  SDG  14.4  relates  to  the  proportion  of  fish 
stocks within biologically sustainable levels147. 

Figure 7.1. Proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels (not overexploited; 
%) over the 2000-2015 period in the world (source: UNSTATS, 2020) 

The proportions are shown over the 2000-2015 period. As can be seen in the figure, the 
proportion of fish stock within biologically sustainable levels was at its lowest globally in 
2015. 

To determine which stocks are in good state within the EU seas, several indicators are 
used,  including  the  proportion  of  overexploited  stocks  and  the  proportion  of  stocks 
outside safe biological limits. 

Across different sea basins in the EU the trends in fish stocks are two-fold. 

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In the ‘north-east Atlantic’ (which refers to all stocks within EU waters in FAO Area 27, 
including the North Sea and the Baltic)148, the analysis of long-time data series shows 
clear signs of improvement as shown in the figure below. 

Figure 7.2 Changes in stock status in the north-east Atlantic region 

Source: STECF (2020) Monitoring the performance of the Common Fisheries Policy.  
The blue line shows the proportion of overexploited stocks and the orange line the proportion of stocks outside safe 
biological limits 

In those seas, there are signs of recovery in several fish and shellfish stocks. If these 
efforts continue, fishing mortality (e.g. removal of fish due to fishing activity)149 in the 
region  should  remain  on  average  near  the  maximum  sustainable  rate  of  fishing 
mortality,  and  reproductive  capacity  should  continue  to  improve,  achieving  the  2020 
objective for healthy fish and shellfish stocks in the north-east Atlantic and Baltic. 

In contrast, in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, the situation remains critical, with 
a high percentage of the assessed stocks overfished and a significant lack of knowledge 
about fishing pressure and reproductive capacity. Fishing policy in those sea basins faces 
specific challenges. For example, contrary to other EU basins, most of the Mediterranean 
waters are international, with EU countries in the north of the basin and third countries 
in the south. This means that stocks are shared (exploited jointly by the EU and third 
countries),  so  co-management  is  paramount  to  sustainable  fisheries  in  this  basin. 
However,  EU  efforts  and  a  management  framework  alone  may  not  guarantee 
sustainable fisheries in the Mediterranean. 

In general, while stocks remain overexploited in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, 
there have  recently been  several measures  put  in  place  to  improve  the  situation,  for 
example  with  the  adoption  of  the  first  ever  multiannual  plan  in  this  region  (more 
specifically  Mediterranean  I),  which  have  the  potential  to  drive  significant 
improvements150. 

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In addition, the 2017 MedFish4Ever Ministerial declaration, prepared and promoted by 
the EU, set a 10-year political roadmap with clear objectives for sustainable fisheries. 

However, while more ambitious measures are now in force, it takes time for the system 
to adapt and for stocks to respond to better management. 

 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

What is the EU doing? 

The  EU  Common  Fisheries  Policy  aims  to  ensure  that  fishing  and  aquaculture  are 
environmentally, economically and socially sustainable. Between 2015 and 2020, catch 
limits should be set that are sustainable and maintain fish stocks in the long term (i.e. 
that can achieve maximum sustainable yield). 

The last reform of the Common Fisheries Policy151 (i.e. applied from 2014 onwards) has 
brought  important governance  improvements, including the introduction of maximum 
sustainable  yield152  as  management  objective,  regionalisation  and  the  landing 
obligation153. 

Consultations  conducted  in  the  course  of  this  study  have  repeatedly  viewed  the 
maximum sustainable yield concept, the setting of total allowable catches and fishing 
quotas154  and  reformed  multiannual  plans155  as  efficient  tools  for  the  promotion  of 
sustainable fishing practices. 

The regionalisation process under the Common Fisheries Policy is also considered a good 
approach to involving stakeholders and promoting ownership, according to some of the 
stakeholders interviewed. The regional management plans are considered particularly 
powerful tools, especially in relation to the possibility of adopting related delegated acts. 

One major development was also to  use an  ecosystem-based approach for fish stock 
management, e.g. through the introduction of multiannual plans. 

The  backbone  of  the  EU  fisheries  policy  is  the  so-called  Basic  Regulation156,  which 
aims to ensure that fisheries are managed in a way that ensures environmental, social 
and economic sustainability and food supply. In addition to the Basic Regulation, a set 
of  other  EU  regulations  make  up  the  Union’s  regulatory  body  for  fisheries.  This  body 
regulates a very wide range of aspects of fisheries’ activity 157. 

The fishery and aquaculture products market  is regulated by the  Regulation on the 
Common Organisation of the Markets in fishery and aquaculture products158, which 
aims to achieve the environmental sustainability and economic viability of the markets 
in fishery and aquaculture products. 

Another  important  regulation  is  the  Technical  Measures  Regulation159.  This  deals 
with the conservation of fisheries resources and the protection  of  marine ecosystems 
through  technical  measures,  and  aims  to  optimise  exploitation  patterns  to  protect 
juveniles  and  spawning  aggregations  of  marine  biological  resources,  minimising 

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incidental  catches  of  sensitive  species,  limiting  negative  environmental  impacts  and 
contributing to the achievement of Good Environmental Status. 

Data collection activities in the fisheries sector are governed by a framework regulation 
for data collection on fisheries160. 

The EU has a control system in place to ensure compliance with the rules of the Common 
Fisheries  Policy.  The  system  comprises  (among  others)  the  Regulation  to  prevent, 
deter  and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated  fishing161  and  the 
Regulation  on  the  sustainable  management  of  external  fleet162.  Both  are  of 
particular relevance for the external dimension of the Common Fisheries Policy. Finally, 
the Control Regulation163 establishes a system for control, inspection and enforcement 
to ensure compliance with the rules of the Common Fisheries Policy. 

During consultations, the international dimension of the Regulation to prevent, deter 
and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated  fishing164  was  consistently 
considered  very  effective.  In  particular,  the  carding  mechanism165  is  seen  as  a  very 
positive  example  for  structuring  cooperation  with  non-EU  countries  that  could  be 
replicated in other policy fields if their legal basis allows it (this would, however, need 
to be based on a thorough assessment of those other policies). This mechanism appears 
to work appropriately with third countries because it is a market-based measure that 
exploits the ‘regional threat’ with the aim of creating a level-playing field and to nudge 
countries into complying with their international obligations. The EU has an important 
role to play in the international arena in this sense, due to its major influence. 

The  European  Maritime  and  Fisheries  Fund166  is  one  of  the  five  structural  and 
financial funds  of the EU. It aims is to foster sustainable  activity, covering the whole 
value chain of fisheries and aquaculture, to support diversification, and to create new 
jobs  and  territorial  cohesion,  and  to  fund  implementation  of  the  Common  Fisheries 
Policy167,  including  data  collection  and  control  purposes.  It  also  supports  various 
measures for the conservation and management of ecosystems. It therefore provides 
financial support to the whole policy framework described above. 

What other observations can be made? 

Overfishing 

As mentioned above, within the EU, and particularly in the Mediterranean and the Black 
Sea,  the  situation  remains  critical,  with  a  high  share  of  the  assessed  stocks  being 
overfished. In other EU seas, even though the situation is improving, several fish stocks 
are still overfished. In other sea basins, most notably the north-east Atlantic, the trends 
look more optimistic. 

For the landing obligation, which aims to reduce unwanted catches and the practice of 
discarding by increasing selectivity, compliance is relatively weak within the EU168. 

According to the EU Member States’ representatives consulted in the course of the study 
(see Appendix 5 in the Supporting Materials document), SDG14.4 is among the targets 
for which there are still major gaps in achievement. 

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Destructive fishing practices 

As  already  mentioned  earlier  in  this  report,  destructive  fishing  practices  continue  to 
significantly disturb EU marine ecosystems – it is estimated that around 43% of Europe’s 
shelf/slope  area  and  79%  of  the  coastal  seabed is  being  physically disturbed.  This  is 
mainly  caused  by  bottom  trawling.  This  is  recognised  in  the  biodiversity  strategy  for 
2030, which suggests actions to reconcile the use of bottom-contacting fishing gear with 
biodiversity goals, given that it is now the activity most damaging to the seabed. 

  Remaining challenges 

Reminder: The possible explanations below are linked to the policy framework. It is clear 
that the status of fish stocks is further influenced by an array of different anthropogenic 
and natural impacts e.g. in relation to climate change, many of which are not yet fully 
understood. 

Availability and use of scientific knowledge 

Data availability is not sufficient to provide a coherent picture of all relevant fish stocks 
across the European seas. Data is often not available for certain species, which hinders 
the quality of the scientific advice169. Monitoring and reporting remain challenging for 
some Member States, as does the comparability of the data provided. Generally, fish 
quotas are often only set for the most economically important stocks, while small and 
less economically important ones are disregarded170. 

Scientific advice is not always followed when fishing quotas are adopted at the end of 
the legislative process171. A fundamental condition for the improvement of fish stocks is 
to  follow  scientific  recommendations  when  setting  total  allowable  catches  and  fishing 
quotas; this is also reflected in the wording of SDG14.4, which calls for ‘science-based 
management plans’. 

Implementation and enforcement of the policy framework 

The implementation of the landing obligation is meeting resistance from Member States 
and the fishing industry172. Levels of enforcement have remained poor and there is a 
lack of support and compliance by the fishing industry. 

The enforcement of the Control Regulation is challenging, in particular when it comes to 
monitoring small-scale fishing vessels. 

Integration of fishing and environmental concerns 

Despite increasing efforts to combine fishery policies with environmental policies, there 
still is a perceived divide among stakeholders. However, within the EU there are many 
promising approaches for integrating fisheries and environment, since policy coherence 
and  the  integration  of  environmental  objectives  into  all  EU  policies  is  stipulated  and 

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required  under  the  EU  Treaty.  This  is  manifested,  for  example,  through  policy 
interactions between the MSFD 173 and the Common Fisheries Policy174. 

Integration  is  also  important  on the  stakeholder side.  A positive  example  here  is  the 
memorandum of understanding between the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission 
(NEAFC), a regional fisheries management organisation, and the  OSPAR Commission, 
related to one of the main EU Regional Sea Conventions. 

However,  as  mentioned  above,  during  stakeholder  consultations  for  this  study,  one 
aspect  that  was  frequently  brought  up  was  the  perception  that  there  is  still  a  divide 
between  the  two  fields.  Examples  given  included  limited  communication  between 
national  ministries  (or  regional/local  governments)  responsible  for  the  topics,  and 
disconnected  national  policy  frameworks.  This  might  indicate  that  implementation  of 
those policy fields at national level is not sufficiently integrated. 

  Possible ways forward 

Availability and use of scientific knowledge 

Good  data  is  the  foundation  of  a  good  policy,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  Common 
Fisheries Policy. However, during the consultations there was often the perception that 
not enough funding is available for the relevant research institutes in the Member States 
for  the  complex  data  collection  necessary  for  assessing  and  following  maximum 
sustainable yield and other policy goals. However, in this sector – most notably through 
the EMFF – funding is available and is often not fully utilised. 

It should be assessed whether funding do exist and where. If they do exist, approaches 
should be adopted for better financing; if the issue is a rather limited absorption of funds 
by stakeholders, approaches could be developed to improve this. 

Integration of fishing and environmental concerns 

More efforts could be undertaken to more closely integrate the stakeholders of either 
policy fields at local, Member State level and regional level. This could, for example, be 
helpful  for  more  effectively  ensuring  buy-in  by  the  fishing  industry,  which  often 
perceives  policies  as  being  biased  towards  NGOs’  interests  and  often  ‘unfair’.  One 
possible reason brought up for this during the consultations was that the fishing industry 
is  not  sufficiently  involved  in  the  discussions  on  policy  development  in  fishing  and 
environmental policies. 

In this context, the EU’s biodiversity strategy represents a positive signal. The strategy 
mandates  that  an  action  plan  to  conserve  fisheries  resources  and  protect  marine 
ecosystems will be developed. The Action Plan will highlight areas where further action 
is needed, for instance with regards to the protection of sensitive species and habitats, 
and fishing gear that potentially has a negative impact on the marine environment and 
seabed.  The  action  plan  will  take  into  account  the  existing  environmental  obligations 
under the Habitats, Birds and Marine Strategy Framework Directives. 

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8.  SDG14.5 – Marine protected areas 

SDG14.5  calls  on states  to  conserve  at  least 10% of the  world’s  oceans  by  2020,  by 
establishing  marine  protected  areas  (MPAs)  based  on  the  best  available  scientific 
information  and  in  conformity  with  national  and  international  law.  The  internationally 
recognised definition for a ‘protected area’ is provided by the Convention on Biological 
Diversity  (CBD),  which  defines  them  as  ‘geographically  defined  areas  which  are 
designated  or  regulated  and  managed  to  achieve  specific  conservation  objectives’175. 
SDG14.5  establishes  a  clear  target  value:  10%  of coastal  and  marine  areas  must  be 
conserved.  This  reflects  another  international  commitment  that  the  EU  has  already 
agreed to implement, Aichi Target 11176 adopted in the context of the CBD in 2010. 

  State of play in achieving the target 

 What the indicators say 

The  official  indicator  for  measuring  the  achievement  of  SDG14.5  is  the  coverage  of 
protected  areas  in  relation  to  marine  areas  (Index  14.5.1).  According  to  Eurostat,  in 
2016  the  spatial  coverage  of  MPAs  in  EU  was  10.8%  of  the  total  marine  and  coastal 
surface area. In 2019, the spatial extent of marine sites designated for protection under 
Natura 2000 was 441,001 km2 177. 

Figure 8.1 Surface area of marine sites designated under Natura 2000, EU Member States, 
2013–2019 (km2)178 

While the EU as a whole achieved the target for spatial extent of marine protected areas 
ahead of schedule,  not  all regional seas have  reached the target of 10% coverage of 
MPAs, notably in the Mediterranean Sea179. In addition, the target has not been met in 
relation to the effective management and conservation of these areas. 

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 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

The EU fosters the development of the EU MPA network through various policy tools 

Different policy tools support the development of MPAs in Europe. MPAs are primarily designated 
under  the  Birds180  and  Habitats181  Directives,  which  require,  among  other  conservation 
measures, the creation and management of special areas of conservation and special protection 
areas for  the  conservation  of  certain  species and  natural habitats. The  MPAs  designated  under 
these directives form part of the Natura 2000 network, which is the largest coordinated network 
of  protected  areas  in  the  world182.  MPAs  are  also  designated  under  national  and  regional 
programmes  undertaken  to  meet  the  objectives  set  by  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework 
Directive183.  The  MSFD  establishes  a  legal  obligation  that  spatial  protection  measures  should 
‘contribute to coherent and representative networks of marine protected areas’184. All three legal 
instruments establish that necessary conservation objectives and measures must be established 
to ensure that MPAs guarantee the conservation of habitats and species in these areas. 

The  Common  Fisheries  Policy185  also  contributes  to  regulating  human  activity  in  MPAs.  It 
provides  that  Member  States  can  adopt  conservation  measures  affecting  fishing  activity  (e.g. 
restrictions on commercial fisheries and no-take zones) in protected areas within their jurisdiction, 
or  that  they  can  ask  the  Commission  to  adopt  them  where  other  Member  States  also  have  a 
management interest in the fishery in question. 

The  recently  adopted  EU  biodiversity  strategy  for  2030186  reiterates  the  commitment  to 
establish  a  coherent  network  of  protected  areas,  as  well  as  to  enlarge  MPA  coverage  and  to 
increase  the  share  of  strictly  protected  areas.  The  strategy  outlines  several  key  actions  to  be 
taken by the Commission, including the creation of criteria and guidance for the designation and 
appropriate management of protected areas, as well as the brokerage of a new agreement on the 
designation  of three vast MPAs in the Southern Ocean187. The  signature of  such an agreement 
would  constitute  a  significant  achievement  for  global  marine  biodiversity,  as  marine  life  in 
Antarctica  has  historically  been  overexploited188.  The  EU  biodiversity  strategy  will  also  require 
significant additional efforts by Member States to ensure effective management of MPAs, notably 
by  establishing  conservation  objectives  and  implementing  appropriate  conservation  measures, 
including fisheries management measures. 

The  transnational,  national  and  regional  maritime  spatial  plans  required  under  the  MSP 
Directive189  also  play  a  crucial  role  in  ensuring  that  the  conservation  needs  related  to  the 
establishment of MPAs are considered when organising human activities at sea, in full compliance 
with the ecosystem-based approach. The development of these plans is underway for EU Member 
States, to meet the deadline for the establishment of maritime spatial plans by 2021. 

The four Regional Sea Conventions190 around the EU contribute to the MPA designation exercise. 
Since  1998191,  OSPAR  contracting  parties  have  committed  to  establishing  an  ecologically 
coherent network of MPAs in the north-east Atlantic that is well managed. Since then, they have 
nominated sites in the OSPAR network of MPAs, both in their national waters and areas beyond 
national jurisdiction192. A series of Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) 
recommendations  prompted  country  parties  to  designate  and  improve  the  management  and 
coherence  of  the  network  of  MPAs  in  the  Baltic  Sea193.  According  to  these  recommendations, 
HELCOM MPAs must have a unique management plan or management measures in place for the 
area,  and  the  Helsinki  Convention  has  adopted  specific  guidelines  to  facilitate  this194.  The 
Barcelona  Convention’s  members  have  adopted  a  dedicated  protocol  on  ‘Specially  Protected 
Areas  and  Biological  Diversity  in  the  Mediterranean’  that  contains  provisions  relating  to  the 

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creation, protection and management of MPAs in the Mediterranean. They have also established 
a  specific  body  to  assist  them  in  implementing  the  protocol,  the  Regional  Activity  Centre  for 
Specially Protected Areas195. Lastly, the Bucharest Convention provides for the designation of 
MPAs in its region, while the Black Sea Commission supports the work of its country parties in 
this task196. Notably, all Regional Sea Conventions provide periodic assessments of their network 
of  MPAs197,  as  well  as  for  guidelines  and  tools  to  assist  their  country  parties  in  this  mission. 
According to EEA198, not all regional seas achieved the target of 10% coverage of MPAs, notably 
in the Mediterranean. 

The EU supports the establishment of MPAs beyond its borders 

The  EU  supports  the  achievement  of  SDG14.5  internationally  by  advocating  the  delivery  and 
enhancement of global targets in relevant fora and by facilitating the establishment of new and 
well-managed  MPAs  worldwide.  The  EU  has  taken  an  active  role  in  the  discussions  under  the 
CBD199 and the UNCLOS200 on the expansion of MPA coverage targets, including in areas beyond 
national jurisdiction, and it regularly cooperates with international and regional organisations to 
coordinate  action  on  MPAs.  In  addition  to  this,  the  EU  invested  more  than  EUR 23  million  to 
develop  guidelines,  carry  out  scientific  research  and  studies,  and  set  up  twinning  projects  to 
encourage mutual learning and cooperation among countries on MPAs. Substantial resources have 
also  been  allocated  by  the  EU  to  reinforce  the  management  of  MPAs  networks  worldwide,  for 
instance in the Atlantic, South-East Asia and the Pacific201 202. 

What other observations can be made? 

While significant progress has been made in the designation of MPAs, and there are examples of 
well managed MPAs, concerns persist regarding the actual level of protection granted by the EU’s 
network of MPAs. According to some NGOs and stakeholders consulted, there is a risk that these 
areas  become  ‘paper  parks’,  whereby  protection  is  granted  only  on  paper  and  clear  and 
measurable  conservation  objectives  are  either  not  established  at  all,  or  not  implemented  in 
practice. This concern is also echoed by the European Court of Auditors, which has stated that 
sometimes the EU MPA network ‘provided little protection’203. This prevents the EU MPA network 
from achieving its full conservation potential. 

Box 8.1 Examples of well-managed EU MPAs204 

Spain – Columbretes Islands Marine Reserve 
The no-take zone established in the Columbretes MPA has been shown to produce 
positive spillover  effects  to  surrounding fisheries, with a  net  benefit  to  the fishery 
resulting in a 10% increase in mean annual yield (in weight) of spiny lobster.  

Italy – Torre Guaceto MPA 
Following a temporary four-year no-take closure in Torre Guaceto, the catch per unit 
effort  (CPUE)  in  the  MPA  was  more  than  four  times  that  outside.  This  successful 
management  measure  supported  stock  improvement  for a  number of species  and 
resulted in increased benefits for fishermen when sustainable fishing was resumed. 

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Ecological coherence of the EU MPA network is a challenge 

SDG14.5 requires states to ‘conserve’ a part of their coastal and marine areas and this requires 
a network of MPAs that is ecologically coherent, among other things. For an MPA network to be 
ecologically coherent205, it needs to be representative of all biodiversity features206, it must cover 
a sufficient portion of the planning area, it should allow for the replication of similar habitats within 
the network, and it should ensure connectivity between different areas that are ecologically linked. 

