Global inventory of regional and national qualifications frameworks 2019. Volume II, National and regional cases.
Date: 2020-09-30
Institutions: Cedefop, European Training Foundation
Subjects: learning, professional qualifications, recognition of vocational training qualifications, vocational education, vocational training

Global inventory of
regional and national 
qualifications frameworks 
2019  

Volume II:
National and regional cases

United Nations

Cultural Organization

 
Jointly written by the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), the European 
Training Foundation (ETF), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) 
and the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL), and published by the ETF in 2019.

Cedefop is one of the oldest EU agencies established in 1975 by Council Regulation (EEC) No 337/75. 
Cedefop helps promote, develop and implement EU policies in the field of vocational education and 
training, skills and qualifications, collaborating with the European Commission, the Member States and 
social partners. It carries out research and analyses and provides knowledge, evidence and services for 
policy making. The new mandate, in force since 20 February 2019 (EU) No 2019/128, confirms the Agency’s 
development over time and its role at the interface of education and training and the labour market.

The ETF is a decentralised, specialist agency of the European Union. We work in the context of the EU’s 
external relations policies helping transition and developing countries modernise their vocational education 
and training, and employment systems. We currently work with 29 partner countries, supporting them in 
analysing skills demand and provision, learning from international best practice, and applying innovative 
approaches to policy making and implementation. In turn, this fosters social cohesion and sustainable 
economic growth, benefiting EU Member States and their citizens through improved economic relations.

UNESCO’s mission is to contribute to the building of a culture of peace, the eradication of poverty, 
sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, 
communication and information. The UIL undertakes research, capacity-building, networking and publication 
on lifelong learning with a focus on adult and continuing education, literacy and non-formal basic education. 

The facts and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily 
coincide with official positions of Cedefop, the ETF, UNESCO or the UIL, nor do they necessarily reflect the 
views of the EU institutions. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication 
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the publishers concerning the legal 
status of any country or territory, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers of any 
country or territory.

© European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, European Training Foundation,  
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, and UNESCO Institute for  
Lifelong Learning, 2019

Reproduction is authorised provided the source in acknowledged.

PDF 

ISBN 978-92-9157-706-4  doi:10.2816/841519  TA-01-19-419-EN-N

Acknowledgments

This Global Inventory of Regional and National Qualifications Frameworks is the result of collaborative work 
between the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), the European Training 
Foundation (ETF), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the 
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). Michael Graham (ETF) has coordinated the preparation of the 
2019 edition.

The thematic chapters, and national and regional cases were drafted by: Jens Bjørnåvold, Ernesto Villalba- 
Garcia, Slava Pevec Grm, Else Husa, Anastasia Pouliou and Andreea Rusu (Cedefop); Michael Graham, Arjen 
Deij, Mirjam de Jong, Jolien van Uden, Carmo Gomes and Eduarda Castel Branco (ETF); Borhene Chakroun 
(UNESCO); John Hart and Ruud Duvekot (independent consultants); James Keevy (JET Education Services); 
Raúl Valdés-Cotera, Mo Wang, Konstantinos Pagratis and Meng Xu (UIL).

This publication would not have been possible without the cooperation of national and regional agencies. 
We are grateful for the extensive support and guidance provided by national and regional experts, 
particularly in compiling the national and regional cases of the inventory.

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 

SECTION I 
INVENTORY OF NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 

AFGHANISTAN 

Introduction and context  
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans  
References 

ALBANIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

ARMENIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

AUSTRALIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Further sources of information 
References 

AUSTRIA 

Introduction and context  
Policy objectives  

2

1

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25

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29
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33
35
38
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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLevel descriptors and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

AZERBAIJAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

BANGLADESH 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NTVQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

BELARUS 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

BELGIUM 

FLEMISH COMMUNITY OF BELGIUM 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

FRENCH COMMUNITY OF BELGIUM 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  

52
53
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55
56
56
58
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68
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90
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3

Volume II: National and regional casesRecognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

GERMAN-SPEAKING COMMUNITY OF BELGIUM 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

BHUTAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

BULGARIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

CHINA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Levels and use of learning outcomes of qualifications frameworks 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
References 

4

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCROATIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and the way forward 
Main sources of information 
References 

CYPRUS 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

CZECHIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO 

Introduction 
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Referencing to regional framework 
Important lessons and future plans  

DENMARK 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and the way forward 
Main sources of information 
References 

EGYPT 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 

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Volume II: National and regional casesStakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

ESTONIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

ESWATINI (FORMERLY SWAZILAND) 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
ESQF level descriptors 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to the regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

ETHIOPIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

FINLAND 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

FRANCE 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  

6

167
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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSImportant lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

GEORGIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

GERMANY 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

GHANA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans  
References 

GREECE 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

HONG KONG SAR CHINA 

Introduction and context  
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways: Recognition of prior 
learning mechanism  
HKQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References  

202
204
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206
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208
209
214
217
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221
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230
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Volume II: National and regional casesHUNGARY 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

ICELAND 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and challenges 
Main sources of information 
References 

INDIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Implementation of NSQF 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References  

INDONESIA 

Introduction 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and links with the NQF 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

IRAQ 

Introduction 
Policy objectives  
Levels and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
TVQF implementation  
Recognition of prior learning 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Lessons learned and future plans 
References 
Bibliography 

8

252
252
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260
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261
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271
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283
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285

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSIRELAND 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

ITALY 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

JORDAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

KAZAKHSTAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

KENYA 

Introduction and context 
Main policy objectives 
Level descriptors and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

KOSOVO 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 

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Volume II: National and regional casesLevels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

KYRGYZSTAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

LATVIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

LEBANON 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

LESOTHO 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Recognising foreign qualifications  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

LIECHTENSTEIN 

Introduction and context  
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

10

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLITHUANIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

LUXEMBOURG 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Level descriptors and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

MADAGASCAR 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

MALAWI 

Introduction  
Main policy objectives 
Level descriptors and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and links with the NQF 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

MALAYSIA 

Introduction 
Policy objectives 
Levels and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Recognising foreign qualifications  
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

MALDIVES 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 

357
357
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Volume II: National and regional casesNQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

MALTA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Further sources of information 
References 

MAURITIUS 

Introduction 
Policy objectives  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans  
References 

MEXICO 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans  
References 

MOLDOVA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

MONTENEGRO 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
International cooperation 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

12

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMOROCCO 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

NAMIBIA 

Introduction and context 
Main policy objectives 
Level descriptors and learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning, and links with the NQF 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

NEPAL 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

NETHERLANDS 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

NEW ZEALAND 
Introduction  
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

NORTH MACEDONIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 

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13

Volume II: National and regional casesNQF levels and level descriptors 
Use of learning outcomes 
Definition of qualification 
Qualification standards  
Access, progression and credit 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

NORWAY 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and challenges 
Main sources of information 
References 

PAKISTAN 

Introduction 
Policy objectives  
Level descriptors and learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

PALESTINE 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

PHILIPPINES 

Introduction 
Policy objectives  
Level descriptors and learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

POLAND 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 

14

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

PORTUGAL 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans  
Main sources of information 
References 

ROMANIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

RUSSIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

SAUDI ARABIA 
Introduction  
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

SERBIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 

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Volume II: National and regional casesNQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

SEYCHELLES 

Introduction  
Policy objectives  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans  
Further source of information  
References 

SLOVAKIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

SLOVENIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

SOUTH AFRICA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Recognising foreign qualifications 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

SOUTH KOREA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 

16

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

SPAIN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

SRI LANKA  

Introduction and context  
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans  
References 

SWEDEN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

SWITZERLAND 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Main sources of information 
References 

TAJIKISTAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

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Volume II: National and regional casesTHAILAND 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives  
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans  
References 

THE GAMBIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes  
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Recognising foreign qualifications 
Recognition of transnational programmes 
NQF implementation  
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

TUNISIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

TURKEY 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

UGANDA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

UKRAINE 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Recognising foreign qualifications 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

UNITED KINGDOM 

ENGLAND AND NORTHERN IRELAND 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

SCOTLAND 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

WALES 
Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 

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Volume II: National and regional casesStakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks  
Important lessons and future plans 
Main sources of information 
References 

UZBEKISTAN 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

VIETNAM 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

ZAMBIA 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Levels and use of learning outcomes 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 
References 

ZIMBABWE 

Introduction and context 
Policy objectives 
Stakeholder involvement and institutional arrangements  
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways  
Recognising foreign qualifications 
NQF implementation 
Referencing to regional frameworks 
Important lessons and future plans 

SECTION II 
INVENTORY OF REGIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS  

THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS QUALIFICATIONS REFERENCE FRAMEWORK 

Background 
About the AQRF 
Development of the AQRF 

20

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSImplementation of the AQRF 
The future of the AQRF 
Further information 
References 

THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK 

Background 
Level of development  
The future of the CQF 
References 

THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES QUALIFICATIONS SYSTEMS 

Background 
Development work on harmonization of qualifications systems 
Future steps 
References 

THE EUROPEAN QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK 

Background 
Level of development 
The future of the EQF 
References 

THE PACIFIC QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK  

Background 
Level of development 
The future of the PQF  
References 

THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK: 
BUILDING TRUST FOR BETTER MOBILITY 

Introduction and background 
Development and alignment of national qualifications frameworks and systems 
Quality assurance 
Verification 
Communication and advocacy 
Recognition of prior learning, credit accumulation and transfer, and articulation 
Governance 
The way forward 
References 

THE TRANSNATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK FOR THE VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY  
FOR SMALL STATES OF THE COMMONWEALTH 

Background 
Level of development 
The future of VUSSC 
References 

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21

Volume II: National and regional casesList of tables and figures

TABLES
Table 1.  Afghanistan National Qualifications Framework 
Table 2.  Types of qualification in the AQF  
Table 3.  Austrian national qualifications framework  
Table 4.  Types of qualification in the Azerbaijan qualifications framework 
Table 5.  Bangladesh national technical and vocational qualifications framework 
Table 6.  Qualifications framework of the Flemish Community of Belgium (FQF) 
Table 7.  Qualifications framework of the French Community of Belgium (CFC) 
Table 8.  Level descriptors of the German-speaking Community of Belgium: main categories 
Table 9.  Qualifications framework of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (QDG) 
Table 10.  Bhutan Qualifications Framework 
Table 11.  NQF structure (annex to the BQF) 
Table 12.  Levels and competence demands of China’s NVQC  
Table 13.  Corresponding relationship of China’s NVQC with QCPTP and QCSW 
Table 14.  Croatian national qualifications framework (CROQF) 
Table 15.  Cypriot national qualifications framework (CyQF)  
Table 16.  Czech qualification types, NSK levels and links to EQF levels 
Table 17.  Level descriptor in the Danish NQF for lifelong learning 
Table 18.  Danish national qualifications framework (DK NQF) 
Table 19.  Estonian qualifications framework (EstQF)  
Table 20.  Eswatini Qualifications Framework (ESQF) structure  
Table 21.  Ethiopian national qualifications framework (ENQF) levels  
Table 22.  Finnish national qualifications framework (FiNQF) 
Table 23.  Level descriptors in the French national qualifications framework 
Table 24.  French national qualifications framework (NQF/RNCP) 
Table 25.  Level descriptors in the German qualifications framework for lifelong learning 
Table 26.  German national qualifications framework (DQR) 
Table 27.  Ghana’s national TVET qualifications framework 
Table 28.  Level descriptors of Ghana’s national TVET qualifications framework 
Table 29.  Hellenic national qualifications framework (HQF) 
Table 30.  Hong Kong Qualifications Framework 
Table 31.  Hungarian national qualifications framework (HuQF) 
Table 32.  Icelandic qualifications framework (ISQF) 
Table 33.  India’s NSQF level descriptors 
Table 34.  Equivalences between learning outcomes from different types of education in Indonesia 
Table 35.  Iraqi TVQF levels and employment indicators 
Table 36.  Iraqi TVQF domains of knowledge, skills and competence 
Table 37.  Irish national framework of qualifications (NFQ) 
Table 38.  Italian qualifications referenced to the EQF 
Table 39.  NQF and qualification types in Kosovo 
Table 40.  Latvian qualifications framework (LQF) 
Table 41.  Lesotho qualifications framework and pathways 
Table 42.  Main elements of the descriptors in NQFL-BBV 
Table 43.  Level descriptors in the Lithuanian NQF 
Table 44.  Lithuanian national qualifications framework (LTQF) 
Table 45.  Luxembourg qualifications framework (CLQ) 
Table 46.  Malawi’s vocational education and training qualifications framework 
Table 47.  Malawi’s higher education qualifications framework 
Table 48.  Malaysian qualifications framework (MQF) 
Table 49.  Maldives national qualifications framework (MNQF) 
Table 50.  Maltese national qualifications framework (MQF) 
Table 51.  Mauritius qualifications framework (MQF) 
Table 52.  Mexican qualifications framework (MMC) 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 53.  Mexican Bank of Academic Credits 
Table 54.  Level descriptor elements in the Dutch national qualifications framework (NLQF) 
Table 55.  Dutch national qualifications framework (NLQF)  
Table 56.  Levels of the New Zealand qualifications framework (NZQF) 
Table 57.  NQF structure and level descriptors in North Macedonia 
Table 58.  Diplomas and certificates awarded in North Macedonia’s secondary education 
Table 59.  Qualifications acquired through post-secondary education in North Macedonia 
Table 60.  Qualifications in North Macedonia’s higher education system  
Table 61.  Main NQF level descriptor elements defining levels 2–8 in Norway 
Table 62.  Norwegian qualifications framework (NKR) 
Table 63.  Palestine NQF level descriptors and domains 
Table 64.  PQF domains and level descriptors 
Table 65.  First stage generic descriptors (universal) 
Table 66.  Level descriptors main descriptive categories – general education and VET 
Table 67.  Polish qualifications framework (PQF) 
Table 68.  Portuguese qualifications framework (QNQ) 
Table 69.  Romanian national qualifications framework (ROQF) 
Table 70.  Alignment of qualifications to the Saudi Arabia qualifications framework (SAQF)  

architecture 

Table 71.  Slovak qualifications framework (SKKR) 
Table 72.  Slovenian qualifications framework (SQF) 
Table 73.  Spanish qualifications framework for higher education (MECES) and draft Spanish  

qualifications framework for lifelong learning (MECU) levels 
Table 74.  Sri Lankan qualifications framework (SLQF) and national vocational  

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496
503
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qualifications (NVQ) levels 

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588
Table 75.  Minimum volume of learning required for each Sri Lanka qualifications framework level 
589
Table 76.  Categorisation of the learning outcomes according to the K-SAM model in Sri Lanka 
598
Table 77.  Swedish national qualifications framework (SeQF) 
602
Table 78.  Main elements of the descriptors in the Swiss NQF 
611
Table 79.  Thailand’s national qualifications framework 
615
Table 80.  Level descriptors in the former GSQF 
616
Table 81.  Proposed NQF for tertiary and higher education in The Gambia  
620
Table 82.  Trinidad and Tobago national vocational qualifications (TTNVQ) framework 
620
Table 83.  Qualifications framework for the tertiary and vocational sectors in Trinidad and Tobago 
639
Table 84.  Turkish qualifications framework level descriptors 
Table 85.  Ugandan vocational qualifications framework (UVQF) summary of generic level descriptors   647
654
Table 86.  Types of qualifications in the national qualifications framework of Ukraine 
662
Table 87.  Alignment of the QFEmirates with the EQF and QF-EHEA 
663
Table 88.  National qualifications framework for the UAE (QFEmirates) 
670
Table 89.  Descriptors for level 1 of the RQF 
675
Table 90.  Regulated qualifications framework (RQF) for England and Northern Ireland  
684
Table 91.  Scottish credit and qualifications framework (SCQF) 
688
Table 92.  Changes to level descriptors 
693
Table 93.  Credit and qualifications framework for Wales (CQFW) 
704
Table 94.  Quality assurance bodies in Zambia 
705
Table 95.  ZQF qualification levels and sub-frameworks 
709
Table 96.  ZNQF levels of learning outcomes 
717
Table 97.  Level descriptors for the ASEAN qualifications reference framework (AQRF) 
720
Table 98.  Domain and descriptors for the Caricom qualifications framework (CQF) 
726
Table 99.  Reference levels in the European qualifications framework (EQF) 
730
Table 100. Level descriptors of the Pacific qualifications framework (PQF) 
738
Table 101. Level descriptors for the VUSSC transnational qualifications framework 

FIGURES
Figure 1.  Proposed ANQA operational chart 
Figure 2. 
Figure 3. 
Figure 4.  Bhutan Vocational Qualifications Framework (BVQF) 
Figure 5.  Open university of china qualifications framework 

 Australian qualifications framework (AQF) 
Internationally mobile students and workers in Australia 

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127

23

Volume II: National and regional casesFigure 6.  Guangdong lifelong education qualifications framework 
Integration of the credit system within the NQF 
Figure 7. 
Indonesian national qualifications framework (KKNI) 
Figure 8. 
Figure 9. 
Indonesian KKNI and the higher education system 
Figure 10. Kenyan national qualifications framework (KNQF) structure  
Figure 11.  Y-Model of NQFL 
Figure 12. Main steps of the levelling process 
Figure 13. Indication of qualification types included in the NQF-VPET and approximate levels  
Figure 14. APC cycle  
Figure 15. Namibian qualifications framework 
Figure 16. Nepal’s skills testing procedures 
Figure 17.  Pakistani qualifications framework 
Figure 18. Structure of the Philippine qualifications framework (PQF) 
Figure 19. Structure of PQF level descriptors 
Figure 20. South African national qualifications framework 
Figure 21.  Indication of qualification types included in the NQF-VPET and approximate levels 
Figure 22. CQFW governance structure 

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24

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSection I
Inventory of National  
Qualifications Frameworks

AFGHANISTAN

Introduction and context 

Initiated in 2008 by the Government of Afghanistan, 
the Committee on Education and Skills Policy 
(CESP) was formed to lead the development of 
the Afghanistan National Qualifications Authority 
(ANQA), the Afghanistan National Qualifications 
Framework (ANQF) and the establishment of six 
regulatory boards, including the TVET Board, in the 
country. The secretariat of CESP has developed 
the legal and operational frameworks for the 
establishment of the ANQA and ANQF, which 
will put in place policies, structures, facilities and 
mechanisms to deliver relevant, equitable and cost-
effective education and training in Afghanistan.

The economic challenges faced by Afghanistan 
include addressing industry and commerce 
requirements for a pool of skilled labour, and 
ensuring that ordinary men and women get gainful 
employment and decent work. Afghanistan’s 
economy consists mostly of microenterprises in the 
informal sector and subsistence agriculture. Some 
70% of adult women have never attended school 
and the literacy rate is very low at 18% (Islamic 
Republic of Afghanistan, 2008, p. 63). 

Technical and vocational education and training 
(TVET) suffers from lack of proper governance and 
the absence of an overarching body to coordinate 
and manage it. Other challenges include addressing 
the rigidity of the existing system; putting in place 
functioning mechanisms of quality assurance; 
and regulating, registering and accrediting training 
providers. Removing the hurdle of an outdated 
curriculum, which is currently not responsive to 
the needs of learners and employers, is another 
challenge. This situation is further complicated by 
the lack of trained and qualified teachers/instructors. 
Presently, there are no mechanisms for the 
recognition of prior learning. Generally, the quality of 
provision is poor. 

Afghanistan still lacks a long-term vision for the 
continuing vocational education and training (CVET) 
of adults. As a result, there is low incentive for 
adults to continue to learn and to build on the 

knowledge, skills and competences they acquired 
through non-formal and informal learning. The 
majority of Afghans, especially those historically 
excluded from national education, training and 
skills development, currently obtain their learning 
and competences through non-formal grassroots 
programmes in non-formal settings and informal 
apprenticeships.

In general, educational institutions have little 
capacity to train current participants or to ensure 
new entrants enter the labour force with the needed 
skills. 

Policy objectives 

The ANQF is seen by the government as an 
important policy instrument for:

•  coordinating and improving education and 

training quality;

•  making qualifications more responsive to the 

needs of the country; 

•  assisting citizens who are historically excluded 
from the national education, training and skills 
development system; 

•  adopting an integrated approach to education, 
training and skills development by registering  
all qualifications and competency standards  
in the ANQF;
recognizing the different forms of learning 
and their specific contributions to the entire 
spectrum of education and training;

• 

•  expanding access, progression and mobility 

within and across all learning sectors;
•  developing a comprehensive policy on 
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL);

•  ensuring that all qualifications in the ANQF are 

subject to a quality-checking process; 

•  helping individuals to plan their education and 

training career progression; 

•  offering programmes (courses) that lead to 

recognized qualifications;

•  helping employers to recruit workers with 
qualifications relevant to the labour market.

26

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLevels and use of learning outcomes

The ANQF has eight levels, which allow for a full 
range of qualification types in the education, training 
and skills development system.

The level descriptors cover three areas (CESP, 2010, 
pp. 65–81):

a.  knowledge and understanding,
b.  practice and skills, i.e. applied knowledge and 

understanding, 

c.  attitudes and competences, further divided into 
generic cognitive skills; communication, ICT and 
numeracy skills; and autonomy, accountability 
and working with others.

Level descriptors are prepared in terms of learning 
outcomes. In other words, the knowledge, skills 
and responsibilities expected of the graduate of 
a learning programme at a specific level should 
align with the knowledge, skills and responsibilities 
expressed in the level descriptors for that specific 
qualification framework level.

Each ANQF-registered qualification, whether 
incorporating unit standards or not, is designed as 
a whole to serve a specified purpose.

In the process of establishing the ANQF, an 
integrated framework based on the Irish model has 
been envisaged in order to embed formal, non-
formal and informal training and education without 
privileging one sector over the other. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Committee on Education and Skills Policy (CESP) 
is responsible for operationalizing the ANQA/ANQF 
and TVET Board, which is the cornerstone of ANQA, 
in close coordination with relevant departments, 
ministries and agencies involved in TVET. 

During the initial stages of CESP’s development, a 
working group that included CESP, the World Bank, 
UNESCO and the National Skills Development 
Programme (NSDP) of the Ministry of Labour, Social 
Affairs and Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMED) was 
established. Its task was to align ANQF with the 

Table 1. Afghanistan National Qualifications Framework

ANQF 
LEVELS

LITERACY AND BASIC 
EDUCATION

L8

L7

L6

L5

L4

L3

L2

Intermediate education/ 
Grade 9 certificate 

School preparation literacy LC 
Progression literacy LB
Foundation literacy LA

TVET

ISLAMIC 
EDUCATION

SECONDARY 
AND HIGHER 
EDUCATION 

HE/Ph.D.

HE/Master

HE/Bachelor 
degree

Tertiary 
education/grade 
14 diploma

Tertiary TVET/grade 
14 diploma

Tertiary Islamic 
education/grade  
14 diploma

Advanced 
certificate, high 
school/grade 12

Advanced 
certificate, TVET 
high school

Advanced 
certificate, Islamic 
high school

Intermediate Islamic 
education/grade 9 
certificate

Intermediate 
vocational education 
and training 
certificate

Vocational training 
certificate 

L1

Basic level

Apprenticeship

Source:  CESP, 2010, p. 61.

27

Volume II: National and regional casesFigure 1. Proposed ANQA operational chart

Secretariat

High Commission of Coordination

CEO

Committee of Board Directors

National Board of 
Higher Education

National Board of 
Islamic Education

National Board 
of Secondary 
Education

National Board of 
Literacy and Non-
formal Education

National Board of  
Basic Education

National Board of 
TVET

Board functions: 
• Identification of need of the labour market
• Accreditation of institutions/programmes/teachers
• Monitoring and inspection 
• Development of guidelines for certification
• Evaluation and quality assurance 
• Research and development 
• Compilation and authoring reference books

Admin Deputy

Directorate, 
Admin/Finance, 
HR and IT

Directorate, 
Registration and 
Documentation

Directorate, Policy 
and Planning 
and International 
Liaison

Source: CESP, Concept and Information of ANQA/ANQF, n.d.

Skills Development Framework to develop National 
Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS) and curricula. 

CESP is led by the first vice-president and 
comprises ministers from the departments 
of education, labour and social affairs, higher 
education, finance and economy. The ANQF is 
now operational in the country and applicable to 
all stakeholders. CESP established the TVET Board 
as the first to be developed under the ANQA. 
Regulations and standard operating procedures 
were developed and nationwide awareness and 
communication campaigns were held. 

CESP is to be gradually replaced by new, statutory 
regulatory bodies that are approved by acts of 
parliament and are independent of all ministerial 
linkages. This includes the Afghan National 
Qualifications Authority (ANQA) and the awarding 
boards, such as the National Board for Primary/
Basic Education, Secondary Education, the 
National Vocational Education and Training Board, 
the Islamic Education National Board, the Literacy 
and Non-formal Education National Board, and the 
Higher Education National Board. The awarding 
boards’ functions are to identify needs of the 
labour market; accredit institutions, instructors and 

programmes; undertake monitoring and inspection; 
and develop guidelines for certification, research 
and development. The awarding boards are legal 
authorities, with each board reporting to a chief 
executive officer.

CESP will put in place the administrative, legal and 
regulatory foundations necessary to establish the 
ANQA in a time-bound manner.

Monitoring, evaluation, quality control and 
assurance units within the Ministry of Education, 
the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry 
of Labour will be under the direct supervision of the 
deputy minister in charge of the TVET sector.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The ANQA and TVET Board (as the first board 
created under the ANQF) facilitate the recognition 
and appreciation of distinctions between different 
forms of learning and their specific contributions to 
the entire spectrum of education and training. The 
ANQF and TVET Board are expected to promote 

28

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSlifelong learning – specifically the recognition of 
non-formal and informal learning – as a right. The 
aim is to motivate adults to continue learning and 
to remedy a situation where, under the existing 
qualifications system, only non-formal and informal 
learning that is equivalent to Grade 6 of formal 
school is recognized, and only on the condition that 
the learner is of a suitable age for the level which 
he/she is assessed and that the learner continues 
his/her education in a formal school (CESP, 2013).

coordinates policy across government ministries 
and ensures adequate involvement of stakeholders; 
establishes and promotes the maintenance of 
standards, skills, and competences leading to the 
award of qualifications in the areas of TVET, general 
education, Islamic education, and basic and higher 
education; and promotes and facilitates access, 
progression and mobility through the framework. 
Figure 1 provides the revised proposed ANQA 
operational chart.

The majority of Afghan people gain training and 
education in non-formal or NGO-run training centres. 
Workers in the informal economy generally acquire 
skills by serving as apprentices with masters, 
fathers or brothers. This learning will be officially 
recognized or certified through the qualifications 
framework. A recognition system for the informal 
sector linked to the ANQF is envisaged. In the 
meantime, the National Skills Development Project 
(NSDP) has established a methodology for the 
assessment of skills based on a competency-
based training approach. The assessment includes 
identification of competences, and collection of 
evidence on performance and knowledge that 
can be compared to the required occupational 
standards. Only if competences are demonstrated 
will a certificate be issued; otherwise, the learner 
is recommended to do a further training course. 
Non-formal education and training is offered mainly 
by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour 
and Social Affairs, and by NGOs. The updating 
of standards with a focus on occupational skills 
standards is undertaken by these ministries.

As of now, the learning pathways in the National 
Qualifications Framework reflect the situation as it 
exists on the ground in Afghanistan. For example, 
TVET and Islamic education currently go up to 
Grade 14 only. However, if the TVET and Islamic 
education tracks of learning are going to provide 
specialised degrees of higher education in future, 
then the levels of qualifications in those two areas 
could be revised to higher levels of qualification in 
accordance with the approval of respective boards 
under the ANQA (CESP, 2010, p. 63).

NQF implementation 

The Afghanistan National Qualifications Authority 
is the apex body responsible for the governance 
and management of the NQF. In addition, it 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The eight member states of the South Asian 
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) – 
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, 
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka – finalized the 
SAARC Framework for Action (SEFA) for Education, 
leading to its consideration and adoption at the 
Third SAARC Education Ministers Meeting to 
be held in Maldives in late 2016. Under regional 
collaboration and partnerships, it was agreed that 
the objective of this action plan is to develop an 
expert group to review the frameworks/procedures 
followed in different SAARC countries for the 
recognition, validation and accreditation of the 
outcomes of formal, non-formal and informal 
learning.

Important lessons and future plans 

An important lesson is the setting in motion of a 
consultative process between the government and 
all national stakeholders to discuss the ANQA/ANQF. 

The eight levels and six education programmes of 
the proposed ANQF (basic education, secondary 
education, technical and vocational education, 
Islamic education, literacy and non-formal education, 
and higher education) are ready to move on to the 
next stage of their development.

A crucial element in the further development of the 
framework is how well it caters for all segments 
of society, particularly underprivileged members of 
society. 

The next steps to be taken involve the drafting of 
acts for legal status and implementation, and their 
approval by the authorities, including government 
and parliament (CESP, 2016).

29

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations 
ANQA 

ANQF 

CBT 
CEO 
CESP 

CVET 

 Afghanistan National Qualifications 
Authority 
 Afghanistan National Qualifications 
Framework 
Competency-based training 
Chief executive officer
 Committee on Education and Skills 
Policy 
 Continuing vocational education and 
training

ICT 

 Information communications 
technology

NOSS 
NSDP 

MoLSAMD   Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs, 
Martyrs and Disabled
 National Occupational Skills Standards 
 National Skills Development 
Programme 
 South Asian Association for Regional 
Cooperation 
SAARC Framework for Action 
 Technical and vocational education 
and training

SFFA  
TVET 

SAARC  

References

ANQA (Afghanistan National Qualifications Authority). Concept Note on the Project. www.cesp.gov.af/anqa/

gp.php?gpID=2 [accessed 16 January 2014].

CESP (Committee on Education and Skills Policy). Revised Proposed ANQA Operational Chart. Kabul, 

CESP. Accessed 6 December 2016 at: www.cesp.gov.af/anqa/Documents/Revised%20ANQA%20
Operational%20Chart.pdf

CESP. National Qualifications Authority. Kabul: CESP. Accessed 26 June 2012 on the webpage of CESP: 

www.cesp.gov.af/anqa/gp.php?gpID=2

CESP. 2010. Annex 1: Meeting minutes of technical Advisory Group (to discuss the final version of the 

ANQA/ANQF). Kabul, MoLSAMD.

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. 2008. Afghanistan National Development Strategy 1387–1391  

(2008–2013). 5. Accessed 17 January 2017 at: http://mfa.gov.af/Content/files/Volume%205%20ENG.
pdf

MoLSAMD (Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled). 2007. TVET in Afghanistan. 

National Skills Development Project (NSDP). Kabul, MoLSAMD.

MoLSAMD. 2009. National Skills Development Project (NSDP). Kabul, MoLSAMD.
Nasry, A. R. 2013. National Qualifications Framework assisting citizens excluded from education.  

In: M. Singh and R. Duvekot (eds.). Linking Recognition Practices and National Qualifications 
Frameworks. International Benchmarking of Experiences and Strategies on the Recognition, 
Validation and Accreditation of Non-formal and Informal Learning. Hamburg, UNESCO Institute  
for Lifelong Learning (UIL).

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). 2016. Technical Meeting of Senior Officials  

on Education. New Delhi, 15–16 September 2016. SAARC/TC-SOE/05.

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). 

30

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSALBANIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
Law No 10 247 on the Albanian qualifications 
framework (AQF) was adopted by parliament in 
March 2010. A revision of this Law (23/2018) was 
adopted in May 2018. Secondary legislation under 
the revised AQF Law is being prepared. Bylaws 
are foreseen on the establishment of sector 
committees and inclusion of Lifelong learning 
qualifications in the AQF.

The NQF has eight levels and includes all types 
and levels of qualifications and certification. The 
AQF law has no provisions for partial qualifications 
but the new VET law (2017) states that Curricula 
are modularized or unitized by learning areas so 
that learners can take these units separately, 
thus offering flexible options for different types of 
learners.

Tools and approaches are available to support 
the reform of qualifications systems, the 
implementation of the NQF and redesign of 
vocational qualifications. The focus is now on 
implementation.

Educational, social, economic and political context
In June 2014, Albania became a candidate country 
for entry to the European Union (EU). The decision 
by the European Council to grant candidate status 
to Albania can be considered an endorsement of 
the new Albanian government, which was formed 
by the Socialist Party-led Alliance for a European 
Albania after winning the 2013 elections.

The new government has presented an ambitious 
programme with employment and quality 
development of the labour force as main priorities. 
The National Employment and Skills Strategy (NESS) 
and Action Plan 2014–2020 integrates economic, 
educational, training and entrepreneurial policies. 
NESS complies with the European Employment 
Strategy 2020 and will bring Albania closer to EU 
integration.

The NESS Action Plan, with concrete measures, 
aims to address the number one concern in Albania, 
the unemployment trap. In 2017, labour force 
participation rates remain below European averages, 
with women participation rates significantly lower 
than men’s (66.8% overall, 57.7% for women 
and 75.8 % for men). Youth participation rates 
are considerably lower than for the rest of the 
population, however, youth unemployment rate in 
2017 declined to 25.9% during 2017. Unemployment 
among women was reported to 12.8% in 2017, 
experiencing an annual decline of 1.8 percentage 
points as well. However, the gender gap in labour 
participation remains still high, reported at 17.0% in 
2017, the gender gap increased compared to 2015 
and it still remain slightly higher than the strategy 
objective.

Annual GDP growth in real terms increased from 
3.4% in 2016 to 3.9% in the first three quarters of 
2017. All components of domestic demand have 
contributed positively to output expansion. Capital 
spending has been the main driver, benefitting 
from large foreign direct investment (FDI) in the 
energy sector. Private and public consumption 
have also recovered over the past two years. Net 
exports added to GDP growth between mid-2016 
and mid-2017 based on very strong services export 
(including tourism) and a recovery of goods export. 
Despite stronger economic activity, per capita GDP 
in purchasing power standards stood at only 29% 
of the EU-28 average in 2016, practically unchanged 
since 2009. SMEs provide 80% of employment and 
two thirds of value added in the non-agricultural 
private sector. Various state- and donor-funded 
schemes support SMEs’ competitiveness. However, 
further steps need to be taken to strengthen their 
innovation capacity and improve their access to 
finance, such as developing the venture capital 
market. In 2016, services again increased their 
share of gross value added (to 53.2%). Agriculture 
remained the second most important sector (at 
22.9%). Industry (13.3%) has gradually increased its 
share of the economy over the past 10 years, mainly 
as a result of rising crude oil production. Within 

31

Volume II: National and regional casesindustry, manufacturing is relatively small (6.4%) 
and mainly produces low value added and labour-
intensive products such as textiles and footwear. 
Construction (10.5%) has seen its share of the 
economy decline sharply over the past 10 years.

Albania has a population of 2.8 million (2013). 
Population growth rates are slowing down due 
to a falling birth rate and continuing emigration. 
In 2010, the number of Albanian citizens abroad 
was estimated at 1.4 million individuals, but due 
to the economic crisis many migrants had lost 
their jobs abroad and turned home. The country is 
homogeneous in terms of its ethnic composition –  
minority groups make up less than 1.5% of the 
population. The 2011 census showed that, for the 
first time in history, more people (54%) lived in 
urban rather than in rural areas. Tirana and Durres 
are the cities with the highest population growth 
and density.

According to the National Employment and Skills 
Strategy and Action Plan 2014–2020, the AQF is one 
of the pillars for effective employment, education 
and training policies. Challenges to address include 
improved administration, efficient use of financial 
resources and better design, monitoring and 
evaluation of outcomes. Implementation of the AQF 
is considered instrumental to a strong governance 
of the labour market and qualification systems.

The vocational education and training (VET) system 
is still a centralised system with limited involvement 
of social partners and low responsiveness to 
local needs. There are two separate VET provider 
systems – the vocational schools and the vocational 
training centres. Their structures and offers could 
be streamlined and better aligned to labour market 
needs. Both should deliver qualifications to one 
common national qualifications framework (AQF). 
The attractiveness of vocational education is still 
low and perceived as a second best path to tertiary 
education, rather than a route to labour market 
entry.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Development and implementation of the AQF is one 
of the policy objectives of the National Employment 
and Skills Strategy and Action Plan 2020 (NESS). 
NESS is an ambitious reform programme that 
aims to address the unemployment trap in 
Albania. It includes actions to enhance decent job 
opportunities through labour market reform, actions 
to offer quality VET for youngsters and adults 
through VET reform, actions to promote inclusion 

and cohesion and actions to strengthen governance 
of labour market and qualification systems. The 
latter includes the AQF.

NESS links the AQF policy objective to the following 
action lines:

• 

• 

review of existing qualifications and qualification 
development processes by the National Agency 
of Vocational Education and Training and 
Qualifications (NAVETQ) and under different 
donor projects as well as qualifications offered 
by public or private VET providers or universities:
revision of the system for assessment and 
certification:

•  establishment of sector committees:
•  development of the national catalogue of 

• 

vocational qualifications:
revision of curricula based on AQF qualifications 
and standards, and referenced to AQF levels:
•  selecting bodies and putting in place procedures 

for the validation of qualifications, skills 
assessments, certification and the validation/ 
recognition of prior learning.

VET reform is a main pillar of NESS. The VET system 
is still a centralized system with limited involvement 
of social partners and low responsiveness to local 
needs. Albania has two separate VET provider 
systems – the vocational schools and the vocational 
training centres. One of the policy objectives of 
VET reform under NESS is optimising the provider’s 
network, streamlining structures by creating 
multifunctional centres with offers that are better 
aligned to labour market needs. All providers should 
deliver qualifications to one common national 
qualifications framework (AQF). The attractiveness 
of vocational education is still low (but improving) 
and perceived as a second best path to tertiary 
education, rather than a route to labour market 
entry.

International cooperation
Albania is an EU candidate country. It receives 
financial assistance from the EU via IPA (Instrument 
for Pre-Accession Assistance). IPA II provides 
budget support to help implement the National 
Employment and Skills Strategy and Action 
Plan 2020. The related Sector Reform Contract 
includes one performance indicator related to the 
development of AQF legislation.

As an EU candidate country, Albania is 
implementing actions in line with the RIGA 
2015 conclusions on a new set of medium-term 
deliverables in the field of VET for the period 
2015–2020 (Riga is a follow-up of the Bruges 
process). MTD 3 is related to the NQF: enhance 

32

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSaccess to VET and qualifications for all through 
more flexible and permeable systems, notably by 
offering efficient and integrated guidance services 
and making available validation of non-formal and 
informal learning.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The AQF is designed as an inclusive/comprehensive 
framework for classification of all quality-assured 
qualifications. The AQF Law distinguishes between 
three categories of qualifications: general/traditional 
qualifications, vocational/professional qualifications 
and qualifications for lifelong learning. The annex 
shows for each category and AQF level the types 
of qualifications as defined by appendix 1 of the 
revised AQF Law.

The term ‘qualifications for lifelong learning’ in the 
AQF Law is used to distinguish between the formal 
qualifications that are automatically included in the 
AQF, based on existing legislation (e.g. VET Law, 
Higher Education Law) and all other qualifications. 
Lifelong learning qualifications is an umbrella term 
that covers very diverse types of qualifications. 
These can be short courses for adults, special 
courses for continuing professional development, 
and qualifications provided by universities or other 
public or private institutes for continuing education. 
The AQF Law stipulates that lifelong learning 
qualifications can in principle be included in the AQF, 
whereas criteria and procedures need to be defined 
in secondary legislation. 

Alignment to other classification systems
The AQF is the national instrument for classifying 
qualifications in Albania.

Linked to the AQF is the national catalogue of 
vocational qualifications that is yet to be developed. 
Article 16 of the new VET Law states that the 
national catalogue of vocational qualifications is 
a dynamic online instrument that lists and makes 
accessible all vocational qualifications with the 
allocated level, which are included in the AQF’.

All vocational qualifications included in the AQF 
will have a link with a list of occupations, recently 
revised to align with ISCO-08 and to better 
reflect the structure of the occupations/jobs in 
the Albanian labour market. This classification 
of occupations organises 5 489 jobs in 480 unit 
groups, 133 minor groups, 43 sub-major groups and 
10 major groups. It is used for statistical purposes 
and to facilitate dialogue between the labour 
market and the education and training sector. The 

revision of the national list of occupations has been 
executed by the National Agency of Vocational 
Education and Training and Qualifications (NAVETQ) 
who has also embarked on developing descriptions 
of tasks and duties and other aspects of the jobs, 
which belong to each of the defined groups. These 
aspects include goods and services produced, 
skill level and specialisation, occupations included 
and excluded, and entry restrictions. A total of 
666 occupational descriptions have been compiled 
through in-depth interviews and consultations 
with private sector companies and representative 
organisations.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The AQF has eight levels. AQF level descriptors 
have been defined in terms of learning 
outcomes and use the domains knowledge, 
skills and competence (AQF Law 2010). These 
level descriptors are a copy of the European 
Qualifications Framework (EQF) level descriptors. 

More detailed level descriptors have been defined 
– and are used – by NAVETQ for AQF levels 2 to 
5 and in higher education for AQF levels 5 to 8. 
These are tailored to education subsectors and are 
used for development of new qualifications and 
programmes. However, an AQF for lifelong learning 
needs a coherent set of descriptors that describe 
learning outcomes in terms of knowledge, skills 
and (broader) competences for each AQF level, 
regardless of types of qualification. Secondary 
legislation, a Decision of the Council of Ministers 
has been drafted to define more detailed level 
descriptors. This decision was expected to be 
adopted by the end of 2018.

Use of learning outcomes
Learning outcomes are the backbone of the AQF, 
one of whose main objectives is ‘encouraging 
development of qualifications based on learning 
outcomes that are comparable with international 
standards for knowledge, skills and broader 
competences’.

The new VET Law states that ‘national vocational 
qualifications are defined by learning outcomes 
and derived from qualification descriptions 
and occupational standards.’ (Article 15.4); 
‘assessments and tests are done to determine 
whether learning outcomes have been achieved 
to given standards’ (Article 17.1); and ‘vocational 
curriculum determines (among others) learning 
outcomes’ (Article 32.2). 

VET qualifications are totally based on learning 
outcomes. Higher education qualifications are not 
yet based on learning outcomes but according 

33

Volume II: National and regional casesto the Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth 
all higher education learning programmes will be 
expressed in learning outcomes.

A qualification description/standard is the basis 
for developing a national frame curriculum for that 
qualification.

Definition of qualification
The definition of qualification in the AQF law is 
as follows: ‘Qualification’ is a formal result of an 
evaluation and validation process, obtained by an 
accredited competent body/educational institution, 
which determines that the individual has achieved a 
certain level of knowledge, skills and competences 
in accordance with a provided standard.

Higher education institutes have considerable 
autonomy in developing and providing study 
programmes but the Ministry of Education, Sports 
and Youth grants final approval for opening a new 
study programme, based on State quality standards, 
which also include institution-related criteria and 
can be considered as higher education qualification 
standards.

The definition in the new VET Law (2017) is as 
follows: ‘Qualification’ covers different aspects; 
(a) formal qualification: the formal outcome 
(certificate, diploma or title) of an assessment 
and validation process which is obtained when a 
competent body determines that an individual has 
achieved learning outcomes to given standards and/
or possesses the necessary competence to do a 
job in a specific area of work. A qualification confers 
official recognition of the value of learning outcomes 
in the labour market and in education and training. 
A qualification can be a legal entitlement to practice 
a trade (OECD); (b) job requirements: knowledge, 
aptitudes and skills required to perform specific 
tasks attached to a particular work position (ILO).

The new higher education law does not give a 
definition of qualification. The law uses the term 
qualification in connection with the AQF. The law 
defines AQF levels against study programmes 
based on cycle, European credit transfer system 
(ECTS) credits and length of the programme.

Qualification standards
NAVETQ develops descriptions for all qualifications 
on the national list of qualifications, which are the 
standards of vocational qualifications. Currently, 100 
vocational qualification descriptions/standards have 
been developed, all accessible online through the 
NAVETQ website1. Each includes information on:

•  qualification title and code,
•  duration (in hours to get this qualification),
• 
level of qualification,
•  scope of qualification,
•  admission criteria,
• 

further qualification and employment 
possibilities,
•  approval date,
• 
• 

information on previous versions,
learning outcomes expressed in knowledge, 
vocational skills and broader competences.

1 

 www.akafp.gov.al/lista-kombetare-profesionale/

34

Development process of qualifications
NAVETQ develops occupational descriptions and 
qualification descriptions for all qualifications in the 
national list of vocational qualifications.

The Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth develops 
State standards for both pre-university qualifications 
and higher education qualifications. Based on these 
standards, the Institute of Educational Development 
develops pre-university education programmes and 
higher education institutes develop higher education 
programmes.

Access, progression and credit
Access to qualifications and progress and transfer 
within the AQF is defined by the combination of 
different arrangements in the education subsectors, 
regulated by respective laws on higher education, 
VET and pre-university education:

a.  Law No 80/2015 On higher education and 

scientific research in the Republic of Albania;

b.  Law No 8872 On vocational education and 
training in Republic of Albania (29.3.2002), 
amended by laws No 10 011 (30.10.2008);  
No 10 434 (23.6.2011); and No 63 (6.6.2014);
c.  Law No 69/2012 On pre-university education 

system in the Republic of Albania.

The AQF Law defines increasing access to 
qualifications and progress between qualifications 
as aims of the AQF. Progression between the 
education and training subsectors is not (yet) 
defined. The higher education law does not mention 
progression.

The AQF Law states that the AQF aids accumulation 
and transfer of credits. The European credit transfer 
system in higher education is operational but VET 
does not yet have a credit system. General/pre-
university education programmes and subjects 
in upper secondary education are expressed in 
credits (one teaching hour in classroom equals one 
credit), which are being used for assessment as 
well. With the changes to be introduced in pre-
university curricula and assessment, only grades, 

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSnot credits, will be used for student assessment, 
but the programmes will continue to be expressed 
in credits.

•  overseeing institutions with specific 

responsibilities for the development and 
implementation of the AQF;

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Legal basis of NQF
Law No 10 247 on the Albanian qualifications 
framework (AQF)2 was adopted by parliament in 
March 2010. A revision of this Law (23/2018) was 
adopted on 18 May 2018. Secondary legislation 
under the AQF Law is being prepared, among 
others about more detailed level descriptors, the 
establishment of sector committees and inclusion 
of lifelong learning qualifications in the AQF. Adopted 
AQF legislation, both primary and secondary, 
are indicators for the EU IPA II budget support 
programme.

Governance and institutional arrangements for 
the NQF
The management of the AQF is divided by 
educational subsectors between two ministries. the 
Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth is responsible 
for the subsectors pre-university, general and 
higher education as well as for the qualifications 
for lifelong learning for these subsectors; the 
ministry responsible for VET, currently the Ministry 
of Finance and Economy, is responsible for the sub-
sector vocational education and training and for the 
lifelong learning qualifications for this sub-sector. A 
coordinating NQF body is not foreseen in the Law.

The Law defines three implementing institutions:

a.  the National Agency of Vocational Education and 

Training and Qualifications (NAVETQ);

b.  higher education institutions cooperate with 
institutions responsible for employment and 
ability to carry out periodic labour market 
assessments and employment of graduates;
c.  the ministry responsible for education and its 
subordinated agencies, in accordance with 
the relevant provisions of the applicable legal 
framework.

•  approving documents related to the AQF;
•  drafting and adopting policies related to the AQF 
and coordinating the activities of the institutions 
responsible for the implementation of the AQF;
•  periodic reporting to the Council of Ministers on 

issues related to the AQF;

•  approval of the criteria and procedures for 

the inclusion of qualifications in the AQF for 
the sub-sectors of VET. Procedures for the 
approval of the national catalogue of vocational 
qualifications of the sub-sector of VET are 
determined by instruction of the minister 
responsible for it;

•  establishing the principles for the development 
of qualifications of VET and setting priorities for 
their development;

•  drafting and proposing the legal and sub-legal 

basis in the AQF;

•  conducting a review of the criteria and 
procedures for the quality assurance of 
qualifications included in the AQF.

The competences of NAVETQ are to:

•  carry out periodic evaluation reviews of 
qualifications and compare them with 
international qualifications;

•  conduct periodic assessments of the labour 

market;

•  consult with stakeholders on the development, 
implementation and review of procedures for 
inclusion of qualifications in the AQF;

•  propose changes in criteria and procedures for 
securing the quality of qualifications included in 
the AQF;

•  design, maintain and propose the national 
catalogue of vocational qualifications in 
cooperation with sector committees;
follow the procedures for the qualification quality 
of qualifications, part of the AQF, in cooperation 
with sectoral committees.

• 

Competences of the ministry responsible for 
education and its subordinated agencies: 

Functions of the responsible ministries for the 
subsectors they cover are:

•  strategic planning of the development and 

•  consult with stakeholders on the development, 
implementation and review of procedures for 
incorporating qualifications into the AQF;
•  certify study/qualification programmes in 

implementation of the AQF;

accordance with the AQF;

2 

 www.akafp.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/LIGJ-
10247.pdf 

•  ensure the standards and quality of qualifications 

in compliance with the applicable legal 
framework;

•  periodically carry out evaluation reviews 
of qualifications and compare them with 
international qualifications;

35

Volume II: National and regional cases•  advise institutions responsible for the recognition 

of foreign qualifications, for academic or 
employment purposes, for comparative and/or 
equivalent issues;

•  design and maintain qualifications records for 

each sub-sector of education.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The Government of Albania and social partners 
signed the initial agreement on vocational education 
and training in Albania in April 2010. The agreement 
covers the following issues:

a.  Social partners agree that the AQF serves as the 

basis for the VET system.

b.  The AQF will organise Albanian qualifications 
in an eight-level structure aligned to the EQF. 
This will make it easier for Albanian citizens 
with education and training qualifications to gain 
employment in other countries. It will also assist 
Albanian companies with qualified employees to 
win international contracts.

c.  All qualifications will be subject to a quality 

checking process before being registered in the 
AQF. This will ensure that qualifications are up-to-
date, relevant to the needs of the labour market 
and in line with international standards.

d.  It will also ensure that social partners and other 
stakeholders are involved in the development of 
standards and qualifications.

e.  All assessment leading to the award of AQF 

qualifications will be subject to external quality 
assurance. This will ensure the consistent 
application of national standards and promote 
public confidence in the quality and reliability of 
qualifications.

f.  All education and training institutions offering 
AQF qualifications will be subject to some 
form of accreditation or academic assessment, 
to ensure that they meet certain minimum 
standards for physical and human resources, 
systems and procedures. This will eliminate 
unacceptable differences in quality across the 
country.

g.  The AQF will develop learning pathways and 
systems of credit accumulation and transfer 
which will make it easier for people to progress 
in education and training to the highest level 
of which they are capable. It will make the 
education and training system more flexible and 
encourage adult learning (Government of Albania 
and social partners, 2010).

The AQF taskforce has a two-year mandate 
from two ministries: the Ministry of Finance and 
Economy (responsible for VET) and the Ministry 
of Education, Sport and Youth (responsible for 
general and higher education). The mandate 
includes preparing revision of the AQF law and 

secondary AQF legislation and referencing the 
AQF to the EQF. The taskforce is co-chaired by the 
director of the Department for Integration of the 
Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth and the 
director of NAVETQ. Members of the taskforce are 
representatives of Business Albania (director), trade 
unions, NAVETQ Qualification Department (head), 
higher education and the Ministry of Social Welfare 
and Youth. Working groups of technical experts 
support the taskforce, which started its work in 
November 2015. The mandate of the taskforce was 
renewed in 2017 until the end of 2019.

The revised AQF Law stipulates the establishment 
of sectoral skill councils. These councils are 
considered a key element for revising/designing 
new qualifications. They will review which 
qualifications are required within a sector, 
participate in revising the national list of professions 
and in developing occupational standards, thus 
supporting NAVETQ in occupational and qualification 
standards development. The sector councils 
will be regulated as part of the AQF Law and its 
complementary secondary legislation, namely the 
decision of the Council of Ministers. Swiss-funded 
Risi Albania project will support the establishment 
of sector skill councils with a pilot in three sectors. 
The first pilot sectoral skill councils is expected to 
start in the beginning of 2019, after adoption of the 
decision.

Resources and funding
The IPA II Sector Reform Contract for the 
employment and skills sector (2016–2019) 
includes one performance indicator related to AQF 
development. However, in essence, the Ministries 
of Finance and Economy, and of Education, Youth 
and Sports do not allocate any additional funds to 
this task, over and above the ordinary allocations to 
NAVETQ and the Agency for Quality Assurance in 
Higher Education. 

Quality assurance of qualifications
The AQF Law stipulates that all qualifications 
in the AQF shall be quality assured. The AQF 
includes qualifications from the different education 
subsystems, each with their own arrangements for 
quality assurance.

Vocational education
Even though there is a well-structured internal 
quality assurance of the development of vocational 
qualifications, there is not yet a coherent system 
of external quality assurance of development, 
provision, assessment and certification of vocational 
qualifications.

Donor-funded pilot projects have introduced 
methodologies for quality assurance, including 

36

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSself-evaluation by public vocational schools, but they 
have not gone beyond the pilot stage.

The new VET law and related sub-legal acts 
regulates quality assurance of VET provision in a 
new and more comprehensive way. To implement 
this law, a coherent quality assurance model to 
cover all VET provision must be built.

Higher education
Before a higher education institute can issue any 
diploma, both the institute and the programme 
itself must be accredited by the Agency for Quality 
Assurance in Higher Education (AQAHE). The 
AQAHE monitors and assesses the quality of higher 
education institutions and programmes.

Improvement of quality assurance in higher 
education is high on the agenda of education 
reform. The new higher education law foresees 
a higher independency in quality assurance. 
Previously the accreditation decisions were taken 
by the Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth 
(based on AQAHE proposals), while this is now 
a responsibility of the Accreditation Board, an 
independent collective decision-making body.

Furthermore, the Albanian government contracted 
the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education 
in the UK (QAA) to ensure the quality of the quality 
assurance arrangements. The QAA will perform 
an external evaluation of the accreditation process 
of all higher education institutes. The institutional 
accreditation of all higher education institutes was 
finalized in 2017 and is a continuous process. The 
accreditation of higher education programmes in 
line with a national template, which specifies also 
knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired, 
is a continuous process also.

Legal basis of Quality Assurance Framework 
Quality assurance of the AQF is regulated in  
chapter IV of the revised AQF law. This chapter  
has articles about qualifications in the AQF, 
institutional accreditation and assessment and 
certification. 

All qualifications in the AQF are to be quality 
assured, including internal and external quality 
assurance of development, delivery, assessment 
and certification of professional qualifications. 
Qualifications in the AQF should be consistent with 
best international practices, including compliance 
with the levels, tools, criteria and processes of the 
EQF, the European Credit System for VET (ECVET) 
and the European Credit Accumulation and Transfer 
System. Vocational qualifications are based on 
relevant occupational standards and professional 
qualification standards, based on learning outcomes. 

The new VET Law (2017) regulates quality 
assurance of VET providers with stipulations 
for licensing and accreditation of VET providers, 
accrediting institutions and procedures and 
inspection. The VET law refers to the AQF law; AQF 
legislation sets quality criteria for the development 
of qualifications, for their validation, assessment 
and certification.

The new Law on Higher Education regulates 
quality assurance of higher education (Chapter X). 
The law regulates internal quality assurance by 
the institutions for higher education, and external 
quality assurance by the AQAHE. The AQAHE 
is a public legal institution that monitors and 
evaluates the quality of the higher education 
institutions and the programmes offered. By law 
all quality assurance processes and procedures 
in higher education are based on a Quality Code 
that is developed by the AQAHE and compatible 
with European standards and quality guidelines 
in the European area of higher education. The 
Accreditation Board within the AQAHE, is a collegial 
decision-making body and independent in its 
activity. The Board takes the final decision on the 
accreditation of higher education institutions and 
the programmes they offer. An important element 
of the new Higher Education Law is the inclusion 
of student’s representatives in the decision-making 
bodies and the institutionalisation of the students’ 
parliaments.

In quality assurance, the AQF has three regulating 
bodies:

a.  the Ministry of Education, responsible for 

qualifications quality assurance in general/pre- 
university education;

b.  NAVETQ, responsible for vocational qualifications 

quality assurance (AQF levels 2 to 5);
c.  AQAHE, responsible for quality assurance 

in higher education programmes and higher 
education institutes.

The Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher 
Education (AQAHE, formerly APAAL) is an affiliated 
member of the European Association of Quality 
Assurance in Higher education (ENQA) since 2010.

The main issues and challenges for AQF and 
qualifications quality assurance are listed below.

a.  NAVETQ is responsible for the development of 

qualifications but lacks resources.

b.  Currently, there is no structured social partner 
engagement in the governance of quality 
assurance related to VET qualifications and 
quality assuring qualifications standards in terms 
of relevance and attainment in general.

37

Volume II: National and regional casesc.  VET provision (public and private) is not directly 
linked to delivering qualifications developed by 
NAVETQ.

d.  In VET, frame curricula are traditionally subject-

based and prescribe the number of lessons per 
subject. Schools are free to adjust parts of the 
curriculum to local needs (mainly conditions in 
schools).

e.  Methodologies for developing qualifications are 
not shared by VET and higher education actors.

f.  Testing of VET students is carried out under 
arbitrary conditions in vocational schools 
and vocational training centres. Industry 
representatives are meant to be involved but 
this rarely happens. Appropriate assessment 
of practical skills is not universal practice and 
certificates verify attendance rather than skills 
acquired.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The revised AQF Law mentions recognition of prior 
learning within the scope of AQF implementation 
(Article 6): ‘certification of non-formal and informal 
learning outcomes […] including recognition of prior 
learning’. The VET Law also states that: ‘Recognition 
of informal and non-formal prior learning is the 
process through which competences a person 
obtained earlier in the informal and formal system 
can be considered through an assessment leading 
to the award of a certificate of a formal qualification.’

Validation of non-formal and informal learning 
is a priority measure in the national strategy for 
employment and skills 2014–2020. Recognition 
of knowledge and skills acquired through work 
experience and/or voluntary activities is a valuable 
tool to encourage people to pursue lifelong learning 
and for optimising training costs. A bylaw (decree) 
under the VET Law (2017) on the system of 
recognition of prior non-formal and informal learning 
is ready for adoption by the Council of Ministers. 

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The Albanian VET and qualifications agency NAVETQ 
compiles a national list of vocational qualifications 
that includes all vocational qualifications at AQF 
levels 2, 3, 4 and 5. Design of a public interactive, 
searchable web portal/database on qualifications, 
curricula and training offers by VET providers is one 

of the deliverables in the action plan (B3.2) of the 
National Employment and Skills Strategy (NESS) 
2020. An instruction of the Minister of Finance and 
Economy on the approval of the national catalogue 
of vocational qualifications has been drafted and will 
be adopted soon. The Ministry of Education, Sports 
and Youth is creating a national register of higher 
education programmes, each of which will be coded 
according to the field of study.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of AQF 
implementation have not yet been defined.

Impact for end-users
A revision of the 2010 AQF Law has been adopted 
in May 2018. Bylaws to regulate operational 
details are being prepared. An action plan for 
the implementation of the AQF has yet to be 
developed. An online qualifications database is to be 
established. Meanwhile the existing national list of 
vocational qualifications is published on the NAVETQ 
website. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

Albania is an EU candidate country and participates 
in the EQF advisory group. Referencing the AQF to 
the EQF is part of the mandate of the AQF taskforce 
and is foreseen for 2019.

Important lessons and future plans

The adoption of the revision of the AQF Law in 
May 2018 is a long expected step towards a more 
relevant qualification and education system. The 
AQF Law provides conditions for a more coherent 
system of quality-assured qualifications with 
establishment of sector councils to ensure the 
relevance of qualifications for the labour market.

The IPA II Sector Budget Support Programme 
provides the necessary funding for implementation 
of the AQF Law.

Albania has chosen to arrange the management of 
the AQF along existing sub-sectors, responsibilities 
are divided between two ministries. An NQF 
coordination body is not foreseen. Making the 
AQF a real framework for lifelong learning, which 
facilitates the permeability between VET and higher 
education, will be the main challenge.

38

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSVET curricula are prepared in full compliance with 
qualification description per AQF levels. Revision 
and linking of the curricula to the AQF is a process 
that requires improvement of financial resources 
and the mechanisms to optimise their use. NAVETQ 

is working on changing the Decision of the Council 
of Ministries that defines fees and payment of 
experts, especially of those coming from industry/
sectors, contributing to the revision of the vocational 
qualifications in compliance with AQF levels.

Table 2. Types of qualification in the AQF 

AQF

GENERAL/
TRADITIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

VOCATIONAL/
PROFESSIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

LIFELONG 
LEARNING 
QUALIFICATIONS

ACCESS AND 
PROGRESSION

1

2

3

8

Doctorate

Graduate school 
study in Advanced 
Studies

7

Master of Science

Master of Arts / 
Master of Fine Arts / 
Programme Level II 
study

Integrated study 
programme of the 
second cycle

Four-year study 
programme (before 
the enactment of the 
Bologna system) 

6

Bachelor

Study Programme 
First Level

5

Executive Master / Second 
Level Master / Postmaster

Long-term specialisation

Study programmes 
for continuous 
education 

Professional Master / First 
Level Master 

Study programmes 
for continuous 
education

Post-secondary study 
programme of professional 
type

Professional non-university 
study programme after 
secondary education 

Vocational certificate

Bridge courses

(Certificate)

Specialisation 
courses based 
on professional 
requirements

Qualifications at 
level 7; category 1 
(general/traditional 
qualifications) 
give access to 
qualifications at 
level 8; categories 
1, 2 and 3.

Part of the credits 
of level 7/2 are 
recognized at level 
7/1.

Qualifications at 
level 6; category 1 
(general/traditional 
qualifications) 
give access to 
qualifications at 
level 7; categories 
1, 2 and 3.

Credit parts of level 
5/2 are recognised 
at level 6/1.

(Continued)

39

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 2. Types of qualification in the AQF (Continued)

AQF

GENERAL/
TRADITIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

VOCATIONAL/
PROFESSIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

LIFELONG 
LEARNING 
QUALIFICATIONS

ACCESS AND 
PROGRESSION

1

2

3

4

3

2

1

State Matura Diploma 
issued at the end 
of the general 
secondary school 
programme

1.  State Vocational Matura 
Diploma issued upon 
completion of the vocational 
high school programme;

Bridge courses

Vocational training 
courses

Specialisation 
courses based 
on professional 
requirements 

2.  Vocational Certificate issued 
at the conclusion of the 
four-year study programme 
for middle technicians / 
managers;

3.  Vocational certificate issued 
at the conclusion of the one-
year programme for middle 
technicians/ managers;

4.  Vocational Certificate 

issued at the conclusion of 
the two-year programme 
for technicians / middle 
managers;

5.  Vocational Certificate 

issued at the end of an 
apprenticeship programme.

1.  Vocational certificate issued 
at the end of a one-year 
programme for skilled 
workers

2.  Vocational certificate issued 
at the conclusion of a three-
year programme for skilled 
workers

3.  Vocational certificate issued 

upon completion of an 
apprenticeship programme

Vocational certificate issued at 
the conclusion of the two-year 
programme for semi-skilled 
workers

Final school report 
after completion of 
compulsory nine-year 
education

Minimum entry 
requirements to 
work or social life

State Matura 
diploma (level 4/1) 
and Vocational 
State Matura 
diploma (level 4/2) 
give access to level 
5/2, 5/3 and 6/1.

Qualifications 
at level 3/2 
give access to 
qualifications at 
level 4.

Qualifications 
at level 2/2 
give access to 
qualifications at 
level 3.

Qualifications 
at level 1/1 
give access to 
qualifications at 
level 2.

Source: Revised AQF Law, Annex 1

40

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations 
AQF 
AQAHE 

EQF 
IPA 

Albanian qualifications framework
 Agency for Quality Assurance in 
Higher Education
European Qualifications Framework
 Instrument for Pre-accession 
Assistance (the EU’s support 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

NAVETQ  

NESS  

programme for candidate and 
potential candidate countries)
 National Agency of Vocational 
Education and Training and 
Qualifications
 National Employment and  
Skills Strategy

41

Volume II: National and regional casesARMENIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The Armenian national qualifications framework 
(ANQF) was first adopted by Government Decree 
(No 332-N), in March 2011; an updated decree was 
adopted in July 2016 (No 714-N).

The ANQF has eight levels, covering general 
education, vocational education and training (VET) 
and higher education; currently, levels 6 to 8 are 
reserved for higher education.

The Ministry of Education and Science is the 
lead organisation for the national qualifications 
framework (NQF). The ministry has developed tools 
and approaches, but the framework has not yet 
had an impact on end-users. No qualifications have 
been placed in the ANQF to date, nor have quality 
criteria for levelling been agreed and adopted. 
Governments have usually prioritised higher 
education over VET.

Armenia participates in the Bologna process in 
higher education having joined in 2005, and is 
developing its qualifications framework in higher 
education.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Armenia has a population of circa 3 million and an 
estimated per-capita GDP of USD 9648. The country 
experienced strong economic growth prior to the 
2008–09 crisis, with an annual average GDP growth 
of 13.4% between 2002 and 2007, driven by capital 
inflows and remittances. Growth was notable in 
infrastructure, with USD 3.2 billion of foreign direct 
investment (FDI) in the telecommunications, energy 
and transportation sectors between 2002 and 2012, 
representing 58% of Armenia’s FDI over this period 
(UNCTAD, 2013). 

After expanding by 7.2% in 2012, growth slowed. 
A 3.2% growth in 2013 was followed by 3.5% in 
2014. The economy grew by 3.0% in 2015, driven 
by agriculture and industry as expansion in services 
moderated. The slowdown was driven mainly by 
a contraction in investment activity, in part due to 
delays in implementing infrastructure projects. Weak 
household consumption was another constraint on 
growth, partly because of a slowdown in remittances, 
which represent approximately 18% of Armenian gross 
domestic product (GDP). But the economy recovered 
significantly in 2017, recording a 7.5% growth. 

In 2015, agriculture grew by 11.4%, while industry 
excluding construction grew by 6.3%; construction 
contracted by 4.2% following a 4.6% decline in 
2014. The expansion in services, which generates 
about half of GDP, slowed sharply to 1.1% from 
5.8% in 2014. Growth in services came mainly from 
higher growth in information technology, finance, 
insurance, and recreation.

The World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness 
Report 2015–2016 ranks Armenia 58th and 72th in the 
world for labour market efficiency and education and 
training, respectively.

Between 2010 and 2014, the total population fell 
from 3,249,500 to 3,017,100, with the population 
aged 15–24 years declining from 608,100 to 472,200 
and that aged 25–64 years falling from 1,718,500 
to 1,648,400. In 2017, the population stood at 
2,986,000; the 15–24 age group accounted for 
17.2% of the population. 

The Armenian economy has strong links to the 
Russian market, which represents one quarter of 
Armenian exports – the second largest destination 
after the EU – and is the source of about 90% of 
remittances. 

However, following a deep recession in 2009, 
post-crisis growth has been variable due to falling 
investment activity, particularly in the construction 
sector, whose share in GDP reduced from 27% in 
2008 to 9.3% in 2014. 

The value of remittances, which represent 18–20% 
of Armenian GDP, halved with the depreciation 
of the rouble, causing a contraction in household 
spending and growth. While pre-crisis growth was 
driven by the construction industry, agriculture, 

42

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSservices and mining sectors have been gaining 
prominence in recent years.

The objectives of the Armenian framework are 
similar to the frameworks of other countries:

Agriculture remains the largest sector of the 
economy (17.7% of GDP), though processed 
manufacturing is increasing its share of GDP  
(10% in 2014, compared to 8.3% in 2008). Services 
accounted for 55% of GDP in 2016. Diversifying 
exports have become a government priority. 
Although it has begun declining in recent years, 
Armenia’s unemployment rate remains high 
and there is some evidence of skills gaps in key 
economic sectors, and negative migration flows 
intensified after the 2008–09 crisis. Likewise, 
a large informal sector constrains economic 
competitiveness and development.

Between 2012 and 2016, the activity rate for the 
age group over 15 declined from 62.7% to 61%. 
Correspondingly, the employment rate for the same 
age group also fell from 51.9% to 50%. This was 
mirrored by increases in the total unemployment 
rates from 17.3% to 18%. For men, unemployment 
increased from 16.5% to 18.1%, while for women, 
the figures showed falling unemployment, 18.2% 
to 17.8%. For young people aged 15–24, total 
unemployment rose from 35.4% in 2012 to 36.6% 
in 2016. Young men actually saw a decline in 
unemployment levels, 31.5% to 29.8%, but for young 
women unemployment increased, 40.7% to 46%. 

Figures for NEETs (those not in employment, 
education or training) aged 15»24, show a drop from 
36.8% to 28.5%, 2012 to 2016. For males, these 
figures are 34.3% to 19.5%, for females 39.3% to 
37.8%. 

As a proportion of total upper secondary education, 
figures show a rise in share of VET students at 
upper secondary from 2012 to 2016, from 20.9% to 
26.2%. 

In educational attainment, figures from 2012 to 2016 
show rising levels. Low-level attainment dropped 
from 11.9% to 8.7%; medium-level attainment rose 
from 66.9% to 67.9%, while high level attainment 
increased from 21.2 % to 23.5%.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The ANQF, in addition to supporting overall 
improvement of quality, aims at providing more 
transparency to education and training qualifications, 
assisting employers in assessing the workforce skill 
level, and allowing the government to take decisions 
for skills matching adjustments.

a.  to link different levels of qualifications in a 
hierarchy from the lowest to the highest;

b.  to link Armenian qualifications to those of other 
countries, promoting international mobility;

c.  to enable learners to attain qualifications, transfer 
between different pathways and progress from 
one level to the next. 

International cooperation
In its NQF development, Armenia has in fact 
given priority to its higher education component, 
in particular to meeting Bologna requirements. It 
has been engaged in a twinning project, seeking 
to raise the capacity of actors, including in the 
National Centre for Professional Education Quality 
Assurance, supporting universities in meeting 
Bologna requirements in curricula and qualifications, 
and reviewing higher education legislation.

Armenia seeks compatibility with the European 
Qualifications Framework, but it has no formal link as 
the country has no association agreement with the EU.

In higher education, recognition of qualifications is 
based on common principles set out in the Lisbon 
Recognition Convention, which the country ratified 
in 2004.  Armenia belongs to the ENIC-NARIC 
network (ENIC: European Network of Information 
Centres in the European Region, NARIC National 
Academic Recognition Information Centres in the 
European Union).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The ANQF is designed to include all types of 
qualifications. It was revised and updated in 2016 
with new definitions for each level. The framework 
has eight levels and follows the European 
Qualifications Framework model. Each level is 
based on knowledge, skills and competences. It is 
a generic framework and it is intended to cover all 
education levels. According to the new framework, 
VET levels are defined as:

a.  third level of NQF: preliminary VET without 

secondary general education (without matura);

b.  fourth level of NQF: preliminary VET with 

secondary general education (with matura);

c.  fifth level of NQF: middle VET3.

3 

 Includes matura a priori.

43

Volume II: National and regional casesAlignment to other classification systems
A revision of the law on education was adopted 
in 2014 to make provision for implementing 
supplementary and continuing education policies, 
and as an important contribution to promoting 
continuing VET (CVET) in the country. It includes 
new concepts of, and procedures for, the validation 
of non-formal and informal learning.

Revision of the law, based on the Supplementary 
and Continuing Education Strategy 2013–17, 
was adopted after consultation with other public 
institutions, NGOs and social partner organisations. 
However, rules for implementation of the law, 
particularly to establish a system for validating non- 
formal and informal learning, are still pending.

NQF levels and level descriptors
Armenia has an eight-level framework. NQF 
descriptors are divided into three broad categories: 
knowledge, skills and competences.

Use of learning outcomes
Qualifications development is based on learning 
outcomes, including educational standards 
of occupations and corresponding modular 
programmes, and the revised list of occupations and 
qualifications of primary and secondary VET (2016).

Access, progression and credit
The current framework does not sufficiently allow 
for easy progression or transfer across education 
subsectors.

Piloting of a credit system for VET took place in 
some regional State colleges starting from the 
school year 2014/15.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Legal basis of NQF
The Armenian national qualifications framework 
(ANQF) was adopted by Government Decree (No 
32-N), in March 2011 and revised in July 2016. This 
update was mainly concerned with higher education 
qualifications. Relevant related legislation includes: 
Law of Armenia ‘On Education’, Law of Armenia 
‘On Primary and Secondary VET’, Law of Armenia 
‘On Higher Education and Postgraduate Studies’, 
Regulation on further education of VET colleges 
graduates with high academic performance at 
universities in relevant specialties, credit system 
pilot implementation for some VET specialties, 
Regulation on non-formal and informal learning 
outcomes recognition.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The Ministry of Education has the overall lead in 
the NQF. But more precise allocation of tasks and 
functions needs to be determined.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
In September 2009, a memorandum of 
understanding on social partnership was concluded 
between the Ministry of Education, the Union 
of Employers and the Chamber of Commerce, 
foreseeing cooperation in developing and updating 
educational standards as well as in the provision and 
assessment of VET.

With EU budget support, 100 training standards 
were developed by the National Centre for 
Vocational Education and Training Development 
in cooperation with sector skills councils, 
representing employers, to ensure that the 
standards met the requirements of the labour 
market. These standards are competence-based 
and are organised into learning modules, outcomes 
and performance criteria. They are also structured 
by general subjects, core skills, and general 
vocational skills for the sector and specialised 
vocational skills for particular professions, including 
theory and practice. The structure also defines the 
number of weeks and hours devoted to theory and 
practice.

Resources and funding
Funding is limited; there is considerable reliance on 
EU and other donor support.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality assurance in VET mechanisms related to 
qualifications exist, albeit in need of modernisation 
and improvement and include licensing, 
accreditation standards that include assessment 
standards, internal and external evaluation, 
addressing inter alia curricula, an inspectorate, 
monitored procedures for teacher assessment, and 
procedures for training standards and curricula, etc.

No procedures have yet been agreed to level or 
place qualifications in the framework.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Validation systems are still at the planning stage. 
In 2015, the government approved procedures 
for continuing vocational training and validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. According to 

44

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthe decree, the Ministry of Education and Science 
was assigned the responsibility of developing the 
procedure for keeping national training records and 
inputing it in an available electronic system.

The National Training Fund (NTF) will introduce the 
system of validation (assessment and recognition) 
of non-formal and informal learning outcomes.

The NTF is developing an implementation plan 
that will draw resources mainly from international 
organisations and the private sector, on a fee-for-
service basis. The NTF requires resources and, if it 
is to realise its potential, must work in partnership, 
for example with the network of VET colleges, 
employers’ organisations and the State employment 
agency. Considerable scope also exists to link the 
system with migration services.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
No qualifications are yet included in the NQF levels; 
no database or register of qualifications has been 
created yet. However, the Ministry of Education 
and Science has recently set up a working group to 
review the national classification of qualifications.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Notwithstanding its otherwise slow development, 
the authorities revised some of the NQF descriptors 
in 2016.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Armenia is a member of the Bologna process in 
higher education, and so complies with its norms. 
The NQF has not yet been self-certified to the 
qualifications framework of the European higher 
education area. 

