COVID-19 and Europe's environment : impacts of a global pandemic.
Date: 2020-11-06
Institutions: European Environment Agency
Subjects: air quality, coronavirus disease, environmental impact, plastics, social inequality, zoonosis

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post-corona-planet
COVID-19 and Europes
environment: impacts of a
global pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on peoples lives worldwide. This briefing
focuses on what we know about the short-term effects of COVID-19 on our environment,
approximately six months after large parts of the world went into some degree of lockdown. It
considers what can be learnt from these effects and how they might help shape decision-making in
the future.

Key messages



The COVID-19 pandemic further highlights the interrelations between our natural and

societal systems: societal resilience depends on a resilient environmental support system.



Biodiversity loss and intensive food systems make zoonotic diseases more likely.



Often related to social inequalities, environmental factors such as air quality appear to

influence COVID-19 outcomes.



Increased reliance on single-use plastics and low oil prices resulting from lockdowns have

negative consequences.



Lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic may have some direct, short-term, positive

impacts on our environment, especially in terms of emissions and air quality, although these

are likely to be temporary.

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Biodiversity, food systems and zoonotic disease

Evidence points to COVID-19 being a zoonotic disease  i.e. one that jumped from animals to

humans. The emergence of such zoonotic pathogens is linked to environmental degradation and

related human interaction with animals in the food system.

60 %60 %

of human infectious diseases are of animal origin

¾¾

of new diseases are transmitted 
from animals

 About 60 % of human infectious diseases are of animal origin (Woolhouse and Gowtage-Sequeria,

2005), while three quarters of new and emerging infectious diseases are transmitted to humans from

animals (Woolhouse et al., 2001). These include viruses responsible for significant global mortality,

such as: the human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) HIV-1 and HIV-2 that cause acquired immune

deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that emerged from wild primate populations; the Rift Valley fever virus

that jumped from infected livestock to humans and influenza viruses such as bird flu and swine flu

that were also transmitted from domestic animals and birds to humans.

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Novel viruses have emerged from intensive systems of domestic livestock rearing. The intensive

production of animal protein involves rearing concentrated populations of genetically similar animals

in close proximity, often in poor conditions, fostering vulnerability to infection (UNEP, 2020). More

than 50 % of zoonotic infectious diseases that have emerged since 1940 have been associated with

measures to intensify agriculture (Rohr et al., 2019).

Beyond the causes of COVID-19, in many countries, the period of lockdown has given us a glimpse

of how animal and plant species react to less human disturbance, in both rural and urban settings.

During the Europe-wide lockdown, many anecdotal stories appeared concerning the changing

behaviour of wildlife. Since the 1970s, there have been numerous studies on the impact of human

disturbance on wildlife, in particular on breeding birds. Less disturbance in both urban and remote

areas (less recreational tourism) gives ecosystems and habitats a chance to recover and provides

new spaces and niches for species to occupy. New research is looking into how urban nature areas

increase the resilience of cities, maintaining well-being in urban populations whilst also enabling

social distancing. Maintaining or expanding space for nature in cities should increasingly become part

of the sustainability agenda.

Greenhouse gas emissions: short-term benefits and lessons
for the future

In addition to affecting peoples lives, the COVID crisis is having a direct impact on energy use and

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at both global and EU levels. The European Commissions

forecast for the year 2020 estimates a 7.6 % contraction in GDP for the EU as a whole. Due to the

effect of COVID-19 on the economy, in 2020, we can expect an unparalleled reduction in GHG

emissions in the EU compared to 2019. We will only be able to fully quantify its magnitude after 2020.

The transport sector, a key source of GHG, is particularly affected by the crisis. The demand for

passenger transport has declined as a result of international travel restrictions and reduced

commuting, tourism and business travel. The International Road Transport Union (IRU) expects a 57

% decline in turnover from road passenger transport activity in Europe for 2020 compared to the

previous year

[1]

. For air transport, figures from the International Air Transport Association (IATA)

show a 65.2 % drop in air passenger kilometres in Europe for the year-to-date ending July compared

to the same period in 2019  . These figures point to a significant decline in GHG emissions from

[2]

transport in 2020.

According to initial evaluations from the International Energy Agency (IEA), global energy demand in

2020 could fall by around 6 %. Therefore, the strong contraction in GDP and energy use might play a

role in the EU achieving its 20 % renewable energy target and its objective to improve energy

efficiency by 20 % in 2020, in addition to the effects of policies dedicated to reaching these

objectives.

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While the short-term reductions in energy use and emissions may make 2020 targets achievable, any

longer-term goals will require political decisions that prioritise recovery measures which contribute

significantly to climate change mitigation. Clearly, the transition of the energy and mobility systems

must accelerate if we are to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.

Air quality, noise and (un)healthy environments

One of the most evident short-term effects of COVID-19 lockdowns has been the dramatic

improvement in air quality, especially in some of the worlds most polluted cities. Although air quality

levels appear to be returning to near-pre-lockdown levels in many parts of the world as stricter

lockdown measures are lifted, this period has revealed some of the benefits that could be achieved

from a lasting and sustainable reduction in air pollution.