At  present,  MPA  coverage  in  the  EU  is  significantly  skewed  towards  the  protection  of  coastal 
waters,  leaving offshore  waters  and their  deeper  sea  habitats  largely  uncovered.  While  overall 
coverage  of  MPAs  is  over  10%  of  EU  coastal  and  marine  areas,  certain  EU  sub-regions  have 
coverages far below 10%, e.g. the Ionian Sea and the Central Mediterranean Sea only have 2.9% 
MPA coverage207. Lastly, parts of these MPAs are too small to sustain ecosystem resilience, with 
almost half of all EU MPAs measuring less than 30 km2, and are not established closely enough to 
allow for movement and dispersal of key species between them. These shortcomings in terms of 
connectivity  and  representativity  prevent  the  network  from  fully  guaranteeing  ecosystem 
functioning and spillover effects to recover fish stocks208. 

Not all EU MPAs are effectively managed 

Conservation in the context of MPAs can be achieved only if effective management measures are 
in  place,  and  if  adequate  staff  and  financial  resources  are  allocated  to  the  planning  and 
enforcement  of  these  measures.  To  deliver  their  conservation  benefits  (such  as  increased  fish 
biomass), MPAs must  be  subject to management plans tailored to the  biodiversity  threats that 
the special protection aims to address. Management measures in MPAs should be developed based 
on best available science and be appropriate to address the conservation objectives set for the 
area  at  hand.  These  measures  must  also  be  complemented  by  spatial  protection  measures  in 
neighbouring  areas209.  Management  measures  can  range  from  the  restriction  of  damaging 
industrial  activities  or  infrastructural  developments  to  the  regulation  of  fishing  and  other 
extractive activities in the area210. 

Unfortunately, information about management effectiveness is lacking, and additional information 
on the degree to which marine habitats in MPAs are currently considered protected is needed211. 
In some cases, MPAs are more affected than unprotected areas by commercial fisheries, including 
due  to  unsustainable fishing  practices.  This  raises  questions about  the  true  benefit of the MPA 
network. At present, only 1% of EU MPAs are strictly protected212 (i.e. areas where no extractive 
activities are allowed). 

The limitation of fishing activities is only one of the many possible conservation measures to be 
adopted in the context of MPAs, and sustainable fishing can be compatible with the existence of 
MPAs.  In fact,  the  majority of  EU MPAs allow  fishing  to  differing degrees, which  in  turn  brings 
substantial  socioeconomic  benefits  to  coastal  communities.  In  this  context,  the  regulation  of 
fishing and other human activities is crucial to ensure that all the activities permitted in the MPAs 
are low impact and do not hinder the achievement of MPA conservation objectives set on the basis 
of scientific evidence. Against this background, fisheries conservation measures have successfully 
been  introduced  in  some  MPAs  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  as  required  by  the  Birds  and 
Habitats  Directives  and  under  the  relevant  provisions  of  the  Common  Fisheries  Policy213.  In 
addition, since fishing and the harvesting of marine aquatic resources are one of the most common 
and ‘high pressure’ activities on habitats and species in marine Natura 2000 sites, the adoption 
of these measures should in any case be further facilitated for sites where they are required by 
EU law214 215 216. 

Information on these and other MPA management measures is currently lacking217, and different 
actors report different figures on the number of MPAs actually covered by management plans. 

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Despite the difficulty in assessing the MPAs’ management effectiveness, it is clear that improved 
management efforts  should  be undertaken  to  ensure  that  tangible  benefits for  biodiversity are 
delivered by the EU network of MPAs218 219 220. 

  Remaining challenges 

Ecological  coherence  is  affected  by  insufficient  implementation  of  existing 

instruments 

Specific EU legislation and recommendations under Regional Seas Conventions mandate 
that  the  network  of  EU  MPAs  must  be  ecologically  coherent.  The  current  gap  may 
therefore be linked to insufficient implementation of existing provisions. For instance, 
under MSFD221 reporting, 22 Member States declared that the spatial measures included 
in  their  programmes  of  measures  contributed  to  the  coherent  and  representative 
networks of MPAs, but in half of these cases it was not possible to evaluate whether this 
was actually the case due to the quality of the information provided222. 

Although relevant funding for fisheries control purposes in MPAs is available under the 
EMFF, the EU currently223 lacks agile instruments for nudging Member States to enforce 
appropriate management practices, according to the stakeholders consulted as part of 
this study. In addition to this, the absence of an EU-wide methodology224 or set of clear 
targets to determine whether a network of MPAs is ecologically coherent can also be a 
factor affecting implementation of the above-mentioned obligations. 

Lastly, in some cases, the designation of MPAs is affected by the existence of substantial 
diverging  interests  among  actors  involved.  MPAs  are  mostly  designated  in  areas  that 
are not ‘economically relevant’225 and this may explain why some biodiversity features 
(e.g. offshore waters) are inadequately represented in the existing MPA network. 

Several factors hinder the effective management of MPAs 

There is a widespread agreement within EU institutions and civil society that additional 
efforts are needed to establish MPA management measures and to ensure the effective 
management  of  all  EU  MPAs226  227  228,  as  well  as  to  gather  information  on  the  actual 
conservation  achieved  within  these  areas.  This  might  be  a  signal  that  the 
implementation  of  relevant  provisions  within  the  EU  and  Member  States’  policy 
framework governing MPAs still faces challenges in practice. For instance, while there 
are several examples of successful implementation of fisheries management measures 
in  MPAs229,  the  first  phase  of  the  procedure  for  their  adoption  requires  that  all  MS 
involved reach an agreement, which can take a considerable amount of time and can 
delay the process in practice230 231 232 233. 

The  fragmentation  of  the  governance  framework  involved  in  MPA  designation  and 
management  also  hinders  the  adoption  and  enforcement  of  effective  management 
measures. The proliferation of actors involved in the management of activity challenges 
the clear attribution of responsibilities and coordination of efforts234. 

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Lack of financial resources and support to MPA managers also plays a role when it comes 
to effective MPA management235 236. Costs associated with designating MPAs can relate 
to site delineation and planning activities, and to the monitoring and enforcement of the 
management plans (direct costs). Other costs may arise as a result of the designation 
of the MPA, for instance congestion costs to displaced fishers (indirect costs), or might 
relate to foregone commercial fishing  or tourism income  (opportunity  costs)237. While 
some stakeholders signal that funding in support of MPA managers is insufficient and 
this  hinders  their  ability  to  design,  implement  and  enforce  MPA  management  plans, 
others  state  that  funds  are  available,  including  under  the  EMFF238,  but  that  Member 
States are at times unable to absorb these resources. 

  Possible ways forward 

SDG14.5 has been formally achieved, but this should not stop the EU from being more 
ambitious.  This  ambition  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  recently  published  EU 
biodiversity  strategy  for  2030239.  It  notably  includes  key  commitments  for  2030  that 
reflect a growing ambition when it comes to protected areas, including the extension of 
the coverage target to 30% and the increase in the proportion of strictly protected areas. 

To promote compliance with existing provisions on MPA designation and management, 
including provisions on ecological coherence, several options can be envisaged: 

 

Increasing public knowledge on the benefits of establishing MPAs, as well as holding 
ad hoc dialogues with the different actors that have a stake  in the designation of 
MPAs and that may be affected by it, to stimulate their buy-in240; 

  Reinforcing  follow-up  and  monitoring  on  MPAs,  as  well  as  increasing  the  science 
base, by further harmonising reporting systems241 and by identifying innovative tools 
to monitor MPAs, including by making use of technology e.g. drones242; 

  Linking  funding  for  MPA  management,  or  the  allocation  of  fishing  quotas,  to 

performance (i.e. achieved conservation benefits); 

Effective  management  of  MPAs  is  an  expensive,  complex  and  challenging  task,  and 
therefore new ways of supporting MPAs managing bodies can be developed, for instance 
by: 

 

  Further disseminating and improving existing dedicated guidance on MPA planning 
and management243, including by establishing common principles and targets on the 
ecological coherence of MPAs, to facilitate the designation exercise244; 
Increasing  networking  and  cooperation  activities,  including  twinning  initiatives245, 
among  MPA  managing  bodies  to  stimulate  the  sharing  of  best  practice  in  MPA 
management and to exploit the lessons learnt from effectively managed MPAs; 
  Better exploiting the funding opportunities available for SDG14.5 under the EMFF: 
an increased portion of the funding could be earmarked for MPA-related purposes, 
and Member States should be encouraged to refocus their priorities and make use 
of  these  funds  to  cover  the  costs  of  delineating  sites,  planning  conservation 
measures as well as monitoring and enforcing management plans246; 

  Enhancing the involvement of local communities with co-management strategies247. 

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9.  SDG14.6 – Fishery subsidies 

This  target  urges  states  to  prohibit  harmful  fisheries  subsidies  by  2020,  including  by 
recognising the particular circumstances of developing and least developed countries in 
this  regard,  in  the  context  of  the  WTO  fisheries  subsidies  negotiations.  According  to 
SDG14.6,  harmful  fisheries  subsidies  are  financial  contributions  that  stimulate 
overcapacity and overfishing and illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. 

The  WTO  fisheries  subsidies  negotiations  are  a  stepping  stone  in  the  achievement  of 
SDG14.6. A uniform and global approach would avert competition and trade distortion 
issues  arising  from  differing  disciplines  in  this  area  at  national  level.  Building  on  this 
understanding and following the adoption of the 2001 Doha Ministerial Declaration248, 
WTO  parties  agreed  to  regulate  the  issue  of  fisheries  subsidies  by  2019.  Due  to  the 
complexity of the discussions at hand, it was decided to prolong the negotiations and to 
come to a conclusion at the 12th Ministerial Conference that should have taken place in 
Nur-Sultan  on  8–11  June  2020249.  As  result  of  the  outbreak  of  COVID-19,  the  2020 
conference  has  been  cancelled.  Despite  this,  negotiations  are  continuing  online,  and 
WTO members confirm their commitment to working towards the 2020 deadline250. 

  State of play in achieving the target 

 What the indicators say 

The indicator for SDG14.6 (Index 14.6.1) measures progress in the implementation of 
international  instruments aimed at combating IUU fishing. This indicator is calculated 
based on different countries’ reported efforts to combat IUU fishing through the effective 
implementation of key  international instruments relevant to IUU fishing. The data for 
computing the indicator is gathered via a questionnaire sent to all FAO Member States 
on a biennial basis251. The data collected so far for this indicator show that all EU Member 
States have a ‘very high’ level of implementation of international instruments that aim 
to combat IUU fishing252. 

It is important to note that the indicator for SDG14.6 has spurred some criticism, as it 
presents  no  direct  link  with  the  overall  level  of  harmful  subsidies  and  is  considered 
incomplete for measuring achievement of the target253. 

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 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

The EU is at the forefront of the WTO negotiations on fisheries subsidies 

Trade  policy  is  an  exclusive  EU  competence.  The  EU  is  tasked  with  negotiating  on 
fisheries subsidies on behalf of Member States in international fora such as the WTO. 
The  EU  plays  an  active  role  in  the  current  fisheries  subsidies  negotiations.  In  2017, 
following  the  new  impetus  in  the  negotiations  provided  by  the  adoption  of  the  2030 
Agenda, the EU revised its proposal on the prohibition of certain fisheries subsidies to 
the WTO by adding provisions on strengthening transparency and guidelines on special 
and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries254. 

The  EU  decided  to  phase  out  one  of  the  most  harmful  types  of  fisheries  subsidies  in 

2004 

Within its borders, the EU had already banned one of the most harmful types of fisheries 
subsidies in 2004. Following the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy, the EU decided 
to phase out public subsidies for the construction of new vessels and for increasing the 
fishing capacity of existing ones255. 

As far as the provision of subsidies in the EU for the 2014–2020 period is concerned, 
the  European  Maritime  Fisheries  Fund  (EMFF)256  is  the  main  financial  instrument 
supporting  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Maritime  Policy257  and  the  Common 
Fisheries  Policy258,  and  is  a  source  of  subsidies  for  the  fisheries  sector.  To  support 
inclusive  and  sustainable  fisheries  and  aquaculture,  the  fund  co-finances  grants  to 
different  actors  in  the  sector,  allocated  by  Member  States  on  the  basis  of  nationally 
determined operational programmes. The fund for the 2014–2020 period had a budget 
of  EUR 6.4  billion,  co-financed  with  Member  States  for  a  total  public  investment  of 
EUR 8.6 billion. In June 2018, the Commission adopted a proposal for the 2021–2027 
fund. Under the Multiannual Financial Framework, its budget will be EUR 108 billion. 

To mitigate the impact of the outbreak of COVID-19 on the fisheries and aquaculture 
sector, the EMFF259 was amended to introduce specific time-limited mitigation measures. 

Support to the fisheries and aquaculture sector can also come from other sources, such 
as the European Regional Development Fund260. 

Fisheries subsidies provided by Member States must comply with the objectives of the 
Common Fisheries Policy261 

In addition to the financial support made available under the EU funds, Member States 
can take the initiative to provide additional funding to their sector under the State aid 
mechanism i.e. aid granted by the EU countries to the fishing and aquaculture industry 
other than financing under the EMFF within the scope of Article 42 TFEU262. This is only 
approved by the European Commission on the condition that the subsidies comply with 

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the  objectives  of  European  fisheries  policy  and  do  not  distort  or  threaten  to  distort 
competition. Overall, the scope and conditions of State aid to the fisheries sector reflects 
the conditions established in the EMFF Regulation. 

What other observations can be made? 

Overfishing and overcapacity are still an issue 

Despite the good progress achieved, overfishing is still an issue for certain fish stocks 
in parts of Europe263, and this can also be a consequence of fleet overcapacity. 

Quantifying fisheries subsidies is a challenge 

Quantifying the subsidies allocated to the fishing industry, as well as determining their 
nature (harmful or non-harmful), remains a challenge, and these are important factors 
to be considered when assessing the achievement of SDG14.6. Transparency is still an 
issue in fisheries subsidies, and this is demonstrated by the fact that the nature of over 
9% of total fisheries subsidies currently remains unknown at global level264. 

No international agreement has been reached on fisheries subsidies 

No agreement has yet been reached at the international level regarding the regulation 
of harmful fisheries subsidies. While WTO parties confirm their commitment to continue 
the negotiations and to work towards the 2020 deadline despite the impediments related 
to the outbreak of COVID-19, it remains uncertain whether it will be possible to reach 
an agreement by the end of the year265. 

  Remaining challenges 

Progress in fisheries subsidies negotiations is slowed by several factors 

Several factors affect progress in the fisheries subsidies’ negotiations within WTO. The 
global debate on the subject began in the early 1990s, and 30 years later substantial 
divergences of positions among WTO parties continue to challenge the achievement of 
an  agreement266  267.  These  mainly  relate  to  the  kind  of  harmful  subsidies  to  be 
prohibited, the  magnitude  of such subsidies, the development dimension of subsidies 
and  the  management  system  for  the  potential  prohibitions  that  may  be  imposed268. 
Reaching an agreement in multilateral and consensus-based organisations such as the 
WTO  has become  increasingly difficult269  270.  The  outbreak  of  COVID-19  has  certainly 
added a layer of complexity to the negotiations. 

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  Possible ways forward 

In the event of a failure or excessive delay in the WTO negotiations, the EU could explore 
alternative  routes  to  promote  the  achievement  of  SDG14.6.  For  instance,  it  could 
envisage the inclusion of provisions relating to the prohibition of fisheries subsidies in 
its trade or other relevant agreements with third countries. 

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10.  SDG14.7 – Economic benefits from sustainable use of 

marine resources to SIDS and LDC 

Fisheries, aquaculture and tourism are crucial to the subsistence of a large number of 
SIDS  and  LDCs. In  several developing  countries,  the  ocean-based  economy  accounts 
for around 10% of the gross domestic product271, while tourism can account for  over 
half of the GDP of certain SIDS272. These sectors are crucial for driving economic and 
social development in these countries. SDG14.7 calls for nations to boost the economic 
benefits of sustainable fisheries and sustainable marine activities to SIDS and LDCs, to 
support the long-term sustainability of their local livelihoods. Appropriate conservation 
and  protection  of  the  marine  ecosystem  is  a  pre-requisite  for  this.  Since  it  does  not 
specify  a  target  value  to  be  achieved,  SDG14.7  rather  entails  continuous  work  and 
enhanced  cooperation  activities  between  developed  countries  and  SIDS  and  LDCs  on 
these matters. 

 What the indicators say 

Even  though  target  14.7  promotes  the  sustainable  use  of  marine  resources  through 
fisheries,  aquaculture  and  tourism,  the  indicator  for  measuring  progress  towards  the 
achievement of SDG14.7 only measures the ‘fisheries aspect’ of the target. Index 14.7.1 
in fact accounts for the percentage of GDP dedicated to sustainable fisheries in SIDS, 
LDCs and all countries. This indicator aims to measure the value added of sustainable 
marine capture fisheries as a proportion of GDP, to provide an indication of the economic 
importance  of  sustainable  fisheries  in  SIDS  and  LDCs  economies.  The  sustainable 
management  of  fisheries  should  enable  fish  stocks  to  support  the  communities  and 
industries  that  rely  on  them  without  compromising  reproduction  and  their  long-term 
sustainability273. In 2019, the FAO developed a methodology for SDG Indicator 14.7.1, 
but  important  data  limitations  challenge  the  measurement  of  progress  towards  the 
achievement of SDG 14.7. National fish stock assessments are only available for a few 
countries,  and  the  FAO  aims  to  begin  compiling  country-level  estimates  for  the 
proportion of fish stocks that are within biologically sustainable levels (for SDG indicator 
14.4.1) only in 2020. Once data for this indicator becomes available, it will be used to 
compute SDG indicator 14.7.1274. 

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 State of play in achieving the target 

  Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

Different strands of the EU policy framework contribute to the achievement of SDG14.7 

Trade  in  fish  and  seafood  is  a  key  aspect  when  it  comes  to  increasing  the  economic 
benefits to SIDS and LDCs from marine resources. While the internal market in these 
countries tends to be small, access to global trade routes can generate significant value 
and create employment opportunities along the fisheries and seafood value chains for 
local  communities275.  The  EU  plays  a  crucial  role  in  this  context,  as  it  is  the  largest 
importer of seafood in the world276. The total value of EU seafood imports amounted to 
EUR 26.5 million in 2018277, and over 50%  of this originated  in developing countries, 
including  SIDS and LDCs278  279. Import conditions have an influence  on the economic 
benefits garnered by these countries through their export activity, and these conditions 
are  harmonised  in  all  EU  countries and  regulated  by  European  Food  Law280,  whose 
aim is to ensure that imported products comply with the same standards as products 
from  the  EU  when  it  comes  to  hygiene,  consumer  safety  and  animal  health  status. 
Imports  of  fishery  products  into  the  EU  is  subject  to  official  certification  based  on 
meeting predefined conditions in the exporting country, including with regards to illegal 
unreported and unregulated fishing281. Notably, the EU is committed to fighting illegal, 
unreported or unregulated fishing worldwide, and adopted the Regulation to prevent, 
deter  and  eliminate  IUU  fishing282  to  ensure  that  only  marine  fisheries  products 
validated as legal by the competent flag state can be imported into the EU. Within the 
scope  of  this  regulation,  the  EU  has  entered  into  dialogue  with  several  countries, 
including SIDS and LDCs, and supported the improvement of their systems to combat 
IUU fishing. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  EU  provides  training  and  technical  assistance283  to  help 
developing countries comply with overall EU rules regarding market access. 

The EU is committed to promoting free trade worldwide and it plays an active part in all 
international efforts aimed at overcoming trade barriers284, including regarding seafood 
trade, in the context of the WTO. 

The EU has put in place a set of rules to ensure the sustainability of its fishing activity 

abroad 

The EU can  have  an influence  on the sustainability of the  fish  resources of SIDS and 
LDCs  via  its  fishing  activities  outside  EU  waters.  The  Common  Fisheries  Policy285 
establishes principles regulating the EU’s external fisheries relationships. These include 
ensuring that fishing activities outside EU waters are based on the same principles and 
standards as within the EU, with the sustainability of the fishing activity being one of 
the  main  objectives.  EU  vessels  can  fish  in  the  Exclusive  Economic  Zone  of  third 
countries thanks to bilateral fishing agreements and specific authorisations. To ensure 

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that EU fishing operations abroad do not undermine the sustainability of the fish stocks 
of  the  third  countries,  the  EU  adopted  the  Regulation  on  the  sustainable 
management  of  the  external  fishing  fleets286,  which  contains  a  set  of  provisions 
aimed at ensuring that fishing operations in third countries are sustainable, including by 
requiring scientific evaluations. 