Important lessons and future plans

Legislation has been adopted; the NQF and the level 
descriptors have been partially developed.

The priority is to operationalise the NQF. A stronger 
degree of agency coordination is required to confirm 
the NQF level descriptors, develop methodologies 
for allocating qualifications to NQF levels, promote 
pathways across education subsectors and 
progression, introduce a credit system, develop 
a quality assurance system and build stakeholder 
capacity, so they are equipped to contribute to a 
lifelong learning VET system.

Abbreviations
ANQF 

FDI 
NQF 
NTF 
VET 

 Armenian national qualifications 
framework
Foreign direct investment
National qualifications framework
National Training Fund
Vocational education and training

Impact for end-users
No impact yet, as the framework is not in operation.

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

45

Volume II: National and regional casesAUSTRALIA

Introduction and context

The Australian qualifications framework (AQF) is 
the national policy for regulated qualifications in 
the Australian education and training system. It 
incorporates quality-assured qualifications from 
each education and training sector into a single 
comprehensive national qualifications framework. It 
provides education institutions, students, recognition 
authorities and employers with confidence in the 
quality and consistency of qualifications and the 
ability of graduates to apply the skills and knowledge 
they have acquired. The rigour of the AQF helps 
to build trust with international governments and 
supports the mobility of graduates with Australian 
qualifications around the globe.

The AQF was developed in the early 1990s at the 
request of State, territory and federal ministers 
for the Department of Education and Training 
through the Ministerial Council on Education, 
Employment, Training and Youth Affairs. Building 
on existing qualifications systems, the Australian 
Government noted the need to deliver national 
consistency and standardisation of programmes, 
pathways and qualifications. A national, cross-
sectoral qualifications framework was subsequently 
identified as a means of providing consistent 
recognition of outcomes achieved in all Australian 
post-compulsory education, in both vocational 
education and training (VET) and higher education.

A key issue was that VET qualifications no 
longer provided a widely acceptable framework 
to recognise achievement. The AQF was 
particularly influenced by changes in the way 
VET was delivered, funded and recognised, 
especially with regard to the introduction 
of nationally recognized training based on 
competences identified by industry and 
enterprises. A key feature was the integration 
of trade qualifications, centred on workplace 
competence, with other VET qualifications and 
higher education qualifications.

higher education and VET sectors and the labour 
market by providing the basis for recognition of 
prior learning, including credit transfer and work 
experience. The framework would encourage 
individuals to progress through education and 
training levels by improving access to qualifications, 
clearly defining pathways and contributing to lifelong 
learning.

The AQF was introduced across Australia on 
1 January 1995, and was fully implemented 
by the end of 1999. The Ministerial Council on 
Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs 
established the AQF Advisory Board to oversee 
the AQF and to promote and monitor its national 
implementation. 

A major review was undertaken from 2009–11 to 
ensure the AQF remained fit for purpose, particularly 
in the context of increasing internationalization 
of Australia’s education and training system and 
the establishment of two national regulators, the 
Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency 
(TEQSA) and the Australian Skills Quality Authority 
(ASQA). The result of this exercise was the AQF 
second edition in January 2013, which was fully 
implemented by 31 December 2014.

More recently, the Australian Government 
announced another AQF review in the 2017–18 
budget. The review is currently ongoing; more 
information is provided in the last section of this 
chapter (Important lessons and future plans).

The AQF has made a significant contribution both 
to Australia’s vibrant international education sector 
and to international confidence in the country’s 
qualifications. With the rapid growth of qualifications 
frameworks around the world, there are more 
opportunities to engage with other national and 
regional qualifications frameworks. 

Policy objectives

The development of flexible pathways was also a 
key objective. This would support mobility between 

The objectives of the AQF are to provide a 
contemporary and flexible framework that:

46

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSa.  accommodates the diversity of purposes of 

f.  ensuring students have access to information 

Australian education and training now and into 
the future;

b.  contributes to national economic performance by 
supporting contemporary, relevant and nationally 
consistent qualification outcomes that build 
confidence in qualifications;

c.  supports the development and maintenance of 
pathways which provide access to qualifications 
and assist people to move easily and readily 
between different education and training sectors 
and between those sectors and the labour 
market;

d.  supports individuals’ lifelong learning goals by 

providing the basis for them to progress through 
education and training and gain recognition for 
their prior learning and experiences;
e.  underpins national regulatory and quality 

assurance arrangements for education and 
training;

f.  enables the alignment of the AQF with 
international qualifications frameworks;
g.  supports and enhances the national and 

international mobility of graduates and workers 
through:
• 

increased recognition of the value and 
comparability of Australian qualifications;

•  consistency in qualification types and learning 

outcomes;

•  high-quality qualifications in line with national 

• 

standards;
the portability of qualifications that are easily 
understood.

Australia’s diverse and complex education system 
is supported by internationally accepted principles 
of quality assurance. For higher education 
(universities and other higher education institutions), 
VET and schools, this takes the form of a multi-
layered, interrelated framework across bodies 
under both commonwealth and State government 
responsibility.

The objectives of Australia’s quality assurance 
system include:

a.  national consistency in regulating education;
b.  regulation of education using a standards-based 
quality framework and principles relating to 
regulatory necessity, risk and proportionality;
c.  protecting and enhancing Australia’s reputation 
for excellence and international competiveness 
in the provision of education;

relating to education in Australia.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

AQF qualifications ensure national recognition and 
consistency as well as common understanding 
across Australia as to what defines each 
qualification. AQF levels and the criteria for them 
are discipline-free and cross-sectoral. They provide 
an indication of the relative complexity and/or depth 
of achievement and the autonomy required to 
demonstrate that achievement.

Each qualification type is defined by a descriptor 
expressed in terms of learning outcomes. There are 
14 AQF qualification types from across all education 
and training sectors and each, with the exception 
of the senior secondary certificate of education 
(SSCE), is located at one of the 10 levels. 

Learning outcomes describe what graduates are 
expected to know, understand and be able to do as 
a result of learning. They are expressed in terms of 
knowledge, skills and the application of knowledge 
and skills.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Stakeholder involvement is critical to ensuring the 
success of the AQF and its continued acceptance. 
The Australian Government, in its governance of 
the AQF, engages with individuals and organisations 
from all education sectors, as well as assessing 
authorities and institutions, employers and other 
government agencies.

TEQSA and ASQA are Australia’s national regulators 
of higher education and VET. The former regulates 
all higher education providers and ensures that 
they and their courses meet the higher education 
standards framework 2015; the latter regulates VET 
institutions and registered training organisations in 
most Australian states.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

d.  encouraging and promoting an education system 
that is proportionate to the social and economic 
needs for an educated and skilled population;
e.  protecting students undertaking, or intending to 
undertake, education by requiring the provision 
of quality higher education;

The AQF supports the progression of students 
through qualifications by giving credit for learning 
outcomes they have already achieved. Recognition 
of prior learning (RPL) is an assessment of an 
individual’s relevant prior learning, including formal, 
informal and non-formal learning, to determine the 

47

Volume II: National and regional casescredit outcomes of an application for credit. Credit 
outcomes may allow entry into a qualification or 
provide credit towards the qualification. Credit 
given may reduce the time required for a student to 
achieve the qualification. 

The organisation issuing RPL determines the 
extent to which previous learning is equivalent to 
the learning outcomes of the components of the 
destination qualification, takes into account the 
likelihood of the student successfully achieving 
the qualification outcomes, and ensures that the 
integrity of the qualification is maintained. 

The typical RPL process consists of: 

a.  identifying the evidence required;
b.  providing advice to students about the process;
c.  providing students with sufficient information to 
enable them to prepare their evidence to meet 
the standard required for assessment;

d.  assessing, using appropriate evidence-gathering 

methods and tools;
e.  recording the outcome;
f.  reporting to key internal and external 

stakeholders. 

The AQF qualifications pathways policy establishes 
the principle that pathways:

Figure 2.  Australian qualifications framework (AQF)

a.  are clear and transparent to students;
b.  are systemic and systematic;
c.  enable flexible qualification pathways;
d.  may be horizontal across AQF qualifications 

at the same level as well as vertical between 
qualifications at different levels;

e.  can support credit for entry into, as well as 

towards, AQF qualifications;

f.  eliminate unfair or unnecessary barriers for 

student access to AQF qualifications.

NQF implementation

Building on previous qualifications standards, 
the AQF was developed in the early 1990s; 
implementation commenced in 1995. During 2009 
and 2010, the AQF Council worked with AQF users 
and stakeholders to update the AQF. Revisions were 
approved in 2011.

Predecessors of the AQF
The Australian Council on Awards in Advanced 
Education (ACAAE) nomenclature and guidelines for 
awards in advanced education were implemented in 
1972 to ‘promote consistency in the nomenclature 
of qualifications in the advanced education sector 
and to assist in the development of meaningful 
relationships between levels of qualifications’ 
(AQF, 2013). The following categories of award 

I
e
t
a
c
i
f
i
t
r
e
C

Certificate II

Doctoral Degree

Certificate III

Certificate IV

Diploma

Senior Secondary C
AQ F
ficate of Education 

e
r
t
i

>

A
d
v
a
n
c
e
d
D

i

l

p
o
m
a

i

A
s
s
o
c
a
t
e
D
e
g
r
e
e

Masters Degree

Bachelor Honours Degree
Graduate Certificate
Graduate Diploma

Bachelor Degree

Source: www.aqf.edu.au

48

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
 
were defined: master degree, graduate diploma, 
bachelor degree, diploma and associate diploma. 
Named Australian qualifications were included 
on the national register of awards in advanced 
education. The number of named qualifications was 
expanded in 1983 and 1984, and was replaced by 
the Australian Council on Tertiary Awards (ACTA) 
guidelines for the national registration of awards, 
which was implemented in 1986. The ACAAE award 
nomenclature was retained by ACTA.

The Australian Education Council register of 
Australian tertiary education (RATE) was established 
in January 1990 as a single national register of 
authorities (including institutions) empowered 
by the jurisdictions to accredit tertiary education 
qualifications. The AQF was introduced in 1995 and 
fully implemented from 2000. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

Australia aims to build strong foundations for 
bilateral and multilateral cooperation to improve 
mobility through international framework 
engagement as defined by a set of principles 
approved in 2011. 

The Australian experience is that international 
framework engagement occurs along a spectrum 
based on mutual understanding of purpose and 
expected outcomes. Without an internationally 
agreed definition of terms, words such as 
referencing, mapping, alignment, evaluation and 
comparability are interpreted and applied differently 
by different stakeholders in different situations.

Using the AQF, the Australian Government has 
engaged in a range of activities that aims to improve 
transparency and understanding of qualifications 
frameworks, learning outcomes and quality 
assurance arrangements.

a.  In December 2015, Australia and New Zealand 
completed a joint project to compare the AQF 
and New Zealand qualifications framework based 
on in-depth technical analysis against mutually 
agreed principles. The report Enhancing mobility: 
referencing of the Australian and New Zealand 
qualifications frameworks complements existing 
mobility arrangements between Australia and 
New Zealand.

b.  Australia and the European Commission are 

progressing a technical comparison of the AQF 
and the European qualifications framework to 
identify similarities and differences.

c.  Australia is supporting the development and 

implementation of the Association of Southeast 

Asian Nations (ASEAN) qualifications reference 
framework (AQRF).

Australia is also collaborating with Asia-Pacific 
Economic Cooperation (APEC) economies on 
the APEC integrated referencing framework for 
skills recognition and mobility. This aims to build 
understanding of the skills and knowledge held 
by workers across APEC economies in technical 
and vocational education and training (TVET). The 
framework will be translated into practical outputs 
such as national referencing reports, information on 
TVET systems, and graduate statements to promote 
understanding, transparency and trust in training 
systems and enable informed skills recognition.

Important lessons and future plans

Australia has learned a number of important 
lessons from the development of the AQF in 
the early 1990s and the strengthening process 
undertaken during 2010–11. Effective leadership 
and stakeholder support are paramount to 
building a national qualifications framework that 
is relevant to economic and social conditions and 
addresses identified challenges. Engagement and 
consultation with stakeholders, particularly within 
industry, remains critical throughout each phase 
of development, implementation, evaluation and 
reform. 

Australia has also learned that a national 
qualifications framework which delivers on 
domestic priorities can become a valuable tool 
for international engagement and international 
mobility. However, qualifications frameworks that 
are not supported by robust and transparent quality 
assurance processes undermine cooperation and 
collaboration by affecting trust in learning outcomes. 
Creating better connections between the key 
policy areas of qualifications frameworks, quality 
assurance and recognition of qualifications presents 
both challenges and opportunities.

Based on the above lessons learnt, the Australian 
Government is currently undertaking a review of the 
AQF, due to be completed in late 2019. The review 
is led by an expert panel representing different 
groups of stakeholders, and will also involve public 
consultations. In its discussion paper (Department 
of Education and Training, 2018), the expert panel 
identifies a number of contextual issues that have 
prompted the review of the AQF. These include 
the changing nature of work, due to technological, 
demographic and geopolitical factors, and the 
impact these changes are having on the knowledge 
and skills needed in the labour market; and the new 

49

Volume II: National and regional casesFigure 3. Internationally mobile students and workers in Australia

International mobility

Levels  
Learning outcomes 
Learning pathways

Qualifications 
frameworks

Internationally 
mobile students 
and workers

Quality  
assurance

Qualifications 
recognition

Standards 
Regulations 
Evaluations

Outcomes-based 
Substantial difference 
Comparability

Source: www.aqf.edu.au

types of skills, learning methods and qualifications 
that are emerging to respond to these changing 
requirements. 

Possible areas of change envisaged in the revised 
AQF are the inclusion of new, particularly shorter, 
types of qualifications or credentials; the treatment 
of generic and foundation skills, or social and 
enterprise skills in the context of the AQF; and the 
revision of the AQF taxonomy and some of the level 
descriptors to improve clarity and coherence across 
the framework.

Abbreviations
ACAAE  

 Australian Council on Awards in 
Advanced Education
Australian Council on Tertiary Awards
Australian qualifications framework
Australian Skills Quality Authority
recognition of prior learning
 Tertiary Education Quality and 
Standards Agency
 technical and vocational education 
and training
vocational education and training

ACTA  
AQF  
ASQA  
RPL 
TEQSA  

TVET  

VET  

Further sources of information

Australian Skills Quality Authority: www.asqa.gov.au/
Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency: www.teqsa.gov.au 

References

AQF (2011). Australian qualification framework, (1st edition). Canberra: Australian Qualifications Council.
AQF (2013). Australian qualification framework (2nd edition). Canberra: Australian Qualifications Council.
Department of Education and Training, New Zealand Qualifications Authority (2015). Enhancing mobility: 

referencing of the Australian and New Zealand qualifications frameworks.

Prepared by:
UNESCO and UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

50

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAUSTRIA

Introduction and context 

Austria has one of the lowest youth unemployment 
rates in the EU, with early school leaving below the 
EU average (6.9% compared to 10.7% in 2016). 
The main factor explaining this success is high 
participation in vocational education and training 
(VET); this is one of the main educational pathways 
in the country, well adapted to the labour market, 
with VET courses of high quality and relevance. VET 
is also seen as crucial in the integration of refugees 
and migrants. Adult participation in lifelong learning 
is also well above the EU average. However, 
foreign-born students are much more likely to 
leave school early and educational performance 
continues to be strongly dependent on parents’ 
socioeconomic status. According to the 2015 
Programme for international student assessment 
(PISA) results, the proportion of Austrian students 
with underachievement in science and mathematics 
is similar to the EU average, and slightly higher than 
the EU average in reading. Around half of Austria’s 
teaching personnel, especially at secondary level, 
are expected to have to be replaced over the next 
decade; this is both a challenge, having to attract 
sufficient new teachers into the system, and an 
opportunity for innovation in pedagogy. Current 
education and training reforms are focused on 
increasing school autonomy, improving digital skills 
of students at all levels, and strengthening the 
social dimension of higher education (European 
Commission, 2017).

As a response to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) initiative, Austria carried out  
a national consultation process on the EQF in  
2005–06 and designed a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) with an eight-level structure. It 
was ‘designed as a comprehensive framework, 
encompassing all types and levels of qualifications 
from the formal and non-formal sector, and 
appreciating the results of informal learning’ 
(Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and 
Culture and Austrian Federal Ministry of Science 
and Research, 2012). As the education system is 
already highly regulated in terms of what kind of 
qualifications give entrance to certain education 

pathways and access to occupations/professions 
in the labour market, the NQF has been designed 
to promote transparency and guidance, with no 
regulatory functions. While qualifications in general 
play an important role in Austria, the term as defined 
in an EQF context is not used consistently and is 
sometimes used to refer to curricula or training 
programmes.

After several years of preparation, with intensive 
involvement of stakeholders and experts, the 
Austrian Parliament approved the Federal Act on 
the national qualifications framework4 in March 
2016, establishing the governance structure for the 
framework and the procedures involved in allocating 
qualifications to levels. Referenced to the EQF in 
June 2012, the Austrian NQF is now operational. Its 
influence has been observed since the development 
phase of the framework, with NQF principles being 
applied in the design of new qualifications and in the 
modernisation of existing ones to ensure mapping 
to NQF levels (Cedefop and Refernet Austria, 2018).

Policy objectives 

The main roles of the Austrian NQF are 
communication and transparency of qualifications, 
nationally and internationally. The framework helps 
map national qualifications from all education and 
training subsystems and learning settings, present 
them in relation to one another, and make explicit 
the implicit levels of the qualification system. It aims 
to strengthen coordination between the different 
subsystems by highlighting existing pathways and 
developing new ones to open up new progression 
possibilities5. It is also expected to aid validation 
of non-formal and informal learning and to be an 

4 

5 

The NQF Act was published in the Federal Law 
Gazette 14/2016, Part I, 21 March 2016. www.ris.
bka.gv.at/Dokumente/BgblAuth/BGBLA_2016_I_14/
BGBLA_2016_I_14.pdf 
Further information on objectives can be found on the 
Austrian Parliament’s online service on legal innovations 
(in German): www.help.gv.at/Portal.Node/hlpd/public/
module?gentics.am=Content&p.contentid=10007.180581

51

Volume II: National and regional casesimportant tool in promoting lifelong learning. While 
having no regulatory functions and no legal effect 
on vocational and other authorisations, the NQF is 
used as a basis for reform and further development 
in VET qualifications (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

Specific objectives are the following6:

a.  strengthen transparency, understanding 

and comparability of Austrian qualifications 
internationally;

b.  promote cross-border mobility; 
c.  make formal and non-formal qualifications easier 
to understand and more visible for Austrian 
citizens;

d.  improve permeability between formal and 

non-formal sectors of the qualification system: 
develop new pathways, open new progression 
possibilities, and support lifelong learning;
e.  progress the learning outcomes orientation;
f.  promote the European dimension in higher 

education.

Level descriptors and learning 
outcomes

The Austrian NQF has eight levels. The decision on 
the number of levels followed broad consultation 
and a study providing information on implicit 
hierarchy in the national qualification system, using 
statistical educational research and statistical 
frameworks (Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, 
Arts and Culture and Austrian Federal Ministry 
of Science and Research, 2011). One important 
topic of discussion was the inclusion of non-
traditional higher education qualifications at NQF 
levels 6 to 8. A ‘Y-structure’ was agreed, to capture 
differences between academic higher education 
and VET qualifications at these levels. EQF level 
descriptors are used for all qualifications except 
those awarded by higher education institutions, 
with additional explanations serving as a guide 
to make the EQF descriptors understood in the 
Austrian context7. Parallel Dublin descriptors were 
introduced at levels 6 to 8 for qualifications related 
to Bologna cycles (bachelor degree, master degree 
and doctorate) and awarded by higher education 
institutions (universities, universities of applied 
sciences (Fachhochschulen) and university colleges 
for teacher education (Pädagogische Hochschulen)). 
Reference qualifications have been used in the 

6  Explanations to the NQF act (in German): www.parlament.

gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXV/I/I_00999/fname_498915.pdf

7  Available on the NQF webpage: www.

qualifikationsregister.at/public/Deskriptoren

referencing process to illustrate levels of learning 
outcomes8.

As learning outcomes are central to positioning 
qualifications in the NQF, its development is seen 
as having had a positive effect on strengthening 
the learning outcomes orientation across education 
and training. This is not just in terms of use of 
learning outcomes in developing qualifications but in 
increasing knowledge and understanding about the 
learning outcomes approach (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). Many qualifications are already 
learning outcomes-oriented, but the approach has 
not been applied consistently across all sectors 
and institutions, so work continues. Initiatives 
designed to strengthen this orientation include 
the introduction of educational standards in 
the school-based sector and the introduction of 
competence-based and learning-outcome-oriented 
curricula in VET (Cedefop, 2016a; Cedefop, 2016b). 
In general education, core subject areas (German, 
mathematics and English) are described in terms of 
learning outcomes. 

In school-based VET, learning outcomes are defined 
in VET educational standards9; this has been 
implemented in a step-by-step approach in recent 
years. Educational standards for VET schools and 
colleges define ‘content’ (subject and knowledge 
areas and topics with specified goals), ‘action’ 
(cognitive achievements required in particular 
subjects), and personal and social competences 
related to a specific field. Competence-oriented 
and standardised upper secondary school leaving 
examinations (AHS-Reifeprüfung and BHS-
Reifeprüfung and Diplomprüfung) were used for 
the first time in the school year 2015/16, aiming to 
increase transparency and comparability of upper 
secondary qualifications, and fairness and access to 
higher education10. Higher VET curricula are being 
revised and qualifications awarded by VET colleges 
are being updated based on NQF principles. A 
recent initiative was piloted to increase transparency 
and quality assurance in the master craftsperson 
qualification (Meister) and examinations, with a 
more detailed definition of learning outcomes and 
implementation of a competence-oriented structure 

8  Reference qualifications are those from the Austrian 
educational qualification landscape and serve to 
illustrate and understand more easily the requirements 
connected with each level. They are to form ‘qualification 
cornerstones’, an aid for orientation in the allocation of 
additional qualifications.

9  A description of VET educational standards can be 

found in the project handbook Bildungsstandards in der 
Berufsbildung. www.berufsbildendeschulen.at/fileadmin/
content/bbs/Handbuch_BIST_15.10.2015.pdf

10  www.bmb.gv.at/schulen/unterricht/ba/reifepruefungneu.

html

52

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSof the preparatory courses. The master craftsperson 
qualification11 has now been allocated to NQF level 6 
(September 2018), increasing the comparability of 
training pathways and reflecting the high esteem of 
this qualification in Austria12.

In apprenticeship (dual system), a training regulation 
is issued for each profile by the Federal Ministry 
for Digital and Economic Affairs. The regulations 
are largely written in learning outcomes and are 
currently under reform to strengthen the outcome 
orientation of apprenticeship training. Each consists 
of an occupational competence profile (Berufsprofil), 
with related activities and work descriptions, and job 
profile (Berufsbild), with knowledge and skills to be 
acquired by apprentices13.

Implementation of the learning outcomes 
approach in higher education is clearly linked to the 
Bologna process and Dublin descriptors. Higher 
education institutions have already described their 
programmes and qualification profiles in learning 
outcomes (knowledge, skills and competences) 
established under university autonomy (Cedefop, 
2016a) but implementation differs across 
institutions.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The Austrian approach has been characterised from 
the beginning by active stakeholder involvement and 
occasional conflicting views on the NQF’s role14. The 
General Directorate for VET at the Federal Ministry 
of Education and Women’s Affairs (as it was then 
called) initiated the NQF development process, in 
cooperation with the Federal Ministry of Science, 
Research and Economy, which was responsible for 
higher education. Cooperation has been strong, 
especially with the social partners, who were part of 
the development of the legal framework of the NQF 

11  Master craftsperson examinations (Meisterprüfungen) 

have been mapped to NQF level 6. The five qualifications 
published in the NQF register are examples showing the 
full scope of this qualification type.

12  www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20181108_OTS0115/

oesterreichs-gewerbe-und-handwerk-ist-gut-vorbereitet-
fuer-die-zukunft

13  www.bmb.gv.at/schulen/bo/umsetzung/dielehre_18624.

pdf?4k99xc

14  One important topic of discussion was opening 

NQF levels 6 to 8 to non-traditional higher education 
qualifications, with VET stakeholders on one side and 
higher education on the other. When the NQF was 
designed, consensus was achieved in the form of a 
‘Y-structure’ opening the highest levels to qualifications 
awarded outside higher education institutions. This was 
very important for parity of esteem of different learning 
contexts.

as well as part of the qualification mapping process 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). As of 
2018, following administrative restructuring, the 
main authority in charge of NQF development and 
implementation is the Federal Ministry of Education, 
Science and Research, now responsible for all 
education and training subsystems.

The 2016 NQF Act15 establishes the governance 
structure for the framework, and defines the 
responsibilities of institutions and bodies, as well 
as processes involved in implementation. The 
Austrian Agency for International Cooperation 
in Education and Research (Österreichischer 
Austauschdienst (OeAD)) has been appointed as 
NQF/EQF national coordination point (NCP) and the 
main implementation coordinating body. According 
to Article 5 of the Act, its tasks include:

a.  formal and content-related verification of the 

request for qualification mapping;

b.  keeping a public NQF register with mapped 
qualifications, including description of a 
qualification and its learning outcomes, NQF 
level and the name of the provider;

c.  setting up a list of those with expertise for 

any content-related verification of request for 
mapping a qualification. 

An NQF steering committee of 32 members 
representing all the main stakeholders (all federal 
ministries, social partners, stakeholders from the 
different fields of education, public employment 
service, federal youth representation and the 
Länder) has been set up as the central governance 
body and meets regularly. Its key task is to 
provide advice to public authorities responsible 
for education, training and qualifications at all 
levels. Further tasks include approval of operational 
procedures (such as inclusion of qualifications in 
the NQF register and appeals) and content-related 
issues (such as adoption of the NQF manual). The 
broad representation reflects stakeholder interests 
and acknowledgement of the importance of social 
aspects in the allocation of qualifications to levels. 

An NQF advisory board, consisting of seven 
experts from different qualification contexts (initial, 
further and continuing education and training, and 
professional practice), was established to advise 
and inform the coordinating body on allocation 
decisions.

In addition to specifying the responsible bodies, 
the NQF Act also regulates the process of mapping 

15  The NQF Act [in German]: www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokumente/
BgblAuth/BGBLA_2016_I_14/BGBLA_2016_I_14.pdf

53

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications16 based on learning outcomes to 
the eight levels of the NQF and publication of 
the mapping process results in the register. 
Qualifications or levels are not specifically included 
in the Act, and only qualifications based on the 
Bologna system are mapped by law in Austria. The 
Act makes a distinction between the allocation of 
formal versus non-formal qualifications: mapping 
of non-formal or informal learning requires further 
process specification as it is not fully defined in 
the NQF Act (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways17

Development of a validation strategy started in 
2013, with the establishment of a working group18 
comprising relevant federal ministries (currently: 
Education, Science and Research; Digital and 
Economic Affairs; Labour, Social Affairs, Health and 
Consumer Protection; Defence; Federal Chancellery: 
Families and Youth), social partner organisations 
(chamber of labour, chamber of commerce), youth 
organisations (Austrian Youth Association), adult 
education (Austrian Conference of Adult Education), 
Universities Austria and Austrian Association 
of Universities of Applied Sciences. Their work 
has been strongly linked to development of the 
Lifelong learning strategy19, and of the NQF. The 
2012 recommendation (Council of the European 
Union, 2012) and (partly) the implementation of the 
European credit system for vocational education and 
training (ECVET) also play a role in the process. 

Analysis of existing validation arrangements in three 
areas (the low-qualified, VET and higher education) 
fed into a consultation document for the national 
validation strategy (including key objectives and 
measures), published in 2015. Following a national 
consultation process, the national strategy for 
validating non-formal and informal learning was 

16  A schematic view of the mapping process can be found 

in Cedefop and Refernet Austria (2016). www.cedefop.
europa.eu/en/news-and-press/news/austria-nqf-law-
enters-force

17  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
of the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al. 
(forthcoming)).

18  Linked to action line 10, measure 10.3 of the Lifelong 

finalised and adopted in November 201720. Its 
strategic objectives include:

a.  increasing the value of competences acquired in 

non-formal and informal learning contexts;

b.  making validation arrangements more accessible 
by providing low-threshold, central information 
and advisory services;

c.  improving opportunities for education and work 
(e.g. by making it easier for adults to obtain 
qualifications as ‘second-chance education’);
d.  improving permeability at the central interfaces 
of the Austrian education and training system 
(improving flexibility and efficiency);

e.  strengthening validation as an integral part of the 

Austrian education and training system;

f.  promoting the learning outcomes orientation and 

quality assurance.

The national validation strategy promotes 
summative approaches to validation, based on the 
requirements and standards of the qualifications 
system and aimed at the acquisition of a 
qualification or part of one; there are also formative 
validation approaches aiming to identify and 
document competences to empower individuals. 
Three thematic working groups have been 
established, related to quality, communication 
and system synergies. Their first results include a 
catalogue of quality criteria for validation initiatives in 
VET and adult education in a pilot phase throughout 
2018. In higher education, several steps have been 
taken to support and improve validation quality.

The strategy is intended to provide a platform and 
framework for development and coordination of 
the many existing initiatives that were devised 
‘bottom-up’, as well as future ones, in all sectors 
and areas; to raise awareness about the value of 
competences gained in non-formal and informal 
settings and to provide potential users with an 
overview of relevant available measures. To date, 
different acts and regulations include mechanisms 
and arrangements that enable formal education 
and training institutions to recognise learning 
outcomes acquired in non-formal and informal 
settings, such as in the context of ‘external exams’. 
Almost all qualifications (from general education and 
VET, but not university degrees) can be obtained 
without participating in programmes or courses. 
This requires passing the relevant exam (as 
‘externals’) as required in the regular system, such 
as acquisition of the compulsory school leaving 

learning strategy 2020.

20  The text of the Strategy for validating non-formal and 

19  The text of the Lifelong learning strategy 2020 is available 
in German at: https://uil.unesco.org/i/doc/lifelong-learning/
policies/austria-strategie-zum-lebensbegleitenden-lernen-
in-oesterreich-2020.pdf

informal learning is available in German at:  
www.qualifikationsregister.at/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/
Strategie_zur_Validierung_nicht-formalen_und_
informellen_Lernens.pdf

54

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScertificate (Pflichtschulabschluss) by young people 
and adults, and exceptional admission to the final 
apprenticeship exam. Validation is also used to 
obtain exemptions and shorten programmes, such 
as skipping grades for pupils in general education or 
VET who demonstrate appropriate achievements, 
and shortening degree programmes at universities 
of applied science based on recognition of 
professional experience. There are also possibilities 
to gain access to higher education programmes 
in an alternative way. Berufsreifeprüfung (BRP) 
and the higher education entrance examination 
(Studienberechtigungsprüfung (SBP)) can both be 
taken by graduates of specific apprenticeships, 
VET schools and early leavers from VET colleges 
that traditionally are not granted university access 
through their initial education. Preparatory courses 
for BRP are offered outside formal education. It is 
also possible to acquire certificates/ qualifications 
without any equivalence in the formal education 
system: the professional title ingenieur; certificates 
issued by the Academy of Continuing Education 
in adult education; access conditions to regulated 
professions; or several other initiatives in the private 
and voluntary sectors. However, these  
non-traditional pathways are in limited use.

One weakness of the current system is the absence 
of a legal framework to regulate validation and 
recognition of non-formal and informal learning, 
which has not been changed with the publication of 
the current strategy, and which could be an obstacle 
to implementation. 

With the approved NQF Act in March 2016, the 
allocation of formal qualifications started in 2017; 
the inclusion of non-formal qualifications into the 
NQF is part of a second implementation phase, with 
mapping procedures currently being developed21. 
NQF service centres, expected to be selected and 
authorised by the Ministry of Education in 2018, are 
to be established to support and advise providers 
of non-formal qualifications in submitting requests 
for allocation. Long-term planning will make it 
possible to acquire all qualifications mapped to the 
NQF through validation of non-formal and informal 
learning. The basic prerequisite for this is learning-
outcome-based quality assurance and the further 
development of validation methods and procedures. 
Thus, the NQF and the Austrian validation strategy 
are closely linked and based on common objectives.

21  Throughout 2013, criteria and procedures for allocating 

qualifications from the non-formal learning context (adult 
education) to the Austrian NQF have already been tested 
and simulated (Löffler and Lachmayr, 2014).

NQF implementation

After the adoption of the NQF Act22 in 2016, which 
establishes procedures for allocating qualifications 
to the eight levels of the NQF and the responsible 
bodies, the NQF entered an operational stage. 
The NQF manual23 describing the process and 
criteria of allocation was adopted in September 
2016 by the NQF steering committee and mapping 
of qualifications started in 2017. Academic higher 
education qualifications (bachelor, master and PhD/
doctoral degrees) are directly allocated to levels 6, 7 
and 8 of the NQF by law. Mapping of all other formal 
and non-formal qualifications is based on a request 
for mapping a qualification made to the NQF NCP, 
with a detailed description of the qualification, related 
learning outcomes and the assessment procedure. 

In the formal sector, the allocation request is made 
by the responsible federal ministry or Länder 
government. For non-formal qualifications, NQF 
service centres are envisaged as the applicants, 
serving as intermediaries between qualification 
providers and the NQF bodies. Mapping 
recommendations by the NCP, supported by the 
advisory body, are approved by the NQF steering 
group, which also has the right to appeal against the 
NCP’s mapping recommendations24. 

The following indicators have been defined for 
implementation25: 

a.  include major VET qualifications (such as 

initial school-based vocational qualifications, 
apprenticeships and master craftsperson 
qualifications) by 2018; 

b.  align curricula in formal education and training, 

particularly for VET to learning outcomes 
orientation by 2020;

c.  increase in cross-border mobility in VET for 20%.

The initial focus has been on formal qualifications 
from the VET sector at levels 4, 5 and 6, starting 
with VET school-based and apprenticeship 

22  The NQF Act was published in the Federal Law Gazette 
14/2016, Part I, issued on 21 March 2016. www.ris.
bka.gv.at/Dokumente/BgblAuth/BGBLA_2016_I_14/
BGBLA_2016_I_14.pdf

23  Handbuch für die Zuordnung von Qualifikationen zum 
Nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen [Manual for the 
assignment of qualifications to the national qualification 
framework], available on the NQF webpage: www.
qualifikationsregister.at/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/
HandbuchNQR_Einzelseiten.pdf

24  A schematic view of the mapping process can be found 

in Cedefop and ReferNet Austria (2016): www.cedefop.
europa.eu/en/news-and-press/news/austria-nqf-law-
enters-force

25  Available at: www.help.gv.at/Portal.Node/hlpd/public/

module?gentics.am=Content&p.contentid=10007.180581

55

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications under the Ministry of education26; 
these will be followed by qualifications under the 
responsibility of other ministries, such as healthcare 
and police. Mapping VET qualifications at level 6 and 
above has been found more challenging, involving 
extensive discussions (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). The inclusion of non-formal 
qualifications into the NQF is part of a second 
implementation phase, expected to start in 2019. 
As procedures for these qualifications are not 
fully defined in the NQF Act, preparatory work is 
currently being carried out. The prospect of mapping 
non-formal qualifications has provoked discussions 
and a drive to develop suitable quality assurance 
systems27.

Mapped qualifications are included in the national 
qualifications register28, which currently contains 
31 qualifications from the VET sector (September 
2018). Work is under way to describe and include 
in the register qualifications, linked to the Bologna 
cycles, which have been mapped by law to the NQF 
levels. The NQF levels are indicated in the register 
and discussions are also under way to include 
them in the database of the Austrian Employment 
Service. Both NQF and EQF levels are indicated 
on qualifications from the VET sector that have 
been mapped to the NQF and on their Europass 
supplements29.

The NQF is being used as a basis for reform and 
development in VET qualifications, with significant 
influence in VET at higher levels, where curricula 
and qualifications are being updated based on 
NQF principles. The new legal acts regulating 
VET qualifications such as Meister or Ingenieur 
make reference to the NQF and its adoption act. 
The new Ingenieur qualification30 was developed 
in consequence of the NQF, as the methods 
for identifying the competences in the previous 
Ingenieur qualification did not match NQF 
requirements (European Commission and  
Cedefop, 2018).

26 

In-company training is based on a training regulation 
valid throughout Austria, which is within the remit of the 
Federal Ministry of Economy, but largely shaped by the 
social partners. 
Idem.

27 
28  The Austrian qualifications register is available at:  

www.qualifikationsregister.at 

29  The webpage of the Austrian Europass centre is available 

at: www.europass.at 

30  The legal act regulating the Ingenieur 
qualification is available in German at: 
www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.
wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer= 
20009785

56

So far, the NQF’s communication efforts have 
been primarily oriented towards qualification-
awarding bodies, aiming to help them prepare 
their qualifications for the mapping process and 
inclusion in the NQF register a secondary focus is 
experts using the NQF in their work. Dissemination 
of information about the NQF is carried out via the 
NQF website31, newsletters, seminars and one-to-
one meetings.

The key challenges for NQF implementation in the 
next period are related to financial resources. Having 
enough funding for both the mapping process and 
for dissemination of the NQF on a wider level and 
to larger target groups is seen as difficult due to 
budget cuts in the public sector.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Austria referenced its NQF to the EQF and self-
certified its higher education qualifications to the 
qualifications framework of the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA) in June 2012, preparing 
one comprehensive report. Compatibility between 
the NQF and the QF-EHEA is also discussed in the 
referencing report, which is available on the EQF 
portal32.

Important lessons and future plans

A strength of the Austrian NQF development is 
involvement and engagement of a broad range 
of stakeholders, representing all subsystems 
of education and training, as well as the social 
partners. Now formalised through the 2016 NQF 
Act, this broad group of stakeholders is engaged 
in implementation via the NQF steering group, 
which includes all federal ministries, social partners, 
stakeholders from the different fields of education, 
and the Länder. More widely, education and training 
providers, labour market stakeholders, guidance and 
counselling practitioners and recognition authorities 
and bodies, all have basic knowledge of the NQF 
and have started to use it in their work (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

The NQF aims at improved coordination of a national 
qualification system that has traditionally witnessed 
distinct separation between different segments 
of education, particularly between VET and higher 
education. Increased transparency of VET and non-
formal qualifications is expected. Austria also sees the 

31  The NQF website and register are available at: www.

qualifikationsregister.at

32  https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-

contacts

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNQF as a communication tool to make qualifications 
transparent and comparable internationally, and to 
increase learning and work mobility. 

While it is too early to assess the framework’s 
impact, its benefits have already been observed 
in improving understanding and use of the 
learning outcomes approach. Its influence on 
the qualifications system can be seen in higher 
VET, where NQF principles are used for revision 
of qualifications. The NQF is also central in 
implementing the Austrian strategy for validation 

of non-formal and informal learning. The prospect 
of integrating non-formal and informal learning into 
the framework has highlighted the need to develop 
suitable quality assurance mechanisms. 

Future plans related to the implementation of 
the NQF include continuing the mapping of 
qualifications to the NQF, developing procedures for 
inclusion of non-formal and informal learning into 
the framework, and inclusion of academic higher 
education qualifications in the NQF register.

Table 3. Austrian national qualifications framework 

NQF LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS

Doctorate 
(Doktorgrade)

Master degree 
(Master- bzw. Diplomgrade)

Bachelor degree 
(Bachelorgrade)

Master craftsman 
(Meister)

Engineer 
(Ingenieur) 

VET college school leaving certificate 
(Reife- und Diplomprüfung der berufsbildenden höheren Schulen)

VET school qualification 
(Abschluss der berufsbildenden mittleren Schule) 

Apprenticeship diploma 
(Lehrabschluss)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Austrian NQF register (2018): www.qualifikationsregister.at/public/home [accessed 11.12.2018].

Abbreviations
BRP 

Berufsreifeprüfung (examination 
providing access to higher education 
for skilled workers and graduates  
of three- and four-year full-time  
VET schools)
European qualifications framework
national coordination point
national qualifications framework

EQF 
NCP  
NQF  

OeAD  

QF-EHEA 

SBP  

VET  

Österreichischer Austauschdienst 
(Austrian agency for international 
cooperation in education and 
research)
qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area
Studienberechtigungsprüfung (higher 
education entrance examination)
vocational education and training

57

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Austrian Agency for International Cooperation in Education and Research (EQF NCP): www.oead.at/nqr
Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture and Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and 
Research (2011). Austrian EQF referencing report: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-
reports-and-contacts

Austrian NQF register: www.qualifikationsregister.at

References

Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture and Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and 
Research (2011). Austrian EQF referencing report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-
reports-and-contacts 

Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture and Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and 

Research (2012). Austrian EQF referencing report: supplementary information. https://ec.europa.eu/
ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts 

Cedefop (2016a). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Cedefop (2016b). The application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative 

perspective. Country: Austria [unpublished].

Cedefop (2018). Analysis and overview of NQF level descriptors in European countries. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. Cedefop research paper No 66. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-
resources/publications/5566

Cedefop and Refernet Austria (2016). Austria – NQF law enters into force. Cedefop national news on VET, 

14.4.2016. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news-and-press/news/austria-nqf-law-enters-force
Cedefop and Refernet Austria (2018). Austria – NQF as a catalyst for qualification and quality. Cedefop 
national news on VET, 8.2.2018. www.cedefop.europa.eu/da/news-and-press/news/austria-nqf-
catalyst-qualification-and-quality 

Council of the European Union (2012). Council recommendation of 20 December 2012 on the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C398, 22.12.2012, pp. 1–5. 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2012:398:0001:0005:EN:PDF

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Austria.
European Commission and Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/

EQF [unpublished].

European Commission, Cedefop and ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of 

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Austria.

Löffler, R. and Lachmayr, N. (2014). Die Validierung nichtformaler und informeller Lernergebnisse in  
Österreich Stand der Diskussion und Beispiele guter Praxis [The validation of non-formal and  
informal learning outcomes in Austria: status of the debate and examples of good practice].  
BWP magazine, Vol. 5/2014, pp. 20–23. www.bibb.de/veroeffentlichungen/de/bwp/show/7417

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

58

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAZERBAIJAN

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The national qualifications framework (NQF) is 
legislated by several legal acts including some 
preceding its official adoption. The Action Plan on 
implementation of the National Strategy for the 
Development of Education (Presidential Order 
No 995 of 19 January 2015) includes the preparation 
and application of the NQF and is instrumental 
for introducing competency-based education. The 
Strategic Roadmap for Vocational Education (2016) 
emphasised elements of the NQF implementation, 
like competency-based standards and curricula and 
the validation of non-formal and informal learning. 

The NQF was adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers 
Decree No 311 dated 18 July 2018. Further 
legislative changes in 2018 are the Employment 
Strategy 2019–2030, giving attention to training and 
qualifications in combatting informal employment 
and unemployment, the Law on Vocational 
Education, amendments to the Law on Education, 
and the Law on the 2019 budget of Unemployment 
Insurance Fund.

The NQF has eight levels, comparable to the 
European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and linked 
to formal qualifications or key stages. Level 1 covers 
outcomes of basic education, level 2 outcomes 
of lower secondary education, etc. Level 8 covers 
outcomes of PhD and Doctor of Sciences degrees 
in line with international practice. Vocational 
education and training (VET) qualifications cover 
levels 3 and 4 (initial VET) and level 5 (higher VET). 
All qualifications from level 3 to 7 with a labour 
market orientation will be based on occupational 
standards. Occupational standards will be adapted 
to NQF levels. NQF level descriptors have three 
domains: knowledge and understanding, skills, and 
autonomy and responsibility. Key competences are 
integrated.

The Ministry of Education (MoE) has the policy 
lead. A provisional NQF secretariat was established 

by Ministerial Decree (5 August 2016) to prepare 
legislation. Important MoE implementing bodies 
are the VET Agency, the Office for Nostrification 
and Accreditation, and the Institute of Education. 
The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection of the 
Population (MoLSPP) is in charge of coordinating 
occupational standards. It has established a section 
for occupational standards in the Department of 
Employment and Demography. Stakeholders from 
sectors and line ministries (sectoral committees) 
will be actively involved in developing standards and 
possibly certification. The VET Agency, MoE and 
MoLSPP are working on developing the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Azerbaijan faces challenges in the education and 
economic sectors. The economic recession in 2016, 
driven by the fall in oil prices and oil production, 
triggered the need for a ‘non-oil’ economy. 
This ‘knowledge-based economy’ requires the 
development of human capital and calls for an 
improved, modern education system for the 
whole population. The strategic roadmaps for the 
national economy and main economic sectors were 
approved in December 2016. Government strategy 
on matching education and training to labour market 
requirements is further outlined in ‘Azerbaijan 
2020: look to the future’ development concept, the 
Education Strategy and Action Plan and the Draft 
Employment Strategy for 2017–30.

With a population of 9.81 million, Azerbaijan 
is one of the few countries in Europe and the 
Commonwealth of Independent States with a 
young population. Almost one quarter (22.5%) are 
children (0–14 years) and young people aged 14–29 
make up 27% of the population. The business 
environment is vibrant, with proactive reforms such 
as a one-stop-shop company registration scheme 
and a best practice e-government portal making 
start-ups easier. Globally, Azerbaijan is in fifth place 
in the ranking of 190 economies on the ease of 
starting a business and the country ranks 65th out of 
190 countries in the 2017 Doing Business report.

59

Volume II: National and regional casesVocational training and skills are one of the top 
priorities of government policy, reflected in recent 
the strategy outlined in the strategic roadmaps 
to boost the economy and competitiveness. 
The State Agency for Vocational Education was 
established in April 2016 and a new employment 
strategy for 2017–30 has set 16 targets for 2030. 
These targets aim to reduce the number of 
young people not in employment, education or 
training and lower unemployment rates, as well as 
increase employment in small- and medium-sized 
enterprises. Increasing the scope and scale of 
training and self-employment measures is also at 
the forefront, as well as validation of skills acquired 
in non-formal and informal learning.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
For sustainable growth, Azerbaijan needs to reduce 
its dependency on oil and gas, and diversify its 
economy. The Strategy for Azerbaijan 2020, a Vision 
to the Future, (December 2012) aims to support the 
rapid development of the non-oil sector. This should 
result in an export-oriented opener economy, with 
more innovation and a better environmental balance. 
Key elements of the developmental strategy are 
better infrastructure and telecommunications 
to create a better business climate throughout 
the country and more cooperation with growing 
developing countries, as these economies are 
growing faster than the industrialised world.

Azerbaijan still has a very large pool of unqualified 
labour. There is some progress in recent years 
with the youngest generation gradually becoming 
more educated, including more and more students 
studying abroad. However, about half of the 
graduates from secondary education do not enter 
initial vocational education, secondary specialised 
education or higher education. Moreover, only one 
in five companies trains their staff systematically. 
One of the difficulties companies face is 
determining what to train their staff for, so that the 
company can grow and develop.

on competences focused on individuals requiring the 
development of curricula for all levels of education; 
providers apply modern training methods for 
competency-based education, and ensure quality; a 
transparent management system is established, to 
ensure the quality of education.

The Action Plan for the Implementation of the 
Education Development Strategy (adopted in 
January 2015), mentions the adoption of the 
NQF. The NQF development preceded the action 
plan, but approval came only in 2018. There were 
important preceding steps however. In 2016 a 
NQF secretariat was established in the MoE to 
support the implementation. Moreover, a series of 
international, EU-funded and bilateral projects have 
helped to develop new outcome-based curricula. 
In addition to higher education, VET has become a 
national priority since 2015. In 2016, the VET Agency 
was established and a Strategic Roadmap for VET 
established as part of a wider set of 11 strategic 
areas for the development of the country. The VET 
Law was adopted in 2018.

The NQF aims to improve the relevance, quality 
and transparency of qualifications. It takes into 
account the demands of the society and labour 
market when defining qualifications (occupational 
standards), and hence improve national economic 
performance and facilitate communication and 
movement between education and training 
sectors and the labour market. It aligns national 
qualifications and qualifications levels with the 
qualifications framework for the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA) and the EQF. The NQF 
supports and widens access to qualifications and 
learning. It promotes lifelong learning of Azerbaijani 
citizens. The validation of non-formal and informal 
learning is recognised as a key component. 
The NQF should also facilitate the national and 
international mobility of learners and workers 
through increased recognition of the quality and 
comparability of Azerbaijani qualifications abroad, 
and increase competitiveness and mobility of 
people.

The Strategy for Azerbaijan recognises the 
importance of the development of human capital to 
diversify the economy. This requires investment in 
the education system, giving more importance to 
adult and lifelong learning, and ICT-assisted learning 
through the internet. The strategy also underlines 
the importance of efficient health care and social 
protection and better governance. The National 
Strategy for the Development of Education was 
adopted in October 2013. It has five strands of action, 
of which three directly related to the Azerbaijan 
qualifications framework (AzQF): education is based 

The NQF is closely linked to other policy initiatives, 
including the reduction of informal employment, 
employment promotion and labour mobility. In 
education, it is clearly seen as a quality assurance 
tool. The recent openness towards the validation 
of non-formal and informal learning is a real 
victory over conservative attitudes and shows that 
Azerbaijan is not only focusing its attention to raising 
the quality for those in education, but is serious in 
improving access to learning, qualifications and jobs. 
ICT tools are expected to play an important role as 
well in introducing the NQF as Azerbaijan is quickly 
developing ICT services.

60

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSInternational cooperation
The NQF fully complies with the Qualifications 
Framework of the European Higher Education 
Area (QF-EHEA) and the European Qualifications 
Framework for Lifelong Learning (EQF).

The NQF is an important tool for implementing the 
Bologna process. The EU has funded a number 
of twinning projects and Tempus and Erasmus 
Plus projects to support curriculum development 
and quality assurance in higher education, and in 
particular the use of learning outcomes. A new 
twinning project for higher education will continue 
the support in this area in 2018–19, making a link 
as well to occupational standards, assessment 
and certification and quality assurance. The results 
are becoming visible. According to the latest 
Bologna report (Paris 2018), Azerbaijan is now 
describing all higher education programmes and 
their component in learning outcomes. There are 
still many more steps needed. Learning outcomes 
and ECTS are implemented, but they are not yet 
systematically monitored as part of the external 
quality assurance policies for higher education. 
Azerbaijan still seems to be a few years removed 
from self-certification. Tools are developed but not 
yet embedded systematically and integrated in 
quality assurance and recognition procedures. In 
higher education, there is not yet any validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. Azerbaijan 
is also a signatory of the Lisbon Convention. 
Recognition processes are expected to take 
progressively account of the qualifications reforms 
and quality assurance measures. A large number 
of Azerbaijani students study abroad, many with a 
governmental grant. 

The EU has become the most important donor in 
the education sector, a role previously fulfilled by 
the World Bank. The ETF works closely with the EU 
Delegation in planning and supporting this work. 
The Action Plan 2014 includes a series of measures 
to support the MoE with implementing aspects of 
the NQF, including the development of outcomes-
based standards and curricula, based on occupational 
standards, assessment and quality assurance 
procedures and the systematic involvement of 
representatives of the world of work. The projects 
and grant schemes promote coherent approaches 
in VET and higher education. The EU is also 
developing support under the Action Plan 2016 for 
the MoLSPP on improving labour market intelligence 
and occupational standards. Follow-up measures 
are being planned under the Action Plan 2018 with 
attention to developing modularisation, credit systems 
and validation of non-formal and informal learning, 
etc. There are also bilateral VET reform projects that 
support the development of new competency-based 
programmes for VET and teacher training.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The NQF Decree states that qualifications included 
in the AzQF are defined in line with the education 
stages and levels described in the Law on Education 
(2009). These include qualifications for general 
education, initial VET, secondary specialised 
education (sub-bachelor education), higher 
education, and further education/adult learning. 
Qualifications can be obtained through formal, 
non-formal and informal learning in accordance with 
the Law on Education. This law includes reference 
to non-formal and informal learning and a wide 
spectrum of qualifications for adult learning. The 
NQF, therefore, is not limited to formal education 
but it includes only qualifications that are quality 
assured, which refers to setting standards, 
assessment and certification processes and the 
involvement of relevant stakeholders. Recently, 
the positions on the scope of the NQF and the 
possibility of validation of non-formal and informal 
learning have progressively opened up and evolved.

The NQF has eight levels, comparable to the EQF 
and linked to the main formal qualifications or key 
stages. Existing qualification types have been 
analysed in order to provisionally allocate them to 
the NQF levels. Level 1 covers outcomes of basic 
education, level 2 outcomes of lower secondary 
education, etc. Level 8 covers outcomes of PhD and 
Doctor of Sciences degrees in line with international 
practice. Initial VET qualifications could be divided in 
levels 3 and 4 qualifications. NQF levels will also be 
used to level occupational standards.

Alignment to other classification systems
Labour market monitoring should inform 
the development of occupational standards, 
coordinated by the MoLSPP. Labour market-
oriented qualifications should be linked to specific 
occupations (and occupational standards). The 
MoLSPP is also responsible for keeping the National 
Employment Classification in accordance with the 
requirements of the labour market. However, unlike 
in some other post-Soviet countries, the NQF is 
not directly linked to the tariff qualification system, 
which is not anymore operational.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The work on levels started originally from an 
analysis of the descriptors in the country, but has 
been inspired as well by the Dublin descriptors for 
the QF-EHEA and the EQF and the eight European 
key competences (2006). The result, in the end, is 
a list of eight levels with level descriptors which are 
more detailed than the EQF descriptors, addressing 
knowledge and understanding, skills, and autonomy 
and responsibility, and which are calibrated and 

61

Volume II: National and regional casesfine-tuned with the main qualifications types in the 
country. Key competences are integrated in the 
level descriptors.

Use of learning outcomes
A national curriculum for general education based 
on learning outcomes was introduced in 2009 and 
improved in 2010. General education does not offer 
any specialisation. Development of qualification 
standards for primary education (AzQF level 1), 
general secondary education (AzQF level 2) and full 
secondary education (AzQF level 4) do not exist yet, 
although learning outcomes have been identified 
for key stages. Azerbaijan participated in PISA 2018, 
but the results are not known yet. This round should 
provide some indication whether these reforms 
have led to better learning outcomes.

Occupational standards developed by the 
international projects since 2008, and especially 
by the World Bank project on the development of 
improved occupational standards (DIOS) between 
2011 and 2014, have been used in pilot curricula for 
initial VET (IVET) prepared by the MoE. Learning 
outcomes in the new curricula for IVET are 
based on competences identified in occupational 
standards. Until 2017, 67 modern VET curricula were 
developed, although they were not systematically 
implemented in schools. The first new curricula 
were developed by donor projects, such as the 
UNESCO project, and the Tacis VET reform project, 
that developed their own occupational standards 
for that purpose. The MoE also initiated the 
development of 40 new curricula with the Institute 
of Education and developed some more with World 
Vision. The EU-funded twinning project for VET in 
agriculture also developed some curricula, partially 
using occupational standards. Ten curricula were 
developed for the Sumgait Chemical-Industrial 
Park under the Ministry of Economy and one new 
curriculum for beekeeper is developed with support 
of the United Nations Development Programme.

A critical analysis of these curricula showed that: 

a.  Different methodologies/approaches were used 

to define curricula.

b.  The structure of curricula varied considerably.
c.  The link with occupational standards was often 

weak, and sometimes absent.

d.  Available curricula are only used by selected VET 

schools and sometimes not used at all.

e.  assessment is rarely independent and solely 
based on evaluating learning outcomes.

Since 2017, the EU-funded VET Reform project has 
developed and tested a new template for modular 
curricula based on occupational standards that is 
progressively being used in other projects.

All occupational standards include key and 
specialised competences required from workers. 
Key competences can be used for development 
of learning outcomes for general subjects, and 
specialised competences for vocational training 
subjects by specialty. All the occupational 
standards developed by the DIOS project identified 
future-oriented competences, thus creating a 
floor for further training. They can be used in 
further education and training, also because they 
incorporate training pathways covering non-formal 
and informal training, as well as recognition of prior 
learning. All the occupational standards are available 
online (http://dios.az/standards/).

The ETF carried out an evaluation of the use 
of occupational standards, which showed that 
they could be better used in education. In the 
meantime, agreements have been made to 
coordinate the development of new standards and 
VET curricula. Funding for occupational standards 
has been approved for 2019 and beyond from the 
unemployment insurance budget. Legislative changes 
have been drafted that should come into force soon 
and lead to a more active programme of development 
and maintenance of occupational standards.

As far as standards for adult learning (additional 
education according to the Law on Education) 
are concerned, the MoE is developing standards 
for educational professionals, and there are the 
69 qualification standards developed under the 
DIOS project by the MoLSPP, but overall this is still a 
highly contested area. Modular programmes for the 
training of the unemployed are not linked yet with 
the occupational standards.

There is a linking of different databases on 
occupational standards, qualification standards, 
curricula, providers and assessment centres. It 
is important to develop a database of units or 
modules, in addition to the register of qualifications, 
to support the development of qualifications and 
modular curricula. It is recommended that the AzQF 
integrate a national credit system that is based on 
the units and linked to the ECTS and ECVET.

Definition of qualification
According to the NQF Decree, a qualification 
is a formal outcome (diploma, certificate) of an 
assessment process confirming an individual’s 
achievement of learning outcomes as defined in given 
standards. This definition is close to the EQF definition.

The decree provides, however, more details. It 
states that qualifications need to be described in 
terms of minimum learning outcomes required from 
learners. This is repeated in other words, when the 
decree states that all qualifications are described 

62

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSin terms of knowledge, skills and autonomy or 
responsibility, and referenced to the AzQF levels. 
Qualifications are developed in accordance with the 
requirements of labour market and occupational 
standards. All qualifications are quality assured 
and quality assurance encompasses all relevant 
processes, including description of expected 
learning outcomes, assessment and validation of  
an individual’s learning achievement.

(general secondary education diploma) and a 
diploma of specialisation. One in seven graduates 
actually enters higher education. Graduates from 
vocational schools only receive a diploma of 
specialisation. It is expected that more flexible credit 
arrangements may be developed in the years to 
come. Currently access to qualifications is granted 
only to people who have achieved the qualification 
at the preceding level.

The qualifications at levels 3–7 that are related to 
a specific occupation and specialities in the labour 
market are based on occupational standards. 
These include initial VET qualifications, secondary 
specialised (sub-bachelor’s) qualifications, bachelor’s 
qualifications, basic medical higher education 
qualifications, master’s and postgraduate medical 
education (residency) qualifications, as well as 
relevant further education qualifications.

Education standards for VET and higher education 
are generic in character and only provide 
indications for the outcomes and inputs for the 
type of qualification. There are no real qualification 
standards in Azerbaijan, but the curriculum structure 
offers assessment elements. There is no external 
quality assurance or independent assessment of 
professional competences, but state exams are 
available to test the knowledge of graduates.

Occupational standards are generally seen as the 
new starting point for developing state educational 
standards, but there is not yet a system-wide use 
of them. Different approaches have been tested 
to involve representatives from the world of work 
more in renewing vocational and higher education 
standards, but so far a more consolidated new 
approach is only coming into place slowly, with 
the support of European projects. For initial VET 
qualifications, a new curriculum template has been 
developed and tested by the EU VET reform project. 
For higher education, learning outcomes are used 
but without referring to occupational standards so 
far. The twinning project ‘Support to strengthening 
the higher education system in Azerbaijan’ is also 
exploring how to strengthen competency-based 
higher education in the country.

Access, progression and credit
The university entrance exam and entrance to 
colleges (post-secondary vocational education/
sub-bachelor degree) is centrally administered and 
compulsory for everybody who wants to enter a 
bachelor programme, including graduates from 
colleges, although credit transfer from sub-bachelor 
to bachelor degrees is foreseen in the future. It is 
going to be experimented in the EU NQF project. 
Graduates from vocational lyceums receive so 
far two qualifications – the attestation of maturity 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The Law on Education (2009) has been the starting 
point for the development of the NQF as it gave 
importance to lifelong learning, including non-formal 
and informal learning. These were later followed by 
Azerbaijan 2020, A Vision for the Future (2013), the 
Education Development Strategy 2013–2020 (2013) 
and related action plan, the establishment of the 
Office for Nostrification and Accreditation (2015), 
the establishment of the VET Agency (2016), the 
convergence of the State Committee for Admission 
of Students into the State Examination Centre 
(2016), the NQF Secretariat (2016), and the adoption 
of a roadmap for VET (2016).

In 2018, many new legislative documents were 
adopted that regulate the implementation of the 
qualifications framework. The most important act 
was probably the NQF Decree, but also the VET 
Law, amendments to the Law on Education and 
the employment strategy have an impact on the 
implementation of the NQF. Moreover, a set of 
regulations have been developed, but not approved 
yet, on the development and maintenance of 
occupational standards. In addition, new legislative 
documents are under preparation to establish a 
system for the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning and for the attribution of roles in the 
implementation of the NQF.

The NQF Decree assigns key responsibilities 
to both the MoE and the MoLSPP. Within the 
MoE, the provisional NQF Secretariat has been 
preparing the NQF legislation. However, new 
structures are needed to ensure coordination of 
the implementation. The VET Agency has a leading 
role in developing the system for validation in 
cooperation with the MoLSPP that is in charge 
of coordinating the development of occupational 
standards. These standards are in line with the 
NQF Decree, the basis for all labour market-related 
qualifications at all levels. However, to ensure the 
development and maintenance of the standards 
additional regulatory document are needed to define 
a new workflow, with a stronger role for sectors. 

63

Volume II: National and regional casesFor VET, curricula have become the main documents 
defining the qualification requirements. They are 
modular in structure and can be used to obtain a 
full qualification through state exams as well as 
reference certificates for completion of modules.

The basis for the AzQF was the law on education 
(2009). It provided a start to move beyond the 
formal education system and address both formal 
initial education and adult learning in a coherent 
system. However, the law was not always 
very specific on the use of learning outcomes, 
assessment, and quality assurance. Moreover, it 
does not describe the interinstitutional cooperation 
beyond the MoE, the Cabinet of Ministers and the 
Higher Attestation Committee.

The legal status of occupational standards has been 
strengthened by the NQF Decree, the VET Law, the 
VET Road Map and the road maps for economic 
development and tourism, the Employment Strategy 
2019–2030 and a Law on the use of the budget 
of the Unemployment Insurance Fund for 2019. 
Secondary legislation has been drafted to establish 
a new workflow for developing standards that is 
likely to be adopted in 2019.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
According to the NQF Decree, the MoE is 
responsible for the development of educational 
standards, typical curricula, assessment standards 
and accreditation standards; the quality assurance 
of qualifications; and the development and updating 
of the national register of qualifications.

The MoLSPP is responsible for the monitoring and 
analysis of the labour market; submits proposals on 
improving the National Employment Classification; 
and coordinates the development and application of 
occupational and qualification standards. It has established 
a section for occupational standards development in the 
Department of Employment and Demography.

The MoE should create a system for the validation 
of non-formal and informal learning in cooperation 
with the MoLSPP.

Different line ministries, which are in charge of their 
own education institutions, can submit proposals 
on education and occupational standards and 
are involved in quality assurance of the related 
qualifications.

secretariat, established in August 2016, is not actively 
functioning, apart from support for the preparation 
of the NQF Decree by the chair. There is no obvious 
focal point for the secretariat in the MoE and its 
agencies. Within the ministry, a new permanent 
unit or department would need to be created. The 
three agencies from the MoE – VET Agency, Institute 
of Education, and Office for Nostrification and 
Accreditation – each could have a strong supportive 
role for the secretariat, but none seems to show 
much enthusiasm to coordinate the NQF.

Nothing is indicated in the NQF Decree on the 
role of social partners, sectoral organisations or 
professional bodies, although the decree leaves the 
door open for establishing sectoral frameworks.

The MoLSPP has developed secondary legislation 
that could give an important role to sectoral bodies. 
The employment law already acknowledges the 
responsibilities of trade unions and employers in the 
development of occupational standards.

There are several ongoing initiatives to develop 
implementing structures.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality assurance is the key principle of the NQF. 
The NQF Decree has a whole chapter dedicated 
to it. Quality assurance encompasses the 
development of relevant qualifications, based on 
learning outcomes, which will be vetted before 
they are included in the NQF register. The register, 
therefore, becomes a repository of quality assured 
qualifications. Where appropriate occupational 
standards are available they should be the basis 
for qualifications (educational standards). Beyond 
the standards, the assessment and certification 
processes will also be part of the quality assurance 
arrangements as is the programme accreditation 
of providers. The quality assurance principles are in 
line with the European Standards and Guidelines, 
EQAVET and the European Guidelines for the 
Validation of Non-Formal and Informal Learning. 
External quality assurance will be carried out by the 
Office for Nostrification and Accreditation, while 
external assessment will be carried out with support 
of the State Examination Centre. These principles 
for quality assurance are seen as very important and 
needed, but at the same time difficult to implement 
under the current conditions.

The Higher Attestation Commission oversees the 
certification of doctor of philosophy and doctor of 
science degrees.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The future of the NQF Secretariat and other 
implementing structures is not yet clear. The 

The VET Agency is in charge of developing the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning 

64

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand does this in cooperation with the MoLSPP. 
There is a growing interest in the subject. Two 
EU-funded projects support its development and 
piloting through the NQF project and a grant project 
managed by the United Nations Development 
Programme to establish an assessment centre in 
Ganja. Policy papers are being developed under 
the responsibility of the VET Agency. The VET Law 
mentions the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning and the VET Road Map states that after 
2025, vocational qualification could be compulsory 
for employment. The public debate has started with 
high profile events and articles in the press.

The NQF Decree legislates the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning and assigns 
the MoE with the task of developing a national 
system in cooperation with the MoLSPP. One of 
the objectives of the decree is to support lifelong 
learning, as well as to provide recognition of 
the competences obtained through non-formal 
and informal learning. The decree mentions the 
recognition of competences gained through 
informal and non-formal education as a process of 
identifying, documenting, evaluating and certifying 
competences against the relevant standard, gained 
through informal and non-formal education carried 
out by an accredited body.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The register is a key instrument for the NQF. It will 
include all quality assured qualifications that are 
part of the AzQF. The national qualifications register 
will be regularly updated and accessible on a 
national website. The register is not yet established. 
There are currently lists of specialisations for initial 
vocational education, for post-secondary vocational 
education and for higher education. The MoLSPP 
maintains an online database of occupational 
standards (http://dios.az/standards/).

The NQF Decree was adopted in 2018 and is not 
yet fully implemented, but aspects of it, including 
the use of learning outcomes, development of 
occupational standards, new curricula, competency-
based education, externalised assessment 
procedures have been tested of the previous years. 
Different projects have contributed to pilots and 
studies, and the present generation of EU projects 
(VET Reform project, NQF project and Twinning 
for the Higher Education System) are moving 
developments forward in a more systematic way. 
One difficulty however is the lack of clarity on the 
institutional settings. The future role of the NQF 
Secretariat and other implementing structures are 
not yet clear. The NQF Secretariat established in 

August 2016, is not actively functioning, apart from 
support for the preparation of the NQF Decree by 
the Chair. There is no obvious focal point for the 
Secretariat in the MoE and its agencies. Within 
the ministry, a new permanent unit or department 
would need to be created. The three agencies from 
the MoE – VET Agency, Institute of Education, 
and Office for Nostrification and Accreditation 
– each could have a strong supportive role for 
the Secretariat, but none seems to show much 
enthusiasm to coordinate the NQF.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
No evaluation conducted yet. 

Impact for end-users
The NQF is no longer just a topic for experts, but 
the wider public is only becoming gradually aware. 
There are several donor projects (EU-funded, 
British Council, GIZ) to support its development 
and implementation. The NQF is part of important 
national education and labour market policies. There 
are more capacities in public institutions but it is 
not yet enough to reach end-users. Providers and 
representatives from the world of work and line 
ministries are the next groups to be mobilised. 
Methodologies for standards and curricula have 
advanced. Next steps are: validation of non-formal 
and informal learning, use of credits, independent 
assessment and quality assurance.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Azerbaijan is a member of the Bologna process 
and the NQF will be self-certified to the QF-EHEA. 
The framework was developed on the basis of the 
principles of the QF-EHEA and the EQF for lifelong 
learning. Links to the EQF are mentioned in the EU-
Azerbaijan Mobility Partnership, in EU programming 
documents for support to the education sector in 
Azerbaijan, and in the NQF Decree. Azerbaijan still 
has to implement a number of steps before it can 
self-certify. It has support of EU-funded twinning 
projects to prepare this, with emphasis particularly 
on using learning outcomes in assessment, learning 
and quality assurance, as well as ECTS, diploma 
supplements and recognition procedures. The new 
EQF recommendation offers as well the opportunity 
to link the AzQF to the EQF. 

Important lessons and future plans

2018 was a very important year for NQF 
developments in Azerbaijan. It witnessed the formal 
adoption of the NQF Decree and the development 
of new arrangements for occupational standards. 
The VET Law and the Employment Strategy 

65

Volume II: National and regional caseswere adopted. Funds for the development of 
new occupational standards were approved. A 
methodology for developing competency-based VET 
curricula through the EU VET project was tested. 
The conceptualisation of a system of validation of 
non-formal and informal learning was discussed 
through two EU projects, to name just a few results. 
The EU support that is on the ground can accelerate 
some of these developments, but in the end, much 
depends on institutional capacities in the country. 
2019 will show whether the institutional capacities 
can be strengthened, whether the practical work 

can advance (in terms of standard and curriculum 
development, and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning) and the register of qualifications 
can be launched. During the coming stages it is 
important to clarify the coordination mechanisms, 
and to empower sectors and training providers 
to start playing a more active role in standard 
and curriculum development. Quality assurance 
procedures will need to link with qualifications. 
Teachers and trainers will need retraining to 
implement competency-based education.

Table 4. Types of qualification in the Azerbaijan qualifications framework

NQF 
LEVEL

GENERAL 
EDUCATION

VOCATIONAL 
AND 
TECHNICAL 
EDUCATION

SECONDARY 
SPECIAL 
EDUCATION

HIGHER 
EDUCATION

ADULT 
LEARNING

No formal 
qualification, but 
learning outcomes

Certificate of 
general education

Diploma of 
specialisation

Diploma of 
specialisation

Attestation of 
maturity

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Diploma/
certificate

Diploma/
certificate

Diploma/
certificate

Diploma/
certificate

Diploma/
certificate

Diploma/
certificate

Sub-bachelor 
degree

Bachelor degree

Master degree

PhD degree

Doctor of 
sciences degree

Note: The allocation of qualifications by type to the NQF level is purely indicative. No levels have been attributed yet. The NQF 
has only been used to formulate occupational qualifications standards in IT and management but no certificates for these have 
been issued.

66

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
AzQF 
DIOS 

ECTS 
ECVET 

EQAVET 

Azerbaijan qualifications framework
development of improved 
occupational standards
European credit transfer system
European credit system for 
vocational education and training
European quality assurance in 
vocational education and training
European qualifications framework
Ministry of Education

EQF 
MoE 
MoLSPP  Ministry of Labour and Social 

NQF 
QF-EHEA 

VET 

Protection of the Population
national qualifications framework
qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

67

Volume II: National and regional casesBANGLADESH

Introduction and context

Bangladesh has a large informal economy. Three-
quarters of the population is rural while about a third 
of people live below the international poverty line. 
This means that every third person is struggling 
every day to survive.

Bangladesh is highly dependent on the remittances 
migrant workers sent back to the country – indeed, 
these constitute the largest source of foreign 
capital (Ministry of Education, 2011). Numerous 
government reports and industry bodies have called 
for improvements to the skill levels of Bangladeshi 
workers so that the value of these remittances will 
increase (BMET, 2008; ILO, 2014).

However, the technical and vocational education and 
training (TVET) sector that produces most of the 
skilled workers is beset by a number of difficulties. 
These include: insufficient quality assurance 
system; lack of autonomy for training centres to 
adapt courses to local needs; overly rigid traditional 
school-based curricula and vocational standards; 
excessively long course durations; lack of continuing 
professional teacher training; lack of access to 
skills for underprivileged groups; lack of regulation 
and certification of informal apprenticeships; and 
insufficient recognition of existing skills and informal 
learning, preventing labour mobility. The government 
recognizes that these shortcomings lead to a 
serious wastage of skills in the economy (Ministry 
of Education, 2011).

The National Technical and Vocational Qualifications 
Framework (NTVQF) was adapted as a key tool 
to build and structure skills development for new 
and existing workforce. The NTVQF was initiated 
in 2008 as one of the most important building 
blocks of the TVET Reform Project, a project funded 
by the European Commission and implemented 
by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 
collaboration with the Government of Bangladesh33 
(Ministry of Education, 2011).

33  Ministry of Education in coordination with the Ministry 

of Labour and the Ministry of Overseas Employment and 
Expatriate Welfare.

The NTVQF allows for the recognition of skills 
workers have acquired in the informal sector, and 
includes post-secondary qualifications up to diploma 
level. The new qualifications are offered in formal 
education and training, as well as workplace training 
and all trainings provided by public and private 
organizations (NSDC, 2011).

Currently, Skills 21 – Empowering Citizens for 
Inclusive and Sustainable Growth, a project 
implemented by the ILO in cooperation with the 
Ministry of Education and funded by the EU has 
taken initiative to extend the NTVQF to the national 
qualifications framework. This proposed framework 
will provide a route that leads to a unified or 
harmonized quality assured qualifications system in 
Bangladesh (Ministry of Education, 2018). 

Policy objectives 

The NTVQF, an essential component of the 
government’s National Skills Development Policy 
(Ministry of Education, 2011), is intended to 
accomplish a wide range of goals in relation to 
TVET reform, the introduction of competency-based 
training and assessment, and quality assurance. The 
NTVQF aims specifically to:

•  expand the number of qualifications available 
to reflect the changing occupational and skills 
profiles in both domestic and international labour 
markets;

•  support stronger integration of skills training 
in community organizations, schools, training 
institutions and the workplace by providing a 
common national benchmark for qualifications up 
to, but not including, university degrees;
•  provide formal recognition of workplace skills 
obtained in both the formal and informal 
economies;
improve employability skills and increase their 
productivity;

• 

•  provide a new benchmark for international 
recognition of the skills and knowledge of 
Bangladeshi workers, who are recognized as an 
increasingly important export for the country;

68

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS• 

introduce consistent naming of credentials for 
formal skills-based education and training; 
•  encourage employers to participate in the 
development of the national qualifications 
framework;
improve the alignment of formal training 
programmes with industry requirements; 

• 

•  support lifelong learning by providing recognized 
pathways for workers to raise the level of their 
knowledge and skills throughout their working 
lives and beyond (Ministry of Education, 2011).