The EEAs Air quality and COVID-19 viewer tracks average weekly and monthly concentrations of

nitrogen dioxide ( NO   ) and particulate matter (PM 

2

10

 and PM 

2.5

 ). Data show how concentrations

of NO   a pollutant mainly emitted by road transport  fell sharply in many European countries

2

where lockdown measures were implemented in the spring of 2020.

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Figure 1. Effect of COVID lockdown measures on air quality

Comparison between expected and actual NO   concentrations (selected countries, April

2

2020)

Source: EEA forthcoming report - Air quality in Europe  2020

Concentrations of PM  also fell across Europe in this period, but decreases were less pronounced .

 10

Whereas NO   emissions are largely attributable to road transport, PM concentrations are influenced

2

by emissions from natural sources as well as man-made sources such as residential heating ,

agriculture and industry, which are less likely to have been affected by lockdown restrictions.

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Figure 2. Effect of COVID lockdown measures on air quality

Comparison between expected and actual PM 

10

 concentrations (selected countries, April

2020)

Source: EEA forthcoming report - Air quality in Europe  2020

The extent of reductions varied considerably, with the largest reductions of up to 70 % seen in urban

centres in those countries most affected by COVID-19 at that time, such as Milan and Madrid. Other

cities, such as Athens which was less affected by the COVID first wave and saw economic activity

returning sooner, experienced sharp initial declines in NO , followed by a return to pre-lockdown

2

levels.

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Figure 3. Weekly average NO2 concentrations, selected cities

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Source: EEA air quality and COVID-19 tracker

[3]

Researchers are exploring the role air pollution may play in influencing the severity of COVID-19.

Exposure to air pollution is associated with cardiovascular and respiratory disease, both pre-existing

health conditions identified as risk factors for death in COVID-19 patients (Yang et al., 2020). As

such, long-term exposure to air pollution might be expected to increase humans susceptibility to

COVID-19, with previous studies having demonstrated, for example, exposure to particulate matter

(PM) as having a role in worsening the impact of respiratory viruses (Sciomer et al., 2020). Recent

studies have explored the evidence for links between air pollution and high mortality rates for COVID-

19. An Italian study argued that since long-term exposure to air pollution, including PM, ozone (O )
3 

and sulphur dioxide (SO ), weakens the immune defences of the upper airways, this would facilitate

2 

entry of the SARS-CoV-2 into the lower airways resulting in infection with COVID-19 (Conticini et al.,

2020). However, as there are a number of significant limitations within these early studies, findings

must be interpreted with care.

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Another public health question currently being researched is whether PM can transport the virus. In

Italy, genetic material from the SARS-CoV-2 virus was detected on PM samples taken from the city of

Bergamo in northern Italy (Setti et al., 2020). While there are concerns that air pollution could carry

the virus over longer distances and drive infection, at this stage, it is not known whether the virus

remains viable on pollution particles. Again, further research is required.

Meanwhile, chemical exposure has been indirectly linked to vulnerability to COVID-19. Certain

chemicals are associated with health impacts, such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases,

immunotoxicity and respiratory diseases which, in turn, have been found to increase susceptibility to

COVID-19. In this context, a recent study has suggested that long-term, low-dose exposure to

mixtures of chemicals may lead to immunodeficiency in the face of epidemics and pandemics

(Tsatsakis et al., 2020).

It is likely that there has been a significant drop in noise levels during

the COVID-19 lockdown, as noise pollution from traffic is typically

correlated with NO levels.

2 

While we have grown accustomed to unhealthy noise levels in cities, the short-term reduction during

lockdown allowed people to experience the immediate benefits of quieter cities. Several sources have

also documented a dramatic fall in ground vibrations generated by human activity, such as road

traffic and industrial activities, across the EU.

Environmental noise levels are reported over a prolonged period of time, as health effects appear

when exposure is long term. It is safe to say that a reduction in noise levels over a few months would

not significantly reduce the annual noise-level indicator used to measure the effects of noise, unless

societal responses to COVID-19 result in longer-term reductions in traffic levels, air transport and

other noise-producing activities.

Plastics, waste and recycling

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant changes in the production and consumption of

plastics, and in plastic waste. T he pandemic led to a sudden surge in global demand for personal

protecti ve equipment (PPE), such as masks, gloves, gowns, bottled hand sanitiser, etc. During early

efforts to stop the spread of the virus, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that, each

month, 89 million medical masks were required globally, together with 76 million examination gloves

[4]
and 1.6 million sets of goggles .

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As a result of lockdown measures across most of Europe, coupled with

stringent hygiene requirements, COVID-19 has had a significant effect

on the consumption of single-use plastic packaging and products.

Since most restaurants in Europe were closed for on-site dining, many moved to offering take away

and delivery services using single - use plastic containers. Several large coffee retailers stopped

allowing customers to bring refillable containers , using disposable cups in their place. Meanwhile,

online shopping outlets have seen a surge in demand , with many products packed in single-use

plastic.