With  certain  third  countries,  the  EU  establishes  sustainable  fisheries  partnership 
agreements (SFPAs)287. These agreements allow EU vessels to fish in the Exclusive 
Economic Zone (EEZ) of partner countries in exchange for a financial contribution. As of 
August 2020, 13 SFPA protocols are in force with third countries, six of which classify 
as  SIDS288  and  six  as  LDCs289,  involving  a  yearly  financial  contribution  of  around 
EUR 135  million290.  In  addition  to  the  financial  contribution  aimed  at  securing  access 
rights  to  the  EEZ,  the  EU  provides  sectoral  support  aimed  at  promoting  sustainable 
fisheries development, including by supporting sustainable fisheries management and 
by  combating  IUU  fishing,  and  by  strengthening  the  administrative  and  scientific 
capacity of the partner countries. The sectoral support is used to finance projects such 
as  loan  schemes  for  local  fisheries  investors,  the  development  of  aquaculture  plans, 
support  to  seafood  processing  initiatives  and  post-harvest  value  addition291.  These 
agreements form part of the EU effort to achieve SDG14.7. 

The EU plays an active role in 17  Regional Fisheries Management Organisations 
(RMFOs) that establish fisheries conservation and management measures in the high 
seas.  These  organisations  guarantee  the  management,  conservation  and  sustainable 
exploitation  of  living  marine  species  in  their  areas  by  setting  catch  limits,  adopting 
technical measures and establishing control obligations. Several of these RFMOs include 
SIDS  and  LDCs  among  their  contracting  parties292,  and  in  some  cases  they  directly 
recognise the importance of SDG14.7293, or have adopted special provisions mandating 
particular consideration of SIDS and LDCs needs, for instance when establishing fishing 
quotas294. The EU is also actively involved in different regional seas programmes that 
have taken actions to benefit SIDS295, including supporting the adoption of protocols or 
agreements on marine protection, assisting with sustainable tourism, and promoting the 
ecosystem-based management of marine and coastal environments in these areas. 

EU  development  policy  supports  the  conservation  and  sustainable  use  of  marine 

resources in SIDS and LDCs 

EU  development  policy  fosters  the  sustainable  development  of  developing  countries, 
comprising  SIDS  and  LDCs,  such  as  by  working  with  these  countries  to  support 
sustainable fisheries, MPAs, climate mitigation in the maritime shipping sector, harbour 
infrastructures and maritime security. The EU has dedicated around EUR 590 million296 
to this line of work in the 2014–2020 programming period. Relevant ongoing projects 
financed by the European Development Fund that contribute to achieving SDG14.7 are 
the  Pacific-European  Union  Marine  Partnership  Programme  (PEUMP)297,  the  Support 
Programme  for  ACP  Small  Island  Developing  States  (SIDS)  and  Coastal  Countries298, 
the  Improved  Regional  Fisheries  Governance  in  Western  Africa  (PESCAO)299  and  the 
ECOFISH programme for the western Indian Ocean300. 

Notably, the post-Cotonou Agreement, on which a political agreement was reached in 
December 2020, will represent an important component of the policy framework, with 

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its strategic priority on ‘Environmental sustainability and climate change’, that will also 
aim to address issues relating to ocean governance among EU and African, Caribbean 
and Pacific (ACP) countries. 

Tourism can support the achievement of development and sustainability objectives in 
SIDS and LDCs, and the strengthening of this sector underpins many objectives of EU 
development policy. The EU provides support to sustainable tourism in SIDS and LDCs 
via budget support, thematic programmes, specific calls for proposal and the provision 
of technical assistance. For instance, before the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, the EU 
published a study providing guidance on sustainable tourism for development301 302. 

What other observations can be made? 

Overfishing and IUU are still challenges in many SIDS and LDCs 

At present, it is not possible to draw conclusions on the achievement of SDG14.7 due 
to the lack of holistic data. According to the FAO, SIDS and LDCs have been reporting 
‘steady contributions of sustainable fisheries to their GDP since 2011’303. However, the 
organisation  estimates  that  the  global  percentage  of  stocks  fished  at  biologically 
unsustainable levels increased from 10% in 1974 to 34.2% in 2017, and that stocks in 
developing countries increasingly face a ‘worsening situation in terms of overcapacity, 
production  per  unit  of  effort and  stock  status’. Overfishing  and  IUU  fishing are  still  a 
challenge in many SIDS and LDCs, including where the EU external fishing fleet is active. 
This compromises the economic benefits SIDS and LDCs will be able to garner from their 
marine resources in the long run. 

Seafood exports can be increased 

In addition to this, while developing countries have seen a substantial increase in their 
exports of seafood products over time, from 34.6% to 50.2% of world fishery exports 
in the 1981–2013 period, LDCs and SIDS have registered only a marginal rise, from 1.6 
to 3.5%, in the same period304. Given the importance that the fisheries and aquaculture 
sector have for these states, more could be done to increase this share and the economic 
benefits achieved. 

Funding does not always translate into proportional improvements 

Lastly, substantial funding has been disbursed to developing countries for conservation 
purposes and the sustainable management of marine resources, but this has not always 
resulted  in  a  proportional  improvement  of  the  state  of  the  marine  resources  of 
developing countries, including SIDS and LDCs305. 

With regards to sustainable tourism in SIDS and LDCs, it appears that support from the 
EU  is  still  limited  and  not  underpinned  by  a  dedicated  strategy,  although  this  might 
reflect a lack of prioritisation by the countries themselves when discussing cooperation 
opportunities306. 

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 Remaining challenges 

Non-tariff measures still complicate market access 

Market access for SIDS and LDCs’ seafood products is influenced both by tariff and non-
tariff measures. While the tariff measures imposed on seafood products entering the EU 
and  other  markets  have  been  gradually  decreasing  since  2010307,  the  non-tariff 
measures  still  represent  a  major  obstacle  for  developing  countries  when  it  comes  to 
increasing  their  share  of  the  international  seafood  market.  SIDS  and  LDCs  still  face 
challenges  in  complying  with  market  access  requirements  related  to  hygiene,  public 
health, animal health, resource sustainability, IUU fishing prevention and traceability, 
mainly due to their limited resources, capacity and infrastructure308. 

Lack of control and transparency hinder sustainable management of marine resources 

Lack  of  control  and  transparency  regarding  major  players’  fishing  activity  abroad, 
including  in  SIDS  and  LDCs,  is  still  a  major  issue  hampering  the  sustainable 
management  of  marine  resources  in  the  countries309.  The  EU  has  only  recently 
significantly  strengthened  its  oversight  of  its  external  fishing  fleet  by  revising  the 
Regulation on the sustainable management of external fishing fleets. However, the same 
ambition is not reflected by other third countries with fishing rights in the area, whose 
fishing practices have attracted criticism310.This represents a major issue when it comes 
to supporting the sustainable management of marine resources in SIDS and LDCs. 

Sustainable  fisheries  partnership  agreements  have  considerably  improved,  but  some 

challenges remain 

With  regards  to  the  SFPAs,  their  transition  from  strictly  commercial  agreements  to 
‘sustainable’  fisheries  instruments  has  been  welcomed  as  a  significant  step  forward. 
Doubts persist regarding the extent of their effectiveness in promoting the sustainable 
use of resources, as well as in providing economic benefits to local communities. Issues 
of concern mainly relate to: 

  The lack of transparency and capacity in measuring the status of local fish stocks 
and catch data: this makes it difficult to determine catch limits for the EU vessels 
based on scientific facts and ultimately challenges the sustainable management of 
the resources311; 

  The exact impact of the support provided under these agreements: the absence of 
indicators for measuring this impact challenges the assessment of the effectiveness 
of the instruments312, in particular in relation to the actual benefits derived by local 
communities313; 

  The  capacity  of  partner  countries  to  absorb  funding  provided  under  the 
instruments314,  as  well  as  consistency  between  funding  under  SFPAs  and 
development  funding315  influences  the  efficient  use  of  the  allocated  financial 
resources. 

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Fragmentation in development cooperation affects efficiency 

Ultimately,  development  cooperation  is  a  complex  strand  of  work,  fragmented  into 
several activities often led by different services and actors within the EU, and therefore 
ensuring consistency in these actions throughout still represents a challenge. This might 
affect the efficient allocation and use of funding. 

 Possible ways forward 

The  EU  could  use  its  leverage  to  push  for  increased  transparency  regarding  fishing 
activities  affecting  SIDS  and  LDCs’  marine  resources,  to  support  their  sustainable 
management.  This  could  be  done  by  building  on  existing  cooperation  activities  to 
establish dedicated  dialogue  with major  fishing players  to  address  this  issue. The  EU 
could  request  that  partner  countries  under  SFPAs  provide  information  on  all  other 
nations fishing within their EEZ in order to assess the status of fish stocks and determine 
the sustainable level of fishing efforts316. 

The EU could further strengthen and streamline the support it already provides to SIDS 
and  LDCs to  improve their capacity for sustainably managing their  marine  resources. 
This  strengthened  contribution  could  build  on  a  coherent  overarching  approach  or 
shared vision aimed at ensuring that the resources provided via different channels (for 
instance via the European Development Fund and EMFF) are consistent throughout and 
support the achievement of SDG14.7. This approach could potentially also address the 
impact of tourism, to ensure this sector expands while at the same time contributes to 
the sustainable use of local marine resources. 

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11.  SDG14.a – Scientific knowledge, research and 

technology for ocean health 

‘[Ocean]  action  can  only  be  effective  if  it  is  based  on  sound  knowledge  informed  by 
science’317. SDG14.a prompts countries around the world to increase their support for 
ocean  science,  research  capacity  development  and  marine  technology  transfer,  in 
particular for the benefit of developing countries, SIDS and LDC. It does not indicate a 
specific  target  value  or  timeframe  for  its  achievement,  but  rather  requires  states  to 
progressively increase their support for these issues on a continued basis. SDG14.a can 
be  considered  as  a  ‘means  of  implementation  target’,  as  progress  in  implementing 
SDG14.a  will  facilitate  progress  on  all  other  SDG14  targets,  as  well  as  wider  ocean-
related targets that can benefit from the advancement of ocean science as a whole. 

 State of play in achieving the target 

  What the indicators say 

The  indicator  for  measuring  SDG14.a  (Index  14.a.1)  is  the  annual  national  research 
budget  allocated  by  governments  to  the  field  of  marine  technology,  relative  to  the 
overall national governmental research and development budget in general318. To date, 
data  for  this  indicator  is  only  available  for  the  years  2009  to  2013  and  for  just  25 
countries319.  Over  this  period,  the  marine  technology  research  budget  in  the  five  EU 
countries for which data is available increased from 0.35% (2009) to 0.56% (2013) of 
the total research budget320. 

The data indicating an increase in research budget predates the adoption of the 2030 
Agenda. In general, ocean science funding remains modest and significant variations in 
expenditure  persist  among  countries  worldwide.  Some  countries  invested  less  than 
0.04% of their national research and development funding on ocean science in 2013, 
while others spent around 4%321. 

When  looking  at  other  indicators322,  the  EU  leads  efforts  to  support  ocean  science 
globally. EU Member States are among the top producers of ocean science publications, 
and  their  research outputs  are  also making a  substantial  impact, as  indicated by  the 
number of citations they receive. 

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Figure 11.1 Publications map of the world (2010–2014)323 

No official indicator is available for measuring the rate of transfer of marine technology 
worldwide,  therefore  it  is  not  possible  to  draw  conclusions  on  the  state  of  play  in 
achieving the target for this aspect of SDG14.a. 

  Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

Several EU policies support the development of marine knowledge and research capacity 

Research, science and innovation have always been at the centre of the EU approach to 
achieving the 2030 Agenda and SDG14.a. The importance of research and innovation 
was further stressed with the adoption of the European Green Deal324, where these 
two pillars  are  put  forward  as  drivers  of  the transition towards  a  climate  neutral and 
sustainable future for the EU. 

The EU research and innovation policy builds on three main goals: open innovation, 
open science and open to the world325. The EU Framework Programme for Research 
and  Innovation326  is  a  central  pillar  of  this  policy  and  it  plays  a  key  role  for  the 
development  of  marine  knowledge,  marine  and  fisheries  data  collection  and 
coordination, ocean observation in the EU, together with other instruments such as the 
European  Earth  Observation  Programme,  the  LIFE  programme327  and  the 
European Structural and Investment Funds328. 

Horizon 2020 is the largest EU research and innovation programme to date. Similar to 
Framework Programme 7, under Horizon 2020, over EUR 1 billion has been allocated 
to  marine  and  maritime  research329.  The  funded  projects  address  research  gaps  and 
further  the  science  in  several  areas,  including  marine  biodiversity  and  ecosystems, 
nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based approach to managing marine resources, 
climate-fit  MPAs,  a  sustainable  blue  economy,  sustainable  seafood,  coastal  resilience 
and  blue  carbon,  marine  pollution  including  marine  litter  and  underwater  noise,  bio-
based plastics and biodegradability in the circular economy, novel protein sources from 

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the ocean, marine stewardship, ocean observations, maritime spatial planning, as well 
as issues related to the standardisation of data collection. 

Zooming in, Horizon 2020 provides funding for SeaDataNet330, an online pan-European 
infrastructure that stores and manages large and diverse marine datasets collected by 
national  data  centres;  MarTera331,  the  ERA-NET  Cofund  scheme332  designed  to 
strengthen  coordination  and  cooperation  in  national  and  European  research  on 
maritime,  marine  technologies  and  growth;  JPI  Oceans333,  an  intergovernmental 
platform that encourages the long-term collaboration between EU Member States and 
associated countries on marine and maritime research in Europe. 

The role of European research and innovation in driving, navigating and accelerating the 
transformative Green Deal agenda through transparent, comprehensive and balanced 
scientific evidence and innovative solutions is being reinforced through the final Horizon 
2020 call on the Green Deal334, launched in 2020. 

In  addition  to  this,  in  2019,  the  Commission  presented  a  proposal  for  the  next 
programme, Horizon Europe, that will, for the first time, fund ocean research as part of 
a  dedicated  mission  in  the  area  of  ‘Healthy  oceans,  seas,  coastal  and  inland 
waters:  Mission  Starfish  2030’335.  This  official  recognition  of  the  oceans  as  an 
important  pillar  in  the  research  and  innovation  agenda  has  been  welcomed  as  very 
promising for the future of marine research by several of the stakeholders interviewed 
in the study. 

Building on this background, the EU is also envisaging the establishment of a European 
Partnership  under  Horizon  Europe  for  ‘A  climate  neutral,  sustainable  and 
productive  Blue  Economy336,  aimed  at  catalysing  the  transformation  of  Europe’s 
ocean economy towards climate neutral status by 2050. 

The EU Space Policy and EU space programmes such as Copernicus337 are major 
contributors  to  SDG14.a,  both  within  the  EU  and  worldwide.  In  particular,  the 
Copernicus  Marine  Environment  Monitoring  Service  provides  regular  and  systematic 
reference information (observations and models) on the physical state and on marine 
ecosystems. It provides data for the measurement of the ocean acidity, a pH indicator, 
as  well  as  an eutrophication  indicator.  It  also  publishes  an  annual  assessment of  the 
state of the global ocean, the Copernicus Ocean State Report. The Copernicus Maritime 
Surveillance  service  supports  the  monitoring  of  activities  at  sea,  and  the  Copernicus 
Climate Change Service provides climate data and information on impacts on sectoral 
areas relevant to SDG14, such as biodiversity, coastal areas and shipping. 

The  EMFF also contributes to  SDG14.a. Funding  for scientific advice under the  EMFF 
has increased in the past years, from EUR 8,680 million in 2015 to EUR 10,817 million 
in 2020338. 

The  EMFF  also  funds  the  European  Marine  Observation  and  Data  Network 
(EMODnet), the EU marine knowledge database, a network of organisations that links 
global and national databases to create an international marine data network providing 
open access to ocean data and products from Europe and beyond339. 

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The EU engages in several initiatives fostering the transfer of marine technology 

Although  the  EU  does  not  have  a  comprehensive  and  overarching  policy  on  marine 
technology transfer to developing countries, it engages in several projects involving the 
transfer of marine technology and marine research capacity-building activities towards 
these and other third countries in different sea basins. Relevant initiatives in this field 
are the ‘blue economy technology transfer programme’340 and the Global MTCC Network 
(GMN)341. 

The EU fosters international collaboration on marine research 

Following the adoption of the EU Maritime Strategy for the Atlantic Ocean Area in 2011, 
the  EU  has  worked  to  foster  cooperation  on  marine  research  and  innovation  with 
countries  bordering  the  Atlantic  by  adopting  four  major  instruments:  the  Galway 
Statement on Atlantic Ocean Cooperation with the United States and Canada; the Belém 
Statement  on  Atlantic  Research  and  Innovation  Cooperation342  with  Brazil  and  South 
Africa;  the  EU-Argentina  Administrative  Arrangement  on  Marine  Research  and 
Innovation  Cooperation  and  the  Mindelo  Arrangement  on  Marine  Research  and 
Innovation Cooperation with Cabo Verde. 

The  EU  has  made  significant  progress  towards  an  All-Atlantic  Ocean  Research 
Alliance343,  which  joins  efforts  undertaken  with  the  signing  of  the  European  Union–
United  States–Canada  Galway  Statement  on  Atlantic  Ocean  Cooperation,  and  the 
European Union– Brazil–South Africa Belém Statement on Atlantic Ocean Research and 
Innovation  Cooperation.  The  All-Atlantic  Ocean  Research  Alliance  supports  the 
implementation of the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the UN Decade 
of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development and delivers on the priorities such as the 
European Green Deal, the Horizon Europe Mission Healthy Oceans, Seas, Coastal and 
Inland  Waters  and  others. In this  context, the  adoption  of  the  Atlantic  Action  Plan 
2.0344 will reinforce cooperation on research, development and innovation among the 
partner countries of the Alliance. 

The BlueMed Research and Innovation Initiative, set up in the framework of the 
EU’s Blue Growth Strategy, promotes the development and alignment of the marine and 
maritime  research and  innovation agendas of  Mediterranean countries. As  outlined in 
the  implementation  plan345  adopted  in  June  2020,  several  joint  actions  will  be 
undertaken  to  give  implementation  to  this  objective,  including  the  establishment  of 
cooperation programmes, joint calls and task forces, training courses, workshops and 
conferences to facilitate the exchange of best practices and knowledge transfer. 

The Black Sea Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda346, launched in 2019, 
will, inter alia, foster the development  of multidisciplinary marine  research and data-
sharing  mechanisms;  build  on  research  infrastructure  for  ocean  observation  and 
monitoring, as well as promote education and capacity-building activities to address the 
research challenges of countries bordering the Black Sea. 

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The EU supports the development of marine research and monitoring capacity abroad 

The  Sustainable  Fisheries  Partnership  Agreements  the  EU  signs  with  partner 
countries  can  also  contribute  to  achieving  SDG14.a347.  Financial  contributions  under 
these  agreements  are  often  directed  towards  developing  scientific  knowledge  and 
capacity in the partner  countries, for instance  via the  financing  of studies, facilitating 
data collection and sharing, and the development of dedicated training courses. 

The EU supports partner countries in developing their capacity to monitor the oceans, 
with programmes such  as  PESCAO,  ECOFISH and CAPFISH, all  involving activities, 
inter  alia,  to  build  the  capacity  of  national  authorities  for  monitoring  fisheries 
resources348. 

The EU fosters data exchange with European and third countries. This happens in the 
context  of  the  Copernicus  programme  through  the  stipulation  of  data  cooperation 
agreements  and  the  financing  of  regional  projects.  Furthermore,  the  Commission  is 
working with international partners on access to and exchange of data, for example in 
the context of GEO/GEOSS/Blue Planet and IOC/IODE349. It is actively involved in the 
G7  Future  of  the  Seas  and  Oceans  Initiative350.  The  EU  is  developing  joint  action  to 
enable ocean data cooperation between the EU and China through EMODnet. 

The  EU  recognises  the  importance  of  underpinning  European  policies  with  sound 

scientific knowledge 

EU policy in all domains must be underpinned by sound scientific knowledge and a solid 
evidence  base.  This  is  also  recognised  by  the  7th  EAP351.  In  this  context,  the 
development  of  marine  knowledge  and  technology  has  come  to  be  a  cross-cutting 
objective fundamental to several EU policies. 

The  EU  has  recognised  the  importance  of  developing  sustainable  marine  policy 
underpinned  by  marine  scientific  research,  technology  and  innovation  since  the  early 
2000s352.  This  engagement  was  spelled  out  as  early  as  2008  in  the  Marine  and 
Maritime  Research  Strategy353,  which  promoted  integration  across  marine  and 
maritime research disciplines, including by fostering knowledge and technology transfer 
at  EU  level,  and  encouraged  the  development  of  the  EU’s  research  capacity  and  the 
leveraging  of  synergies  among  the  different  actors  involved  in  marine  and  maritime 
research. Objectives relating to the improvement of marine knowledge are also notably 
included  in  the  Integrated  Maritime  Policy354  and  Blue  Growth  Strategy355, 
underlining  how  increased  knowledge  of  the  seas  will  promote  growth  in  the  blue 
economy and the sustainable development of sea-based activities. 

Marine  data  collection  activities  mandated  by  EU  policy  play  a  crucial  role  in  the 

advancement of scientific knowledge 

The collection of marine and fisheries data in the context of monitoring and assessment 
activities plays a crucial role in the advancement of scientific knowledge of our oceans. 
Data collection and monitoring is provided for under different EU policy tools and carried 
out by multiple actors. 