The NTVQF is aligned with other broader national 
policies for the expansion of TVET opportunities 
at post-primary level, focusing on improving the 
employability and income level of adolescents, 
youth and adults (of both sexes), child labourers, 
those with low levels of literacy, and those in rural 
areas (ILO, 2009). These other national policies are: 
the National Education Policy 2010, the Non-Formal 
Education Policy of 2006, the National Youth Policy 
(2003), the National Workforce Strategy of 2008, 
and the National Skills Development Policy (ibid.). 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NTVQF consists of six levels plus two 
pre-vocational levels, making it an eight-level 
framework (see Table 5). The six main levels focus 
on knowledge, skills and responsibility. The table 
also illustrates the relationship of the NTVQF to the 
existing qualifications structure.

The two pre-vocational levels cater to the 
underprivileged and low-educated groups in  
society who have not completed eight years of 
school (eight years’ schooling is the minimum 
to gain entry into a vocational training institute) 
and who lack the basic literacy and numeracy 
skills necessary to enter the lowest level of the 
qualifications framework. The following five levels, 
NTVQF 1–5, lead to certificates that closely align 
with existing TVET programmes for school students. 
Under the NTVQF, registered training organizations 
will also be able to conduct training for specific units 
of competences.

Table 5. Bangladesh national technical and vocational qualifications framework

PRE-VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION

VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION

TECHNICAL 
EDUCATION

JOB 
CLASSIFICATION

Diploma in 
engineering or 
equivalent

Middle-level manager

NTVQF 
LEVELS 

NTVQF 6

NTVQF 5

NTVQF 4

NTVQF 3

NTVQF 2

NTVQF 1

Pre-Voc. 2

Pre-Voc. 1

National skill  
certificate 5 (NSC 5)

National skill  
certificate 4 (NSC 4)

National skill  
certificate 3 (NSC 3)

National skill  
certificate 2 (NSC 2)

National skill  
certificate 1 (NSC 1)

National  
pre-vocational 
certificate NPVC 2

National  
pre-vocational 
certificate NPVC 1

Source: Ministry of Education, National Skills Development Policy, 2011.

Highly skilled worker/
supervisor

Skilled worker

Basic-skilled worker

Basic-skilled worker

Basic worker

Pre-vocational  
trainee (2)

Pre-vocational  
trainee (1)

69

Volume II: National and regional casesIn general education, a new system of dual 
certification will be introduced so that students 
who achieve the skills component of vocational 
education programmes will receive an NTVQF 
qualification in addition to, and separate from, the 
school qualification (National Skills Development 
Policy, 2011). 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

There are two key national coordination and 
regulatory TVET agencies in Bangladesh: the 
National Skills Development Council (NSDC) and the 
Bangladesh Technical Education Board (BTEB). 

The NSDC, the apex authority on skills in 
Bangladesh, is responsible for setting and 
implementing the national skills strategy. The 
key outcome of the strategy is to progressively 
produce a workforce in Bangladesh that should 
acquire nationally and internationally-referenced 
skills. The NSDC has transitioned to a much 
stronger ‘Authority’34 mandated to provide an 
important tripartite forum where representatives of 
government, employers, workers and civil society 
can work together to provide leadership and clear 
direction to skills development in Bangladesh. 

The BTEB is the quality assurance, assessment 
and certification agency that is responsible for the 
implementation and periodic review of the NTVQF. 
A new act, the BTEB Act of 201835 reiterates the 
power of the BTEB to organize, supervise, regulate, 
control and develop technical and vocational 
education and training in Bangladesh. 

The BTEB has overall responsibility for the 
implementation and periodic review of the NTVQF 
under direction from the NSDC. While it leads 
and coordinates, it shares responsibility with 
the agencies representing education, industry, 
employers’ groups, private sector providers and non-
government organizations. Among them are: 

a.  government agencies: Ministry of Education, 
Technical and Madrasah Education Division, 
Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training, 
Directorate of Technical Education, Ministry of 
Expatriate Welfare and Overseas Employment, 
Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, 

34  Known as the National Skills Development Authority Act, 
enacted by the Parliament and approved by the Prime 
Minister in October 2018.
 Enacted and approved in November 2018 for modifying, 
amending, changing and updating the Technical Education 
Act of 1967 and Technical Education Regulations of 1975.

35 

Ministry of Youth and Sports, government TVET 
institutions;

b.  employers and workers groups, Industry Skills 

Councils, industry; and 

c.  private training providers and non-government 

organizations.

All competency-based programs are registered 
with the BTEB. Major public TVET providers and 
ministries have now accepted the NTVQF as a 
model for future demand-driven skills development 
in the country and have made moves to change 
their traditional supply-driven curriculum-based 
courses into fully market-driven competency-based 
programmes. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The lock-out of learners who have not achieved 
Grade 8 has constrained admission to TVET and 
formal skills programmes. In order to overcome this 
barrier, the government has been working with its 
partners to introduce reforms to remove the Grade 8 
prerequisite from formal courses and replace it 
with learning outcomes entry requirements. Under 
competency-based training approach, learners/
workers will need to demonstrate that they have the 
knowledge required to be admitted to their chosen 
courses. In this way, the NTVQF allows those with 
limited formal education to undertake formal courses 
leading to nationally recognized qualifications.

The NTVQF is associated with the existing 
qualifications structure: this permits transfer 
between general education and TVET. Students 
who fail the academic component of the Senior 
Secondary School Certificate (vocational) or Higher 
Secondary School Certificate (vocational) may 
nevertheless be assessed as competent in the 
National Skills Certificate of the NTVQF. They will 
receive the appropriate National Skills Certificate 
award and can continue their studies to gain 
national skills certificates at the higher NTVQF 
levels. TVET programmes in schools such as the 
Senior Secondary School Certificate (vocational), 
the Higher Secondary School Certificate (vocational) 
and the Higher Secondary School Certificate in 
Business Management will be revised to ensure 
that their vocational components are based on 
industry competency standards, and that students 
only receive NTVQF qualifications if they have been 
assessed as competent. 

The BTEB with the support of the ILO is improving 
arrangements for the formalization of skills of 
workers in the informal economy through a 

70

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSrecognition of prior learning (RPL) system. This 
initiative has increased access of underprivileged 
groups to TVET. 

To date, the BTEB has certified more than 31,000 
existing workers in different NTVQF levels through 
RPL method (BTEB, 2019). The Government of 
Bangladesh has taken initiative through the support 
of development projects and from their own 
resources so that around 200,000 people per year 
will have their skills recognized within the next five 
years. Trainers are equipped to identify and assess 
all new learners for skills they already possess 
and to support them through the RPL process. 
Assessment centres are available in a number of 
locations. Some centres stand alone; others form 
part of existing TVET institutions; others belong to 
the industry. Some 75% of government training 
institutions have been restructured to offer flexible 
learning options through evening courses. 

Barriers are being removed to recognize the skills 
of departing and returning Bangladeshi migrant 
workers. A number of host countries now recognize 
NTVQF qualifications, and skilled workers returning 
to Bangladesh are offered RPL assessment to 
recognize any new skills they have gained overseas. 

It is hoped that public sector training will change 
greatly. Job announcements are now required 
to list opportunities for training and promotion; 
this includes general TVET-level qualifications in 
management, planning, leadership, budgeting 
and communication. Many of the 259 TVET 
institutions under the Ministry of Education, as 
well as assessment centres, either have achieved 
registered training organization status or are in the 
process of doing so. Private providers affiliated 
with the BTEB will be required to offer RPL to all 
prospective students.

NTVQF implementation

The ILO has supported the Government of 
Bangladesh in reforming its TVET system 
through partnership with the European Union. 
Efforts towards the establishment of a national 
qualifications framework started with the TVET 
sub-sector through the initiatives of the TVET 
Reform Project (TVET-R) in 2008. This was followed 
by the B-SEP project in 2014 with support from 
the Government of Canada where NTVQF 
implementation was expanded to five industry 
sectors, namely: agro-food, ceramics, furniture, 
pharmaceuticals, and the tourism sector. Building 
on the two projects, Skills 21 will continue to 
implement NTVQF housed under a broader national 
qualifications framework. 

The NTVQF was developed through a series of 
consultations and meetings producing a number 
of reference documents. There were 12 Industry 
Skills Councils organized, which created standards 
and technical committees to develop measurable 
quality benchmarks for domestic and international 
recognition. They are also responsible for aligning 
skills needs in accordance with the NTVQF levels 
and occupations. They are also responsible for the 
Skills Data System, which has been operational 
for three years and enables training institutions to 
prioritise courses with high industry demand.

Approximately 50% of training providers are 
registered with the BTEB and are delivering 
traditional vocational courses. Recently, the 
BTEB implemented NTVQF courses in many 
occupations and also introduced a competency-
based qualification for the coaching of trainers. As 
a result, industry-based trainers are for the first 
time outnumbering TVET institution-based trainers. 
The BTEB is also implementing the Skills Quality 
Assurance System and reports to the National 
Skills Development Authority. Private training 
providers that wish to issue nationally recognized 
qualifications under the NTVQF must be registered 
and accredited under the new Bangladesh Skills 
Quality Assurance System (ILO, 2013). 

Referencing to regional frameworks

There is a growing initiative towards developing 
a SAARC Qualifications Referencing Framework 
(SQRF). The SQRF is envisioned to be a device to 
enable comparison of qualifications and recognition 
of skills. It will aim to facilitate harmonization of 
skills at the regional level for enhanced recognition 
of migrant workers from South Asia in the 
destination countries. 

The rationale for a SQRF is derived from the 
Kathmandu Declaration of November 2014, when 
the SAARC Heads of State or Government agreed 
to promote regional cooperation in the field of 
vocational education and training. The SAARC 
Education Ministers agreed to develop a Regional 
Strategy for Enhancing the Quality of Education 
to raise the standards of South Asian educational 
institutions and better serve the youth in the region.

In May 2016, SAARC Action Plan for Labour 
Migration, which includes a provision for the 
development of an SQRF, was drafted. The plan 
provides for: (a) mapping and review of existing 
qualifications frameworks, occupational standards 
and competency levels in South Asia and also 
that of major destination countries to support the 
development of relevant regional standards in 

71

Volume II: National and regional casespriority trades for migrant workers from the region; 
and (b) recognition of skills/qualifications with 
destination countries of SAARC migrant workers.

In July 2017, participants at the ILO Inter-
regional Experts Forum on Skills and Migration 
in the South Asia-Middle East Corridor held in 
New Delhi supported the development of a 
regional qualifications referencing framework. 
India’s Ministry of Skills Development and 
Entrepreneurship offered to take up a lead role in 
this undertaking.

Important lessons and future plans

The NTVQF has generated enthusiasm amongst 
stakeholders – government, non-government, 
bilateral and multilateral development partners, 
public and private training institutions, industries, 
workers and employers groups, and learners and 
trainees. In more than five years since its adoption, 
the NTVQF has worked well in the following 
aspects: (a) growing awareness of the value of a 
competency approach for workforce development; 
(b) appreciation of the value of continuous quality 
improvement through implementation of the 
National Skills Quality Assurance System; and 
(c) establishment of leadership of industry and 
professional bodies in the development and 
maintenance of qualifications. The government will 
continue to implement and massify the new NTVQF 
as an approach to workforce development. 

The efforts towards establishing a unified and 
harmonized Bangladesh Qualifications Framework 
(BQF) are becoming more and more imminent. The 
BQF provides a special opportunity for Bangladesh 
to facilitate lifelong learning by opening up access, 
attracting investment and recognizing non-formal 
and informal learning. It hopes to strengthen 
national qualification systems by harmonizing sub-
systems of qualifications such as senior secondary 
education and its equivalent Madrasah and language 
levels, non-formal education and adult learning, 
TVET and higher education. 

The following steps are planned:

1.  Design the BQF structure to define qualification 
pathways in the three education sub-systems: 
higher education, TVET, and Senior Secondary 
School Certificate and the Higher Secondary 
School Certificate. The BQF will outline a unified 
lifelong learning framework that allows vertical 
and horizontal pathways for all learners. 
2.  Operationalize the BQF National Steering 
Committee. High-level discussions will be 
necessary on the merging of a higher education 
qualifications framework into the BQF, and the 
National Skills Development Authority to clarify 
their regulatory role and its relationship with the 
BTEB and the NTVQF. 

3.  Implement a step-by-step roadmap for BQF 
development. Significant activities include: 
(a) activation of the technical working groups to 
develop the BQF structure in terms of levels, 
level descriptors and learning outcomes for the 
different education sub-systems; (b) activation 
of technical panels and standing committees to 
work on quality assurance policies and strategies 
for the development of BQF; (c) production and 
dissemination of BQF materials; and (d) initiation 
of legislative reforms for BQF adoption.

Abbreviations
BMET  

BTEB  

ILO  
NSC 
NSDC 
NTVQF 

RPL 
SAARC 

TVET  

Bureau of Manpower Employment 
and Training
Bangladesh Technical Education 
Board 
International Labour Organization
National Skills Certificate
National Skills Development Council
National Technical and Vocational 
Qualifications Framework
Recognition of prior learning
South Asian Agency for Regional 
Cooperation
Technical and vocational education 
and training

References

Arthur, J. (2009). Recognition of Prior Learning. A Sub-component of Component 5. Increased Access of 
Underprivileged Groups to TVET. (Unpublished). Dhaka: International Labour Organization.

Asian Development Bank (2008). Bangladesh Vocational Education System: Improvements to Increase Job 

Prospects. Manila: ADB. 

BMET (Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training) (2008). National Forum on Improved Skills for 

Overseas Workers in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Dhaka: Directorate of Technical Education, Government of 
Bangladesh. 

72

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSILO (International Labour Organization) (2009). Bangladesh Skills Development Policy. Final Draft. Decent 

Work. Dhaka: Government of Bangladesh and ILO. 

ILO (2011). TVET Reform Project. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Reform and 

Development – Component 5. Dhaka: ILO. 

ILO (2013). Bangladesh: Skills Vision 2016. Dhaka: Ministry of Education and ILO. Accessed 7 December 

2016 at: www.moedu.gov.bd

ILO (2014). Skilling the workforce. Labour migration and skills recognition and certification in Bangladesh. 

Geneva: ILO.

ILO (2018). Assessment of the National Technical and Vocational Qualifications Framework and roadmap 

for development of the Bangladesh Qualifications Framework. Study conducted under ILO Skills 21 
Project funded by the EU.

Mia, A. (2010). Qualifications Frameworks: Implementation and Impact. Background Case Study on 

Bangladesh. Geneva: ILO 

MoE (Ministry of Education) (2011). National Skills Development Policy: 2011. Dhaka: Ministry of Education. 
World Bank (2006). The Bangladesh Vocational Education and Training System: An Assessment. Washington 

DC: World Bank.

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

73

Volume II: National and regional casesBELARUS

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The national qualifications framework (NQF) in 
Belarus is part of a new qualification system, which 
should replace the current system that dates back 
to Soviet times. The most important legal document 
is the Cabinet of Ministers Resolution No 764 ‘On 
the strategy to improve the national qualification 
system (NQS) of the Republic of Belarus’ of 
24 October 2018. 

The NQF for Higher Education is mentioned as 
well in the Roadmap for the implementation of 
the Bologna Process that Belarus joined in 2015. 
A National Strategic Action Plan has been defined 
based on the Concept for the Development of the 
System of Education of the Republic of Belarus for 
the Period till 2020 through 2030, agreed upon by 
the Republican Pedagogical Conference with the 
participation of the President of the Republic of 
Belarus (23–24 August 2017) and approved by Order 
of the Minister of Education of the Republic of 
Belarus No 742 as of 27 November 2017. 

The pilot NQF (2014) has eight levels that follow  
the European Qualifications Framework (EQF)  
structure with three domain descriptors for  
learning outcomes for knowledge (theoretical  
and/or practical), skills (cognitive and/or practical), 
and the level of responsibility and degree of 
autonomy. 

The NQS strategy proposes the establishment 
of a National Council for the Development of 
the Qualification System. This council will be an 
interdepartmental as well as a tripartite body. The 
Ministry of Labour and the Ministry of Education 
are the lead implementation bodies, supported 
as well by the Institute of Labour, the Republican 
Institute for Vocational Education (RIPO) and the 
National Institute for Higher Education (RIVE). For 
the Bologna Process the lead is with the Ministry 
of Education and stakeholders from the higher 
education sector.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Belarus’ population is just under 9.5 million and 
is predominantly (three-quarters) urban. The 
country is aging, and the population is in decline, 
putting pressure on younger generations. Due to 
relatively lower wages in comparison to most of its 
neighbours, migration has aggravated this decline. 
Internal migration from the countryside to cities has 
also contributed to lower birth rates.

The labour market is characterised by low levels 
of unemployment, and a decreasing labour force. 
The working-age population still makes up 60% 
of the total population but is in decline. Labour 
shortages are increasing. The employment rate is 
over 80%. Some 6.7% of the workforce is over 
the retirement age. Unemployment is very low 
but slowly increasing among older workers, as 
jobs are being automatised. The assignment of the 
labour force to certain jobs and the labour demand 
forecast based on vacancies continue from Soviet 
times. The practice of job placement of vocational 
education graduates in state enterprises still exists. 
The problem is not that people cannot find jobs 
in their field of specialisation, but the skills of the 
labour force are not developed enough to support 
innovation of the economy and make it competitive 
at a global level.

Belarus seems caught in a middle-income trap: 
economic growth of the country becomes slower 
and eventually stops after reaching the middle-
income level. In order to overcome this situation 
the country shifts to the strategy of innovation and 
searches for new market outlets to support the 
rise in exports, as well as growth of the domestic 
demand. The biggest challenge is to make a 
transition from economic growth, focused on 
resources and depending on a low-cost labour and 
capital, to growth, based on high-rate productivity 
and innovation. This requires investments in 
infrastructure and education.

The current qualification system regulates both 
education and labour market requirements. The 

74

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSsystem is not flexible enough in empowering 
mobility and career development that are crucial for 
reallocating and adapting the labour resources to 
changing labour market requirements. Qualifications 
under the current system are a tool for labour 
market regulation and a guarantee to a certain 
category of jobs and lifelong job security. In order 
to upgrade the workforce, qualifications need to 
become more an instrument for career development 
and lifelong learning, for constant adaptation to new 
conditions, for more self-reliance and a passport to 
different types of jobs. Many elderly workers may 
need substantial requalification to be kept active 
longer. 

The Strategy for the Improvement of the National 
Qualification System will bring the system more 
in line with international practices, while also 
building on its traditional strengths. The reforms 
that are proposed are far reaching, but should be 
implemented gradually.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Improving the NQS is to ensure a match between 
demand and supply in qualitative and quantitative 
terms. To achieve this goal the following tasks are 
planned:

1.  develop cooperation mechanisms between 

governmental organisations and the world of 
work, and educational providers to identify skill 
needs;

2.  establish the legal and institutional framework 
for the functioning of the NQS, the creation of 
a coordination body defining priorities and main 
tasks (the National Council for the Development 
of Qualifications);

3.  reorient the education system to changes in the 
labour market in accordance with the needs of 
the economy;

4.  create the conditions for the validation of 

non-formal and informal learning and establish 
a system of independent assessment and 
certification of qualifications.

Two developments that are linked drive the 
introduction of a NQF to reform the existing NQS:

2.  the Bologna Process for the establishment of 
the European Area for Higher Education.

The current Unified Tariff Qualification System, 
with its classifiers of occupations and job-titles, its 
handbooks of qualification characteristics, its list of 
educational programmes and specialisations that 
are all linked, is seen as too rigid for an innovation-
based economy in which people routine jobs will be 
automated and all jobs more digitalised, in which 
the labour force will need to be specialised at a 
higher level in order to add value, and will be less 
dependent on the state and more autonomous. 
The changes will be gradual and are foreseen 
in two phases of the Strategy for a Sustainable 
Social and Economic Development towards 
2030: a developmental stage until 2020, and an 
implementation phase between 2020 and 2030.

In May 2011 the Ministry of Labour and Social 
Protection prepared a draft Action Plan for 
implementation of the proposals of the interagency 
workgroup for transition of Belarus to an NQS, 
taking into account the experience of the European 
Union (EU). In 2012 the government declared its 
intention to develop an NQF.

The Action Plan of the Ministry of Labour and Social 
Protection for the period 2011–15 included:

•  a pilot project on the improvement of the 

• 

national system of qualifications;
the development of the draft NQF and 
preparation of proposals for its approval.

The same Action Plan contained measures for the 
development of information and analytical materials 
on professions and qualifications structure, on 
anticipation of demand of the regional labour 
markets, and structure of vocational education 
supply, etc. In 2013 the National Research Institute 
of Labour under the Ministry of Labour and Social 
Protection prepared a National Innovation Project on 
the Development of the NQF. The European Training 
Foundation (ETF) supported the Institute of Labour 
in 2013 in piloting the establishment of the sector 
skills councils, including the preparation of the main 
statutory documents and supervising the first phase 
of the establishment and operation of the sector 
skills councils.

1.  the reform of the existing qualification system 
based on the General State Classifier of the 
Republic of Belarus ‘for worker professions and 
the job titles of employees’; the Unified Tariff 
Qualification System which was inherited and 
adapted from the Soviet Union; and

On 17 January 2014 the Council of Ministers 
issued Decree No 34 ‘On some key aspects to 
develop the national qualification system of Belarus 
in pilot sectors’. According to the Decree, the 
Ministry of Labour and Social Protection should 
test and develop of new elements of the national 

75

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications system in the Republic of Belarus. At 
the end of 2015 the Innovation Project presented its 
final report, including a roadmap for implementation 
that has not been adopted yet. Further testing work 
is foreseen with the support of the EU project on 
Employment and Vocational Education, while some 
elements (occupational standards) are already 
gradually introduced.

With the adoption of the Strategy for the 
Improvement of the National Qualifications 
System 2018 a new stage starts that will lead to 
system-wide changes over the next seven years, 
opening up the current qualification system, make 
it more flexible, more adapted to recognising 
qualifications during different stages of working 
life, facilitating the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, improving as well confidence in 
qualifications through an independent assessment 
and certification system and making qualifications in 
Belarus more relevant and easier to compare with 
those in Europe and neighbouring countries.

International cooperation
The Bologna Process is one of the main drivers for 
the development of the NQF and should ensure 
an NQF that is in line with the Qualifications 
Framework for the European Higher Education 
Area. A Belarus Roadmap for Higher Education 
Reform was adopted during the Yerevan Ministers’ 
Conference committing the government to higher 
education reform in accordance with the values, 
principles and goals of the European Higher 
Education Area in full respect of the powers of 
the government, the national parliament, higher 
education institutions, and other stakeholders. An 
advisory group representing stakeholders from 
Belarus and the Bologna Follow-Up Working Group, 
is monitoring the implementation of the roadmap. 
Work on the NQF has been progressing, introducing 
the three-cycle system and bringing higher 
education degrees fully in line with the framework 
of qualifications of the European Higher Education 
Area, including the use of the European credit 
transfer system (ECTS) and Diploma Supplement. 

The European project on Employment and 
Vocational Education that started in 2017 supports 
the development of the regulatory framework for 
NQF, including reviewing existing legal provisions, 
regulations on state educational standards, 
assessment, quality assurance and certification, 
testing the NQF through a set of new vocational 
education qualifications developed on the basis 
of 45 occupational standards from four strategic 
economic areas for which sector skills councils 
will be established. The occupational standards 
will be translated into new curricula and should 
facilitate the testing of the validation of non-formal 

and informal learning. A Lifelong Learning Strategy 
is also foreseen to be developed to contextualise 
the implementation of the NQF beyond the current 
formal education system. The ETF will conduct the 
mid-term review of the project at the end of 2019/
beginning of 2020. 

The Mobility Partnership signed in October 
2016, includes the recognition and validation 
of skills and qualifications, and proposes close 
cooperation in order to facilitate mutual recognition 
of vocational and academic qualifications as well 
as to develop curricula in such a manner as to 
enhance recognition of respective qualifications. 
The Annex of the Mobility Partnership mentions 
supporting Belarus in improving the quality and 
transparency of Belarus’ qualifications through 
consultation in the development of a NQF and 
linking it with the Qualifications Framework of the 
European Area for Higher Education and the EQF 
and in applying the subsidiary text to the Lisbon 
Convention: ‘Recommendation on the use of 
qualifications frameworks’ in the recognition of 
foreign qualifications. It also mentions supporting 
Belarus in improvement of qualifications based on 
learning outcomes, occupational standards and 
sectoral qualifications frameworks and to improve 
assessment, certification and quality assurance 
processes within the reform of broader NQS and 
raising awareness on the EQF and other European 
transparency tools as well as on the recognition 
procedures of Member States among relevant 
stakeholders.

Among the objectives of the inclusion of Belarus to 
WorldSkills in 2014 was to synchronise Belarusian 
and international qualifications and to make a 
realistic assessment of the level of preparation 
of young professionals. Although the WorldSkills 
standards specifications have been defined for 
best performers participating in international 
competitions, they will also have an impact of 
vocational qualifications in Belarus.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The pilot NQF is described in the Annex to the 
Council of Ministers’ Decree N°34 of 17 January 
2014 ‘On some questions on the development of 
the national qualifications system in the Republic 
of Belarus’36. The pilot NQF (2014) has eight levels 
that follow the EQF structure with three domain 
descriptors for learning outcomes for knowledge 

36 

 www.pravo.by/main.
aspx?guid=3871&p0=C21400034&p1=1

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS(theoretical and/or practical), skills (cognitive and/or 
practical) and the level of responsibility and degree 
of autonomy. The NQS strategy foresees as well the 
development of sector qualifications frameworks. 
During 2019–21, level descriptors will be developed 
and tested. The number of levels and domains of the 
descriptors are still open. The proposal for the Higher 
Education NQF describes the following levels and 
stages of the current national education system: the 
first stage of higher education, the second stage of 
higher education (Master’s degree), the first stage 
of post-graduate education and the second stage 
(doctorate). Sectoral qualifications frameworks are 
also foreseen in the NQS strategy.

The scope is to cover all qualifications that are 
relevant for the labour market, including the 
qualifications of the education system and those 
used for upgrading and retraining adults. New types 
of qualifications are expected to become part of 
the NQS, including full and partial qualifications. 
Occupational standards are expected to play an 
important role in defining qualifications, changing 
the contents of education and training and 
establishing a system for independent assessment 
and for the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning. 

Alignment to other classification systems
The NQF is going to be a central part of the 
improved NQS. The NQF will inform sectoral 
qualifications frameworks. NQF levels will be used 
for qualifications and parts of qualifications and 
occupational standards. It is not yet clear whether 
this means that existing wage levels (razryadi) will 
disappear.

NQF levels and level descriptors
There are eight levels in the pilot NQF. The draft 
qualifications framework for higher education seems 
to have four levels, one each for the first and second 
cycle and two for the third cycle. The number of 
levels of the NQF covering lifelong learning is not 
yet set.

The draft level structure that is annexed to the 
Council of Ministers Decree for the development 
of the National Qualifications System in Belarus 
contain eight levels that follow the EQF structure 
with three domain descriptors for learning  
outcomes for knowledge (theoretical and/or 
practical), skills (cognitive and/or practical) and  
the level of responsibility and degree of autonomy. 
The domains of the definite NQF are still to be 
defined. 

Use of learning outcomes
The education system is beginning to gradually 
introduce competence-based approaches in 

selected curricula. There is a growing understanding 
among policymakers and practitioners that the 
education system needs a major re-focusing on 
results, and that quality and relevance should drive 
the vocational education modernisation agenda. 
Introducing the learning outcomes approach 
remains a major challenge for the system in the 
coming years. Some modern vocational and 
higher education standards have introduced 
learning outcomes, but they do not reflect fully 
a competence-based approach. The concept of 
learning outcomes is not used consistently in the 
different pilots. The pilot occupational standards 
developed in the Innovation Project provide different 
descriptions of competences and of qualification 
standards. In the standards for general education 
and general secondary education, neither learning 
outcomes nor key competences are mentioned. 
Learning outcomes should inform the assessment 
criteria and the assessment approaches. The ETF 
and the Council of Europe stated in 2016 that 
capacity building on how to formulate and use 
learning outcomes must be a priority (Conclusions 
and recommendations from the seminar 
‘Implementation of the modernised national 
qualification system in Belarus’ – next steps). 
Occupational standards are developed in order to 
identify the learning outcomes for new qualifications 
and specialties. Currently, sector qualification 
councils and occupational standards are planned 
for architecture and construction, real estate, social 
services, commercial operatives, and pedagogues.

Definition of qualification
The General State Classifier of the Republic of 
Belarus 011-2009 ‘On specialties and qualifications’ 
(Part 3) uses the following definition: ‘Qualification 
is the preparedness of a worker to perform 
professional activities for executing a job of a 
certain degree of complexity in the framework of a 
specialisation or direction of specialisations.’

The following examples of qualifications are given 
in the General State Classifier: teacher, philologist, 
electrical engineer, and mechanical engineer. 

The Labour Code (p. 1) describes a qualification as 
follows: ‘Qualification is the level of general and 
specialised preparation of a worker, confirmed by 
the appropriate legal type of document (credential, 
diploma, certificate, etc.).’

The Labour Code uses the term ‘academic 
qualification’, and the Classifier the term 
‘professional qualification’. Although the Labour 
Code is clearly referring to credentials and awards, 
qualifications are still more associated with 
occupations than with awards. That link between 
credentials and the ability to perform labour 

77

Volume II: National and regional casesactivities is maintained in the newest definition 
used in the NQS strategy: Qualification is the official 
recognition of obtained knowledge, skills and 
experience, necessary for the execution of a labour 
activity, confirmed by a legally determined type of 
document.

Basically, state education standards set the 
requirements for each individual qualification. 
The Innovation Project planned the development 
of occupational qualification standards, but they 
have not been used yet to assess and certificate 
individuals. This is foreseen, however, in the NQS 
strategy that links occupational standards to 
independent assessment.

Traditionally state education standards set the 
requirements for certification. State education 
standards for vocational and higher education 
are based, so far, on qualification characteristics 
that have been developed for occupations in the 
Classifier of Occupations. Occupational standards 
are now the new starting point for developing state 
educational standards, but how this is done exactly 
still needs to be elaborated. 

Access, progression and credit
Lifelong learning as a notion is known in Belarus 
but its actual meaning requires further development 
and practical implementation measures. The 
Code on Education uses terms as additional adult 
education and post-university education. Additional 
adult education includes 14 types of educational 
programmes. Non-formal education is gaining 
importance outside the formal education provision. 
The NQS strategy aims to widen access to 
qualifications. 

The Code of Education guarantees access to 
education to all citizens, but access to higher 
education is regulated. It also states that 
progression and continuity of the levels and degrees 
within the initial education system is guaranteed. 
Graduates of full-time vocational education can 
continue to post-secondary and higher education 
but will have to pass entrance exams. Government 
executive bodies define the national demand 
for trained specialists, with particular attention 
to economic, educational and social policy 
perspectives. The existing admission system at the 
universities of the country allows the most gifted 
applicants to be selected on a competitive basis.

Since 2008 the ECTS has been in use in higher 
education, and these are now gradually brought 
in line with ECTS guidelines that make a stronger 
connection to learning outcomes. Scientific 
research is undertaken to explore the possibilities of 
introducing a credit system for vocational education.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The pilot NQF was provisionally legislated. On 
17 January 2014 the Council of Ministers issued 
Decree No 34 ‘On some key aspects to develop the 
national qualification system’ in order to test and 
develop new elements of the NQS, including:

1.  establishment of sector councils for 

qualifications;

2.  development of sector qualifications frameworks 
in accordance with the national framework of 
qualifications for the pilot economic sectors;

3.  development of occupational standards;
4.  development of standard cards for professional 

development and career growth.

According to the Strategy for the Improvement of 
the National Qualification System (2018), the NQF 
in Belarus is part of a new qualification system. 
The new NQF descriptors are planned to be 
developed in the coming years. During 2017–18 
important legal documents were developed 
that prepare the implementation of the NQF. 
The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection 
adopted an exemplary regulation No 36 on sector 
qualifications councils on 28 July 2017 as well 
as methodological recommendations (resolution 
No 37 of 28 July 2017) on the development of 
occupational standards. The most important legal 
document is the Cabinet of Ministers Resolution 
No 764 ‘On the strategy to improve the national 
qualification system of the Republic of Belarus’ 
of 24 October 2018. The strategy builds on 
the results of the Innovation Project launched 
after the Council of Ministers Decree No 34 
of 17 January 2014 ‘On some key aspects to 
develop the national qualification system’. That 
decree stated that the Ministry of Labour and 
Social Protection should test and develop new 
elements of the NQS, including the development 
of qualifications frameworks for pilot economic 
sectors in accordance with the NQF. The EU project 
on Employment and Vocational Education that 
started in 2017 provides support for developing the 
regulatory framework for NQF implementation and 
testing its components.

The NQF for higher education is mentioned as 
well in the Roadmap for the implementation of 
the Bologna Process that Belarus joined in 2015. 
A National Strategic Action Plan has been defined 
based on the Concept for the Development of the 
System of Education of the Republic of Belarus 
for the Period till 2020 through 2030 agreed upon 
by the Republican Pedagogical Conference with 
the participation of the President of the Republic 

78

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSof Belarus (23–24 August 2017) and approved 
by the Order of the Minister of Education of the 
Republic of Belarus No 742 as of 27 November 
2017. In the Belarus Strategy that is part of the Paris 
Communiqué adopted by the Ministers of Education, 
it is stated that the Higher Education NQF (the fourth 
step of the development of the NQF) which was 
developed in 2018 should be adopted by 2019 and 
prepared for self-certification in 2020. 

The NQS will need to be further embedded in 
education and labour legislation. The EU project on 
Employment and Vocational Education will review 
existing legislation to assess what needs to change. 
This will lead to changes in the Education Code  
and the Labour Code and other laws and 
regulations.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The strategy foresees the establishment of 
new bodies such as the National Council for the 
Development of the Occupation System, a state 
body overseeing the assessment and certification 
of qualifications, sector qualification councils 
and centres for assessment and certification of 
qualifications.

The main instrument to test and elaborate the NQF 
is the EU project on Employment and Vocational 
Education. It foresees that development of the 
NQS is coordinated with the Ministry of Labour and 
Social Protection in agreement with the Ministry of 
Education and the Ministry of Economy, and includes:

a.  reviewing the proposed NQF;
b.  referencing new qualifications to NQF levels;
c.  developing an implementation plan with 

allocation of roles/functions of different actors;

d.  supporting a Methodical Centre for NQS 

development to be established by the Ministry 
of Labour;

e.  developing a regulatory legal framework on the 

implementation of the NQF;

f.  reviewing the existing template of state 

educational standards for vocational education;

g.  elaborating uniform terminology;
h.  integrating the levels of vocational technical and 
secondary (specialised) technical education;
re-formulating individual study programmes in 
line with a learning-outcome-based approach;

i. 

j.  piloting the new standards and training 

programmes in the pilot schools and companies;

k.  identifying key competences and developing 
recommendations on their inclusion in all 
qualifications.

three representatives from stakeholders in Belarus, 
the European Commission, the Council of Europe, 
the Bologna Secretariat, the European Student 
Union, and from several countries that participate 
in the Bologna Process. The group works on the 
implementation of the roadmap in cooperation 
with the Belarusian authorities, regularly reviews 
the implementation plans for higher education 
reforms, building on the stages set in the 
roadmap. It assists the national authorities in the 
implementation of the roadmap and development 
of the individual areas of education policy, provides 
expertise, promotes cooperation, and keeps the 
Bologna Follow-Up Working Group updated on the 
progress. The National Institute for Higher Education 
(RIVE) supports the Ministry of Education and 
representatives from the higher education sector 
logistically in the higher education reforms linked to 
the Bologna Process.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality assurance systems have developed 
considerably in recent years. Different processes 
are in place to accredit providers’ capacities to 
deliver specific programmes. The compliance of the 
provision with educational standards is an important 
part of the system, in both vocational and higher 
education, and quality assurance builds on internal 
self-assessment processes in providers that have 
considerable autonomy. For teachers, qualification 
requirements are a tool for career development and 
their performance is regularly assessed. Learning 
outcomes are not yet playing a very important role 
in quality assurance processes. Quality assurance 
is a very important part of the EU project on 
Employment and Vocational Education that aims to 
improve quality assurance measures for vocational 
education qualifications and provision.

Belarus has developed the concept for establishing 
the national independent system of higher 
education quality assurance. Measures will be 
taken to further improve the procedures of internal 
quality assurance in higher education institutes 
by 2020 and to develop a legal framework for the 
activities of an independent quality assurance 
agency with the purpose of launching its full-scale 
practical activities by 2022. The activities aimed 
at establishing the independent higher education 
quality assurance system and preparing the national 
independent quality assurance agency to associate 
with ENQA/EQAR will be carried out in compliance 
with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality 
Assurance in the European Higher Education Area 
(ESG-2015).

The Bologna Roadmap is overseen by the Bologna 
Follow-Up Group, helped by an Advisory Group, 
which meets every six months. The group includes 

There is not yet a special approach to ensure 
the quality of qualifications, but the identification 
of relevant profiles based on labour market 

79

Volume II: National and regional casesinformation, the work of sector qualifications 
councils, occupational standards, sector 
qualifications and learning outcomes, and the 
validation of the learning outcomes will be part of 
the quality assurance measures as well as a system 
of independent assessment.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Validation of non-formal and informal learning is 
an explicit goal of the NQS. The strategy does 
not distinguish between non-formal and informal 
learning, but refers to both uncertificated learning 
of groups of learners and autonomous learning by 
individuals. The Paris Communiqué (appendix 2) 
states that, by 2019, international experts/
consultants, including ETF experts, will be asked 
to advise on building up the grounds for developing 
a legal framework aimed at ensuring prior learning 
recognition, with a view to developing the 
respective procedure in 2021.

There is a clear link between the validation of non-
formal and informal learning and the NQS. In the 
Roadmap for the Bologna Process, it is stated that 
Belarus should develop a plan for the recognition 
of prior learning by the end of 2015, and implement 
the plan by the end of 2017. This is now reflected in 
the Strategy for the National Qualification System, 
although the dates have moved slightly forward. By 
2021 there will be a clear concept of validation of 
non-formal and informal learning and by 2025 the 
system will be functioning. 

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The main instruments for developing the NQF 
are the Strategy for the Improvement of the 
National Qualification System, the EU project on 
Employment and Vocational Education and the 
Bologna Process. Mechanisms to monitor the 
effectiveness of NQF implementation, other than 
monitoring of the Bologna Roadmap by the Advisory 
Group, have not been defined yet.

The NQS strategy is divided in two phases.

1.  The developmental phase (2018–20) during 
which the legal basis for the new NQS is 
developed and organisational work started, 
including awareness raising and training 
activities; labour market analysis; elaboration 
of the NQF levels, and occupational standards 
development; development of new types of 

education standards; and new institutional 
structures are established.

2.  The implementation phase (2012–25) during 

which the new elements are put into practice in 
order to improve the links between supply and 
demand, and ensure recognition of all types of 
qualification through independent assessment.

The Ministry of Education is responsible for a 
General Classifier of Specialties and Qualifications 
that will be adapted to the new NQS. Moreover, the 
new NQS should include new types of qualification 
(including partial qualifications) that are outside the 
education system. Occupational standards will play 
an important role in defining new qualifications.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
None yet as the NQF is not implemented. 

Impact for end-users
None yet, but the number of people involved in 
the development of the new NQS is gradually 
increasing.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Belarus joined the Bologna Process during the 
Yerevan Ministerial Meeting in May 2015. An 
ambitious roadmap has been developed to ensure 
that Belarus can progress quickly and join the 
Qualifications Framework of the European Higher 
Education Area by 2020, but progress so far is 
not in line with this roadmap. The pilot NQF in the 
Innovation Project was very similar to the EQF in 
terms of descriptors and levels. The NQF and EQF 
are mentioned as references in the Annex of the 
Mobility Partnership that was signed in October 2016.

Important lessons and future plans

The Strategy for the Improvement of the National 
Qualification System is an important step forward 
as it describes the outlines and functions of the 
improved NQS and the steps to get there. In the 
meantime, the EU project on Employment and 
Vocational Education has started its implementation. 
At the same time – within the framework of the 
Bologna Process and the government support 
to the implementation of the Roadmap for the 
Bologna Process, and an Advisory Group established 
by the Bologna Follow-Up Group and national 
stakeholders – higher education reforms are moving 
forward, albeit sometimes faced with delays in 
legislative and implementation processes.

In comparison to the situation two years ago, 
the structures of the new NQS are much clearer 

80

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSbut there is still much conceptual, technical 
and methodological work needed before the 
system can become operational. This includes 
the functioning of sector qualification councils 
to develop occupational standards, translating 
occupational standards in education standards, 
developing a system of independent assessment, 
defining the national and sectoral qualifications 
frameworks and improving the awareness and 
involvement of all stakeholders. The reform of 
the qualification system is not only about finding 
technical solutions to new challenges. It will require 
the active participation of many stakeholders at 
different levels to be successful.

Capacity building on how to formulate and use 
learning outcomes is important to become gradually 
more familiar with them. These learning outcomes 
need to include transversal skills (key competences) 
as well as occupation specific skills. With the 
upcoming reforms, there is a big need to ensure 
terminology reflects new concepts and approaches, 
so that they are understandable and understood 
in a coherent way between stakeholders. The 
available information could be shared via websites. 
Many elements are covered by the EU project on 
Employment and Vocational Education, which will 
function as a new laboratory, but developments 
have to be widened beyond the project if system-
wide implementation is supposed to start in 2020. 
This will include reaching out to representatives 
of the world of work, which only had a limited 
involvement in defining qualifications so far, but 
also in preparing education providers, by involving 
them from an early stage in the design of the new 
system. There is ample international experience, 
showing that the only way to ensure that capacities 
for reform across the system will be there is starting 
to work with whomever is available, irrespective of 
their current capacity to contribute.

The creation of a lead body – the National Council 
for the Development of the Qualification System –  
over the coming months will be an important 
step forward to coordinate the role of different 
stakeholders and institutions, to define priorities and 
to set precise goals. As Belarus is entering a whole 
new set up of institutions and defining and testing 
new methodologies over the coming three years, 
good feedback mechanisms will be important to 
establish an inclusive and productive qualification 
system and to resolve unforeseen difficulties.

Many elements are promising for the progress 
of qualification reforms: the Strategy for the 
Improvement of the National Qualification System 
that is creating a very clear framework; the concrete 

roadmap for reforms under the Bologna Process, 
and support of the Advisory Group; scientific and 
technical expertise developed through the Institute 
of Labour, the Republican Institute for Vocational 
Education (RIPO) and the National Institute for 
Higher Education; the experience of the Innovation 
Project; cooperation between the ministries of 
Labour, Education and Economics; easier access to 
lessons learned from other countries; and the EU 
project on Employment and Vocational Education 
providing international experience.

Belarus has started relatively late with its 
qualification reforms. The country is aging rapidly, 
and although it recognises the importance of 
education and of improving the quality of its 
workforce, it will not be easy to overcome rigidities 
in the current education and qualification system. 
The initial education system and the adult learning 
provision are not well linked through a concept for 
lifelong learning with a practical dimension. Many 
concepts and solutions from the past are very 
detailed and prescriptive and may often seem to 
offer more solid solutions than the alternatives for 
a modernised, more flexible system. Overcoming 
the legacy of the past – with different institutions 
working in silos, with a historical understanding 
of qualifications, levels and competences that is 
different than those used internationally, with a 
strong scientific orientation, and resistance against 
widespread experimentation with the involvement of 
outsiders – may slow down implementation. Many 
reforms can only be implemented and improved in 
learning by doing, solving one problem at the time. 
Without a strong coordination, open communication 
and a clear vision, it will be difficult to mobilise all 
the stakeholders and build capacity. In this context, 
a clear institutional home for the implementation 
of the reforms, to ensure technical coordination 
between stakeholders and ensure communication, 
was lacking and it is hoped that it will now take 
shape with the establishment of the National 
Council for the Development of the Qualification 
System, which would need a good secretariat and 
methodological support to be successful.

Abbreviations
ECTS  
EQF 
ETF 
NQF  
NQS  

European credit transfer system
European Qualifications Framework
European Training Foundation
national qualifications framework
national qualification system

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

81

Volume II: National and regional casesBELGIUM

Due to its federal structure, Belgium developed 
three national qualifications frameworks (NQFs), 
one for each of the three language communities: 
Flemish, French and the German-speaking. Despite 
adaptation to the needs of each community, 
the three frameworks share important common 
features, supporting interoperability. An amendment 
to Belgian federal law on the general structure of the 
education system was adopted in 2012, stating that 
the European qualifications framework will be used 
as a common reference for the three communities 
in Belgium; this addresses the challenge of linking 
the three frameworks, and potentially eases mobility 
of Belgian citizens within the country. The three 
frameworks have been/will be referenced separately 
to the European qualifications framework: the 
Flemish and French Communities have completed 
this process and the German-speaking Community 
is expected to do so in the near future.

The country as a whole performs above average on 
a number of key education and training indicators: 
the rate of early leaving has fallen (8.9% in 2017, 
compared to 10.6% in the EU), tertiary educational 
attainment and the employment rate of recent 
graduates are high, and participation in early 
childhood education and care is among the highest 
in the EU. On the other hand, the percentage of 
adults in lifelong learning is below the EU target. 
Equity is one of the main challenges in the country. 
The gap in performance between students with low 
socioeconomic and migrant background and those 
that do not come from disadvantaged groups is 
one of the highest in Europe. Inequalities also exist 
between communities and education sectors, with 
students from the French Community and from 
vocational education and training (VET) performing 
less well. Plans to modernise school education were 
adopted in 2017, including a major systemic reform 
in the French Community. The Flemish Community 
adopted key measures targeted at secondary 
education, and introduced centrally validated tests 

82

to address concerns about the unequal value of 
primary school qualifications awarded. In 2017, 
participation in adult learning reached its highest 
level (8.5%) and was strengthened in line with 
the 2016 Council recommendation on upskilling 
pathways37 (European Commission, 2018).

37  Council of the European Union (2016). Council 

recommendation of 19 December 2016 on upskilling 
pathways: new opportunities for adults. Journal of 
the European Union, C 484, 24.12.2016, pp. 1–6. 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/
PDF/?uri=OJ:C:2016:484:FULL&from=EN

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFlemish Community  
of Belgium

framework of the European higher education area 
(QF-EHEA) in 2009 and is an integrate part of the 
FQF for lifelong learning. 

Introduction and context

On 30 April 2009 the Flemish Parliament and 
Government in Belgium adopted the act on the 
qualification structure38 (‘kwalificatiestructuur’) 
introducing a comprehensive qualifications 
framework, covering all levels and types of 
qualifications. The framework, based on an eight-
level structure described by the two main categories 
of knowledge/skills and context/autonomy/
responsibility, was formally referenced to the 
European qualifications framework (EQF) in  
June 2011.

The road from formal adoption to implementation 
proved more time-consuming than originally 
predicted. Delays were partly caused by the need 
for further legal instruments (implementation 
decrees on professional and educational 
qualifications), and partly by negotiations with the 
social partners on how to link and level professional 
qualifications to the framework. This clarification 
was largely completed by 2013–14, allowing 
implementation to speed up39. An update of the 
reference-report was presented in 2014.

The Flemish qualifications framework (FQF) is 
operational, including by February 2019 a total of 
384 professional (‘Beroepskwalificatie’) and 252 
educational qualifications (‘Onderwijskwalificatie’) 
at level 6 and 7 in the qualifications database40.
Professional qualifications have been levelled 
individually (as opposed to a placement ‘block-wise’) 
in a process involving the main social partners. 

The qualifications framework for higher education 
was self-certified against the qualifications 

38  Flemish Parliament (2009). Decreet betreffende de 

kwalificatiestructuur [Act on the qualification structure]. 
Belgisch Staatsblad, 16.7.2009, p. 49597. http://
data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/edulex/document.
aspx?docid=14111 [accessed 19 March 2019].

39  The implementation decisions for professional 

qualifications were agreed by the Flemish Government 
in January 2013. The implementation decision which 
operationalises educational qualifications level (1–4) was 
approved in January 2014. The implementation decisions 
for educational qualifications level 4 (Se-n-Se) and 5 were 
agreed by the Flemish Government in January 2013 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).
40  The qualification database (Kwalificatiedatabank): 
https://app.akov.be/pls/pakov/f?p=VLAAMSE_
KWALIFICATIESTRUCTUUR:KWALIFICATIEDATABANK 
[accessed February 2019].

Policy objectives

The 2009 act on the qualifications structure 
defines the Flemish qualification system as ‘[...] a 
systematic classification of recognised qualifications 
based on a generally adopted qualifications 
framework (FQF)’. The qualification structure 
(including the qualifications framework) aims at 
making qualifications and their mutual relationships 
transparent, so that stakeholders in education 
(students, pupils and providers) and in the labour 
market (social partners) ‘[...] can communicate 
unambiguously about qualifications and the 
associated competences’ (Flemish Parliament, 
2009, Chapter I, Article 3).

The act underlines that the qualification structure 
(including the qualifications framework) should act 
as a reference: 

a.  for quality assurance, for developing and 

renewing courses;

b.  for developing and aligning procedures for 

recognising acquired competences; 

c.  for comparison (nationally and at European level) 

of qualifications. 

This indicates that the FQF is seen as more than 
a simple description of existing qualifications: it 
plays a role in the continuous review and renewal of 
qualifications. 

In 2018, the Flemish Government launched changes 
in secondary education (new educational structure 
and update of content) aiming to help reduce social 
inequalities. With this reform, starting in 201941, 
the FQF is seen as an instrument reshaping the 
structure and content of secondary education. 
It is stipulated in legislation that educational 
qualifications are a leading principle of this reform. 
In vocational educational programmes, professional 
qualifications are integrated in educational 
qualifications42. The new policy reform aims at 
introducing the concept of ‘competences’ as a 
reference within secondary education. There is also 

41  The reform of secondary education will start on 
1 September 2019 and be finalised in 2026  
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

42  Educational qualifications are based on learning outcomes 
determined by education level. The parliament Act on 
the Flemish qualification structure makes a distinction 
between the procedures for recognition at levels 1–5 and 
levels 6–8 (Government of Flanders; AKOV (2011). 

83

Volume II: National and regional casesreform at level 5 where the current higher vocational 
education HBO543 will be transformed into short-
cycle higher education qualification as a recognised 
specialised professional qualification for the FQF 
and EQF at level 5 (European Commission and 
Cedefop (2018). This short-cycle qualification will 
give access to bachelor (level 6)44. 

On 1 September 2019, this short cycle degree will 
be considered a fully fledged component of higher 
education, to attract pupils who currently do not 
find their way to tertiary education (see the national 
reform programme 2018). Only one type of higher 
VET qualification at level 5 (HBO5) will continue: the 
post-secondary programme for nurses at FQF/EQF 
level 5.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The term ‘competence’ plays a significant role 
in Flemish education, training and employment 
policies and is used as an overarching concept. 
Competence and learning outcomes are used as 
interchangeable terms in education and training with 
the exception of higher education.

The FQF is based on an eight-level structure 
described by the categories of knowledge and 
skills, and context, autonomy and responsibility. 
Compared to the EQF, FQF descriptors are more 
detailed, particularly for lower levels. A main feature 
of the Flemish framework is the use of ‘context’ as 
an explicit element of the descriptors. The context in 
which an individual is able to function is seen as an 
important part of any qualification. 

The descriptors are used to describe two main 
categories of qualification; professional and 
educational. A professional qualification is based 
on a set of competences allowing an individual to 
exercise a profession and can be achieved both 
inside and outside education. An educational 
qualification is based on a set of competences an 
individual needs to participate in society, to continue 
education and/or to exercise professional activities. 
An educational qualification can only be acquired 
through participating in an education programme 
and in education institutions recognised by the 
Flemish authorities. Depending on the educational 
level and the form of vocational education, 

43  HBO5 comprises vocationally-oriented training 

programmes organised at FQF/EQF level 5 which do 
not lead to a bachelor or master degree (European 
Commission and Cedefop (2018).
It will, however, be the autonomy of higher education 
institutions to determine whether students of the short-
cycle can receive credit exemptions. 

44 

educational qualifications may consist of one or 
more professional qualifications, final objectives 
and/or specific final objectives45. The distinction 
between professional and educational qualifications 
is applied for all eight levels46 of the framework; 
allowing professional qualifications to be placed 
at high levels in parallel to traditional academic 
qualifications.

Practical implementation of the principles of 
learning outcomes/competences has progressed 
in recent years. The VET sector is probably the 
most experienced in this field. A competence-
based approach is well integrated, referring to 
professional requirements in the labour market. 
The use of competences in initial VET has been 
inspired by Dutch developments, particularly the 
upper secondary vocational education (‘middelbaar 
beroepsonderwijs’) reform. Learning outcomes are 
also present in general education, for example by 
the setting of learning objectives/the attainment 
targets in national core curricula. 

A public debate 47 on the attainment targets/learning 
outcomes for secondary education, including 
vocationally oriented secondary education (initial 
VET), took place between February and June 2016. 
Following the advice of the Council of State, the 
Flemish Government adopted on 2 February 2018 
a decree48 on altering the secondary education 
structure and the renewal of learning outcomes for 
compulsory education49. The decree stipulates 16 
‘key competences’50, based on the results of the 
public debate. All these key competences need to 
be considered as broad thematic domains, which 

45  www.ond.vlaanderen.be/kwalificatiestructuur/links-en-
publicaties/bijlagen/Brochure-Developed_Approved_
Implemented-(En)-12-2012.pdf 

46  There are currently no professional qualifications at levels 

1 and 8.

47  This debate involved around 40 000 participants, 

half of which were young learners. The 2006 EU key-
competences framework served as one of the reference 
documents. More information can be found at: www.
onsonderwijs.be/

48  More information can be found at: https://eacea.

ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/national-
reforms-school-education-3_en#2017_Modernisation_of_
secondary_education_legislative_process

49  Compulsory education lasts for a maximum of 12 school 

years, up to the age of 18 or as soon as a pupil obtains 
the diploma of secondary education. 

50  The 16 ‘key competences’ relate to: physical and 

mental well-being, Dutch, other languages, digital and 
media literacy, social competences, civic competences, 
historical awareness, spatial awareness, sustainable 
development, economic and financial competences, 
judicial competences, learning and research competences 
(critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, …), self-
consciousness and self-expression, entrepreneurial 
competences, cultural consciousness and expression.

84

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSwill be further operationalised in attainment targets. 
For this reason, development committees have 
been established, comprising representatives of 
education networks, teachers and academics. 

In the first half of 2018, the new attainment targets 
for the first grade of secondary education were 
developed, within the framework of the above 
key competences. They were validated by the 
Flemish Parliament on 5 December 2018. Their 
implementation will start in September 2019. In 
November 2018, development committees started 
the development of the attainment targets for the 
second and third grade of secondary education, 
though only for those tracks preparing for tertiary 
education. Although it has been agreed that more 
attention needs to be given to key competences in 
the vocationally oriented tracks, it is still subject to 
debate which of the presently developed attainment 
targets for the second and third grades will be 
implemented in the vocational tracks as well. 

Developments in higher education have been 
influenced by the Bologna process, but are mainly 
dependent on initiatives taken by single institutions 
or associations of higher education institutes. While 
reflecting a diverse situation, a clear strengthening 
of the learning outcomes principle has taken 
place in Flanders. Learning outcomes that have 
been acquired previously can (after successful 
assessment or validation of them) lead to acquisition 
of the corresponding credits in higher education. 
Credits are referred to in Flanders as ‘study points’, 
while students who successfully complete a 
course or modules are awarded a credit certificate51 
(European Commission et al., forthcoming). At 
levels 6 to 8, the Parliament Act of 200952 states 
that higher education institutions will jointly describe 
the subject-specific learning outcomes for higher 
education courses. The validated descriptions of the 
subject-specific learning outcomes are automatically 
recognised as educational qualifications by the 
Flemish Government and published in the Flemish 
qualifications database (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

In adult education, a working group of 
representatives of education and representatives 
of the Flemish public employment service are 
working together in developing education and 
training programmes. In this way the content of 

51  Students get credits for parts of the learning programme 

for which they were successfully assessed.
52  Flemish Parliament (2009). Decreet betreffende 
de kwalificatiestructuur [Act on the qualification 
structure]. Belgisch Staatsblad, 16.7.2009, p. 49597.
http://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/edulex/document.
aspx?docid=14111 [accessed 18 March 2019].

both types of programme is based on professional 
qualifications standards and the building blocks 
that are part of the programmes are the same or 
compatible. Training programmes outside formal 
education (for example, the public employment 
service, the Flemish Agency for Entrepreneurial 
Training) can be based on professional qualifications 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The Flemish national qualifications framework 
process has involved a broad range of stakeholders 
at all stages53, coordinated by the Ministry of 
Education and Training. Other ministries – Ministry 
of Labour and Social Economy and Ministry of 
Culture, Youth, Sports and Media – have also 
been involved. From the education and training 
side, participation by relevant sectors (general 
education, initial, continuing and higher vocational 
education and training, and higher education) has 
been important. Both the Minister of Education 
and the Minister of Work and Social Economy 
wanted a closer alignment between education 
and training and the labour market. To formalise 
this collaboration, an overarching management 
committee of education, training and work has been 
created to prepare and monitor policy decisions.

The day-to-day running of the FQF has been 
delegated to the Agency for Higher Education, 
Adult Education Qualifications and Study 
Allowances (AHOVOKS, Agentschap voor Hoger 
Onderwijs, Volwassenenonderwijs, Kwalificaties 
en Studietoelagen)54. The agency was appointed as 
EQF national coordination point and is responsible 
for coordinating the process of implementation, 
involving all stakeholders through expert 
committees. 

53 

In the Flemish Community, the Department for Education 
and Training coordinates policy and three executive 
autonomous agencies are responsible for implementation, 
as well as the autonomous Education Inspectorate. 
The three agencies are AgODI, (Agency for Educational 
Services for elementary, secondary, part-time artistic 
education, student guidance centres), AHOVOKS (Agency 
for Higher Education, Adult Education, Qualifications and 
Study Allowances) and AGIOn, (Agency for Educational 
Infrastructure), which is responsible for designing, 
planning, building and renovating school buildings for 
grant-aided public and private schools. Source: www.
oecd.org/education/Education-Policy-Outlook-Country-
Profile-Belgium.pdf 

54  AHOVOKS took over this role from the Agency for Quality 
Assurance in Education and Training (AKOV – Agentschap 
voor Kwaliteitszorg in Onderwijs en Vorming), which has 
been discontinued due to reorganisation of the Flemish 
administration.

85

Volume II: National and regional casesQuality assurance is an important topic on the 
policy agenda in Belgium Flanders. The main body 
overseeing quality assurance for professional 
qualifications, as well as the integrated framework 
for quality assurance for professional qualifications, 
is AHOVOKS55. The development of occupational 
standards is supervised by AHOVOKS, involving 
sectoral representatives of employers and 
employees, VDAB (Flemish public employment 
service), Syntra Vlaanderen (Flemish Agency for 
Entrepreneurship Training), independent experts and 
education and training providers. 

The Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands 
and Flanders (NVAO) ensures the quality of higher 
education in the Netherlands and Flanders by 
assessing and accrediting programmes, as well as 
contributing to improving quality56.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways57

Validation of non-formal and informal learning 
has been well-established on the public policy 
agenda in Belgium. In Flanders, the term EVC 
(‘erkennen van competenties’ (recognition of 
competences)) is used to refer to the validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. Validation is 
used to gain admission to an education and training 
programme, to request exemptions from (parts 
of) the study programme and to obtain a work 
experience certificate58. Validation is a matter of 
policy in different sectors and the arrangements in 
these sectors differ as each Ministry department 
regulates validation within its own sector. Validation 
practices in the different sectors have not changed 
substantially since 2016. The main change has been 
increased cooperation between different validation 
providers (inside as well as outside education) 
and the willingness to create a single integrated 
framework linking validation processes to the FQF. 

55  AHOVOKS has made available a self-assessment 

instrument to help organisations assess the quality 
of their validation procedures. More information can 
be found at: http://erkennenvancompetenties.be/evc-
professionals/evc-toolbox/ [accessed 18 March 2019].

56  NVAO is listed on the European Quality Assurance 

Register (EQAR). More information on NVAO can 
be found at: http://ecahe.eu/w/index.php/NVAO_-_
Accreditation_Organisation_of_the_Netherlands_and_
Flanders [accessed 18 March 2019].

57  This section draws mainly on input from 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

58  Legislation is planned that will make it possible for an 

individual to receive a professional qualification after an 
EVC-procedure.

New developments in quality assurance have 
also taken place. A decree59 approved by the 
Flemish government in February 2019 has the 
aim of strengthening the coherence of validation 
systems. An integrated quality framework has been 
developed in this decree; it will serve as the basis 
for a system of external quality assurance for all 
courses resulting in a professional qualification at 
all levels60. This will ensure that all people following 
professional courses or procedures for recognition 
of prior learning resulting in the same professional 
qualifications titles, also obtain the same set of 
competences after completion of the course or 
procedure.

Readily accessible information and guidance is 
provided in Belgium Flanders, but awareness-
raising efforts will only be increased once the 
new, integrated approach enters into force. All 
information on validation in Flanders is available to 
the public via a dedicated website61.

NQF implementation

The road from adoption to implementation and 
operational status has proved complex for the 
Flemish NQF. The transformation of the 2009 
law into practice was needed: it required the 
introduction of a series of ‘implementation 
decrees’62 as well as clarification of the role of the 
social partners in linking professional qualifications 
to the framework. A qualifications framework for 
higher education linked to the Bologna process was 
developed and put in place (2008)63. 

59  Flemish Government (2019). Besluit van de Vlaamse 

Regering betreffende de uitvoering van het decreet van 
(datum) betreffende een geïntegreerd beleid voor de 
erkenning van verworven competenties [Decision of the 
Flemish Government concerning the implementation 
of the decree of (date) concerning an integrated policy 
for the recognition of acquired competences]. www.
vlaanderen.be/nl/nbwa-news-message-document/
document/090135578027091c
Flemish Government (2019). Ontwerp van besluit 
betreffende de uitvoering van het decreet betreffende 
een geïntegreerd beleid voor de erkenning van verworven 
competenties (EVC) [Draft decision on the implementation 
of the decree concerning an integrated policy for the 
recognition of acquired competences (EVC)]. www.
vlaanderen.be/nl/nbwa-news-message-document/
document/090135578027091b

60  This decree covers professional qualifications at levels 
1–4 as well as professional qualifications at levels 5–8 
obtained outside higher education. 

61  EVC – erkennen van competenties: www.

erkennenvancompetenties.be/ [accessed December 
2016].

62  For an overview over legal initiatives between 2009 and 

2017, see: http://data-onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/edulex/#
63  The relationship between the two framework initiatives 

was discussed throughout the development process and 

86

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
The FQF distinguishes between ‘professional 
qualifications’ and ‘educational qualifications’. By 
February 2019, a total of 384 professional and 252 
educational qualifications (mostly bachelor and master 
degrees) were formally included in the FQF and 
published in the Flemish qualifications database64, 
indicating the NQF/EQF level65. Educational 
qualifications at levels 1 to 4 are still under revision 
and have not been included in the database. It is also 
worth noting that professional qualifications cover 
a wide span, currently covering levels 2 to 7 (384 
professional qualifications (‘Beroepskwalificatie’)66. 
This demonstrates the increasingly important role of 
the framework in making this part of the qualification 
landscape more visible. 

Flemish professional qualifications are developed 
within a tripartite system, giving the social 
partners, in the context of the Social and Economic 
Committee (SERV), a decisive role. All professional 
qualifications build on professional competence 
profiles67 defined and approved by the social 
partners: a professional qualification has to reflect 
the competences of the profile and no single 
professional qualification description can be 
approved without social partner input and approval. 
While time-consuming and challenging, the 
inclusion of professional qualifications into the FQF 
can be deemed a success as it demonstrates that 
stakeholders are fully involved and responsible for 
implementing the framework. 

So far, the FQF’s communication efforts have been 
primarily oriented towards partners at macro and 
meso level (representatives of other policy domains, 
social partners, sectoral organisations, education 
institutions, learners). Dissemination of information 
about the NQF is carried out via the NQF website68, 
brochures with technical information69 and seminars, 
meetings with sectoral organisations. The guidance 

the 2009 act takes this into account in its terminology, 
framework descriptors and procedures. 
64  Flemish qualifications database: https://
app.akov.be/pls/pakov/f?p=VLAAMSE_
KWALIFICATIESTRUCTUUR:KWALIFICATIEDATABANK 

65  This applies for higher education qualifications; for 
professional qualifications only the NQF level is 
mentioned. 

66  There are 42 professional qualifications at level 2, 108 at 
level 3, 135 at level 4, 78 at level 5, 15 at level 6, and 6 at 
level 7. Source: Flemish qualifications database.
67  Occupational competence profiles had been defined 

using the Competent database created by the SERV. The 
database itself built on the French operational directory of 
professions and jobs (Répertoire opérationnel des métiers 
et des emplois – ROME), which was adapted to the 
Flemish labour market (Cedefop, forthcoming).
68  Flemish qualifications framework website: http://

vlaamsekwalificatiestructuur.be/en/ 

69  http://vlaamsekwalificatiestructuur.be/wat-is-vks/meer-info-

en-downloads/

and counselling practitioners of the Flemish public 
employment service (VDAB) and the stakeholders 
that develop professional qualifications use the 
same reference framework (the Competent 
database)70. The Flemish public employment service 
is also involved in meetings about policy decisions 
on qualifications71. Until reform of secondary 
education is implemented, the FQF will not be well 
known by guidance and counselling practitioners 
working in schools (European Commission and 
Cedefop (2018)).

In the new legislation on secondary education, it is 
stated that FQF/EQF levels have to be mentioned 
on certificates and diplomas, only for the initial VET 
apprenticeship system, ‘duaal leren’72). The FQF/EQF 
levels are not included on Europass supplements for 
professional and educational qualifications and there 
is no intention to include them in the near future.

An evaluation of the framework has not yet been 
made.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The FQF was referenced to the EQF in June 2011, 
and an updated report was submitted in March 2014. 
A qualifications framework for higher education 
linked to the Bologna process was put in place in 
2008 and self-certified to the QF-EHEA in 2009.

Important lessons and future plans

The NQF is considered operational. A qualifications 
database has been established and a large number 

70  The Competent database can be accessed at: http://
production.competent.be/competent-nl/main.html

71  The VDAB organises numerous practically-oriented 

vocational training programmes in almost all vocational 
and attitudinal (work related behaviour, adaptation to 
the work situation, career and job-orientation courses) 
fields and also offers Dutch-as-a-second-language and 
ICT courses. These courses are offered in a flexible 
and individually tailored way (timetable, methods, 
place, module scheduled). When there is a professional 
qualification available that corresponds with a vocational 
training programme, the VDAB updates the content of the 
training programme so that it is completely in line with the 
competences of the professional qualification (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

72  See Article 33 of the decision: Flemish Government 
(2018). Besluit van de Vlaamse Regering houdende 
uitvoeringsmaatregelen betreffende het duaal leren en 
de aanloopfase en diverse andere maatregelen [Decision 
of the Flemish Government concerning implementing 
measures concerning dual learning and the start-up 
phase and various other measures]. Belgisch Staatsblad, 
p. 79631, 19 October 2018. https://data-onderwijs.
vlaanderen.be/edulex/document.aspx?docid=15263

87

Volume II: National and regional casesof qualifications have been already included 
(mostly professional qualifications and educational 
qualifications from higher education (bachelor and 
master degrees)). Educational qualifications at levels 
1 to 4 are being revised and are not yet included: 
the framework plays a role in the continuous 
review and renewal of qualifications. Stakeholders 
consider implementation of the FQF for professional 
qualifications to be successful (European 
Commission and Cedefop (2018)). 

Future FQF plans include updating and reviewing 
more qualifications and including them in the 
register and framework. 

An integrated quality assurance system for 
professional qualifications, when complete, will 

further strengthen the role of the framework in 
building trust in professional qualifications and 
acquired competences, independent of the way 
they were obtained.

The key challenges for FQF implementation 
in the coming period are related to alignment 
between social partners and education and training 
providers, who can have a different view on the 
use of qualifications in education and training 
programmes. Discussion is continuing with formal 
providers of secondary education on the way to 
integrate professional qualifications into educational 
qualifications in secondary vocation and technical 
education (European Commission and Cedefop 
(2018)).

Table 6. Qualifications framework of the Flemish Community of Belgium (FQF)

NQF 
LEVELS

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

Doctoral degree 
(Universiteit – Doctor)

Academic master degree  
(Universiteit – Master)
Advanced master programmes 
(master na master – manama)

Academic bachelor degree  
(Universiteit – Bachelor)
Professional bachelor degree  
(Hogeschool – Bachelor)
Advanced bachelor programme 
(bachelor na bachelor – banaba)

Higher vocational education 5 
(Hoger Beroepsonderwijs 5)

8

7

6

5

Examples:
Librarian/information manager  
(Bibliothecaris/Informatiemanager)
Physiotherapist 
(Kinesitherapeut)
Archivist/information manager 
(Archivaris/informatiebeheerder)

Examples:
Dietitian 
(Diëtist)
Dental technologist 
(Dentaaltechnoloog)
Textile designer 
(Textielontwerper)

Examples:
Archive expert 
(Archiefdeskundige)
Coordinator-advisor of decorative 
painting 
(Coördinator-adviseur decoratieve 
schilderwerken)
Police inspector 
(Inspecteur Politie)

88

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 6. Qualifications framework of the Flemish Community of Belgium (FQF) (Continued)

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

EQF 
LEVELS

4

NQF 
LEVELS

4

3

2

1

Upper secondary general education school 
leaving certificate  
(Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs – ASO)
Upper secondary technical education 
school leaving certificate 
(Technisch Secundair Onderwijs – TSO)
Upper secondary artistic education leaving 
certificate  
(Kunstsecundair Onderwijs – KSO)
Secondary-after-secondary education 
certificate  
(Secundair na Secundair – SenSe) in upper 
secondary technical education (TSO)
Certificate of a specialisation year (7th year) 
in upper secondary vocational education 
(BSO)

Upper secondary vocational  
education certificate  
(Beroepssecundair Onderwijs – BSO)

Adult basic education
Lower secondary education – first stage of 
secondary education 
Pre-vocational education

Certificate of elementary education 
(6 years) 

Examples:
Barman 
(barman)
Electrician 
(Elektromecanicien)
Commercial assistant 
(Commercieel assistant)
Pastry chef 
(Banketbakker)

Examples:
Construction welder 
(Constructielasser)
Florist assistant 
(Assistent florist) 
Driver in the fuel service 
(Chauffeur in de brandstoffenhandel)

Examples:
Animal production assistant  
(Assistent dierlijke productie)
Room service employee 
(Medewerker kamerdienst) 
Bakery employee 
(Medewerker bakkerij)

3

2

1

Source: Adapted from AKOV, 2014. Flemish qualification database: https://app.akov.be/pls/pakov/f?p=VLAAMSE_
KWALIFICATIESTRUCTUUR:KWALIFICATIEDATABANK [accessed 1 February 2018].

Abbreviations
AHOVOKS  Agentschap voor Hoger Onderwijs, 

Volwassenenonderwijs, Kwalificaties 
en Studietoelagen (Agency for 
Higher Education, Adult Education, 
Qualifications and Study Allowances)
Agentschap voor Kwaliteitszorg in 
Onderwijs en Vorming (Agency for 
Quality Assurance in Education and 
Training)
European qualifications framework 

AKOV 

EQF 

FQF 

HBO5 

NQF 
NVAO 

Flemish qualifications framework 
(Vlaamse qualificatiestructuur)
hoger beroepsonderwijs (Higher 
vocational education 5)
national qualifications framework
De Nederlands-Vlaamse 
Accreditatieorganisatie (Accreditation 
Organisation of the Netherlands and 
Flanders)

QF-EHEA  European higher education area
Social and Economic Committee
SERV 
vocational education and training
VET 

89

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Flemish qualifications framework website: http://vlaamsekwalificatiestructuur.be/en/
Flemish qualifications database: https://app.akov.be/pls/pakov/f?p=VLAAMSE_KWALIFICATIESTRUCT 

UUR:KWALIFICATIEDATABANK

AHOVOKS (Agency for Higher Education, Adult Education, Qualifications and Study Allowances) –  

acts as EQF national coordination point: https://onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/nl/agentschap-voor-hoger-
onderwijs-volwassenenonderwijs-kwalificaties-en-studietoelagen-ahovoks

AKOV (Agency for quality assurance in education and training) (2014). Referencing of the Flemish 

qualifications framework to the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/
referencing-reports-and-contacts

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–19: Belgium. 

Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies (forthcoming). 

Cedefop (forthcoming). Spotlight on vocational education and training: 2018 compilation. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. 

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Belgium. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-
2018-belgium_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Belgium (BE-Fl).

Government of Flanders; AKOV (2011). Referencing the Flemish qualifications framework to the European 

qualification framework.  www.ond.vlaanderen.be/kwalificatiestructuur/european-qualifications-
framework/koppelingsrapport-vks-eqf/files/Koppelingsrapport_EN_2014-FINAAL.pdf
Government of Flanders; AKOV (2014). Referencing of the Flemish qualifications framework to the 

European qualifications framework: update of the referencing report of July 2011. https://ec.europa.
eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts

OECD (2017). Education policy outlook: Belgium. www.oecd.org/education/Education-Policy-Outlook-

Country-Profile-Belgium.pdf

Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (2009). Self-certification of the Dutch and Flemish national 
qualifications frameworks for higher education vis-à-vis the overarching framework for qualifications 
of the European higher education area: report of the Verification Committee on Flanders (2 February 
2009). www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/Qualifications_frameworks/78/8/NQF_Flemish_National_
Qualifications_Framework_596788.pdf

Vlaams Hervormingsprogramma/VHP (2018). Programme national de réforme 2018 [National reform 
programme 2018]. www.be2020.eu/uploaded/files/201805041043430.NRP_2018_Belgium.pdf

90

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFrench Community  
of Belgium

The framework was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) in December 2013. 
Self-certification to the qualifications framework 
of the European higher education area is work in 
progress.

Introduction and context

The French Community of Belgium has been 
working on a national qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning (Cadre francophone des 
certifications pour l’apprentissage tout au long 
de la vie (CFC)) since 2006. Three distinct political 
authorities73 are involved in the work:

a.  the French Community (the inhabitants of the 

French-speaking area of the Walloon Region and 
the French-speaking inhabitants of Brussels); 
Walloon-Brussels Federation (Fédération 
Wallonie-Bruxelles);
b.  the Walloon Region;
c.  the COCOF (Commission communautaire 

Policy objectives

The development of the CFC has been seen as 
an integral part of the evolution of the existing 
education and training system, for the purposes of 
improving overall transparency and collaboration, 
aiding mobility and supporting individual learning 
pathways for citizens. The 2015 decree on the CFC 
refers to the following key objectives:

a.  facilitate learning continuity and progression;
b.  build bridges between different parts of the 

education and training system;

c.  strengthen relationship between initial and 

continuing education and training;

française de la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale).

d.  support validation of non-formal and informal 

The current framework dates back to 2010 when 
the three governments of the French Community 
agreed on the principle of creating a qualifications 
framework with double entry, one for educational 
qualifications and one for professional qualifications, 
placed into eight levels and consistent with 
the descriptors of the European qualifications 
framework. The proposed framework structure is 
close to that applied by the Flemish Community of 
Belgium. All major stakeholders agreed in mid-2011 
on these main principles of the framework. The CFC 
was formally adopted in 2015, through a decree 
operationalising the agreement between the three 
francophone governments74. The follow-up to the 
decree, particularly the inclusion of qualifications 
into the framework, has been slower than originally 
anticipated and the CFC has not yet reached full 
operational status. 