While disposable plastic products have played an important role in preventing the spread of COVID-

19, in the shorter term, the upsurge in demand for these items may challenge EU efforts to curb

plastic pollution and move towards a more sustainable and circular plastics system. The production,

consumption and disposal of additional single-use plastics will have had a greater impact on the

environment and climate, such as increased air pollut ion and greenhouse gas emissions, waste

generation and risk of littering.

In addition to the direct effects stemming from increased demand for single-use plastics, other factors

related to the pandemic should also be noted. Reduced economic activity has seen sharp falls in

global oil prices. In turn, this has made it significantly cheaper for manufacturers to produce plastic

goods from virgin , fossil-based materials rather than using recycled plastic materials. The economic

viability of the European and global plastics recycling market is presently under significant pressure. L

ower market demand for recycled plastics has also complicated the efforts of many of Europes local

municipalities to manage their waste practices sustainably, with less desirable waste-disposal

methods now being required for significant quantities of plastic waste.

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Social inequalities in the spotlight

It has become clear that COVID is not affecting all socio-economic groups equally. Several factors

may have increased the vulnerability of those with low socio-economic status.

Less-well-off people are more likely to live in poor quality, overcrowded accommodation, jeopardising

compliance with social distancing recommendations and increasing the risk of transmitting infection.

They are also more likely to have jobs that cannot be carried out from home, such as working in

healthcare, care homes, supermarkets, factories, warehouses and public transport. In addition,

people with lower socio-economic status are more likely to endure unstable work conditions and to

face financial uncertainty due to the economic impacts of the response to COVID-19. Such individuals

are under significant pressure to continue working even when they fall ill, in order to safeguard

household incomes.

Beyond the higher risk of transmission under such conditions, sustained stress also weakens the

immune system, increasing susceptibility to a range of diseases (Patel et al., 2020). Finally, poorer

people in urban areas are likely to be exposed to higher levels of air pollution and noise, associated

with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and hypertension, respectively (EEA, 2019). These

conditions are all risk factors for death from COVID-19 (Yang et al., 2020), suggesting that people of

low socio-economic status have greater susceptibility to COVID-19 mortality (Patel et al., 2020).

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Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to unfold across Europe, with changing

levels of restrictions and more focus on testing and social distancing.

Although some economic activity has returned since the European

lockdowns of spring 2020, economies continue to be hit by COVID-related

restrictions. As governments try to plot courses out of the pandemic, with a

particular reliance on significant stimulus packages, a focus on reshaping

our unsustainable production and consumption systems is vital. The

pandemic is highlighting, yet again, the interconnected nature of our

planetary systems, from the zoonotic origins of disease and their relation to

our natural environment and food systems, to the greater vulnerability to

disease resulting from social inequality, poor air quality, pollution and other

environmental factors.

Sources

In order to present a full and contextualised snapshot of these rapidly

developing scenarios, we rely on a variety of external sources, as well as

the valuable work of the European Environment Information and

Observation Network (Eionet). More COVID-related research studies from

Eionet and other EEA partners can be found here:

https://www.eea.europa.eu/post-corona-planet/explore/#search-the-

database

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Footnotes

1. https://www.iru.org/system/files/COVID-

19%20Impacts%20on%20the%20Road%20Transport%20Industry%20-

%20Executive%20summary.pdf

2. https://www.iata.org/en/iata-repository/publications/economic-reports/air-passenger-monthly-

analysis---july-2020/

3. https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air/air-quality-and-covid19/air-quality-and-covid19

4. https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/03-03-2020-shortage-of-personal-protective-equipment-

endangering-health-workers-worldwide

References

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of SARS-CoV-2 lethality in Northern Italy?, Environmental Pollution 261, p. 114465 (DOI:

10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114465).

EEA, 2019, Unequal exposure and unequal impacts  European Environment Agency, accessed 8

October 2020.

Patel, J. A., et al., 2020, Poverty, inequality and COVID-19: the forgotten vulnerable, Public Health

183, pp. 110-111 (DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2020.05.006).

Rohr, J. R., et al., 2019, Emerging human infectious diseases and the links to global food

production, Nature Sustainability 2(6), pp. 445-456 (DOI: 10.1038/s41893-019-0293-3).

Sciomer, S., et al., 2020, SARS-CoV-2 spread in Northern Italy: what about the pollution role?,

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Tsatsakis, A., et al., 2020, COVID-19, an opportunity to reevaluate the correlation between long-term

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Chemical Toxicology 141, p. 111418 (DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111418).

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transmission, UNEP - UN Environment Programme, accessed 8 October 2020.

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Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 356(1411), pp. 983-989

(DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2001.0888).

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Identifiers

Briefing no. 13/2020 
Title: COVID-19 and Europes environment: impacts of a global pandemic

HTML - TH-AM-20-013-EN-Q - ISBN 978-92-9480-286-6 - ISSN 2467-3196 - doi: 10.2800/223351
PDF - TH-AM-20-013-EN-N - ISBN 978-92-9480-285-9 - ISSN 2467-3196 - doi: 10.2800/626706

This EEA briefing contains information on the United Kingdom under the terms of the UK

Withdrawal Agreement which entered into force on 1 February 2020.

Published on 05 Nov 2020

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