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Under  the  MSFD356,  programmes  of  measures  must  be  devised  based  on  sound 
knowledge  of  the  marine  environment,  and  it  requires  Member  States  to  establish 
monitoring  programmes  to  regularly  assess  the  environmental status  of  their  marine 
waters. These programmes should measure the state of the marine environment, the 
achievement of environmental targets and the effectiveness of measures established to 
achieve them. Since its adoption, the MSFD has stimulated several research initiatives, 
for instance on marine litter and underwater noise, and its implementation has brought 
improved  knowledge  of  the  state  of  the  EU’s  marine  waters,  while  at  the  same  time 
identifying current knowledge gaps357. 

The Common Fisheries Policy358 prompts Member States to carry  out fisheries and 
aquaculture  research  and  innovation  programmes  and  to  coordinate  their  fisheries 
research  and  scientific  advice  programmes  with  other  Member  States.  Moreover,  the 
reformed  CFP  strengthens  the  science-policy  interface  aspect  of  EU  fishery  policy  by 
requiring Member States to collect and make available scientific data on fish stocks, and 
by requiring that measures to manage fish stocks are established  in  accordance  with 
the best available scientific advice. 

The renewed EU biodiversity strategy for 2030359 calls on Member States to invest 
in research, innovation and knowledge exchange, as well as to map and assess the state 
of ecosystems and their services in their national territory, including marine ecosystems. 

Regional  Fisheries  Management  Organisations and  Regional  Sea  Conventions 
are  often  involved  in  the  collection, analysis  and  dissemination of  marine  or  fisheries 
data and information, and they play a crucial role in the harmonisation of monitoring 
systems,  standardisation  and  the  comparability  of  data  and  indicators  utilised  by  EU 
Member States360. 

EU Member States play a crucial role in the achievement of SDG14.a 

While  acknowledging  the  substantial  contribution  of  the  EU  policy  framework  to  the 
achievement of SDG14.a, it is important to note that Member States play a crucial role 
within the context of this target. In fact, different sources report that up to 85%361 362 
of all funding for marine and maritime research and innovation in Europe comes from 
Member  States.  While  a  comprehensive  assessment  of  EU  Member  States’  resources 
invested in marine and fisheries research is not available at present, and the mapping 
of Member States’ policies uncovered few national policies that directly address SDG14.a 
(see the high-level assessment in Appendix 3 in the Supporting Materials document), 
several  stakeholders  interviewed  stated  that  this  financial  support  was  affected  by 
important national differences. 

What other observations can be made? 

As data for the SDG14.a indicator will be collected in 2020, and the information currently 
available dates back to 2013, it is not possible to draw conclusions on the achievement 
of the target on this basis. The growing list of EU initiatives and programmes aimed at 
fostering the creation and coordination of new scientific knowledge, the development of 
research capacity and knowledge and technology transfer seem to indicate, however, 
that  progress  on  SDG14.a  is  ongoing.  Building  on  a  solid  base  established  by  pre-

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existing policy tools and strategies, the EU has also progressively increased its efforts 
to enhance collaboration on marine research with third countries. 

Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that the ocean is the largest ecosystem on 
the  planet  and  remains  largely  unknown.  While  ocean  science  has  evolved  rapidly  in 
recent  years,  the  challenges  it  faces  are  also  growing  exponentially.  The  ocean  is 
increasingly exposed to multiple drivers of environmental change that include stressors 
acting concurrently363.  Against  this background,  the potential  for  improvement  in the 
EU  and  Member  States’  actions  to  achieve  SDG14.a  is  virtually  endless,  especially 
considering new challenges that keep arising. 

Despite the considerable efforts, knowledge and research capacity gaps persist in this 

field 

Scientific  knowledge  is  constantly  increasing  but  multiple  issues  remain  under-
researched. Global knowledge gaps364 365 mainly relate to the physical structure of the 
ocean; the composition and movement of the ocean’s waters; the organisms living in 
the deep seabed  or beyond the continental shelf, and the  ways  in which the  humans 
interact with the ocean. Issues that would benefit from further research in the EU366 367 
are listed in the figure below. 

Figure 11.2 Overview of research gaps 

Ocean  science  is  big  science,  in  that  it  requires  numerous  staff  and  large  and  costly 
equipment.  As  such,  ‘ocean  science  capacity,  both  human  and  technical,  depends  on 
the  financial  support  it  receives’368.  To  make  progress  on  SDG14.a,  important 
developments would be an expansion of the ocean observation infrastructure, to enable 
in-situ  observation  and  improve  monitoring  beyond  12 km  from  the  coast,  further 

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investments  in  the  training  of  scientific  advisers  and  policy-makers,  and  the 
development of educational opportunities in Member States.  

Unfortunately, significant disparities in terms of research capacity and infrastructure, as 
well as financial resources, persist both among EU Member States and between the EU 
and the rest of the world. The lack of long-term and sustained funding for ocean research 
and research infrastructure represents a considerable challenge for progress in this area 
as a whole. 

Collaboration  among  stakeholders  involved  in  the  development  and  use  of  marine 

knowledge can be improved 

  Science-science  collaboration:  While  a  considerable  number  of  collaborative 
initiatives in the field of ocean research and data collection already exist, these could 
be further strengthened to ensure efforts are not duplicated. Cooperation between 
natural and social sciences is also lacking, with many research communities working 
in silos, and this hinders the creation of much needed multidisciplinary solutions to 
the current problems faced by our oceans. 

  Science-policy  collaboration:  the  science-policy  interface  can  be  further 
strengthened,  together  with  the  uptake  of  scientific  data  and  advice  in  policy 
implementation.  These  are  important  elements  for  the  formulation  of  effective, 
efficient and sustainable policies supporting the achievement of SDG14. 

  Science-public collaboration: while public consultation processes are embedded 
in  the  EU  policy  framework  surrounding  the  achievement  of  SDG14,  public 
awareness on the current state  of  our oceans  and their importance  is still scarce. 
Citizen engagement is key to addressing the existing and upcoming challenges369, 
for instance marine litter, and further efforts must be taken to disseminate scientific 
information in order to stimulate societal mobilisation. 

 Remaining challenges 

The  lack  of  funding  and  prioritisation  of  ocean  science  has  affected  the 

advancement of knowledge 

To a large extent, the current knowledge and research capacity gaps, and in part also 
collaboration gaps, are attributed to the lack of sufficient funding370, and to the lack of 
prioritisation of marine research for several years, particularly for certain areas such as 
ocean  acidification.  In  a  context  of  increasing  pressures  on  public  budgets  and  of 
competing priorities to be tackled, funding for R&D in ocean science often fails to be at 
the forefront of policy-makers’ concerns. 

The  lack  of  a  coherent  and  overarching  marine  research  strategy  influences 

the efficient use of scarce resources 

In  addition  to  this,  funding  can  in  some  cases  be  inefficient  due  to  the  lack  of 
coordination  in  ocean  research  (i.e.  funding  might  be  allocated  to  similar  efforts),  or 

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inadequate to address ocean science needs (i.e. funding is not sufficiently long-term to 
sustain  certain  types  of  research  infrastructure).  The  absence  of  a  coherent  and 
overarching  marine  research  strategy  in  the  EU  that  coordinates  all  EU-wide  and 
national research programmes and data collection activities might also cause additional 
inefficiencies in the utilisation of existing resources. 

The effectiveness of the science-policy interface could be hindered by the lack, or poor 
utilisation, of appropriate communication channels, as well as by a poor understanding 
of scientific advice by policy-makers. 

 Possible ways forward 

To address the resources gap, alternative routes could be explored371 372, such as the 
combination of different sources of funding, the exploitation of synergies with the private 
sector or even crowdfunding. 

The  science-policy  interface  could  be  further  strengthened  by  reinforcing  existing 
communication processes and channels between the scientific community and policy-
makers, as well as by providing additional dedicated training to the latter. 

The  EU  could  create  an  overarching  ocean  research  strategy373  374,  since  different 
stakeholders agree that a ‘strategic, collective, holistic and flexible approach to ocean 
research’  should  be  sought  that  stimulates,  inter  alia,  the  development  of 
transdisciplinary  and  ‘sustainability  science’  and  the  coordination  of  all  efforts 
undertaken in the field of ocean science. This could also include a coordinated approach 
to  marine  technology  transfer  and  marine  research  partnerships  with  developing 
countries,  which  is  a  key  aspect  of  SDG14.a.  A  boost  to  adopt  such  an  overarching 
approach could come from the momentum created by the UN Decade of Ocean Science 
for  Sustainable  Development,  to  be  launched  in  2021,  which  aims  to  strengthen 
international collaboration on ocean science, as well as by the UN Ocean Conference, 
which will focus on promoting science-based innovative solutions to improve the health 
of the oceans. 

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12.  SDG14.b – Small-scale fisheries 

Small-scale  fisheries  make  a  strong  contribution  to  nutrition,  food  security,  local 
livelihoods,  national  economies  and  poverty  alleviation  in  many  countries,  especially 
developing  ones.  However,  they  often  have  to  compete  with  large-scale  fishing 
operations and other strong economic actors in tourism, aquaculture and energy375 for 
access  to  marine  resources.  Access  to  seafood  markets  can  also  be  complicated  for 
small-scale artisanal fishers, as they might lack the capacity and resources to comply 
with  standards  established  for  import  and  sale.  Against  this  background,  target  14.b 
urges countries to ensure small-scale artisanal fishers have access to marine resources 
and markets. This might include granting secure tenure and user rights, and providing 
support  to  enhance  the  capacity  of  these  actors  for  complying  with  market  access 
requirements or establishing preferential treatment for them376. Adopting provisions for 
the participation of small-scale artisanal fishers in fisheries management is also key to 
ensuring that their rights and voices are adequately taken into consideration in decision-
making processes377. 

 State of play in achieving the target 

  What the indicators say 

The  indicator  for  measuring  SDG  14.b  (Index  14.b.1)  is  progress  by countries  in  the 
degree  of  application  of  a 
legal/regulatory/policy/institutional  framework  that 
recognises and protects access rights for small-scale fisheries378. 

The  indicator  is  a  composite  indicator  calculated  based  on the  efforts  being made  by 
countries to implement selected key provisions of the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing 
Sustainable  Small-Scale  Fisheries  in  the  Context  of  Food  Security  and  Poverty 
Eradication (SSF Guidelines). This indicator measures the ‘access rights’ aspect of SDG 
Target 14.b. 

Data for this indicator are obtained from UNSTATS (2020)379. The figure below shows 
the score of EU Member States, compared to non-EU Member States for the year 2018 
(data for other years is not available). This overview shows that all EU countries receive 
a score of four out of five. In the absence of a clearly defined objective, it is not possible 
to indicate whether SDG14.b will be achieved. 

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Figure 12.1 Degree of application of a legal/regulatory/policy/institutional framework 
which recognises and protects access rights for small-scale fisheries (1 = lowest; 5 = 
highest) in 2018 (source UNSTATS, 2020) 

  Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

In the EU, small-scale fishers play a crucial role, particularly in the Mediterranean and 
in the Black Sea, where they represent over 84% of the fishing fleet380, as well as in the 
EU’s outermost regions, especially for food security and employment. Reportedly, one 
quarter of EU production in terms of value comes from small-scale fishers, and 60% of 
employment in fisheries in the EU is in small-scale fisheries. 

The Common Fisheries Policy is the main EU policy governing small-scale fisheries in 
general.  The  CFP  recognises  the  importance  of  ensuring  a  fair  standard  of  living  for 
small-scale fisheries, and it includes general considerations and guiding principles that 
are relevant for these actors381. 

The EMFF provides financial support for a broad variety of small-scale fishers, including 
start-up  support  to  young  fishers,  investments  on  board,  and  support  for  the 
diversification of activities and income. The EMFF also provides funding for the training 
of  small-scale  fishers  and  to  compensate  them  for  participating  in  conservation 
activities382.  It  also  includes  compensation  for  the  permanent  cessation  of  their 
activities,  where  this  is  necessary  to  restructure  fleet  segments  affected  by 
overcapacity.  Moreover, small-scale  fishers  are  eligible  for  a  higher  rate  of public aid 
compared to other beneficiaries. 

In September 2018, during a high-level conference on the future of sustainable small-
scale fisheries, 19 parties (the European Commission, EU Member States and non-EU 
countries)  of  the  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the  Mediterranean  adopted  a  10-
year  Regional  Plan  of  Action  for  sustainable  small-scale  fisheries  (RPOA-SSF)  in  the 
Mediterranean and the Black Sea region. 

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 Remaining challenges 

During the course of the study, sufficient information could not be identified for making 
an assessment. 

 Possible ways forward 

During the course of the study, sufficient information could not be identified for making 
an assessment. 

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13.  SDG14.c – international law of the sea 

SDG14.c  reiterates  the  importance  of  the  implementation  of  legal  obligations  under 
international  law,  also  as  reflected  in  UNCLOS383  to  enhance  the  conservation  and 
sustainable  use  of  oceans  and  their  resources.  This  can  be  regarded  as  a  ‘means  of 
implementation’ kind of target, as its fulfilment would help deliver on the other SDG14 
targets. This is because UNCLOS, often referred to as the ‘constitution of the oceans’384, 
establishes  the  overarching  legal  framework  governing  all  ocean  space,  its  uses  and 
resources.  When  the  Convention  entered  into  force  in  1994,  it  codified  longstanding 
customary law and introduced new rules to address upcoming concerns in the field of 
international ocean governance. Other than defining rights and obligations over different 
portions of the ocean space, the Convention binds states parties to protect and preserve 
the  marine  environment,  and  to  take  all  necessary  measures  to  prevent,  reduce  or 
control its pollution. Under the Convention, states parties must cooperate on a global 
and  regional  basis  to  develop  rules  for  the  protection  and  preservation  of  the 
environment,  as  well  as  to  advance  marine  research  and  monitor  pollution.  The 
obligation  to  provide  scientific  and  technical  assistance  to  developing  states  is  also 
enshrined  in  the  Convention.  As  a  framework  convention,  UNCLOS  provides  for  the 
development  of  other  instruments,  rules  and  standards  that  are  consistent  with  its 
provisions,  including  through  competent  international  organisations  at  global  and 
regional levels. 

 1.1 

State of play in achieving the target 

  What the indicators say 

The indicator for measuring SDG 14.c (Index 14.c.1) is defined as the number of countries making 
progress  in  ratifying,  accepting  and  implementing,  through  legal,  policy  and  institutional 
frameworks, ocean-related instruments that implement international law, as reflected in UNCLOS, 
for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans and their resources. In short, it is defined 
as the number of countries adopting international legal instruments for ocean conservation. Data 
collection for this indicator will begin in 2020 and will be repeated every 2–3 years: the metadata 
for this index is available in UNEP (2019)385. In the context of the data collection for this indicator, 
countries  will  be  asked  to  self-assess  their  progress  in  implementing  UNCLOS  and  its 
implementing agreements. 

All  EU  Member  States  and  the  EU  have  ratified  UNCLOS  and  its  two  implementing 
agreements.  This treaty  is  part  of  the  EU  acquis i.e.  the  body  of  obligations  that  are 
binding on all EU Member States. This means that all EU Member States have committed 
to the obligations under UNCLOS, a 100% score on indicator 14.c.1. 

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 Beyond the indicators 

What is the EU doing? 

The EU contributes to the implementation of UNCLOS both within and beyond its borders 

Ahead of the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, the EU already put in place a comprehensive 
policy framework for implementing UNCLOS provisions. 

The 2008 MSFD386 takes account of the obligations under UNCLOS and it translates its 
requirements to observe and measure the risks and effects of pollution on the marine 
environment, as well as obligations requiring states to take measures to prevent, reduce 
and  control  pollution  of  the  marine  environment.  The  MSFD387  implements  UNCLOS 
provisions  regarding  environmental  protection,  sustainable  fisheries  and  aquaculture, 
innovation  and  investment  in  marine  research.  By  emphasising  regional  cooperation, 
the MSFD388 facilitates cooperation between states to protect the marine environment, 
as  prescribed  by  UNCLOS389  and  in  close  cooperation  with  relevant  Regional  Sea 
Conventions. 

The Common Fisheries Policy390 is another centrepiece of the EU’s implementation of 
UNCLOS obligations, as it establishes a comprehensive framework to ensure that fishing 
and aquaculture are environmentally, economically and socially sustainable both within 
and beyond EU waters391. 

The  EU,  moreover,  contributes  to  the  long-term  sustainable  management  and 
conservation  of  fisheries  worldwide  by  strengthening  the  performance  of  existing 
Regional  Fisheries  Management  Organisations.  In  the  2017–2018  period,  the  EU 
provided EUR 17 million for improving governance, science and capacity building, and 
for strengthening compliance in the 17 RFMOs in which the EU participates392. 

Other relevant instruments contributing to the implementation of UNCLOS obligations 
are the  sustainable  fisheries  partnership  agreements393,  the  EU  Regulation  on 
the sustainable management of external fishing fleets394, the EU Regulation to 
prevent,  deter  and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated  fishing 
(IUU)395,  and  the  EU  Maritime  Security  Strategy  and  its  action  plan  (revised  in 
2018)396. 

The  EU  Research  Framework  Programme397,  the  LIFE  programme398  and  the 
European  Structural  and  Investment  Funds399  also  contribute 
the 
implementation  of  UNCLOS400  provisions  relating  to  the  obligation  to  develop  marine 
science, technology and infrastructure. 

to 

While this is not an obligation, UNCLOS mentions in its preamble that ‘the problems of 
ocean  space  are  closely  interrelated  and  need  to  be  considered  as  a  whole’.  In  this 
context, both the Integrated Maritime Policy401, the MSP Directive402 and integrated 
coastal management process serve to coordinate relevant policies affecting the ocean 
space,  and  as  such  support  the  EU  and  Member  States  in  effectively  complying  with 
their obligations under UNCLOS403. 

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In  addition  to  this,  the  EU  participates  in  the  implementation  of  UNCLOS  and  its 
implementing  agreements  by  funding  its  infrastructure  via  annual  contributions.  This 
includes  funding  to  various  RFMOS,  the  International  Seabed  Authority  and  the 
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea404. 

The EU undertakes substantial efforts to strengthen international ocean governance in 

multiple forums 

The most notable contribution of the EU to SDG14.c consists of its continuous work to 
strengthen  international  ocean  governance.  The  EU  is  actively  engaged  in 
international cooperation on ocean governance on a number of matters. It promotes the 
ratification of UNCLOS and other relevant agreements on ocean-related topics worldwide 
in bilateral and multilateral dialogue, and within the UN General Assembly. The EU drives 
discussions to enhance the protection of marine biodiversity under the Convention on 
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)405 and UN CBD406. Moreover, the EU 
actively  supports  cooperation  between  international  and  regional  organisations, 
including  the  International  Labour  Organization  (ILO),  International  Maritime 
Organization (IMO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Regional Sea Conventions 
(RSCs) and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs) at various levels407. 
The  EU  is  party to  every  international  legal  instrument  in  existence  on  ocean-related 
topics, and it plays a very active role in promoting their implementation worldwide. 

The  EU  plays  an  instrumental  role  in  filling  existing  gaps  in  the  international  legal 

framework 

Notably, the EU also plays an instrumental role in filling gaps in the existing international 
ocean  governance  framework,  to  supplement  UNCLOS  provisions.  It  supported  the 
development  of  instruments  such  as  the  agreement  to  promote  compliance  with 
international  conservation  and  management  measures  by  fishing  vessels  on  the  high 
seas,  adopted  by  the  FAO  in  1993;  the  Code  of  Conduct  for  Responsible  Fisheries, 
adopted by the FAO Conference in November 1995408, the FAO Agreement on Port State 
Measures409 and the 2018 Agreement to prevent unregulated high seas fisheries in the 
Central  Arctic  Ocean410.  At  present,  the  EU  is  leading  discussions  on  an  international 
legally binding instrument under UNCLOS for the conservation and sustainable use of 
the  marine  biodiversity  of  areas  beyond  national  jurisdiction  (BBNJ).  The  new 
agreement will aim to encourage a more holistic management of activities and marine 
resources in the high seas, and it will focus particularly on promoting the sharing of the 
benefits  of  marine  genetic  resources,  the  establishment  of  area-based  management 
tools, the use of environmental impact assessments in these areas and on strengthening 
capacity  building  and  the  transfer  of  marine  technology  to  developing  countries. 
Dialogue around this instrument was initiated in the context of the UN General Assembly 
in 2004, and negotiations are still ongoing411. While the COVID-19 pandemic has led to 
the postponement of the fourth session of the BBNJ negotiations, the EU continues its 
work online and the stakeholders interviewed confirm it has been instrumental in the 
progress made so far in the negotiations. The EU is also playing an active role in the 
process to agree a Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework under the CBD412. 