73  Responsibility for compulsory, adult and higher education 
lies with the French Community, whereas the Walloon 
Region and the COCOF are responsible for continuous 
vocational training in their respective areas. 

74  Ministère de la Communauté française (2015). Décret 

portant assentiment à l’accord de coopération conclu le 
26 février 2015 entre la Communauté française, la Région 
wallonne et la Commission communautaire française 
relatif à la création et la gestion d’un Cadre francophone 
des certifications, en abrégé «CFC» [Decree of 15 May 
2015 approving the cooperation agreement concluded on 
26 February 2015 between the French Community, the 
Walloon region and the French Community Commission 
on the creation and management of the francophone 
qualifications framework, abbreviated as CFC]. Moniteur 
belge, No 145, p. 32947, 9.6.2015. http://archive.pfwb.
be/10000000201500e

learning;

e.  increase transparency and facilitate comparison 

across regional and national borders.

New objectives of the framework are (Fédération 
Wallonie-Bruxelles; Wallonie; COCOF, 2018):

a.  facilitate the employment of citizens and 

recruitment for employers; 

b.  promote equal opportunities for citizens; 
c.  facilitate assessment of competences.

While the CFC is seen as an instrument for 
strengthening the use of learning outcomes and for 
referencing to the EQF, the framework will not have 
a regulatory role and it is not seen as an instrument 
for reform of existing institutions and structures. 
According to the activity report of the CFC 
conducted by the EQF national coordination point 
(May 2016 to June 2018)75, the framework is a tool 
that can play an important role in citizens’ education, 
training and career pathways. It is also not seen as a 
control device for the validation of qualifications but 
rather a support instrument aiming at the continuous 
improvement of qualifications (Fédération Wallonie-
Bruxelles and Wallonie COCOF, 2018).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The referencing report (Fédération Wallonie-
Bruxelles; Wallonie; COCOF, 2013) shows that 

75  This report will be published on the CFC website and will 
be available on request in the future (Fédération Wallonie-
Bruxelles and Wallonie COCOF, 2018). www.cfc.cfwb.be/

91

Volume II: National and regional casesthe CFC is based on learning outcomes and that 
this approach has given rise to arrangements 
for validation and credit transfer. An eight-level 
structure has been adopted, using two blocks of 
terms: knowledge/skills and context/ autonomy/ 
responsibility76.The descriptors developed by the 
Flemish qualifications framework have been used as 
a basis but adjusted according to the conditions of 
the community. 

A competence-based approach is well established 
in compulsory education and training. Learning 
outcomes are described in terms of ‘socles de 
compétences’ and ‘compétences terminales’. For 
adult education (including higher education short 
cycles, bachelor and master degrees) the term used 
is ‘capacités terminales’. A team has been appointed 
within the Ministry of Education to coordinate the 
‘cross-diagnostics of schools, training centres and 
validation of skills providers’77. Among the items 
under revision is the evaluation of the learning 
outcomes, the material resources, the monitoring of 
quality in the assessment of learning outcomes and 
of the staff who carry out this process (Cedefop, 
forthcoming).

In vocational education and training, work is 
continuing to define and describe qualifications in 
terms of learning outcomes, to meet the need for 
shared reference systems for vocational education 
and training (VET). Since 2010, regional providers of 
continuous VET (CVET) have developed a common 
certification procedure (‘reconnaissance des 
acquis de formation’ (recognition of prior learning)) 
based on common qualifications and assessment 
standards, with a competence-based approach. 
The French service for trades and qualifications 
(Service francophone des métiers et qualifications 
(SFMQ)) is playing an important role for learning 
outcomes, both for initial VET (IVET)) and for CVET. 
The descriptions of qualifications are based on 
the occupational profiles (occupational standards) 
defined by the social partners. Common training 
profiles, in line with the reality of trades to ensure 
the labour market relevance of training, are then 
defined by providers. It is expected that use of 
these profiles by all training providers (IVET and 
CVET) will support learner mobility by ensuring 
that prior learning is taken into account; it will also 
increase education and training system transparency 
and improve validation opportunities (Cedefop, 
forthcoming). These profiles are described in units 

76  More information: www.cfc.cfwb.be/cfc/
77  A team of ‘diagnosticians’ from education, training 

or validation of skills evaluate jointly the assessment 
processes of VET providers. This is an external evaluation 
in accordance with the reference framework set by 
EQAVET (Cedefop, forthcoming).

of learning outcomes compatible with the European 
credit system for VET (ECVET) specifications. 
Progress has also been made in the pilot 
implementation of certification by units (‘certification 
par unités’ – CPU) in formal IVET programmes. As 
of September 2017, CPU was put in place for three 
optional subjects in post-secondary education78. 
The aim is to organise the three years of VET in the 
form of learning outcomes units. A 2018 circular79 
foresees expansion to additional subjects as of 
September 2018. Schools that intend to introduce 
the CPU in other subjects can request authorisation 
from the cabinet of the Minister for Education. 
The experimentation and developments are carried 
out in the framework of the Pact for excellence in 
education80, which is a 2015 action plan that has 
paved the way for improving accessibility of all to 
VET and qualifications (Cedefop, forthcoming). 

Although higher education institutions are 
autonomous in designing their curriculum, they 
are required to align their school programme in 
accordance with the ‘compétences communes’ 
developed by ARES (Académie de recherche et 
d’enseignement supérieur). A guide has been 
produced to help higher education institutions 
define their learning outcomes to fit into common 
competence reference systems. There is little 
information on the extent of use of learning 
outcomes, apart from in the university colleges. 
Here, the new competences reference systems are 
gradually being implemented (Cedefop, 2016).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The Ministry of the French Community regulates 
formal education in collaboration with school boards. 
The Walloon and Brussels Regions are in charge 
of vocational training and employment, and four 
regional public training services regulate vocational 
training provisions. This sharing of competences 
requires close and regular intergovernmental 
cooperation, with formal and non-formal 
agreements, to ensure the consistency of the 
system.

78  Graduates have direct access to tertiary education and 

can upgrade their VET qualification by following one-year 
technical follow-up programmes (called seventh year) at 
post-secondary level (Cedefop, forthcoming).

79  Circular 6475 of 2 January 2018.
80  Preparation of the Pact for excellence in education – an 

action plan to reform education – started in January 2015. 
The pact aims to improve education quality and reduce 
inequalities (between schools, students and genders) in 
the Wallonia-Brussels Federation. It focuses on four main 
aspects: students, education players, learning content, 
and governance (Cedefop, forthcoming).

92

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe three executive bodies of French-
speaking Belgium (the French Community, the 
Walloon Region and COCOF) initiated the CFC 
development and established an expert group 
to do the preparatory work. This group includes 
representatives from all levels of education and 
regional bodies for vocational training. After 
2010, a new steering group was set up, including 
stakeholders from general education (at all 
levels and of all types, including universities) and 
vocational/professional education and training 
(including social partners). With the adoption of 
the 2015 decree, operationalising the agreement 
between the three francophone governments81, 
responsibilities and implementation processes for 
the framework have been established. The decree 
establishes the CFC Forum (Instance CFC) as a 
steering and coordinating authority, composed of 
various bodies (Decree of 15 May 2015): 

a.  the Executive Committee manages day-to-day 

requests for allocation of qualifications to levels, 
the evaluation of the CFC and the updating of 
the qualifications register;

b.  the Management Committee assigns a level 
to the qualifications submitted by education 
and training operators. The organisation of the 
Management Committee is governed by internal 
regulations;

c.  the Committee of Experts provides its opinion on 
current and future decisions by the Management 
Committee, along with useful information on the 
functioning of the system and evaluation of its 
implementation;

d.  the Board of Appeal deals with appeals on the 

allocation of levels to qualifications82.

During its first two years of operation, the Executive 
Committee has created a common working culture 
and an environment of trust around its main task 
of managing positioning requests. As the only 
public service body in French-speaking Belgium that 
involves representatives of all public VET operators, 
the Management Committee also contributes to the 
establishment of dialogue with the parties involved. 
The Committee of Experts met for the first time 
in March 2018. Its membership was extended to 
the Skills validation consortium (Consortium de 
validation des compétences)83, the social partners, 

81  Ministère de la Communauté française (2015).
82  For more information on the composition of the 

Management Board, the Committee of Experts and the 
Board of Appeal, please consult the Government Order of 
the French Community (February 2017) appointing these 
members. The order can be found at: www.gallilex.cfwb.
be/document/pdf/43594_000.pdf

83  The skills validation consortium (Consortium de 

validation des compétences), which was created by 
the cooperation agreement of 24 July 2003, groups 

and the services of the Inspectorate of Education84. 
This reflects the importance attached to consulting 
all CFC stakeholders (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; 
Wallonie; COCOF, 2013). 

The division of the framework into two main strands –  
educational and professional qualifications – has 
implications for stakeholder involvement. The French 
service for trades and qualifications (SFMQ) plays 
a key role in defining and positioning professional 
qualifications at levels 1 to 4. It is well placed to play 
this role as its overall task is to develop occupational 
profiles based on the inputs from the social partners 
and in collaboration with employment services. Its 
role is also to develop training profiles for these 
occupational profiles, in liaison with education 
and training providers. ARES, the Academy of 
Research and Higher Education will be responsible 
for defining and positioning educational higher 
education qualifications at levels 6 to 8. This 
procedure is still in process. ARES and the SFMQ 
will share responsibility for qualifications at level 5, 
reflecting the extensive ‘mix’ of professional and 
educational qualifications at this level.

The quality assurance system in French-speaking 
Belgium involves an external and formative 
assessment approach for higher education 
programmes, implemented by the Agency for 
Quality Assessment in Higher Education (AEQES)85. 
In addition, a legal assessment and inspection 
procedure is implemented by the General 
Inspectorate for basic, secondary, special and social 
promotion education in particular. This approach 
is also used by the IFAPME/SFPME through the 
Training Directorate whose role is to inspect training 
centres. Since there are different quality assurance 
systems, it is necessary to develop a common 

together five education and vocational training operators 
(Enseignement de promotion sociale (Education for Social 
Promotion), the Forem, Bruxelles Formation, the IFAPME 
and the SFPME) whose aim is to award qualifications 
by the validation of prior learning on behalf of the three 
executives of the Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles, Wallonia 
and the COCOF (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles and 
Wallonie COCOF, 2013).

84  Since the 2007 decree, the Inspectorate has been 

reorganised and now represents a major element of the 
education system in terms of quality. The Inspectorate 
is competent for primary and secondary education as 
well as for the education for social promotion and the 
arts higher education. The higher education for social 
promotion and the arts higher education are thus subject 
to two quality assurance systems: the AEQES and the 
Inspectorate (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles and Wallonie 
COCOF, 2013).

85  The AEQES is an independent public service and a 

full member of the European Association for Quality 
Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) network, and is 
included in the European Quality Assurance Register for 
higher education.

93

Volume II: National and regional casesinternal structure to bridge those systems and 
promote convergence/harmonisation of the quality 
assurance systems (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; 
Wallonie; COCOF, 2013).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways86

In French-speaking Belgium, the system for 
validating non-formal and informal learning has 
undergone important developments since the 
early 2000s. It is the result of initiatives supported 
nationally and is framed by important pieces of 
legislation. Validation of non-formal and informal 
learning was first developed in adult education 
(Education for social promotion (‘enseignement de 
promotion sociale’)) in 1991, followed in 2003 by the 
continuous vocational education and training (CVET) 
sector, with a focus on individuals with no formal 
qualifications. Recent policy strategies87 confirm that 
validating non-formal and informal learning is now a 
key element of employment and education policies.

Recognition and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning is embedded in the NQF decree, 
which makes facilitation of validation of non-
formal and informal learning as part of the NQF’s 
objectives. It defines ‘certification’ as the formal 
result of an evaluation and validation carried out by a 
competent authority, establishing that an individual 
possesses the learning outcomes corresponding 
to determined standards, ether at the end of an 
education or training pathway or following validation 
of his/her competences.

There are now two types of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning in Belgium: the validation of 
competences (‘validation des compétences’) in the 
CVET sector, leading to the award of a recognised 
skills certificate (‘titre de compétence’) following 
an assessment procedure; and the valorisation 
of prior experience (‘validation des acquis de 
l’expérience’ (VAE)) in adult education and higher 
education, leading to the validation of learning 
units or exemptions from certain parts of a study 
pathway. It is important to make the distinction 
between the concepts of ‘valorisation’ – to enhance 

86  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

87  •   Plan Marshall 4.0 (2015): http://planmarshall.wallonie.be/
•   Strategy for the Walloon Region 2014-19 (Déclaration 

de politique régionale 2014–19): www.wallonie.be/sites/
wallonie/files/publications/dpr_2014-2019.pdf

•   Strategy 2025 for Brussels: https://strategie2025.

brussels/ 

and get credit for prior experience with a view to 
obtaining access to formal education and training – 
and ‘validation’, which gives access to a recognised 
title or qualification. Although the standards used 
for validation for the latter are the same as in 
the formal system, skills certificates awarded 
through validation are not equivalent to formal VET 
qualifications. They can be used to access further 
training courses and can be combined to obtain a 
qualification in the adult education sector which may 
be included in the NQF. 

The most significant developments recently have 
been in adult education, where a new decree88, 
adopted in 2017 and published in January 2018, 
promotes a unified approach to admission, 
exemption and certification of formal, non-
formal and informal prior learning. It also seeks 
coordination between providers of education 
for social promotion, further development of 
validation procedures, transparency, clear routes 
and further transferability of certificates, as well as 
close cooperation with the CVET sector. In higher 
education, with a new regulatory framework in 
place since 2014 (Decree on the organisation of 
higher education), VAE has a stronger institutional 
basis and is used to grant admission to education 
pathways (all cycles of higher education) or 
exemptions. At secondary level (vocational or non-
vocational), VAE is used to grant admission into 
education pathways or exemptions, but it can also 
lead to the issuing of a certificate of achievement 
(‘attestation de réussite’) when the student passes 
the integrated final test (‘épreuve intégrée’). 
Challenges still need to be addressed, particularly 
in terms of widening the profile of VAE users and 
reaching out to disadvantaged communities such 
as migrants and refugees. While awareness of the 
value of validation procedures for the labour market 
has been increasing, additional investment and 
strategies in visibility efforts are to be put in place. 
However, the scheme today is generally considered 
effective and robust. 

NQF implementation

The CFC reflects the federal structure of the country 
and coexists with the qualifications frameworks of 
the Flemish and German-speaking Communities. 
Introducing the distinction between educational 
and professional qualifications was instrumental in 

88  Gouvernement de la Communauté française (2018). 

Arrêté du gouvernement de la Communauté française 
fixant les modalités de valorisation des acquis pour 
l’admission, la dispense et la sanction dans une ou des 
unités d’enseignement de promotion sociale. Moniteur 
belge, No 13, pp. 3407–3416, 18.1.2018. 

94

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
bringing the NQF process forward. This distinction 
made it possible to open up for professional 
qualifications at higher levels without questioning 
the autonomy of universities and their responsibility 
in relation to bachelor, master and doctorate awards. 
Using one set of level descriptors for all levels and 
both types of qualification has been accepted by the 
different stakeholders and will, in the longer term, 
make it possible to look more carefully into how 
these two strands can interact with each other. 

While the legal adoption of the CFC in 2015 was 
important, delays in appointing an executive staff 
has slowed down overall progress, particularly 
for inclusion of qualifications in the framework. 
This means that the CFC has not yet reached 
full operational status. However, in 2016 the CFC 
Forum was established and the first inclusions of 
qualifications started in 2017. 

A national database of qualifications has been set 
up89. To date, 50 qualifications have been included 
in the register individually at levels 2, 3, 4 and 
5. These are vocational and secondary general 
education qualifications and qualifications awarded 
through validation (see above). It is possible to 
position qualifications for a period of two years 
under a transitional procedure, after which a new 
application will have to be submitted for final 
allocation of level. The need for this progressive 
approach comes from the differences between the 
systems of the competent authorities, which imply 
agreements for criteria shared by all providers. The 
positioning phase has started (with the inclusion of 
50 qualifications), aiming to reach a critical mass of 
qualifications (general secondary education, higher 
education and almost all VET qualifications) needed 
for the different parties to use the framework 
(Cedefop, forthcoming).

One of the main objectives of the CFC Forum is to 
indicate the NQF/EQF level on all qualifications, so 
it has asked all the public services and ministries to 
include the levels on qualifications documents. Adult 
education providers responded positively, while 
general education and higher education responded 
negatively. VET operators have not responded but 
are moving towards an indication of the level to all 
qualifications documents (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). CFC/EQF levels are also 

displayed on Europass certificate and diploma 
supplements90.

The main challenges in implementing the CFC have 
been to include a large number of qualifications 
in the framework to enhance comparability and 
disseminate the benefits of the framework to 
citizens and beneficiary institutions (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). However, the 
competent authorities have no obligation to file an 
application for positioning qualifications. Another 
reason for the lack of inclusion of more qualifications 
is that such qualifications might not fully meet 
the prerequisites for inclusion. In order to address 
this issue, the EQF national coordination point has 
held three meetings presenting recommendations 
on the systems of the competent authorities 
and procedures of external quality agencies or 
mechanisms (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; 
Wallonie; COCOF, 2018).

The EQF national coordination point is planning 
to disseminate information about the framework 
using its website, video clips, brochures and 
guidance documents. The target groups that will be 
prioritised will be employers, guidance counsellors 
of education and training providers, employment 
counsellors of public employment services, 
teachers, trainers, trade union representatives and 
human resources managers; these will be able to 
disseminate the benefits of the framework to the 
end-users. 

The communication plan second stage will have 
more specific objectives such as targeting the 
general public, as the framework is currently less 
known among labour market actors at regional and 
local level. To date there has been no evaluation 
study on the different aspects of the framework 
and its impact (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018).

Referencing to regional frameworks

The CFC levels were referenced to the EQF levels 
in 2013 (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; Wallonie; 
COCOF, 2018). An updated referencing report is 
foreseen for 2020.

89  Registre des certifications: www.cfc.cfwb.be/cfc/

certifications/. It is linked to the Learning opportunities 
and qualifications in Europe portal (LOQ portal).

90  See Europass certificate and diploma supplements. 

95

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 7. Qualifications framework of the French Community of Belgium (CFC)

CFC 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATIONS 

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Skills certificate for adult education  
(Certificat de compétences acquises en formation de formateur(trice) 
professionnel(le) d’adultes)

Professional degree (for business manager)  
(Diplôme de chef d’entreprise agent(e) commercial(e))

Professional degree (for police inspectors)  
(Diplôme de formation de base d’aspirant(e) inspecteur(trice) de police)

Upper secondary technical education certificate (*) 
(Certificat de qualification de technicien)

Certificate of apprenticeship offered by regional providers (**) 
(Certificat d’apprentissage)

Skills certificate (***) 
(Certificat de compétences)

Upper secondary vocational or artistic education leaving certificate (****) 
(Certificat de compétences acquises en formation)

Lower secondary education – Technical performance assistant  
(Auxiliaire technique de spectacle)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(*) 

For example: certificat de qualification de technicien(ne) chimiste; certificat de qualification de technicien(ne) en 
décoration et aménagement d’espaces.
For example: certificat d’apprentissage d’infographiste; certificat d’apprentissage d’opticien(ne) lunetier(ière).
(**) 
(***)  For example: certificat de compétences acquises en formation d’agent(e) en comptabilité; certificat de compétences 

acquises en formation d’aide-comptable.

(****)  For example: certificat de compétences acquises en formation de coffreur(euse) ferrailleur(euse).

Source: Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles and Wallonie COCOF (2018). www.cfc.cfwb.be/cfc/certifications/

Important lessons and future plans

While formal adoption is important, moving towards 
operational status requires that practical follow up 
and implementation takes place as required. 

this structure can be used to open up for future 
developments of professional qualifications at 
higher levels and for establishing stronger links 
between educational and professional sectors 
remains to be seen. 

The development of the CFC also demonstrates 
the importance of finding a workable link between 
higher education and the other forms of education 
and training. Distinguishing between educational 
and professional qualifications at all levels has 
been instrumental in making progress. Whether 

One of the key challenges is the need to have a 
high percentage of qualifications from all types of 
providers included and levelled so that the CFC can 
guarantee their comparability in French-speaking 
Belgium. 

96

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
AEQES 

Agence pour l’évaluation de la qualité 
dans l’enseignement supérieur 
[Agency for Quality Assessment in 
Higher Education]
Académie de Recherche et 
d’Enseignement supérieur (Academy 
of Research and Higher Education)
Cadre francophone des certifications 
pour l’apprentissage tout au long de 
la vie (French-speaking qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning)
Commission communautaire 
française de la Région de Bruxelles-
Capitale (French Community 
commission in the Brussels-capital 
Region)
certification par unités (certification 
per units)
continuous vocational education and 
training
European qualifications framework
Service public wallon de l’emploi 
et de la formation professionnelle 

ARES 

CFC 

COCOF 

CPU  

CVET  

EQF  
Forem  

(Walloon regional office for 
employment and vocational training)
Institut de formation en alternance 
des petites et moyennes entreprises 
(SME work/study training institute)
Institut de formation permanente pour 
les classes moyennes et les petites 
et moyennes entreprises (training 
institute for SMEs, Community 
institution preceding the IFAPME and 
the SFPME)
initial vocational education and 
training
national qualifications framework
Service Formation des Petites et 
Moyennes Entreprises [Training 
service for SMEs]
Service francophone des métiers 
et qualifications (French service for 
trades and qualifications)
validation des acquis de l’expérience 
(valorisation of prior experience)
vocational education and training

IFAPME 

IFPME  

IVET 

NQF  
SFPME  

SFMQ 

VAE  

VET  

Main sources of information

CFC Forum (Instance CFC) – acts as EQF national coordination point: www.cfc.cfwb.be/
CFC website: www.cfc.cfwb.be/
Registre des certifications: www.cfc.cfwb.be/cfc/certifications/
Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; Wallonie; COCOF (2013). Report on referencing the French-speaking 

qualifications framework for lifelong learning to the European qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series; No 105. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/
publications-and-resources/publications/3074

Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–19: Belgium. 

Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies [forthcoming].

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Belgium. Luxembourg: Publication 

Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-
2018-belgium_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2016: country report: Belgium (BE-FR).

Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; Wallonie; COCOF (2013). Report on referencing the French-speaking 

qualifications framework for lifelong learning to the European qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts

Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles; Wallonie; COCOF (2018). Activity report of the CFC (May 2016–June 2018) 

[unpublished]. 

97

Volume II: National and regional casesMinistère de la Communauté française (2015). Décret portant assentiment à l’accord de coopération 

conclu le 26 février 2015 entre la Communauté française, la Région wallonne et la Commission 
communautaire française relatif à la création et la gestion d’un Cadre francophone des certifications, 
en abrégé «CFC» [Decree of 15 May 2015 approving the cooperation Agreement, concluded on 
26 February 2015 between the French Community, the Walloon region and the French Community 
Commission on the creation and management of the francophone qualifications framework, 
abbreviated as CFC]. Moniteur belge, No 147, p. 32947, 9 June 2015. http://archive.pfwb.
be/10000000201500e

98

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSGerman-speaking 
Community of Belgium

Introduction and context

The German-speaking Community of 
Belgium adopted its qualifications framework 
(Qualifikationsrahmen der Deutschsprachigen 
Gemeinschaft – QDG) on 18 November 201391. 
Being the smallest part of Belgium (geographically 
and in terms of population) the framework 
reflects the work done in the Flemish and French 
Communities but is also inspired by the German 
qualifications framework. The 2013 decision 
envisages that a system of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning will be linked to the QDG. 
The QDG has, so far, not been referenced to the 
European qualifications framework (EQF). 

Policy objectives

A main objective for the framework is to strengthen 
national and international understanding and 
comparability of qualifications. While subject to 
federal laws on education applying in Belgium, 
the geographic location of the region means that 
citizens are likely to cross regional or national 
borders for living and working. This makes it 
a priority to clarify the relationship between 
own qualifications and those awarded in the 
neighbouring countries. The framework also 
promotes equivalence between general and 
vocational education and training92, and the 
strengthening of the learning outcomes principle is 
an important step in increasing transparency and 
strengthening permeability.

terms of two categories of descriptors: subject/
occupation-specific competences, referring to 
knowledge and skills; and personal competences, 
referring to social competence and autonomy 
(Cedefop, 2018) (see below). 

Table 8. Level descriptors of the German-speaking 
Community of Belgium: main categories

ACTION COMPETENCE 
(HANDLUNGSKOMPETENZ)

Subject/occupation-
oriented competence  
(Fachliche Kompetenz) 

Knowledge

Skills

Personal competence 
(Personale Komptenz)

Social 
competence

Autonomy

Source: Ministry of the German-speaking Community of 
Belgium (2013).

In addition to the legally stipulated descriptors, 
the so-called Dublin descriptors also apply to 
qualifications in the higher education sector in the 
German-speaking Community.

The framework is seen as an instrument for 
promoting a learning-outcomes- or competence-
based approach across the different parts of 
education and training in the region. It distinguishes 
between general and vocational qualifications. 
General upper secondary education (Abitur) 
is placed at level 4, with the three cycles of 
bachelor, master and doctor placed at levels 6 to 
8. In vocational education and training, completed 
apprenticeship (dual system) is at level 4. A master 
craftsman with two years of training is placed at 
level 5, one with three years of training at level 6.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

An eight-level, learning-outcomes-based framework 
has been introduced. The framework builds on 
the concept of ‘Handlungskompetenz’ (action 
competence) with qualifications levels defined in 

91  Ministry of the German-speaking Community (2013). 

Dekret zur Einführung eines Qualifikationsrahmens 
der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft [Decree of 
18 November 2013 establishing a qualifications framework 
for the German-speaking Community]. Belgisch 
Staatsblad, p. 12532, 13 February 2014. http://reflex.
raadvst-consetat.be/reflex/pdf/Mbbs/2014/02/13/126688.
pdf 

92  For example, the completion of the general upper 

secondary level and upper secondary technical and arts 
education are both level 4.

The framework has been developed over a relatively 
short time, involving all main education and training 
stakeholders in the German-speaking Community. 
This includes the social partners who normally 
play a key role in an education and training system 
inspired by that of Germany, such as the Institute for 
Education and Training in Small and Medium-sized 
Enterprises (Institut für Aus- und Weiterbildung 
im Mittelstand und in kleinen und mittleren 
Unternehmen – IAWM)93. Scientific cooperation 
has been established with the Flemish Community 

93  www.iawm.be/de/ueberuns/aufgaben.html

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Volume II: National and regional casesand the German Federal Institute for Vocational 
Education and Training (BIBB).

The department of VET and Organisation of 
Education in the Ministry of the Community 
acts as the EQF national coordination point and 
has the task of referencing the QDG to the EQF, 
using transparent methodologies and providing 
all stakeholders, institutions and companies with 
relevant information94.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways95

A strategy for introducing a validation system 
was outlined in 2015. This refers to European 
developments in this area and sees validation as 
an integrated part of an overall, lifelong learning 
strategy for the region. Individuals with no (or 
low) qualifications are seen as a key target group. 
A public launch event on the recognition of 
competences took place in October 2016, with 
stakeholders of the German-speaking Community 
invited to participate in a debate. Subsequently, a 
steering group was set up involving stakeholders 
from formal and non-formal education as well as 
employment and the social partners. Between 
February and November 2017, the steering group 
developed a validation concept with the aim of 
putting concrete arrangements in place by 2018. 
On that basis, application arrangements are being 
developed, jointly financed by the European Social 
Fund (Cedefop, forthcoming). 

In July 2018, a pilot project – Creating future 
directions – was initiated to support validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. It is aimed 
primarily at low-skilled jobseekers and workers, 
as well as migrants whose foreign diplomas 
could not be recognised; access to education and 
employment is very difficult for these target groups. 
The project is divided into three parts: guidance 
and counselling to find an appropriate continuous 

94  See Eurydice description of the German-speaking 

Community’s qualifications framework: https://eacea.
ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/belgium-german-
speaking-community/national-qualifications-framework_en

95  This section builds on the information provided in the 

government strategy document: Ministry of the German-
speaking Community of Belgium (2015). Ostbelgien 
Leben 2025 Regionales Entwicklungskonzept der 
Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft. [Future strategies for 
the German-speaking Community of Eastern Belgium – 
2025]. The information provided here builds on the section 
covering the Bildungsregion DG (the German-speaking 
education and training region). www.ostbelgienlive.be/
PortalData/2/Resources/downloads/rek/REK4-72dpi-
KORR_23sept.pdf

training offer (support level); the ProfilPASS 
workshops focusing on the elaboration of personal 
competence profiles (level of formative validation); 
and the recognition of non-formally and informally 
acquired professional competences with reference 
to training occupations and programmes offered 
by the training providers in the German-speaking 
Community (level of summative validation).

NQF implementation

The QDG was adopted by decree on 18 November 
2013 (Ministry of the German-speaking Community, 
2013), paving the way for implementation. It is a 
comprehensive qualifications framework, covering 
qualifications from general education, higher 
education and vocational education and training 
(VET). Criteria96 and procedures for the inclusion of 
qualifications and diplomas to the QDG have been 
developed. Only qualifications with clear description 
of learning outcomes and those obtained in 
institutions accredited by Government are included. 
Among important criteria for inclusion is the 
relevance of a qualification on the labour market and 
for further learning. The inclusion of qualifications 
is work in progress by a technical commission in 
charge of inclusion and levelling. Currently, there are 
21 qualification types included in the QDG97. 

Alignment of a qualification within the framework 
levels does not replace the existing system of 
access and does not provide automatic entitlement 
to access the next level98. QDG qualification levels 
are not yet included in certificates and diplomas as 
the templates were adopted by the Government in 
2009 and the QDG was only implemented in 2013. 
There is no register of qualifications. The templates 
for all certificates and qualifications that can be 
obtained in general education, higher education, and 
VET are part of the Government Decree of 28 May 
200999. 

96  These criteria are mentioned in Article 6 of the decree of 

18 November 2013.

97  See Articles 9 and 10 of the decree of 18 November 2013.
98  See Eurydice’s description of the German-speaking 

Community’s qualifications framework: https://eacea.
ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/belgium-german-
speaking-community/national-qualifications-framework_en
99  Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium 
(2009). Erlass der Regierung vom 28. Mai 2009 über 
die Bescheinigungen, Nachweise, Brevets, Zeugnisse, 
Diplome und Zusatzdiplome zur Bestätigung der in der 
Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft organisierten Studien 
[Government Decree of 28 May 2009 on certificates, 
diplomas and additional diplomas certifying studies 
organised in the German-speaking Community]. Belgisch 
Staatsblad, p. 62798, 17 September 2009.  
http://reflex.raadvst-consetat.be/reflex/pdf/
Mbbs/2009/09/17/114314.pdf

100

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAn important current step is to link a system of 
validation of non-formal and informal learning – 
currently under development – to the framework. 
Once this happens, a central validation body will be 
set up. 

Available information indicates that QDG has so 
far played a limited role in supporting education 
and training practices in the region; as an example, 
the QDG is not referred to the 2025 vision for 
the region100. Emphasis given to validation and 
competences indicates, however, that the learning 
outcomes orientation underpinning the QDG is 
being taken forward in a systematic manner. This is 
also apparent in relation to other projects outlined 
in the 2025 strategy, such as strengthening support 
to individual pupils and application of competence-
oriented diagnostics.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The QDG has not been referenced to the EQF.

Important lessons and future plans

The German-speaking Community of Belgium has 
adopted its qualifications framework; it is being 
implemented but has not yet been referenced 
to the EQF. The key task that remains is the full 
implementation of the framework; referencing it to 
the EQF and setting up arrangements for validation 
of non-formal and informal learning (the preparation 
of which was initiated in 2014) is needed.

A project called Creating future directions has been 
launched to support validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, targeting the low-qualified in need 
of guidance and professional orientation as well as 
those whose diploma has not been recognised in 
Belgium. The ultimate goal is to reach all citizens 
of the German-speaking Community in order to 
recognise their informally and non-formally acquired 
competences.

Table 9. Qualifications framework of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (QDG)

NQF 
LEVELS

GENERAL EDUCATION 
QUALIFICATIONS

VET QUALIFICATIONS

8

7

6

Doctoral or postdoctoral degree/
habilitation 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss einer 
Promotion oder Habilitation auf 
Doktoren- bzw. Professorebene)

Master degree 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss eines 
Hochschulstudiums langer Dauer 
auf Masterebene)

Master degree on successful completion of dual track higher 
education (long duration)  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss eines dualen Hochschulstudiums 
langer Dauer auf Masterebene)

Bachelor degree 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss eines 
Hochschulstudiums kurzer Dauer 
auf Bachelorebene)

Master craftsperson certificate on successful completion of a 
three-year master craftsperson programme  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss einer dreijährigen 
Meisterausbildung mit dem Meisterbrief)

Professional bachelor degree on successful completion of dual 
track higher education  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss eines dualen Hochschulstudiums 
kurzer Dauer auf Bachelorebene)

(Continued)

100  See Ministry of the German-speaking Community of 

Belgium (2015).

101

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 9. Qualifications framework of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (QDG) (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

GENERAL EDUCATION 
QUALIFICATIONS

VET QUALIFICATIONS

5

4

3

2

1

Master craftsperson certificate on successful completion of a 
two-year master craftsperson programme 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss einer zweijährigen 
Meisterausbildung mit dem Meisterbrief)

Successful completion of supplementary secondary vocational 
education  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss einer Ausbildung im ergänzenden 
beruflichen Sekundarunterricht)

Successful completion of upper secondary technical and arts 
programmes 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss der Oberstufe des technischen 
oder künstlerischen Sekundarunterrichts)

Attestation of competence upon successful completion of 
year 6 in vocational education 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss des sechsten Jahres 
des berufsbildenden Sekundarunterrichts mit 
Befähigungsnachweis)

Successful completion of year 7 (complementary year) in 
vocational education 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss des siebten Jahres des 
berufsbildenden Sekundarunterrichts)

Journeyman certificate on successful completion of an 
apprenticeship  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss einer mittelständischen Lehre mit 
dem Gesellenzeugnis)

Successful completion of lower secondary technical, 
vocational or arts programmes 
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss der Unterstufe des technischen, 
künstlerischen oder berufsbildenden Sekundarunterrichts)

Certified partial qualification acquired in year 2 of an 
apprenticeship  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss einer zertifizierten Teilqualifikation 
im zweiten Jahr der mittelständischen Lehre)

Successful completion of year 3 in vocationally-oriented 
education  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss des dritten Jahres des 
berufsbildenden Sekundarunterricht)

Attestation of competence certifying lower secondary special 
needs education  
(Befähigungsnachweis der Unterstufe des 
Fördersekundarunterrichts)

Successful completion of upper 
secondary general education  
(Der erfolgreiche 
Abschluss der Oberstufe 
des allgemeinbildenden 
Sekundarunterrichts)

Successful completion of lower 
secondary general education  
(Der erfolgreiche 
Abschluss der Unterstufe 
des allgemeinbildenden 
Sekundarunterrichts)

Successful completion of 
‘common’ year 2 in secondary 
education  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss des 
zweiten gemeinsamen Jahres 
des Sekundarunterrichts)

Successful completion of 
primary education, four years  
(Der erfolgreiche Abschluss der 
Grundschule)

Certificate upon successful completion of year 2 in 
vocationally oriented education  
(Das Studienzeugnis des zweiten Jahres des berufsbildenden 
Sekundarunterrichts)

Source: Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (2013). 

102

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
EQF 
NQF 
QDG 

VET 

European qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
Qualifikationsrahmen 
Deutschsprachiger Gemeinschaft 
(Qualifications framework of the 
German-speaking Community)
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium, Department of VET and Organisation of Education 

is the EQF national coordination point: www.ostbelgienbildung.be

Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (2014). Dekret vom 18. November 2013 zur 

Einführung eines Qualifikationsrahmens der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft [Decree from 
18 November 2013 establishing a qualifications framework of the German-speaking Community]. 
http://reflex.raadvst-consetat.be/reflex/pdf/Mbbs/2014/02/13/126688.pdf

References

Cedefop (2018). National qualifications framework developments in Europe 2017. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/029873

Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–19: Belgium. 

Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies.

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Belgium. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-
2018-belgium_en.pdf  

Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (2009). Erlass der Regierung vom 28. Mai 

2009 über die Bescheinigungen, Nachweise, Brevets, Zeugnisse, Diplome und Zusatzdiplome zur 
Bestätigung der in der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft organisierten Studien [Government Decree 
of 28 May 2009 on certificates, diplomas and additional diplomas certifying studies organised in the 
German-speaking Community]. Belgisch Staatsblad, p. 62798, 17 September 2009. http://reflex.
raadvst-consetat.be/reflex/pdf/Mbbs/2009/09/17/114314.pdf

Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (2013). Dekret zur Einführung eines 

Qualifikationsrahmens der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft [Decree of 18 November 2013 
establishing a qualifications framework for the German-speaking Community. Belgisch Staatsblad, 
p. 12532, 13 February 2014. http://reflex.raadvst-consetat.be/reflex/pdf/Mbbs/2014/02/13/126688.pdf

Ministry of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (2015). DG Ostbelgien 2025. Regionales 

Entwicklungskonzept der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft [Future strategies for the German-
speaking Community of Eastern Belgium – 2025]. www.ostbelgienlive.be/PortalData/2/Resources/
downloads/rek/REK4-72dpi-KORR_23sept.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

103

Volume II: National and regional casesBHUTAN

Introduction and context

The development of the Bhutan Qualifications 
Framework (BQF) was mandated in 2010 by the 
Tertiary Education Policy of the Kingdom of Bhutan 
(BAC, 2012). It is a national document pertaining to 
qualifications and their classification that is based 
on a set of nationally agreed-upon criteria and 
benchmarked in line with international practices. It 
integrates, harmonizes and links school, monastic, 
vocational and tertiary education qualifications 
awarded by education providers both within and 
outside the country. 

Bhutan has a total population of 735,553 and was 
ranked 134th in the global Human Development 
Index (HDI) of 2017. Its gross national income and 
purchasing power parity (GNI PPP) is USD 8,850101 
and the literacy rate is just over 70% (PHCB, 2017). 
The country is still primarily an agrarian society 
based on subsistence farming. Electricity and 
construction are the other major economic sectors, 
representing a vital source of hard currency and 
employment. A large proportion of the workers 
in these sectors are migrants, particularly at the 
highest and lowest extremes of the skills spectrum. 
Middle- and management-level jobs are occupied 
mainly by Bhutanese citizens. 

Greater enrolment in primary and secondary 
education has increased demand for post-secondary 
education and training (after years 12 and 13); 
however, the shortage of tertiary education 
institutions in Bhutan has led to an exodus of 
students to foreign universities, particularly in 
India (Thinley, 2009). The technical and vocational 
education and training (TVET) and post-secondary 
sectors are administered by a bewildering variety 
of different bodies, making it difficult for students 
to progress either within a field or from one field 
to another. While most TVET courses are under 
the administration of the Ministry of Labour and 
Human Resources, diploma courses in TVET are 

101 

 Source: www.ifs.se/IFS/Documents/Application%20
Forms/GNIPC.pdf 

administered by the Royal University of Bhutan, 
and academic courses by the Ministry of Education. 
Other ministries, such as the Ministry of Health, 
Ministry of Economic Affairs and Ministry of 
Agriculture and Forests, also provide vocational 
education and training as well as employment 
opportunities to school leavers. A system is 
therefore needed that recognizes diverse types of 
qualification and clarifies equivalences between 
them.

The problem of unemployment among TVET 
graduates has become much more acute in recent 
years. Limited job growth in government has made 
it more difficult for graduates to obtain civil servant 
or corporate positions; meanwhile, the number of 
students leaving school without employable skills 
has increased, even among those completing 
training in vocational training institutes. Despite 
efforts to promote the growth of the private sector, 
creating attractive jobs has proved difficult. For 
certain skill sets, a mismatch thus remains between 
supply and demand.

TVET is negatively perceived in Bhutan and is 
therefore the least preferred route among young 
people. Private training providers (particularly in the 
ICT and services sectors) often seek to fill the gap 
left by inadequate TVET provision. They then look 
to the government for guidance and regulations 
to make their qualifications more marketable, for 
example through affiliation or official endorsements 
of certificates.

A further challenge is that non-formal skills 
training initiatives for rural people remain supply-
driven instead of adopting a demand-driven 
approach highlighting, for example, how a person’s 
competences can be utilized in the labour market 
and in society.

To meet the challenges of the 21st century, 
Bhutan needs to build a knowledge-based society. 
Tertiary education, through formal settings as well 
as continuing education programmes, requires 
a system that is able to facilitate the recognition 
of diverse types of qualifications, and to create 

104

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSequivalency and professional pathways. A 
qualifications framework plays an important role in 
developing degree systems as well as in developing 
study programmes in tertiary education institutions. 
Such a framework not only facilitates the recognition 
of qualifications, it is also important for those who 
make use of qualifications, particularly learners and 
employers. In view of this, the Bhutan Accreditation 
Council developed the BQF (BAC, 2012).

Policy objectives 

The BQF aims to provide an up-to-date and flexible 
framework that:

•  guarantees the quality of education and training;
•  accommodates the diverse educational and 
career goals of Bhutanese people, including 
those who aspire to work outside Bhutan;
•  enables comparison and ensures consistency 
between qualifications offered by academic, 
vocational and monastic institutions;

•  allows Bhutanese qualifications to be recognized 
and valued internationally, promoting workers’ 
international mobility;
facilitates lifelong learning;

• 
•  allows for lateral movement between different 

fields;

•  enables human resources to be more effectively 

deployed;

•  provides for the recognition and accreditation of 

prior learning; 

•  promotes gross national happiness (GNH), 

a philosophy that guides the Government of 
Bhutan.

Educational policy in Bhutan is strongly influenced 
by the theory of GNH (Thinley, 1999). Instead of 
focusing on a narrow set of job-specific skills, GNH-
inspired learning seeks to inculcate a common set 
of core skills (Thinley, 2009), which include:

•  knowledge of a subject area;
•  practical skills including information 

management; 

•  social skills and responsibilities; 
•  GNH values and principles, including mindful 

leadership; 

•  communication and ICT skills; 
•  accountability and autonomy; 
•  problem-solving and scientific skills; 
innovation and entrepreneurial skills. 
• 

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The BQF has eight qualification levels, each of which 
assesses the following criteria:

•  depth, complexity and comprehension of 

knowledge;

•  application of knowledge and skills;
•  degree of autonomy and creativity in decision-

making; 

•  communication skills; 
•  breadth and sophistication of practices (BAC, 

2012).

The BQF defines learning outcomes based on 
academic workload: this facilitates programme 
comparison between schools, technical and 
vocational institutes, and monastic and tertiary 
education institutes, which in turn promotes the 
mobility and portability of qualifications. 

The BQF caters for all types of qualifications, 
whether certificates, diplomas or degrees. 
Qualifications are awarded by a competent 
authority, which affirms successful completion of 
the course of study in question and achievement 
of the expected standard. This guarantees the 
holder’s ability to perform the job for which he/ she 
is qualified.

The BQF includes three qualification levels relating 
to vocational education: National Certificate NC1 
(semi-skilled work) is equivalent to qualification 
level 3; National Certificates NC2 (skilled work) and 
NC3 (highly skilled work) correspond to qualification 
level 4; and National Diplomas 1 and 2 (for 
supervisory personnel) make up qualification  
level 5.

Credit is awarded where candidates demonstrate 
knowledge and understanding of a field and show 
that they are able to apply this knowledge to 
practical situations. The amount of time and effort 
the candidate invests in carrying out required 
activities is also taken into consideration. Credit is 
awarded not on the basis of experience but rather 
on the basis of what has been learned through 
reflecting on experience (BAC, 2012).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The BQF was developed by the Bhutan 
Accreditation Council, which is responsible for 
establishing the relationship between tertiary 
academic education, TVET and the school 
system. The Council recently produced a 
document on the BQF for local and international 
stakeholders that contains information on 
each qualification (ibid.). It also provides basic 
guidelines for providers to develop clearly 
defined and suitably named qualifications 
programmes. 

105

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 10. Bhutan Qualifications Framework

BQF 
LEVELS 

SCHOOL 
EDUCATION

VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY 
EDUCATION

MONASTIC 
EDUCATION

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctorate

Khenpo

Master degree

Geshey

Bachelor degree

Tenchoe

ND1 and ND2

Diploma

Madhyamik

NC2 and NC3

NC1

BHSEC

BCSE

LSE

PE

PE – primary education;
LSE – lower secondary education; 
BCSE – Bhutan Certificate for Secondary Education; 
BHSEC – Bhutan Higher Secondary Education Certificate; 
NC – National Certificate; 
ND – National Diploma 

Source: BAC, 2012

The Bhutan Vocational Qualifications Framework 
was initiated between October 2000 and June 2003 
as one of the programmes of the National Technical 
Training Authority (NTTA) under the Ministry of 
Labour and Human Resources and in collaboration 
with the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische 
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), now called the Deutsche 
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 
(GIZ). 

In 2003, the Bhutan Vocational Qualifications 
Authority (BVQA) was established as a regulatory 
department under the Ministry of Labour and 
Human Resources in collaboration with the 
Department of Employment and Labour and the 
NTTA. The aim was to dissolve the division between 
the NTTA’s training delivery and regulatory functions. 
In January 2006, the BVQA was replaced by the 
Department of Occupational Standards (DOS) in 
accordance with government directives. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The BQF was designed to support the building of 
pathways between different educational and training 
sub-sectors. This enables the individual to progress 

in further education through a transfer of credits 
and recognition of prior learning acquired through 
formal, non-formal and informal learning pathways, 
irrespective of time and place, in the context of 
lifelong learning. Pathways between vocational and 
academic qualifications will allow for the recognition 
of non-formal and informal learning; credit transfer 
and work experience programmes will promote 
career planning and continuous learning. The BQF 
provides equivalences between qualifications 
of different types and at different levels. It also 
introduces regulations on the accumulation and 
transfer of credits, and the accreditation of prior 
learning, as well as on entry requirements and 
the use of certificates and diplomas. Diploma 
programmes may be designed in conjunction with 
degree programmes so as to enable graduates of a 
diploma programme to enter the second year of a 
degree programme. 

The BQF builds on the Bhutan Vocational 
Qualifications Framework (BVQF), which was 
developed in 2003 for the TVET sector. The 
BVQF is a reform to the TVET system: input from 
employers and training providers helps to establish 
qualifications, thus ensuring quality of skills and 
establishing a benchmark for comparison with 
international standards (MoLHR, 2010). The BVQF 
already determines entry to formal TVET courses 

106

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFigure 4. Bhutan Vocational Qualifications Framework (BVQF)

Source: BVQF, 2013 

after basic education – that is, after seven years 
of primary and four years of secondary education 
(ibid., p. 7). The TVET courses are assessed using 
the National Certificate levels. These are supported 
by level descriptors elaborating the range of 
responsibilities and learning demands at each level 
(see Table 10). The BVQF structure also makes 
provision for progression from national certificate 
to diploma and degree levels. This has been 
made possible by the Royal University of Bhutan 
and the Ministry of Education, along with other 
organizations under different jurisdictions. 

Figure 4 depicts the various bridging arrangements 
that enable movement both within and between 
education and the job market. The government 
expects that these pathways will enable lifelong 
learning and upgrade the qualifications of those 
who might otherwise be in danger of social and 
educational marginalization.

There is potentially great scope for the recognition 
of non-formal and informal learning in Bhutan. 
Bhutan distinguishes between accreditation of prior 
learning, accreditation of prior certificated learning, 
and accreditation of prior experiential learning. 
Accreditation of prior learning concerns learning 
gained through formally assessed and certified 

programmes outside the university. Accreditation of 
prior certificated learning covers learning achieved 
and assessed through a formal programme of study 
in a higher education or professional institution. 
Accreditation of prior experiential learning refers to 
learning gained in informal and non-formal settings 
such as the workplace or the community. 

NQF implementation 

The DOS, which is one of four departments under 
the Ministry of Labour and Human Resources, 
currently has the mandate to:

• 

improve and monitor the quality of vocational 
skills; 

•  develop quality assurance policies and 

procedures; 

•  develop qualifications; 
•  develop the National Assessment and 

Certification System; 

•  develop and implement the National 

Accreditation System. 

These objectives are implemented through a 
departmental structure comprising three divisions: 
the Standards and Qualifications Division, the 

107

Volume II: National and regional casesAssessment and Certification Division, and the 
Review and Audit Division.

The DOS is responsible for the development of 
occupational profiles. There is an occupational 
profile for each discipline or disciplines covered 
by a qualification; for example, a student may 
obtain a bachelor’s degree majoring in English and 
environmental sciences (BAC, 2012). Occupational 
profiles incorporate information from industry 
experts about the skills they require from their 
workers in the light of current economic and 
technological conditions. A Technical Advisory 
Committee advises the DOS on the identification 
of priority occupations, taking into account 
international and regional comparability of 
qualifications. 

Occupational profiles provide employers, employees 
and jobseekers with a common understanding 
of the knowledge, skills and competences 
required for a particular job. In addition, they help 
in the development of curricula for qualifications 
programmes, and support educational services such 
as occupational training, exchange and promotion. 
They also support the implementation of a reliable 
testing and certification system that complies with 
international standards. The goal is to increase 
the proportion of the labour force holding National 
Competency Certificates. 

Occupational profiles are developed at three 
occupational levels: National Certificates NC1, NC2 
and NC3 (see Table 10). They take into account the 
following criteria:

•  complexity of skills, 
•  knowledge and competences,
•  duties and tasks,
•  working environment,
•  complexity of task sequences and junctures,
•  degree of routine,
• 
• 
•  degree of autonomy,
•  degree of control of financial and physical 

teamwork,
leadership,

resources, 

•  degree of analysis and diagnosis involved.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Formal education in Bhutan is already recognized 
by Indian bodies. The Bhutan Certificate for 
Secondary Education (Grade 10) and the Bhutan 
Higher Secondary Education Certificate (Grade 12) 
administered by the Bhutan Council for School 
Examinations and Assessment are recognized 
by the Association of Indian Universities in Delhi, 

108

the Council of the Boards of School Education in 
India, the Central Board of Secondary Education, 
and the Council for the Indian School Certificate 
Examination. It is hoped that the BQF will help 
extend this recognition to other countries and attract 
international scholars and students to Bhutan. 
The BQF will provide tools for the establishment 
of mutually beneficial alliances with top-quality 
universities and institutions around the world. 
In order to achieve these goals, the BQF will be 
closely related to other regional and international 
qualifications frameworks (BAC, 2012). 

Important lessons and future plans

The adoption of the BQF (levels and descriptors) in 
2012 represents a major step in the development 
of a reference framework. Important issues of 
governance have also been resolved. While the 
Bhutan Accreditation Council is responsible for 
the school, tertiary education and continuing 
education sectors, the DOS in the Ministry of 
Labour assumes responsibility for setting vocational 
qualification standards and developing occupational 
profiles. 

Bhutan is working hard to overcome hurdles 
impeding the implementation of the BQF by 
improving the institutional capacity of public 
authorities (administrative) and other stakeholders, 
as well as nurturing stakeholders’ awareness of the 
importance of shifting from a curriculum-based to a 
competency-based approach to education (Lhazom, 
n.d.). While still striving for a modern knowledge-
based economy, Bhutan has made its policy on BQF 
locally relevant, focusing on training TVET teachers, 
improving curricula and teaching resources, building 
partnerships with industries and employers, and 
smoothing out differences among the different 
organizations responsible for TVET and higher 
education. 

Abbreviations
BQF  
BVQA  

BVQF  

DOS  

GNH  
ICT 

NTTA  
TVET 

Bhutan Qualifications Framework 
Bhutan Vocational Qualifications 
Authority 
Bhutan Vocational Qualifications 
Framework
Department of Occupational 
Standards 
gross national happiness 
information communications 
technology
National Technical Training Authority
technical and vocational education 
and training

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

BAC (Bhutan Accreditation Council) (2012). Bhutan Qualifications Framework. Point of reference and 

tertiary education qualifications in Bhutan. Thimphu, Quality Assurance and Accreditation Division, 
Department of Adult and Higher Education, Ministry of Education, Royal Government of Bhutan.
BVQF (Bhutan Vocational Qualifications Framework) (2013). Ministry of Labour and Human Resources, 

Department of Occupational Standards. Accessed 15 February 2019 at: www.molhr.gov.bt/molhr/wp-
content/uploads/2017/07/Bhutan-Vocational-Qualifications-Framework.pdf

Lhazom, K. (n.d.). The Bhutan Vocational Qualifications Framework: Is it a case of ‘putting the cart before 

the horse’? MA dissertation. London, University of London.

MoLHR (Ministry of Labour and Human Resources) (2006). BVQF report. Thimphu, Ministry of Labour and 

Human Resources.

MoLHR (2010). National Human Resource Development Policy of the Kingdom of Bhutan. Thimphu, Royal 
Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Labour and Human Resources. Accessed 8 December 2016 at: 
www.molhr.gov.bt/molhr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/National-HRD-Policy-2010.pdf

PHCB (Population and Housing Census of Bhutan) (2017). National report. National Statistics Bureau of 

Bhutan. Accessed 8 December 2017 at: www.nsb.gov.bt/publication/ files/PHCB2017_national.pdf.
Thinley, J. Y. (1999). Values and development: ‘Gross National Happiness’. In: S. Kinga, K. Galay, P. Rapten, 
and A. Pain. (eds) (1999). Gross National Happiness: A Set of Discussion Papers. Thimphu, Keunsel.

Thinley, K. (2009). A country report: Higher education in the Kingdom of Bhutan: Cherishing dreams 

and confronting challenges. Thimphu, Tertiary Education Division Department of Adult and Higher 
Education, Ministry of Education, Bhutan.

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

109

Volume II: National and regional casesBOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s Council of Ministers 
adopted the baseline qualifications framework 
(BQF), in March 2011; the decision carries the force 
of law. The Council of Ministers adopted an action 
plan to implement the BQF in February 2015. 

The BQF has eight levels and includes all types 
and levels of qualification and certification. The 
19-member Intersectoral Committee is the policy-
making body for the BQF. It comprises six members 
per each of the three major population groups 
– Bosniak, Croat and Serb – plus one member 
for minorities such as Roma. It is chaired by the 
country-wide Ministry of Civil Affairs. However, the 
Intersectoral Committee has not sat or operated 
since spring 2015: nomination of representatives 
has been delayed for political reasons.

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strategy to 
implement the BQF and has begun developing tools 
and approaches; it therefore straddles the initial 
and structured stages. Institutional arrangements 
for coordination of the BQF implementation are still 
pending for approval.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a population of circa 
3.2 million102, which is both ageing and declining 
numerically, partly through migration. It is an upper-
middle- income market economy. Nearly half (48%) 
of the population live in urban areas, while 14.6% 
are aged 15 to 24. The literacy rate is very high, at 
99% in 2013; most of the population have primary 
or secondary school education (41.7% and 48.6%, 
respectively), while 9.7% have higher education. 
There is a low early school leaver rate (6.7%). 
People tend to postpone entering an uncertain 
labour market by extending their stay in education. 
Participation in higher education has almost 

102 

 Data in this section are from the ETF report Torino 
Process 2016–17: Bosnia and Herzegovina.

doubled since 2000, but this has not led to better 
employment opportunities.

The labour market in the country continues to 
be characterised by a low activity rate, high and 
long-term unemployment, especially among young 
people, including a high level of informality. Young 
people (15 to 24 years) have the lowest activity, 
with less than one third (28.3%) participating in the 
labour market and with marked gender differences 
of 19.4% female and 36.3% male.

Like many developed and transition countries, 
Bosnia and Herzegovina is facing population 
growth stagnation, with a negative annual growth 
of -0.12% in 2013. Demographic projections show 
that the labour force will shrink considerably in the 
next 40 years. The country will be ageing rapidly, 
with the dependency ratio rising to 55.1% by 2050 
(from 45.5% in 2013). The main cause is lack of 
confidence in the future. Highly skilled workers, in 
particular, are keen to look for further and better 
work possibilities abroad, adding to the problem 
of brain drain. More than 20% of graduates from 
tertiary education in the 25+ age group are currently 
estimated to live in OECD countries. The national 
labour market clearly needs more jobs, and more 
attractive jobs, to ensure sustainable social and 
economic development.

Approximately three quarters of students in upper 
secondary are enrolled in vocational education 
and training (VET). Career and development 
opportunities are clearly worse than in most other 
European countries. The education attainment levels 
of the population are still lagging behind those of 
the EU, although they are improving. And there are 
high levels of structural long-term unemployment.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Bosnia and Herzegovina adopted its VET 
development strategy for 2007–13 in 2007; a new 
VET strategy for 2015–20 is being drafted. The BQF 
is an element in the strategies and in the strategic 

110

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSdirections for the development of education with 
the implementation plan 2008–15, and the strategic 
platform for development of adult education in a 
lifelong learning context for 2014–20.

International cooperation
Bosnia and Herzegovina is an EU potential candidate 
country. In February 2016, the country submitted 
its application to join the EU. It receives financial 
assistance from the EU via the Instrument for Pre-
accession Assistance (IPA). An IPA-funded project, 
managed by the British Council, sought to develop 
the qualifications framework for primary and general 
secondary education in the country. It aimed to raise 
the quality of education and reform the school-leaving 
matura exam. The project prioritised training for 
teachers, pre- and in-service, in primary and secondary 
education. It ran from October 2014 to October 2016.

The EU VET IV project developed vocational 
qualifications based on occupational standards. 
The German Technical Assistance Agency (GIZ) is 
a strong presence in the country and is currently 
running a project to support adult education. One 
element of this is the ‘passport of competences’ 
designed to recognise informally acquired skills, a 
type of recognition of prior learning. A joint EU-
Council of Europe project on higher education 
qualifications developed a good practice guide for 
development of qualifications and occupational 
standards in higher education.

From March 2016 to June 2018, the EU-funded 
project ‘Qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning’ worked on several aspects of the BQF, 
such as quality assurance, accreditation procedures, 
referencing to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF), and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Scope and structure of the NQF
The BQF is inclusive/comprehensive. It includes all 
types (general education, VET, higher education and 
lifelong learning) and levels of qualifications (1 to 8) 
and certification. The BQF illustrates different types 
of certificate/qualification in principle attainable at 
the various levels.

Alignment to other classification systems
The BQF is the national instrument for structuring 
and classifying qualifications in Bosnia and 
Herzegovina. The country already had a classification 
system of qualifications, the nomenclatura, which 
comprehensively reflects the world of education, but 
does not provide meaningful links to the world of work.

There is no register or catalogue of qualifications 
available in the country, although the agency 
charged with primary, secondary and vocational 
education (APOSO), holds data on qualifications and 
provision. Creation of a BQF web portal (to serve 
as a BQF register) was a part of the remit of the EU 
project on qualifications frameworks for VET and 
adult education.

Validation of non-formal and informal learning or 
recognition of prior learning forms part of the action 
plan and of the EU project programme but, apart 
from isolated cases, remains a goal to be achieved, 
not a national, working system. However, given 
the number of adults who have been displaced 
and the current numbers of migrant workers from 
Bosnia and Herzegovina, validation of non-formal 
and informal learning or recognition of prior learning 
would be most valuable and practical. The lack of 
standards is a hindrance. One exception has been 
the ‘passport of competences’ led by GIZ, the 
German Technical Assistance Agency. This supports 
employability of adults by identifying informally 
acquired competences.

Reform in higher education has been influenced by 
the Bologna declaration and the Lisbon convention 
on the recognition of qualifications concerning 
higher education in the European region. Higher 
education reform is supported by the EU and the 
Council of Europe. All State universities started 
to implement the first and the second cycle in 
2006, in accordance with the Bologna Process, 
and the European credit transfer and accumulation 
system (ECTS) has been introduced in all new 
study programmes. Though the framework law 
on higher education was adopted in 2007, its 
full implementation is taking its time. Many 
amendments incorporated in the final adopted 
version have made it difficult to implement but all 
entity and cantonal legislation has been harmonised 
with the State-level framework law.

Qualifications that are not the outcome of formal 
education can in principle be included in the BQF 
but criteria and procedures for inclusion and for 
referencing to levels have yet to be defined. The EU 
project ‘Qualifications framework for lifelong learning’ 
has developed a methodology for this purpose.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The BQF currently has eight levels and no sublevels. 
Other countries in the region, including Montenegro 
and Croatia, maintain sublevels. The eight levels are 
intentionally designed for straight level-to-level linking 
with the EQF (e.g. level 4 BQF to level 4 EQF).

111

Volume II: National and regional casesThe current level descriptors are derived from the 
EQF level descriptors and use the same domains: 
knowledge, skills and competence. Further 
development may be necessary to fit national 
and local conditions better, as well as for EQF 
referencing.

Use of learning outcomes
The framework level descriptors are described 
using learning outcomes; it is not explicitly stated 
that all qualifications in the framework have to be 
outcomes-based, but the text refers to levels.

Definition of qualification
The definition of ‘qualification’ in the action plan 
is as follows: ‘Qualifications: a formal title of the 
result of a process of assessment and validation 
obtained once a competent body determines that 
an individual has achieved the learning outcomes 
as per the defined standards.’ In practice, it can 
be difficult to distinguish between curriculum and 
qualifications in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Access, progression and credit
The BQF sets out vertical and horizontal progression 
as one of its main aims. Credit, with the exception 
of higher education and levels 6 to 8, is not 
described in detail in the BQF document.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis 
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s Council of Ministers 
adopted the baseline qualifications framework (BQF) 
in March 2011; the decision carries the force of law. 
The Council of Ministers adopted an action plan to 
implement the BQF in February 2015.

Two main documents were adopted: the Decision 
on Adoption of the Baseline of Qualifications 
Framework in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Official 
Gazette, No 31/11, 39/12) and the Decision on 
Adoption of the Action Plan for the Establishment 
and Implementation of the Qualifications Framework 
in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the period 2014–20 
(Official Gazette, No 28/15). 

The following laws have been adopted at the state 
level:

• 

• 

the Law on the Agency for Pre-primary, Primary 
and Secondary Education (2007);
the Framework Law on VET (2008).

In 2014, the Council of Ministers adopted the 
‘Principles and Standards in the Field of Adult 
Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina ‘ and the 
‘Strategic Adult Education Development Platform 
in the Context of Lifelong Learning for the Period 
2014–2020’, which constitute pre-requisites for 
regulating the field of adult leaning and development 
of lifelong learning in the country. The adoption 
of these framework documents at the entity and 
cantonal levels is a lengthy process.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The 19-member Intersectoral Committee is the 
BQF’s current executive, policy-making body, 
during framework development. It is chaired by the 
Ministry of Civil Affairs, a country-wide office. The 
action plan provides for eventual establishment 
of a BQF Council as a decision-making/governing 
body, and sectorial councils as technical/expert 
bodies.

Formally, Intersectoral Committee’s membership 
should comprise representatives of the following 
sectors/institutions:

a.  five representatives of the education 

sector (Ministry of Civil Affairs – Education 
Sector, Federal Coordination of Ministers 
of Education: two canton representatives, 
Ministry of Education and Culture of Republika 
Srspka, Education Department of the 
Government of the Brcko District of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina);

b.  three representatives of the Rectors Conference 

of Bosnia and Herzegovina;

c.  three representatives of education agencies in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina (Agency for Pre-school, 
Primary and Secondary Education, Agency 
for the Development of Higher Education and 
Quality Assurance, and Centre for Information 
and Recognition of Documents in Higher 
Education);

d.  three representatives of the statistics sector 

(Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
Federal Institute for Statistics, Republic Institute 
for Statistics of Republika Srpska);
e.  three representatives of the labour and 

• 

• 

• 

the Framework Law on Primary and Secondary 
education (2003);
the Framework Law on Pre-primary Education 
(2007);
the Framework Law on Higher Education (2007);

employment sector (Ministry of Civil Affairs – 
Section for Labour and Employment, Federal 
Ministry of Labour and Social Policy, Ministry of 
Labour and Protection of Veterans and Disabled 
Persons of Republika Srpska);

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSf.  one representative of employers (Association 
of Employers of Bosnia and Herzegovina) 
and one representative of the labour unions 
(Confederation of Labour Unions of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina).

In practice, institutional arrangements are complex 
and fragmentary. As a consequence of the 
Dayton Peace Agreement of 1995, the country’s 
constitution is highly decentralised, which poses 
challenges in creating a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) with equal validity and application 
across the country.

There is the State level: in education, this means 
the Ministry of Civil Affairs; the two entities – the 
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the 
Republika Srpska; 10 Federation cantons; and 
cities and municipalities. There is also the Brcko 
District of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Each of the two 
entities, plus Brcko, plus the 10 cantons inside the 
federation, has its own administration, meaning 
there are 14 separate education authorities.

In 2018, the Intersectoral Committee remained 
suspended for political reasons. Some of the 
institutions and ministries referred to above decline 
to participate in any initiative beyond temporary EU 
or other donor-funded projects, and not in a more 
established national body.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
According to the action plan, after an initial 
phase and a one-year mandate, the Intersectoral 
Committee should have a seven-year mandate 
once appointed (2014–20). Its decisions are 
majority-determined, qualified by the requirement 
to include a minimum of two thirds of votes from 
the representatives of each constituent people. 
Its principal functions are to oversee and ensure 
implementation of the action plan.

The Agency for Pre-primary, Primary, and Secondary 
Education (APOSO) includes a VET department. 
Its principal concern is with quality; its functions 
include developing standards (education and 
occupational) and guiding curricula. Cantons and the 
two entities – the Federation and Republika Srpska –  
develop individual qualifications and determine the 
awarding process.

This raises questions about the reliability and validity 
of qualifications: it is not clear if outcomes are 
comparable, as standards are different between 
the cantons and entities. EU-funded projects in 
qualification frameworks for general, VET and adult 
education have an important task to ensure that 
outcomes, standards and methodologies used 

by all managing authorities are harmonised and 
comparable.

Employers and trades unions are represented on 
the BQF policy-making body, the Intersectoral 
Committee, though they are generally not strong 
across the country’s wider institutional set-up. 
The Ministry of Civil Affairs (with its coordination 
responsibility in education and work and 
employment sectors at country level), EU projects, 
and the State agencies APOSO and HEA (Agency 
for the Development of Higher Education and 
Quality Assurance) have sought to link education 
and training more closely to the labour market. 
Employer organisations such as the chambers of 
commerce, complain that decentralisation leads to 
excessive difficulty in engaging with government 
bodies and officials in VET. They also underline 
that graduates, VET or otherwise, lack soft or core 
skills.

In technical work, the involvement of sector 
representatives remains weak and the development 
of occupational standards is carried out mainly with 
the support of teachers from schools, who visit a 
large number of enterprises.

Funding
The BQF development has been supported mainly 
by EU-funded projects. The recently completed EU 
project on Qualification Frameworks for Lifelong 
Learning had a budget of EUR 1.4 million over 
its two-year timespan. The other EU project in 
qualification frameworks in general education had 
EUR 2 million over its two-year timespan. Budgets 
of State/public institutions are otherwise very 
limited.

Quality assurance of qualifications
In practice, with exception of higher education, 
quality assurance in qualifications is little developed 
in the country. In VET in particular, it is highly 
fragmented.

In higher education, the institutional lead lies with 
the HEA, the Agency for the Development of 
Higher Education and Quality Assurance based 
in Banja Luka (but covering all of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina). In recent years, it has conducted 
accreditation of higher education institutions, private 
and public, of which several offer short-cycle, level 5 
qualifications, which are vocational in orientation. 
To date, this has been general accreditation 
as providers, not for programmes or individual 
qualifications. The agency has also been updating 
quality assurance procedures in higher education, to 
meet the Bologna Process’ European Standards and 
Guidelines. 

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Volume II: National and regional casesThe Baseline Qualifications Framework document of 
2011 refers in general terms to standards but does 
not go beyond this level; the Action Plan specifies a 
timetable to develop quality assurance measures, 
including development of occupational standards; 
the EU project developed methodologies to support 
the design of new qualifications, which includes 
quality criteria. 

use of qualifications, minimal external assessment, 
and fragmented functions among the many actors. 
There are good cases of quality assurance practice, 
e.g. some qualifications are written in learning 
outcomes, there is some validation of qualifications, 
but there is no consistency across the system or 
country.

The Agency for the Development of Higher 
Education and Quality Assurance is an affiliated 
member of the European Association of Quality 
Assurance in Higher education (ENQA) and plans to 
apply for full membership. 

In higher education, quality assurance is regulated 
by the Agency for the Development of Higher 
Education and Quality Assurance. Higher education 
institutions develop programmes and qualifications, 
validated for use by the agency.

VET is more complex. APOSO develops qualification 
standards and assessment criteria but schools do 
the assessment, which is mainly internal. Ministries 
and cantons are the principal awarding bodies: it is 
their stamps which appear on certificates.

Neither in VET nor in higher education are there yet 
agreed criteria for validation of qualifications, which 
would support quality and levelling of qualifications 
in the NQF. The EU-funded project developed 
guidelines including standards and criteria for 
external evaluation and self-assessment based 
on best European practices and models. Most 
assessment remains in-school or internal, though 
for matura, the school-leaving exam, a pilot was 
developed, which included external assessment. 

A Manual for Enhancement of Vocational 
Qualifications was developed by the EU-funded 
project ‘Qualifications Framework for Lifelong 
Learning’. The manual is a result of the working 
group composed of representatives of all 
competent education authorities and other key 
partner institutions, and it is intended for all 
institutions and bodies involved in developing the 
basic elements of the qualifications framework 
(occupational standards, qualification standards, 
curricula and programmes, use of learning 
outcomes). The manual is directly linked to the 
training programme for enhancement of VET 
qualifications, which includes additional material for 
training qualifications developers.

The main issue and challenges for quality assurance 
of qualifications are the lack of comparable 
education or occupational standards, the lack of 
agreed criteria for development and validation for 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Validation of non-formal and informal learning is 
part of the action plan but there is no country-wide 
system as yet. Individual providers offer it for access 
to programmes, while the German development 
agency GIZ developed the ‘competence passport’ to 
support recognition of adult and adult learner skills. 
Validation of non-formal and informal learning is at 
the ad hoc stage in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A first 
concept was developed by a working group under 
the EU-funded project ‘Qualifications Frameworks 
for Lifelong Learning’, but no other development has 
been registered. 

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
There is currently no register or database at national 
level, although APOSO (see above) maintains 
a general overview of existing and new VET 
qualifications, and the Higher Education Agency of 
higher education qualifications. Creation of the BQF 
web portal is foreseen in the near future within the 
EU-funded project on qualification frameworks in 
VET and adult education.

The ETF conducted an inventory of vocational 
qualifications in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2017, 
comprising all types of qualification from level 2 up 
to level 5. The inventory includes 1 155 vocational 
qualifications, of which 836 are formal, obtained in 
vocational schools, while 319 are obtained through 
lifelong learning programmes. The largest number 
of qualifications comes from formal VET at levels 3 
and 4. Only six qualifications are at level 2, while at 
level 5, 88 qualifications were collected. Looking at 
the number of qualifications at each level, it could 
be concluded that further development of the 
qualifications at level 2 might be required, especially 
given the need to provide qualifications for long-
term unemployed adults and persons with special 
needs.

Vocational qualifications at levels 3 and 4 are 
classified in 13 occupation families. More than 

114

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKShalf of the 742 qualifications at these levels 
(56.1%) were developed in 1995 and 1996 and 
they need to be revised. The greatest numbers of 
qualifications are found in two occupation groups: 
metal processing (20.3%) and electrical engineering 
(15.8%). However, the number of students per 
group shows that economics, law, administration 
and trade is the most popular group. At level 5, 
structural modernisation from old qualifications 
for ‘high skilled worker’ to new ‘master-craftsman’ 
represents a challenge for all educational authorities.

Learning outcomes are not used at level 2 and only 
in very few cases at level 5. However, about 43% of 
the most popular qualifications at levels 3 and 4 are 
based on learning outcomes. Learning outcomes 
are a compulsory element and a requirement for 
each qualification to be placed into the qualifications 
framework and the process of designing learning 
outcomes-based qualifications will be one of the 
greatest challenges in dealing with vocational 
qualifications. Curricula for the aforementioned 
419 qualifications that contain learning outcomes 
have them only at the level of the module, but not 
as an exit profile of the entire qualification.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of BQF 
implementation have not been fully defined yet, but 
the Intersectoral Committee will have an important 
role in this process. No monitoring or assessment 
has been conducted as yet.

Impact for end-users
The BQF is not being used yet as a reference 
system or tool by learners, providers and workers.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Bosnia and Herzegovina has been a potential 
candidate for EU accession since 2013. The 
Stabilisation and Association Agreement entered 
into force on 1 June 2015. The country joined 
the EQF advisory group in October 2015 as a full 

member. Making the BQF ready for referencing to 
the EQF is, therefore, a priority. Similarly, Bosnia and 
Herzegovina participates in the Bologna Process in 
higher education, whose requirements include self-
certification against the qualifications framework for 
the European higher education area.

Important lessons and future plans

EU projects will deliver useful tools such as 
qualifications development methodologies, and lay 
groundwork for elements such as quality assurance 
systems, but these technical advances will not have 
an impact on qualification or VET systems in the 
country without political backing. This means, in the 
first instance, re-establishment of the Intersectoral 
Committee and creation of a BQF Council at political 
level.

Vocational training reform has initiated changes 
in almost all education functions, but its quality 
remains a challenge, particularly in terms of learning 
outcomes, accreditation of training providers and 
programmes, and teaching and learning. The reform 
has continued to focus on bringing vocational 
training closer to labour market needs.

The complex institutional arrangements with state 
institutions which have very limited mandates 
makes the overall pace of reform slower than might 
otherwise be the case. 

Implementation of the Action Plan for the BQF 
is far behind its own schedule. While the EU 
projects have performed much of the technical 
work necessary to implement the Action Plan, the 
completion of both projects by now may create a 
hiatus between the design of those methodologies 
and its adoption and further implementation. 
There needs to be a sustained follow-up of 
implementation of the NQF infrastructure, with the 
necessary allocation of financial resources from 
Bosnia and Herzegovina public funds at all relevant 
government levels.

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 11. NQF structure (annex to the BQF)

LEVEL 

TYPE OF 
EDUCATION AND 
TRAINING 

QUALIFICATIONS TITLES 
(POSITION IN THE 
LABOUR MARKET)

AWARD TYPE 
(DIPLOMA/CERTIFICATE/EDUCATION 
LEVEL)

1

2

3

4

5

Elementary education Unskilled worker 

Occupational training 
programmes 

Low-skilled worker 

Vocational education 
and training 

Skilled worker for a certain 
occupation 

Secondary technical 
education

Specialised skilled worker 
for technical and related 
occupation  

Secondary general 
education 

Generally skilled worker 

Postsecondary 
education, including 
master craftsman 
exams and similar 
exams 

Highly skilled worker 
specialised for a certain 
occupation 

Certificate on completed elementary 
education

Certificate on completed programme or 
education for lower level occupational 
qualifications, which contains the following 
information:  
- duration of education; 
-  knowledge, skills and competence 

acquired;

- field of work a person is trained for. 

Diploma/certificate of final examination 
(matriculation) with practical work, 
including a supplement which contains the 
following information: 
- level of qualifications; 
-  knowledge, skills and competence 

acquired;

- field of work a person is trained for. 

Diploma/certificate of secondary 
graduation with a supplement which 
contains the following information: 
- level of qualifications; 
-  field of major study, specific knowledge, 

skills and competence acquired;

- field of work a person is trained for. 

Secondary school graduation diploma with 
a supplement containing the following 
information: 
- level of qualifications; 
-  major field of study with specific 

knowledge, skills and competence 
acquired;

-  other knowledge, skills and competence 

acquired by a person. 

Diploma/certificate of completed post-
secondary education or passed master 
craftsman exam and/or similar exam for 
a certain occupation, with a supplement 
containing the following information:  
- level of qualifications; 
- duration of education; 
-  major field of study or type of exam 

passed, indicating specific knowledge, 
skills and competence acquired;

-  other types of knowledge, skills and 

competence acquired; 

- field of work a person is trained for. 

116

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 11. NQF structure (annex to the BQF) (Continued)

LEVEL 

TYPE OF 
EDUCATION AND 
TRAINING 

QUALIFICATIONS TITLES 
(POSITION IN THE 
LABOUR MARKET)

AWARD TYPE 
(DIPLOMA/CERTIFICATE/EDUCATION 
LEVEL)

6

7

8

First cycle of higher 
education 

Second cycle of 
higher education 

Third cycle of higher 
education

Titles of qualifications and 
contents of diploma and 
diploma supplement for 
levels 6, 7 and 8 will at a 
later stage include relevant 
NQF/EQF levels and will be 
further elaborated by the 
adoption of the Rulebook 
on Use of Academic Titles 
and Acquisition of Scientific 
and Professional Titles. 
The title of the bylaw is 
defined under Article 6 of 
the Framework Law on 
Higher Education in Bosnia 
and Herzegovina (Official 
Gazette, No 59/07).

- BA 
-  Diploma issued by the institution of 

higher education

-   Diploma supplement in English and local 

language

- MA 
- Master’s level diploma 
-  Diploma supplement in English and local 

language

- PhD 
- Doctorate diploma 
-  Diploma supplement in English and local 

language

Abbreviations
APOSO  

Agency for Pre-primary, Primary, and 
Secondary Education (includes VET)
Bosnia and Herzegovina baseline 
qualifications framework
European qualifications framework
European Training Foundation
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur 
Internationale Zusammenarbeit 
(German Technical Assistance 
Agency)
Instrument for Pre-accession 
Assistance (the EU’s support 
programme for candidate and 
potential candidate countries)
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

BQF  

EQF  
ETF 
GIZ  

IPA  

NQF  
VET 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

117

Volume II: National and regional casesBULGARIA

Introduction and context

Bulgaria is reforming all levels of education as a 
political priority. Although measures do not yet 
match the magnitude of challenges, there is an 
increased focus on reducing early school leaving, 
increasing teacher salaries, introducing dual 
learning, improving digital skills and strengthening 
inclusive education. The rate of early school leaving 
has fallen for the first time since 2011. The rate in 
2017 was 12.7%, but remains above EU average 
of 10.6%. Early school leaving is particularly high in 
rural areas and among Roma. To tackle early school 
leaving Bulgaria has launched multidisciplinary 
teams of teachers, social workers, Roma mediators 
and other experts to identify out-of-school children 
and return them to education. Although not 
reflected automatically in the rate of early school 
leaving, data suggests that almost half of the 
children who dropped out of primary and lower 
secondary education in 2016/17 have emigrated, 
the figure being one quarter of dropouts in upper 
secondary. However, the data collection and 
monitoring system is insufficiently developed. The 
percentage of underachievers in science, maths and 
reading is around double the EU average, explained 
by a combination of education and equity factors. 
Low adult participation in lifelong learning (2.3% 
in 2017) coexists with skills mismatch and skills 
shortages. The skills of higher education graduates 
do not sufficiently match the needs of the jobs 
market. The employment rate of recent tertiary 
graduates increased by 8% to 86.5% and is now 
above the EU average (84.9%). However, skills 
shortages persist, particularly in the manufacturing, 
construction and digital sectors, as do skills 
mismatches. The employment rate of Bulgarian VET 
graduates is low; 59.1% of recent graduates were 
in employment in 2017, well below the EU average 
of 76.6% (European Commission, 2018). 

The Bulgarian national qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning (BQF) was adopted in 2012, to 
raise trust in the Bulgarian education system and to 
support mobility and recognition of qualifications. 
The framework was also seen as an enabler of 
national reform, with implications for setting up a 

system for validating non-formal learning, improving 
education and training quality, modernising curricula 
and strengthening provider accountability.

The BQF is a single, comprehensive, eight-
level framework with an additional preparatory 
level 0. It includes qualifications from all levels 
and subsystems of formal education and training: 
pre-primary103, primary and secondary general 
education, vocational education and training (VET), 
and higher education, described in terms of learning 
outcomes. At this stage, the framework is restricted 
to qualifications from the formal education and 
training system.

The BQF is now firmly embedded in the national 
legislation; implementation, though, is in its early 
stages. The referencing report was adopted by 
the Minister for Education and Science in March 
2014 and amendments to national legislation will 
support implementation. A new pre-school and 
school education bill was adopted in late 2015104 
and is expected to lead to amendment of the BQF 
at secondary education levels. Two bills amending 
and supplementing the Law on vocational training105 
support the BQF, with legal arrangements for 
validation of non-formal and independent (informal) 
learning, for learning outcomes units, and for 
introduction of the VET credits accumulation and 
transfer system. 

The BQF was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and self-certified 
against the qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA) in May 

103  Two years of pre-school education before first grade are 

mandatory.

104  Pre-school and School Education Act. State Gazette, 

No 79, 13.10.2015. In force since 1.8.2016.

105  Bill No 354-01-76 amending and supplementing the law 

on vocational education and training. Available in Bulgarian 
at the National Assembly website: http://parliament.bg/
bills/42/354-01-76.pdf

Bill No 354-01-88 amending and supplementing the law 
on vocational education and training. Available in Bulgarian 
at the National Assembly website: http://parliament.bg/
bills/42/354-01-88.pdf

118

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS2013. The referencing report has not yet been 
published on the official EQF website.

State education requirements for contents and 
expected learning outcomes in the national education 
system (general and VET) and in higher education. 

Policy objectives

The overall objective of developing and introducing 
a comprehensive national qualifications framework 
(NQF) compatible with the EQF and the QF-EHEA is 
to make Bulgarian education system levels clearer 
and easier to understand by describing them in 
terms of learning outcomes. This will also improve 
understanding of national qualifications among 
target groups and stakeholders. It is hoped that this 
will raise trust in education and training and make 
mobility and recognition of qualifications easier. 
More specific aims addressed by BQF development 
include (Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and 
Science, 2013):

a.  develop a device with translation and bridging 

functions;

b.  promote mobility within education and in the 

labour market;

c.  promote learning-outcomes orientation of 

qualifications;

d.  support validation of prior learning, including non-

formal and informal learning;

e.  strengthen orientation towards a lifelong learning 

approach;
increase cooperation between stakeholders. 

f. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The BQF comprises eight levels and an additional 
preparatory level (BQF level ‘zero’, covering  
pre-school education). Level descriptors take into 
account EQF and QF-EHEA descriptors. All levels 
are described in terms of knowledge (theoretical 
and factual), skills described as cognitive (use 
of logical and creative thinking) and practical 
(manual dexterity and use of methods, materials, 
tools and instruments), and competences. 
Competence descriptors distinguish between 
personal and professional competences. Personal 
competences include autonomy and responsibility, 
and key elements such as learning competences, 
communicative and social competences are also 
emphasised. Learning-outcomes-based qualification 
levels are expected to give learning outcomes a 
more prominent role in planning education provision 
(Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science, 
2013). This is especially the case in developing VET 
standards divided into units of learning outcomes.

Specified learning outcomes at the qualification 
levels reflect the legal acts governing different 
subsystems of education and training, as well as 

The national strategy for lifelong learning for the 
period 2008–13106 does not stop at providing a 
definition of the term ‘learning outcomes’; one of 
its priorities (along with vocational training, key 
competences and recognition of qualifications) 
is ‘assessment of learning outcomes’. Learning 
outcomes (in Bulgarian: резултати от учене) are 
defined as ‘acquired knowledge and skills as a 
result of formal, non-formal and independent 
(informal) learning’107. In January 2014, the Council 
of Ministers adopted the new national strategy for 
lifelong learning (for 2014–20)108 which addresses 
the challenges in all forms of education, training 
and learning – formal, non-formal, independent 
(informal) – which an individual could undertake 
throughout his/her life. The new national strategy 
for lifelong learning, like the previous one, provides 
explanation of the phrase ‘learning outcomes’ and 
contains a definition of the term ‘learning outcome 
units’ (in Bulgarian: единици учебни резултати)109; 
this is understood as ‘a component of qualification, 
consisting of a coherent set of knowledge, skills 
and competences, which could be assessed and 
validated through a certain number of credit points, 
linked to them’. As a whole, the term learning 
outcomes is widely used in the strategy.

Although the phrase learning outcomes is not 
so widespread in policy documents on general 
education, it is used or referred to in national 
curriculum, assessment and examination 
documents, particularly in State education 
standards110. However, an action plan for 
implementing the approach has not been adopted 
nor discussed in the country. The current position in 

106  National strategy for lifelong learning for 2008–13 (in 

Bulgarian: Национална стратегия за учене през целия 
живот за периода 2008–13), adopted by the Council  
of Ministers on 30.10.2008. Available in Bulgarian at: 
www.strategy.bg/FileHandler.ashx?fileId=690 

107  National strategy for lifelong learning for 2008–13, p. 34. 
www.mon.bg/upload/6561/strategy_LLL_2014_2020.pdf

108  National strategy for lifelong learning for 2014–20 (in 

Bulgarian: Национална стратегия за учене през целия 
живот за периода 2014–20), adopted by the Council  
of Ministers on 10.1.2014; available in Bulgarian at:  
www.strategy.bg/FileHandler.ashx?fileId=4297
109  Note that there is a slight difference between the 

terminology used for ‘learning outcomes units’ in the 
Bill amending and supplementing the Law on vocational 
education and training and that used in the National 
strategy for lifelong learning for 2014–20. In the former 
the wording is ‘единици резултати от ученето’, whereas 
in the latter it is ‘единици учебни резултати’.

110  The term ‘standard’ has been adopted instead of the term 
‘requirement’ since 1 August 2016 with the new law for 
school and preschool education.

119

Volume II: National and regional casesthe various subsystems shows that implementation 
of the approach has continued in the new State 
education standards adopted after the new law on 
pre-school and school education entered into force. 
It is also in the new State education requirements 
on acquisition of higher education in regulated 
professions, adopted after the BQF entered  
into force.

Two bills amending the law on VET introduce the 
term and a legal definition of it. State education 
standards and examination requirements, especially 
those for acquiring vocational qualifications, have 
been updated (or new ones developed), to describe 
or to refer to learning outcomes. This update is 
a prerequisite for implementing the validation 
procedure and awarding of credits.

Higher education institutions are autonomous 
and responsible for developing curriculum, 
assessment and examination rules; some have 
learning outcomes within study programmes, 
so implementation differs from one institution to 
another. The New Bulgarian University is an example 
of an institution using learning outcomes in its 
study programmes111. The Burgas Free University 
also uses learning outcomes in some of its master 
programme courses112. However, there is no 
systematic approach for implementing a learning 
outcome approach in higher education. According 
to a Cedefop study (2016), the law on higher 
education in Bulgaria113, which governs accreditation 
of universities, does not stress the importance of 
learning outcomes for the accreditation process.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Education and Science of the 
Republic of Bulgaria coordinated and led the 
drafting of the BQF and is now coordinating its 
implementation. National coordination point (NCP) 
responsibilities lie with the International and 
European Cooperation Directorate in this ministry. 
Following the adoption of amendments to the 
EQF recommendation (May 2017), a working 
group has been mandated to update the BQF. 
The National Agency for Vocational Education and 
Training (NAVET) has been involved in developing 

111  New Bulgarian University, e-catalogue: http://ecatalog.

nbu.bg/Default.asp?V_Year=2013

112  Burgas Free University, Master programmes: www.bfu.

bg/index.php?q=node/1793

and updating the list of qualifications for VET, which 
is integrated in the BQF. Sustained efforts are 
required for the BQF to achieve its aims (Cedefop, 
forthcoming).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways114

Validation arrangements currently exist in general, 
vocational and adult education, but not in higher 
education. The Vocational Education and Training Act 
(VETA) was amended in 2014 to include a procedure 
for validation, to establish equivalence between 
vocational knowledge, skills and competences 
acquired through non-formal or informal learning 
and VET standards related to a specific professional 
qualification (Article 40, State Gazette, No 61/2014). 
In relation to this, Ordinance No 2 on the 
conditions and procedures for the validation of 
professional knowledge, skills and competences 
was approved and has been in force since 2015 
(State Gazette, No 96/2014). It defines validation 
stages, requirements for assessors, procedural 
requirements and types of validation certificate 
to be issued. It also sets in place an institutional 
framework with clear allocation of responsibilities 
and coordination between public institutions and 
social partners, which is one of the strengths of 
the current system. Recent amendments to the 
Pre-school and School Education Act (in force since 
2016), brought it in line with VETA and introduced 
opportunities to acquire a vocational qualification in 
the new secondary education structure (Cedefop, 
2018). Validation provides access to general 
education, VET and/or facilitates access to the 
labour market.

In VET, validation includes two main stages. The 
first, ‘identification of professional knowledge, 
skills and competences acquired by a candidate’ is 
further subdivided into sub-stages: determination 
of the professional field and profession; preliminary 
comparison of the declared professional knowledge, 
skills and competences with the learning outcomes 
included in the VET standard; guidance on 
additional training where necessary and verification 
of acquired professional knowledge, skills and 
competences; and assessment by examination 
in the theory and practice of the profession. The 
second stage refers to the recognition of the 
professional qualification or partial professional 
qualification (Article 6, State Gazette, No 96/2014). 

113  Law on higher education (in Bulgarian: Закон за висшето 
образование). State Gazette, No 112, 27.12.1995. Last 
amendment: State Gazette, No 101, 22.11.2013. Available 
in Bulgarian at: http://lex.bg/laws/ldoc/2133647361

114  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

120

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe standards used for validation are the same 
as the VET standards used in formal education 
and training. Where VET standards for a particular 
vocational qualification do not exist, the approved 
curriculum for the respective profession is applied.

While there are no explicit quality assurance 
indicators for validation, current legislation stipulates 
that institutions have to put in place internal 
quality assurance systems. The project System 
for validation of non-formal acquired knowledge, 
skills and competences: new opportunity for my 
future (2013–15), implemented by the Ministry 
of Education and Science in cooperation with 
the National Agency for Vocational Education 
and Training, other relevant ministries and social 
partners, contributed to developing internal quality 
assurance mechanisms related to assessing 
evidence of previous learning. Training was provided 
to validation practitioners in VET and a Manual 
for vocational schools for validating non-formal 
and informal learning was developed, providing 
methodological guidelines and instruments (such 
as comparative tables) for assessing equivalence 
between competences declared by a candidate and 
those defined for a specific vocational qualification 
in the corresponding VET standard.

The BQF has among its aims to facilitate validation 
and recognition of prior learning, including non-
formal and informal learning and work-based 
training, by virtue of presenting detailed descriptions 
of learning outcomes in line with State education 
standards. Each unit of learning outcomes 
can be independently assessed and validated. 
However, at this stage the framework is restricted 
to qualifications from the formal education and 
training system. Certificates acquired through 
validation differ from issued VET certificates, as in 
title and description: the former describe validated 
competences115 and the latter subjects of education. 

Bulgaria has used the European Credit Transfer 
System (ECTS) in higher education from 2004 and 
is implementing the European Credit System in 
Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) as a part 
of the National lifelong learning strategy. Credit 
transfer and accumulation has been introduced in 
the VET system with amendments to the VET Act in 
July 2014.

The project New chance for success (2014–20), 
implemented under the Science and education for 
smart growth operational programme (2014–20), 
enables validation arrangements for disadvantaged 

115  A demo version of a certificate for validation is available 
in Bulgarian at: www.navet.government.bg/bg/media/
Svidetelstvo_validirane.pdf 

groups, including unemployed individuals and those 
at risk of unemployment. It provides literacy and 
basic education courses and awards certificates that 
allow access to general secondary education or to 
training for the acquisition of a VET qualification at 
BQF/EQF level 2.

NQF implementation

The qualifications framework is firmly based on 
national legislation, adopted by the Council of 
Ministers116 and further legislatively embedded in 
the Pre-school and School Education Act 2015, in 
force since August 2016. The BQF, as proposed for 
referencing, is a classification framework: its future 
reforming role to support development and revision 
of qualifications and quality assurance arrangements 
is acknowledged. The BQF is embedded in wider 
educational reforms; legislative changes have been 
introduced to strengthen BQF implementation 
and curricula and provision will be modernised. In 
accordance with Article 141 of the law for preschool 
and school education117, all new qualification 
certificates, diplomas and Europass documents will 
be referenced to the relevant BQF level, linked to 
the corresponding EQF level.

Currently, the BQF comprises all education stages 
and levels (from pre-school to doctoral level); it can 
be regarded as a comprehensive framework. VET 
can start quite early (at age of 13) and is spread 
over four levels in the BQF (levels 2 to 5), starting 
with the ‘first level’ of a vocational qualification 
placed at level 2, along with the basic education 
certificate. Levels 3 and 4 comprise lower and upper 
secondary stages and include the ‘second and third 
level’ of a vocational qualification, along with general 
education. Level 5 comprises VET only; the ‘fourth 
level’ of a vocational qualification is placed here. This 
is the most advanced (post-secondary) vocational 
qualification. Levels 6 to 8 relate to qualifications 
obtained in higher education: bachelor, master 
and doctor degrees. However, it is restricted to 
qualifications from formal education and training; 
levels 6 to 8 are limited to qualifications awarded by 
higher education institutions. 

116  Decision of the Council of Ministers No 96 of 2 February 

2012 on the adoption of the national qualifications 
framework of the Republic of Bulgaria.

117  Law on pre-school and school education, State Gazette, 
No 79/2015, www.mon.bg/?h=downloadFile&fileId=8245

121

Volume II: National and regional casesReferencing to regional frameworks 

Bulgaria delivered a joint referencing report in May 
2013, referencing the BQF to the EQF and the 
QF-EHEA. The referencing report has not yet been 
published the on official EQF website. 

Important lessons and future plans

The BQF aims to increase transparency in education 
and training and aid knowledge and skills transfer, 
improving labour force mobility. Level descriptors 
defined in learning outcomes aim to provide a 
reference point and common language for diverse 
qualifications from different education subsystems. 
By referring to education levels and State education 
standards, the BQF has been given a strong input 
orientation. It is expected, however, that learning-
outcomes-based level descriptors will play an 
important role in supporting dialogue and that 
discussion among stakeholders will strengthen 
the learning-outcomes dimension in qualifications 
design. This is work in progress. 

The framework can play an important role, if it 
is part of a wider strategic policy resulting in 

Bulgarian qualifications framework (BQF)

necessary reform and institutional regulations. 
Although it is an explicit aim of BQF work to 
strengthen orientation towards a lifelong learning 
approach, it remains a challenge that lifelong 
learning aspects are inadequately focused. There is 
little information so far on system flexibility and the 
conditions and role of the framework for promoting 
lifelong learning and supporting access, progression 
and adult participation.

Future plans include modernisation of curricula 
in schools and higher education, and promotional 
activities. Implementing the BQF at institutional 
level is seen as a major challenge, particularly by 
higher education institutions. Among employers 
there is insufficient understanding of the differences 
between bachelor and master degrees. 

Stakeholders (including State institutions) in some 
economic sectors (IT, machinery, transport) have 
recently started discussions regarding sectoral 
qualifications on levels 2 to 7 of the BQF, including 
labour market needs, current possibilities, horizontal 
and vertical permeability. This might be perceived 
as a step towards development of a sectoral 
qualifications framework.

BQF 
LEVELS

BQF

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Doctor degree
Continuing training

Master degree
Continuing training

Bachelor degree
Degree of ‘professional bachelor in…’
Continuing training

Vocational qualification-level 4

Upper secondary general education school leaving certificate
Vocational qualification-level 3

Lower secondary school leaving certificate
Vocational qualification-level 2

Basic education certificate (class five to eight)
Vocational qualification-level 1

Primary education certificate

Pre-primary education

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

N/A

Source: Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science, 2013.

122

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
BQF 
EQF 
NQF 

Bulgarian qualifications framework
European qualifications framework
national qualifications framework

QF-EHEA 

VET 
VETA 

qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training
Vocational Education and Training Act

Main sources of information

International and European Cooperation Directorate in the Ministry of Education, Youth and Science – 

designated as the EQF national coordination point: www.mon.bg/en/303

Bulgarian referencing report to the European qualifications QF and to the qualifications framework for 
the European higher education area (Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science (2013)) 
[unpublished].

References

Bulgarian Ministry of Education, Youth and Science (2013). Referencing the NQF of the Republic of Bulgaria 
to the EQF and to the qualifications framework for the European higher education area [unpublished].

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–18, country 

chapter Bulgaria. Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies.

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Bulgaria. https://ec.europa.eu/
education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-bulgaria_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report Bulgaria. 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

123

Volume II: National and regional casesCHINA

Introduction and context

China is the most populous country in the world, 
with nearly 1.4 billion inhabitants, and also the 
largest developing country in the world: its per 
capita GDP is only two-thirds of the global average 
and ranks around 72 in the world (IMF, 2018). The 
number of people living below the poverty line 
exceeds 30 million (SCLGOPAD, 2018), with the 
majority of the country’s poor living in rural areas. 
Consequently, reducing poverty is central to the 
government’s national development strategy.

China offers a state-run system of public education 
which took its current shape between 1977 and 
1980 and is managed by the Ministry of Education. 
All citizens must attend school for at least nine 
years, known as ‘nine-year compulsory education’. 
This is funded by Chinese Government and includes 
six years of primary education, starting at age 
six or seven, and three years of junior secondary 
education for ages 12 to 15. After junior secondary 
school, there is an option to attend three years 
of senior secondary school, which completes the 
secondary education. Since 1982, the number 
of private primary and secondary schools has 
increased year on year, and the number of enrolled 
students has grown to 18.9 million, accounting for 
10.2% of the student population in 2017  
(MoE, 2018a).

China has different types of formal higher education: 
‘for-degree’ and ‘not-for-degree’ education, full- and 
part-time education, as well as open and distance 
higher education. According to data for 2017 (ibid.), 
there are 2,868 higher education institutions (HEIs) 
in China, out of which 1,243 universities and 
1,388 higher vocational colleges. In addition, there 
are 282 adult learning and education institutions, 
including 45 single-mode distance education 
institutions (including six open universities and 
39 radio and TV universities). The gross enrolment 
rate for higher education is 45.7%, and there are 
2,576 college students for every 100,000 people. 
Formal education institutes are accredited as legal 

entities and approved by the government (ibid.). 
There are a further 747 non-government HEIs in 
China, including 265 independent institutions118 and 
one adult HEI119, catering to a total of 6.8 million 
students (ibid.).

China’s National Vocational Qualification Certificate 
System (NVQCS) was introduced in 1993 by the 
Ministry of Labour (now called the Ministry of 
Human Resources and Social Security). It is an 
essential part of the Chinese labour employment 
system and includes a national examination 
conducted by assessment agencies approved by the 
government. Accreditation is granted following the 
assessment of skill levels or vocational qualifications 
provided by an institute; these, in turn, are based 
on vocational skill standards or qualification 
requirements established by the government 
(MHRSS, 2019). 

In June 2012, the Department of Vocational and 
Adult Education of the Ministry of Education 
entrusted the Open University of China (OUC) to 
carry out the project ‘Research and Practice of the 
National Continuing Education Learning Outcomes 
Accreditation, Accumulation and Transfer System’. 
To this end, OUC established a qualifications 
framework, which, in the form of credit banks, 
aims to accredit, accumulate and transfer learning 
outcomes among vocational, continuing and adult 
learning institutes. 

118  Chinese independent colleges are run by private 

education providers, which are affiliated to a degree-
awarding institution known as the ‘mother’ HEI. The link 
between the college and HEI are approved by the Ministry 
of Education in China but the colleges are independent 
from the ‘mother’ HEI in terms of admission, teaching and 
funding. 

119  Adult HEIs provide higher education for adults in 

accordance with the national standards and approval 
procedures. The enrolled students need to pass the 
national adult higher education entrance examination 
and have a senior high school diploma or equivalent 
qualifications. The courses are mainly part-time, with 
various teaching and learning modes such as open and 
distance learning, online learning, blended learning, etc.

124

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSIn 2016, Guangdong Province established 
‘Guangdong Lifelong Education Qualifications 
Framework Level Standard’ with an aim to connect 
various types of education and learning institutions 
in order to develop ‘growth pathways’. It is the 
first standardized qualifications framework jointly 
established by various government departments, 
educational institutions and industries in China. 
In March 2017, the Guangdong Provincial Quality 
and Technical Supervision Bureau approved a 
‘Guangdong Lifelong Education Qualifications 
Framework Level Standard’, China’s first 
qualifications framework standard at provincial level.

From an educational perspective, the government’s 
aim was to:

•  connect every level and form of learning and 

establish a way to measure learning outcomes; 

•  enable the credits earned in continuing 

education to be accumulated and transferred so 
that the recognition and validation of different 
kinds of learning outcomes could be achieved;
•  ensure the comparability and transparency of the 

learning outcomes;
facilitate equal access to quality education.

• 

From a social perspective, the aim was to:

Although China has made great efforts to develop 
its NVQCS and qualifications framework, inequalities 
persist with regard to education and economy 
across the country. Furthermore, several industry 
sectors still need to be modernized or integrated in 
the context of China’s economic transformation. It 
is a challenge to stipulate a nationwide standard or 
qualifications framework that is applied in all regions 
and cities and across all industries and occupations. 

•  enhance the acceptance of qualifications by 

• 

society and the labour market;
improve the quality of the labour force and the 
development of the society and economy;

•  strengthen the international competitiveness of 
the labour force in response to the challenges of 
the knowledge-economy; 

•  promote nationwide lifelong learning.

Another challenge pertains to international 
comparability of qualifications. With the 
development of the economy and increasing 
globalization, more Chinese students are travelling 
abroad to study. According to the OECD Education 
Report 2016, over 600,000 Chinese students 
studied abroad in 2016 (OECD, 2018). In addition, 
the export of labour has increased over the years: 
in 2000, an estimated 425,667 Chinese citizens 
emigrated for work; in 2016, this number rose to 
969,000 (MoC, 2017). China therefore needs to 
build a unified qualification framework in order to 
strengthen the comparability of qualifications and 
promote international mobility.

A third and final challenge applies to the mismatch 
between the labour market and technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET) providers. 
There is insufficient cooperation between TVET 
institutions and employers within workplace 
training, which is compulsory for students enrolled 
in higher vocational education institutes. There is 
also an insufficient planning to meet the needs of 
the labour market. The coordination between labour 
supply and demand sides is also poor (OECD, 
2018). 

Policy objectives

In 2010, China issued the National Plan for Medium 
and Long-Term Education Reform and Development 
(2010–2020), wherein the Ministry of Education 
proposed establishing pathways of lifelong learning 
in the education and training system (MoE, 2010).

From the personal perspective, the aim was to:

•  provide more choices to meet the various 
learning needs for personal and career 
development;
respect the learning outcomes of learners from 
different learning settings (formal, non-formal 
and informal);

• 

•  establish self-directed learning pathways; 
• 

improve individual competence. 

The 2013 Communiqué of the Third Plenary Session 
of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist 
Party of China proposed transferring credits among 
conventional education, vocational education 
and continuing education in order to develop the 
practice of lifelong learning in the country. The 
following year, Chinese President Xi Jinping, at 
the fourth meeting of the Central Comprehensive 
Deepening Reform Leading Group, called for the 
establishment of a lifelong learning overpass that 
connects and communicates various categories 
of education and recognizes a variety of learning 
outcomes. This led in 2016 to a newly revised 
education law promoting ‘mutual recognition and 
transfer of different types of learning outcomes to 
promote lifelong learning for all’.

The ‘Thirteenth Five-Year Plan for National Economic 
and Social Development of the People’s Republic 
of China’ promulgated in 2016 (hereinafter referred 
to as the ‘13th Five-Year Outline’) proposed the 
establishment of a personal learning account 
and credit accumulative system to smooth the 
continuing education and lifelong learning channel, 

125

Volume II: National and regional casesformulate a national qualifications framework, and 
promote the credit transfer and mutual recognition 
of non-degree education learning outcomes and 
vocational skills levels. The plan also proposed the 
development of a national qualifications framework 
in China.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NVQCS has five levels (see Table 12); 
occupational standards are key to the system. 
A certificate is proof that the holder has the 
knowledge and skills essential for the practice of 
the occupation in question, and qualifies the holder 
to set up a business in China. 

Table 13 illustrates the corresponding relationship 
between NVQCs and two other sub-frameworks. 

The NVQC is designed for specialized industries, 
such as the medical and law industries, without 
which workers cannot be employed by these 
industries. ‘PC’ is the entrance examination of an 
occupation.

The Qualification Certificate for Professional and 
Technical Personnel (QCPTP) is designed for 
white-collar workers and has its own levels: junior, 
intermediate and senior. 

The Qualification Certificate for Skilled Workers 
(QCSW) is designed for blue-collar workers. In 
China, in contrast to other countries, 1 is the highest 
level and 5 is the lowest level. 

Table 12. Levels and competence demands of China’s NVQC 

LEVEL

NAME OF THE CERTIFICATE

COMPETENCE DEMAND

5

4

3

2

1

Primary worker certificate

Able to complete regular work independently with basic 
skills.

Intermediate worker certificate

Advanced worker certificate

Technician certificate

Senior technician certificate

In addition to the requirements of Level 5, Level 4 
certificate holders are also able to cooperate with other 
workers and carry out more complicated work with 
specialized skills in certain situations.

Able to complete complex and irregular work with 
specialized skills and special competences skilfully; to 
master the key skills of his/her own occupation; to deal 
with and solve technical challenges independently; to 
make innovation in technology; to organize and supervise 
other workers; to train general staff.

Able to carry out complicated work, including irregular 
work with basic skills and specialized competence; 
to deal with problems happening in the workplace 
independently; to supervise other workers and assist 
training of general staff.

Able to complete complex and irregular work with 
specialized skills and special competence in every area 
of his/her own occupation; to master the key operation 
skills of his/her own occupation skilfully; to deal with and 
solve high-difficult challenges independently; to make 
innovation in technology; to organize technical reform 
and innovation; to hold systematic training of specialized 
skills.

Source: MHRSS, 2018.

126

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 13. Corresponding relationship of China’s NVQC with QCPTP and QCSW

LEVELS

NVQC

QCPTP

QCSW

5

4

3

2

1

Primary worker certificate

Intermediate worker certificate

/

/

Primary worker certificate

Intermediate worker certificate

Advanced worker certificate

Junior

Technician certificate

Intermediate

Senior technician certificate

Senior

/

/

/

Source: MHRS, 2018.

Levels and use of learning outcomes of 
qualifications frameworks

Open University of China Qualifications 
Framework (OUCQF)
OUCQF consists of 10 qualification levels, with 
three domain descriptors for learning outcomes: 

knowledge (factual, technical and theoretical), 
skills (cognitive, technical, communicative and 
expressive), and competency (autonomy, judgment 
and responsibility in terms of the application 
of knowledge and skill). Up to now, OUC has 
established 70 learning outcome accreditation 
centres across the country, covering 31 provinces, 
cities and 20 industries (see Figure 5). 

Figure 5. Open university of china qualifications framework

Open University of China
Qualiﬁcations Framework

Conventional and vocational
education

Academic Vocational

Doctorate

Postgraduat certiﬁcate/
Master degree

Vocational
doctorate
Vocational
Master degree

Bachelor degree

Bachelor degree

Undergraduate 
certiﬁcate
Sub-degree
education (Grade 2)
Sub-degree
education (Grade 1)
Senior secondary
education (Grade 3)
Senior secondary
education (Grade 2)
Senior secondary
education (Grade 1)

Undergraduate 
certiﬁcate
Higher vocational 
education (Grade 2)
Higher vocational 
education (Grade 1)
Secondary vocational
education (Grade 3)
Secondary vocational
education (Grade 2)
Secondary vocational
education (Grade 1)

Junior secondary education

QF levels

Vocational Qualiﬁcations

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Advanced
NVQC

NVQC 1

NVQC 2

NVQC 3

NVQC 4

NVQC 5

National
vocational
qualiﬁcation
certiﬁcate
(NVQC)

Examination
level
certiﬁcate

Training
certiﬁcate

Training
program

Work qualiﬁcation, work experience, work skills, technological innovation, technical achievements, published works, cultural heritage,competition rewards

Learning outcomes of in-formal learning

Source: Zhang and Xie, 2017, p. 77

127

Volume II: National and regional casesGuangdong Lifelong Education Qualifications 
Framework (GDLEQF)
GDLEQF divides qualifications outcomes into 
seven levels; clarifies the relationship between 
general education, vocational education, training and 

performance; and establishes the standards of each 
level from the three dimensions of knowledge, skills 
and competency (see Figure 6). It is the first local 
standardized qualifications framework in China.

Figure 6. Guangdong lifelong education qualifications framework

Guangdong Lifelong Education
Qualiﬁcations Framework

Conventional
education

Vocational
education

QF levels

Vocational certiﬁcates and
awards

Postgraduate
/doctorate
Postgraduate
/academic master
Undergraduate
/bachelor

Sub degree education

Senior secondary
education

Postgraduate /
professional doctorate
Postgraduate /
professional master
Applied undergraduate
/bachelor

Higher vocational
education
Secondary vocational
education

Junior secondary education

Primary education

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

NVQC 1

NVQC 2

NVQC 3

NVQC 4

NVQC 5

(
N
V
Q
C
)

q
u
a
l
i

ﬁ
c
a
t
i
o
n

c
e
r
t
i
ﬁ
c
a
t
e

N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

v
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

c
e
r
t
i
ﬁ
c
a
t
e
s

P
r
o
f
e
s
s
i
o
n
a
l

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

c
e
r
t
i
ﬁ
c
a
t
e
s

A
w
a
r
d
s

Source: Zhang and Xie, 2017, p. 78

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

As of July 2016, there are 38 credit banks across 
China; these include lifelong learning credit banks, 
citizen credit banks, alliance credit banks120, adult 
college credit banks, vocational school credit 
banks, corporate credit banks and credit bank 
projects (Zhang et al., 2017). In order to bridge 
formal, non-formal and informal learning, some 
open universities, such as the Open University of 
China, Guangdong Open University, Shanghai Open 
University, Jiangsu Open University, Beijing Open 
University, Yunnan Open University and Chongqing 
Radio and Television University, also developed 

ways to implement pathways for the recognition, 
validation and accreditation of learning outcomes.

Since the establishment of the Shanghai Lifelong 
Education Credit Bank121 in 2012, for example, 
more than 730,000 learners have deposited over 
44 million learning outcomes. The credit bank forms 
a learner’s personal learning archive and the learners 
can apply for the conversion of learning outcomes 
according to set standards and procedures (Zhang 
and Zhang, 2017).

Meanwhile, the Open University of China Lifelong 
Education Credit Bank, based on the OUCQF, 
developed a learning achievement accreditation 
online platform as well as a mutual recognition 
alliance for learning outcomes. The projects that 
are currently being promoted include a teacher 

120  The alliance credit bank is a cooperative mechanism 

established by several institutions to realize the mutual 
recognition and transfer of learning outcomes, resource 
sharing, and types of courses.

121  Shanghai Lifelong Education Credit Bank is led by the 
Shanghai Education Commission and managed and 
operated by Shanghai Open University.

128

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
 
education project; continuing education learning 
outcome accreditation, accumulation and conversion 
pilot; and the accumulation and conversion of 
higher vocational education learning outcomes. 
The purpose of the projects is to carry out the 
accreditation of different types of learning outcomes 
between the Open University of China and local 
universities, relevant industries, various institutions 
and training institutions to realize the accumulation 
and transfer of learning credits. (ibid.).

Guangdong Lifelong Education Credit Bank, based on 
GDQF, has established the qualifications framework 
level and standards, an organizational system, a 
standard system, an institutional system, a service 
system, and an information online platform122.

Yunnan Lifelong Education Credit Bank was 
launched in 2012. Up to 2014, the credit bank’s 
programme, organizational structure, and platform 
construction were completed. The number of credit 
bank accounts has reached 124,124, and 921,085 
learning outcomes are stored. In 2015, the Model 
Alliance of Higher Vocational Colleges of Yunnan 
Credit Banks was established to explore the vertical 
connection and horizontal communication of 
vocational education (ibid.).

Since the promulgation of Administrative Measures 
for Lifelong Education Credit Banks in Jiangsu 
Province (Trial) in December 2013, the Jiangsu 
Lifelong Education Credit Bank has established 
alliances with Jiangsu Open University and the City 
Vocational College of Jiangsu to implement learning 
outcomes accreditation and transfer.123

In addition, Chongqing Radio & TV University has 
established a vocational and training qualifications 
framework, and the general competence standards 
for rail transit and software engineering are under 
construction.124

NQF implementation 

Vocational qualifications implementation and 
reform 
In the last 10 years, China’s Ministry of Labour 
and Ministry of Personnel have published a series 
of policies and regulations that stipulate how 

122  Based on an interview by the authors with Xuechan 
Li, Deputy Head of Guangdong Credit Bank Office, 
Guangdong Open University, on 11 January 2019. 
123  Based on an interview by the authors with Xuan Zhang, 
Head of Jiangsu Credit Bank Office, Jiangsu Open 
University, on 15 January 2019. 

124  Based on an interview by the authors with Nanzhong 
Wu, Head of the Credit Bank Office, Chongqing Open 
University, on 18 January 2019. 

vocational qualifications assessments should be 
made. Local labour and personnel ministries have 
also set out corresponding methods of vocational 
qualifications implementation. 

For example, the 1+X Vocational Certificate System, 
which will be implemented in 2019, is a vocational 
certificate for students with high-quality technical 
skills. (MoE, 2018c). The certificate recognizes 
academic achievements as well as professional/ 
technical skills, increasing learners’ chances 
of finding employment and entrepreneurship 
opportunities.

Lifelong education qualifications framework 
implementation 
Based on the OUCQF, learning outcome 
accreditations have been applied in various 
industries: there are currently more than 
560 qualification standard units in more than 
20 industries including foundry, information 
security, logistics, social work, pensions, chemistry, 
machinery, software and construction.

With regard to the GDLEQF, in December 2017 a 
pilot project for the development of an automotive 
industry and mechanical manufacturing qualification 
standards was launched. Guangdong Jiaotong 
Vocational and Technical College and Guangdong 
Road Transportation Association jointly presided 
over the development of qualification standards 
for the automotive industry, while Guangdong 
Electromechanical Vocational and Technical College, 
Guangdong Machinery Industry Association and 
Guangdong Cole Technology Development Co., 
Ltd. jointly presided over the development of 
qualification standards for machinery manufacturing. 
At the end of 2019, the automotive industry and 
mechanical manufacturing qualification standards 
will be released in the form of group standards.

Jiangsu Lifelong Education Credit Bank has 
compiled a learning achievement framework that 
is consistent with the levels and standards of 
GDLEQF. Based on this, the bank cooperated with 
the Beauty Salon Association of Jiangsu Beauty 
and Hairdressing Association to develop a Nail 
Professional Occupational Proficiency Standard. As 
a result, the knowledge, skills and competencies 
required for the development of hand and foot care 
has been established, from Level 2 (junior level) to 
Level 6 (master degree level). 

Important lessons and future plans
Efforts by the Chinese Government to establish a 
unified qualifications framework have shown that:

•  although some local qualifications frameworks 
have been established, a national qualifications 

129

Volume II: National and regional casesframework is urgently needed in order to meet 
international standards and key indicators; 

•  national qualifications frameworks should include 
all kinds of learning outcomes, from formal,  
non-formal and informal learning; 
•  various government units, educational 
institutions, industries and companies 
must be involved in the establishment and 
implementation of national qualifications 
frameworks.

It is a priority of the Chinese Government to 
develop a comprehensive national qualifications 
framework that covers all types of education and 
learning at all levels and promotes local educational 
development and the international comparability of 
qualifications. Work on this has already begun and 
some experiences have been learned in vocational 
education, continuing education and lifelong 
learning.

References

Abbreviations
GDLEQF  Guangdong Lifelong Education 

HEI  
NVQC 

NVQCS 

OUC 
OUCQF 

QCPTP  

QCSW  

TVET  

Qualifications Framework
Higher education institution
National Vocational Qualification 
Certificate
National Vocational Qualification 
Certificate System
Open University of China
Open University of China 
Qualifications Framework
Qualification Certificate for 
Professional and Technical Personnel
Qualification Certificate for Skilled 
Workers
Technical and vocational education 
and training

IMF (2018). World Economic Outlook Database. Accessed 13 February 2019 at: www.imf.org/external/pubs/

ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx

MHRSS (Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security) (2018). Technical regulations for the preparation 
of national vocational skills standards. Accessed 13 February 2019 at: www.mohrss.gov.cn/gkml/zcfg/
gfxwj/201803/t20180316_289900.html

MHRSS (2019). National vocational qualifications directory. www.mohrss.gov.cn/SYrlzyhshbzb/

SYgundongxinwen/201710/t20171024_280005.html. 

MoC (Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China) (2017). Report on the development of 

China’s outward investment and economic cooperation. [In Chinese]. Accessed 13 February 2019 at: 
www.mofcom.gov.cn/article/gzyb

MoE (Ministry of Education, China) (2010). Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-Term 

Education Reform and Development (2010–2020). http://old.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/
htmlfiles/moe/info_list/201407/xxgk_171904.html 

MoE (2016). The three barriers in strengthening legislation of education. News release. Accessed 21 

February 2019 at: www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/s5148/201601/t20160105_226863.html 

MoE (2018a). National statistical report on education development. [In Chinese]. Accessed 13 February 2019 

at: www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_fztjgb/201807/t20180719_343508.html

MoE (2018b). Brief report on Chinese overseas students and international students in China 2017. Accessed 
13 February 2019 at: http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/201901/t20190115_367019.html

MoE (2018c). Vocational education will start the ‘1+X’ certificate system reform. Accessed 21 February 

2019 at: www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_fbh/moe_2069/xwfbh_2018n/xwfb_20181107/mtbd/201811/
t20181109_354178.html

National Congress of the Communist Party of China (2013). Decision of the Central Committee of the 
Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the 
Reform. Accessed 21 February 2019 at: www.china.org.cn/china/third_plenary_session/2014-01/16/
content_31212602.htm

OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) (2018). Education at a glance. Accessed 

13 February 2019 at: www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/eag-2018-en.pdf

SCLGOPAD (State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Development (2018). China 

releases guideline on winning battle against poverty. Latest news release. Accessed 21 February 
2019 at: http://english.gov.cn/policies/latest_releases/2018/08/19/content_281476267628020.htm
The State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2016). Report on China’s economic, social development 

plan. News release. Accessed 21 February 2019 at: http://english.gov.cn/news/top_news/2016/03/19/
content_281475310332486.htm

130

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSXinhua News Agency (2014). The fourth meeting of the central comprehensive deepening reform leading 

group. News release. www.gov.cn/xinwen/2014-08/18/content_2736451.htm 

Zhang, W. and Xie, Q. (2017). Establishment of the levels and criteria of qualifications framework. Open 

Education Research, 23(2), pp. 75–82. 

Zhang, W. and Zhang, X. (2017). The latest development and practical exploration of promoting lifelong 

learning and establishing credit certification system. Lifelong Education Research, 28(2), pp. 11–16.

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

131

Volume II: National and regional casesCROATIA

Introduction and context

Croatia’s Strategy for education, science and 
technology, adopted by parliament in 2014 (Croatian 
Parliament, 2014), aims to develop all education and 
training subsystems. A major curriculum reform 
was launched by the government in 2015, but 
implementation has been delayed. A pilot curriculum 
reform was introduced in general education in 
2018/19 to increase quality and relevance, and 
new legislation is setting the ground for reforms in 
vocational education and training (VET). The country 
has the lowest rate of early school leaving in the 
EU (3.1% in 2017, compared with the EU average 
of 10.6%). The employment rate of recent VET 
graduates increase sharply from 45.7% in 2015 to 
70.3% in 2016, but fell to 59.4% in 2017. The country 
faces important challenges in terms of basic skill 
levels, especially in science and maths, participation 
rates in early childhood education and care and in 
adult lifelong learning, and low relevance of VET 
and higher education for employability (European 
Commission, 2018). The Croatian qualifications 
framework (CROQF) is seen as an important tool for 
the latter aspects, aligning education and training 
with the needs of the labour market (European 
Commission, 2017).

Development of the CROQF started in 2006, aiming 
to modernise secondary VET, higher education 
and adult education and to address existing and 
foreseen skill shortages on the labour market. 
The CROQF Act (Croatian Ministry of Science, 
Education and Sports, 2013), adopted by the 
Croatian Parliament in 2013 and subsequently 
amended in 2018 (Croatian Ministry of Science 
and Education, 2018), established the CROQF and 
set out the legislative and institutional framework 
for its development and implementation. It is a 
single, comprehensive framework, which has eight 
levels and three sublevels125, described in terms of 
learning outcomes: knowledge, skills and level of 
autonomy and responsibility. It also incorporates 

credit systems. It includes qualifications from 
all levels and subsystems of formal education 
and training (general education, VET and higher 
education) and forms the basis for developing a 
system for validation of non-formal and informal 
learning. The framework was taken into account 
while creating the comprehensive curriculum reform 
for primary and secondary education and in the 
amended Act on VET, in force since March 2018126. 
It is also linked to planned developments in higher 
and adult education (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018). 

The CROQF was linked to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and self-certified 
against the qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA) in 2012. 

Policy objectives

While the CROQF development process started 
in response to the two European qualifications 
frameworks (EQF and QF-EHEA), its aims are 
closely linked to the Croatian context. Besides 
allowing for comparability of Croatian qualifications 
at European level and internationally, the framework 
is seen as reflecting national needs and priorities, 
as an instrument for developing new education and 
training solutions.

The CROQF development aims to: enable better 
communication and coordination between 
stakeholders in the qualifications system; provide a 
classification of the existing system as a basis for 
transparency of qualifications, including description 
of old qualifications and facilitation of recognition of 
foreign qualifications; and act as a tool for reforming 
national education and training, promoting the use 
of learning outcomes, the development of quality 
assurance systems and of validation and  
recognition of non-formal and informal learning 

125  Initially, the CROQF had sublevels at levels 4 and 8. 

A sublevel at level 7 was introduced in 2018 with the 
amended CROQF Act.

126  The text of the amended Act on VET is available at: www.
zakon.hr/z/383/Zakon-o-strukovnom-obrazovanju (in 
Croatian).

132

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS(Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports, 
Agency for Science and Higher Education, 2014). 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Objectives for the development of the CROQF and 
principles guiding its implementation include:

a.  better linking education and training with labour 

market needs;

b.  improving personal, social and economic 

development, and social inclusion and equity;
c.  emphasising the role of key competences for 

lifelong learning;

d.  improving pathways between subsystems and 

between sectors;

e.  making qualifications transparent and more 

consistent with the use of learning outcomes;
f.  supporting partnerships among stakeholders in 

the qualifications system;

g.  supporting lifelong learning and employability 
(Croatian Ministry of Science, Education 
and Sports, Agency for Science and Higher 
Education, 2014).

The CROQF builds on reforms under way since 
2005, such as developing new education standards 
and national curricula for general education 
and VET, and introducing the State matura. The 
comprehensive curriculum reform for primary and 
secondary education, which takes the CROQF 
into account, has as its main goal to modernise 
education to respond better to learners’ age 
and interests, preparing them for work, further 
education and contemporary life challenges. It 
also seeks to define clear learning outcomes and 
redefine the roles of teachers and educational 
institutions (European Commission and  
Cedefop, 2018).

In the framework of the Strategy for education, 
science and technology (Croatian Parliament, 2014), 
the CROQF is seen as a basis for establishing a 
quality assurance system at all levels of education 
and training by driving the development of 
necessary elements and instruments. It is also seen 
as a central instrument for improving and expanding 
work-based learning. The role of the CROQF in 
improving education quality is also emphasised in 
the Strategy for lifelong career guidance and career 
development127, which establishes links between 
career guidance development, recognition of prior 
learning and the CROQF (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).

127  Available at: www.hzz.hr/UserDocsImages/Strategija_
CPU_i_razvoja_karijere_u_RH_2016-2020_EN.pdf

The CROQF is a qualifications and a credit 
framework. Each qualification in the framework 
is defined in terms of profile (field of work or 
study), reference level (complexity of acquired 
competences) and volume/workload (credit 
points)128. Qualifications can be full and partial. The 
CROQF has eight reference levels, in line with the 
EQF, but with three additional sublevels at levels 4, 
7 and 8. Level descriptors are defined in terms of 
knowledge (theoretical and factual); skills (cognitive, 
practical and social skills); and responsibility and 
autonomy. Although some key competences are 
explicitly indicated in the CROQF, it is emphasised 
that key competences should be included in 
each qualification (Croatian Ministry of Science, 
Education and Sports, Agency for Science and 
Higher Education, 2014).

Initially, sublevels for levels 4 and 8 were agreed 
to cater for existing Croatian qualifications of 
different workload and complexity. For example, a 
qualification with a minimum of 180 ECVET and/
or HROO points (from which a minimum of 120 
ECVET and/or HROO points are required at the 
fourth reference level or higher) is referenced to 
level 4.1. For a qualification at level 4.2, a minimum 
of 240 ECVET and/or HROO points are required (a 
minimum of 150 ECVET and/or HROO points at the 
fourth reference level or higher) (Croatian Ministry of 
Science, Education and Sports, Agency for Science 
and Higher Education, 2014). 

Sublevels of level 7 were recently introduced. 
According to the 2013 CROQF Act, level 7 included 
graduate university studies (sveucˇilišni diplomski 
studiji), specialist graduate professional studies 
(specijalisticˇki diplomski strucˇni studiji) and post-
master specialist university studies (poslijediplomski 
specijalisticˇki studiji). Following public debate, the 
CROQF Act was revised in 2018 (Croatian Ministry 
of Science and Education, 2018), splitting level 7 into 
sublevel 7.1 which now covers graduate university 
studies (sveucˇilišni diplomski studiji) and specialist 
graduate professional studies (specijalisticˇki 
diplomski strucˇni studiji); and sublevel 7.2 which 
includes post-master specialist university studies 
(poslijediplomski specijalisticˇki studiji) (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). While keeping the 
two qualification types (academic and professional) 
at the same level (7.1), this amendment limits 

128  Three credit systems are used to measure the volume 
of qualifications and of learning outcomes: the Croatian 
credit system for general education (HROO), the 
European credit system for vocational education and 
training (ECVET), and the European credit transfer and 
accumulation system for higher education (ECTS).

133

Volume II: National and regional casesaccess to doctoral programmes for graduates of 
professional studies (European Commission, 2017). 
Entry requirements for level 8.2 were also redefined 
with the amended CROQF Act129.

The CROQF plays a central role in developing and 
implementing the learning outcomes approach in 
all subsystems of education and training, building 
on the reforms so far. Strengthening learning 
outcomes is supported by major stakeholder groups 
and mentioned in the Strategy for education, 
science and technology (Croatian Parliament, 
2014) as central to the CROQF role in increasing 
quality assurance of education and training and in 
responding to the demands of the labour market. 
Learning outcomes are the main element of any 
qualification and they are organised in units/modules 
of learning outcomes. This is seen as giving 
transparency to qualifications and having a positive 
impact on transfer and accumulation of learning 
outcomes across sectors and institutions (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

The CROQF also establishes competence-based 
occupational standards and learning-outcomes-
based qualifications standards as the basis for 
accreditation of programmes developed in line 
with the CROQF methodology130. Occupational 
standards are developed through research-based 
analysis of labour market needs, particularly the 
Occupational standard survey, a questionnaire 
completed by employers. Occupational standards 
are then the basis for developing qualifications 
standards for qualifications aimed at the labour 
market. Qualifications standards developed for 
other purposes (pursuing further education, other 
individual or societal needs) are not based on the 
occupational standards. Qualifications standards 
entered in the CROQF register are the basis for 
developing and redesigning education and training 
programmes. At present, aligning programmes 
with qualifications standards in the CROQF register 
is not mandatory but is a mark of programme 

quality, transparency and relevance, leading to a 
qualification with an assigned CROQF/EQF level.

The learning outcomes approach has been gradually 
introduced in VET since 2006. The amended Act on 
Vocational Education and Training131, in force since 
March 2018, defines occupational and qualifications 
standards in compliance with the CROQF Act. VET 
curricula are developed according to occupational 
and qualifications standards. In 2018, the dual model 
of VET education was launched experimentally for 
particular qualifications as a model based on the 
cooperation between education institutions and 
employers. Regional centres of competence were 
appointed to make VET more attractive.

The State matura was introduced in 2010 as an 
obligatory final exam (including Croatian language, 
mathematics, the first foreign language and the 
mother tongue for ethnic minority pupils) for 
gymnasium graduates and as an optional choice 
for VET graduates on completion of four-year 
programmes. In 2018, the experimental reform 
programme School for life began in general 
education, aimed to prepare students for challenges 
they face in life.

Higher education has undergone extensive change 
in the last decade, including strengthening the 
learning outcomes dimension. The decision (2001) to 
take part in the Bologna process made it necessary 
for Croatia to adjust its higher education system 
significantly. Introduction of undergraduate (first 
cycle) and graduate (second cycle) programmes 
started in 2005. The change in curricula is intended 
to develop competences needed on the labour 
market. The CROQF is thought to be the main 
instrument for bridging higher education and the 
labour market (European Commission, 2017). A 
number of occupational and qualification standards 
in higher education have already been developed 
and are to be assessed by the sectoral councils 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

129  The entry requirement for level 8.2 (postgraduate 

university doctoral studies) is a qualification acquired on 
completion of a graduate university degree, fulfilment 
of conditions defined in a regulation adopted by a 
university or university component and conditions 
defined in the study programme of the university or the 
university component. Exceptionally, the university can 
define another previously acquired qualification as entry 
requirement providing that an additional programme was 
completed in the university.

130  Development of occupational and qualifications standards 

based on learning outcomes has been supported 
through IPA (instrument for pre-accession assistance) 
and European Social Fund projects, including through 
workshops on the use and assessment of learning 
outcomes.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Major stakeholders from education and training and 
the labour market (government representatives, 
learning providers, employers, students and other 
social partners) were involved in all phases of 
CROQF development. Public debate and round table 
discussions for the broader public were held in  
the initial phase of drafting of the CROQF Act  

131  The amended Act on VET is available at: www.zakon.

hr/z/383/Zakon-o-strukovnom-obrazovanju (in Croatian).

134

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS(Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports, 
2013). The act sets up the institutional and legislative 
framework for CROQF implementation and defines 
the involvement, roles and responsibilities of key 
bodies and stakeholders. 

The National Council for Development of Human 
Potential was appointed by the Croatian Parliament 
in June 2014, as the strategic body for developing 
and implementing the CROQF. It comprises a 
president and 24 representatives of national 
ministries, regional structures, social partners, 
education providers and national agencies involved 
in developing and awarding qualifications in different 
subsystems of education and training132. The council 
oversees policies in education, training, employment 
and human resource development and monitors 
and evaluates the CROQF’s impact and the work 
of the sectoral councils. The variety of stakeholders 
actively involved in the national council is both the 
strength of the current governance arrangement – 
as it ensures wide consensus on matters regarding 
the CROQF – and also its weakness, as the 
decision-making process may take a long time. 

On a technical and policy level, the Ministry of 
Science and Education coordinates development 
and implementation of the CROQF, in cooperation 
with the Ministry of Labour and Pension System. 
The main tasks of the Ministry of Science and 
Education include: setting up and maintaining 
the national CROQF register, establishing and 
coordinating the work of sectoral councils, providing 
support to the National Council for Development 
of Human Potential, developing procedures related 
to standards of qualifications, developing a system 
of validation of non-formal learning, and informing 
the public about the CROQF. The main tasks of the 
Ministry of Labour and Pension System include 
managing the sub-register of occupational standards 
and developing procedures related to them. 
Cooperation between the two ministries is ensured 
through regular coordination meetings.

The Ministry of Science and Education is also  
the EQF national coordination point (NCP).  

The budget for national qualifications framework 
(NQF)-related activities comes from various sources: 
the State budget, the EQF NCP grant, the European 
Social Fund and the Swiss-Croatian programme of 
cooperation for projects implemented by education 
institutions and the Ministry of Science and 
Education, and the Croatian employment service. 
Most funds are directed towards NQF development, 
implementation and research (Cedefop, 2015).

Sectoral councils (25 advisory and professional 
bodies working on the development of human 
potential in line with labour market needs in their 
respective sectors) have been established and 
started their activity. Each sectoral council has 
a president and 10 members (representing the 
ministry of the respective sector, the Croatian 
employment service, the agency for quality 
assurance, and sectoral experts), who are appointed 
by the minister of Science and Education. Their 
role includes assessing proposals for occupational 
standards, qualifications standards and units of 
learning outcomes.

Occupational and qualifications standards 
are developed by working groups including 
representatives from education institutions and the 
labour market, in line with a detailed methodology. 
They are then assessed in the sectoral councils, 
and need to be finally approved by the competent 
minister. Once approved, they are entered in the 
CROQF Register and become national standards. 
Qualification standards entered in the CROQF 
register become the basis for development or 
redesign of education and training programmes.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways133

While there is yet no formal national consensus in 
Croatia on how validation is to be implemented, 
it has been incorporated in several strategic 
documents134. Developments in the past five years 
have been slowly, but steadily, setting the scene  
for a national validation framework. The Strategy  
for education, science and technology  

132  The National Council for Development of Human Potential 
consists of representatives of the following institutions: 
Ministry of Science and Education, Ministry of Labour, 
Ministry of Entrepreneurship and Crafts, Ministry of 
Economy, Ministry of Regional Development, regional 
structures, associations of unions, associations of 
employers, civil society organisations, the Chamber 
of Commerce, the Chamber of Trades and Crafts, the 
sectoral councils, higher education institutions, adult 
education institutions, the Agency for Education and 
Teacher Training, the Agency for Vocational Education, 
the Agency for Science and Higher Education, and the 
Croatian employment service.

133  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

134  Besides the Strategy for education, science and 

technology (Croatian Parliament, 2014), other strategic 
documents referring to validation are: the Strategy for 
lifelong career guidance and career development 2016–20; 
the Strategic plan 2017–19 of the Ministry of Science and 
Education; and the Strategic framework for the promotion 
of lifelong learning in the Republic of Croatia 2017–20.

135

Volume II: National and regional cases(Croatian Parliament, 2014) recognises validation as 
an essential part of lifelong learning, with adults as 
the main target group, and points out the need for 
consensus among key stakeholders. 

One explicit aim of the CROQF135 is to set up a 
system for recognition and validation of non-formal 
and informal learning at national level, based on 
units of learning outcomes. The development of 
qualifications standards, units of learning outcomes 
and occupational standards, as well as the CROQF 
itself and the CROQF register were seen as 
prerequisites of the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning system. The register136 is seen 
as the main quality assurance tool for validation 
and most education and training efforts have 
been focused on CROQF-related developments 
in recent years. Building on previous work, two 
key methodologies were developed in the form 
of national level guidelines: one for developing 
occupational standards137 and one for qualifications 
standards138. 

Article 15 of the CROQF Act foresees the creation 
of an Ordinance on recognition and validation of 
prior learning; this will specify the procedure in 
detail, and establish a closer link to the CROQF. 
According to the CROQF Act, recognition of prior 
learning for CROQF levels 6 and higher shall be 
regulated by higher education institutions, so 
the Ordinance on recognition and validation will 
be applicable to CROQF levels 1–5 (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

The National Council for Development of Human 
Potential has recently developed Recommendations 
for strategic development of validation of prior 
learning139, as a basis for developing the ordinance. 
This set of 15 recommendations concerns 

135  Article 3 of the CROQF Act (Croatian Ministry of Science, 

Education and Sports, 2013).

136  The CROQF register is available at: https://hko.srce.hr/

registar/ 

137  Ministry of Labour and Pension Systems (2017). 

Guidelines for the development of occupational standards: 
www.kvalifikacije.hr/sites/default/files/documents-
publications/2017-08/Smjernice%20za%20izradu%20
standarda%20zanimanja.pdf

138  Ministry of Science and Education (2017). Guidelines 
for the development of qualification standards: 
www.kvalifikacije.hr/sites/default/files/documents-
publications/2017-09/Smjernice%20za%20razvoj%20
standarda%20kvalifikacija.pdf

139  National Council for Human Resources Development 
(2018). Recommendations for strategic development 
of recognition and validation of prior learning. Available 
in Croatian at: www.kvalifikacije.hr/sites/default/files/
documents-publications/2018-05/Preporuke%20
NVRLJP-a%20za%20strateški%20razvoj%20
priznavanja%20i%20vrednovanja%20prethodnog%20
ucˇenja.pdf

the revision of legal acts in adult140 and higher 
education, the operationalisation and financing of 
the system development, suggestion for a model 
for validation of competences, and suggestions for 
fundamental principles for the development of the 
validation system. A draft of the Ordinance has been 
developed and is expected to be approved in 2019.

The amendments to the CROQF Act adopted 
in 2018 define recognition and validation of 
prior learning in a broader sense (compared to 
the initial stipulation in the 2013 CROQF Act, 
which referred to validation of non-formal and 
informal learning), taking into account predefined 
standards (occupational, qualification) from the 
CROQF register that are valid at national level. The 
qualification standards will serve as a foundation for 
creating procedures for assessment and validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. All 25 sectoral 
councils foreseen by the ordinance on the CROQF 
register have been established and received training 
in preparing and evaluating occupational and 
qualification standards for inclusion in the register; 
these can then be used for validation purposes.

In practice, validation of learning outcomes acquired 
outside formal education and training is still rare; in 
principle, no access to formal qualifications can be 
currently granted without formal learning. Validation 
arrangements are in place for adult education on 
a sectoral level, and for crafts occupations. For 
instance, a master craftsperson exam can validate 
and recognise non-formally acquired knowledge 
and competences. The examination can be taken 
by a person having passed a journeyman exam 
(secondary level) in the desired occupation and 
having two years of work experience in it, or some 
other secondary level diploma and three years of 
work experience in the occupation. Some providers 
in higher education have developed internal 
guidelines for recognising prior learning for specific 
purposes, such as admission to certain higher 
education programmes or allocation of ECTS credits 
in the framework of accredited study programmes.

NQF implementation

The CROQF has reached an early operational stage; 
the CROQF Act was adopted in 2013 and amended 
in 2018. The amendments introduced definitions 
for types of qualifications at all levels, clarified the 
types of qualification that can be placed at sublevels 
of level 7, redefined entry requirements for level 
8.2 and redefined recognition and validation of 

140  An update to the Adult Education Act is foreseen and 
should take into account developments related to the 
CROQF.

136

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSprior learning141. Governance and implementation 
structures have been decided. The ordinance on 
the CROQF register adopted in 2014142 stipulates 
the content and management of the register, plus 
procedures for requests, assessment, and entry of 
qualifications into the register. The areas of activity 
of sectoral councils, the criteria for the selection 
of new council members and their operational 
activities, as well as the internal and external quality 
assurance systems, are also regulated by the 
Ordinance. All 25 sectoral councils foreseen have 
been established, have been trained in preparation 
and evaluation of occupational and qualification 
standards for inclusion into the register, and have 
started their activity.

The structure of the CROQF register and its online 
database have also been created. It consists of 
three sub-registers: one of occupational standards; 
one of units of learning outcomes; and one of 
qualifications standards143. The first is regulated and 
maintained by the Ministry of Labour and the other 
two by the Ministry of Science and Education. While 
no qualifications have been entered in the register 
so far, proposals for occupation and qualification 
standards have been developed as part of the 
implementation of projects jointly financed from 
the European Social Fund. Currently, there are six 
occupational standards already registered in the 
database and requests for the inclusion of another 
61, at different qualification levels, were submitted 
(data from September 2018).

Occupational standards are the basis for 
development of qualifications standards for 
those qualifications aimed at the labour market. 
Once qualification standards are included in the 
CROQF register in a future phase of CROQF 
implementation, they will become the basis for 
development or redesign of education and training 
programmes. 

According to the ordinance on the CROQF 
register, qualifications and programmes included 
in the register need to be in line with CROQF 
standards and procedures. As far as the current 
legal framework is concerned, the CROQF is a 
voluntary option. Creating education programmes 

141  For details, please see section on Levels and use of 
learning outcomes and Recognising and validating 
non-formal and informal learning and learning pathways, 
above.

142  The text of the ordinance on the CROOQF register 

(Pravilnik o Registru Hrvatskog kvalifikacijskog okvira) is 
available in English at: www.kvalifikacije.hr/sites/default/
files/documents-publications/2017-09/Ordinance%20
on%20the%20CROQF%20Register.pdf 

143  The CROQF register is available at: https://hko.srce.hr/

in line with the CROQF is not mandatory, although 
it represents a mark of quality. Legislative changes 
are necessary in the different education and 
training sub-systems for CROQF implementation, 
to regulate quality assurance procedures. This is 
seen as one of the main challenges in the current 
implementation phase. Recent amendments to the 
Act on VET define occupational and qualifications 
standards in compliance with the CROQF; revision 
of higher education and adult education legislation 
is also planned. Guidelines for developing study 
programmes in line with the qualification standards 
expected to be included in the CROQF register in 
the future will also need to be developed.

As recommended by the National Council for 
Development of Human Potential in December 
2015, the CROQF will be used by the Agency for 
Science and Higher Education for initial accreditation 
and reaccreditation of study programmes in 
higher education. It is also recommended that 
CROQF should be used by public universities for 
their internal quality assurance systems and that 
higher education institutions should use CROQF 
for preparing and revising study programmes. 
In 2015, the National Council also adopted the 
Recommendations regarding the use of the CROQF 
in adult education. While the recommendations are 
not legally binding, they serve to support or initiate 
reforms.

Communication efforts in relation to the CROQF 
have so far targeted stakeholder groups directly 
involved in the development of the framework and 
in the development and assessment of occupational 
and qualifications standards. A high level of 
response to the public debate on the amendment 
of the CROQF Act, carried out in 2017, indicates a 
fairly high level of interest in the framework among 
stakeholders, though the CROQF is less known 
by the general public. Communication to a wider 
audience has mainly been carried out through 
the CROQF webpage144 and the yearly CROQF 
conference organised by the National Council for 
the Development of Human Potential. It is foreseen 
that CROQF and EQF levels will be indicated on 
qualification documents and Europass supplements 
once qualifications are included in the register and 
education and training programmes leading to 
CROQF qualifications are developed.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Croatia referenced its national qualifications levels 
to the EQF and self-certified to QF-EHEA in March 

registar/

144  Available at: www.kvalifikacije.hr/en

137

Volume II: National and regional cases2012; it then published a joint report in 2014 
(Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports, 
Agency for Science and Higher Education, 2014). 
An updated referencing report is planned to be 
presented to the EQF advisory group by 2020, once 
the first qualification standards are included in the 
CROQF register. 

Important lessons and the  
way forward

The relatively rapid development of the CROQF 
illustrates the importance of stimulating active 
and broad participation throughout the entire 
process, complemented by targeted support for, 
and training of, stakeholders. Progressive, step-by-
step development has been emphasised. While 
the high level of response to the public debate 
on the amended CROQF Act, carried out in 2017, 
indicates a similar level of interest in the framework, 
the level of ownership of the CROQF among 
stakeholders will become clearer once the register 
is fully operational. So far, levels of ownership have 
been highest among the ministries involved in the 
development of the legal base, but it is gradually 
being accepted by others through participation in 
events and projects.

Some of the challenges encountered so far in 
the development of the CROQF have been met 
successfully. Agreement on key concepts among 
stakeholders was reached and the framework 
is now firmly grounded in legislation, with links 
to adopted or planned legal acts regulating the 
different education and training subsystems, and 
to strategic documents. Proposals for occupational 
and qualifications standards were prepared and 
are currently being assessed for entry into the 
CROQF register. All 25 sectoral councils tasked with 
assessment of standards and of units of learning 
outcomes have been established and have become 
operational.

Potentially, the CROQF is a pivotal instrument 
in the Croatian education and training system, 
underpinning the development of quality assurance 
mechanisms in all subsystems, the creation of 
a system for validation and recognition of prior 
learning, enhanced dialogue between education and 
training and the labour market, and increased parity 
of esteem between different types of qualifications.

Further work is necessary, however, for the CROQF 
to reach this potential. To support implementation, 
its principles and application, and the legislation 
that regulates the different education subsystems 
will have to be further aligned with each other. 
Planned legislative changes in higher and adult 
education need to be taken forward, regulating 
quality assurance procedures. The development 
of proposals for occupational and qualifications 
standards for inclusion in the register will need 
to be supported, and education and training 
programmes aligned to qualification standards 
(that are to be included in the CROQF register in 
the future) will need to be developed and delivered 
before the first qualifications assigned to CROQF 
and EQF levels are issued. The Ordinance on 
recognition of prior learning is to be finalised and 
adopted, possibly in 2019. 

The current thinking behind the new Act on quality 
assurance in science and higher education – to 
make qualification standards mandatory for all 
new study programmes and to use the CROQF in 
quality assurance arrangements in accordance with 
the standards and guidelines for quality assurance 
in the European higher education area – shall be 
subject to broader public debate. It will be important 
to clarify the role of the framework for the various 
education and training subsystems and the nature 
of its regulatory function. Another related and 
open question that remains is the extent to which 
Croatian qualifications will be defined and regulated 
though the CROQF or through existing legislation at 
subsystem level.

Table 14. Croatian national qualifications framework (CROQF)

QUALIFICATION TYPES

Doctoral diploma (poslijediplomski (sveucˇilišni) doktorski studiji; obrana doktorske 
disertacije izvan studija)

Postgraduate research master of science diploma (poslijediplomski znanstveni 
magistarski studiji)

EQF
LEVELS

8

CROQF
LEVELS

8.2

8.1

138

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 14. Croatian national qualifications framework (CROQF) (Continued)

CROQF
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF
LEVELS

7.2

7.1

6

5

4.2

Post-master specialist university studies (poslijediplomski specijalisticˇki studiji)

Master diploma – graduate university studies (sveucˇilišni diplomski studiji)
Professional master diploma – specialist graduate professional studies  
(specijalisticˇki diplomski strucˇni studiji)

Bachelor diploma – undergraduate university studies (sveucˇilišni preddiplomski 
studiji)
Professional bachelor diploma – undergraduate professional studies  
(strucˇni preddiplomski studiji)

Professional higher education diploma – short cycle (kratki strucˇni studiji)
VET post-secondary development and training certificate (strukovno specijalisticˇko 
usavršavanje i osposobljavanje)
Master craftsman diploma (programi za majstore uz najmanje dvije godine 
vrednovanog radnog iskustva)

Upper secondary general education school leaving certificate  
(Gimnazijsko srednjoškolsko obrazovanje)
Upper secondary VET certificate – four years / Upper secondary VET certificate – five 
years (Cˇetverogodišnje i petogodišnje strukovno srednjoškolsko obrazovanje)

4.1

Upper secondary VET – three years (Trogodišnje strukovno obrazovanje)

3

2

1

Upper secondary VET certificate – two years / Upper secondary VET certificate – one 
year (Jednogodišnje i dvogodišnje srednjoškolsko strukovno obrazovanje)

Vocational training certificate (Strukovno osposobljavanje)

Primary education certificate – eight years (Osnovno obrazovanje) (*)

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(*)  The first eight years of schooling are called primary education. It refers to both ISCED 1 and 2 (primary and secondary 

education). 

Source: Adapted from Croatian Ministry of Science and Education (2018) (Article 7).

Abbreviations
CROQF  

ECTS  

ECVET  

Croatian national qualifications 
framework
European credit transfer and 
accumulation system for higher 
education
European credit system for vocational 
education and training

EQF  
HROO  

European qualifications framework
Croatian credit system for general 
education
national coordination point
national qualifications framework

NCP  
NQF  
QF-EHEA   qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training

VET  

Main sources of information

The EQF NCP for Croatia is the section for the Croatian qualifications framework at the Ministry of Science 

and Education.

CROQF website: www.kvalifikacije.hr/en 
CROQF register – available at: https://hko.srce.hr/registar/
Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports, Agency for Science and Higher Education (2014). 

Referencing and self-certification report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/CROQF_
Referencing_and_SelfCertification_Report.pdf 

139

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

Cedefop (2015). Survey on the sustainability and visibility of NQFs [unpublished].
Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports (2013). The Croatian Qualifications Framework 

Act. Zagreb: Ministry of Science, Education and Sports. www.kvalifikacije.hr/sites/default/files/
documents-publications/2017-09/The%20CROQF%20Act.pdf 

Croatian Ministry of Science and Education (2018). The amended Croatian Qualifications Framework Act. 

www.kvalifikacije.hr/sites/default/files/documents-publications/2018-08/Zakon%20o%20HKO-u%20
s%20izmjenama%20i%20dopunama.pdf 

Croatian Ministry of Science, Education and Sports; Agency for Science and Higher Education (2014). The 

referencing and self-certification report of the Croatian qualifications framework to the European 
qualifications framework and to the qualifications framework of the European higher education area. 
Zagreb: Ministry of Science, Education and Sports. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
CROQF_Referencing_and_SelfCertification_Report.pdf

Croatian Parliament (2014). Strategy for education, science and technology. Adopted 17 October 2014. 

www.refernet.hr/media/1090/strategija-ozt.pdf

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Croatia. https://ec.europa.eu/education/

sites/education/files/monitor2017-hr_en.pdf

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: country analysis – Croatia. https://

ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/volume-2-2018-education-and-
training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Croatia.