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In  terms  of  technical  assistance  and  capacity  building,  the  EU  is  engaged  in  several 
programmes supporting sustainable fisheries and aquaculture, MPAs, the blue economy, 
maritime security, and maritime transport in developing countries. These programmes 
are  mostly  financed  by  the  EMFF,  the  EU  Development  Policy  and  EU  Research 
Framework Programme. The scope of sustainable fisheries partnership agreements has 
also been extended, and as such they contribute to building the capacity of developing 
states  in  favour  of  the  conservation  and  sustainable  management  of  marine 
resources413. 

Most of the instruments and programmes mentioned above have been in place for years, 
before the adoption of the 2030 Agenda. The EU has been a leading actor in this field, 
and it has explicitly pushed for the inclusion of SDG14.c in the Agenda itself. 

What other observations can be made? 

In  practice,  implementing  SDG14.c  requires  more  than  a  formal  ratification  of  the 
above-mentioned legal instruments. States must effectively implement the obligations 
stemming from UNCLOS by creating a legal framework to transpose these within their 
jurisdictions. SDG14.c, moreover, entails a continued effort to strengthen international 
ocean  governance  by  raising  awareness  about  UNCLOS  and  the  related  agreements, 
filling the gaps in the international framework for the  oceans, improving coordination 
and  cooperation  between  international  organisations,  and  by  supporting  developing 
countries with technical assistance and capacity building. 

Achieving SDG14.c requires a continuous effort 

It is difficult to link the achievement of SDG14.c to a specific result, as this target rather 
entails a continuous effort in implementing the existing international ocean governance 
framework  for engaging  with  third  countries  to develop  it  further. This  is an  ongoing 
exercise  whose  scope  keeps  expanding,  as  the  challenges  faced  by  the  oceans  keep 
adding up and  requiring a continuous  update of the  international  legal framework  for 
ocean governance. 

There is room for improvement in the international ocean governance framework 

There are few indications of concrete gaps in the achievement of SDG14.c. Despite this, 
areas where improvements could be beneficial to further progress with SDG14.c have 
been identified: 

  The  international  legal  framework  for  the  oceans  is  incomplete.  Further 
developments are needed, for instance to regulate the areas of seabed mining and 
the use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction414. 

  The current  state  of  the  oceans  indicates that  the  implementation  of  the  relevant 
international agreements is still lacking. The EU is still lagging behind on objectives 
regarding  sustainable  fishing  and  effective  protection  under  MPAs,  and  illegal 
activities are still taking place in European seas415. 

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  Coordination  between  different  legal  instruments  regulating  the  oceans  could  be 

enhanced416. 

 Remaining challenges 

The fragmentation of the ocean governance framework, with multiple actors and levels 
of  jurisdiction  involved  in  the  implementation  of  existing  international  commitments, 
together with the multiple international legal instruments to comply with, may hamper 
the implementation by the Member States, which have to juggle competing priorities417. 
In addition to this, stakeholders often fail to see the benefits of implementing certain 
legal obligations, and this affects their application on the ground. Poor law enforcement 
and  accountability,  as  well  as  illegal  and  criminal  activities  at  sea,  also  affect  the 
implementation of existing international legal instruments, particularly in sectors where 
progress is still slow.  

 Possible ways forward 

The EU is already playing a leading role in most multilateral negotiations to close the 
existing regulatory gap in international ocean governance, e.g. on the conservation and 
sustainable use of the marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction 
(BBNJ)  and  the  post-2020  global  framework  for  biodiversity.  The  EU  should  build  on 
these  efforts  and  intensify  the  work  in  this  area,  perhaps  by  allocating  additional 
resources to the negotiation exercise, to ensure that an agreement is reached in due 
course. 

To address the implementation gap, the EU could further support the strengthening of 
coordination between  different  international  organisations  responsible  for  the  oceans. 
The  EU  always  aims  to  ensure  coherence  between  its  internal  and  external  policies. 
These efforts should be continued418, for instance by increasing the interactions among 
the decision makers in charge of their development and implementation, together with 
dedicated consistency  checks.  In addition to  this, it  could  increase  support  (including 
financial) for the effective implementation of existing international legal obligations, and 
identify  innovative  ways  to  monitor  compliance,  such  as  by  utilising  new  available 
technologies. 

Improved ocean literacy and the dissemination of scientific knowledge on the status of 
the  oceans  and  of  the  impacts  of  existing  ocean-related  challenges  could  stimulate 
stakeholder  buy-in.  In  addition  to  this,  enhanced  stakeholder  engagement  in  the 
preparation and implementation of ocean-related international agreements could benefit 
compliance.  This  could,  moreover,  facilitate  the  emergence  of  complementary 
governance arrangements such as voluntary commitments by relevant stakeholders419. 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

14.  High-level assessment and horizontal 

recommendations 

The high-level assessment is structured around the Better Regulation evaluation criteria, 
to  provide  a  summarised  holistic  view  of  the  contribution  of  EU  policies  towards 
achieving SDG14. 

 Relevance 

The high-level assessment  of  relevance  considers  whether the  policies  in place  at  EU 
and Member State level are aligned with SDG14 and other ocean-related targets in the 
2030  Agenda.  Although  most  major  policies  predate  the  2030  Agenda,  the  analysis 
undertaken shows a strong link between EU policies and ocean-related targets. Since 
the  adoption  of  the  2030  Agenda,  policies  have  further  evolved  or  been  adopted  to 
better address the  issues facing the oceans, within the  EU and beyond. For  instance, 
the international ocean governance agenda420 was adopted in 2016 and forms part 
of  the  EU’s  response  to  the  2030  Agenda.  Several  pieces  of  legislation  have  been 
adopted in recent years to complete the framework promoting the conservation of fish 
stocks, such as the Technical Measures Regulation421, the SMEF Regulation422 and 
the  Port  Reception  Facilities  Directive423.  Overall,  no  significant  policy  gaps  have 
been identified in the study and the remaining challenges relate more to the proper and 
effective implementation of existing policies. 

 Effectiveness 

Conducting a high-level assessment of the contribution of the EU and its Member States 
to the achievement of SDG14 and other ocean-related targets is challenging. If we base 
the assessment on the agreed indicators for SDG14 targets, most appear unlikely to be 
met by the stipulated timelines, indicating that the contribution of EU policies to SDG14 
achievement is moderate. If we look beyond the SDG14 indicators, it can be concluded 
that the EU and its Member States have been taking, and continue to take, strong action 
to improve the status of the marine environment, with tangible results in areas such as 
the restoration of certain fish stocks and the establishment of MPAs. However, we are 
still far from reversing the negative trends, and continued strong and urgent efforts will 
be  necessary  to  protect  the  oceans  within  the  EU  and  beyond.  Tangible  results  and 
impacts  have  yet  to  materialise  on  issues  such  as  reducing  pollution  and  ocean 
acidification if the related SDG14 targets are to be achieved within the set deadlines. 
Continued and concerted EU action to implement the existing policies will therefore be 
needed to achieve the SDG14 targets. 

 Efficiency 

Considerable investments are being made from the EU budget and in Member States to 
implement the policies that are contributing to achieving SDG14. While no quantitative 
estimates are possible between investments towards different SDG14 targets, no clear 
funding gaps have been identified in the study. While an increase in funding would of 
course be welcome in a context where challenges continue to emerge and accumulate, 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

particularly  in  the  areas  of  ocean  research  and  law  enforcement,  consultations  with 
stakeholders indicate that the lack of funding is not considered a major issue. Rather, 
they point to the need to better coordinate the allocation of funding to ensure that the 
resources available are put to good use. 

 Coherence 

The  EU  has  relevant  policies  in  place  that  contribute  to  all  targets  under  SDG14  and 
other ocean-related targets. No major gaps were identified in the policy framework that 
could  hamper  achievement  of  those  targets.  Minor  gaps  include  a  missing  coherent 
framework for monitoring and addressing ocean acidification. 

The study found that sometimes coherence is lacking in policy implementation between 
the different policy areas and governance levels. There is a need to better streamline or 
focus the objectives of sectoral policies and the efforts of all the actors involved at EU, 
Member State and regional levels. 

No overarching EU framework or strategy exists for the achievement of SDG14, and the 
different targets are  implemented through a plethora  of different policy tools.  Such a 
framework  document  could  potentially  be  beneficial  to  provide  guidance  on  coherent 
policy  implementation  and  perhaps  even  future  policy-making  through  a  number  of 
high-level objectives. At the same time, it should be kept in mind that SDG14 is part of 
the indivisible and interconnected 2030 Agenda. 

 EU added value 

Effective  actions  to  achieve  SDG14  require  mobilisation  globally,  since  oceans  are  a 
shared  resource.  Likewise,  unilateral  action  at  Member  State  level  would  likely  be 
ineffective towards achieving SDG14. Hence, there is clear added value from EU policies 
in guiding and leading the process. In addition, the economic activities derived from the 
oceans (fisheries, aquaculture, tourism) give the EU a strong role as an economic zone, 
to lead and pave the way towards more sustainable use of the oceans. 

 Horizontal recommendations 

  Within EU borders 

The science-policy interface is crucial in the implementation of SDG14, and the policy 
framework needs to be flexible. Ocean-related policy-making must follow scientific advice. As 
scientific understanding on oceans continues to evolve, the policy framework needs to be adapted 
accordingly.  Moreover,  pressures  on  the  oceans  are  intensifying,  and  this  requires  policies  to 
evolve at the same pace to address them. However, for the science-policy interface to be effective, 
this requires the political will to ensure implementation of scientific advice. 

Efforts  to  further  define  SDG14  indicators  for  the  EU  context  would  benefit  the 
monitoring  of  progress.  At  present,  Eurostat  only  assesses  part  of  SDG14  targets  (some 
aspects of SDG14.1 and SDG14.4, and SDG14.3, SDG14.5). Given the importance that monitoring 
status and trends have for the development of appropriate policies to address current challenges, 
additional  efforts  could  be  undertaken  to  further  define  SMART424  indicators  for  measuring 
progress towards the achievement of all SDG14 targets in the EU context. 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

The EU policy framework contributing to the achievement of SDG14 is comprehensive, 
but  implementation  and  enforcement  still  seem  to  be  lacking  in  some  cases.  The 
assessment has found no major gaps in the policy framework that is highly relevant for addressing 
all targets of SDG14. The EU and Member States should refocus efforts on implementation and 
enforcement of existing policies. Results-based management should be encouraged. 

Member States heavily rely on the EU policy framework, and rarely go beyond what is 
required in ocean-related policies. The quality of Member States’ environmental governance 
systems also affects implementation of the existing policy framework for SDG14. 

Transparency and inclusiveness are key. The successful implementation of ocean-
related  policies  relies  heavily  on  the  buy-in  and  engagement  of  stakeholders.  These 
actors must be included in the decision-making processes, and greater efforts to share 
the objectives and results of policies with them are needed. Greater investments in 
ocean  literacy  and  communication  are  fundamental  in  this  context,  to  enhance  the 
common understanding of ocean-related challenges and to reinforce the engagement of 
all citizens. 

Funding plays a role in supporting the achievement of SDG14. Nevertheless, the 
EU has disbursed considerable funds in recent years, and the appropriate allocation of 
the existing resources appears to be more of a priority than increasing the funds. 

  External dimension 

SDG14 cannot be achieved within the EU if it is not achieved worldwide. The ocean is a 
shared resource and, in most cases, action needs to be taken at international level for it to have 
a  meaningful  impact.  It  is  crucial  that  a  global  level  playing  field  is  created,  to  promote  fair 
competition  between  the  EU  and  other  economic  operators.  The  EU  example,  for  instance  on 
issues such as the fight against IUU fishing, often stimulates neighbouring countries to enhance 
their environmental standards, and this cooperation should be further cultivated. In this context, 
the  interests  of  developing  countries  must  be  afforded  due  consideration,  and  the  EU’s 
international ocean governance agenda425 was welcomed as a very powerful and successful tool 
for international cooperation. 

The  EU  must  lead  by  example  and  use  its  leverage  to  foster  global  progress  in  the 
achievement of SDG14. The EU has emerged as the ‘sustainable development champion’ in the 
international arena, and to continue playing its current leading role in international discussions 
and processes, it needs to  lead by  example. The unity of Member  States  gives the  EU notable 
strength at the negotiating table, and this influence could be used more strategically in the global 
arena to bring ocean-related issues to the centre of political and diplomatic dialogue. 

The EU should take the lead on ocean-related issues currently excluded from SDG14. 
SDG14 focuses mostly on fisheries and conservation, but it overlooks other major marine issues 
such  as  ocean  warming,  and  generally  activities  in  areas  beyond  national  jurisdiction.  The  EU 
should lead discussions on these issues that will need to be addressed in the future. 

Regional organisations are crucial players for the achievement of SDG14. The 
regional  approach  is  particularly  useful  because  it  enables  coverage  of  entire 
ecosystems, while at the same time regions are sufficiently locally attached and small-
scale to involve all relevant stakeholders. Regional organisations in the EU are fairly well 
developed. Currently, four RSC are active in the European seas, and the EU participates 
in  17  RFMO426.  Although  there  are  good  examples  of  regional cooperation  in  Europe, 
further issues on which enhanced cooperation and coordination are needed should be 
identified,  for  instance  on  matters  relating  to  environmental  monitoring  and  fisheries 

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ocean-related Agenda 2030 targets 

governance, and this exercise should also be undertaken with regards to cooperation at 
international level. 

98 

 
References

 
 
1  IPCC  (2019)  Changing  Ocean,  Marine  Ecosystems,  and  Dependent  Communities 
Coordinating, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. 
Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/  

2  UN  (2019)  Global  Sustainable  Development  Report  2019,  Global  Sustainable 
at: 
Development 
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pd
f 

Available 

Report 

2019. 

The 

3 
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version 

latest 

2020 

from 

can 

be 

found 

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The 

latest 

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version 

found 

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5 The indicators used by Eurostat for the assessment do not cover all the SDG 14 targets. 

6  The  lack  of  sufficient  data refers to  the  lack  of time  series  for  more than  25%  of  the 
indicators. Eurostat (2020) Sustainable development in the European Union — Overview 
of  progress  towards  the  SDGS  in  an  EU  context  —  2020  edition.  Available  at : 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4031688/11010788/KS-01-20-192-EN-N.pdf/ae63aff0-
a6f3-1d47-da83-c6886b9daaab  

7  See:  Sustainable  Development  Solutions  Network  and  IEEP  (2019)  2019  Europe 
Sustainable  Development  Report.  Available  at :  https://www.sdgindex.org/reports/2019-
europe-sustainable-development-report/  

8 The ICEP sub-indicator (14.1.1a) refers to the inputs of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus 
and silica) from rivers; the FPDD sub-indicator (14.1.1b) refers to the modelled macro and 
micro plastics distribution in the ocean. 

9 Bathing water quality is assessed according to standards for microbiological parameters 
(intestinal enterococci and Escherichia coli) 

10  Eurostat  (2020)  Eurostat  Statistics  Explained  -  SDG  14  -  Life  below  water  (statistical  annex). 
Available 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=SDG_14_-
_Life_below_water_%28statistical_annex%29#Bathing_sites_with_excellent_water_quality 
Accessed 22-02-2020. 

at: 

11 Contaminants in this context include synthetic chemical substances and heavy metals. 
See EEA (2019) Contaminants in Europe’s for a detailed description. The report is available 
at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/contaminants-in-europes-seas 

12 Under this category the report looks predominantly at plastic litter. 

13 See https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/zero-pollution-action-plan_en 

14 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

 
 
 
 
                                            
15 Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 
establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. Available at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000L0060 

16 Directive 2008/105/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 
2008  on  environmental  quality  standards  in  the  field  of  water  policy,  amending  and 
subsequently  repealing  Council  Directives  82/176/EEC,  83/513/EEC,  84/156/EEC, 
84/491/EEC, 86/280/EEC and amending Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
and 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32008L0105 

Available 

Council. 

the 

at: 

of 

17 Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment. 
Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31991L0271 

18 Commission Staff Working Document Evaluation of the Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 
21 May 1991, concerning  urban waste-water treatment  SWD(2019) 700 final.  Available 
at: 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-
urbanwaste/pdf/UWWTD%20Evaluation%20SWD%20448-701%20web.pdf 

19  Council  Directive  of  12  December  1991  concerning  the  protection  of  waters  against 
pollution  caused  by  nitrates  from  agricultural  sources  (91/676/EEC).  Available  at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1561542776070&uri=CELEX:01991L0676-20081211 

20  Regulation  (EU)  No  1306/2013  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  17 
December 2013 on the financing, management and monitoring of the common agricultural 
policy  and  repealing  Council  Regulations  (EEC)  No  352/78,  (EC)  No  165/94,  (EC)  No 
2799/98,  (EC)  No  814/2000,  (EC)  No  1290/2005  and  (EC)  No  485/2008.  Available  at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1306 

information  on 

the  Common  Agricultural  Policy  please 
For  more 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/key-policies/common-agricultural-
policy/cap-glance_en#legalfoundations   

see: 

21 Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 
2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control). Available at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32010L0075 

22  Decision  No  1386/2013/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  20 
November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, 
within 
limits  of  our  planet’.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32013D1386 

the 

23 REACH stands for Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals. 

24 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  European  Union  Strategic  Approach  to 
final.  Available  at: 
Pharmaceuticals 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-
dangersub/pdf/strategic_approach_pharmaceuticals_env.PDF 

the  Environment  COM 

(2019)  128 

in 

25 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
26 For instance: Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 
November  2008  on  waste  and  repealing  certain  Directives.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0098 

27  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Closing the 
loop  -  An  EU  action  plan  for  the  Circular  Economy  COM/2015/0614  final.  Available  at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52015DC0614 

28  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions a European 
Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy COM (2018) 28 final. Available at: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2018%3A28%3AFIN 

29 Directive (EU) 2019/883 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 
on  port  reception  facilities  for  the  delivery  of  waste  from  ships,  amending  Directive 
2010/65/EU  and 
repealing  Directive  2000/59/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32019L0883 

30 Council Regulation (EC) No 1224/2009 of 20 November 2009 establishing a Community 
control  system  for  ensuring  compliance  with  the  rules  of  the  Common  Fisheries  Policy, 
amending Regulations (EC) No 847/96, (EC) No 2371/2002, (EC) No 811/2004, (EC) No 
768/2005,  (EC)  No  2115/2005,  (EC)  No  2166/2005,  (EC)  No  388/2006,  (EC)  No 
509/2007,  (EC)  No  676/2007,  (EC)  No  1098/2007,  (EC)  No  1300/2008,  (EC)  No 
1342/2008 and repealing Regulations (EEC) No 2847/93, (EC) No 1627/94 and (EC) No 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
at: 
1966/2006. 
content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32009R1224 

Available 

31 Directive (EU) 2019/904 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 June 2019 
on the reduction of the impact of certain plastic products on the environment. Available 
at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2019/904/oj 

32 For this analysis, Europe's seas were divided into grid cells of 20 × 20 km2 in coastal 
waters  and  100  ×  100  km2  in  offshore  areas  and  then  the  chemical  status  assessed 
through a model. Problem areas are defined as areas ‘if there is evidence of an undesirable 
disturbance to the marine ecosystem due to inputs of contaminants’. The full methodology 
is  described 
in  Europe’s  seas.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/contaminants-in-europes-seas 

in  EEA  (2019)  Contaminants 

33 Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 
establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. Available at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000L0060 

34 EEA (2018) European waters: assessment of status and pressures 2018. Available at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/state-of-water 

35 Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation 
of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) COM/2020/259 final. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

36  EEA  (2019)  Nutrient  enrichment  and  eutrophication  in  Europe’s  seas.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nutrient-enrichment-and-eutrophication-in 

37 Problem areas in this context are defined as “areas affected by eutrophication”. The full 
methodology  is  described  in  EEA  (2019)  Nutrient  enrichment  and  eutrophication  in 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
Europe’s 
enrichment-and-eutrophication-in 

Available 

seas. 

at: 

https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nutrient-

38  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

39 Eurostat (2020) Sustainable Development in the European Union: Overview of Progress 
towards 
at: 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-catalogues/-/KS-01-20-192 

Available 

Context. 