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

140

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCYPRUS

Introduction and context

Investment in education and training in Cyprus 
is among the highest in the EU for primary and 
secondary education. While the rate of early 
school leaving is relatively low (7.7% in 2016, 
compared to 10.7% the EU average), the high 
level of spending per student does not translate 
into comparable education outcomes. According 
to the 2015 Programme for International Student 
Assessment (PISA), the proportion of 15 year olds 
with low achievement in basic skills in reading, 
mathematics and science is among the highest in 
the EU, with significant differences in performance 
between genders, especially in reading. Measures 
are being taken by the government to improve 
outcomes in response to the PISA results, as well 
as to integrate the growing number of migrants in 
the education system. A new system for appointing 
teachers began implementation in 2017 and new 
legislation reforming upper secondary general 
education will follow in the school year 2018/19. 
While the economy has started to recover after the 
crisis, employment of recent graduates remains 
below the EU average at all qualification levels. 
Participation in vocational education and training 
(VET) has reached only 15.6% in 2015; however, 
the employability of recent VET graduates has 
increased more compared to general and tertiary 
education, pointing to a valuable VET sector 
for economic recovery. Measures to reform 
secondary technical and vocational education and 
to develop post-secondary VET include upgrading 
of apprenticeship schemes, revision of curricula 
and introduction of new specialisations. The rate of 
tertiary education attainment is among the highest 
in the EU (53.4 % in 2016), but the employment 
of recent graduates is below the EU average and 
marked by skills mismatches. Quality assurance 
of higher education and increased cooperation 
between universities and the world of business 
are among the government’s priorities. Adult 
participation in lifelong learning is relatively low 
and has been decreasing (6.9% in 2016), especially 
among the low-skilled. A validation system for 
non-formal and informal learning is currently being 
developed (European Commission, 2017).

Cyprus has developed a comprehensive national 
qualifications framework called the Cyprus 
qualifications framework (CyQF) to improve 
permeability, both horizontal and vertical, within 
its education and training systems. CyQF 
incorporates all levels and types of qualification 
from all subsystems of education and training and 
from primary to higher education. The system of 
vocational qualifications (SVQ) being developed 
by the Human Resource Development Authority 
of Cyprus (HRDA) is an integral, but distinct, part 
of CyQF. A total of 120 SVQ qualifications are 
expected to be integrated in the system until 2019. 
Discussions are being held to develop common 
structures and elements for combining and 
transferring education credits.

A decision to create a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) was taken by the Council 
of Ministers in 2008145. A first NQF draft, with 
a detailed timetable for implementation, was 
presented in April 2010; consultation with 
stakeholders took place in spring 2011. The NQF 
was referenced to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) in February 2017. 

Policy objectives

The CyQF operates as a reference framework, 
enabling the validation and comparability of 
qualifications and hence the mobility of workers and 
learners. It is an attempt to encompass the diversity 
of lifelong learning, formal, non-formal and informal 
learning (Cypriot Ministry of Education and Culture, 
2017). More specific objectives and targets are:

a.  the recognition and validation of qualifications; 
b.  mobility; 
c.  quality assurance of education and training 

programmes; 

d.  promotion of lifelong learning. 

145  Law No 67445, 9/7/2008. 

141

Volume II: National and regional casesThe aim is to develop an inclusive framework of 
qualifications, including those awarded outside 
formal education. This is primarily achieved by 
including the vocational qualifications system – 
established by the HRDA – within the framework 
(at levels 3 to 7) to bring about comparability and 
better correlation of qualifications acquired in formal 
or non-formal learning. These qualifications refer 
to occupational standards and certificated learning 
outcomes acquired at work. This is important for 
increasing adult participation in lifelong learning 
which remains below the EU average and is 
decreasing (see introduction). This is clearly linked 
to the aim of the NQF to promote lifelong learning, 
giving all Cypriots a second chance for educational 
advancement and job progression. 

The CyQF aims to support greater worker and 
learner mobility, and provide quality assurance 
through the existing competent authorities and 
according to specific principles. A newly established 
Cyprus Agency of Quality Assurance and 
Accreditation in Higher Education is the competent 
authority responsible for ensuring the quality of 
higher education in Cyprus. 

A further policy objective is to reinforce VET at 
secondary, post-secondary and tertiary levels 
through the framework initiative the Cyprus 
Productivity Centre. The Ministry of Labour and 
Social Insurance is responsible for the Cyprus 
Productivity Centre, which offers short modular 
programmes for employees in technical occupations 
and management; the Higher Hotel Institute of 
Cyprus offers upgrading courses for employees in 
the hotel and restaurant sector. The New modern 
apprenticeship scheme (NMA) (Cypriot Ministry of 
Education and Culture, 2017) provides alternative 
learning pathways and increased employability, 
based on labour market needs, for those who 
leave formal education without basic or vocational 
skills. Implementation of the NMA has begun and 
embraces young people between 14 and 21 years 
of age at two apprenticeship levels (preparatory 
and core, CyQF levels 2 and 3). The NMA is part 
financed by the European Social Fund and has 
been fully operational since 2015. The setting-up 
and upgrading of post-secondary VET institutes 
(Metalykeiaka Instituta Epaggelmatikis Ekpaideysis 
kai Katartisis – MIEEK) has been a major step 
towards attracting more students to this pathway. 
They deliver qualifications at CyQF/EQF level 5 fully 
integrated into the framework.

system’s main characteristics. Level descriptors 
are defined in terms of knowledge, skills and 
competence. Knowledge is defined by the type 
and complexity of knowledge demanded and 
the ability to place one’s knowledge in context. 
Skills are defined according to the complexity 
of problem-solving and communication skills 
involved. Competence relates to the following 
aspects: space of action, cooperation and 
responsibility, and learning skills (Cypriot Ministry 
of Education and Culture, 2017; Cedefop, 2018).
These descriptors were developed concurrently for 
all levels so there would be clear progression from 
one level to the next. CyQF level descriptors give 
a broad profile of what an individual should know 
and do with varying degrees of autonomy and 
responsibility. The current qualifications system 
is input-based (quality of teachers, infrastructure, 
and length of education and training programmes). 
Assessment of learning outcomes is not presently 
covered by national legislation, policy documents 
or development programmes. However, attention 
is increasingly being directed to the need to 
focus on skills and key competences required in 
the 21st century, and to revise curricula, learning 
programmes and assessment methodologies 
in line with learning outcomes. Several reforms 
are under way, such as modernising pre-
primary and upper secondary curricula, and 
improving VET by introducing post-secondary 
VET institutes. A committee at the Ministry of 
Education and Culture – advisory committee for 
the implementation of curricula, assessment 
and teaching – (Syntonistiki Epitropi Analytikon 
Programmaton, SEAP) is the body responsible for 
the implementation of learning outcomes in all 
grades across education departments in formal 
education (levels 1 to 4).

Implementation of the learning outcomes approach 
has coincided with the ambitious Cyprus national 
reform programme 2018146.Educational reform 
proposes comprehensive changes and innovations 
at all levels and aspects of the system; its main 
objective is to create a democratic and learner-
centred education system.

Emphasis is being placed on improving teacher 
competences and establishing and monitoring 
the quality of learning outcomes. NQF 
implementation will benefit from experience 
gained in developing competence-based 
vocational qualifications in SVQ. These are based 
on occupational standards (currently available for 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

An eight-level reference structure has been 
adopted to reflect the national qualification 

146  Cyprus Presidency Unit for Administrative Reform (2018). 

Europe 2020 - Cyprus national reform programme 2018. 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/2018-european-
semester-national-reform-programme-cyprus-en.pdf

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS83 occupations) and make it possible to award a 
qualification to a candidate irrespective of how 
and where they acquired the relevant knowledge, 
skills and competences.

Learning outcomes are mainly expressed in formal 
education as part of subject and stage-based 
general education. In the curriculum, learning 
outcomes are described as the knowledge, 
skills and attitudes, and awareness learners are 
expected to achieve at the end of each stage. Level 
descriptors indicate the standards a learner should 
achieve at each certificated level of education. 
The development of a single unified curriculum 
from pre-primary to primary and lower secondary 
education, based on learning outcomes, is an 
important goal.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The general directorate for VET at the Ministry of 
Education and Culture initiated and is coordinating 
NQF developments. Since 2012, the Ministry 
of Education has operated as the competent 
authority and designated EQF national coordination 
point (NCP). It includes representatives from all 
departments of the Ministry of Education and 
Culture, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance 
and the Human Resource Development Authority. 
Stakeholders play a central role in existing validation 
practices but there is limited involvement from 
social partners such as the Chamber of Commerce 
and Industry. 

A new permanent advisory body – the council of the 
NQF of Cyprus – has also been established and acts 
as a forum for collaboration between stakeholders. 
Consultation with stakeholders and evaluation of the 
CyQF implementation was planned for 2018.

The Council of Ministers on 18 May 2017 
approved147 the establishment of the National 
Qualifications Authority, with the powers to improve 
quality assurance systems in education and training, 
to monitor and integrate into the CyQF the scheme 
for validating non-formal and informal learning, 
to monitor the CyQF/EQF levels on certificates, 
diplomas and Europass documents, to strengthen 
the legal aspect of CyQF, and to develop a registry 
for it. The National Qualifications Authority is 
operational. 

147  Decision No 82.592.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways148

Cyprus does not yet have a national framework for 
validating non-formal and informal learning but this 
is currently under development, through a project, 
European Social Fund part funded, to establishing 
an appropriate mechanism. This project has 
supported a mapping study of the current situation 
in Cyprus149 and a national action plan setting up 
a validation mechanism for the validation of non-
formal and informal learning (epikirosi mathisis) was 
developed at the beginning of 2018. This plan was 
put into public consultation during the first half of 
2018150 and was completed in May 2018. It will enter 
pilot implementation during 2019, focusing on adult 
education, youth and volunteering. The validation 
process will entail five stages: information-
individualised counselling; identification; recognition 
of learning outcomes; assessment of learning 
outcomes; and certification. The first results from 
the pilot are expected to be available at the end  
of 2019.

Implementation will build on work already done 
by the HRDA, which has developed a system 
of vocational qualifications (SVQ) – Systima 
epagelmatikon prosondon (ΣΕΠ) – through which 
it is possible to validate non-formal and informal 
learning by the award of full or partial qualifications. 
It is planned to develop a further 80 vocational 
qualifications during the 2014–20 European Social 
Fund programming period. The 83 vocational 
qualifications already developed will also be revised 
in response to labour market needs. Standards 
used in the vocational qualifications system relate 
not only to occupational skills but also soft skills 
developed through work experience (such as 
teamwork and collaboration); they are different 
from those used in apprenticeship or school-
based VET qualifications and are not recognised 
in formal education. However, ways of linking the 
two VET systems are being considered as CyQF is 
developed. 

The autonomous nature of higher education 
institutions enables them to accept credits from 
prior learning. The Cyprus Council for Recognition 

148  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

149  EEO Group (2017). Mapping study on the validation of 

non-formal and informal learning [unpublished].

150  See the text for consultation prepared by the EEO Group 

for the Cypriot Ministry of Education and Culture: www.
moec.gov.cy/eiao/el/drastiriotites/imerides_seminaria_
synedria/2018/2018_protasi_ehtnikou_sd_diavoulefsi.pdf 

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Volume II: National and regional casesof Higher Education Qualifications (KYSATS), also 
recognises work experience credits as part of an 
individual’s qualification. Success in information 
and communication technology examinations 
is certificated regardless of where and when 
the knowledge was developed. In terms of 
implementing upskilling pathways, the Ministry 
of Education and the HRDA are preparing a report 
during July 2018 on how Cyprus is responding to the 
Council recommendation on upskilling pathways.

NQF implementation

The framework is at early stage of implementation. 
The EQF national coordination point was established 
at the Ministry of Education and Culture as an in-
service department overseeing the development 
and gradual implementation of the framework. 
Stakeholders responsible for accreditation of 
qualifications will continue to work according to the 
existing legislative framework but new legislation is 
required for CyQF to clarify how stakeholders will 
work together. A decision of the council of ministers 
is expected and a new legislative framework will be 
introduced if required (Cypriot Ministry of Education 
and Culture, 2017). A new permanent body – council 
of the NQF of Cyprus – has been established, which 
includes all stakeholders151; it is the consultative 
body for the CyQF referencing report. Its main tasks 
are advisory and focus on:

a.  consulting with stakeholders on CyQF 
development and implementation;

under one roof. The agency is operational. The new 
legislation provides a quality assurance framework 
for higher education, within which higher education 
institutions will be driven to improve quality and 
develop an internal quality culture. 

The HRDA has a robust quality assurance process 
in place for monitoring the SVQ. All aspects of the 
system, and those participating in it, are quality 
assured by the HRDA, which holds the relevant 
registers of assessing centres and assessors for 
each vocational field and region. The HRDA has also 
introduced a system for evaluating and certifying 
training providers153.

A national qualification database is planned 
to be ready by mid-2019. When it is finalised, 
qualifications from general, VET and higher 
education systems will be included in the register. 

The Ministry of Education and Culture has decided 
that a reference to corresponding EQF levels will be 
included on qualification certificates and diplomas 
on approval of the referencing report. Some 
institutions have proceeded with the indication 
of NQF and EQF levels in national qualifications 
databases. Full implementation is expected to be 
finalised by the end of 2019 (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). Further communication is 
needed to raise the importance of the indication of 
NQF and EQF levels on new certificates, diplomas 
and/or Europass supplements.

b.  developing, implementing and reviewing CyQF 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

procedures;

c.  disseminating public information on CyQF;
d.  advising the Ministry of Education and Culture 

on policy and resource implications.

In 2017, the board of ministers approved  
the development of the National  
Qualifications Authority152.

The CyQF includes the development and 
implementation of the procedures for quality 
assurance and qualifications award. Quality 
assurance should underpin all levels of the NQF. A 
new Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency in 
higher education was established by law in March 
2016, bringing together quality assurance functions 

151  The National Committee for the Development and 

Establishment of a National Qualifications Framework 
in Cyprus, consists of the Permanent Secretary of the 
Ministry of Education and Culture (President of the 
Committee), the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry 
of Labour and Social Insurance and the General Director 
of the Human Resource Development Authority or their 
representatives.
152  Decision No 82.592.

The Ministry of Education and Culture is the 
national body responsible for referencing national 
qualifications to the EQF. The CyQF was referenced 
to the EQF in February 2017. The CyQF booklet, 
which provides full information on the CyQF and  
its social benefits, was prepared and circulated  
to all stakeholders. 

Important lessons and future plans

Development of the NQF and of a competence-
based system of vocational qualifications, which 
is an integral part of the NQF, is expected to 
strengthen the ties between VET for young 
people and vocational training for adults, and to 
improve their knowledge and skills. However, the 
comprehensive and inclusive nature of the new 
framework requires stakeholders to work together. 
Setting up a council for the NQF was important in 

153  This system is entitled Evaluation and certification of 

training providers (AxioPistoSyn): www.hrdauth.org.cy/
easyconsole.cfm/page/project/p_id/23/pc_id/17154

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSestablishing a permanent forum for collaboration 
between stakeholders: the Ministry of Education and 
Culture, the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, 
the Human Resource Development Authority 
and representatives of employer and employee 
organisations and the academic community.

An NQF/EQF communication strategy is yet to be 
developed in Cyprus, due to budget limitations. 
However, the main communication channels and 
tools used for disseminating information on the 
NQF/EQF are leaflets, school-based seminars and 
conferences organised in the Cyprus chambers of 
commerce and Cyprus Employers and Industrialists 
Federation. Although education and training 
institutions and providers, labour market stakeholders 
and recognition bodies are aware of the framework, 
interaction and constant dialogue is needed. In 
2019, evaluation of the framework and an updated 

referencing report to the EQF advisory group is 
planned. The expected change in the NQF that calls 
for an updated report is inclusion of a system for 
recognising non-formal and informal learning. 

Future plans for Cyprus include strengthening the 
CyQF legal base, while future CyQF NCP actions will 
include developing the CyQF guidelines handbook. 
This handbook will contain guidelines, criteria and 
procedures for the inclusion of qualifications in 
the national registry. Establishment of a validation 
agency, the development of guidelines on validation 
of non-formal and informal learning, and analysing 
and implementing learning outcomes in different 
subsystems are expected to be completed by 2020 
to ensure continuity and consistency between 
levels and services (Cypriot Ministry of Education 
and Culture, 2017). 

Abbreviations
CyQF  
EQF  
HRDA  

NMA  

Cyprus qualifications framework
European qualifications framework
Human Resource Development 
Authority
new modern apprenticeship scheme 

NQF  
PISA  

SVQ  
VET  

national qualifications framework
programme for international student 
assessment 
system of vocational qualifications
vocational education and training

Table 15. Cypriot national qualifications framework (CyQF) 

CYQF
LEVELS

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

SVQ 
LEVELS

EQF
LEVELS

8

7c

7b

7a

6

5c

5b

5a

4

Doctoral degree (Διδακτορικός Τίτλος)

Master degree (Μεταπτυχιακός Τίτλος)

Postgraduate diplomas (Μεταπτυχιακό Δίπλωμα)

Postgraduate certificates (Μεταπτυχιακό Πιστοποιητικό)

Bachelor degree (Πτυχίο)

Higher certificates and diplomas – three years (Ανώτερα 
Διπλώματα και Πιστοποιητικά)

Post-secondary certificates and diplomas – two years 
(Μεταλυκειακά Διπλώματα Διετούς Διάρκειας)

Post-secondary certificates and diplomas – one year 
(Μεταλυκειακά Διπλώματα Μονοετούς Διάρκειας)

8

7

6

5

SVQ 6

SVQ 5

Upper secondary general education and evening schools 
certificates – 12th grade or 12th and13th for some private schools 
(Απολυτήριο Μέσης Γενικής Εκπαίδευσης)
Upper secondary technical and vocational education and evening 
technical schools certificates – 12th grade (Απολυτήριο Μέσης 
Τεχνικής Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης)

SVQ 4

4

(Continued)

145

Volume II: National and regional casesSVQ 
LEVELS

SVQ 3

Table 15. Cypriot national qualifications framework (CyQF) (Continued) 

CYQF
LEVELS

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

3

2

1

Lower secondary education certificate – 10th grade – preparatory 
year for upper secondary education (Απολυτήριο Πρώτου 
Κύκλου Δευτεροβάθμιας Εκπαίδευσης – 10η τάξη)
New modern apprenticeship certificate – 10th grade (Νέα 
Σύγχρονη Μαθητεία – 10η τάξη)

Compulsory lower secondary education certificate – 9th grade 
(Απολυτήριο Πρώτου Κύκλου Δευτεροβάθμιας Εκπαίδευσης – 
9η τάξη)
Preparatory programme – New modern apprenticeship 
(Προπαρασκευαστικό Πρόγραμμα Νέας Σύγχρονης 
Μαθητείας)

Compulsory education certificate – elementary school certificate, 
or graduates of 7th and/or 8th grade (Υποχρεωτική Εκπαίδευση)

EQF
LEVELS

3

2

1

Source: Cypriot Ministry of Education and Culture, 2017: www.cyqf.gov.cy/index.php/en/diagram

Main sources of information

CyQF: www.cyqf.gov.cy
Cyprus EQF NCP, established by the Ministry of Education and Culture: www.moec.gov.cy
Cypriot Ministry of Education and Culture (2017). The referencing of the Cyprus qualifications framework to 

the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning: www.cyqf.gov.cy/archeia/dimosiefseis/
cyqf-referencing-report.pdf

References

Cedefop (2018). Analysis and overview of NQF level descriptors in European countries. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. Cedefop research paper; No 66. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-
resources/publications/5566

Cypriot Ministry of Education and Culture (2017). The referencing of the Cyprus qualifications framework to 

the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning. www.cyqf.gov.cy/archeia/dimosiefseis/
cyqf-referencing-report.pdf

Cyprus Presidency Unit for Administrative Reform (2018). Europe 2020 – Cyprus national reform programme 

2018. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/2018-european-semester-national-reform-programme-
cyprus-en.pdf

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Cyprus. 
European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Cyprus.

Websites
Human Resource Development Authority. Evaluation and certification of training providers: www.hrdauth.

org.cy/easyconsole.cfm/page/project/p_id/23/pc_id/17154

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

146

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCZECHIA

Introduction and context

Czechia is positioned relatively well with regard to 
some European education and training indicators, 
with a low rate of early school leaving (6.6% in 2016, 
compared to 10.7% the EU average) and a high 
employment rate for recent graduates. The country 
has the highest percentage of upper secondary 
students in vocational education and training (VET). 
While educational achievements in reading, maths 
and science are comparable to EU averages, the 
percentages of Czech underachievers have increased 
significantly over recent years, particularly in science 
and reading, and socioeconomic background is a 
strong factor in differences in student performance. 
Tertiary educational attainment has increased but 
remains below EU average, and participation in 
early childhood education and care is not yet as 
widespread as in other EU countries (European 
Commission, 2017). 

Over the last decade there have been major 
developments in almost all parts of the education 
system: decentralisation of governance and 
curriculum reform in the schools system, 
introduction of the three-cycle system in higher 
education, and development of the national 
qualifications system in further education. However, 
‘awareness of interconnectedness between 
various parts of the education system has gradually 
decreased’ (Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and 
Sports, 2014, p. 5). Development of the education 
system in the direction of lifelong learning has 
become a priority; it is acknowledged that, for this 
to become a reality, there is a need to establish 
links between different education pathways. As 
Czechia has not yet developed a comprehensive 
national qualifications framework (NQF), the 
question is whether an overarching NQF could help 
coordinate and bridge developments in the different 
sub-systems. 

The national register of qualifications (Národní 
soustava kvalifikací (NSK)), which functions as a 
qualifications framework for validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (VNFIL) and continuing VET 
(CVET) qualifications, and a draft of the higher 

education framework154 have been developed. 
There are also draft level descriptors for primary and 
secondary education. Promotion and development 
of a comprehensive NQF is in line with the national 
Strategy for education policy until 2020; however, 
the possibility of developing a comprehensive NQF 
is not mentioned explicitly and it is unlikely that 
one will be established before 2020 (European 
Commission et al. (forthcoming), p. 9). 

The country referenced its national qualifications 
system to the European Qualifications Framework 
(EQF) in 2011 (NÚOV, 2011). All qualifications 
awarded in secondary education, higher education, 
and the qualifications included in the NSK are 
linked to the EQF levels. The three sub-systems are 
regulated by three different acts155.

Policy objectives

Interlinked development of a framework and 
a register of vocational qualifications was a 
cornerstone of the (now expired) national Strategy 
for lifelong learning (Czech Ministry of Education, 
Youth and Sports, 2007). The strategy’s main 
elements reflected identified and agreed needs, 
and aimed at improving access to lifelong learning156 
and a more permeable education and training 
system. In 2015, the Strategy for lifelong learning 
expired. The main strategic documents currently in 

154  Adoption of the qualifications framework for higher 

education is pending.

155  Act No 561/2004 Coll., on preschool, elementary, 

secondary and tertiary professional and other education 
(The Education Act). www.msmt.cz/uploads/VKav_200/
Act_561_2011/edu_act_2011.doc 

Act No 111/1998 Coll., on higher education institutions. 

www.msmt.cz/uploads/odbor_30/TF/Legislativa_a_
metodicke_pokyny/Novela_2016/Zakon_o_vysokych_
skolach_AJ.pdf

Act No 179/2006 Coll., on the verification and 

recognition of further education results. http://planipolis.
iiep.unesco.org/sites/planipolis/files/ressources/czech_
rep_2006_act_recognition_further_education_results.pdf 

156  Important progress was achieved in adult participation 

in lifelong learning, from 6.8% in 2009 to 11.4% in 2011; 
however it fell again to 8.8% in 2016, below the EU 
average (10.8%) (European Commission, 2017). 

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Volume II: National and regional casesforce in the country are the Strategy for education 
policy until 2020, the Long-term policy objectives 
of education and development of the education 
system (2015–20), and the Long-term objectives 
in higher education (2016–20). The Strategy for 
education policy until 2020 includes priorities 
to reduce inequalities, to increase the quality of 
teaching, to improve partnerships between schools 
and employers and to improve governance of the 
education system (Czech Ministry of Education, 
Youth and Sports, 2014). The Long-term objectives 
in higher education (2016–20)157 refer to the 
introduction of the NQF for higher education and its 
self-certification to the qualifications framework of 
the European higher education area (QF-EHEA). 

Developments in VET and higher education – to 
some extent pursued through projects – have 
not been coordinated or connected. At the same 
time, the idea of a comprehensive framework is 
neither well nor widely understood. Despite the 
efforts of the EQF national coordination point (EQF 
NCP), most stakeholders and decision makers 
are not convinced about the need for a national 
framework or its benefits (European Commission 
et al., forthcoming). This leaves several unanswered 
questions and challenges for developing shared 
concepts, improving communication and 
cooperation between sub-systems, and opening up 
access pathways to education programmes.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The national register of qualifications (NSK)158, 
which addresses adults as a main target group 
and learning outcomes acquired outside formal 
education and training, has eight levels and is 
currently populated with qualifications between 
EQF levels 2 to 7. Qualification levels in the NSK 
are described in terms of competences. The level 
descriptors of the NSK, although not divided into 
knowledge, skills and responsibility and autonomy, 
were developed in close connection with the 
eight levels of the EQF and are compatible with 
the EQF descriptors (NÚV, 2015). They reflect the 
complexity of work activities. Each qualification 
included in the NSK is described by a qualification 
standard (a list of expected learning outcomes) and 
an assessment standard (set of evaluation criteria). 

157  The Strategic plan for the scholarly, scientific, research, 
development, innovation, artistic and other creative 
activities of higher education institutions for 2016–20 
is available in English at: www.msmt.cz/areas-of-work/
tertiary-education/strategic-plan-for-higher-education-
institutions-2016-2020?lang=2 
158  For more information on the NSK:  
www.narodnikvalifikace.cz/en-us/

They are drafted by employers and are based on the 
descriptions of occupations in the national system 
of occupations159.

The draft NQF for higher education covers three 
levels, corresponding to levels 6 to 8 of the EQF. 
It includes academic qualifications (bachelor, 
master and doctoral degrees), but excludes 
tertiary vocational education (DiS) degrees. The 
architecture of the framework has two layers: the 
general (national) descriptors and the education 
(subject area) descriptors. Descriptors are divided 
into professional knowledge, professional skills and 
general competences. This division is compatible 
with the overarching framework for the European 
higher education area (QF-EHEA) and also with the 
EQF descriptors. There is currently no link between 
the NSK and the draft qualifications framework 
for higher education: apart from the possibility to 
achieve vocational qualifications through validation, 
existing arrangements do not offer opportunities to 
access programmes through different pathways. 
The maturita exam (upper-secondary leaving 
examination) is a compulsory requirement to 
enter higher education, although higher education 
institutions can also decide to use specific entry 
examinations.

A set of level descriptors for primary and secondary 
education (EQF levels 1 to 4) was also drafted in 
2012, based on core curricula. In this proposal, 
descriptors were grouped into three categories: 
knowledge, specific study and work skills, and 
transferable skills.

In 2013, a group of experts from education and 
the labour market drafted a proposal for national 
comprehensive descriptors, reflecting both the 
EQF descriptors and the existing national sectoral 
descriptors. This proposal was updated in 2016. 

The learning outcomes160 approach is widely used, 
although applied and interpreted slightly differently 
across education levels and subsystems. The 
Education Act161, which came into force in 2005, 
introduced learning outcomes in national core 

159  The national system of occupations: www.nsp.cz
160  Due to linguistic reasons and to the fact that terminology 
in education and training is not unified in Czechia, several 
terms are used with reference to learning outcomes. 
Ranging from ‘learning/teaching outcomes’ to ‘outputs’ 
to ‘results of education’, they are broadly compatible with 
the European definition and notion of learning outcomes. 
However, in some cases, several terms can be used 
to depict the same concept, or the same term can be 
understood differently by different stakeholders (Cedefop, 
2016). 

161  Act No 561/2004: www.msmt.cz/uploads/VKav_200/

Act_561_2011/edu_act_2011.doc

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScurricula for all levels below tertiary. The use of 
learning outcomes as a starting point at all levels 
of the education system is also one of the aims of 
the Strategy for education policy until 2020 (Czech 
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, 2014). 

Core curricula for primary and secondary education 
make the distinction between knowledge and skills 
and emphasise key competences (learning, problem 
solving, communication, social and interpersonal 
interaction, civic involvement and work skills) and 
their practical use. Expected learning outcomes 
are defined in terms of activities, practice-oriented, 
usable in everyday life and verifiable (tasks that 
students should be able to perform). Modularisation 
of courses was introduced to improve transferability 
between various pathways in initial and continuous 
education, but schools have the autonomy to 
choose whether or not to use modular organisation 
of curricula. Apart from a pilot project focused on 
modularisation, this is not common in practice. 

A competence-based and learning outcomes-
oriented approach is also found in VET and higher 
education and has broad political support. This 
is documented and confirmed by curriculum 
reform in vocational education (including relevant 
methodologies) and by the Act on the verification 
and recognition of results of further education. Initial 
VET (IVET) core curricula are increasingly being 
aligned with competences defined in the NSK; 
the holistic character of the term ‘competence’ 
is emphasised. Knowledge, skills and attitudes 
are not seen as ‘atomised’ entities which can 
be judged in isolation from each other (Cedefop, 
2016). Higher education distinguishes between 
professional knowledge, professional skills and 
general competences. Knowledge and skills are 
tied to particular subjects, while competences 
are of more general character: they include 
judgment, communicative ability (including in 
foreign languages) and preparation for continuing 
learning. The use of professional knowledge and 
skills in a particular context, with a particular degree 
of autonomy and responsibility, is described as 
competence (NÚV, 2015).

The learning outcomes approach was used and 
explored in developing the national qualifications 
framework for higher education. Each study 
programme has a ‘graduate profile’ (general 
programme description) and programme goals, 
which are described in terms of learning outcomes. 
Learning outcomes are defined as knowledge, 
skills and competences that graduates should be 
able to demonstrate on completion of a specific 
learning phase. The National Accreditation Bureau 
for Higher Education recommends that higher 
education institutions structure learning outcomes 

in this way, and it is intended that, after testing and 
implementation, the framework will be used in the 
accreditation process (Cedefop, 2016).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The EQF national coordination point (EQF NCP) 
has been operational since 2009, first within 
the National Institute of Technical and Vocational 
Education (NÚOV) and since 2011 within the 
National Institute for Education (NÚV)162. The 
NCP played an important role in referencing 
the Czech qualifications system to the EQF, a 
process for which the Ministry of Education had 
overall responsibility. NÚV leads discussions on 
establishing a comprehensive NQF and provides 
and disseminates information on European tools. 

The 2006 Act on the verification and recognition of 
further education results, which came into force in 
2007163, sets out the basic responsibilities, powers 
and rights of all stakeholders in developing and 
awarding national vocational qualifications. The 
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) 
coordinates the activities of central administrative 
authorities (ministries) and approves, modifies and 
issues a list of vocational and complete vocational 
qualifications. The National Council for Qualifications 
acts as an advisory body to the MEYS on 
qualifications. The national register of qualifications 
(NSK) is maintained and published by NÚV. Sector 
councils are in charge of developing qualification and 
assessment standards for qualifications up to level 
7 included in the NSK, though most qualifications 
are placed at levels 2 to 5164. There are currently 
29 sector councils consisting of representatives of 
employers, employees, qualification authorities and 
academic sectors. 

162  The National Institute for Education was founded in 2011 
by merging of three institutions run by the Ministry of 
Education Youth and Sports: the National Institute of 
Technical and Vocational Education (NÚOV), the Research 
Institute of Education (VÚP), and the Czech Institute for 

Educational-Psychological Guidance (IPPP cˇR). More 
information is available at: www.nuv.cz/all-about-nuv 

163  Act No 179 of 30 March 2006 on verification and 
recognition of further education results and on 
amendments of some other acts: www.msmt.cz/areas-
of-work/further-education/the-act-on-the-recognition-of-
further-education-results

164  At higher levels, sector councils define only specialised 
supplementary qualifications, not those awarded by 
higher education institutions (bachelor, master and 
PhD degrees). Opening up higher levels (up to level 7) 
for qualifications awarded outside higher education 
institutions is seen as an important means of supporting 
lifelong learning.

149

Volume II: National and regional casesOne important change in the past 15 years has 
been a transfer of powers and responsibilities 
to the local level. Cooperation among central 
government, regional government, social partners 
(especially employers) and parents is important. 
The involvement of employers is strongest in VET, 
where they take part in the formulation of national 
curricula and in the work-based training of students. 
Schools are responsible for setting and achieving 
their own goals, based on the national curriculum. 
However, key quality assurance mechanisms remain 
under the control of the Ministry of Education and, 
for primary and secondary education and tertiary 
vocational schools, the Czech School Inspectorate, 
which acts as external evaluator. In tertiary 
education, the main quality assurance mechanism 
is approval of programmes, which is given by the 
Ministry of Education, based on reports from the 
National Accreditation Bureau for Higher Education 
(university sector) and by the Accreditation 
Commission for Tertiary Vocational Education 
(tertiary vocational sector). Individual institutions at 
all levels of education and training are also required 
by law to have internal quality assurance systems in 
place (NÚV, 2015).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways165

The Czech system of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (VNFIL) is regulated by Act 
179/2006 on the verification and recognition of 
further education results166, amended in 2012167. 
Validation and recognition procedures are in place 
for qualifications included in the national register 
of qualifications (NSK) and are aimed at mitigating 
skill shortages on the labour market. The register 
addresses further learning results and vocational 
competences (CVET), with adults as a main target 
group. It currently contains 1 234 vocational 
qualifications in 29 different sectors, ranging 
between EQF/NQF levels 2 to 7, with most on  

levels 3 (646 qualifications) and 4 (382 qualifications) 
(data from April 2018). 

The VNFIL system operates more or less parallel to 
formal education, with some connections between 
the two. The concept of ‘vocational qualification’ 
is the central principle of the VNFIL system. 
Qualifications are developed by sector councils, 
where representatives of employers, employees, 
qualification authorities, VET and the academic 
sector are involved in identifying current skills needs 
and shortages.

Validation and recognition procedures are based on 
assessment of knowledge, skills and competences 
gained by prior learning and work experience, and 
are carried out according to the qualifications and 
assessment standards included in the NSK. Each 
qualification standard – based on occupational 
standards – is defined in competences. The 
assessment is also competence-based, usually 
consisting of an oral examination, written part and 
practical demonstration of skills and competences. 
Over the past 10 years, more than 195 000 adult 
learners have passed exams and were awarded 
a certificate of vocational qualification (data from 
September 2018). Certain vocational qualifications 
can be combined and, after a comprehensive final 
exam, can lead to a full VET qualification at NSK/EQF 
level 3. This makes final exams a bridge between 
the formal and the VNFIL systems. 

The main strengths of VNFIL in Czechia are the 
existing legal basis, information accessibility, 
quality assurance arrangements, and close 
collaboration with employers in developing 
vocational qualifications. The national VNFIL policy, 
supported by the NSK, has also been incorporated 
in the national active policy for employment 
(APE), the framework of measures stipulated by 
the Act 435/2004 on Employment, which links 
retraining offers to existing vocational qualifications. 
Accessibility of guidance and counselling services 
are aspects that could be improved; while 
disadvantaged groups have access to validation 
through public employment services, support 
services are typically subject to fees. 

165  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

166  The Act on the verification and recognition of further 

education results (2006): www.msmt.cz/areas-of-work/
further-education/the-act-on-the-recognition-of-further-
education-results

167  Among the amendments: the term ‘partial qualification’ 

was replaced with ‘vocational qualification’; the minimum 
age limit for taking part in the competence assessment 
was removed; parts of a vocational qualification can be 
recognised when passing competence assessment for 
another vocational qualification.

Education and training providers in general, 
vocational and higher education can decide to 
shorten a learner’s pathway in line with legal 
provisions. This is normally at the school principal’s 
discretion. However, there is no methodological 
framework for how this should be done and there 
is little data on how much it is used. Access to 
formal education programmes requires a formal 
qualification; for instance, to access higher 
education, students have to have achieved an 
upper-secondary leaving certificate (maturita). 

150

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCertain combined vocational qualifications obtained 
via the VNFIL system can, however, enable the 
holder to sit the maturita exam, for access to 
higher education. Higher education institutions are 
also able to (but do not have to) select applicants 
based on their own entrance exams or results from 
national comparative exams. In the absence of a 
comprehensive NQF, coordination, communication 
and transfer among the different subsystems 
remain limited.

No credit system is used in VET in Czechia. The 
European credit transfer and accumulation system 
(ECTS) is used in higher education, though it is not 
linked to validation arrangements.

NQF implementation

Czechia does not have a comprehensive NQF in 
place. While debate on its possible development 
continues, it is unlikely that it will be established 
before 2020 (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming). Work on qualifications has been 
carried out at subsystem level to varying degrees, 
and the main issue remains the integration of these 
separate developments into a single overarching 
framework, with a single set of level descriptors. 
The national register of vocational qualifications 
(NSK) functions as a framework for the VNFIL 
system, including qualifications awarded outside the 
formal system, awarded under the Act 179/2006 on 
the verification and recognition of further education 
results. A draft qualifications framework for higher 
education was also developed. In 2011, the country 
referenced its qualifications from secondary 
education, higher education, and the vocational 
qualifications included in the NSK directly to EQF 
levels.

The NSK is fully operational and has qualification 
and assessment standards structured on eight 
levels168. So far, 1 234 vocational qualifications in 29 
different sectors have been included in the register 
(data from April, 2018), all achievable through 
validation. Most of these vocational qualifications 
are at levels 2 to 5, but a few at levels 6 and 7 have 
also been published. Since the establishment of the 
NSK, over 195 000 vocational qualifications have 
been awarded (data from September, 2018). 

The draft qualifications framework for higher 
education, in line with the Bologna framework, 
was designed and developed in the Q-RAM project 
(2009–12). The Q-RAM framework covered EQF 

levels 5 to 8, where level 5 was foreseen to be 
assigned to short-cycle programmes once this 
category was introduced during higher education 
reform. Currently there is no concept of short 
cycle. In 2012, the qualifications framework went 
through pilot implementation at 12 universities and 
four tertiary VET institutions (VOŠ). In 2015, the 
framework was revised and discussed with the 
representation of higher education institutions. Its 
scope has been reduced to EQF levels 6 to 8 and it 
includes only qualifications provided by universities 
(not VOŠ, tertiary VET schools). There were plans to 
introduce the qualifications framework for higher 
education into national legislation, in the decree 
on standards for accreditation in higher education, 
prepared in response to the amendment to the 
Higher Education Act169 effective since September 
2016. However, those plans were not successful, 
hindering implementation and the self-certification 
process.

EQF levels have been indicated on the qualifications 
included in the NSK since 2011, and on general 
education qualifications, initial VET qualifications and 
qualifications awarded by tertiary vocational schools 
and conservatories since October 2017. Including 
EQF levels on higher education qualifications is 
voluntary and has been a challenge, due to the 
autonomy of higher education institutions. EQF 
levels have been indicated on Europass certificate 
supplements and diploma supplements since 2012 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

The EQF NCP has been disseminating information 
about the EQF through the EQF national website170, 
social media, and presentations in seminars, 
conferences, workshops, and education and job 
fairs. The main groups targeted have been policy 
and decision makers, experts in the different 
education sectors, teachers, career counsellors, 
learners and employers (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). It has also been leading 
discussions on the possibility of developing a 
comprehensive NQF. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Czechia referenced its national qualifications 
subsystems directly to the EQF levels in December 
2011. In the absence of a comprehensive NQF, 
formal initial qualifications from secondary 
education were referenced, based on the 
classification of educational qualifications types 

168  The NSK database is available at: www.narodnikvalifikace.

169  The Higher Education Act is available at: www.msmt.cz/

uploads/odbor_30/TF/Legislativa_a_metodicke_pokyny/
Novela_2016/Zakon_o_vysokych_skolach_AJ.pdf 

cz/en-us/ 

170  www.nuv.cz/eqf

151

Volume II: National and regional cases(KKOV) and nationally approved curricula. CVET 
qualifications awarded through VNFIL and included 
in the NSK were also referenced. Tertiary education 
qualifications were linked to the EQF based on 
characteristics of the different levels of tertiary 
education set out in national legislation (NÚV, 2015). 
The initial referencing report (NÚOV, 2011) was 
updated in 2013 and 2015 following minor changes 
in legislation. The latest referencing report (NÚV, 
2015) is published on the EQF portal171.

The draft framework for higher education has not 
yet been self-certified against the QF-EHEA as it has 
not yet been approved at national level. 

Important lessons and future plans

Partial/sectoral qualifications frameworks based 
on the learning outcomes approach have been 
developed in Czechia, specifically the national 
register of qualifications (NSK), which acts as 
a framework for the VNFIL system and is fully 
operational, and a draft qualifications framework for 
higher education, which is pending approval. Level 
descriptors were also developed for primary and 
secondary education, based on core curricula.

The main challenge and open topic of discussion 
in the country is development towards a 
comprehensive overarching NQF, with a coherent 
set of level descriptors. This could bring together 
lower and upper secondary education qualifications 
and the sub-frameworks for vocational qualifications 
and higher education. It could potentially 
increase connectedness and coherence between 
developments in the different parts of the education  

system and open up access pathways. Explicit 
levels and a single set of descriptors would make 
links to EQF levels more transparent. Discussions 
on the purpose and potential advantages of an 
NQF have started along with work by experts, but 
reaching political agreement among stakeholders is 
a challenge and no decision has yet been taken.

In 2015 a working group was established by the 
Ministry of Education to implement the EQF. The 
group brings together representatives from all 
sections of the Ministry, from the Czech School 
Inspectorate and from organisations directly 
controlled by the Ministry: the National Institute 
for Education and the National Institute for Further 
Education. One of its tasks is to develop one 
comprehensive NQF as a tool to improve the 
orientation and coordination of the education 
system and provide clarity in Czech qualifications for 
domestic and foreign citizens172. 

Successful implementation of learning outcomes 
requires coordination of subsystems, initiatives, 
measures and bodies, which is sometimes difficult. 
Better understanding of the approach, better 
cooperation, communication and coordination 
are prerequisites for future implementation of 
learning outcomes across education and training. 
One line of progress over recent years has been 
the development of informal networks of experts, 
teachers, researchers, policy makers and officials 
willing to discuss and share their experiences. 
All interviewees contacted for a Cedefop study 
on learning outcomes (Cedefop, 2016) expressed 
the need for better understanding of the learning 
outcomes concept among different sectors and a 
desire for better coordination of education policies. 

Table 16. Czech qualification types, NSK levels and links to EQF levels

EQF 
LEVELS

CZECH QUALIFICATIONS AWARDED IN FORMAL 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

NSK LEVELS AND QUALIFICATIONS 
(AWARDED THROUGH VNFIL)

8

7

Doctoral programme 
PhD degrees three to four years beyond master 
(doktor)

8

Master programme 
Mgr, MgA., Ing., Ing. arch., MUDr, MDDr, MVDr, 
JUDr, PhDr, RNDr, Pharm.Dr, ThLic., and ThDr 
degrees one to three years of tertiary education 
beyond bachelor or four to six years of tertiary 
education 
(magistr, inženýr, doktor)

7
e.g. Senior detective 
(vedoucí detektiv)
Chemical engineer product manager 
(inženýr chemie produktmanažer)

171  Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-

172  The main source for thinking and discussion has been the 

reports-and-contacts

study by Nantl (2014).

152

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 16. Czech qualification types, NSK levels and links to EQF levels (Continued)

EQF 
LEVELS

CZECH QUALIFICATIONS AWARDED IN FORMAL 
EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

NSK LEVELS AND QUALIFICATIONS 
(AWARDED THROUGH VNFIL)

6

5

4

3

2

1

Bachelor programme 
Bc and BcA degrees three to four years of tertiary 
education 
(bakalárˇ)
Tertiary vocational education 
DiS degree three to three-and-a-half years of tertiary 
education 
(diplomovaný specialista)

6
e.g. Career counsellor for educational 
and professional path (kariérový poradce 
pro vzdeˇlávací a profesní dráhu)
Independent research and development 
electrician 
(samostatný elektrotechnik výzkumný a 
vývojový pracovník)

Upper secondary education  
with maturita exam 
General education (Gymnazium) – four years of upper 
secondary study

Upper secondary education  
with maturita exam 
Vocational education – four years of upper secondary 
study

Supplementary study leading to a maturita exam 
Two years of study after the VET certificate

Upper secondary education with VET certificate 
Vocational education – three years of upper 
secondary study

Lower secondary education 
Completion of a lower secondary general education 
programme – nine years

5
e.g. Tour guide 
(pru˚ vodce cestovního ruchu)
Agricultural advisor for plant production 
(zemeˇdeˇlský poradce pro ochranu rostlin)

4
e.g. Quality management specialist in 
engineering 
(technik rˇízení jakosti ve strojírenství)
Detective trainee
(detektiv koncipient)

3
e.g. Glassmaker for pressed glass (sklárˇ 
lisovaného skla)
Locksmith (zámkarˇ )

2
e.g. Production of side dishes (výroba 
prˇíloh)
Guard 
(strážný)

Special education 
Completion of an educational programme in a special 
school – 10 years

1

(*)  In the absence of a comprehensive NQF, Czechia has referenced its qualifications sub-systems directly to the EQF.

Source: Adapted from NÚV (2015) and the national register of qualifications (NSK): www.narodnikvalifikace.cz/en-us/

153

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
CVET  

EQF  
NCP  
NQF  
NSK  

continuing vocational education and 
training
European qualifications framework
national coordination point
national qualifications framework
Národní soustava kvalifikací (national 
register of qualifications)

NÚV  

NÚOV  

Národního ústavu odborného 
vzdeˇlávání (National Institute of 
Technical and Vocational Education)
Národního ústavu pro vzdeˇlávání 
(National Institute for Education)
QF-EHEA   qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

VET  
VNFIL  

Main sources of information

National Institute for Education (NÚV) – EQF NCP: www.nuv.cz/
National register of vocational qualifications (NSK): www.narodnikvalifikace.cz/en-us/
NÚV (2015). National referencing report of the Czech Republic: 3rd revised edition. https://ec.europa.eu/

ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/national_referencing_report_czech_republic_2015_eng.pdf 

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (2007). The strategy of lifelong learning in the Czech 

Republic. www.msmt.cz/uploads/Zalezitosti_EU/strategie_2007_EN_web_jednostrany.pdf
Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (2014). Strategy for education policy in the Czech Republic 

until 2020. www.vzdelavani2020.cz/images_obsah/dokumenty/strategy_web_en.pdf

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Czech Republic. https://ec.europa.eu/

education/sites/education/files/monitor2017-cz_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF (forthcoming). European inventory of validation of non-formal and 

informal learning 2018: country report: Czech Republic.

Nantl, J. (2014). Cˇ eský rámec kvalifikací. K možnostem, podmínkám a souvislostem vzniku národního rámce 
kvalifikací pro Cˇ eskou republiku [Czech qualifications framework: the possibilities, conditions and 
context of formation of a national framework of qualifications for the Czech Republic]. Prague: NÚV. 
www.nuv.cz/uploads/EQF/2_1_CZQF_study_fin.pdf (in Czech)

NÚOV (National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education) (2011). National referencing report of the 
Czech Republic. www.nuov.cz/uploads/ECVET_a_EQF_4_6/National_Referencing_Report_Czech_
Republic_en_fin_1.pdf

NÚV (National Institute for Education; Education Counselling Centre; Centre for Continuing Education of 

Teachers) (2015). National referencing report of the Czech Republic: 3rd revised edition. https://
ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/national_referencing_report_czech_republic_2015_eng.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts. 

154

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSDEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

Introduction

The education system in the Democratic Republic of 
the Congo (DRC) is based on the Belgian education 
system. Higher education was expanded in the 
1990s, mostly in the private sector. Many private 
higher education institutions are not recognized but 
maintain that they are affiliated with universities 
or colleges located in Western Europe and North 
America.

There are seven ministries responsible for education 
in the DRC: the Ministry for Primary, Secondary and 
Professional Education; the Ministry of Vocational 
Training, Trades and Crafts; the Ministry for Higher 
and University Education; the Ministry for Social 
Affairs; the Ministry of Youth; the Ministry of Health; 
and the Ministry of Work and Social Security.

Consequently, this current arrangement in the 
DRC, particularly the separation of roles within the 
ministries responsible for the education system, 
causes a lack of coordination. In addition, education 
system archives are in a very poor state; their 
management is handled by various government 
ministries and institutions responsible for education, 
rather than being centralized in one national record. 
The state of the archives, therefore, varies greatly 
even in central government offices, with some 
completely disorganized and in need of rehabilitation 
(Du Plessis et al., 2015).

The DRC is in the early stages of developing a 
national qualifications framework (NQF). In March 
2016 the education ministries hosted a large 
meeting with experts from stakeholder ministries 
to discuss the development of an NQF system for 
the DRC. The meeting concluded that a process 
of consensus building and planning for the 
development of an NQF should be established.

This workshop attracted great interest with even 
the army attending in connection with their training 
of soldiers (schools) and the National Institute for 
Professional Training (INPP) of behalf of the Ministry 
of Work and Social Security.

UNESCO’s assessment and review of technical 
and vocational education and training (TVET) in the 
region reported that the initiative of creating an inter-
ministerial commission of TVET was commendable 
and very important but it remains out of operation 
for two reasons: there is no document for its 
recognition (Decree of Prime Minister), and no 
financial means for its operation. It is essential that 
it be restored. 

Policy objectives 

The following are the DRC’s key objectives for a 
national qualifications and certifications framework:

a.  develop procedures for evaluation and 

certification of TVET in line with both the 
founding principles of the current system 
of qualifying examinations and the future 
requirements of the pedagogy of integration or 
skills approach;

b.  ensure consistency of assessment and 

certification in TVET, from current pedagogical 
implications to those of the pedagogy of 
integration;

c.  introduce changes gradually, to avoid possible 

performance side-effects;

d.  ensure the certification at each level reached by 
the learner as each level corresponds to a type 
of skill. Therefore, even if the learner is not able 
to progress with the programme, he or she has 
certification and the opportunity to be employed 
in the chosen trade at an appropriate level.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Certification in the DRC has struggled to achieve 
harmonization, because of the lack of adequate 
structures guiding the process. The classification of 
degrees and diplomas is currently as follows:

a.  At the early childhood or kindergarten stage, 

most providers issue an ‘early-childhood cycle’ 
certificate.

b.  At the basic or primary education level, both 

public and private schools provide a certificate of 

155

Volume II: National and regional casescompletion of primary education. This currently 
grades pupils by allocating 50% to their school 
assessment and 50% to their performance in 
the national examination at the end of primary 
studies.

The establishment of an NQF requires a way of 
thinking that will successfully harmonise existing 
qualification systems. Other objectives should be:

a.  to give coherence to these systems by creating 

c.  At completion of secondary level, a state 

a unifying framework across the country;

b.  to reinforce training throughout life;
c.  to support the involvement of politicians 
and other stakeholders in TVET, including 
communities and social partners in many 
countries and those in the sub-region.

Since the development, introduction and 
maintenance of a national qualifications and 
certifications framework are lengthy proceedings, 
there now needs to be coordination of public action 
and commitment for all stakeholders, as well as 
deep structural changes in training. These initiatives 
should:

a.  contribute to the cohesion, transparency and 

integration of all existing certification systems; 

b.  establish an objective link between training, 

evaluation and qualification;

c.  improve targeting and access to qualifications 

for various social groups, including the 
disadvantaged and vulnerable;

d.  introduce flexibility for learners, providers and 

users (employers);

e.  aid the recognition and validation of all skills 
taught as well as those acquired through 
experience;

f.  promote TVET and adult education;
g.  improve the convergence of qualifications with 
the needs of society and the labour market;

h.  promote investment in participation in 
development actions in the workplace;
i. 
introduce the system of certification by level;
j.  promote the value-accumulated experiences.

Abbreviations
DRC  
INPP  

NQF  
TVET  

Democratic Republic of the Congo 
Institut national de préparation 
professionnelle (National Institute for 
Professional Training)
national qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

certificate is awarded.

d.  A state diploma is issued to those who reach a 
specified level of attainment in all the essential 
disciplines of their option. Again, this is 
assessed by allocating 50% of the marks to their 
performance in the state examination and 50% 
to the school internal assessment.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Technical and financial partners supporting the 
development of TVET have focused primarily on the 
rehabilitation and/or construction of infrastructure, 
and provision or distribution of textbooks at primary 
level. They have also revisited the programme and 
perspective of grant development plans for TVET 
schools in priority areas (agriculture, mining and 
building public works). Other actors in TVET in the 
informal sector tend to be isolated from these 
national initiatives. Some offer their own systems of 
qualification and certification.

Referencing to regional framework

The DRC NQF will be in line with the regional 
qualifications framework of the Southern African 
Development Community.

Important lessons and future plans 

The DRC has no reference text for regulating 
or harmonising its national qualifications and 
certifications framework. Several departments have 
responsibility for aspects of the education system; 
each has developed its own qualification system, 
leading to an incoherent national picture. As a result, 
exchange of information about the experiences 
and practices of other countries in the region could 
contribute to the effectiveness of implementation of 
an NQF in the DRC.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

156

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSDENMARK

Introduction and context

Denmark is situated well above EU averages on 
all key education and training indicators and has 
exceeded EU 2020 targets for adult participation 
in lifelong learning, participation in early childhood 
education and care, percentage of early leavers 
from education and training, and tertiary educational 
attainment. Denmark continues to belong to the 
group of countries with the highest investment 
in education in the EU, despite recent falls, and 
generally has good education outcomes. However 
young people from a weak socio-economic and, 
particularly from an immigrant background lag 
seriously behind. Although vocational education and 
training (VET) graduates have a rate of employment 
above the EU average (81.7% in 2017), relatively few 
students see this pathway as their first choice. A 
tripartite agreement aiming to attract young people 
into VET and to increase completion rates was 
concluded in August 2017. Under this agreement, 
employers committed to offering at least 8 000 to 
10 000 additional apprenticeship places by 2025. 
Initiatives to secure a sufficient and qualified 
workforce in the long run include strengthening 
financial incentives for companies that offer 
apprenticeships and the creation of subsidy 
programmes providing internships. In 2017, VET 
centres of excellence were launched. These centres 
have a close and formalised cooperation with 
other actors relevant for regional growth (European 
Commission, 2018).

Denmark has developed a comprehensive national 
qualifications framework (DK NQF) covering all 
types and levels of qualification awarded and quality 
assured by public authorities. The work on the 
framework started in 2006 and builds directly on 
the qualifications framework for higher education 
(NQF-HE)173 established in 2006/07. Implementation 
of the eight-level framework has been a gradual 
process, starting in June 2009 when it was adopted 

via an administrative decision by the Ministry for 
Education, the Ministry for Science, Technology and 
Innovation (which is now the Ministry of Higher 
Education and Science), the Ministry for Culture 
and the Ministry for Economic and Business Affairs. 
The national qualifications framework for higher 
education was self-certified to the European higher 
education area framework in 2010. The NQF was 
referenced to the European qualifications framework 
(EQF) in May 2011. 

Policy objectives

The Danish NQF provides a comprehensive, 
systematic overview of public qualifications174 that 
can be acquired within the Danish education and 
training system. 

The overall objective of the NQF, as expressed in 
the referencing report, is to support transparency in 
the Danish qualifications system and to further the 
opportunities for mobility and lifelong learning by:

a.  providing a comprehensive overview of 

qualifications approved by national authorities, 
while simultaneously making routes through the 
education system visible; thus making it easier 
for students and pupils to find out how to build 
upon the qualifications they already have;

b.  aiding mutual recognition between Danish and 

non-Danish qualifications. 

The NQF has no regulatory functions in terms of the 
development and quality assurance of qualifications. 
Inclusion of Danish qualifications in the NQF and 
the quality assurance of qualifications are linked 
to acts and executive orders within existing legal 
frameworks for publicly recognised qualifications.

173  The first version of the Danish NQF-HE was developed 

between 2001 and 2003. Following a process of external 
consultation, the current NQF-HE was approved by 
ministers and on 1 July 2008 it came into force. 

174  The Danish Evaluation Institute specifies this as ‘[…] all 

qualifications that have been awarded pursuant to an act 
or executive order and that have been quality assured  
by a public authority in the Danish education system’ 
(Danish Evaluation Institute, 2011, pp. 13–14).

157

Volume II: National and regional casesThe framework supports development of a 
transparent education for the purpose of mobility 
and recognition, training and learning system 
without dead ends; it supports learner progression 
irrespective of prior learning, age or employment 
situation. The purpose is also to consolidate the 
learning-outcome-based foundation of Danish 
qualifications.

The NQF adopted in 2009 is considered to be a first 
step in a long-term development process. Currently, 
the framework includes nationally regulated and 
quality assured qualifications from formal education 
and training. A process for including qualifications 
awarded outside formal education and training in 
the Danish NQF has now been initiated, with an 
expected outcome in summer 2019.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The Danish qualifications framework draws a clear 
distinction between levels 1 to 5 and levels 6 to 8. 
The latter are identical with the levels descriptors 
in the Danish qualifications framework for higher 
education at bachelor, master and doctoral levels, 
and contain explicit references to research related 
outcomes. A broader descriptor has been drawn up 
for level 5 in the NQF than for the corresponding 
level descriptor in the national qualifications 
framework for higher education for short cycle 
degrees; this makes it possible to include 
qualifications at level 5 acquired through certain VET 
or certain maritime VET programmes. 

Qualifications have been assigned to NQF levels 
using two different principles. A qualification at 
levels 1 to 5 is assigned according to a ‘best fit’ 
principle where the final decision is based on 
overall judgement of the knowledge, skills and 
competences of a particular qualification (type). A 
principle of ‘full fit’ is used for levels 6 to 8, as is 
the case for the Danish qualifications framework 
for higher education; this means that qualifications 
at this level have to be accredited175 as meeting the 
legal requirements set by national authorities and 
according to the qualifications framework for higher 
education for qualifications at these levels.

All current publicly recognised qualifications in the 
Danish education system at level 6 to 8 are included 
in the qualifications framework for higher education. 

175  The process of accreditation in Danish higher education, 
and how this links to the learning outcomes principle, 
is well documented in the 2013 report: www.nokut.no/
contentassets/a4895de04f3744f0ab9f31330ad12cd8/
learning_outcomes_in_external_quality_assurance_
approaches_noqa_report_-220413_250613.pdf

The eight-level structure adopted for the Danish 
NQF is defined by knowledge (Viden), skills 
(Færdigheder) and competences (Kompetencer). 
Danish level descriptors have been based on a 
number of different sources, including existing 
descriptions of learning outcomes in curricula and 
programmes, the EQF descriptors, and the Bologna 
descriptors. They have been designed to be relevant 
to different types of qualification, theoretically as 
well as practically oriented. Knowledge (Viden) 
descriptors emphasise the following:

a.  the type of knowledge involved – knowledge 
about theory or knowledge about practice, 
knowledge of a subject or a field within a 
profession;

b.  the complexity of knowledge – the degree of 

complexity and how predictable or unpredictable 
the situation in which the knowledge is 
mastered;

c.  understanding – the ability to place one’s 
knowledge in a context; for example, 
understanding is expressed when explaining 
something to others.

Skills descriptors refer to what a person can do or 
accomplish and reflect the following aspects:

a.  the type of skill involved – practical, cognitive, 

creative or communicative;

b.  the complexity of the problem-solving – the 

problem-solving these skills can be applied to, 
and the complexity of the task;

c.  communication – the communication that is 
required, the complexity of the message, to 
which target groups and with which instruments.

Competence descriptors refer to responsibility and 
autonomy and cover the following aspects:

a.  space for action – the type of work/study-
related context in which knowledge and 
skills are brought to play, and the degree of 
unpredictability and changeability in these 
contexts;

b.  cooperation and responsibility – the ability to 
take responsibility for one’s own work and 
the work of others, and the complexity of the 
cooperative situations in which one engages;
c.  learning – the ability to take responsibility for 
one’s own learning and that of others176.

176  Danish Evaluation Institute (2011), pp. 17–18. 

158

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 17. Level descriptor in the Danish NQF for lifelong learning

KNOWLEDGE (VIDEN)

SKILLS (FAERDIGHETER)

Type and complexity

Type

COMPETENCES 
(KOMPETENCER)

Space for action

Understanding

Problem solving

Communication

Cooperation and responsibility

Learning

Source: Danish Evaluation Institute et al. (2011), p. 17.

These descriptors are used to address both full and 
supplementary qualifications177. 

The role of supplementary qualifications is 
particularly important for adult education and 
for continuing VET (CVET). A supplementary 
qualification can be a supplement (addition) to a 
qualification, a part (module) or an independent 
entity not related to any other qualification.

The learning outcomes approach is widely 
accepted in all segments of education and training 
and is increasingly being used to define and 
describe curricula and programmes. However, the 
descriptions are often divided according to subject, 
meaning that there is not always a comprehensive 
presentation of the overall learning outcome for the 
entire qualification. In VET, for example, the student 
must comply with both defined learning outcomes 
and competence objectives to gain admission to the 
main course after the basic course, as well as to be 
awarded certificates for VET programmes. In higher 
education all qualifications are clearly described 
using a learning outcome based terminology. 
This shift from input- to output-based steering is 
supported by the Danish quality assurance approach 
of accreditation; learning outcome is an important 
reference point for accreditation of new and existing 
programmes.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

A broad range of stakeholders has been involved 
throughout the development and implementation 
period. The social partners have been systematically 
consulted and involved; their role is being described 

177  The Danish qualifications framework for lifelong 

learning encompasses all officially accredited degrees 
and certificates in the Danish education system and 
certificates for supplementary qualifications acquired in 
the adult education system.

as constructive and as a precondition for the 
implementation of the framework. Some social 
partner representatives, notably employers, have 
pointed out the need to move to a second and more 
inclusive development stage. 

The Danish NQF implementation is steered by the 
inter-departmental National Coordination Committee 
for the Danish Qualifications Framework established 
in 2006 with representatives from the four 
ministries with responsibility for lifelong learning in 
Denmark: the Ministry of Education, the Ministry 
of Higher Education and Science, the Ministry of 
Culture and the Ministry of Economic and Business 
Affairs. Stakeholders are consulted through the 
committee for all developments regarding the 
framework implementation and regular update. All 
stakeholders have been consulted on the principles 
and procedures for the inclusion of non-formal 
qualifications in the Danish NQF.

The Danish EQF national coordination point (NCP) 
has taken on an active role in the day-to-day 
coordination of the framework. The NCP is located 
in the Danish Agency for Science and Higher 
Education within the Danish Ministry of Higher 
Education and Science, which also hosts the 
Danish national academic recognition information 
centre (NARIC). The NCP informs stakeholders 
of the results of the national referencing process 
and correlation between the NQF and the EQF. It 
provides information about the background and 
purpose of establishing the EQF, administers 
and develops the website on the NQF and it’s 
referencing to the EQF, and participates in dialogue 
with other countries about the mutual recognition 
of qualifications (Danish Evaluation Institute et al., 
2011, p. 29). Responsibility for other areas, such as 
quality assurance of qualifications in the NQF and 
their levelling, lies with the ministries responsible 
for education and training. The NCP appointed by 
the three ministries represents the Danish Ministry 
of Higher Education and Science in the coordination 
committee.

159

Volume II: National and regional casesA main task for the NCP has been to coordinate 
stakeholders involved in framework implementation, 
as well as disseminating information to a wider 
public. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways178 

Validation of non-formal and informal learning has 
been on the policy agenda in Denmark for about 20 
years and is seen as a key element in promoting 
lifelong learning. Competence assessment, 
and the possible outcomes in terms of access, 
exemption or acquisition of certificates, varies 
among the education and training sectors (VET, 
higher education and adult education sectors). A 
legal framework for validation of prior learning (VPL), 
based on common principles in adult education and 
training, has been in place since 2007. 

It is acknowledged that there is a need to link VPL 
activity for individuals more to the development 
of job profiles. This means giving employers at 
workplace level greater responsibility in showing job 
perspectives to employees potentially having a VPL.

More commitment is called for from stakeholders, 
including employers at company level, social 
partners and key actors in education. This is 
especially the case at VET and CVET schools 
where the social partners are occupying all seats 
on the boards and where they are able to be more 
strategic, giving greater priority to VPL activity. 
Official statistics should be more comprehensive 
and systematic, covering all VPL activity, and should 
be presented in an updated version. 

Since the 2016 inventory update, the main changes 
for VPL in Denmark are identified in relation to 
adult education: general adult education (AVU) and 
adult vocational education and training (AMU), VET 
and CVET. VET reform in 2015 included a separate 
programme for adults (vocational upper secondary 
education and training for persons over the age of 
25 years, EUV). This required mandatory VPL for 
the candidate prior to education being carried out, 
leading to individual shortening of the VET period. 
An evaluation of the EUV carried out by the Danish 
Evaluation Institute in 2017 showed that shortening 
is not a primary motivation for adult learners. Based 
on this, the criteria were revised and VPL no longer 

178  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

leads to compulsory shortening of the EUV; instead, 
this is optional to the individual learner. 

Adult learners who do not opt for VET shortening 
must be offered teaching at a higher level or other 
relevant vocational teaching. This adjustment came 
into effect by 1 January 2018.

The use of VPL for adult education and CVET is 
prioritised by various means and incentives. For 
adult vocational education and training there will be 
a higher taximeter to the VET providers, including 
also for the VPL. Wage compensation is also raised 
from, 80% to 100% of unemployment benefit. The 
financial incentives aim to motivate employers and 
education institutions to provide more vocational 
education courses for adults as well as increasing 
recognition of prior learning. A project aiming at 
developing both common guidelines and digital 
tools for higher education institution use of VPL 
was launched in December 2018, scheduled to 
finish in 2021. A working group with labour market 
and higher education institutional representation 
has also been set up. The working group has been 
tasked with developing recommendations by the 
end of 2019 to promote the use of VPL. Though not 
directly addressed as ’upskilling pathways’, the legal 
framework for validation of prior learning serves as 
a key instrument for upskilling pathways for adults. 
Validation of non-formal and informal learning has 
been on the policy agenda for about 20 years and 
is regarded as a key element in promoting lifelong 
learning in Denmark. In practice, validation of non-
formal and informal learning in Denmark generally 
provides individuals with the following opportunities:

a.  to be granted access to formal education and 

training programmes if they do not meet formal 
entry requirements;

b.  to get exemptions for parts of a formal 

education and training programme and/or to 
have an individual tailored education and training 
programme;

c.  to acquire a ‘certificate of competence’ leading 
to access/exemptions in adult education and 
training programmes;

d.  to obtain ‘education certificates’ for parts of/or 
a whole education programme on the basis of 
validation of prior learning.

NQF implementation

The Danish NQF has reached an advanced 
operational stage and is well embedded in the 
national education, training and qualification 
structure. All qualifications from VET, higher 
education, general education and adult education 
have been assigned to the NQF levels and included 

160

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSin the database. The regulation on opening up the 
framework has been in force since January 2018179 
and criteria and procedures for inclusion of non-
formal qualifications are expected to be adopted in 
summer 2019.

There is no specific legal act on the Danish 
national qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning. In higher education, it is implemented 
via the accreditation act180. On all other levels, it is 
integrated in educational orders. The description of 
Danish qualifications in learning outcomes forms 
the basis for recognition of prior learning (RPL) as 
well as credit transfer decisions. NQF and EQF 
levels are indicated in qualifications and qualification 
supplements being issued. 

An evaluation was carried out in 2013 by the 
Danish Evaluation Institute181 to assess the 
speed and quality of the formal implementation 
process, to check how the framework is judged by 
potential users, and to provide a basis for future 
improvements. The evaluation shows there is 
good awareness and understanding of, and overall 
satisfaction with, the Danish NQF for lifelong 
learning. It was seen as a necessary and valid tool 
for developing qualifications and programmes at 
all levels. However, the survey also revealed that 
there is a need to disseminate further the potential 
of the NQF to employers and for more assistance 
to institutions in describing programmes in learning 
outcomes.

The NQF is visible to the general public through two 
(interconnected) websites. The ufm.dk182 website 
provides information for an international target 
group, presenting the NQF and the qualifications 
it covers. The ug.dk183 website addresses a 
national target group and provides comprehensive 
information on qualifications, programmes, and 
access. This website also provides comprehensive 
information on the NQF and the qualifications levels, 
and explains the concept of learning-outcomes-
based levels and how these can be used by 
learners. 

179  www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/r0710.aspx?id=198244
180  www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=198244
181  www.eva.dk/ungdomsuddannelse/evaluering-danske-

kvalifikationsramme-livslang-laering

182  https://ufm.dk/en/education/recognition-and-transparency/

transparency-tools/qualifications-frameworks?set_
language=en&cl=en

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Danish national qualifications framework 
was referenced to the EQF in May 2011 (Danish 
Evaluation Institute et al., 2011). The result shows 
strong convergence between the Danish framework 
and the EQF with a linking of Danish level 1 and 
2 to EQF level 2. A particular challenge was linked 
to referencing qualifications at NQF/EQF levels 5, 
which include short cycle qualifications, and some 
upper secondary vocation qualifications sitting next 
to each other. 

Important lessons and the way forward

The Danish NQF is well known by main 
stakeholders, with more mixed results for 
employers and employment services.

It has influenced many areas. First, it has had high 
impact on promotion and use of learning outcomes, 
permeability of the education and training system 
and review, renewal and quality assurance of 
qualifications. The impact on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning has been good in the VET 
sector and growing in higher education. 

It has been supportive to recognition of foreign 
qualifications, used in decisions as one important 
transparency tool, but also partly jeopardised 
by uneven international referencing of similar 
qualifications, most notably short-cycle. These 
qualifications raise specific challenges in terms of 
levelling, not in the national context but the fact 
that some countries have referenced short-cycle 
qualifications to level 6 in the EQF.

The NQF has also had some impact on dialogue and 
cooperation between stakeholders in education and 
training and between education and training and 
labour market stakeholders, but this has not been 
extensive (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018). 

Denmark has now started on the task of including 
qualifications awarded outside formal education 
and training in the NQF. This will strengthen the 
relevance of the framework for the labour market 
and the social partners. The Parliament passed new 
legislation on accreditation in 2017184 mandating 
the Danish Accreditation Agency, in cooperation 
with relevant ministries, to develop principles 
and procedures for the inclusion of qualifications 
awarded outside formal education and training in the 
Danish NQF. 

183  www.ug.dk/

184  www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/r0710.aspx?id=198244

161

Volume II: National and regional casesThe aim is to establish a more open and 
comprehensive framework and create more 
transparency in line with the emphasis on lifelong 
learning. It also aims to create a better foundation 
for higher education institutions to admit students 
and give credits for qualifications and learning 
outcomes achieved outside formal education, 
opening up new pathways into formal education and 

training. Increasing the employability of holders of 
qualifications awarded outside formal education and 
training by describing them in learning outcomes is 
also important, as it will help employers understand 
and value the content and profile of a qualification. 
Criteria and procedures are being developed. 
Implementation and dissemination of procedures 
and criteria is foreseen in spring 2019185.

Table 18. Danish national qualifications framework (DK NQF)

NQF 
LEVELS

CERTIFICATES AND DEGREES

CERTIFICATES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY 
QUALIFICATIONS (*)

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

PhD degree (Ph.d. grad)

Master degree – Candidatus (Kandidat 
og masteruddannelser)
Master degree in arts/fine arts
Master degree

Bachelor degree (Bachelor og 
diplomuddannelser)
Bachelor degree in arts
Professional bachelor degree 
(Professionsbacheloruddannelser)
Diploma degree

VET certificate
Academy profession degrees 
(Erhvervsakademi uddannelser)

General upper secondary school 
certificate (Gymnasiale uddannelser)
Certificate for two-year general 
upper secondary programme (higher 
preparatory examination)
VET certificate 

3

VET certificate

2

Leaving certificate for primary and lower 
secondary school – 10th grade  
(10. klasse afgangsprøve)

Certificate for supplementary single 
subject courses at upper secondary level
Adult VET certificate
Certificate for single subject VET

Basic programme VET
Certificates for supplementary, single 
subject VET courses
Higher preparatory courses, single course 
subjects
General adult education level D
Adult VET certificate
Certificates for single subject courses 
in VET

Basic VET certificates
General adult education (levels E and F, 
approximates 10th grade)
Adult VET certificate

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

185  Interview with Allan Bruun Pedersen from the Danish 

Agency for Science and Higher Education in the Cedefop 
magazine Skillset and match, Vol. 15, January 2019:  
A Nordic network of aspiration for qualifications.  
www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news-and-press/magazines

162

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 18. Danish national qualifications framework (DK NQF) (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

1

CERTIFICATES AND DEGREES

CERTIFICATES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY 
QUALIFICATIONS (*)

EQF 
LEVELS

Leaving certificate for primary and 
lower secondary school (ninth grade) 
(Folkeskolens afgangsprøve)

Certificate for preparatory adult education
Certificate for general adult education 
(level G, approximates ninth grade)

2

(*) Acquired in adult education and training.

Source: Adapted from Danish Ministry of Higher education and Science, 2017. https://ufm.dk/en/education-and-institutions/
recognition-and-transparency/transparency-tools/qualifications-frameworks/types-of-certificates-and-degrees/hardtableview

Abbreviations
CVET 

EQF  
EUV  

continuing vocational education and 
training
European qualifications framework
VET for adults

NCP  
NQF  
VET  
VPL  

national coordination point
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training
validation of prior learning

Main sources of information

Danish Agency for Science and Higher Education – acts as EQF national coordination point: https://ufm.dk/

en/the-ministry/organisation/danish-agency-for-science-and-higher-education

Danish NQF website: http://ufm.dk/en/education-and-institutions/recognition-and-transparency/

transparency-tools/qualifications-frameworks

Register of qualifications and programmes included in the NQF: www.ug.dk/ 
Danish Evaluation Institute et al. 2011. Referencing the Danish qualifications framework for lifelong learning 
to the European qualifications framework: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/DK_
Qualifications_Framework_Referencing_Report_and_Self-certification_Report.pdf 

References

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Denmark. http://ec.europa.eu/

education/resources-and-tools/document-library/education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis-
volume-2-2018_en

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Denmark.

Danish Evaluation Institute et al. (2011). Referencing the Danish qualifications framework for lifelong 

learning to the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
DK_Qualifications_Framework_Referencing_Report_and_Self-certification_Report.pdf

Danish Evaluation Institute (2013). Evaluering af den danske kvalifikasjonsramme for livslang læring-status 

for implementering og anvendelse af kvalifikasjonsrammen [The Danish qualifications framework for 
lifelong learning: status for implementation and use of the qualifications framework]. www.eva.dk/
ungdomsuddannelse/evaluering-danske-kvalifikationsramme-livslang-laering

Hansen, J.B. et al. (2013). Learning outcomes in external quality assurance approaches: investigating and 

discussing Nordic practices and developments.