SDGs 

the 

EU 

an 

in 

40 EEA (2020) The European environment — state and outlook 2020. Page 136. Available 
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EEA 

41 
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Europe’s 

(2019) 

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Available 

at: 

42  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
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43 Environment Links UK (2019) Marine Strategy Part One: UK Updated Assessment and 
Good 
at : 
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pdf  

Environment 

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Europe’s 

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in 

Available 

at: 

45  Regulation  (EC)  No  1907/2006  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  18 
December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of 
Chemicals  (REACH),  establishing  a  European  Chemicals  Agency,  amending  Directive 
1999/45/EC  and  repealing  Council  Regulation  (EEC)  No  793/93  and  Commission 
Regulation  (EC)  No  1488/94  as  well  as  Council  Directive  76/769/EEC  and  Commission 
Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC. Available at: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32006R1907 

46  Regulation  (EC)  No  1907/2006  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  18 
December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of 
Chemicals  (REACH),  establishing  a  European  Chemicals  Agency,  amending  Directive 
1999/45/EC  and  repealing  Council  Regulation  (EEC)  No  793/93  and  Commission 
Regulation  (EC)  No  1488/94  as  well  as  Council  Directive  76/769/EEC  and  Commission 
Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC. Available at: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32006R1907 

47 Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation 
of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) COM/2020/259 final. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

EEA 

48 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/contaminants-in-europes-seas 

Contaminants 

Europe’s 

(2019) 

seas. 

in 

Available 

at: 

49  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

50 Municipal and industrial sources. 

51  EEA  (2019)  Nutrient  enrichment  and  eutrophication  in  Europe’s  seas.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nutrient-enrichment-and-eutrophication-in 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
52  EEA  (2019)  Nutrient  enrichment  and  eutrophication  in  Europe’s  seas.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nutrient-enrichment-and-eutrophication-in 

53  Kirschke,  Sabrina  &  Häger,  Astrid  &  Kirschke,  Dieter  &  Völker,  Jeanette  (2019). 
Agricultural Nitrogen Pollution of Freshwater in Germany. The Governance of Sustaining A 
Complex Problem. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/11/12/2450/htm 

54 Directive (EU) 2019/883 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 
on  port  reception  facilities  for  the  delivery  of  waste  from  ships,  amending  Directive 
2010/65/EU  and 
repealing  Directive  2000/59/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32019L0883 

55 Directive (EU) 2019/904 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 June 2019 
on the reduction of the impact of certain plastic products on the environment. Available 
at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2019/904/oj 

56 Directive (EU) 2019/883 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 
on  port  reception  facilities  for  the  delivery  of  waste  from  ships,  amending  Directive 
2010/65/EU  and 
repealing  Directive  2000/59/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32019L0883 

57 Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation 
of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) COM/2020/259 final. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

58 E.g. the recent Blue2 study which was supporting a wider effort to build up a Europe-
wide capacity for the integrated assessment modelling of policies that affect the quality of 
the freshwater and marine environment 

EEA 

59 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/contaminants-in-europes-seas 

Contaminants 

Europe’s 

(2019) 

seas. 

in 

Available 

at: 

60  For  more  information,  see:  https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/key-
policies/common-agricultural-policy/cap-glance_en 

61 European Commission (2019) Evaluation of the Impact of the CAP on Water, Executive 
Summary. 
at : 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/food-farming-
fisheries/key_policies/documents/ext-eval-water-exe-sum_2020_en.pdf  

Available 

62  For  more  information,  see:  https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/key-
policies/common-agricultural-policy/cap-glance_en 

63  The  full  methodology  for  the  indicator  available  at  UNEP  (2018).  Global  Manual  on  Ocean 
Statistics: towards a definition of indicator methodologies. United Nations Environment Programme 
URL: 
(UNEP), 
https://environmentlive.unep.org/media/docs/statistics/egm/global_manual_on_ocean_statistics_t
owards_a_definition_of_indicator_methodologies.pdf, accessed 28-05-2020 

Nairobi, 

Kenia. 

The detailed metadata for the index  available at UNEP (2019). SDG Indicators Metadata Repository. 
URL: 
Nairobi, 
United 
https://environmentlive.unep.org/media/docs/projects/metadata_14_2_1.pdf 

Environment 

Programme 

(UNEP), 

Nations 

Kenya. 

64 Some approaches exist which are, however, usually proxies. For example, the UK Office 
for National Statistics (ONS) uses, for now, the proportion of protected areas at sea as a 
proxy for indicator 14.2.1. 

65 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

66 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

67 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

68 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and 
of  wild 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

Available 

fauna 

flora. 

and 

at: 

69 Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 
2009  on  the  conservation  of  wild  birds.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32009L0147 

70 Directive 2014/89/EU  of the  European Parliament and of the  Council of 23 July 2014 
establishing  a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

71 Directive 2014/89/EU  of the  European Parliament and of the  Council of 23 July 2014 
establishing  a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

72 Directive 2014/89/EU  of the  European Parliament and of the  Council of 23 July 2014 
establishing  a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

73  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1547133726973&uri=CELEX:32013R1380 

74 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

75  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1380 

76  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  European  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions (2019) The European 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
Available 
Green 
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1576150542719&uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN 

Deal. 

at: 

77  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
Bringing  nature  back 
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380 

(COM/2020/380 

into  our 

lives 

final).Available  at:  https://eur-

78 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing 
a  framework  for  community  action  in  the  field  of  marine  environmental  policy  (Marine  Strategy 
Framework 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

Directive). 

Available 

at 

: 

79 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at  :  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

80  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the 
implementation  of  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive  (Directive  2008/56/EC) 
COM/2020/259 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

Available 

final. 

at: 

81 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild 
fauna 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

Available 

flora. 

and 

at: 

82 Reporting period 2013 – 2018. 

83  EEA  (2020)  Conservation  status  and  trends  of  habitats  and  species.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-nature-in-the-eu/article-17-national-
summary-dashboards/conservation-status-and-trends Accessed: 20 August 2020 

84 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and 
of  wild 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

Available 

fauna 

flora. 

and 

at: 

85 The five marine regions are: North-east Atlantic Ocean (MATL), Baltic Sea (MBAL), Black 
Sea (MBLS), Macaronesian Sea (MMAC), Mediterranean Sea (MMED). 

86 Directive 2014/89/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 establishing 
a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

87 Directive 2014/89/EU  of the  European Parliament and of the  Council of 23 July 2014 
establishing  a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

88 Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation 
of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) COM/2020/259 final. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

89  After  “Development,  construction  and  use  of  residential,  commercial,  industrial  and 
recreational infrastructure and areas”. 

90 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and 
of  wild 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

Available 

fauna 

flora. 

and 

at: 

EEA 

(2020) 

91 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-nature-in-the-eu/article-17-
national-summary-dashboards/main-pressures-and-threats Accessed: 20 August 2020 

pressures 

Available 

threats. 

Main 

and 

at: 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
92 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at  :  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

93 Baltic Sea: seafloor damage,  incidental by-catch. North Sea: fisheries (including sea-
floor damage). Mediterranean Sea: overfishing. Black Sea: sea-floor damage, overfishing. 

94 Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation 
of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) COM/2020/259 final. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

95 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and 
of  wild 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

Available 

fauna 

flora. 

and 

at: 

EEA 

(2020) 

96 
pressures 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-nature-in-the-eu/article-17-national-
summary-dashboards/main-pressures-and-threats Accessed: 20 August 2020 

Available 

threats. 

Main 

and 

at: 

97  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

98 Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and 
of  wild 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

Available 

fauna 

flora. 

and 

at: 

99  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

100 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at  :  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

101 It should be noted that for most descriptors no quantitative threshold values have been defined 
yet. 

102  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  assessing 
Member States' programmes of measures under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive 
COM/2018/562 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2018:562:FIN&qid=1533034580736 

Available 

final. 

at: 

103  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

104 Carbon emissions refers to carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas (GHG). Carbon 
dioxide (CO2) is the baseline greenhouse gas that is used as a benchmark for other gasses. 

105 European  Parliament  (2019)  EU  Environment  and Climate  Change Policies -  State  of 
play, 
at: 
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/638428/IPOL_STU(2019)6
38428_EN.pdf 

challenges. 

Available 

current 

future 

and 

106  The  detailed  metadata  for  this  index  is  available  in  UNEP  (2019).  SDG  Indicators 
Metadata  Repository.  United  Nations  Environment  Programme  (UNEP),  Nairobi,  Kenya. 
URL: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-03-01.pdf  

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
107  UN  General  Assembly,  United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  : 
resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 20 January 1994, A/RES/48/189. Available 
at: 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/applicati
on/pdf/conveng.pdf 

108 UNFCCC (1997) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change  adopted  at  COP3  in  Kyoto,  Japan,  on  11  December  1997.  Available  at: 
https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/cop3/l07a01.pdf 

109  UN  General  Assembly,  United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  : 
resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 20 January 1994, A/RES/48/189. Available 
at: 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/applicati
on/pdf/conveng.pdf 

110 UNFCCC (1997) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change  adopted  at  COP3  in  Kyoto,  Japan,  on  11  December  1997.  Available  at: 
https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/cop3/l07a01.pdf 

111 UNFCCC (1997) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Change  adopted  at  COP3  in  Kyoto,  Japan,  on  11  December  1997.  Available  at: 
https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/cop3/l07a01.pdf 

112  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - 20 20 by 
2020 - Europe's climate change opportunity. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52008DC0030 

United 

113 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_a
greement.pdf 

Agreement. 

Available 

Nations 

(2015) 

Paris 

at: 

United 

114 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_a
greement.pdf 

Agreement. 

Available 

Nations 

(2015) 

Paris 

at: 

United 

115 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_a
greement.pdf 

Agreement. 

Available 

Nations 

(2015) 

Paris 

at: 

United 

116 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_a
greement.pdf 

Agreement. 

Available 

Nations 

(2015) 

Paris 

at: 

117  European  Commission,  2030  climate  &  energy 
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2030_en 

framework.  Available  at: 

118  Delbeke  J.,  Vis  P.  (2016)  EU  Climate  Policy  explained.  Available  at: 
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/eu_climate_policy_explained_en.pdf  

119 A detailed overview of the different policies can e.g. be found in: European Parliament 
(2019) EU  Environment and  Climate  Change Policies - State of play, current and future 
challenges. 
at: 
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/638428/IPOL_STU(2019)6
38428_EN.pdf 

Available 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
120  UN  General  Assembly,  United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  : 
resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 20 January 1994, A/RES/48/189. Available 
at: 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/applicati
on/pdf/conveng.pdf 

121  Report  from  the  Commission  to the  European  Parliament  and the  Council,  Preparing 
the  ground  for  raising  long-term  ambition,  EU  Climate  Action  Progress  Report  2019 
at: 
[COM(2019)396 
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/strategies/progress/docs/com_2019_559_en.pdf  

Available 

final]. 

United 

122 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_a
greement.pdf 

Agreement. 

Available 

Nations 

(2015) 

Paris 

at: 

123  European  Council  Meeting  (10  and  11  December  2020)  Council  Conclusions.  Available  at : 
https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-22-2020-INIT/en/pdf 

IPCC 

124 
https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/05/SYR_AR5_FINAL_full_wcover.pdf  

(2014)  Climate  Change  2014,  Synthesis  Report.  Available  at: 

125  JRC  (2019)  Fossil  CO2  and  GHG  emissions  of  all  world  countries.  Available  at: 
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/fossil-co2-
and-ghg-emissions-all-world-countries-0  

126 Rhein, M., et al. (2013) ‘Observations: Ocean’, in: Climate change 2013: The physical 
science  basis.  Contribution  of  Working  Group  I  to  the  Fifth  Assessment  Report  of  the 
Intergovernmental  Panel  on  Climate  Change,  Stocker,  T.  F.,  et  al.  (eds),  Cambridge 
University 
at : 
York,  NY.  Available 
http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_Chapter03_FINAL.pdf 

Press,  Cambridge,  UK, 

and  New 

(2020) 

127  EEA 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/ocean-acidification-3/assessment 
Accessed: 20/09/2020 

Indicator  Assessment:  Ocean  acidification.  Available  at: 

128 See: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/ocean-acidification-3/assessment  

129  The  Nairobi  work  programme  is  a  mechanism  under  the  NNFCCC  to  facilitate  and 
catalyse  the  development,  dissemination,  and  use  of  knowledge  that  would  inform  and 
support adaptation policies and practices. 

130 UNFCCC (2019) Adaptation of the Ocean, Coastal Areas and Ecosystems. Scoping Paper 
on 
at:  
https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Scopingpaper_Final%20version.pdf  

Knowledge 

Advancing 

Available 

Closing 

Action. 

Gaps 

and 

131 Galdies C. et al. (2020) European policies and legislation targeting ocean acidification 
in 
at:  
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X19309054  

european 

Available 

Current 

waters 

state. 

- 

132 Galdies C. et al. (2020) European policies and legislation targeting ocean acidification 
in 
at:  
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X19309054 

european 

Available 

Current 

waters 

state. 

- 

133  UN  General  Assembly,  United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  : 
resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, 20 January 1994, A/RES/48/189. Available 
at: 
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/applicati
on/pdf/conveng.pdf 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
134Rakhyun  E.  Kim  (2012)  Is  a  New  Multilateral  Environmental  Agreement  on  Ocean 
Acidification 
at: 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256043173_Is_a_New_Multilateral_Environmental_Agre
ement_on_Ocean_Acidification_Necessary  

Necessary? 

Available 

135 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982. Available 
at: https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf 

Convention 

136 
Biological 
https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf 

on 

Diversity 

(1992). 

Available 

at: 

137 Popattanachai, Naporn and Kirk, Elizabeth (2020) Ocean Acidification and Multilateral 
Environmental Agreements. Available at: http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/id/eprint/41170/ 

138 IPCC (2019) Special Report on Ocean and Cryosphere in a changing climate, Chapter 
5  “Changing  Ocean,  Marine  Ecosystems,  and  Dependent  Communities”.  Available  at: 
https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-5/ 

139 C. Gladies et. al (2020) European policies and legislation targeting ocean acidification in european 
waters 
at: 
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X19309054 

Available 

Current 

state. 

- 

140  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
Economic  and  Social  Committee and  the  Committee  of the  Regions  Our  Life  Insurance, 
Our  Natural  Capital:  An  EU  Biodiversity  Strategy  To  2020  [COM/2011/0244  final]. 
Available at :  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0244  

141  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity  Strategy  for  2030  Bringing  nature  back  into  our  lives  (COM/2020/380 
final).Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380   

at: 

142 The Strategy does, however, highlight that the global Aichi biodiversity targets defined 
under the  Convention on  Biological Diversity (which as mentioned  earlier also include a 
target mentioning acidification) are insufficient to adequately protect and restore nature. 

143  Decision  No  1386/2013/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  20 
November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, 
within 
limits  of  our  planet’.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32013D1386 

the 

144  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the 
implementation  of  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive  (Directive  2008/56/EC) 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
COM/2020/259 
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259 

Available 

final. 

at: 

145 Galdies C. et al. (2020) European policies and legislation targeting ocean acidification 
in 
at:  
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X19309054   

european 

Available 

Current 

waters 

state. 

- 

146 See: https://www.emodnet-chemistry.eu/acidification  
147  The  detailed  metadata  for  this  index  is  available  in  UNEP  (2019).    SDG  Indicators  Metadata 
Repository.  United  Nations  Environment  Programme 
(UNEP),  Nairobi,  Kenya.  URL: 
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-04-01.pdf  

148 See e.g. here for more information: http://www.fao.org/fishery/area/Area27/en  

149 This is an indicator of the level of fishing pressure. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
150 Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation 
of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (Directive 2008/56/EC) COM/2020/259 final. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1593613439738&uri=CELEX:52020DC0259  

151  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1547133726973&uri=CELEX:32013R1380 

152  The  maximum  sustainable  yield    for  a  given  fish  stock  means  the  highest  possible 
annual catch that can be sustained over time, by keeping the stock at the level producing 
maximum  growth.  The  MSY  refers  to  a  hypothetical  equilibrium  state  between  the 
exploited population and the fishing activity. 

153 The landing obligation requires all catches of regulated commercial species on-board 
to be landed and counted against quota. The discarding of prohibited species should be 
recorded in the logbook and forms an important part of the science base for the monitoring 
of these species 

154 The so-called “total allowable catches” are catch limits that are set for most commercial 
fish stocks. The Commission prepares the proposals, based on scientific advice. TACs are 
shared between EU countries in the form of national quotas.  For each stock a different 
allocation percentage per EU country is applied for the sharing out of the quotas. 

155 Almost all important stocks and fisheries are managed by means of a multiannual plan. 
The  plans  contain  the  goal  for  fish  stock  management,  expressed  in  terms  of  fishing 
mortality  and/or  targeted  stock  size.  Some  multiannual  plans  include  fishing  effort 
restrictions as an additional instrument to the annual total allowable catches, and specific 
control  rules.  Multiannual  plans  under  the  new  CFP  include  the  target  of  fishing  at 
maximum sustainable yield and a deadline for achieving this target. 

156  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1380 

157  This  overview  is  based  on  European  Parliament  (2019)  EU  fisheries  policy  −  latest 
developments and future challenges which provides a more detailed overview. Available 
at: 
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/629202/IPOL_STU(2019)629202_E
N.pdf  

158  Regulation  (EU)  No  1379/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013  on the common organisation  of the markets in fishery and aquaculture 
products, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 1184/2006 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and 
repealing  Council  Regulation 
(EC)  No  104/2000.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32013R1379 

159 Regulation (EU) 2019/1241 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 
2019 on the conservation of fisheries resources and the protection of marine ecosystems 
through 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
technical  measures. 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32019R1241 

Available 

at: 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
160 Regulation (EU) 2017/1004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 
2017 on the establishment of a Union framework for the collection, management and use 
of  data  in  the  fisheries  sector  and  support  for  scientific  advice  regarding  the  common 
fisheries  policy  and  repealing  Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  199/2008.  See:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32017R1004  

161  Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1005/2008  of  29  September  2008  establishing  a 
Community  system  to  prevent,  deter  and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
fishing. 
content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1005 

Available 

at: 

162  Regulation  (EU)  2017/2403  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  12 
December 2017 on the sustainable management of external fishing fleets, and repealing 
Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1006/2008.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32017R2403 

163 Council Regulation (EC) No 1224/2009 of 20 November 2009 establishing a Community control 
system for ensuring compliance with the rules of the common fisheries policy, amending Regulations 
(EC) No 847/96, (EC) No 2371/2002, (EC) No 811/2004, (EC) No 768/2005, (EC) No 2115/2005, 
(EC) No 2166/2005, (EC) No 388/2006, (EC) No 509/2007, (EC) No 676/2007, (EC) No 1098/2007, 
(EC)  No  1300/2008,  (EC)  No  1342/2008  and  repealing  Regulations  (EEC)  No  2847/93,  (EC)  No 
1627/94 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32009R1224 

1966/2006. 

(EC)  No 

Available 

and 

at: 

164  Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1005/2008  of  29  September  2008  establishing  a 
Community  system  to  prevent,  deter  and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated 
fishing,  amending  Regulations  (EEC)  No  2847/93,  (EC)  No  1936/2001  and  (EC)  No 
601/2004 and repealing Regulations (EC) No 1093/94 and (EC) No 1447/1999. Available 
at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1408984470270&uri=CELEX:02008R1005-20110309 

165 The regulation stipulates that the EU will issue warnings, known as a “yellow card,” to 
countries that perform poorly in the effort to end IUU fishing. Failure to curb IUU fishing 
will result in a ban in the export of fish to the EU via the issuance of a red card. 

166 Regulation (EU) No 508/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 
2014 on the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund and repealing Council Regulations (EC) 
No  2328/2003,  (EC)  No  861/2006,  (EC)  No  1198/2006  and  (EC)  No  791/2007  and 
Regulation (EU) No 1255/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Available 
at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014R0508 

167  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1380 

168 See: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/QANDA_20_1071 

169  STECF  (2020)  Monitoring  the  performance  of  the  Common  Fisheries  Policy  (STECF-
Adhoc-20-01)  Edited.  Available  at:  https://stecf.jrc.ec.europa.eu/reports/cfp-monitoring/  
/asset_publisher/oz5O/document/id/2484866?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=https%3A
%2F%2F 

170 Based on stakeholder consultations. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
2019, 

Atlantic 

171  See  e.g.  New  Economics  Foundation  (2019)  Landing  the  blame:  overfishing  in  the 
Northeast 
at: 
https://neweconomics.org/uploads/files/NEF_LTB_ATLANTIC_2019.pdf  or  The  Pew  Charitable 
Trusts (2019) EU Fisheries Management Improves but Still Lags Behind Scientific Advice. 
Available 
https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2019/12/eone/eone-2019-
analysis_v1.pdf.  The  former  source  estimates  that  two-thirds of  “total allowable  catches” 
were set above scientific advice between 2001 and 2018. While the percentage by which 
“total allowable catches” were set above advice declined throughout this period (from 42% 
to 8% in all EU waters), the proportion of “total allowable catches” set above advice did 
not. This point has also frequently been brought up during stakeholder consultations. 

Available 

at : 

challenges. 

172  See  e.g.  European  Parliament  (2019)  EU  fisheries  policy  −  latest developments  and 
at: 
future 
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/629202/IPOL_STU(2019)629202_E
N.pdf and Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (2019) 5-year review (2014-2019) of 
the 
at: 
Fisheries 
https://www.duh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/download/Projektinformation/Naturschutz/Fi
schereipolitik/GFP_Fischereipolitik_Broschure_komplett_lange_Version_GB_16_12_19.pd
f 

Available 

Available 

Common 

Policy. 

EU 

173 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

EU 

174 See e.g. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (2019) 5-year review (2014-2019) of 
the 
: 
https://www.duh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/download/Projektinformation/Naturschutz/Fischereipoli
tik/GFP_Fischereipolitik_Broschure_komplett_lange_Version_GB_16_12_19.pdf  chapter  4  for  a 
detailed overview of how the two legislative pieces interact. 

Available 

Common 

Fisheries 

Policy. 

at 

175  Convention  on  Biological  Diversity 
https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf 

(1992),  article  2.  Available 

at: 

176 Aichi Target 11 ““By 2020 […] 10 % of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of 
particular  importance  for  biodiversity  and  ecosystem  services,  are  conserved  through 
effectively  and  equitably  managed,  ecologically  representative  and  well-connected 
systems  of  protected  areas  and  other  effective  area‑based  conservation  measures,  and 
integrated  into  the  wider  […]  seascape”.  Strategic  Plan  for  Biodiversity  2011-2020. 
Adopted by the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Convention on Biological 
Diversity in 2010. Retrieved from: https://www.cbd.int/kb/record/decision/12268 

177 Eurostat (2020) Sustainable development in the European Union — Monitoring report 
on  progress  towards  the  SDGS  in  an  EU  context  —  2020  edition.  Available  at: 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-statistical-books/-/KS-02-20-202 

178 Eurostat (2020) Sustainable development in the European Union — Monitoring report on progress 
towards 
at: 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-statistical-books/-/KS-02-20-202 

context  — 

Available 

edition. 

SDGS 

2020 

the 

EU 

an 

in 

EEA 

179 
Available 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-coasts/assessments/marine-
protected-areas  

Protected 

(2018) 

Marine 

Areas. 

at: 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
180 Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 
2009  on  the  conservation  of  wild  birds.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32009L0147 

181 Council Directive 92/43/EEC  of 21 May 1992 on the conservation  of  natural habitats 
and  of  wild 
flora.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:31992L0043 

fauna  and 

182 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm  

Commission 

European 

website, 

Natura 

2000. 

Available 

at: 

183 According to the EEA, approximately 75% of the EU MPAs are designated under the EU 
Habitats Directive and the EU Birds Directive. See EEA (2020) The European environment 
—  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at:  https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-
2020 

184 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at :  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

185  Article  11,    Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council of 11 December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy. Available at: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1547133726973&uri=CELEX:32013R1380 

186  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 Bringing nature back into our lives (COM/2020/380 final). 
Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
at: 
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380   

187  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity  Strategy  for  2030  Bringing  nature  back  into  our  lives  (COM/2020/380 
final).Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380  

at: 

188 The Arctic Institute (2020) ‘The European Union in Antarctica: An Emerging Area of Interest?” 
Available 
https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/european-union-antarctica-emerging-area-
interest/?cn-reloaded=1 

at: 

189 Directive 2014/89/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 
establishing  a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

190 These are: The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment in the North-
East  Atlantic  of  1992  (further  to  earlier  versions  of  1972  and  1974)  –  the  OSPAR 
Convention (OSPAR); The Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment in the 
Baltic Sea Area of 1992 (further to the earlier version of 1974) – the Helsinki Convention 
(HELCOM);  The  Convention  for  the  Protection  of  Marine  Environment  and  the  Coastal 
Region  of  the  Mediterranean  of  1995  (further  to  the  earlier  version  of  1976)  –  the 
Barcelona Convention (UNEP-MAP); The Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea of 
1992 – the Bucharest Convention. Most of these RSCs include non-EU countries among its 
parties. Notably, the EU is party to the OSPAR, HELCOM and Barcelona Convention. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
191  OSPAR  Commission 
(2020)  Marine 
https://www.ospar.org/work-areas/bdc/marine-protected-areas Accessed 20-08-2020. 

Protected  Areas.  Available 

at: 

192 OSPAR Commission (2018) Status of the OSPAR Network of Marine Protected Areas in 
at : 
2017. 
https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/1378/assessment_sheet_mpa_status_2017.pdf  

Available 

193  HELCOM  (2020)  Marine  Protected  Areas.  Available  at:  https://helcom.fi/action-
areas/marine-protected-areas/ Accessed 20-08-2020 

194 Helsinki Commission (2006) Planning and management of Baltic Sea Protected Areas: 
guidelines  and 
tools  Balt.  Sea  Environ.  Proc.  No.  105.  Available  at: 
https://www.helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BSEP105-1.pdf 

195 SPA/RAC (2020) Missions. Available at: http://www.rac-spa.org/missions Accessed 20-
08-2020 

196 Black Sea Commission (2020) Annual BSC Work Programme 2019/2020. Available at : 
http://www.blacksea-commission.org/BSC%20Activities/Work%20Programmes/ Accessed 20-08-
2020 

197 Either as dedicated MPA reports, or as part of wider ‘state of the environment’ reports. 

EEA 

198 
Available 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-coasts/assessments/marine-
protected-areas  

Protected 

(2018) 

Marine 

Areas. 

at: 

199  Convention  on  Biological  Diversity 
https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf 

(1992),  article  2.  Available 

at: 

200 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982. Available 
at: https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf 

201 For instance, the BIOPAMA II Programme (https://www.biopama.org/) assists the African, 
Caribbean and Pacific countries to address their priorities for improved management and 
governance of biodiversity and natural resources, including the management of MPAs. 

202 The Transatlantic MPA Network brings together MPA managers around the Atlantic rim 
from North and South America, Africa and Europe. The twinning project has allowed them 
to network and share best management practices. They are now looking to continue their 
cooperation based on a common strategy 

203 European Court of Auditors (2020) Marine Environment: EU protection is wide but not 
deep. 
at: 
https://www.eca.europa.eu/Lists/ECADocuments/SR20_26/SR_Marine_environment_EN.
pdf  
204  ICF,  IEEP,  PML  (2018)  Study  on  the  Economic  Benefits  of  MPAs.  Available  at: 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/dbe3d250-b0b5-11e8-99ee-
01aa75ed71a1 

Available 

205 For a definition of ecologically coherent networks of MPAs, please see European Marine 
Board  Position  Paper  (2013)  Achieving  Ecologically  Coherent  MPA  Networks  in  Europe: 
Science 
at : 
http://archives.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/EMB_PP18_Marine_Protected_Are
as.pdf  

Priorities. 

Available 

Needs 

and 

206  To  be  representative,  an  MPA  network  should  represent  the  full  range  of  biological 
features (species, biotopes, habitat types) present within the planning region, rather than 
limiting  protection  to  a  narrow  range  of  priority  features.  See  European  Marine  Board 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
Position Paper (2013) Achieving Ecologically Coherent MPA Networks in Europe: Science 
Needs 
: 
http://archives.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/EMB_PP18_Marine_Prot
ected_Areas.pdf 

Priorities. 

Available 

and 

at 

207  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

208  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

209  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the 
progress in establishing marine protected areas (as required by Article 21 of the Marine 
at : 
Strategy 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/eu-coast-and-marine-
policy/implementation/pdf/marine_protected_areas.pdf 

2008/56/EC). 

Framework 

Available 

Directive 

210 IUCN WCPA (2018) Applying IUCN’s Global Conservation  Standards to Marine  Protected Areas 
(MPA). Delivering effective conservation action through MPAs, to secure ocean health & sustainable 
development. 
at : 
https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/applying_mpa_global_standards_v12021
8_nk_v2.pdf  

Available 

211  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

212  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 Bringing nature back into our lives (COM/2020/380 final). 
Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
at: 
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380 

European 

213 
Fisheries. 
https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/fishing_rules_en Accessed on 26/11/2020. 

Commission 

Managing 

website, 

Available 

at: 

214 The N2K Group (2018) Review of fisheries management measures in Natura 2000 sites. 
Available 
at : 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/docs/Review%20of%20fis
heries%20management%20measures%20in%20Natura%202000%20sites.pdf 

215 Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (2019) 5-year review (2014-2019) of the EU 
Common 
: 
https://www.duh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/download/Projektinformation/Naturschutz/Fi
schereipolitik/GFP_Fischereipolitik_Broschure_komplett_lange_Version_GB_16_12_19.pd
f 

Available 

Fisheries 

Policy. 

at 

216 This also has consequences for SDG14.4. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
217 The N2K Group (2018) Review of fisheries management measures in Natura 2000 sites. Available 
at 
: 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/marine/docs/Review%20of%20fisheries%2
0management%20measures%20in%20Natura%202000%20sites.pdf 

218  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

219  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity  Strategy  for  2030  Bringing  nature  back  into  our  lives  (COM/2020/380 
final).Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380 

at: 

220  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

221 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy 
(Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive).  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

222  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

223 The European Commission’s proposal for the revision of the Fisheries Control System, put forward 
in 2018, includes provisions that will enhance control over fishing vessels in fishing restricted areas, 
as well as the monitoring of entry into and exit from specific areas, including MPAs. The proposal is 
available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32009R1224  

224  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

225 Stakeholder opinion 

226  EEA  (2020)  The  European  environment  —  state  and  outlook  2020.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/soer-2020 

227  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity  Strategy  for  2030  Bringing  nature  back  into  our  lives  (COM/2020/380 
final).Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380 

at: 

228  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

229 Fisheries management measures were adopted also prior to the reform of the Common Fisheries 
Policy. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
230 Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (2019) 5-year review (2014-2019) of the EU 
Common 
: 
https://www.duh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/download/Projektinformation/Naturschutz/Fi
schereipolitik/GFP_Fischereipolitik_Broschure_komplett_lange_Version_GB_16_12_19.pd
f 

Available 

Fisheries 

Policy. 

at 

231 Salomon, Markus & Markus, Till & Dross, Miriam. (2014). Masterstroke or paper tiger 
–  The  reform  of  the  EU׳s  Common  Fisheries  Policy.  Marine  Policy.  47.  76–84. 
at : 
10.1016/j.marpol.2014.02.001. 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260441135_Masterstroke_or_paper_tiger_-
_The_reform_of_the_EUs_Common_Fisheries_Policy 

Available 

232 This procedure requires a lengthy sequence of informal consultations, preparation of 
documentation and negotiation of a joint recommendation among all participating Member 
States  before  the  Commission  adopts  a  delegated  act  establishing  the  conservation 
measure. 

233 Stakeholder opinion. 

234 WWF  (2019) Protecting our ocean:  Europe’s challenges to meet the  2020  deadlines. 
Available 
: 
http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/protecting_our_ocean_summary.pdf 

at 

235 A 2015 study estimated a EUR 700M financing gap for optimal MPA management only 
in  the  Mediterranean.  Binet,  T.,  Diazabakana,  A.,  Hernandez,  S.  2015.  Sustainable 
financing of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean: a financial analysis. Vertigo Lab, 
MedPAN, 
http://www.rac-
spa.org/sites/default/files/doc_medmpanet/final_docs_regional/55_study_on_the_sustainable_fina
ncing_of_mediterranean_mpas.pdf 

RAC/SPA,  WWF 

Mediterranean. 

Available 

at: 

236 Lack of funding for MPA management appears to be a global issue. Gill, D., Mascia, M., 
Ahmadia, G. et al. (2017) Capacity shortfalls hinder the performance of marine protected 
areas 
https://www-nature-
com.pros.lib.unimi.it:2050/articles/nature21708.pdf 

globally.  Nature 

665–669. 

Available 

543, 

at: 

237  OECD  (2017)  Marine  Protected  Areas:  Economics,  management  and  effective  policy 
mixes. 
Available 
https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/marine-protected-
areas_9789264276208-en#page1  

at: 

238  Article  14(f)  of  the  EMFF  Regulation  establishes  that  the  EMFF  may  support  ‘The 
management,  restoration  and  monitoring  of  marine  protected  areas’.  See:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014R0508  

239  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity  Strategy  for  2030  Bringing  nature  back  into  our  lives  (COM/2020/380 
final).Available 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1590574123338&uri=CELEX:52020DC0380   

at: 

240 Stakeholder opinion.  

241  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

242 Stakeholder opinion. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
243  This  forms  part  of  the  key  actions  to  be  taken  by  the  Commission  under  the  EU 
Biodiversity Strategy to 2030. 

244  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019 
Accompanying  the  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the 
Council on the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (SWD(2020) 
60 final). Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

The 

245 
https://oceanconference.un.org/commitments/?id=17526. 

launched 

already 

similar 

EU 

activities  with 

third 

countries: 

246  The  OECD  outlines  the  direct  costs  of  MPA  management.  See:  OECD  (2017)  Marine 
Protected  Areas:  Economics,  management  and  effective  policy  mixes.  Available  at: 
https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/marine-protected-areas_9789264276208-
en#page1 

247  This  had  already  been  recommended  by  the  EU  in  2015,  see:  Report  from  the 
Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the progress in establishing 
marine  protected  areas  (as  required  by  Article  21  of  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework 
Directive 2008/56/EC). Available at : https://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/eu-coast-and-
marine-policy/implementation/pdf/marine_protected_areas.pdf. A best practice example in the 
co-management  of  MPAs  is  represented  by  the  MPA  in  Torre  Guaceto  (Italy) 
https://www.europarc.org/case-studies/sustainable-fishermen-community-marine-protected-area-
torre-guaceto/ 

248  Doha  Ministerial  Declaration,  adopted  on  the  14th  November  2001  at  the  Fourth 
from: 
Ministerial 
https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindecl_e.htm  

Conference 

Retrieved 

WTO. 

the 

of 

to 

Introduction 

249  WTO 
fisheries  subsidies 
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_intro_e.htm#:~:text=Introduction
%20to%20fisheries%20subsidies%20in%20the%20WTO,food%20and%20livelihood%20to%20pe
ople.&text=Subsidies%20for%20fishing%20are%20thus,supporting%20fisheries%20production%
20and%20conservation. 

the  WTO.  Available  at : 

in 

250  WTO  website,  ‘WTO  members  start  text-based  negotiations  on  fisheries  subsidies’. 
Available at : https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news20_e/fish_21sep20_e.htm  

251  UNEP  (2019).  SDG  Indicators  Metadata  Repository.  United  Nations  Environment 
URL: 
Programme 
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-06-01.pdf. 

(UNEP), 

Nairobi, 

Kenya. 

252  UNISTATS  (2020).  United  Nations  Global  SDG  Database.  United  Nations  Statistics 
Division  (UNSTATS),  New  York,  US.  URL:  https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/, 
accessed: 22-02-2020. 

253  Arthur  R.,  Heyworth  S.,  Pearce  J.,  Sharkey  W.  (2019)  The  cost  of  harmful  fishing 
subsidies. Working Paper. Available at: https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16654IIED.pdf 

254  European  Commission,  ‘Joint  Staff  Working  Document  Accompanying  the  Document 
Joint Report to the European Parliament and the Council, Improving International Ocean 
Governance - Two Years of Progress SWD(2019) 104 Final’.  

255 BirdLife International; Bloom; ClientEarth; Low Impact Fishers Europe; Seas at risk; 
WWF, 
at : 
https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/jointpositionpaper_willthe_eudoomouroceanand_fi
shers_jan2020.pdf  

the  EU  Doom  Our  Ocean 

Fisheries?’  Available 

‘Will 

and 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
256 Regulation (EU) No 508/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 
2014 on the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund and repealing Council Regulations (EC) 
No  2328/2003,  (EC)  No  861/2006,  (EC)  No  1198/2006  and  (EC)  No  791/2007  and 
Regulation (EU) No 1255/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Available 
at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014R0508 

257  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  -  An 
Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union (COM(2007) 574 final). Available at : 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0575 

258  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1380 

259  Council  of  the  European  Union  (2020)  COVID-19:  Council  adopts  rules  to  help  EU 
fishermen. 
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-
releases/2020/04/22/covid-19-council-adopts-rules-to-help-eu-fishermen/ 

Available 

at : 

260  For  instance,  the  ERDF  has  funded  projects  fostering  collaboration  and  knowledge-
sharing 
See: 
companies 
https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/projects/Netherlands/aquaculture-companies-in-zeeland-
netherlands-collaborate-to-deliver-innovation  

Netherlands. 

aquaculture 

among 

the 

in 

261  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1380 

262 European Commission (2014) State aid in the fishery and aquaculture sector. Available 
at : https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/sites/fisheries/files/docs/body/presentation-state-aid_en.pdf 

263 Please see the section on SDG14.4 for more information on the status of EU fish stocks.  

264  Arthur  R.,  Heyworth  S.,  Pearce  J.,  Sharkey  W.  (2019)  The  cost  of  harmful  fishing 
subsidies. Working Paper. Available at: https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16654IIED.pdf  

265 WTO website (2020) News: WTO members start text-based negotiations on fisheries 
subsidies. Available at : https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news20_e/fish_21sep20_e.htm  

266  WTO  website  (2020)  Introduction  to  fisheries  subsidies  in  the  WTO.  Available  at : 
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_intro_e.htm Accessed 20-09-2020 

267 Bahety, S. Mukiibi, J. (2017)WTO Fisheries Subsidies Negotiations: Main Issues 

and Interests of Least Developed Countries. Geneva. CUTS International, Geneva. 
Available 
OceansForum-CUTS.pdf 

https://unctad.org/meetings/en/Contribution/ditc-ted-21032017-

at: 

268 Bahety, S. Mukiibi, J. (2017)WTO Fisheries Subsidies Negotiations: Main Issues 

and  Interests  of  Least  Developed  Countries.  Geneva.  CUTS  International,  Geneva. 
Available 
https://unctad.org/meetings/en/Contribution/ditc-ted-21032017-
OceansForum-CUTS.pdf 

at: 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
269 Northern Trust (2018) Is the WTO Losing Relevance, Weekly Economic Commentary. 
Available 
https://www.northerntrust.com/united-states/insights-research/2018/market-
economic-commentary/wec/is-wto-losing-relevance Accessed 20-09-2020 

at: 

270 Stakeholder opinion. 

271  OECD  Issue  Paper  (2017)  A  preliminary  assessment  of  indicators  for  SDG  14  on 
“Oceans”. Available at: https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01639008/document 

272  UNWTO 
(2017)  Tourism 
unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284419722 

for  development.  Available  at :  https://www.e-

273  UNISTATS  (2020)  Indicator  14.7.1:  Sustainable  fisheries  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  in 
small island developing States, least 

developed 
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-07-01.pdf 

countries. 

countries 

and 

all 

Available 

at : 

274  UNISTATS  (2020)  Indicator  14.7.1:  Sustainable  fisheries  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  in 
small island developing States, least 

developed 
and 
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-07-01.pdf 

countries. 

countries 

all 

Available 

at 

: 

275 Toward an Inter-Agency Plan of Action (IAPOA) for achieving Sustainable Development 
Goal 14 targets in support of sustainable fish and seafood value chains and trade (2020-
2025). Available at: https://unctad.org/en/pages/MeetingDetails.aspx?meetingid=2169 

EUMOFA 

276 
at : 
https://www.eumofa.eu/documents/20178/314856/EN_The+EU+fish+market_2019.pdf/ 

Available 

Market. 

(2019) 

Fish 

The 

EU 

European 

277 
trade. 
https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/5-external-trade_en Accessed 20-08-2020 

Commission 

External 

(2020) 

Available 

at : 

EUMOFA 

278 
: 
https://www.eumofa.eu/documents/20178/314856/EN_The+EU+fish+market_2019.pdf/ 

Available 

Market. 

(2019) 

Fish 

The 

EU 

at 

279 Mauritania, Bangladesh, Senegal, Madagascar and Tanzania are Europe’s five largest 
suppliers of seafood when  it  comes  to LDCs. For more  information,  see:  Centre  for  the 
Promotion of Imports from developing countries (2019) What is the demand for fish and 
seafood  on 
the  European  market?  Available  at :  https://www.cbi.eu/market-
information/fish-seafood/what-demand 

European 

280 
https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/general_food_law_en Accessed 20-08-2020 

Commission 

General 

(2020) 

Food 

Law. 

Available 

at: 

281  In  relations  to  the  Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1005/2008  of  29  September  2008 
establishing a Community system to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and 
unregulated  fishing,  amending  Regulations  (EEC)  No  2847/93,  (EC)  No  1936/2001  and 
(EC) No 601/2004 and repealing Regulations (EC) No 1093/94 and (EC) No 1447/1999. 
Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1005  

282  Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1005/2008  of  29  September  2008  establishing  a 
Community  system  to  prevent,  deter  and  eliminate  illegal,  unreported  and  unregulated 
fishing,  amending  Regulations  (EEC)  No  2847/93,  (EC)  No  1936/2001  and  (EC)  No 
601/2004 and repealing Regulations (EC) No 1093/94 and (EC) No 1447/1999. Available 
at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1005 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
283  European  Commission  (2020)  EU  import  conditions  for  seafood  and  other  fishery 
products.  Available at:    https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/ia_trade_import-
cond-fish_en.pdf Accessed 20-08-2020 

284  Francisco  Blaha  (2016)  EU  market  access  for  fishery  and  aquaculture  products. 
Available 
at: 
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/52a9273ae4b07fa2610392dd/t/5ab04b7a758d46
71e7cbd942/1521503235600/Blaha_book_AccessUE_ENG.pdf 

285  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
1954/2003 and (EC) No 1224/2009 and repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 2371/2002 
and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1547133726973&uri=CELEX:32013R1380 

286  Regulation  (EU)  2017/2403  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  12 
December 2017 on the sustainable management of external fishing fleets, and repealing 
Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1006/2008.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32017R2403 

287 
https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/agreements_en 

more 

For 

information, 

see: 

288  Countries  defined  as  SIDs  according 
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/priority-areas/sids/resources/sids-list/ 

the  UNESCO  List  of  SIDs 

to 

289  Countries  defined  as  LDCs  according 
https://unctad.org/en/pages/aldc/Least%20Developed%20Countries/UN-list-of-Least-
Developed-Countries.aspx 

the  UNCTAD  List  of  LDCs 

to 

290  European  Commission  (2017)  EU  sustainable  fisheries  partnership  agreements. 
Available  at :  https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c8b5d962-0d38-
11e7-8a35-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-37907030 

291  MRAG  (2018)  International  Oceans  Governance  -  Scientific  Support.  Available  at: 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/a52a5f65-832b-11e8-ac6a-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en 

292  For  instance,  the  International  Commission  for  the  Conservation  of  Atlantic  Tunas 
(ICCAT), the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC). 