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national  
experts.

163

Volume II: National and regional casesEGYPT

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
Instead of a separate legal act, the national 
qualifications framework (NQF) was introduced as 
an amendment to the law establishing the National 
Authority for Quality Assurance and Accreditation 
of Education (NAQAAE) (law 82, year 2006); the 
amended law is currently in parliament for approval. 
NAQAAE is the lead body, while the Ministries 
of Higher Education, Education, Industry and 
Manpower are the main other implementing bodies.

The TVET 2 programme (see International 
cooperation section) will support NAQAAE in 
drafting the amendment of its current executive 
regulations (bylaws) to correspond with the 
amendments of the law. The planned qualifications 
framework will comprise eight levels.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Egypt is a lower middle-income country with a 
population, in 2015, of 91 million186. The annual 
population growth rate is declining (at 1.6%), but 
there is still high demographic pressure, with 
young people aged 15 to 24 accounting for 20% 
of the total population, requiring significant public 
investment in education, health, employment, 
housing and infrastructure.

Although GDP is steadily growing (from 1.8% in 
2011 to 4.2% in 2015), Egypt’s economy is on 
shaky ground. A drop in tourism has been dragging 
on economic activity since late 2015. Fewer 
tourists and lower revenues from the Suez Canal 
have caused the country’s international reserves 
to plunge. The loss of an Egypt Air flight in the 
Mediterranean in May and the Sinai plane crash in 
November 2015 have been a setback for tourism. 
Acute dollar shortages are restraining business 
activity and have negative repercussions on the 
wider economy. The fiscal position also worsened 
as financial support from oil-rich regional peers 
weakened with the oil price slump. Standard and 

186  UNDP_WPP15.

164

Poor Global Ratings’ move to downgrade Egypt’s 
credit outlook from stable to negative in May 
reflects these increasing imbalances.

That said, the government’s fiscal consolidation 
targets recently laid out in the 2017 draft budget 
come as positive news. Measures to curb the deficit 
include a reduction in the State subsidy bill by 14% 
and belated implementation of value-added tax. In 
November 2016, the Egyptian pound was floated 
freely on the market, instead of being sustained 
by the State, which has reversed the exchange 
rate with the US dollar and euros. This measure is 
supposed to reduce the real value of the pound and 
attract business, but it will take some time before 
the positive effects can be seen. The measure was 
required by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) 
as one of the conditions for the loan (they have just 
delivered the first instalment).

Unemployment is high and slowly increasing 
(from 12% in 2011 to 13% in 2014) following the 
country’s economic difficulties. Similar to other 
countries in the region, Egypt is characterised by 
a low activity rate for females, which in the past 
five years has remained around 15%. Potentially 
active women have difficulty in finding a job and 
their unemployment level is almost the double of 
that of men (24% versus 13% in 2014). In the past 
two years, the technical and vocational education 
and training (TVET) sector has been under the 
spotlight, as most policy-makers consider it a 
powerful instrument for addressing unemployment 
and supporting economic growth. This pressure 
has pushed policy-makers to provide rapid answers 
to the main challenge of the sector, which is 
fragmentation and lack of a common vision. In 
2016, this reform wave peaked with the creation of 
a Ministry of Technical Education and Training. This 
was not a cosmetic institutional change; the creation 
of the ministry brought strong centralisation. The 
Industrial Training Council has been moved from the 
Ministry of Industry to the new ministry, along with 
responsibility for all enterprise training partnerships 
(ETPs). The new Ministry of Technical Education and 
Training was assigned responsibility for the strategic 
policy orientations of vocational training centres.

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSHowever, a few months later, the new ministry was 
abolished and functions, which had been centralised, 
returned to their original institutions. After this 
attempt at reform, TVET governance has remained 
stagnant, as have many of the challenges linked to 
fragmented TVET system governance and lack of 
coordination among existing stakeholders. The latest 
attempt at establishing coordination mechanisms has 
been the operationalisation of the TVET Executive 
Council, which was foreseen in Prime Minister’ 
decree but never became active. At strategic level, 
new initiatives to give the country a vision for 
TVET reform have been put in place. The Ministry 
of Planning has launched the Egypt vision 2030: a 
sustainable development strategy, which includes a 
specific section for the TVET sector. UNESCO has 
worked with the Ministry of Education to define 
the pillars of a new strategy for TVET. The new EU-
funded programme in VET (TVET 2) (EUR 115 million) 
launched by the EU delegation and the national 
government, will try to build on this document and 
achieve a fully-fledged national strategy for TVET.

The Ministry of Education is starting to reform the 
TVET sector through the TVET 2.0 reform initiative, 
similar to the reform process launched in general 
education through the Education 2.0 initiative. This 
is an ambitious plan but it does not address the 
fragmentation of the system. This unwillingness 
of stakeholders to recognise the leadership of one 
specific actor in one specific component of the TVET 
reform has still to be addressed.

Within the context of improving the business 
climate, a new Development Agency has been 
created under the Ministry of Trade and Industry. 
The Industrial Training Council, the Social Fund for 
Development, and the technology centres under 
the Education Development Fund will be merged 
as per the ministerial decree of 24 March 2017. 
The inclusion of the Industrial Training Council in 
the Development Agency may have a deep impact 
on the Council’s functions as its work on the 
framework of qualifications and skills standards 
(representing around 80% of the Council’s activities) 
might be discontinued. In addition, the weakness of 
ETPs has become a serious concern for the future 
of the TVET sector and their function as a bridge 
between the demand and supply of skills. The 
TVET 2 programme is working to provide ETPs with 
a clear institutional and financial sustainability, but 
efforts have not yet materialised. 

Policy objectives

number of important policy decisions were taken 
or announced. The most notable developments 
concerned the area of governance: reshaping the 
governance structure of TVET through adoption of a 
system of cascading councils, including structures 
at regional level; introducing the position of Deputy 
Minister for Technical Education as a precursor 
to the possible establishment of a separate 
TVET ministry; upgrading TVET to the level of the 
Constitution (Article 20); and restructuring the 
Ministry of Education, including establishment of 
a school-to-work-transition unit and a planning and 
coordination unit in the TVET sector.

The priorities identified for TVET reform are:

a.  defining a vision and strategy agreed by all key 

stakeholders;

b.  setting up standard processes for qualifications 
development (NQF, occupational standards, 
curriculum development), which would reduce 
the gap between the requirements of the labour 
market and the outputs of technical and vocational 
education. Up to now different stakeholders have 
developed competence-based programmes in 
the framework of international projects. However, 
these initiatives have been based on different 
methodologies and no national standard process 
has been developed and approved;

c.  reinforcing current work-based learning initiatives 
and the establishment of new innovative ones.

International cooperation
The main international project supporting TVET 
reform is the EU-funded TVET 2 programme. This 
is a EUR 117 million programme (EUR 50 million 
from the EU and EUR 67 million from the Egyptian 
government) aiming at systemic reform of the TVET 
sector. The programme has been waiting many years 
for its launch due to the unstable political conditions. 
In 2015 the programme became operational with 
the establishment of the Project Implementation 
Unit and the launch of terms of reference for main 
activities. In 2016 the Project Implementation Unit 
started putting activities in place.

Egypt participated in the regional project 
Qualifications for the Mediterranean (Q4M), which 
developed common profiles for occupations in the 
tourism and construction sectors.

Various EU donors and agencies (Deutsche 
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 
(GIZ), British Council, World Bank, International 
Labour Organisation and others) are working in TVET 
in Egypt, with some direct links with the NQF.

Education and training reforms
Between the end of 2014 and 2015 signs of 
acceleration of TVET reform became evident as a 

a.  Learning outcomes-based qualifications 
have been produced in the framework of 

165

Volume II: National and regional casesseveral international and national initiatives. 
Currently different programmes (GIZ, WISE) are 
cooperating at developing this core process.
b.  The Industrial Training Council also launched a 
continuation of the skills development project 
jointly funded by the World Bank and Ministry of 
Trade and Industry between 2004 and 2010. This 
initiative uses the skills-based methodology of 
the Scottish National Qualification Authority.
c.  The EVCQ1 development and international 
endorsement programme, another Council 
initiative in partnership with employer 
organisations, aims to develop demand-
driven and internationally endorsed vocational 
qualifications, according to the skills standards 
required in industry, tourism and construction 
sectors. Up to now, 350 qualifications have been 
developed and endorsed. The extent to which 
these are used and updated is not clear; future 
plans target 50 qualifications covering 20 trades 
in the industrial sector.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Scope and structure of NQF
The Egyptian NQF is intended to support lifelong 
learning, covering general, vocational and higher 
education qualifications.

The work on the NQF has proved prolonged and 
complicated. At a conference organised in 2015, 
NAQAAE announced a model of the revisited NQF. 
The application and expectations of the Egyptian 
NQF were explained: an NQF for permeability and 
mobility, to assure the quality of programmes, 
to bridge the gap between offer and demand, to 
develop a sectoral qualifications framework, to 
provide scale of comparability and to assure that 
new qualifications fit in the framework. Initiatives 
to consult the public, to include and engage all 
stakeholders, to address the TVET sector, and to 
recognise non-formal education are in place and part 
of the NQF strategy.

Stages of development:

a.  awareness and mobilising stakeholders;
b.  early stages of design (agreement on conceptual 

framework and objectives);

c.  consultation and testing online survey (situation 

2016);

d.  next step (from 2018): official establishment and 

implementation.

Alignment to other classification systems
Among the objectives of the revisited NQF 
model presented in 2015 by NAQAAE is the 
development of a sectoral qualifications framework, 
a credit accumulation and transfer system, and a 

recognition of prior learning and validation of current 
competences.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The Egyptian NQF currently has eight levels. These 
levels are described according to three broad 
descriptors, namely:

a.  knowledge: described by knowledge extent and 

depth;

b.  skills: described as cognitive skills (including 
logical, intuitive and creative thinking) and 
professional skills (including manual dexterity 
and the use of methods, materials, tools and 
instruments);

c.  competences: described in terms of the extent 
of responsibility, autonomy and interaction.

Use of learning outcomes
A national process for developing learning 
outcomes-based curricula exists for higher 
education and technical education (whether high or 
pre-university). Vocational education is not included 
and has not yet been fully approved.

Existing national qualifications are not yet defined 
in terms of learning outcomes but there are 
many examples developed in the framework of 
international or national initiatives. However, there 
is no national process for developing learning 
outcomes-based qualifications.

Definition of qualification
No legal definition is used. 

Qualification standards
Occupational standards are the basis of vocational 
education qualifications.

Development process of qualifications
Prior to the model derived from the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and developed by 
NAQAAE, the National skills standard project was 
introduced and is still used to provide standards in 
training programmes for tourism, construction and 
agriculture with the involvement of the sectoral and 
regional ETPs. How far these standards have been 
updated is not clear, nor whether they are used in TVET.

The national core process, which is currently under 
development by the Ministry of Education and 
the Ministry of Industry, with the support of the 
TVET 2 programme, will include an important role 
for employers in defining occupational standards, 
qualifications and curricula. However this process 
is not yet active and, outside of qualifications 
developed in the framework of international 
projects, no mechanisms are in place to ensure that 
national qualifications are relevant to employers.

166

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe Ministry of Manpower and Migration 
cooperated with the Industrial Training Council and 
the Scottish Qualifications Authority to accredit 25 
out of 52 qualifications in the field of building and 
construction.

Access, progression and credit
The establishment of progression pathways to 
avoid dead-ends and educational bottlenecks, 
as well as rules to accredit prior learning, are 
among key objectives of the Egyptian NQF. Up 
to now, no detailed rules have been defined. 
The fragmented vocational education landscape 
and the absence of a formal NQF do not allow 
horizontal progression pathways and progression 
between systems.

Nevertheless, NQF objectives and other initiatives 
are linking TVET and general education systems, 
promoting level progression and permitting 
horizontal mobility.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
There is no legislation applying directly to the 
NQF. Instead, Law No 82 of 2006 regulating 
the establishment of the National Authority for 
Quality Assurance and Accreditation of Education 
(NAQAAE) and Presidential Decree No 25 of 2007, 
deal with the objectives of quality assurance and 
accreditation.

Related laws are:

a.  Article 20 of the Constitution of 2013, stating 

that TVET is a priority;

b.  a National strategic plan for pre-university 
education 2014–20 drafted by the Ministry 
of Education to overcome the serious 
shortcomings of the education system where 
TVET at all levels is considered a major strategic 
objective;

c.  the creation of two executive councils by the 

Prime Minister, each one under the responsibility 
of either the Ministry of Education or the 
Ministry of Manpower and Migration;

d.  the Professional Academy for Teachers created in 
2008 under the authority of the Prime Minister. 
Its current focus on general education has to be 
extended to TVET as well.

Governance and institutional  
arrangements for the NQF
NAQAAE is the lead body, while the Ministry  
of Education, the Ministry of Industry and the  
Ministry of Manpower are the main stakeholders.

Sectoral enterprise TVET partnerships, or 
ETPs were created to liaise between the TVET 
system and the private sector. They should 
be incorporated within the TVET governance 
structure. Since 2005, 12 sectoral ETPs and 
19 local ETPs have been set up, each with a 
management board of whom two‐thirds come 
from private businesses and one‐third from the 
education and training providers.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
NAQAAE is in overall charge of the NQF. The  
social partners should play a significant role:  
sectoral enterprise TVET partnerships (ETPs) 
were created for that purpose. TVET 2 will work 
at positioning all the enterprise TVET partnerships 
(ETPs) established by TVET 1 within the new 
governance structure in order to institutionalise the 
engagement of employers and sectors at policy 
level.

The TVET sector in Egypt has multiple stakeholders, 
all strongly engaged in sector reform. All of them 
also have a vision but they have not yet agreed on 
a common vision for TVET. Failure in recent years 
to approve a TVET strategy for the whole sector 
and agreed by all key stakeholders is a proof of the 
fragmentation and instability of the sector.

In January 2013, the government approved the 
establishment of the National TVET Authority, 
which replaces the Supreme Council for Human 
Resources Development. The authority was never 
operational and the new government, appointed in 
2014, established a new TVET authority under the 
prime minister with two executive committees, 
one for technical vocational education and a 
second for vocational training. Twenty-seven 
regional committees have been established to 
assure the link with the local vocational needs.

The two executive committees are coordinated 
by Ministry of Education for TVET, representing 
the initial vocational education and training sector, 
and the Ministry of Manpower and Migration for 
training, which represents the continuing  
vocational education and training sector. The 
regional committees are supervised by the  
regional governors.

Resources and funding
The development of the NQF is one of the 
objectives of the TVET 2 programme. One of 
the intended results is that ‘an overall national 
qualifications framework (NQF) for Egypt for all 
qualifications is designed and formally adopted by 
the government of Egypt, and piloted in the tourism 
sector in collaboration with NAQAAE and/or other 
relevant institutions’.

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Volume II: National and regional casesQuality assurance of qualifications
The quality assurance framework comprises 
nine areas: vision and mission of the institution; 
leadership and governance; human and financial 
resources; civil society participation; quality 
improvement and accountability; learners; teachers; 
curriculum; and education environment. Each area 
is further defined by specific criteria and described 
through a set of indicators.

A major milestone towards quality assurance was 
the establishment of the National Authority for 
Quality Assurance and Accreditation (NAQAAE) in 
2008 as an independent body reporting to the Prime 
Minister. While universities manage the process 
internally, the pre-university education institutions, 
including TVET, report directly to the Minister for 
Education. The authority has the responsibility to 
support quality units at regional and local levels 
(Idarras and Muddiriyas) to foster a quality culture 
and support schools in the process of complying 
and seeking accreditation by NAQAAE.

Quality assurance legislation includes Law No 82 of 
2006 regulating the establishment of the National 
Authority for Quality Assurance and Accreditation 
of Education (NAQAAE), and Presidential Decree 
No 25 of 2007, dealing with the objectives of quality 
assurance and accreditation.

The establishment of NAQAAE has given a clear 
institutional hub to all initiatives and responsibilities 
related to quality assurance and accreditation. 
NAQAAE has established itself as an independent 
body, with high-level technical competencies, 
which should remain a pillar of the forthcoming 
systemic TVET strategy. NAQAAE is mandated by 
law to guarantee the quality of all qualifications 
(including vocational education and training) and is 
currently working on the quality assurance system. 
The agency is responsible for promoting quality 
in educational institutions and the development 
of national standards in line with international 
standards.

NAQAAE has managed to build collaborative 
relationships with other international quality 
assurance organisations through exchange visits. As 
a result, NAQAAE signed a number of memoranda 
of understanding with the following quality 
assurance organisations: The Liaison Committee 
for Medical Education (LCME), the European 
Network for Accreditation of Engineering Education 
(ENAEE), the Scottish Qualification Authority (SQA), 
Technical and Vocational Education and Training 
United Kingdom (TVET-UK), Japan Accreditation 
Board for Engineering Education (JABEE), Japan 
University Accreditation Association (JUAA), 

and Akkreditierungsagentur für Studiengänge 
der Ingenieurwissenschaften, der Informatik, 
der Naturwissenschaften und der Mathematik 
(ASIIN e.V.).

NAQAAE has obtained membership with the 
European Foundation for Quality Assurance of 
E-learning (EFQUEL), the European Network for 
Quality Assurance of Distance and e-learning 
(EDEN), and the International Network for Quality 
Assurance and Accreditation of Higher Education 
(INQAAHE). It has established an alliance with the 
Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology 
(ABET).

In collaboration with stakeholders, NAQAAE has 
developed an integrated system to assure education 
quality. One of the system’s outcomes is a series 
of guides to help higher education institutions in 
designing their programs to meet the accreditation 
requirements.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

One of the expected results and benefits of NQF 
implementation is support to validation of non-
formal and informal learning, but no system or 
mechanism is yet formally in place for use by 
learners.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
Currently, there is no register or database at national 
level.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of Egypt 
NQF implementation have not yet been fully 
defined.

Impact for end-users
Learners, providers and workers are not yet using 
the NQF as a reference system or tool.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The NQF has no relationship with regional 
frameworks, though an Arab qualification framework 
is emerging for higher education. This aims at 
providing a common reference point for Arab 
countries engaged in developing or modifying 
qualifications frameworks for higher education.

168

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSImportant lessons and future plans

After some years following political upheaval in the 
country, NAQAAE relaunched the NQF initiative 
in February 2015. The vision of how the NQF can 
support the strategic development of education 
(ensuring transparency, matching qualifications with 
companies’ needs, development of validation of 
non-formal and informal learning) seems clear.

The NQF is also an integral part of the EU-funded 
TVET 2 programme. The TVET 2 support constitutes 
a real lever of development and implementation 
for an Egyptian NQF (even if ambitious). Expected 
results include ‘development of a mechanism to 
integrate the skills standards and occupational 
profiles within the NQF, design of an overall national 
qualifications framework of all qualifications 
and formally adopted by the government (legal 
framework and acts), development of a register of 
qualifications, preparation of a document comparing 
the Egyptian NQF against the EQF’, looking at the 
current EQF referencing criteria. Despite the limited 
involvement of companies in qualifications issues, 
the existing ETPs are a starting point for company 
commitment.

The first challenge is to complete the legal 
framework (laws and by-laws). The second is 

to ensure the engagement of all stakeholders, 
particularly companies, in developing qualifications 
(buy-in).

Clarification of roles seems important since many 
ministries are involved in overlapping duties. Some 
tools and strategies (validation of non-formal 
and informal learning, credit system, register of 
qualifications) should be developed in designing an 
overall NQF. Major work is needed on this front.

Abbreviations
ETPs 
NAQAAE 

NQF 
TVET 

enterprise training partnerships
National Authority for Quality 
Assurance and Accreditation of 
Education
national qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

TVET 1 and 2  EU-funded projects in vocational 

education and training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

169

Volume II: National and regional casesESTONIA

Introduction and context

The Estonian school system is among the best 
performing in the EU, with the lowest percentage 
of underachievers in science and mathematics and 
the second lowest in reading, according to the 2015 
Programme for international student assessment 
(PISA) results. The impact of socioeconomic status 
on the acquisition of basic skills is one of the 
lowest in the EU. However, national examinations 
show that the learning outcomes of students in 
schools in rural areas are lower than those of their 
peers in urban areas and there is a performance 
gap between students studying in Estonian and 
those in Russian-medium school. The proportion 
of Russian-medium basic school graduates 
(ISCED 1–2) with at least an intermediate level of 
proficiency in Estonian (B1) decreased to 57% in 
2017, significantly below the 90% national target set 
for 2020. However, Estonian language acquisition 
has been improving in upper secondary. Tertiary 
educational achievement and adult participation in 
lifelong learning are above EU averages. The rate of 
early school leavers was 10.8% in 2017; although 
this is around the EU average (10.6), it is above the 
national target of 9.5% set in the national reform 
programme Estonia 2020187. Early school leaving 
remained virtually unchanged in recent years and 
is high in the context of a shrinking population, 
skills shortages and the need to update the skills 
of the population. The rate remains much higher for 
men (14.2%) than women (7.3%). Efforts are being 
made to improve the attractiveness of VET, which 
remains low. The share of basic school graduates 
who continue to VET has not increased significantly 
in the past ten years; it was 25% in 2017, below 
the national target of 35%. However, recent data 
shows an increasing number of young people (37%) 
are opting for VET three years after graduating 
from basic education, showing that strengthening 
career counselling during the last two years might 
have helped. The employment rate of recent VET 
graduates was 86.2%, above the EU average 

187  https://riigikantselei.ee/en/supporting-government/

national-reform-programme-estonia-2020

(76.6%). The employment rate of recent graduates 
in higher education improved in 2017 to 83% 
(75.5% in 2016), placing it slightly below the EU 
average of 84.9% (European Commission, 2018).

On 12 December 2018, Parliament adopted 
amendments to the Vocational Educational 
Institutions Act188 to link vocational programmes 
better with the labour market and renew the 
funding principles of vocational schools. Up to 
20% of school operating expenses will be covered 
by performance-based financing, determined by 
school results. The aim of the performance-based 
financing is to motivate schools to complete their 
main tasks successfully. The act foresees more 
flexible ways to access vocational training and to 
update quality assessment. The way that current 
accreditation of vocational education is organised 
will be replaced by quality assessment. This change 
means that a study-centred approach at school will 
be developed and the trustworthiness of vocational 
education increased. The needs of local employers 
and the labour force are to be taken into account to 
a greater extent, vocational studies are to become 
more flexible, and new forms of study will be 
piloted in cooperation with local governments189. 

There is a comprehensive national qualifications 
framework (NQF) for lifelong learning, the Estonian 
qualifications framework (EstQF), established 
in 2008 through the Professions Act190. It has 
eight levels and includes all State-recognised 
qualifications. The overarching framework brings 
together four sub-frameworks; for higher education 
qualifications191, for vocational education and 
training (VET) qualifications192, for general education 

188  www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/505022014002/consolide/

current

189  www.rahandusministeerium.ee/en/local-governments-

and-administrative-territorial-reform

190  The Professions Act, entered into force on 1 September 

2008: www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/Riigikogu/
act/501072015005/consolide 

191  Referred to as standard of higher education.
192  Referred to as vocational education standard.

170

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSqualifications193 and for occupational qualifications194. 
The sub-frameworks include specific descriptors as 
defined in the corresponding national educational 
standards, underpinning quality assurance activities. 

Referencing of the EstQF to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and self-certification 
to the qualifications framework of the European 
higher education area (QF-EHEA) was completed 
in 2011; the joint report was endorsed in the EQF 
advisory group in October 2011. The referencing 
report was revised and updated in 2016 to include 
recent developments in the education system 
(Estonian Qualifications Authority et al., 2016).

The national lifelong learning strategy195 has set five 
goals for 2020, aiming to tackle existing challenges 
in a holistic approach: a change in the approach to 
learning; competent and motivated teachers and 
school leadership; concordance of lifelong learning 
opportunities with labour market needs; a digital 
focus in lifelong learning; equal opportunities and 
increased participation in lifelong learning. 

Policy objectives

The NQF’s ambition in Estonia is twofold: to be a 
tool for transparency and communication and to 
support lifelong learning. More specifically, policy 
objectives addressed by the EstQF are to:

a.  improve the link between education/training and 

the labour market;

b.  increase consistency of the education offer and 

of the qualification system;

c.  provide transparency for employers and 

individuals;

d.  increase understanding of Estonian qualifications 

within the country and abroad;

e.  introduce common quality assurance criteria;
f.  support validation of non-formal and informal 

learning;

g.  monitor supply and demand for learning.

193  Referred to as national curriculum for basic schools and 

national curriculum for upper secondary schools.
194  Occupational qualifications are those associated with 
a trade, occupation or profession, usually resulting 
from work-based learning, in-service training, and adult 
education.

195  Estonian lifelong learning strategy 2020 is a document 
that guides the most important developments in 
education. It is the basis on which the government will 
make its decisions for education funding for the years 
2014–20 and for the development of programmes that 
support the achievement of necessary changes: www.
hm.ee/en/estonian-lifelong-learning-strategy-2020 

It is expected that implementation of an overarching 
NQF will increase coherence of education and 
training, and help introduce coherent methods 
for standard-setting. The referencing process has 
already provided a stimulus in this direction, and 
‘convergence of the formal educational system and 
occupational qualifications system has taken place’, 
while the barriers between the two systems have 
been lowered (Estonian Qualifications Authority et 
al., 2016). The purpose of the EstQF has not been 
changed.

Another important policy objective is to increase 
the participation rate in lifelong learning activities 
among adults (25–64) from 15.7% in 2016 to 20% in 
2020, set as a national target in the national reform 
programme Estonia 2020. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The comprehensive EstQF has eight qualification 
levels; its descriptors are identical to EQF level 
descriptors. They are defined in terms of learning 
outcomes, as knowledge (theoretical and factual), 
skills (cognitive skills – use of logical, intuitive and 
creative thinking; and practical skills – manual 
dexterity and use of methods, materials, tools 
and instruments) and degree of responsibility and 
autonomy (Estonian Qualifications Authority et 
al., 2016). More detailed descriptors have been 
developed in the four sub-frameworks for general 
education, initial vocational education, higher 
education and occupational qualifications. An EstQF 
level is assigned to each of the qualifications in 
these sub-frameworks. 

Two types of State-recognised qualification are 
included in the EstQF:

a.  formal education qualifications, awarded after 
completion of educational programmes at all 
levels (general, vocational and higher education);
b.  occupational qualifications196, where individuals 
are issued a professional certificate, giving the 
evidence of knowledge, skills and competences 
required for working in a specific occupation or 
profession.

196  There are 570 valid occupational qualifications based on 
occupational standards, placed at levels 2 to 8 of the 
NQF. They can be gained through formal education, adult 
education and in-service training (Estonian Qualifications 
Authority and Estonian Ministry of Education and 
Research, 2016).

171

Volume II: National and regional casesQualifications in sub-frameworks are described in 
the corresponding national educational standards, 
which are learning-outcomes based:

a.  national curriculum for basic schools;
b.  simplified national curriculum for basic schools;
c.  national curriculum for upper secondary schools;
d.  standard of VET;
e.  standard of higher education197;
f.  occupational qualifications standards.

Introducing a learning outcomes approach is an 
important part of the national reform programme for 
general education, VET and higher education; the 
topic is covered in various regulatory acts. Linked 
to this is increased focus on recognition of prior 
learning. Higher and vocational education are more 
advanced in implementing the learning-outcomes 
approach; this approach is not yet widely applied 
in general education but implementation is part of 
the lifelong learning strategy (strategic goal: change 
in the approach to learning). The main challenge 
appears to be take-up among teachers and school 
administrators. While learning outcomes have been 
embedded in curricula for a long time, the focus in 
education delivery has been on process rather than 
learning outcomes. The role of employers could also 
be more extensive and constructive to derive full 
benefits from applying this approach (Cedefop, 2016). 

Learning outcomes of different types of VET are 
described in the vocational education standard 
and correspond to levels 2 to 5 of the EstQF. 
The vocational education standard describes the 
requirements for national and school curricula, 
including objectives, expected learning outcomes, 
volumes of study and graduation requirements 
for different types of initial and continuous VET 
programmes, and requirements for pedagogical 
professionals. Learning outcomes are defined as 
occupation-specific knowledge and skills as well 
as transversal skills: communication; learning, 
social and entrepreneurial skills; self-awareness; 
independence and responsibility. Reform of VET 
curricula was launched in September 2013 and by 
September 2016, 20 new national VET curricula 
were approved (Estonian Qualifications Authority 
et al., 2016). Together with national curricula of the 
previous generation they cover the whole spectrum 
of specialities. VET institutions have initiated more 
than 600 learning-outcome-based new curricula. 
Since 2013, study volume in VET has been 
expressed using Estonian VET credit points.

The current national curricula in general education 
were gradually introduced between 2010 and 2013. 

They set out goals and objectives, expected learning 
outcomes, assessment criteria and requirements for 
the learning and teaching environment, graduation 
and school curriculum.

New study programmes based on learning outcomes 
were implemented in higher education as of 
September 2009. The Estonian standard of higher 
education refers to learning outcomes at basic level 
(outcomes that any graduate must achieve) and 
achievement of learning outcomes above the minimum 
level is differentiated by grading. The Universities 
Act198 and the Institutions of Professional Higher 
Education Act199 now allow for accreditation of prior and 
experiential learning in higher education curricula.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Education and Research and the 
Estonian Qualifications Authority (Kutsekoda)200 
are the main bodies in charge of developing and 
implementing the EstQF. The Qualification Authority 
was established in 2001 to develop a competence-
based professional qualifications system201, put in 
place in parallel to the formal education system 
under the Ministry of Education and Research. 
In 2010, by decision of the Ministry of Education 
and Research, the Qualifications Authority was 
nominated as the national EQF coordination point 
(EQF NCP)202. The NCP is tasked with:

a.  organising the process of referencing the 

Estonian qualifications to EQF levels, ensuring 
the involvement of stakeholders and the 
transparency of the process;

b.  implementing principles ensuring quality of the 

referencing process agreed in Europe;

c.  informing all stakeholders and the public about 
referencing Estonian qualifications to the EQF 
levels and developments involving the Estonian 
qualifications framework;

d.  participating in the activities of the NCPs 

network.

198  The Universities Act: www.riigiteataja.ee/en/

eli/521032014002/consolide

199  The institutions of professional higher education: 

www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/ee/Riigikogu/act/504112013013/
consolide

200  Kutsekoda (Estonian Qualifications Authority):  

www.kutsekoda.ee/en/ 

201  Based on the Occupational Qualifications Act in 2001, 

professional qualifications were referenced to a five-level 
professional framework where level 1 was the lowest and 
level 5 the highest. Today, professional qualifications are 
assigned to levels 2 to 8 in the EstQF.

202  Currently, the day-to-day running of the EstQF is 

197  In the sub-framework for higher education, general 

descriptors follow the logic of the Dublin descriptors, but 
are adjusted to national needs.

supported by two part-time employees and one full-time 
employee of the Qualifications Authority; the annual 
budget for EstQF-related activities is EUR 76 100.

172

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSA broad-based steering committee was also 
established to ensure the involvement of all key 
stakeholders in NQF-related processes. It includes 
representatives of the Ministry of Education and 
Research, Ministry of Social Affairs, Ministry of 
Economic Affairs and Communications, State 
Chancellery, Estonian Unemployment Insurance 
Fund, Estonian Qualifications Authority, Estonian 
Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Confederation 
of Estonian Trade Unions, Estonian Employers’ 
Confederation, Estonian Association of Pupils’ 
Unions, Estonian Association of Student Unions, 
Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational 
Education, and the Estonian ENIC/NARIC Centre. 
The mandate of the steering committee was first 
limited to the referencing process, but renewed in 
2017 and 2018. The new mandate was expanded 
to the monitoring of the implementation of 
the EstQF and, if necessary, making proposals 
for amendments. The Qualifications Authority 
coordinates the 14 sector skills councils and 
provides technical support to the board of 
chairmen of these councils. Typically, institutions 
represented in sector skills councils are: employers’ 
organisations in the sector; trade unions in the 
sector; professional associations in the sector; 
education and training institutions; and responsible 
ministries. They are responsible for preparing, 
amending, renewing or approving professional 
standards, and for deciding on the linking of 
occupational qualifications to the EstQF. The board 
of chairmen of the sector skills councils coordinates 
cross-sectoral cooperation.

The Qualifications Authority also cooperates 
with other institutions, disseminates information 
and provides guidance and advice to various 
stakeholders on application of the framework. 
The dissemination of information and guidance on 
implementation of the framework are carried out 
mostly through partners and participants to the 
occupational qualifications system: the sector skills 
councils, professional examination committees, 
and experts. Different kinds of dissemination and 
information event are organised annually to share 
information with education providers, policy makers, 
and employer and employee organisations. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways203

Validation practices in Estonia are well developed 
in the formal education sector. Higher education 

has been leading developments, with vocational 
education and training and general education 
following. The legal framework for validation is 
specific to the education level. There is no overall 
legislation to cover all education subsystems, 
regulated by sector-specific acts and regulations; 
each is responsible for its own development and 
implementation. The current model is fragmented 
and it could be difficult for potential applicants to 
find their way around the various systems that are 
sector-specific.

Development of the EstQF has supporting validation 
among its objectives, and the updated referencing 
report (September 2016) clearly signals this. For 
all qualifications included in the framework, the 
curricula and the relevant regulations of each 
subsystem204 enable education providers to 
recognise non-formal and informal learning. A credit 
point system that conforms to the European credit 
transfer system (ECTS) is used in higher education, 
and a credit point system that conforms to the 
European credit system for vocational education and 
training (ECVET) is used in VET. 

In the higher education legislative framework, 
from 2007 there has been no limitation on how 
many credits can be obtained via validation but 
higher education institutions cannot award whole 
diplomas or certificates on the basis of prior and 
experiential learning. In practice, this means that the 
whole of the curriculum may be recognised on the 
basis of prior learning, except for the thesis or final 
examination. For admission to higher education, a 
specified level of education needs to be achieved.

In VET, validation possibilities are wider: passing a 
professional exam (professional certificate issued) 
can replace the school leaving exam. Some learning 
outcomes in primary school may be recognised 
with agreement of a student’s parents and school’s 
representatives. Full occupational qualifications can 
be awarded through recognition of prior learning.

Since the 2016 inventory the main focus of 
validation developments has been in the adult 
education section. The Adult education programme 
2016–19 (Täiskasvanuhariduse programme)205 has 
focused on adult gymnasiums and the development 
of validation practices for the needs of adult 
learners. Training has been provided to validation 
practitioners in adult gymnasiums, vocational 
education and higher education institutions, and to 
occupation standards providers. Overall validation 
data collection is one of the targeted activities. 

203  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

204  Standard of VET and Standard of higher education.
205  Täiskasvanuhariduse programm 2016–19: www.

hm.ee/sites/default/files/lisa_9_taiskasvanuhariduse_
programm_2016-2019.pdf 

173

Volume II: National and regional casesAs a result of recent developments, validation is 
present in all sectors and, in relation to Council 
recommendation on validation (2012)206, it can 
be said that knowledge, skills and competences 
acquired through non-formal and informal learning 
can be validated. 

The Higher education programme 2016–19207 
features validation as a means for flexible study by 
supporting access to higher education for various 
groups of learners. The Vocational education 
programme 2016–19208 states that an increase in the 
number of validation applications is expected and 
assessment quality has improved. It is expected 
that validation-related initiatives will be supported in 
the future.

NQF implementation

The Estonian NQF has reached full operational 
stage. The Ministry of Education and Research and 
the Estonian Qualifications Authority are the main 
bodies involved in its implementation. A legal and 
institutional framework was set up by the amended 
Professions Act of 2008 and key responsibilities and 
roles of different stakeholders have been agreed. 
Quality criteria for inclusion and positioning of 
qualifications in the framework have been adopted. 
The framework includes all State-recognised 
qualifications, which have to meet two basic 
criteria: to be defined in learning-outcomes-based 
qualifications standards (curriculum or professional 
standards) and to be awarded by nationally 
accredited institutions. 

The EstQF is well established, especially the 
sub-frameworks for VET, higher education and 
occupational qualifications. General education is 
formally connected to the overarching framework 
through relevant State programmes but the 
substantive link and common awareness about 
learning outcomes and qualification levels is rather 
weak in this subsystem. 

Implementation of the overarching framework has 
triggered discussions between stakeholders and 
has been used to identify gaps and imbalances 
in the provision of qualifications. For instance, 

EstQF level 5 was a focus of public debate from 
formal adoption of the overarching framework 
in 2008. The main discussion centred on the 
fact that there were no qualifications from initial 
education and training identified at this level, only 
occupational qualifications. The need for these types 
of qualification in the labour market, supported 
by different stakeholders, has impacted on policy 
decisions. 

Following intense consultation with all stakeholders, 
a new VET Act came into force in mid-2013209, 
along with a new standard of VET. This substantially 
transformed the VET system and introduced 
qualifications at level 5 (both in initial and continuing 
VET); previously there were no initial education 
qualifications at this level. It also established a 
new quality assurance framework for VET and the 
Estonian VET credit system. It stipulates five types 
of VET qualification210.

The framework has also been used to revisit current 
provision of professional higher qualifications 
referenced to EstQF level 6. It informs curriculum 
reform in VET and fine-tuning qualification 
descriptions from VET and higher education with 
NQF level descriptors.

EstQF and EQF levels have been indicated on 
higher education and occupational qualifications 
(that meet the requirements for inclusion in the 
EstQF) since 2012, and on general education and 
VET qualifications since 2013. Including the EstQF 
and EQF levels on Europass diploma and certificate 
supplements is general practice. The levels are also 
indicated in national qualifications databases, such 
as the VET curricula database211 and the register of 
occupational qualifications212.

There are continuing discussions and plans to 
include EstQF and EQF levels in the envisaged new 
version of the Estonian education database (EHIS2).

There is no specific communication strategy. NQF 
implementation is foreseen in the Estonian lifelong 
learning adult education programme.

209  VET Institutions Act: www.riigiteataja.ee/

206  Council of the European Union (2012). Council 

recommendation on the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. Official Journal of the European Union, 
C 398, 22.12.2012, pp. 1–5. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32012H1222%2801%29 

210 

akt/122122013002 
Amended VET Act in force since January 2019:  
www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/514012019002/consolide 
(a) VET certificate, EstQF level 2; (b) VET certificate, EstQF 
level 3; (c) upper secondary VET certificate, EstQF level 4; 
(d) VET certificate, EstQF level 4; (e) VET certificate, EstQF 
level 5.

207  Kõrgharidusprogramm 2016–19: www.hm.ee/sites/default/

211  VET curricula database: https://enda.ehis.ee/avalik/avalik/

files/lisa_8_korghariduse_programm_2016-2019.pdf
208  Kutseharidusprogramm 2016–19: www.hm.ee/sites/

oppekava/OppekavaOtsi.faces

212  Register of occupational qualifications: www.kutsekoda.

default/files/lisa_7_kutseharidusprogramm_2016-2019.pdf

ee/et/kutseregister/tutvustus

174

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
The Estonian Qualifications Authority (Kutsekoda) 
conducted a poll among employers and specialists 
about awareness and use of the EstQF. Employers 
are less aware of the EstQF than qualification 
certificate owners: only 30% of responders were 
well or very well acquainted with the EstQF, 
although the percentage among the certificate 
owners was 40%. The EstQF was used as 
promotional tool for occupation qualification 
certificates by half of occupational certificate 
owners and employers, and was useful for people 
reflecting on their qualifications and compiling  
their CV.

Some 23% of responders have used the EstQF to 
guide employees to achieve a higher qualification 
level; 21% have used the EstQF to assess an 
applicant’s qualification (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

The results from the survey help the EQF NCP  
and the EQF steering group to plan their  
activities.

The NQF has varied influence in different areas:

a.  the EstQF has an influence on the promotion of 

learning outcomes, although not directly; 

b.  according to available evidence and research so 
far, the EstQF and learning outcomes approach 
has not yet reached the aim of full permeability 
of education and training ; 

c.  the impact and influence of the EstQF on the 
renewal and review and quality assurance of 
qualifications is growing; 

d.  there is a moderate influence of the EstQF 

on dialogue with stakeholders as the level of 
occupation standard is negotiated between 
them and the level of occupational/professional 
standard is related to the level of qualification in 
the framework; 

e.  the EstQF has a substantial influence in levelling 

foreign qualifications; 

f.  there is considerable EstQF influence on the 
parity of esteem and comparison between 
different types of qualifications (European 
Commission; Cedefop, 2018).

Important lessons and future plans

One key objective of the EstQF is to improve 
comparability between formal school leaving 
certificates and occupational qualifications. 
Development of the framework and the referencing 
process have already contributed to this objective by 
building up a more coherent and responsive lifelong 
learning system. The process has been intense. As 
observed in the referencing report, ‘a remarkable 
convergence’ between the education system and 
the professional qualification system has taken 
place (Estonian Qualifications Authority et al., 2016).

Occupational qualifications that link lifelong learning 
with the labour market can be distributed on 
levels 2 to 8 of the EstQF, clearly indicating that 
it is not only higher education qualifications that 
can be assigned to levels 6 to 8213. Strict quality 
criteria have to be met: qualifications are based on 
professional standards and developed in cooperation 
with social partners, and awarding bodies have to be 
accredited. The relationship between occupational 
and VET qualifications was discussed in the 
EQF advisory group, covering how occupational 
qualifications differ and/or complement those 
awarded in the initial education system. There are 
two main ways to obtain vocational or occupational 
qualifications (kutsekvalifikatsioon) in Estonia: either 
via work experience and assessment against a 
professional standard or via a VET programme based 
on professional standards and broader educational 
objectives. Both types of qualification have the 
same value on the labour market. According to 
the Professions Act of 2008, both VET and higher 
education institutions which have curricula based 
on professional standards and are accredited 
against quality standards could apply to become an 
occupational qualifications awarding body. Some 
kind of convergence of these two systems is 
expected.

Current activities for occupational qualifications 
include development and implementation of 
monitoring, analysis and forecasting of labour 
market needs (quantitative and qualitative) during 
2015–20214. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The EstQF was referenced to the EQF and self-
certified against the qualifications framework of 
the European higher education area (QF-EHEA) in 
October 2011. Following the 2013 VET reform, the 
referencing report was revised and presented to the 
EQF advisory group in 2015. In September 2016, an 
updated report was submitted, following the EQF 
advisory group recommendations.

213  Occupational qualifications at levels 6 to 8 require mostly 

higher education qualifications as a basis.

214  During 2015–20 the monitoring, analysis and forecasting 

of labour market needs are being developed and 
implemented through the OSKA programme (a system 
of labour market monitoring and future skills forecasting). 
Each year, the need for labour and skills is analysed and 
recommendations for training requirements are prepared 
in five or six sectors. In 2016, forecasts of the need for 
labour and skills were prepared in the following sectors: 
accounting; forestry and timber industry; information 
and communication technology; manufacturing of metal 

175

Volume II: National and regional casesA new Adult Education Act215 was adopted in 2015, 
aimed at increasing the quality of adult learning 
through introducing the learning outcomes approach 
into curriculum design and assessment.

According to the Estonian Qualifications Authority216, 
the main challenge for the EstQF is recognition as a 
backbone of the national qualifications system and 
as a focal point of the system for lifelong learning. 
This could be addressed by increasing awareness of 
the EstQF among end-users. 

Table 19. Estonian qualifications framework (EstQF) 

ESTQF 
LEVELS

EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS

OCCUPATIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctoral degree  
(Doktorikraad) 

Master degree  
(Magistrikraad) 

Bachelor degree  
(Bakalaureusekraad) 
Diploma of professional higher education  
(Rakenduskõrgharidusõppe diplom) 

VET certificate, level 5  
(5. taseme kutseõppe lõputunnistus) 

Upper secondary general education 
certificate  
(Gümnaasiumi lõputunnistus) 
Upper secondary VET certificate 
(Kutsekeskhariduse lõputunnistus) 
VET certificate, level 4 
(4.taseme kutseõppe lõputunnistus) 

VET qualification certificate, level 3  
(3. taseme kutseõppe lõputunnistus)

Basic education certificate
(Põhikooli lõputunnistus) 
Basic education certificate based on 
simplified curriculum
(Põhikooli lihtsustatud õppekava 
lõputunnistus) 
VET certificate, level 2 (without basic 
education requirement) 
(2.taseme kutseõppe lõputunnistus) 

Basic education certificate based on 
curriculum (for students with moderate and 
severe learning disabilities) 
(Põhikooli toimetuleku õppekava 
lõputunnistus) 

Level 8 occupational qualification 
Example: chartered engineer, 
chartered architect

Level 7 occupational qualification 
Example: diploma engineer, diploma 
architect

Level 6 occupational qualification 
Example: engineer

Level 5 occupational qualification 
Example: master carpenter, 
construction site manager

Level 4 occupational qualification 
Example: IT specialist

Level 3 occupational qualification  
Example: carpenter

Level 2 occupational qualification 
Example: cook assistant

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Adapted from Estonian Qualifications Authority et al., 2016; Government of Estonia, 2018.

products, machinery and equipment; and social work. 
More information can be found at: http://oska.kutsekoda.
ee/en/

215  New Education Act: www.riigiteataja.ee/en/

216  Cedefop (2015). Survey on the sustainability and visibility 

eli/529062015007/consolide

of NQFs [unpublished].

176

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
ENIC  

European network of information 
centres
European qualifications framework
Estonian qualifications framework
national academic recognition 
information centres
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

EQF  
EstQF  
NARIC  

NQF  
VET  

Main sources of information

Estonian Qualification Authority EQF NCP: www.kutsekoda.ee/en/ 
Information on qualifications and the EstQF: www.hm.ee/en/activities/qualifications
VET curricula database: https://enda.ehis.ee/avalik/avalik/oppekava/OppekavaOtsi.faces
Estonian education information system (EHIS): www.eesti.ee/eng/services/citizen/haridus_ja_teadus/

isikukaart_eesti_ee_portaali

Estonian register of occupational qualifications (professions register): www.kutsekoda.ee/et/kutseregister/

tutvustus 

Estonian Qualifications Authority et al. (2016). Referencing of the Estonian qualifications and qualifications 
framework to the European qualifications framework. www.hm.ee/sites/default/files/2015_
referencing_report_revised.pdf

References

Cedefop (2014). Qualifications at level 5: progressing in a career or to higher education. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. Cedefop working paper; No 23. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-
resources/publications/6123 

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074 

Estonian Qualifications Authority et al. (2016). Referencing of the Estonian qualifications and qualifications 
framework to the European qualifications framework: www.hm.ee/sites/default/files/2015_
referencing_report_revised.pdf 

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Estonia. https://ec.europa.eu/education/

sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-estonia_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report Estonia.

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national  
experts.

177

Volume II: National and regional casesESWATINI (FORMERLY SWAZILAND)

Introduction and context

The Eswatini Qualifications Framework (ESQF) was 
developed in 2016, by the then Swaziland Higher 
Education Council, now Eswatini Higher Education 
Council (ESHEC). This body was established by 
the Higher Education Act of 2013 to provide quality 
assurance of higher education in the country. 
Upon taking office, the Council realised that 
quality assurance cannot be effectively provided 
without the development and implementation 
of a national qualifications framework (NQF). An 
NQF can be defined as a comprehensive system 
for classification, registration and publication 
of articulated and quality assured national 
qualifications. 

Later on, the process of developing the NQF 
commenced. A draft was presented to the Cabinet 
where ESHEC was given the green light to use it. 
Currently the ESQF is being implemented. However, 
as the Council interacts with the document, gaps 
are being identified which have compelled it to 
review the ESQF. 

The development of the ESQF came at a time when 
the whole world, including the Southern African 
Development Community (SADC), realised the 
importance of NQFs. SADC developed the SADC 
Qualification Framework (SADCQF) that would serve 
as a reference qualifications framework for the 
region and is in the process of implementing it. One 
of the implementation focus areas is the alignment 
of the NQFs to the SADCQF, which Eswatini is 
actively participating in. 

Policy objectives

The decision to develop the ESQF is driven by a 
number of factors, including:

•  Poor internal relevance. Poor vertical and 

horizontal articulation of programmes limit the 

pathway arrangements required to facilitate 
trainee movement across levels of technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET), and 
between TVET and higher education.
•  Poor credibility and quality of existing 

qualifications and training programmes. There 
is a need to provide a stronger basis for the 
understanding, comparison and recognition 
of national and foreign qualifications, 
thereby improving the understanding of 
employers, parents and learners of the value 
of qualifications. This will be achieved by the 
development of a set of levels of learning 
outcomes and competences to be achieved and 
assigning qualifications to the levels.

•  Lack of coherence and fragmented nature of 

qualifications systems. There is need to address 
the lack of consistency and reliability among 
qualifications.  

•  The need for recognition of non-formal acquired 
skills and facilitation of their integration into 
the formal system. Lifelong learning is a vital 
component in developing and utilizing human 
capital, hence the need to recognize, validate 
and accredit non-formal learning in the NQF. 
More so, because formal learning is not 
sufficient to facilitate and utilize the full human 
potential of any society.

The above challenges are anticipated to be 
addressed by the ESQF, which should strengthen 
the transparency of qualifications and clarify the 
mutual relations, vertically and horizontally, to 
enhance communication on qualifications between 
education and the labour market.

A situational analysis of the Ministry of Education 
and Training was conducted and a report was 
published in 2010 (The Education System in 
Swaziland: Training and Skills Development for 
Shared Growth and Competitiveness). This is where 
the need to develop and implement the NQF was 
identified. According to this report, the NQF should 
be used as a primary vehicle for transforming the 

178

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScurrent education, training, and skills development 
sector into a seamless lifelong learning system. 

The National Education and Training Improvement 
Programme (NETIP, 2014), identified the 
establishment of the NQF as one of the activities 
meant to improve the quality and relevance of 
higher education.

and regional structures such as the SADCQF and 
the Transnational Qualifications Framework. The 
10 levels encompass the whole education sector 
and ensure comparability and transparency of 
qualifications in different fields and learning areas. 
Each level represents groupings of qualifications 
sharing similar characteristics as described by the 
level descriptors. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Structure of the Eswatini Qualifications Framework
The ESQF has a structure of ten levels, seven 
of which are situated at undergraduate level and 
three at postgraduate level. The structure has 
been benchmarked against other international 

Each level represents the complexity of the 
qualifications from the most basic to the most 
complex incrementally from levels 1 to 10. 
Each qualification at a given level has a generic 
name regardless of where the qualification was 
obtained. Such generic titles make it possible for all 
qualifications that are registered on the framework 
to have parity of esteem.

Table 20. Eswatini Qualifications Framework (ESQF) structure 

LEVELS

GENERIC TITLES

MINIMUM 
CREDITS

LIFELONG 
LEARNING

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctoral Degree

Master’s Degree

Bachelor’s Honours Degree 
Professional Degrees
Postgraduate Diploma
Postgraduate Certificate

Bachelor’s Degree
Graduate Diploma
Graduate Certificate

Advanced/Higher Diploma
Associate Degree
Foundation Degree

Diploma (TVET, academic)
Certificates

A Level
TVET Certificate

TVET Certificate
O Level, SGCSE

Vocational Certificate
Junior Certificate

Vocational Certificate

360

180

120

360

240

240

120

40

40

40

t
n
e
m
p
o
e
v
e
d
s

l

l
l
i

k
S

179

Volume II: National and regional cases 
ESQF level descriptors

Level descriptors are statements describing the 
characteristics of the generic outcomes of each of 
the ten levels in the ESQF. These characteristics 
consist of the knowledge, skills, competences and 
attributes that participants should possess or be 
able to demonstrate on completion of a programme, 
course or module. 

In formulating the ESQF level descriptors, the 
following principles have been embraced:

•  Level descriptors are broad, generic, qualitative 

statements that indicate specific learning 
outcomes at a given level on the ESQF.
•  Level descriptors take account of different 

types of learning at the same level, including 
knowledge and understanding, skills and wider 
personal and professional competences.

•  Levels are not intrinsically related to the period 

of study.

•  Level descriptors are intended to integrate 

academic, TVET and professional aspects of 
learning and apply to all learning contexts (class 
work, practical work, work-based learning).

•  Level descriptors are not intended to be 

prescriptive but rather flexible enough to provide 
a guideline to practitioners involved in the design 
and delivery of the curriculum for any field of 
study. 

•  Level descriptors are developed with the 

intention that the curriculum specialist will use 
his/her professional expertise to translate them 
into his/her own field of study.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

See section on future plans.

Process and procedures for recognizing foreign 
qualifications, including for refugees and migrants
1.  For verification of a qualification, an applicant 

must: 
a.  submit the application in full to the Executive 

Secretary in the form prescribed in 
schedule 4 of these regulations; and
b.  send with the application the full fee as 

determined by the Council.

2.  If an applicant does not comply with sub-

regulation 1, the Executive Secretary shall not 
accept the application. 

Verification process
1.  Verification is an integral part of the certificate 

evaluation process and entails a range of checks 
to establish:
a.  the status of the institution that issued the 

qualification in the country of origin;

b.  the status of qualification in the country of 

origin (whether the qualification is registered 
or recognised);

c.  the reliability of the qualification documents 

and/or certificate;

d.  the genuineness of the award i.e. is the 

person presenting that application the person 
who attained the qualification;

2.  Once a qualification has been successfully 
verified, a local equivalent is established

•  Level descriptors may be used to aid the 

assessment of claims for recognition of prior 
learning.

3.  Upon completion of the process, a final report is 
produced and the decision communicated to the 
applicant. 

•  Level descriptors are designed to act as a guide 
to locate a qualification (and its associated 
learning programmes) at the appropriate level on 
the ESQF.

•  Level descriptors are formulated to help in 

making comparisons between qualifications in a 
variety of fields and disciplines that are located 
at the same level of the ESQF.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Higher Education Act (2013) is what 
establishes ESHEC and stipulates the roles and 
functions of actors and stakeholders. The Higher 
Education Regulations (2015) document is used for 
operationalising the Act. Upon approval, the National 
Qualifications Authority Bill will clearly outline the 
governance and institutional arrangements for the 
ESQF.

Maintenance of a register
A record of all submitted applications is kept by the 
Council. 

Appeals
1.  There is an appeal process in place for all 
applicants who are not satisfied with the 
outcome of the verification process. 

2.  An appellant is required to pay an appeal fee 

before the process starts.

Over and above this, Eswatini is awaiting finalization 
of the SADC Qualifications Recognition Manaul 
which will provide a clear guide on recognition of 
foreign qualifications including those for refugees 
and migrants.

Eswatini is also in the process of ratifying the 
Addis Convention, which, once enforced, will 

180

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSencompass all issues around recognition of foreign 
qualifications.

NQF implementation

This activity has yet to be embarked on. Currently, 
ESHEC is conducting institutional assessments 
in all higher education institutions for purposes of 
registration so that a database of all registered/
recognized higher education institutions can be 
created. This goes hand in hand with accreditation 
of the programmes on offer in these institutions.

One challenge is that the National Alignment 
Committee has not had time to meet to refine 
the draft alignment report. This is partly because 
the institution driving the alignment – ESHEC – is 
faced with challenges mostly related to failure to 
transition from being a government department to 
being an autonomous entity. All ESHEC’s operations 
are frustrated due to lack of funds since the budget 
from the Public Enterprise Unit has not been 
released yet and the Ministry of Education and 
Training is unable to fund the entity.

Important lessons and future plans

Referencing to the regional frameworks

Future plans include: 

Eswatini is one of the pilot countries for alignment 
of NQFs to the SADCQF. The alignment process is 
as follows:

•  The first alignment activity involved writing a 
self-assessment report. ESHEC attended an 
alignment capacity-building workshop organized 
by South Africa, which was held in July 2017, 
where several issues on referencing the NQFs 
to the SADCQF, including writing a proper self-
assessment report, were discussed. During 
that meeting, we were also assisted on how 
to establish the National Alignment Committee 
and were given the terms of reference for the 
Committee.

•  On 27 March 2018, the Eswatini National 

Alignment Committee was established and 
the following formed the agenda of the first 
meeting:
 o the Draft National Qualifications Framework, 
the process of its approval and possible 
solutions, 

 o the alignment process, self-assessment 
report, work plan with target dates,

 o the terms of reference.

•  On 10 April 2018 an alignment report writing 

capacity-building workshop, held in South Africa, 
Pretoria, was attended.

•  On 11 April 2018 the first draft of the alignment 
report was written and submitted. This draft is 
yet to be refined and taken for public comment 
before it can be submitted as a final draft to 
the Technical Committee on Certification and 
Accreditation Executive Committee, which 
is responsible for the implementation of the 
SADCQF and is in turn supervising the alignment 
of NQFs to the regional framework.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

1.  Engagement of consultants to help strengthen 
the ESQF by revisiting the level descriptors to 
clarify the difference between levels, develop 
subject fields to help in the registration of 
qualifications in the ESQF, develop guidelines 
for registration of qualifications, and develop 
credit accumulations, transfer guidelines and 
recognition of prior learning guidelines. 
2.  Conducting capacity-building workshops for 

higher education institutions to educate them 
on the ESQF, its implementation implications on 
higher education institutions such as the need 
to align programme design to the notional hour 
credits stipulated in the ESQF and the use of 
learning outcomes.

3.  Development of databases to reflect all 
registered higher education institutions, 
approved programmes, and all ESQF registered 
qualifications, with registration codes and names 
of the awarding institutions etc. A database for 
all foreign qualifications verified needs to be 
created as well. 

One key challenge is the lack of funds for ESHEC as 
identified earlier. 

Abbreviations
ESHEC 
ESQF 
NQF 
SADC 

SADCQF 

TVET 

Eswatini Higher Education Council
Eswatini Qualifications Framework
national qualifications framework
Southern African Development 
Community
Southern African Development 
Community Qualification Framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

181

Volume II: National and regional casesETHIOPIA

Introduction and context

The Ethiopian national qualifications framework 
(ENQF) development was started by a taskforce set 
up in 2007 by the Ministry of Education. In 2010, 
the Higher Education Strategy Centre, now called 
the Education Strategy Centre, was mandated to 
coordinate the process of the ENQF development 
and implementation in close collaboration with the 
ministry and other relevant agencies (HESC, 2011). 
In 2012, the Council of Ministers passed Regulation 
276/2012, which gave the Education Strategy Centre 
responsibility for developing the ENQF, evaluating its 
implementation and reporting to the ministry.

The ENQF was developed to address challenges 
relating to access, quality, relevance and equity 
in the education system and the lack of links 
between different education sub-sectors following 
the conceptualization of the Ethiopian technical 
and vocational education and training qualifications 
framework (TVETQF). With the creation of the 
ENQF, it was envisaged that the TVETQF would be 
integrated into an overarching framework. Since it 
was launched in 2010, the TVETQF has achieved a 
great deal in the technical and vocational education 
and training (TVET) sector, including improvements 
in the quality and relevance of TVET training and 
new ways of recognizing the wide range of formal, 
non-formal and informal learning opportunities that 
exist in Ethiopia (MoE, 2010). In 2009/10, Ethiopia 
had an estimated population of 78 million (ibid.). Its 
economy is predominantly agrarian. In keeping with 
its commitment to participate in the competitive 
global market economy and become a middle-
income country by 2025, Ethiopia has set a human 
resources development agenda to raise the quality 
of its workforce to international standards and build 
a culture of entrepreneurship among graduates.

Providing adequate employment opportunities for 
the growing labour force, particularly for young 
people, constitutes a major socio-economic 
challenge. According to the 2007/08 census,  
15- to 24-year-olds accounted for 20.5% of the  

total population. A signiﬁcant proportion of those 
young people work in the agricultural sector, 
followed by a far smaller number working in the 
wholesale and retail trades, suggesting that young 
people are mainly engaged in sectors characterized 
by low productivity and incomes (ibid.).

Ethiopia’s current labour market information system, 
through which data about the labour market is made 
available, is underdeveloped, fragmented, limited 
in scope and out-of-date. Strengthening the labour 
market information system is therefore an important 
objective of the Ethiopian Government  
(OECD, 2012).

Ethiopia’s TVET system is also in dire need of 
government attention in order to overcome 
the many challenges it currently faces. More 
specifically, the Ministry of Education’s Education 
Sector Development Programme IV (ESDP IV) 
calls for better-quality TVET, both formal and non-
formal; improved responsiveness of TVET to the 
needs of the labour market; the establishment of 
outcome-based approaches; and the promotion 
of medium-sized and small enterprises using new 
technologies.

Wider access to higher education, in particular to 
science and technology, is also seen as paramount, 
as is high-quality training and relevant professional 
inputs to improve employability. ESDP IV 
furthermore outlines a comprehensive development 
vision for the education sector, covering formal, 
non-formal, initial and further training, providing 
open access to certification, and creating pathways 
between the general, TVET and higher education 
sectors (MoE, 2010).

A number of other reform initiatives have been 
put forward in the last 20 years to address the 
challenges facing Ethiopia’s education and training 
system. The first national TVET strategy was 
developed in August 2006 (MoE, 2006b). These 
initiatives led to better access to qualifications for 
previously neglected target groups (MoE, 2006c). 

182

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe national Growth and Transformation Plans 
(GTP I & II), adopted by the Federal Government 
of Ethiopia in 2016, identified education as one of 
the key sectors contributing to the production of 
high-quality skilled labour for the Ethiopian economy 
(Assegidew, 2012).

Policy objectives

The ENQF aims to:

•  make Ethiopian qualifications relevant to the 

socio-economic needs of the country;
•  establish national standards of knowledge, 
skills and competences that are expected 
of graduates/receivers of all Ethiopian 
qualifications;

•  promote the quality of development, delivery 
and assessment of Ethiopian qualifications 
and their credibility, both nationally and 
internationally, through the establishment of 
quality assurance standards;

•  make the comparability of qualifications 

more transparent by developing progression 
pathways between them;

•  ensure equity in, and enhanced access to, 
education for promoting lifelong learning in 
formal, non-formal and informal settings.

The ENQF builds on the objectives of the existing 
national TVET qualifications framework (MoE, 
2006c), which are to:

• 

improve the transparency of the TVET 
qualifications system, ensuring that trainees 
know what they need to learn and employers 
know what they can expect of graduates;

•  ensure flexibility, transferability and progression 
between different occupational and training 
fields and between different training venues; 

•  eliminate the barriers that currently block 

horizontal and vertical educational pathways;
•  establish and maintain a levels-based system 
detailing the knowledge, skills and attitudes 
acquired by trainees; 

•  create a single nationally and internationally 
accepted system against which all learning 
achievements may be measured and understood.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The eight-level ENQF covers general education, 
TVET and higher education. Descriptors exist 
for each level in terms of knowledge, skills and 
competence. All qualification types are described by 
qualification descriptors in terms of their purpose 
and characteristics.

Table 21. Ethiopian national qualifications framework (ENQF) levels 

ENQF 
LEVELS

SUB-FRAMEWORK 
FOR GENERAL 
EDUCATION

SUB-FRAMEWORK FOR 
TVET

SUB-FRAMEWORK FOR 
HIGHER EDUCATION

ENQF 
LEVELS

Doctoral Degree

Postgraduate Diploma
Master’s

Bachelor
Professional Graduate 
Diploma

8

7

6

5 

4

3

2

1

TVET Certificate 5

Diploma in Teaching 

TVET Certificate 4

TVET Certificate 3 

TVET Certificate 2

TVET Certificate 1

Source: Draft National Qualifications Framework Regulation (Education Strategy Centre, 2014)

8

7

6

5 

4

3

2

1

183

Volume II: National and regional casesLevel descriptors in the national TVET qualifications 
framework are supported by mechanisms for 
standard-setting, assessment and certification, 
developed in cooperation with employers, as well 
as a competence-based assessment system to 
support the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning (MoE, 2006c).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

In June 2004, an inquiry into governance, leadership 
and management in higher education produced 
the Higher Education System Overhaul (HESO) 
report. It recommended that a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) for Ethiopia be developed that 
was focused on post-secondary certification 
(post Grade 12) and provided mechanisms for the 
recognition of prior learning and for skills upgrading 
in the workplace (MoE, 2004).

The endorsement of Higher Education Proclamation 
No 351/2003 (FDRE), which was repealed and 
replaced by Proclamation No 650/2009, constituted 
a major step forward in education policy-making. 
The new Proclamation states that ‘the Ministry 
[of Education], the [Higher Education Strategy] 
Centre, and the [Higher Education Relevance 
and Quality] Agency shall also guide institutional 
quality enhancement efforts as well as curricula 
development through a national qualifications 
framework that shall, as the case may be, 
determine or indicate core learning outcomes or 
graduate competences’ (Assegidew, 2012). At the 
same time, Proclamation 690/2010 that was issued 
to determine the power and duties of implementing 
bodies demanded that the Ministry of Education 
formulate and implement the NQF. In addition, tools 
for public sector reforms, such as Business Process 
Re-Engineering217 and Balanced Score Card218, 
created a need for the ENQF (HESC, 2011).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Strengthening progression pathways between 
non-formal post-primary education and the TVET 
qualifications framework is one of the key objectives 
of the ENQF. The Federal Ministry of Education 

developed the non-formal TVET implementation 
framework to facilitate this (MoE, 2006a). 

Mobility in the TVET system takes place horizontally 
and vertically. Horizontal mobility involves trainees 
moving from one programme to another in a 
different occupational field but at the same 
qualification level (for example, from accounting 
level II to plumbing level II). Vertical mobility involves 
trainees moving from one certification level to 
another or from a certificate level to a diploma level 
in the same occupational field (MoE, 2006c). 

While progression pathways are relatively easy to 
identify and maintain within a single sub-framework, 
the matter becomes more complicated in the 
context of an overarching ENQF covering all three 
educational sectors. Here, effective coordination 
between stakeholders is crucial, as the different 
sectors may fall under different jurisdictions. 
Additionally, a common language is essential in 
order to facilitate the transfer of credits from TVET 
to higher education (Assegidew, 2012, p. 92).

NQF implementation

Limited progress was made with the ENQF in 
the period between 2004 and 2008, despite 
several attempts to maintain momentum through 
strategy papers, consultative documents and 
implementation plans (ibid.). The reason for this 
was that Ethiopia’s education and training policies 
continued to emphasize formal education to the 
detriment of non-formal and informal learning. 
As a result, awareness of the ENQF was low in 
both the public and private sectors, and there was 
little interaction between education and training 
providers and the labour market. Moreover, an 
overwhelming variety of models and suggestions 
from other countries ended up complicating 
rather than facilitating the ENQF design process. 
Various organizations, such as the South African 
Qualifications Authority (SAQA), the Development 
Partnership in Higher Education (DeLPHE), the 
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 
(GIZ), the Netherlands Universities Foundation 
for International Cooperation (NUFFIC), and the 
European Union’s Tuning Project for engineering 
and technology programmes, offered different NQF 
models and proposed different orientations (British, 
American, German and Australian) for the education 
system (ibid., p. 90). 

217  Business Process Re-Engineering is a tool for 

strengthening the managerial capacities of public 
institutions.

218  Balanced Score Card is a tool to measure and analyse 

organizational and individual performance data to ensure 
timely and informed decision-making in public institutions.

In January 2011, SAQA was appointed to provide 
technical assistance to the ENQF team. It also 
prepared a roadmap for the further development 
and implementation of ENQF (ESC, 2011) with the 
financial support of NUFFIC. The project aimed to:

184

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS•  consider how best to harmonize existing national 

• 

qualifications;
regulate national standards of knowledge 
and skills by defining qualification levels with 
descriptors based on learning outcomes;
•  create a system for comparing qualifications, 

making them more comprehensible to learners, 
providers and employers, and thus increasing 
confidence in the national qualifications system;
investigate procedures to improve access to 
learning and possibilities for credit transfer and 
progression;
look into the establishment of dedicated 
agencies to manage, monitor and evaluate the 
ENQF and support further reform;

• 

• 

•  hold discussions with all relevant stakeholders 

in order to ensure a common and deep 
understanding of all matters relating to the 
ENQF;

•  develop a consultative document for the 

development of an NQF for Ethiopia (ENQF 
Taskforce, 2008).

The most recent developments in ENQF-
related policy have had a direct effect on the 
implementation of the ENQF (Assegidew, 
2012), leading to a roadmap and strategy for the 
establishment of an ENQF Advisory Group, a 
Technical Working Group and an ENQF Management 
Information System. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Annex to the East African Community Common 
Market Protocol on the Mutual Recognition 
of Academic and Professional Qualifications 
recommends that qualifications frameworks in the 
region have 10 levels. An audit covering regulated 
qualifications issued by national examination and 
awarding bodies in the East African Community 
also resulted in the recommendation of a 
10-level framework for academic and vocational 
qualifications.

Partner states have agreed to harmonize all national 
qualifications within the East African Community. 
The harmonization of East African education 
systems and training curricula is still ongoing. 

Important lessons and future plans

Overall, the prospects for implementing ENQF 
seem bright. Political will, policy directives and 
global influence are in place, and reform initiatives 
are already emphasizing the importance of 
improving educational quality and economic growth 
in Ethiopia. 

One of the main strengths of the ENQF 
development process is that it provides a platform 
for dialogue between stakeholders who do not 
usually interact with one another (Assegidew, 2012, 
p. 92). For example, the relationships and linkages 
between the different sectors (general education, 
TVET and higher educatiion) were underdeveloped. 
In addition, there was limitations in communication 
and collaboration of education providers and the 
economic sectors (industries) in setting standards 
for the type of qualifications needed, training 
delivery and assessments of competencies. The 
Government of Ethiopia introduced the ENQF not as 
a standalone reform, but as an integral part of other 
reform initiatives. Making the ENQF operational 
has therefore been the objective of many different 
reform initiatives. To this end, the Ethiopian 
Education Development Roadmap (2018–30)  
considers the ENQF to be one strategy for 
reforming the education system (ESC/MoE, 2018). 
ENQF as one of the reform tools was therefore 
endorsed by the government through proclamations 
650/2009 and 691/2010. Subsequently, positive 
outcomes have been achieved, including a push 
towards the completion of its development and the 
strengthening of the TVET framework. However, 
work on developing other education sectors (general 
and higher education) has faced delays. In response, 
more research on the higher education sector to 
identify gaps has resulted in a recommendation 
to implement the ENQF as a quality assurance 
mechanism.

An ENQF determination document was produced 
in 2013. A plan has been drafted and submitted to 
the Council of Ministers in order to facilitate and 
regulate the implementation of the framework. 
However, it has still to be approved and the 
implementation process has not yet started. The 
ENQF implementation requires commitment, 
determination and hard work. It entails the 
cooperation of national and regional governments 
and other relevant stakeholders, as well as an 
understanding among all concerned parties of 
how the proposed changes are to be achieved 
(Teshome, 2005). It is often tempting to favour 
‘quick-fix solutions’, but NQF developments in other 
countries have repeatedly demonstrated that NQFs 
are instruments of ‘communication, collaboration 
and cooperation’ that entail an iterative development 
process and take time to become familiar and 
accepted (SAQA, 2012). 

A recent study on the critical factors in ENQF 
implementation (Assegidew, 2012) made the 
following recommendations:

•  More attention should be given to programme 

design and curriculum development.

185

Volume II: National and regional cases•  Labour market linkages should be strengthened 
and comparability of qualifications improved.

•  There should be greater involvement of 

experienced and knowledgeable academics in 
research.

•  Communication strategies should be developed 

for ‘buy-in’ of policy-makers’ involvement, 
commitment and persistence.

Abbreviations
ENQF  

ESDP 

NUFFIC 

•  The language of the ENQF should be made more 

SAQA  

comprehensible to the public.

•  A strong institutional support base should be 

TVET  

established at the level of both manpower and 
infrastructure.

•  An implementation and monitoring plan should 

be developed.

References

Ethiopian national qualifications 
framework
Education Sector Development 
Programme
Netherlands Universities Foundation 
for International Cooperation 
South African Qualifications 
Authority 
technical and vocational education 
and Training 

Assegidew, T. (2012). The challenges and prospects of the proposed Ethiopian national qualifications 

framework to enhance the quality of education. A compilation of contributions from the class of 
2012. South Africa, University of the Western Cape.

ENQF Taskforce (2008). Conceptual framework for the development of the Ethiopian national qualifications 

framework (ENQF). Addis Ababa, MoE.

ESC/MoE (Education Strategy Centre/Ministry of Education) (2018). Ethiopian Education Roadmap (2018–

2030). Addis Ababa, MoE.

HESC (Higher Education Strategy Centre) (2011).Ethiopian national qualifications framework strategy 

document and roadmap 2011–2015. Addis Ababa, HESC.

MoE (Ministry of Education) (2004). Higher education systems overhaul: Report of the committee of inquiry 

into governance, leadership and management in Ethiopia’s higher education system. Draft. Addis 
Ababa, MoE.

MoE (2006a). Non-formal TVET implementation framework. Engineering Capacity Building Programme 

(ECBP). Addis Ababa, MoE. 

MoE (2006b). The national TVET strategy. Draft for discussion. Engineering Capacity Building Programme 

(ECBP). Addis Ababa, MoE. 

MoE (2006c). National TVET qualifications framework (NTQF). Engineering Capacity Building Programme 

(ECBP). Addis Ababa, MoE.

MoE (2010). Education sector development programme IV (2010/2011–2014/2015). Addis Ababa, MoE.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) (2012). African Economic Outlook 2012. 

Paris, OECD.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2012). Key readings: The South African NQF 1995–2011. 

Special edition in recognition of the contribution of Samuel B.A. Isaacs to the development of NQF in 
South Africa. SAQA Bulletin, 12(2). Waterkloof, SAQA. Accessed 22 February 2019 at: www.saqa.org.
za/docs/bullet/2012/bullvol12_2.pdf

Teshome, Y. (2005). Policy development in higher education in Ethiopia and the role of donors and 

development partners. International Expert Meeting ‘Formulas that work: Making higher education 
support more effective’, The Hague, The Netherlands, 23–24 May, 2005. Accessed 22 February 2019 
at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9cc5/263bbdd32d44aacf7d0d243af61c9362c15a.pdf 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

186

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFINLAND

Introduction and context

Finland has a well-functioning education and 
training system. According to the 2015 Programme 
for international student assessment (PISA), 
student performance in reading is the best in 
the EU; it is second best in mathematics and 
science. Socioeconomic factors impact student 
achievements to a lesser degree compared to 
other EU countries; however, there are inequalities 
reflecting gender and migrant background, with 
boys and foreign-born children performing worse. 
While the rate of participation of children above 
age four in early education and care is among the 
lowest in the EU (87.4% in 2016), the percentage 
of early leavers from education and training is 
relatively low (8.2% in 2017) but shows a gender 
imbalance (9.5% for males and 6.9% for females). 
A new and comprehensive initiative in school 
education, including new curricula at all education 
levels, learner-centred pedagogy and a collaborative 
teacher development programme, aims to address 
inequalities and further increase education quality. 
Tertiary education attainment reached 44.6% in 
2017, exceeding the EU 2020 target. However, 
employment among recent tertiary graduates is 
below the EU average (77%, compared to 80.2%). 
Among the priorities in higher education are to 
increase the internationalisation and labour market 
relevance of programmes, the latter through 
more emphasis on generic skills. Participation 
in vocational education and training (VET) is 
substantially higher than in other EU countries  
(71% compared to 49%) and apprenticeship 
schemes are increasingly offered. A new act on 
VET was adopted in 2017 aiming for comprehensive 
reform, including a move towards a demand-
driven system and individualised pathways to 
qualifications. Participation of adults in lifelong 
learning is among the highest in the EU, reaching 
27.4% in 2017 (European Commission, 2018).

government presented a proposal to parliament 
in autumn 2010. According to this, the national 
qualifications framework (NQF) would cover 
officially recognised qualifications (general, VET 
and higher education) at all levels. After a change 
of government in 2011, the original proposal was 
slightly revised and resubmitted to Parliament 
in May 2012 (Act on a national framework for 
exam-based and other competences). Due to 
resistance within parliament, this proposal was 
never taken forward and offered up for voting. 
Following elections and yet another change of 
government, a third proposal was submitted to 
parliament in mid-2016 and was accepted. The 
Act on the National Framework for Qualifications 
and other Competence Modules219 and the 
Government Decree on the National Framework 
for Qualifications and other Competence Modules 
both came into force in March 2017220. The FiNQF 
was referenced to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) in December 2017. 