293  The  Southern  Indian  Ocean  Fisheries  Agreement  (SIOFA)’s  overall  objectives  make 
explicit reference to SDG 14.7. For more information, see: https://www.apsoi.org/ 

294 This is true for the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), whose 
Convention establishes that states party must take into account the ‘needs of SIDS in the 
Convention  Area  whose  economies,  food  supplies  and  livelihoods  are  overwhelmingly 
dependent on the exploitation of marine living resources’ when developing criteria to set 
fishing quotas. The Convention is available at: https://www.wcpfc.int/convention-text 

295 Wright, G., Schmidt, S., Rochette, J., Shackeroff, J., Unger, S., Waweru, Y., Müller, A., 
(2017)  Partnering  for  a  Sustainable  Ocean:  The  Role  of  Regional  Ocean  Governance  in 
Implementing  SDG14.  PROG:  IDDRI,  IASS,  TMG  &  UN  Environment.  Available  at : 
https://www.prog-ocean.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/PROG_Partnering-for-a-
Sustainabe-Ocean_Report.pdf 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
296  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  2019  EU  report  on  Policy  Coherence  for 
Development  (SWD(2019)  20  final).  Available  at :  https://ec.europa.eu/international-
partnerships/system/files/swd-2019-20-pcdreport_en.pdf 

297 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/projects/pacific-european-
union-marine-partnership-programme-peump_en 

298 For more information see: http://intra-acp-map.acp.int/projects/support-programme-
for-small-island-developing-countries-sids-and-coastal-countries/ 

299  For  more 
regional-fisheries-governance-western-africa-pescao-0_en 

information  see:  https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/projects/improved-

300 For more information see: http://www.fao.org/3/ca6575en/ca6575en.pdf  

301  European  Commission  (2013)  Sustainable  tourism  for  development.  Available  at: 
https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/9789284415496 

302 European Commission (2013) Sustainable tourism for development. Available at: https://www.e-
unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/9789284415496 

303  FAO  (2020)  The  State  of  World  Fisheries  and  Aquaculture.  Available  at: 
http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/ca9229en.pdf 

304 UNCTAD  (2017) Fishery Exports and the  Economic Development of Least Developed 
Countries:  Bangladesh,  Cambodia,  the  Comoros,  Mozambique,  Myanmar  and  Uganda. 
Available at: https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/aldc2017d2_en.pdf 

305 Stakeholder opinion. 

306 Stakeholder opinion. 

307  UNCTAD  (2019)  Advancing  Sustainable  Development  Goal  14.  Available  at : 
https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ditcted2019d3_en.pdf 

308 Toward an Inter-Agency Plan of Action (IAPOA) for achieving Sustainable Development 
Goal 14 targets in support of sustainable fish and seafood value chains and trade (2020-
2025). Available at: https://unctad.org/en/pages/MeetingDetails.aspx?meetingid=2169 

309 Guggisberg, Solène. (2019). The EU’s Regulation on the Sustainable Management of 
External Fishing Fleets: International and European  Law  Perspectives. The International 
Journal of Marine and Coastal Law. 34. 1-34. 10.1163/15718085-23342019. Available at : 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331740316_The_EU's_Regulation_on_the_Su
stainable_Management_of_External_Fishing_Fleets_International_and_European_Law_P
erspectives 

310 Guggisberg, S. (2019) The EU’s Regulation on the Sustainable Management of External 
Fishing Fleets: International and European Law Perspectives. The International Journal of 
Marine  and  Coastal  Law.  34.  1-34.  10.1163/15718085-23342019.  Available  at  : 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331740316_The_EU's_Regulation_on_the_Su
stainable_Management_of_External_Fishing_Fleets_International_and_European_Law_P
erspectives 

311  Popi,  Jenifar  Nesa  (2018)  Sustainable  utilization  of  marine  fisheries  in  Sustainable 
Fisheries Partnership Agreements between the European Union, Madagascar and Senegal 
under 
at : 
https://munin.uit.no/handle/10037/194/browse?value=Popi%2C+Jenifar+Nesa&type=a
uthor&locale-attribute=en 

international 

Available 

fisheries 

law. 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
312  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Evaluation  of  the  EU  Policy  Coherence  for 
Development 
at : 
88 
https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/swd-pcd-evaluation-full-
20190226_en.pdf 

(SWD(2019) 

Available 

final). 

313 Okafor-Yarwood, Ifesinachi & Belhabib, Dyhia. (2019). The duplicity of the European 
Union Common Fisheries Policy in third countries: Evidence from the Gulf of Guinea. Ocean 
& Coastal Management. 184. 104953. 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.104953. Available at: 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336668304_The_duplicity_of_the_European_
Union_Common_Fisheries_Policy_in_third_countries_Evidence_from_the_Gulf_of_Guinea 

314  WWF  (2019)  Out  of  Sight,  out  of  Mind,  the  EU’s  External  Fishing  Activity  and  the 
Sustainable Development Goals. Available at: https://www.wwf.eu/?uNewsID=355879 

315  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Evaluation  of  the  EU  Policy  Coherence  for 
Development 
: 
https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/swd-pcd-evaluation-full-
20190226_en.pdf 

(SWD(2019) 

Available 

final). 

88 

at 

316  WWF  (2019) Out  of Sight,  out of Mind,  the  EU’s  External Fishing Activity and  the Sustainable 
Development Goals. Available at: https://www.wwf.eu/?uNewsID=355879 

317  Intergovernmental  Oceanographic  Commission  (2019)  The  Science  we  need  for  the 
ocean we want: the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 
(2021-2030). 
at : 
https://www.oceandecade.org/assets/The_Science_We_Need_For_The_Ocean_We_Want.pdf 

Available 

318  UNEP  (2019).    SDG  Indicators  Metadata  Repository.  United  Nations  Environment 
Programme 
URL: 
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-0a-01.pdf  

(UNEP), 

Nairobi, 

Kenya. 

319  UNEP  (2019).    SDG  Indicators  Metadata  Repository.  United  Nations  Environment  Programme 
(UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya. URL: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/files/Metadata-14-0a-01.pdf 

320 Time data series are only available for few EU Member States, therefore no break-down 
per country is presented. 

321 IOC-UNESCO (2017) Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science 
around the world. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000250428 

322 IOC-UNESCO (2017) Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science 
around the world. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000250428  

323  The  area  of  each  country  is  scaled  and  resized  according  to  the  number  of  ocean  science 
publications. IOC-UNESCO (2017) Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science 
around the world. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000250428  

324  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  European  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions (2019) The European 
Green 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
Available 
content/EN/TXT/?qid=1576150542719&uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN  

Deal. 

at: 

325  For  more  information  see:  https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/strategy/goals-
research-and-innovation-policy_en  

326 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en 

327 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/life 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
For  more 

328 
opportunities/funding-programmes/overview-funding-programmes/european-structural-and-
investment-funds_en 

https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/funding-

information 

see: 

329 For more information, please visit: https://cordis.europa.eu/en 

330 For more information see: https://www.seadatanet.org/About-us 

331 For more information see: https://www.martera.eu/about-matera 

332  For  more 
section/era-net  

information  see:  https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en/h2020-

For 

333 
https://www.jpi-oceans.eu/sites/jpi-
oceans.eu/files/public/2nd%20conference/New%20factsheets/Brochure%20JPI%20Oceans%20Oct
ober%202017%20FINAL.pdf 

information 

more 

see: 

334 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/green_deal/ec_rtd_factsheet-
green-deal-call.pdf 

information 

more 

For 

see: 

335 Mission Starfish 2030: Restore our Ocean and Waters by 2030   

https://ec.europa.eu/info/publications/mission-starfish-2030-restore-our-ocean-and-waters_en  

336 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/funding/documents/ec_rtd_he-
partnership-climate-neutral-sustainable-productive-blue-economy.pdf 

information 

more 

For 

see: 

337 
https://www.marine.copernicus.eu 

more 

For 

information 

see: 

https://www.copernicus.eu/en; 

338  European  Commission  (2020)  Annual  work  programme  for grants  and procurement. 
Available 
https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/emff/annual-work-programme-grants-and-
procurement_en Accessed 20-08-2020 

at: 

339 For more information see: https://www.emodnet.eu/what-emodnet  

340 For more information see: https://www.emporia4kt.com/ttprogramme  

341  The  Global  MTCC  Network  (GMN)  –  formally  titled  “Capacity  Building  for  Climate 
Mitigation  in  the  Maritime  Shipping  Industry  ”  –  initiative  unites  technology  centres  – 
Maritime  Technology  Cooperation  Centres  (MTCCs)  –  in  targeted  regions  into  a  global 
network.  Together,  they  are  promoting  technologies  and  operations  to  improve  energy 
efficiency in the maritime sector and help navigate shipping into a low-carbon future. This 
project is funded by the EU and implemented by the International Maritime Organisation. 
For more information see: https://gmn.imo.org/about-gmn/  

342 Belem Statement on Atlantic Research and Innovation Cooperation (2017). Available 
at : 
https://allatlanticocean.org/uploads/ficheiro_Belem_Statement_Atlantic_Research_Innovation_Coo
peration_2017.pdf 

343  European  Commission  (2020)  Towards  an  All-Atlantic  Ocean  Research  Alliance. 
Available  at  :  https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-law-and-publications/publication-detail/-
/publication/86cd0eee-b110-11ea-bb7a-01aa75ed71a1 

344 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/press/atlantic-action-
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345  BlueMed  (2020)  BlueMed  Preliminary 
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implementation-plan_version-complete.pdf 

Implementation  Plan.  Available  at: 

346  European  Commission  (2019) Launch  of  the  European  Black  Sea  Strategic  Research 
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sea-strategic-research-and-innovation-agenda-2019-may-08_en 

347  MRAG  (2018)  International  Oceans  Governance  -  Scientific  Support.  Available  at: 
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01aa75ed71a1/language-en 

348 Joint Report to the European Parliament and the Council Improving International Ocean 
Governance  –  Two  years  of  progress  (JOIN/2019/4  final).  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=JOIN:2019:4:FIN 

349 The Commission was actively involved in the OceanObs19 conference and its follow-
up. 

350 The G7 countries fund more than 50% of ocean observations. 

351  Decision  No  1386/2013/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  20 
November 2013 on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, 
within 
limits  of  our  planet’.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
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the 

352  Communication  from  the  President  in  agreement  with  Vice-President  Wallström, 
Strategic  Objectives  2005  –  2009  .  Europe  2010:  A  Partnership  for  European  Renewal 
(COM(2005) 
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Available 

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at: 

12 

353Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  Council,  the  European  Parliament,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - A European 
strategy for marine and maritime research : a coherent European research area framework 
in support of a sustainable use of oceans and seas (COM/2008/0534 final). Available at:  

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1596017826685&uri=CELEX:52008DC0534 

354  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  -  An 
Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union (COM(2007) 574 final). Available at : 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0575 

355  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Innovation 
in the Blue Economy: realising the potential of our seas and oceans for jobs and growth 
(COM 
Available 
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(2014) 

254 

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356 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 
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content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056 

357  Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the 
implementation  of  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive  (Directive  2008/56/EC) 
COM/2020/259 
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358  Regulation  (EU)  No  1380/2013  of  the  European  Parliament and  of  the  Council  of  11 
December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 
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and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and  Council  Decision  2004/585/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013R1380 

359  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the 
European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  EU 
Biodiversity  Strategy  for  2030  Bringing  nature  back  into  our  lives  (COM/2020/380 
final).Available 
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360  European  Parliament  (2017)  Regional  Ocean  Governance  in  Europe:  the  Role  of 
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361 European Commission (2020) Regenerating our ocean and waters by 2030. Available 
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362  European  Marine  Board  (2013).  Navigating  the  Future  IV.  Position  Paper  20  of  the 
European 
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365 United Nations (2016) The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment 
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368 IOC-UNESCO (2017) Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science around the 
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369  European  Commission  (2020)  Regenerating  our  ocean  and  waters  by  2030.  Available  at  : 
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01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-148811930 

370 IOC-UNESCO (2017) Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science around the 
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371 IOC-UNESCO (2017) Global ocean science report: the current status of ocean science around the 
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372 Columbus (2016) Report on knowledge gaps and needs in different focus areas. Available at : 
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373  Beatriz  Morales-Nin  and  Joan  Albaigés  (2015)  SEAS-ERA:  An  overarching  effort  to 
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375 https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16644IIED.pdf 

376 http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/CA9229EN.pdf 

377 http://www.fao.org/3/ca9229en/CA9229EN.pdf 

378  UNEP  (2019).    SDG  Indicators  Metadata  Repository.  United  Nations  Environment  Programme 
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379  UNISTATS  (2020).  United  Nations  Global  SDG  Database.  United  Nations  Statistics  Division 
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380 
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g%20activity. 

381 
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382 file:///C:/Users/FRFN/Downloads/KL0217206ENN.en.pdf 

383 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982. Available 
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384  Intergovernmental  Oceanographic  Commission  of  UNESCO.  Website.  Available  at : 
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385  UNEP  (2019).    SDG  Indicators  Metadata  Repository.  United  Nations  Environment 
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content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

Directive). 

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at 

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387 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing 
a  framework  for  community  action  in  the  field  of  marine  environmental  policy  (Marine  Strategy 
Framework 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

Directive). 

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at 

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388 Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing 
a  framework  for  community  action  in  the  field  of  marine  environmental  policy  (Marine  Strategy 
Framework 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0056 

Directive). 

Available 

at 

: 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
389  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  Key  stages  and  progress  up  to  2019  Accompanying  the 
Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the implementation of 
the  Marine  Strategy 
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https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/swd202060final.pdf 

Framework  Directive 

(SWD(2020)  60 

final).  Available 

390 Regulation (EU) No 1380/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 
2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 1954/2003 and (EC) 
No  1224/2009 and repealing  Council  Regulations  (EC)  No  2371/2002 and  (EC)  No  639/2004  and 
Council 
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2004/585/EC. 
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Decision 

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391 
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European 
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Commission  website, 

International 

Common 

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fisheries 

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relations.  Available 

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392  Joint  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the  document  Joint  Report  to  the 
European Parliament and the Council, Improving International Ocean Governance - Two 
years  of  progress  SWD  (2019)  104  final.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=SWD:2019:104:FIN 

393 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/agreements_en 

394 Regulation (EU) 2017/2403 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017 
on the sustainable management of external fishing fleets, and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 
1006/2008. 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32017R2403 

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395 Council Regulation (EC) No 1005/2008 of 29 September 2008 establishing a Community system 
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lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1005 

396  European  Union  Maritime  Security  Strategy  of  24 
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conclusions  of  26  June  2018  on  the  revision  of  the  European  Union  Maritime  Security  Strategy 
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Plan 

397 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en 

398 For more information see: https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/life 

For  more 

399 
opportunities/funding-programmes/overview-funding-programmes/european-structural-and-
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https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/funding-

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400  UN  General  Assembly,  Convention  on  the  Law  of  the  Sea,  10  December  1982.  Available  at: 
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401  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - An Integrated Maritime Policy 
for  the  European  Union  (COM(2007)  574  final).  Available  at  :  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0575 

402 Directive 2014/89/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 establishing 
a  framework  for  maritime  spatial  planning.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014L0089 

403 Dorota Pyć (2019) The Role of the Law of the Sea in Marine 

Spatial  Planning.  Available  at :  https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-
98696-8_16.pdf 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
404  European  Commission 
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0.pdf 

(2019)  Programmes  Performance  Overview.  Available  at : 

405  Convention  on  International  Trade  in  Endangered  Species  of  Wild  Fauna  and  Flora,  1963. 
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Convention 

406 
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407  Joint  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the  document  Joint  Report  to  the  European 
Parliament  and  the  Council,  Improving  International  Ocean  Governance  -  Two  years  of  progress 
SWD 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=SWD:2019:104:FIN 

Available 

(2019) 

final. 

104 

at: 

408  European  Union  External  Action  Service,  Treaties  Office  Database.  United  Nations 
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Law 

the 

the 

on 

409  Agreement  on  Port  State  Measures  to  Prevent,  Deter  and  Eliminate  Illegal,  Unreported  and 
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Fishing 
measures/resources/detail/en/c/1111616/ 

Available 

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410  Agreement  to  prevent  unregulated  high  seas  fisheries  in  the  Central  Arctic  Ocean  (2018). 
Available 
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01aa75ed71a1.0006.03/DOC_1 

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411  Gjerde,  K.,  Boteler,  B.,  Durussel,  C.,  Rochette,  J.,  Unger,  S.,  Wright‚  G.  (2018) 
‘Conservation  and  Sustainable  Use  of  Marine  Biodiversity  in  Areas  Beyond  National 
Jurisdiction: Options for Underpinning a Strong Global BBNJ Agreement through Regional 

and  Sectoral  Governance’STRONG  High  Seas  Project.  Available  at:  https://www.prog-
ocean.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/STRONG-High-Seas-Policy-Brief_Options-for-
underpinning-BBNJ-agreement.pdf 

412 Unger S., Neumann B., Boteler B. (2020) EU International Ocean Governance Forum - 
Discussion  paper  for  Thematic  Working  Group  1:  Improving  the  international  ocean 
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governance 
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framework. 

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413  Joint  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the  document  Joint  Report  to  the  European 
Parliament  and  the  Council,  Improving  International  Ocean  Governance  -  Two  years  of  progress 
SWD 
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414 European Commission (2016) International Ocean Governance: An Agenda for the Future of Our 
: 
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[SWD(2016) 

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415 European Commission (2016) International Ocean Governance: An Agenda for the Future of Our 
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[SWD(2016) 

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352 

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416 Stakeholder opinion. 

417 Unger S., Neumann B., Boteler B. (2020) EU International Ocean Governance Forum - Discussion 
paper  for  Thematic  Working  Group  1:  Improving  the  international  ocean  governance  framework. 
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twg1.pdf 

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
418     European  Commission  (2016) International  Ocean  Governance:  An  Agenda  for  the 
Future 
: 
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[SWD(2016) 

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352 

Our 

of 

419  European  Commission  (2016)  International  Ocean  Governance:  An  Agenda  for  the 
Future 
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[SWD(2016) 
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Available 

Oceans 

Final]. 

352 

Our 

of 

420  Joint  Staff  Working  Document  Synopsis  of  the  Outcome  of  the  Consultation  on 
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European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic And Social Committee And The 
Committee Of The Regions International Ocean Governance: An Agenda For The Future Of 
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Available 

Oceans. 

421 Regulation (EU) 2019/1241 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 
2019 on the conservation of fisheries resources and the protection of marine ecosystems 
through technical measures, amending Council Regulations (EC) No 1967/2006, (EC) No 
1224/2009 and Regulations (EU) No 1380/2013, (EU) 2016/1139, (EU) 2018/973, (EU) 
2019/472  and  (EU)  2019/1022  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council,  and 
repealing Council Regulations (EC) No 894/97, (EC) No 850/98, (EC) No 2549/2000, (EC) 
No  254/2002,  (EC)  No  812/2004  and  (EC)  No  2187/2005.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32019R1241 

422  Regulation  (EU)  2017/2403  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  12 
December 2017 on the sustainable management of external fishing fleets, and repealing 
Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  1006/2008.  Available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32017R2403 

423 Directive (EU) 2019/883 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 
on  port  reception  facilities  for  the  delivery  of  waste  from  ships,  amending  Directive 
2010/65/EU  and 
repealing  Directive  2000/59/EC.  Available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32019L0883 

424 Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant [for all countries], and Time-bound indicators. 

425  European  Commission  (2016)  International  Ocean  Governance:  An  Agenda  for  the 
Future 
: 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/maritimeaffairs_fisheries/consultations/ocean-
governance/doc/ocean. 

[SWD(2016) 

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Oceans 

Final]. 

352 

Our 

at 

of 

426  EEA  (2019)  Strengthening  Europe’s  Regional  Ocean  Governance  by  Creating  a 
Catalogue  of  SDG14  Relevant  Indicators,  Information  and  Knowledge.  Available  at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-coasts/ocean-governance  

 
 
                                                                                                                                      
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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doi: 10.2826/560165