The FiNQF is a comprehensive framework covering 
the full range of national qualifications, including 
those awarded outside the jurisdiction of the 
Ministry of Education and Culture (for example 
related to defence, police and border-guards). The 
law also allows for extensive competence modules, 
the extent of which may be less than that of a 
qualification, to be levelled and included in the 
framework. 

A qualifications framework for higher education, in 
line with the Bologna process, was developed in 
2005 and now forms an integrated part of the NQF. 
Finland has carried out referencing to the EQF and 
self-certification to the European higher education 
area as one process.

Work on the Finish national qualifications 
framework (FiNQF) has taken longer than originally 
foreseen. It started in August 2008 and, following 
two public consultations in 2009 and 2010, the 

219  Act 93/2017 of 10 February 2017, Helsinki: www.oph.fi/
sites/default/files/documents/182270_act_93-2017.pdf

220  Act 120/2017 of 27 February 2017: www.oph.fi/

sites/default/files/documents/182107_government_
decree_120-2017_27.2.2017_.pdf

187

Volume II: National and regional casesPolicy objectives

The FiNQF reflects the current system of 
qualifications and so specific policy strategic targets 
have not been set. However, the FiNQF is used as 
a tool for promoting the learning outcomes-based 
approach, mobility and recognition of knowledge, 
skills and competences. 

The main objectives are to strengthen the learning 
outcomes-based approach and improve the 
transparency of the qualifications and system of 
education. 

The FiNQF is used in combination with other 
initiatives, including policies on transfer and 
progression, validation of non-formal and informal 
learning, and quality assurance. Certain rights, such 
as access to further study, were guaranteed through 
other legislation prior to the adoption of the NQF. 
Implementation of these policies is at an advanced 
stage.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The Finnish learning-outcomes-based framework 
includes qualifications from all levels of the 
education system that are part of the general 
education, VET and higher education sectors. In 
addition to qualifications awarded within the remit 
of the Ministry of Education and Culture, the FiNQF 
also includes those from other ministries’ remits, 
such as the police, fire and rescue services, and 
national defence. Other competences (qualifications 
and competence modules) will be addressed in a 
second phase. All qualifications in the framework 
are regulated by national legislation.

The Finnish education and qualifications system is 
designed so that there are no dead ends; vocational 
qualifications give access to all forms of higher 
education.

The NQF act and government decree introduced 
an eight-level framework reflecting the knowledge, 
skills and competence components of the EQF. 
While the descriptors were inspired by the EQF, 
they have also been adapted to suit the national 
context. The explicit distinction between knowledge, 
skills and competence used by the EQF is 
dropped and replaced by one ‘integrated’ column 
summarising the requirements for each level, 
integrating knowledge, skills and competences, 
and their interrelationships221. This is seen as more 

in line with the way learning outcomes actually are 
written in Finland. 

While the requirements for knowledge and 
skills are closely aligned to those of the EQF, the 
descriptors related to competences reflect national 
objectives in these areas (for example related to 
key competences for lifelong learning and language 
skills). A good illustration is the descriptor for 
level 4, where personal and social competences are 
described as follows (FiNQF Government Decree, 
annex): 

•  Has a good command of the knowledge base of 
his/her field of work or study in broad contexts 
in and certain cognitive and practical skills as 
well as expression skills, and makes use of such 
knowledge and skills when solving problems 
specific to his/her field and carrying out tasks 
in the field. Works independently in operating 
environments that are usually predictable, but 
are subject to change.

•  Takes responsibility for completion of his/her 

tasks and works safely and responsibly within 
a work community. Works in an economical, 
productive and systematic manner, and 
organises his/her work taking other actors into 
consideration. Is able to supervise routine tasks 
performed by others. Has the ability to work in 
an entrepreneurial manner in someone else’s 
service or as an independent entrepreneur in 
the field. Evaluates his/her competence and 
scope of duties and improves actions relating to 
work or studies. Develops himself/herself and 
his/her work. 

•  Has the ability for lifelong learning. Acts in a 

way that complies with ethical principles when 
interacting with different people in learning 
and working communities and other groups 
and networks. Communicates diversely and 
interactively in different situations and produces 
varied and also field‐specific texts in his/her 
mother tongue. Communicates in the second 
national language and interacts in his own field in 
at least one foreign language, also internationally.

The example shows that, while the aspects of 
‘autonomy’ and ‘responsibility’ are highlighted (as 
in the EQF), explicit reference is also made to the 
ability to work as ‘an independent entrepreneur’, 
to be able to ‘evaluate his/her competence and 
scope of duties’, to pursue ‘lifelong learning’, ‘to 
act in a way that complies with ethical principles’, 
‘to communicate diversely and interactively’, and 
‘interact in his own field in at least one foreign 
language, also internationally’.

221  See annex to the Government Decree 120/2017:  
www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/182107_
government_decree_120-2017_27.2.2017_.pdf

Developments within the Finnish education system 
have long been parallel with the objectives of the 

188

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSEQF; vocational competence-based qualifications 
were introduced in the mid-1990s and learning-
outcomes-based vocational qualifications in the late 
1990s. In higher education, Finland has actively and 
at an early stage complied with what was agreed 
in the Bologna process. The shift towards learning 
outcomes in higher education has been slower than 
in other sectors of education, but the progression 
has been systematic and it has intensified in  
recent years.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The FiNQF has been formally adopted, and came 
into force in 2017, by the Act on the National 
Framework for Qualifications and other Competence 
Modules and the Government Decree on the 
National Framework for Qualifications and other 
Competence Modules. 

A broad range of stakeholders was involved in the 
early, preparatory stages of the NQF developments. 
The delays encountered with the legal proposal 
between 2012 and 2016 meant that systematic 
dialogue on the role of the framework stopped 
but the relaunch in 2016 was supported by broad 
consultation. 

It is significant that higher education institutions 
have supported the development of the NQF from 
the start and have contributed to the framework 
design. This seems to reflect the existing Finnish 
education and training system, where interaction 
between general, vocational and higher education 
and training institutions seems to operate more 
smoothly than in many other countries. This 
may partly be explained by the role played by 
professionally oriented higher education, promoting 
professional training at bachelor and master level. 
A qualifications framework for higher education, 
in line with the Bologna process, was developed 
from 2005 and is now an integrated part of the new 
comprehensive FiNQF.

The Ministry of Education and Culture is the 
national authority responsible for the FiNQF and 
the further development of this framework. The 
Finnish National Agency for Education (EDUFI)222 is 
a government agency working under the Ministry 
of Education and Culture. EDUFI is responsible for 
developing education and training, early childhood 
education and care, and lifelong learning, as 
well as for promoting internationalisation. As a 
national development agency, EDUFI has a wide 

222  www.oph.fi/english

range of tasks, one of which is to advise higher 
education institutions in matters concerning diploma 
supplements. Currently, in its role as the national 
Europass centre, EDUFI guides the higher education 
institutions on the diploma supplement references 
to qualifications frameworks. The agency guides 
and supports cooperation between stakeholders, 
working life Committees223 and validation of non-
formal and informal learning providers. 

In 2008, the Ministry of Education and Culture 
issued a regulation in which the following 
tasks were assigned to EDUFI as the national 
coordination point for the European qualifications 
framework: participation in the development 
and implementation of the EQF; disseminating 
information to stakeholders about the EQF, the 
NQF and the placement of qualifications to 
the framework; giving guidance and advice to 
stakeholders in using the qualifications framework; 
taking part in national and international collaboration 
on qualifications frameworks and promoting 
cooperation; and other tasks assigned by the 
ministry. In 2009, the Ministry of Education and 
Culture also asked EDUFI to represent Finland in the 
network of national correspondents for qualifications 
frameworks (European higher education area 
qualification framework (EHEA QF)). 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways224

Validation of non-formal and informal learning has 
relatively long and established roots in Finland and 
the legislation and policies are well developed and 
detailed. As in many other countries, there is no one 
single law on validation of non-formal and informal 
learning, but laws and regulations for each field 
of education define validation separately. These 
fields include general upper secondary education, 
vocational education and training, and higher 
education. 

223  Qualification committees no longer exist in the new 

VET system, but there are ca. 40 sectoral working life 
committees responsible for organising competence 
demonstrations for candidates, monitoring the quality of 
assessment practices, and feedback and follow-up for 
VET providers. The committees decide on rectifying an 
assessment in the case of an appeal. The committees 
are involved in the development of qualifications in their 
respective sectors.

224  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

189

Volume II: National and regional casesValidation of non-formal and informal learning has 
gone through relatively profound changes since 
the 2016 inventory on non-formal and informal 
learning225. In 2015, major VET reform planning 
commenced and was enforced on 1 January 
2018226. The biggest changes brought by the reform 
concern increasing flexibility of the VET system, 
overall simplification of the system in terms of 
legislation (one law, Act on Vocational Education227), 
reduction in the number of qualifications (164 
qualifications instead of 351) and one uniform 
funding system (instead of several sources of 
funding). 

The working life committees are tripartite 
bodies (sometimes quadripartite), composed of 
representatives of employers, employees and/or 
self-employed persons, and the education sector.

Validation has not been widely used in general 
upper secondary education. A proposal for a new 
Act on General Upper Secondary Education228 
appears to strengthen the potential of validation 
in this sector: First, general upper secondary 
education will start using credit points, which 
facilitates recognition of prior learning. Second, 
it is proposed that practices for identifying and 
recognising competence acquired elsewhere before 
and during general upper secondary studies would 
be improved.

In all other sectors (VET and higher education) 
validation arrangements are in place and typically 
cover the four validation stages: identification, 
documentation, assessment and certification. VET 
qualifications are modular and units of qualifications 
are awarded in increasing numbers. In VET – both 
initial (IVET) and continuing (CVET) – there are 
national standards (qualification requirements) and 
validation arrangements are well defined in laws and 
policies. The VET sector has applied a competence-
based approach since 1994 and the qualification 
requirements are defined in terms of learning 
outcomes. 

225  Karttunen, A.; Cedefop (2016). European inventory 
of informal and non-formal learning: country report: 
Finland. https://cumulus.cedefop.europa.eu/files/
vetelib/2016/2016_validate_FI.pdf

226  Learn more: https://minedu.fi/en/reform-of-vocational-

upper-secondary-education

227  The Act on Vocational Education and the Act on Vocational 
Education for Adults were joined into one single law: 
Act on Vocational Education 531/2017 of 11 August 2017, 
Nådendal: www.finlex.fi/sv/laki/alkup/2017/20170531

228  Learn more: https://minedu.fi/en/artikkeli/-/asset_
publisher/esitys-uudeksi-lukiolaiksi-julki-vahvaa-
yleissivistysta-tiivistyvaa-korkeakouluyhteistyota-ja-
panostuksia-lukiolaisten-hyvinvointiin

The Universities of applied sciences Act (932/2014, 
§37) (Ammattikorkeakoululaki) and the Universities 
Act (558/2009, §44) (Yliopistolaki) state that a 
student may – in accordance with the decision 
of the higher education institution – have his/
her prior studies accredited when studying for a 
degree or specialisation studies. A student may 
also have prior non-formal or informal learning 
demonstrated in some other manner substituted 
for studies belonging to a degree or specialisation 
studies syllabus, or counted towards a degree or 
specialisation studies.

Validation arrangements in higher education are 
relatively young in comparison with the VET sector. 
However, most of the curricula are described 
in terms of learning outcomes, the validation 
methodologies are continuously developing, and 
validation is increasing in popularity as it is relatively 
well known among students. New initiatives and 
projects promoting and developing validation 
arrangements are carried out in different areas of 
higher education. 

The labour market has a central role in the Finnish 
validation system, especially in VET; however, 
there are few examples where labour market 
organisations would independently carry out 
validation activities in the full meaning of the 
process. The VET qualifications system is built 
to serve the labour market and ensure hands-on 
participation in validation processes. 

Some 120 737 individuals were registered in 
the competence-based qualifications system 
in 2015:.VET students registered to complete a 
VET qualification or a module belonging to such 
a qualification. There is little or no research or 
statistics on the actual benefits of competence-
based qualifications but the number of individuals 
keeps growing. The EDUFI has collected data on 
the perceived benefits of the VET qualification 
system using, for example, the national feedback 
system of students and candidates (AIPAL). In 
2015/16 students and graduates reported that 
they viewed that previously acquired competence 
significantly shortened the preparatory training and 
the time needed to complete qualification (75% 
of candidates). A similar number of respondents 
reported that it had been possible to organise the 
competence test in their own workplace (76%). 
Some 80% viewed that they had received enough 
guidance for preparing for the competence test. 

NQF implementation

The FiNQF reached full operational stage when 
the legal basis came into force on 1 March 2017. 

190

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe Finnish national coordination point has a 
communication strategy that involves providing 
up-to-date information about the FiNQF on their 
website229 and producing other information 
materials. The national coordination point will 
continue to develop and maintain communication 
with relevant partners. Generally, all information 
disseminated is intended for the general public and 
designed to be accessible on the web. 

The FiNQF is well known and comprehensively used 
by education and training institutions. It is also well 
known by recognition authorities and bodies, but 
less so by guidance and counselling practitioners; 
for the general public it varies. Promotional work is 
required to increase awareness by labour market 
stakeholders.

The Finnish National Agency for Education 
maintains a portal – Studyinfo.fi230 – which provides 
information on study programmes and about 
applying for studies. The information provided in 
this portal is designed to meet the needs of the 
individual learners, education providers, officials 
and study counsellors. The portal also contains 
the requirements for all syllabi and qualifications 
prepared at EDUFI231.

In 2019, the Ministry of Education and Culture will 
prepare the legislative changes needed to the Act 
and Decree identified by the committee that worked 
in 2018 on expanding the scope of the FiNQF and 
levelling of new qualifications to the framework.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

FiNQF was referenced to the EQF in  
December 2017. 

FiNQF and EQF levels are currently not included 
in the qualifications databases. Information about 
qualifications, the qualification requirements, and 
their FiNQF and EQF levels is available on the 
e-perusteet/e-grunder website232 maintained by 
EDUFI. For VET and general education, both EQF 
and NQF levels are indicated in the qualification 
certificate and certificate supplement. For higher 
education EQF and NQF levels are indicated in 
diploma supplements.

229  FiNQF webpage: www.oph.fi/mobility/qualifications_

frameworks

230  https://studyinfo.fi/wp2/en/
https://opintopolku.fi/wp/fi/
https://studieinfo.fi/wp/sv/

231  https://eperusteet.opintopolku.fi/#/fi
https://eperusteet.opintopolku.fi/#/sv

232  Same as above. 

The scope of the FiNQF will be expanded in 2019, 
with new types of qualification included. An update 
of the referencing to the EQF advisory group could 
be expected at the earliest at the end of 2019.

Important lessons and future plans

The key challenge so far in implementing the FiNQF 
has been that the legislative process took longer 
than anticipated. The FiNQF is a framework that 
describes the qualifications as they were; it is not 
intended as a tool for revising the qualifications 
or the qualification structure. The qualification 
requirements were also drafted prior to the adoption 
of the FiNQF so that they are compatible with 
the level descriptors. The regulations on issuing 
certificates were revised due to the implementation 
of the FiNQF.

The Finnish Ministry of Education and the Finnish 
National Agency for Education will continue to 
increase awareness of the FiNQF, and most 
important, the FiNQF level descriptors. 

Providing the right kind of information to different 
audiences that support the use of qualifications 
frameworks requires careful planning and mapping 
of people’s needs. This is challenging since FiNQF 
is not considered a tool for change but one that 
provides information and supports developing 
education in Finland to place the focus on learning 
outcomes, increased mobility and improved access 
into further study. One of the specific challenges is 
to articulate that the framework does not describe 
learning outcomes of the individual learner, but 
provides a general description of the type of 
knowledge, skills and competence the types of 
qualification give.

Implementation of the FiNQF is now, as envisaged, 
entering its second phase. The Ministry of Education 
and Culture in Finland appointed a working group 
with the mandate to prepare and coordinate the 
extension of the NQF to other competences 
(qualifications and competence modules). The task 
of the working group was to specify the criteria 
determined in the current Act on the national 
framework for qualifications and other competence 
modules and its justifications for the competence 
modules to be placed in the framework. The 
working group was also responsible for charting 
the extensive competence modules of different 
administrative sectors. The working group will hand 
over the report to the Minister of Education and 
Culture by the end of 2018.

191

Volume II: National and regional cases  
  
 
Table 22. Finnish national qualifications framework (FiNQF)

FINQF 
LEVELS

8

QUALIFICATION TYPES

Doctor degrees & Post-graduate Licentiate degrees – universities and the 
National Defence University’s scientific and artistic postgraduate degrees  
(Lisensiaatin ja tohtorin tutkinnot)
General staff officer degree  
(Yleisesikuntaupseerin tutkinto)
Specialist degree in veterinary medicine  
(Erikoiseläinlääkärin tutkinto)
Specialist training in medicine  
(Erikoislääkärikoulutus)
Specialist training in dentistry  
(Erikoishammaslääkärikoulutus)

EQF 
LEVELS

8

Master degrees – universities  
(Ylemmät korkeakoulututkinnot)
Master degrees – universities of applied sciences  
(Ylemmät ammattikorkeakoulututkinnot)

Bachelor degrees – universities  
(Alemmat korkeakoulututkinnot)
Bachelor degrees – universities of applied sciences  
(Ammattikorkeakoulututkinnot)

Specialist vocational qualifications  
(Erikoisammattitutkinnot)
Sub-officer qualification – fire and rescue services  
(Alipäällystötutkinto – Pelastusala)
Vocational qualification in air traffic control  
(Lennonjohdon perustutkinto)

General upper secondary school leaving certificate  
(Lukion oppimäärä)
Matriculation examination  
(Ylioppilastutkinto)
Upper secondary vocational qualifications  
(Ammatilliset perustutkinnot)
Further vocational qualifications  
(Ammattitutkinnot)
Basic examination in prison services  
(Rikosseuraamusalan tutkinto)
Fire fighter qualification  
(Pelastajatutkinto)
Emergency response centre operator qualification  
(Hätäkeskuspäivystäjätutkinto)

Basic education certificate (9 years)  
(Perusopetuksen oppimäärä)

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Finnish National Agency for Education, 2017.

192

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
EDUFI  

EQF  
FiNQF  

NQF  
VET  

Finnish National Agency for 
Education
European qualifications framework
Finnish national qualifications 
framework
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Finnish National Agency for Education – acts as the national coordination point for the EQF: www.oph.fi/

qualificationsframework

Database of VET, general education and higher education programmes: https://studyinfo.fi/wp2/en/
Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture: www.minedu.fi/OPM/?lang=en
Finnish National Agency for Education; Ministry of Education and Culture (2017). Referencing the Finnish 
national qualifications framework to the European qualifications framework and the framework for 
qualifications of the European higher education area. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
finqf_referencing_report_12_april_2018.pdf

References

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: country analysis. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/
volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf 

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Finland. 

Finnish National Agency for Education; Ministry of Education and Culture (2017). Referencing the Finnish 
national qualifications framework to the European qualifications framework and the framework for 
qualifications of the European higher education area. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
finqf_referencing_report_12_april_2018.pdf

Legislation
Government proposal 204/2016 of 20 October 2016 to the Parliament for an Act on the National Framework 

for Qualifications and other Competence Modules.

Act 93/2017 of 10 February 2017 on the National Qualifications Framework and other Competence Modules. 

www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/182270_act_93-2017.pdf

Government Decree 120/2017 of 23 February 2017 on the National Framework for Qualifications and 
other Competence Modules. www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/182107_government_
decree_120-2017_27.2.2017_.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

193

Volume II: National and regional casesFRANCE

Introduction and context

Participation in education and training in France is 
above EU averages and EU targets, with universal 
early childhood education and care, a declining 
percentage of students who leave education early 
(8.9% in 2017), and relatively high rates of tertiary 
education attainment and adult participation in 
lifelong learning (44.3% and 18.7%, respectively, 
in 2017). However, the percentage of 15-year-olds 
who underperform in reading, maths and science 
is slightly above the EU average. The basic skills 
of pupils in primary education are also low. Gaps 
in performance and the type of secondary school-
leaving qualification obtained are strongly correlated 
with socioeconomic background. Recent initiatives 
aim to reduce inequalities and improve basic 
skills by lowering the starting age of compulsory 
education from six to three (from September 
2019), reducing class sizes, and improving teacher 
competences to deliver differentiated teaching. 
Upper secondary and tertiary education reforms are 
subject to wide consultation and approached in a 
coordinated manner. The general and technological 
baccalauréat (upper secondary school-leaving 
examination)233 is being revised (to be in place by 
2021), including a more flexible curriculum and 
increased guidance to prepare students better 
for higher education or the labour market. A new 
higher education law234 was adopted in 2018, 
aiming to increase the completion rate at bachelor 
level (licence) through educational support, more 
flexible programmes and new teaching methods. 
Employment rates of vocational education and 
training (VET) graduates have started to increase; 
48% of recent graduates from school-based VET 
and 69% from work-based VET found a job in 2017. 
A major reform of VET and apprenticeships was 

233  Besides the general and technological baccalauréats, 

which are being revised, there is also a third type of upper 
secondary school-leaving examination: the professional/
vocational baccalauréat.

234  Law 2018-166 of 8 March 2018 on student orientation 
and success [Loi n° 2018-166 du 8 mars 2018 relative 
à l’orientation et à la réussite des étudiants]. JORF, 
No 0057, 9.3.2018. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/loi/2018/3/8/
ESRX1730554L/jo/texte

initiated in 2017 and continues. A new national 
skills agency, France Compétences, was set up 
in 2018, aiming to simplify funding mechanisms 
and governance of continuing VET (CVET) and 
apprenticeships. Readjustment in the joint 
management of VET by the State, the regions and 
social partners is also part of the reform, with the 
regions taking on more responsibility in guidance 
and less in steering of apprenticeships (European 
Commission, 2018).

The French national qualifications framework (NQF) 
can be seen as belonging to the first generation 
of European qualifications frameworks. Its 
establishment was signalled by the setting up, in 
2002, of the National register of vocational and 
professional qualifications (Répertoire national 
des certifications professionnelles (RNCP)), 
now considered as the technical support of 
the framework, and the National commission 
for vocational and professional qualifications 
(Commission nationale de la certification 
professionnelle (CNCP)), the body responsible for 
managing and updating the RNCP until 2018235. 
The NQF is linked to the system for validation of 
non-formal and informal learning (validation des 
acquis de l’expérience (VAE)) and supported by 
a competence orientation in designing curricula 
covering the entire vocational system. The structure 
that was in use up to 2019 was underpinned by 
a classification of training levels developed back 
in 1969 as part of a systematic public planning 
policy which gradually aligned the structure of the 
nationally recognised qualifications (diplômes) to 
that of occupations and jobs on the labour market 
(Paddeu et al., 2018). It covered vocationally and 
professionally oriented qualifications, including 
those from higher education, while excluding 
secondary general education qualifications. 

235  Law No 2002-73 of 17 January 2002 on social 

modernisation [Loi n° 2002-73 du 17 janvier 2002 
de modernisation sociale]. JORF, 18.1.2002, 
p. 1008. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000408905&dateTexte= 
&categorieLien=id

194

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAs the French qualification system has developed 
considerably236 over recent decades, and 
more closely aligned the NQF to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF), different proposals 
to revise the five level structure (in use until 2019) 
were put forward. Revision has been a lengthy 
process, as qualification levels were linked to wider 
collective bargaining agreements in the country. 
The 2018 law for the freedom to choose one’s 
professional future237 and subsequent legislation238 
strengthened the legal basis of the NQF and defined 
a new eight-level structure and level descriptors 
in three categories, similar to those of the EQF: 
complexity of knowledge, skills and know-how, and 
degree of responsibility and autonomy.

The five-level structure in use until 2019 was 
referenced to the EQF in October 2010. 

Policy objectives 

The French NQF covers four main types 
of vocationally and professionally oriented 
qualifications (Paddeu et al., 2018):

a.  diplomas and degrees239 issued on behalf of the 
state, legislated by French ministries and created 
on recommendation and in cooperation with 
tripartite consultative vocational committees 
(commissions professionnelles consultatives)240;

b.  qualifications issued on behalf of the state but 
where no consultative committee is in place241;

236  One important trend witnessed over the last 40 years is 
diversification of the nationally recognised qualifications 
and an increase in requests for registering of qualifications 
by private providers. 

237  Law No 2018-771 of 5 September 2018 for the freedom  
to choose one’s professional future [Loi n° 2018-771 du  
5 septembre 2018 pour la liberté de choisir son avenir  
professionnel]. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte. 
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000037367660&dateTexte= 
20190227 

238  Decree No 2019-14 of 8 January 2019 on the national  

framework of vocational qualifications [Décret n° 2019-14  
du 8 janvier 2019 relatif au cadre national des  
certifications professionnelles]. JORF, No 0007, 9.1.2019.  
www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do;jsessionid= 
6A9D2FCF7FB127AC6021BD782B475904.tplgfr34s_2? 
cidTexte=JORFTEXT000037964754&dateTexte= 
&oldAction=rechJO&categorieLien=id&idJO= 
JORFCONT000037964593

239  These are secondary and higher education qualifications 
and continuing training qualifications issued by the 
Ministry of labour. 

240  These committees are advisory bodies involving 

representatives of employers, employees, local authorities 
and professionals.

241  For example, qualifications awarded by the Ministry of 

Defence or Ministry of Culture are not developed through, 
and following recommendation from, advisory bodies.

c.  qualifications awarded by public or private bodies 
in their own name, such as higher education 
institutions, chambers, and private education 
providers;

d.  sector-specific or industry-level qualifications 
(certificats de qualification professionnelle).

Qualifications from general education (including the 
general baccalauréat242) were not included in the 
RNCP. There is also a less clear distinction between 
VET and higher education compared to many other 
European countries. Higher education qualifications 
are considered to be qualifications with a 
vocational/professional purpose243 and therefore 
included in the framework (Paddeu et al., 2018), 
signalling an orientation promoting vocationally and 
professionally-oriented qualifications at all levels244. 

The initial aim of implementing a classification of 
vocational and professional qualifications245 in France 
between 1972 and 2002 was to promote social 
justice, reaching parity of esteem of qualifications 
awarded as a result of adult training with 
educational qualifications through levelling. Policy 
objectives started to shift in the 1990s towards 
combating unemployment. The goal of accreditation 
was no longer recognising the duration of training 
programmes, but their learning outcomes, with 
a focus on assessment of competences (Paddeu 
et al., 2018). 

242  While not included in the RNCP, the general baccalauréat 
was placed at level IV in the classification of training 
levels. 

243  In France, the concept of ’vocational qualification’ refers 

to a qualification ‘that results from a qualification process 
and that therefore brings with it some kind of recognition 
in the labour market and, to some degree, ensures access 
to it’ (Paddeu et al., 2018). This is also sometimes referred 
to as a ‘full qualification’ (qualification complète).
244  Since the 1970s, vocational courses and programmes 

have been an important and integrated part of traditional 
universities; professional bachelor and master degrees 
are common. Outside universities, specialist technical 
and vocational schools, run by different ministries, 
by chambers of commerce and industry or by private 
providers, offer high level courses and certificates. 
Ingénieurs from these institutions or students in business 
schools hold qualifications at a high level, equivalent 
to those from universities with a master degree. The 
Ministry of Higher Education delivers the bachelor and 
master degrees and recognises the diplomas, which has 
an integrating effect on the diplomas awarded by other 
ministries such as Culture or Industry.

245  The development of this classification was closely related 
to labour market needs and a need for a statistical tool 
to measure the shares of the population to be enrolled 
at different levels of education. The hierarchy of diplômes  
was used as a starting point for the classification, as it 
had more stable definitions. It was then transposed into 
training levels linked to corresponding occupations and 
jobs, facilitating statistical analysis (Paddeu et al., 2018).

195

Volume II: National and regional casesSince its introduction in 2002, the RNCP has had an 
important role in quality assurance of qualifications 
and promotion of lifelong learning with a view to 
the integration of people into the labour market 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). The 
RNCP aims to ensure quality and transparency of 
vocational and professional qualifications through 
a publicly accessible register of qualifications 
formally recognised by the State and social partners. 
It is a single reference tool for all stakeholders 
concerned with occupations and training within 
the country and internationally, enabling the 
identification of qualifications ‘for vocational and 
professional purposes’ and aiding understanding of 
the French qualifications landscape. The 2002 law 
on social modernisation that established the RNCP 
introduced a logic centred on competences that 
progressively replaced that centred on knowledge 
(CNCP, 2010). In addition, the French framework 
directly influences access and progression in the 
education and training system and in the labour 
market, as well as funding and quality assurance246. 
The levels of education and training, which became 
the levels of the NQF, were linked in many cases 
to agreed wage rates. Despite a diversification 
of recognised qualifications since the 1970s, the 
French state is the only entity responsible for quality 
assurance (Paddeu et al., 2018).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The classification of training levels introduced in 
1969 was used as the basis for referencing the 
French framework to the EQF in 2010. The five-
level structure, with level V being the lowest and 
level I the highest, was referenced to EQF levels 3 
to 8, with no French qualifications at EQF levels 1 
and 2. Given that the French qualification system 
has developed considerably since 1969, a number 
of stakeholders have pointed to the need for 
an updated level structure. Revision of the level 
structure and accompanying descriptors was a 
lengthy process and considered politically sensitive; 
existing levels are used as reference points for 
salary agreements and changes could influence 
these. There was also some scepticism towards an 
extension of the framework to include certificates at 
lower levels (equivalent to EQF 1 and 2), also linked 
to labour agreements, such as negotiations on 
minimum wages. 

A new eight-level structure was recently adopted 
through Decree No 2019-14 of 8 January 
2019 on the national framework of vocational 
qualifications248, more closely aligned to the EQF. 
Levels are defined using learning outcomes in three 
categories: 

Recent policy initiatives and reforms continued 
to emphasise the need to give high priority 
to employability and equip candidates with 
competences better aligned with the needs of the 
labour market. Education and training providers at 
all levels (including universities) have been obliged 
to reformulate and clarify their qualifications, also in 
terms of labour market relevance. The 2018 law for 
the freedom to choose one’s professional future247, 
which aims to transform the vocational training 
and apprenticeship system in France, including 
its governance and financing, establishes the 
NQF on an eight-level structure and redefines the 
general principles for vocational and professional 
qualifications, for their levelling, and inclusion in 
the RNCP. The revision of the level structure and 
its descriptors reflects this labour market and 
competence focus.

a.  complexity of knowledge associated with 

carrying out the corresponding professional 
activity; 

b.  level of skills and know-how;
c.  level of responsibility and autonomy. 

The first level of the new framework covers basic 
competences resulting from an agreement between 
social partners and the government; it is not linked 
to qualifications included in the RNCP. The newly 
introduced level 2 covers simple activities and 
limited autonomy. Levels 3 to 8 cover qualifications 
previously included at the five levels of the RNCP. 
The previous level I was dissociated into the new 
levels 7 and 8, distinguishing between master and 
doctoral qualifications249. According to the 2019 
decree on the national framework of vocational and 
professional qualifications, reclassification of level 
I qualifications to the new levels 7 and 8 should be 
completed by January 2020. 

246  Stephanie Allais argues that ‘the French framework, 
where labour markets were the most regulated and 
collective bargaining had the widest reach, had the 
clearest relationships between qualifications and work. 
However, the qualifications framework did not seem to 
be the cause, but rather the effect of such relationships’ 
(Allais, 2017).

247  Law No 2018-771 of 5 September 2018  

(see footnote 237 above).

248  See footnote 238 above. 
249  Ministry of higher education, research and innovation 
(2019). Law of 5 September 2018 on the freedom to 
choose one’s professional future: main provisions in terms 
of certification [Loi du 5 septembre 2018 pour la liberté de 
choisir son avenir professionnel: principales dispositions 
en matière de certification]. Presentation in the EQF AG, 
5 February 2019, Brussels.

196

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 23. Level descriptors in the French national qualifications framework

LEVELS

LEVEL DESCRIPTORS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Level 8 attests the ability to identify and solve complex and new problems involving a variety of 
fields, using the most advanced knowledge, skills and know-how, to design and pilot research and 
innovation projects and processes. The national doctoral degree is classified at this level of the 
national framework

Level 7 attests the ability to develop and implement alternative strategies for carrying out 
the professional activity in complex professional contexts, as well as to assess the risks and 
consequences of one’s activity. Master degrees are classified at this level of the national 
framework.

Level 6 attests the ability to analyse and solve unforeseen complex problems in a specific field, to 
formalise skills and know-how and methods and to build upon them. Bachelor degrees (licence) 
are classified at this level of the national framework.

Level 5 attests the ability to master skills and know-how in a field of activity, to develop solutions 
to new problems, to analyse and interpret information using concepts, to transmit skills, know-how 
and methods.

Level 4 attests the ability to carry out activities that require using a wide range of aptitudes, 
adapting existing solutions to solve specific problems, organising one’s work autonomously in 
generally predictable but potentially changing contexts, and to participate in the evaluation of 
activities. The national Baccalaureate diploma is classified at this level of the national framework.

Level 3 attests the ability to carry out activities and solve problems by selecting and applying basic 
methods, tools, materials and information in a known context, as well as the ability to adapt the 
means of execution and one’s behaviour to the circumstances.

Level 2 attests the ability to carry out simple activities and solve common problems using simple 
rules and tools by using vocational skills and know-how in a structured context. The associated 
vocational/professional activity is carried out with a limited level of autonomy.

Level 1 of the national framework for vocational and professional qualifications corresponds to the 
mastery of basic knowledge.

Source: Decree No 14 of 8 January 2019 on the national framework of vocational and professional qualifications [unofficial 
translation].

The notion of competence was introduced in French 
VET in the 1970s and in general education in the 
1980s. It is now explicitly referred to in curriculum 
documents in all sub-systems of education and 
training (Cedefop, 2016). The learning outcomes 
approach was strengthened by the 2002 Law on 
social modernisation and subsequent decrees 
that set up the system of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (validation des acquis de 
l’expérience (VAE)), and its emphasis on validation 
and certification of competences, based on learning 
outcomes, for awarding any kind of qualification. The 
learning outcomes descriptions form the basis on 
which all qualifications are approved for registration 
into the RNCP. 

Initial vocational qualifications are defined in 
terms of skills, knowledge and competences, 
but different forms of VET provision differ in 

how learning outcomes are assessed. In higher 
education, the law of August 2007 on the freedoms 
and responsibilities of universities250 created the 
obligation for universities to set new services 
dedicated to employability, requiring them to 
improve their learning outcomes descriptions, 
both for employers and students. Revision of the 
learning outcomes of bachelor and master degrees 
was carried out in 2016 with the aim of reducing 
the number of national qualifications and ensuring 
stronger national consistency between the different 
titles. The main learning outcomes for doctorate 
degrees have been published in the RNCP.

250  Law No 2007-1199 of 10 August 2007 on the freedoms 
and responsibilities of universities [Loi n° 2007-1199 
du 10 août 2007 relative aux libertés et responsabilités 
des universités]. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000824315

197

Volume II: National and regional casesThe notion of ‘units/blocks of competences’ (blocs 
de compétences) was introduced in 2014251, as 
an organisation of competences in qualification 
standards following the logic of socially meaningful 
activities. A unit/block of competences is an 
‘identified part of a vocational qualification’, 
defined as a ‘homogeneous and coherent set 
of competences contributing to carrying out a 
professional activity autonomously, and which can be 
assessed and validated’ (Labour Code, Art. L6113-1).

From 2019, qualification awarding bodies who want 
to register their qualifications in the RNCP have 
to provide a presentation of the units/blocks of 
competences corresponding to the different parts 
of qualifications. The value of having qualifications 
divided into units/blocks of competences 
corresponding to typical activities is to increase 
flexibility of qualification pathways, and to support 
mobility and progression, either through training 
or validation (VAE), by supporting modularisation 
of training provision (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming). The new commission within France 
Compétences that replaces the CNCP may also 
make it mandatory for qualification providers to share 
the units/blocks of competences to facilitate lifelong 
learning (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The National register of vocational and professional 
qualifications (RNCP) was introduced in 2002 
through the law on social modernisation252, along 
with the National commission for vocational and 
professional qualifications (Commission nationale 
de la certification professionnelle (CNCP)), 
responsible for supervising the system of vocational 
qualifications and for managing the register. The 
CNCP carried on the work of the previous Technical 
Commission for the Accreditation of Diplomas and 
Certificates (Commission technique d’homologation 
(CTH)), with the mission to: 

a.  ensure the coherence of, and promote pathways 

between, qualifications; 

b.  supervise the renewal of qualification 

documents and their adaptation to changes in 
qualifications and work organisation; 

c.  update the RNCP;
d.  inform the public and companies about the 
qualifications listed in the RNCP and those 
recognised in the member states of the 
European Union;

e.  issue recommendations for awarding bodies;
f.  draw up a new classification covering levels of 

certification in relation to jobs held.

The CNCP was a platform for cooperation between 
all ministries involved in the design and award of 
qualifications (education, higher education, labour, 
social affairs, agriculture, culture, youth and sports, 
defence, finance, health) and the social partners 
and other stakeholders (such as chambers and 
representatives of the regions) involved in the 
qualifications system. Given the increasing diversity 
of qualifications in France over recent decades, the 
broad composition of the CNCP253 was necessary 
to ensure quality, credibility and ownership. CNCP 
was entitled to be informed about vocational 
qualifications created by social partners, even when 
these were not intended for registration in the 
RNCP.

The concept of a ‘national qualifications 
framework’ came into use in the context of 
EQF implementation. Through an agreement at 
government level, endorsed by the Secrétariat 
général des affaires européennes (under the 
authority of the prime minister), it was decided 
that the RNCP would be the French NQF, with the 
CNCP acting as EQF national coordination point. 
With the 2018 Law for the freedom to choose one’s 
professional future254, which created a new article 
in the Labour Code255, the French NQF became 
formally embedded in legislation, as distinct from 
the RNCP. Its levels and characteristics are defined 
by the 2019 Decree on the national framework of 
vocational qualifications256.

The recent legislative changes also brought a new 
national authority for the regulation and financing 
of continuing VET and apprenticeships, France 

253  The CNCP consisted of a chairperson, 16 ministerial 

representatives, 10 social partners, 3 elected 
representatives of the consular chambers, 3 elected 
representatives of the regions, and 12 qualified persons, 
a general rapporteur and 2 deputy rapporteurs. The 
members were appointed by the French prime minister, 
for a renewable five-year term (CNCP, 2010).

254  Law No 2018-771 of 5 September 2018  

251  Law 2014-288 of 5 March 2014 on vocational training, 

(see footnote 237 above).

employment and social democracy [Loi n° 2014-288 
du 5 mars 2014 relative à la formation professionnelle, 
à l’emploi et à la démocratie sociale]. JORF, No 0055, 
6.3.2014, p. 4848. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/loi/2014/3/5/
ETSX1400015L/jo/texte

255  Labour Code, Article L6113-1. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/
affichCode.do;jsessionid=497C720EED8B07EC2A07 
84DB96C5D6FC.tplgfr37s_3?idSectionTA=LEGISC 
TA000037374052&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006072050& 
dateTexte=20190301

252  Law No 2002-73 of 17 January 2002  

256  Decree No 2019-14 of 8 January 2019  

(see footnote 235 above).

(see footnote 238 above).

198

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCompétences257, with a quadripartite structure 
representing the State, the regions, the employers 
and the employees. In January 2019, responsibility 
for the French NQF, the RNCP, and the ‘specific 
register’ (previously known as ‘the inventory’) 
was transferred to the new authority, which 
encompasses and replaces a number of structures 
previously involved in the governance of vocational 
training and certification258, including the CNCP. 

A commission for vocational and professional 
qualifications will operate within France 
Compétences, with the following tasks259:

a.  harmonising the terminology used by the 
ministries and other awarding bodies in 
relation to the titles of vocational/professional 
qualifications, the activities envisaged, and the 
competences they certify;

b.  ensuring the quality of information provided to 
individuals and companies about vocational/
professional qualifications, and ensuring that 
the standards of qualifications registered in the 
RNCP are publicly accessible;

c.  contributing to international work on the quality 

of qualifications; 

d.  addressing all issues related to vocational /  
professional qualifications raised by the 
ministries and the national committees for 
employment of professional branches.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways260

Validation of non-formal and informal learning in 
France is strongly articulated to lifelong learning, 

257  www.francecompetences.fr/
258  In addition to the CNCP, the bodies replaced by 

France Compétences include: the National council for 
employment, vocational training and guidance (Conseil 
national de l’emploi, de la formation et de l’orientation 
professionnelles (CNEFOP)), the Joint fund for securing 
professional career paths (Fonds paritaire de sécurisation 
des parcours professionnels, (FPSPP)) and the National 
inter-professional committee for employment and training 
(Comité paritaire interprofessionnel national pour l’emploi 
et la formation (COPANEF)).

259  Decree No 2018-1172 of 18 December 2018 on the 

conditions for registering vocational and professional 
qualifications and certifications and authorisations in the 
national registers [Décret no 2018-1172 du 18 décembre 
2018 relatif aux conditions d’enregistrement des 
certifications professionnelles et des certifications et 
habilitations dans les répertoires nationaux]. JORF, 
No 0294, 20.12.2018. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/
decret/2018/12/18/2018-1172/jo/texte

260  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

training and employment policies. Its development 
builds on longstanding practices of identification 
and recognition of prior learning and professional 
experience. While different procedures and 
mechanisms for identification, documentation 
and assessment of non-formal and informal 
learning have been developed261 this section is 
concerned with the system of validation of acquired 
experience (validation des acquis de l’expérience 
(VAE)), whose goal is obtaining a qualification. VAE 
includes, by definition, the stages of identification, 
documentation, assessment and certification.

The French VAE system is now integrated in the 
Labour and education code and procedures are 
defined by legislation262, ensuring consistency 

261  In addition to VAE, there is a mechanism for the 

recognition of professional and personal experience 
granting access to a programme through exemption 
from normal requirements (at higher education level, this 
procedure known as validation des acquis professionnels 
et personnels (VAPP); the skill audits or bilan de 
compétences aimed at identifying skills and competences 
acquired during one’s professional life without targeting 
certification and without an assessment procedure; and 
other types of competence portfolios developed outside 
of validation procedures.

262  Law No 2002-73 of 17 January 2002 on social 
modernisation (see footnote 235 above). 
Law No 2007-148 of 2 February 2007 on the 
modernisation of public service [Loi de modernisation 
de la fonction publique 2007-148 du 2 février 2007]. 
JORF, 6.2.2007. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000465739
Decree No 2007-1470 of 15 October 2007 on continuing 
vocational training of public servants [Décret 2007-
1470 du 15 octobre 2007 relative à la formation 
professionnelle tout au long de la vie des fonctionnaires 
de l’Etat]. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000469540
Decree No 2002-1459 of 16 December 2002 concerning 
the responsibilities of employers with regards to the 
validation of acquired experience and modifying title V 
of Book IX of the Labour Code (second part: Decrees in 
the State Council) [Décret 2002-1459 du 16 décembre 
2002 relatif à la prise en charge par les employeurs des 
actions de validation des acquis de l’expérience et portant 
modification du titre V du livre IX du Code du travail 
(deuxième partie: Décrets en Conseil d’Etat)].  
www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte= 
LEGITEXT000005633663&dateTexte=20181218
Decree No 2002-1460 of 16 December 2002 regarding 
the verification of bodies that assist candidates in the 
validation of acquired experience and modifying title IX 
of book IX of the Labour Code (second part: Decrees in 
the State Council) [Décret 2002-1460 du 16 décembre 
2002 relatif au contrôle des organismes qui assistent 
des candidats à une validation des acquis de l’expérience 
et modifiant le titre IX du livre IX du code du travail 
(deuxième partie: Décrets en Conseil d’Etat)]. www.
legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT00 
0005633664&dateTexte=20180821
Circular No 2003-127 of 1 August 2003 on the 
organisation of validation of acquired experience 
[Circulaire n° 2003-127 du 1er août 2003 sur l’organisation 

199

Volume II: National and regional cases 
 
 
 
 
across sectors. VAE allows ‘the award of whole 
or parts of qualifications with a vocational and 
professional orientation and purpose (finalité 
professionnelle) at all levels’ (European Commission 
et al., forthcoming, p. 2), without the need to go 
through formal training. Thus, both full and partial 
validation are possible, the latter resulting in a 
document taking stock of the units of competences 
validated by the candidate. However, it is not 
possible to apply for VAE based solely on learning 
outcomes: it is required to have carried out at least 
one year of activity directly related to the activities 
outlined in the qualification standards. 

The focus on certification is considered a 
strength of the VAE system, whose development 
was simultaneous to the restructuring of the 
qualifications system in 2002. Qualifications 
obtained through VAE are the same as those 
awarded via initial or continuous formal education 
and training or apprenticeship and they must be 
registered in the RNCP. Qualification standards 
(référentiels de certification) in the RNCP describe 
skills, knowledge and know-how defined in relation 
to occupation standards (référentiels d’activités). A 
VAE procedure must be in place for all qualifications 
registered in the RNCP (with the exception of those 
linked to ‘regulated professions’, where carrying 
out activity without having previously obtained the 
qualification is not legal). Thus, VAE is considered a 
fourth route to qualifications263. In higher education, 
VAE is used in conjunction with the European credit 
transfer and accumulation system (ECTS).

Since 2002, more than 330 000 full qualifications 
awarded by ministries have been obtained through 
VAE, mostly in the health and social sectors. 
However, the number of applications has been 
gradually decreasing across all ministries. Data are 
not available for other type of awarding bodies. 

In comparison with systems for validation 
of non-formal and informal learning in other 
European countries, the French VAE system 
is very well developed. Legislative initiatives 
over the past five years resulted in substantial 
changes addressing some of the challenges that 
had been identified: the need to broaden access, 

de la validation des acquis de l’expérience]. Official 
bulletin, No 32, 4.9.2003. www.education.gouv.fr/
bo/2003/32/MENE0301761C.htm

263  According to Law No 2002-73 of 17 January 2002 on 
social modernisation (Article 134), qualifications (the 
diplômes or qualifications with a vocational/professional 
purpose) are obtained via the following routes: school and 
university, apprenticeship, continuing vocational training 
or, in whole or in part, by validation of acquired experience 
(VAE).

diversify candidate profiles, shorten the length 
of the process, encourage its use across a wider 
range of qualifications, and improve stakeholder 
coordination. The system was considered 
demanding, especially for candidates with low 
skills and low levels of qualification. The 2014 
Law on VET, employment and social democracy264 
broadened access to VAE for individuals without 
a qualification at EQF level 3, recognising as 
‘experience’ training periods undertaken in a 
work context; it introduced the personal training 
account (compte personnel de formation) for 
easier financing, improved support to candidates, 
clarifying the role of various stakeholders involved, 
and included provisions for statistical monitoring 
of VAE pathways. The 2016 Law on work, 
modernising social dialogue and securing career 
paths265 reduced the minimum duration of required 
experience from three years to one, strengthened 
the support and guidance offered to candidates, 
simplified procedures, and removed the timeframe 
for the validity of parts of qualifications obtained 
through VAE. The latter aspect is linked to the 
use of units/blocks of competences (blocs de 
compétences), which remain valid without a 
time limit and which facilitate the articulation of 
VAE with training. The governance of the VAE 
system, considered one of its weak points, is 
being reorganised along with the governance of 
vocational training following the new 2018 Law for 
the freedom to choose one’s professional future266. 
The new governing body, France Compétences, 
replaces institutions previously involved in the 
coordination of the VAE system, including the 
National council for employment, vocational training 
and guidance (Conseil national de l’emploi, de 
la formation et de l’orientation professionnelles 
(CNEFOP)), so far in charge of the statistical 
monitoring of the use of VAE. 

264  Law No 2014-288 of 5 March 2014  

(see footnote 251 above).
Decree No 2014-1354 of 12 November 2014 on 
measures regarding the validation of acquired experience 
[Décret n° 2014-1354 du 12 novembre 2014 portant 
diverses mesures relatives à la validation des acquis de 
l’expérience]. JORF, n° 0263, p. 19184, 14.11.2014). www.
legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/decret/2014/11/12/ETSD1417561D/jo

265  Law No 2016-1088 of 8 August 2016 on labour, 

modernisation of social dialogue and securisation of 
professional career [Loi n° 2016-1088 du 8 août 2016 
relative au travail, à la modernisation du dialogue social et 
à la sécurisation des  
parcours professionnels]. www.legifrance.gouv.fr/ 
affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000033000929&date 
Texte=20160908

266  Law No 2018-771 of 5 September 2018  

(see footnote 237 above).

200

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
NQF implementation

The French qualifications system is a mature one, 
and the NQF – up until 2019 identified with the five 
level structure of the RNCP (CNCP, 2010) – is fully 
operational. Its implementation has been closely 
linked to that of the system for validating non-formal 
and informal learning (VAE), the two being mutually 
supportive: all qualifications included in the RNCP267 
can be acquired through validation and need to 
have a VAE procedure specified. Requirements for 
inclusion of qualifications in the RNCP are specified 
in legislation268, aiming for national coherence and 
the overall quality and transparency of qualifications. 
As of 2019, these requirements include:

a.  definition of qualifications using an occupational 
standard (référentiel d’activités, de métiers ou 
d’emplois); a competence standard (référentiel 
de compétences et de connaissances) 
specifying competences and knowledge, 
including transversal ones; and an assessment 
standard (référentiel d’évaluation) defining the 
criteria and methods for assessing learning 
outcomes;

b.  structure of qualifications using units/blocks 
of competences269 that can be assessed and 
validated;

c.  classification by field of activity and allocation of 

an NQF level.

Registration in the RNCP signals that all 
stakeholders, as represented in the CNCP and, 
since 2019, in the corresponding commission within 
France Compétences, underwrite the validity of a 
particular qualification. Registration is necessary to:

a.  receive funding;
b.  finance validation of non-formal and informal 

learning;

c.  exercise certain professions and occupations;
d.  enter apprenticeship schemes.

267  From 2013 to 2015, 9 907 active qualifications were 
registered in the RNCP. A main distinction is made 
between diplomas, degrees and qualifications issued 
on behalf of the state and referring to national laws 
(Ministries of National Education and Higher Education, 
Agriculture); they are included by entitlement and eligible 
for automatic inclusion and ‘private’ qualifications included 
by request (i.e. on demand) awarded by education and 
training providers, chambers and social partners in 
their own name. In the first category there are 7 423 
qualifications, in the second 2 484 (Paddeu et al., 2018).

268  Decree No 2018-1172 of 18 December 2018 on the 

conditions for registering vocational qualifications and 
certifications and authorisations in the national registers 
(see footnote 259 above). 

269  For more information on units of competences, please 

see the section Levels and use of learning outcomes 
above.

The introduction of the RNCP in 2002270 opened 
the possibility for inclusion of industry or 
sectoral qualifications (certificats de qualification 
professionnelle (CQPs)), diversifying the range of 
qualifications that could be nationally recognised. 
However, CQPs271 did not have a level; at the same 
time, other qualifications, such as the general 
education Baccalauréat, were classified at a 
particular level (level IV in this case), but could not 
be included in the RNCP. This gave rise to questions 
and left open to interpretation which qualifications 
are part of the NQF (Paddeu et al., 2018). With the 
recent reform of the VET system, the 2018 Law for 
the freedom to choose one’s professional future272 
and the 2019 Decree on the national framework of 
vocational qualifications273 strengthen the legal basis 
of the NQF and define it as distinct from the RNCP. 
Qualifications under the responsibility of social 
partners (CQPs) will also be levelled and included in 
the NQF, clarifying uncertainties around their status.

The RNCP continues to act as technical support 
to the NQF274 and it is one of the two qualification 
databases in the country. The second register (or 
inventory, Inventaire) was set up by the CNCP 
in 2014275 to include awards that could not be 
levelled as they were not directly associated with 
an occupation recognised through an industry-
level agreement276 (Paddeu et al., 2018). The two 
registers make it possible to give an overview of all 
labour market relevant diplomas and certificates, 
with or without a level. An evaluation of the policy 
for vocational certification from November 2016277, 

270  Law No 2002-73 of 17 January 2002 on social 
modernisation (see footnote 235 above).

271  The number of CQPs included in the register is quite 

small, but slowly growing in some sectors. 

272  Law No 2018-771 of 5 September 2018 (see footnote 237 

above).

273  Decree No 2019-14 of 8 January 2019 (see footnote 238 

above).

274  The RNCP database is available at: www.rncp.cncp. 

gouv.fr/

275  Law 2014-288 of 5 March 2014 on vocational training, 
employment and social democracy (see footnote 251 
above). 

276  Examples include accreditations resulting from a legal 

obligation and required to work in a particular profession 
(e.g. electrician accreditations); those highly valued in 
certain fields and recommended by social partners or 
certain bodies (e.g. qualification in copper welding as 
per standard NF EN ISO 9606-3); and those related to 
a homogeneous set of competences required in one 
or more occupations and that help to access the labour 
market (e.g. certificat Voltaire (spelling skills)).

277  Inspection générale des Affaires sociales; Inspection 
générale de l’Administration de l’Education nationale 
et de la Recherche (2016). Evaluation de la politique de 
certification professionnelle – propositions de « scénarios 
de transformation » [General Inspection of Social Affairs; 
General Inspection of National Education and Research 
Administration (2016). Evaluation of the policy for 

201

Volume II: National and regional casesfound that measures had to be taken to avoid 
the proliferation of qualifications, by giving more 
authority to the commission in charge of the RNCP, 
a recommendation that has been reflected in the 
recently introduced governance arrangements.

NQF levels are indicated on all qualification 
documents issued for VET and higher education 
qualifications, and on private and international 
qualifications included in the RNCP; EQF levels are 
included only on some qualification documents. 
Both NQF and EQF levels are included on Europass 
certificate supplements278, but not on diploma 
supplements.

The French NQF is known and used by education 
and training institutions and providers in France. 
Employers are aware of the levels, though they 
may not be aware of the NQF itself. Guidance 
and counselling practitioners and recognition 
authorities are aware of the framework due to 
cooperation between the EQF national coordination 
point and the National office for guidance (Office 
national d’information sur les enseignements et 
les professions (ONISEP) and ENIC NARIC France. 
There is also interest in the NQF among the 
general public (pupils and parents), as registration 
of a qualification in the RNCP is seen as proof of 
recognition by the state. The main channels for 
disseminating information on the NQF and the 
EQF have been the EQF national coordination point 
website279, the RNCP database itself, and interviews 
for the media. A communication campaign to 
inform on the new NQF levels is expected to be 
organised by France Compétences or the Ministry 
of Labour, Employment, Vocational Training and 
Social Dialogue. In particular, one challenge 
identified so far in communicating about the French 
NQF has been conveying to end users the notion 
that a level in the RNCP reflects parity of esteem 
between qualifications for the labour market, but 
not automatic recognition by universities (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

vocational certification – proposals for ‘transformation 
scenarios’]. www.igas.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/2015-125R2.pdf

278  The French inventory of certificate supplements is 

available through the RNCP database: www.rncp.cncp.
gouv.fr/

279  The CNCP website, which hosted the EQF national 

coordination point until 1 January 2019: www.cncp.gouv.fr

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The French NQF, as defined by the RNCP, was 
referenced to the EQF in October 2010 (CNCP, 
2010). The process involved all ministries, social 
partners and other stakeholders represented in the 
CNCP.

The lack of low-level vocational qualifications 
posed a particular challenge. Members of the EQF 
advisory group argued that the absence of lower 
level qualifications in the French framework (in a 
worst case scenario) could prevent migrants holding 
qualifications at EQF level 1 or 2 from entering the 
French labour market, given lack of equivalents 
in the French system. Following the referencing 
process, work was resumed on a new classification.

An updated referencing report covering the new 
level structure and governance arrangements 
introduced in 2018 will be presented to the EQF 
advisory group. There is no set date for this yet, as 
implementation of the recent reforms will take time 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Important lessons and future plans

One of the oldest in Europe, the French NQF is 
embedded in the national context, characterised 
by ‘a long history of labour organisation and social 
dialogue’ (Allais, 2017, p. 465). Its main distinctive 
feature is the strong labour market focus and, 
consequently, the exclusion of secondary general 
education qualifications. Up until 2018, the 
framework was shaped by the classification of 
training levels developed in 1969, which created a 
hierarchy for nationally recognised qualifications, and 
the National register of vocational and professional 
qualifications (RNCP), which ratified the separation 
between qualifications and the training courses that 
may lead to them (Paddeu et al., 2018). The setup 
of the RNCP was closely interlinked with that of 
the validation system, supporting the acquisition 
of qualifications through validation of prior learning 
and work experience. Given that the French 
qualifications system and, in particular, relationships 
between qualifications, were gradually shaped by 
stakeholder negotiations and agreements linking 
qualification levels to occupations and wage levels, 
updating the level structure was a challenging and 
lengthy process. The new eight-level structure and 
learning-outcomes-based level descriptors, adopted 
recently as part of wider VET reforms, bring the 

202

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFrench framework closer to the EQF, increasing 
comparability between French qualifications and 
those in other European countries. Implementation 
of recent reforms will take time, and the degree 
to which the French NQF will maintain its 
distinctiveness as an ‘occupational framework’ 
(Allais, 2017) remains to be seen. 

Developments related to the French NQF since 
2002 illustrate the need for NQFs to evolve 
continuously to stay relevant. Two main trends have 
been noted (Paddeu et al., 2018) in the evolution 
of the qualifications system: the remarkable 
diversification of the range of qualifications 
recognised by the state, and the shift in the 
object of recognition from duration of training to 
learning outcomes. The conception of what can 
be considered a qualification in France may also 
be subject to change. Departing from the strong 
emphasis on ‘full qualifications’ (qualifications 
complètes), developments in recent years included 
several initiatives to make qualification and training 
pathways more flexible: the introduction of units/
blocks of competences as identifiable parts of 

qualifications that can be assessed and validated 
independently; the personal training account 
(compte personnel de formation), which follows 
the same logic of breaking down qualifications 
into blocks of learning outcomes that can be 
acquired gradually; and the introduction of a new 
qualifications register – in addition to the existing 
RNCP – for inclusion of smaller awards. 

The role of the CNCP until recently and, since 
2019, that of the new commission within France 
Compétences replacing the CNCP, as ‘gatekeeper’ 
of the French framework has been important 
for two reasons: it has supported the credibility 
of registered qualifications and ownership of 
registration decisions across a wide range of 
stakeholders due to the quadripartite composition 
of these structures. However, a 2016 evaluation of 
the vocational certification policy has recommended 
that measures are needed to avoid the proliferation 
of qualifications. This illustrates the difficulty 
balancing the task of achieving increased flexibility 
in the qualifications system while maintaining the 
value and credibility of qualifications.

Table 24. French national qualifications framework (NQF/RNCP)

FRENCH 
NOMENCLATURE

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

I-Doctorat

Doctoral programmes (Doctorats)

I-Master

Master degrees (Master)
Degrees in engineering (titre d’ingénieur)
Qualifications on demand at level I

II-Grade de Licence

Bachelor programmes (Licences)
Vocational bachelor (Licence professionnelle)
Qualifications on demand at level II

III

IV

Undergraduate technician certificates (Brevet de technicien  
supérieur – BTS) 
Undergraduate technician certificates in agriculture (Brevet de technicien 
supérieur agricole – BTSA)
Undergraduate certificates in technology (Diplôme universitaire de 
technologie – DUT)
Master qualifications issued by the chambers of trades (Brevets de 
maîtrise – Chambre des métiers) 
Qualifications on demand at level III

Vocational baccalaureates (Baccalauréats professionnels)
Technological baccalaureates (Baccalauréats technologiques)
Professional certificates (Brevets professionnels)
Applied arts certificates (Brevets des métiers d’art)
Technician certificates (Brevets de technicien)
Qualifications on demand at level IV

8

7

6

5

4

(Continued)

203

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 24. French national qualifications framework (NQF/RNCP) (Continued)

FRENCH 
NOMENCLATURE

V

QUALIFICATION TYPES

Secondary vocational certificates  
(Certificat d’aptitude professionnelle – CAP; Brevet d’études 
professionnelles – BEP (*))
Secondary vocational certificates in agriculture  
(Certificat d’aptitude professionnelle agricole – CAPA; Brevet d’études 
professionnelles agricoles – BEPA (*))
Qualifications on demand level V

No French qualifications and certificates at these levels

EQF 
LEVELS

3

2

1

This table presents the level structure of the French NQF as referenced to the EQF. A new level structure was adopted by 
Decree No 2019-14 of 8 January 2019 on the national framework of vocational qualifications.

(*) BEP and BEPA are intermediary qualifications granted to young people who have passed the BEP exam and are preparing 
for the baccalauréat professionnel.

Source: CNCP, 2017.

Abbreviations
CNCP  

Commission nationale de la 
certification professionnelle 
(national committee on vocational 
qualifications)
certificat de qualification 
professionnelle (professional 
qualification certificate)
European qualifications framework

CQP 

EQF  

NQF  
RNCP  

VAE  

VET 

national qualifications framework
répertoire national des certifications 
professionnelles (national register of 
vocational qualifications)
validation des acquis de l’expérience 
(validation of non-formal and informal 
learning)
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

EQF national coordination point – hosted by France Compétences as of 1 January 2019:  

www.francecompetences.fr/ 

CNCP website, which hosted the EQF national coordination point until 1 January 2019: www.cncp.gouv.fr/
National register of vocational and professional qualifications (RNCP): www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/
CNCP (2010). Referencing of the national framework of French certification in the light of the European 

framework of certification for lifelong learning. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Report-
FR-NQF-EQF-VF.pdf

References

Allais, S. (2017). Labour market outcomes of national qualifications frameworks in six countries. Journal of 

education and work. Vol. 30, No 5, pp. 457–470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2016.1243232

Cedefop (2016). The application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe – a comparative 

perspective. Country: France [unpublished].

CIEP (2014). The use or potential use of QFs by HEIs and other stakeholders linked to mobility. Sèvres: 

CIEP. www.ciep.fr/sources/expert_educ/reconnaissance-des-diplomes/Final-Report-QFs-UHSE/index.
html

CNCP (2010). Referencing of the national framework of French certification in the light of the European 

framework of certification for lifelong learning. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Report-
FR-NQF-EQF-VF.pdf

204

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCNCP (2016). Rapport d’activité 2016 de la CNCP. www.cncp.gouv.fr/actualites/rapport-dactivite-2016- 

de-la-cncp

CNIS (Conseil national de l’information statistique) (1969). Nomenclature des niveaux de formation: 

approuvée par décision du groupe permanent de la formation professionnelle et de la promotion 
sociale [training levels approved by decision of the standing group of vocational training and social 
promotion]. www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/grand-public/explorerBaseDocumentaire?dossier=64

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: France. https://ec.europa.eu/education/

sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-france_en.pdf 

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report France. 

Ministère de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche (2012). Référentiels de compétences en 
licence [detailed criteria for writing learning outcomes for bachelor level]. http://cache.media.
enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/file/Plan_licence/61/4/referentiel_227614.pdf

Paddeu, J.; Veneau, P.; Meliva, A. (2018). French national qualification framework: its genesis, working and 

new challenges. Céreq Études, Vol. 9, November 2018. www.cereq.fr/publications/Cereq-Etudes/
French-national-qualification-framework-its-genesis-working-and-new-challenges

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

205

Volume II: National and regional casesGEORGIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The Georgian national qualifications framework 
(NQF) was adopted by ministerial decree in 2010. 
In 2017–18 a major revision of the NQF took 
place, to improve coherence and better linkages 
between the sub-systems (general education, 
vocational education and training (VET), and higher 
education) and compatibility with the European 
Qualifications Framework (EQF). As a result,  
in October 2018 the Parliament adopted the  
NQF-related amendments to the Law of Georgia 
on the Development of Quality of Education, 
setting the main objectives and principles of 
the new NQF. The ongoing reform of the NQF 
is expected to deepen the coherence with 
the 2017–18 reforms of the education quality 
assurance system, enhance transparency and 
evidence-based decision-making on the NQF 
implementation, and support inclusion of  
quality-assured qualifications for lifelong learning 
awarded outside of the formal education sector.

The National Centre for Education Quality 
Enhancement (NCEQE) is in charge of managing 
NQF implementation, reviewing and updating the 
legal basis, and monitoring its impact. The NQF 
and the education and training quality assurance 
framework are closely linked.

Georgia has participated since 2005 in the  
Bologna Process, but has not yet presented a  
self-certification report. It is at the structured  
stage of NQF development.

Educational, social, economic and political context
According to the 2014 census, the population was 
3 729 635 (as of January 2015), which shows a 
striking decrease (by 14.7%) compared with 2002. 
High emigration, as well as Russia’s aggressive 
military actions and annexation of Georgian territory 
justify this situation. Over 57% of the population 
is urban, and Tbilisi alone has 30% of the whole 
population. The share of the age group 15–24 
slightly declined to 20.2% in 2015.

The country has been participating in several rounds 
of international students’ assessments, and results 
help decision-makers and the education community 
orient the focus of reforms and continuous 
improvement. Georgia was among the 21 countries 
that improved their average achievement in 
mathematics in the 2015 round of TIMSS 4th grade, 
and ranked 37 (out of 49) with 463 points (618 
was the top performance). The country’s average 
achievement in TIMSS science 4th grade (2015) 
remained unchanged and Georgia ranked 39 (out 
of 47), with 451 points (590 was the maximum). In 
PISA 2015, Georgian 15-year-olds visibly improved 
their average scores in all three subjects (science, 
reading and mathematics); nonetheless more and 
consistent effort will be necessary to decrease 
the ‘share of low achievers in the three subjects’ 
(country result was 36.3) and to elevate the average 
score in each of these subjects. 

The population of Georgia has relatively high 
educational attainment (62.1% have ISCED 97 
level 3–4 and 33.5% have level 5–6). Younger 
age groups have expanded participation in higher 
education, however with equity divides (based on 
e.g. income, urban-rural residence). 

The government has implemented unstable policies 
towards VET in the last 10 years, but since 2014 
there has been a clear reorientation to promote 
and reinforce the VET system through increased 
public expenditure, extensive reforms to modernise 
curriculum and teaching and to widen access. 
The share of upper-secondary students in VET 
has increased, but remains way too low, when 
compared with the other Eastern Partnership 
countries.

The STEP survey of the World Bank280 identified 
the most important employability skills that young 
workers lack most often. Only those skills are 
shown, which are reported as missing among  
young workers by at least 25% of firms. 

280  World Bank (2013), Workforce Skills in the Eyes of the 

Employers: Results of the Georgia STEP Employer Skills 
Survey

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSOccupation-specific technical skills are considered 
critical for employability by employers, and at the 
same time a high proportion of firms say that young 
workers frequently lack them. Workers also often 
lack higher-order cognitive skills (problem solving) 
and some key socio-behavioural skills (problem 
solving, ability to work independently and in teams). 
Another source281 reveals that skills on demand 
are analytical, communication, interpersonal and 
digital skills. Employers also value teamwork 
and a flexible ‘can do’ attitude. A recent national 
employers’ survey shed light on the factors behind 
the perceived hiring difficulties, among which skill 
mismatch (by field of study, level of qualification), 
but also unattractive employment conditions 
(wages).

Georgia has adopted and implements a number 
of strategies and policies targeting various angles 
of competitiveness, employability and inclusion, 
notably the National VET Strategy (2013–20) and the 
Labour Market Strategy (2013–24) with associated 
actions plans. Regular labour market (employers) 
surveys have been carried out since 2015 under 
the umbrella of the Ministry of Labour, Health and 
Social Affairs, to identify trends in demand for skills 
and prospective employment.

In 2014, Georgia put in place the Georgian National 
Youth Policy, aiming to encourage establishment 
of the relevant environment for comprehensive 
youth development, enabling youth to fully fulfil 
its potential and be actively involved in any sphere 
of social life. The policy is supported by an action 
plan (to 2020) and covers multiple dimensions: 
participation in social, cultural and political life; 
high quality education and training, employment 
and professional development; healthy life style; 
and friendly environment for youth. The Ministry 
of Sport and Youth Affairs plays the leading role 
in coordinating the youth policy. Moreover, the 
public employment service (Social Service Agency) 
implements training programmes for unemployed 
people/ job seekers and promotes career guidance 
via an online portal.

In February 2017, the European Parliament approved 
Georgia visa waiver, which brings Georgia closer to 
the EU. The visa waivers apply to all EU Member 
States (except Ireland and the UK), plus Iceland, 
Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.

Economic context
Georgia is a lower-income country with a growing 
GDP per capita reaching USD 9 379 in 2015 

281  ILO, Enabling Environment for Sustainable Enterprises 

(Georgia)

(purchasing power parity, current international 
dollars).

The geopolitical context affects growth in the 
Eastern Partnership region. Georgia’s economy 
remains resilient to shocks and is the only one for 
which the World Bank leaves positive predictions 
of growth unchanged. Georgia is among the 
best performers among the Eastern Partnership 
countries as far as GDP growth is concerned (4.6% 
in 2014 and 2.7% in 2015). 

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) 
represent 96% of all enterprises, but their 
contribution to GDP is relatively modest (21.1% in 
2014). Over two fifths of the employed people are in 
SMEs (2014).

Tourism is one of the dynamic sectors of the 
economy and continues to grow, contributing 
23.5% to GDP and 20.1% to employment (direct 
and indirect in the sector). The share of agriculture 
in GDP slightly decreased to 9.2% in 2015, while 
the contribution of the industry increased to 24.5%. 
The service sector contributes 66.3% to GDP and 
maintains its predominance.

Georgia ranked 66 (out of 144) in the Global 
Competitiveness Report of the World Economic 
Forum. According to the Doing Business 2017 
report, Georgia is ranked 16th among 190 nations. 
In the 2016 report, Georgia held the 24th position 
among 189 countries. Georgia has improved its 
position in many categories, particularly in terms of 
institutional structure and regulatory environment. 
However, major weaknesses remain, such as 
lack of support for research and education by the 
government and the private sector, and limited use 
of innovation in business.

Labour market indicators
Georgia’s labour market indicators have shown 
continuous improvement in the last years, but 
challenges persist that will require the continuation 
of coherent policies to promote job creation, to 
minimise qualifications mismatch and support 
access to timely labour market information for all 
jobseekers, employers and learners.

The employment rate has increased by 
5.6 percentage points between 2010 and 2015 
(68.8%), but youth employment (age group 
15–24) remains nonetheless modest (27.3%). 
The unemployment rate declined visibly by 
4.3 percentage points (12% in 2015) in the same 
period, but youth unemployment (15–24) remains 
a challenge (30.8%). The proportion of long-
term unemployment is not the highest among 
the Eastern Partnership countries, but deserves 

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Volume II: National and regional casescontinuous attention (42.7% in 2015), given the 
known adverse impact on people’s skills and 
motivation to stay in the labour market.

and its goals; the NQF management and 
development; and the classifier of fields of study

2.  An Order of the Ministry of Education, 

The rate of persons not in employment, education 
or training (NEETs, age group 15–29) is of 
concern, but in 2013–15 Georgia showed a visible 
improvement, with a reduction of over 9 percentage 
points of the total NEETs rate). However, we 
notice that unlike other countries of the region, the 
NEETs rate of Georgian young women exceeds by 
14 percentage points the rate of young men.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
As a country which is undergoing a transition from 
the former Soviet system to a market economy, 
Georgia is implementing reforms in education and 
training, qualifications and employment policies 
aimed at simultaneously addressing growth and 
competitiveness, employment and social inclusion. 
Social policy objectives and renewed attention 
to employment have been reinforced since the 
2013 elections. Unemployment has been a high 
priority for the new government, as the steady 
economic growth in the past decade has not been 
accompanied by commensurate job creation.

Stakeholders have high expectations of the NQF as 
a catalyst for implementation of essential reforms in 
education and training. The socioeconomic context 
justifies the emphasis placed on employability, 
and continuing reform of education and training 
contributes to this. The NQF in action is expected 
to contribute to improving permeability between 
subsectors, to helping match qualifications 
and labour market needs, to supporting quality 
assurance of education and training, and increasing 
the transparency of learning outcomes.

In October 2018, the Parliament adopted the major 
legal act of the new NQF, as an amendment to the 
Law of Georgia on the Development of Quality 
of Education. In addition, four main subordinate 
acts were ready for approval in 2018, as ministerial 
orders. A closer look at the new legal base is 
provided in the section ‘NQF legal basis’ below.

1.  A new section dedicated to the NQF in the 

Law of Georgia on the Development of Quality 
of Education282 (amendment to the Law): 
chapter IV2; the three articles cover the NQF 

Science, Culture and Sport on the new NQF 
and its structure, level descriptors and typical 
qualifications by level

3.  An Order of the Ministry of Education, Science, 
Culture and Sport on the new classifier of fields 
of study, based on ISCED-F 2013

4.  An Order of Ministry of Education, Science, 

Culture and Sport on governance and monitoring 
of the NQF

According to the first document – amendment to 
the Law on Development of Quality of Education –  
the goals of the draft new national qualifications 
framework will be as follows (Article 24)283: 

a.  ‘classification of qualifications by protection 

of the following key principles of the national 
qualifications framework: compliance of learning 
outcomes, quality assurance, availability of 
qualification-related information;

b.  interconnection of general, vocational and higher 
education, its management and development;

c.  promoting lifelong learning; 
d.  supporting quality assurance system;
e.  ensuring compatibility, comparison ability and 
transparency of qualifications at international 
level;

f.  promoting mobility;
g.  supporting recognition of formal education 

obtained during learning period; 

h.  supporting recognition of informal education;
i.  providing public with information on current 

j. 

qualifications;
reflection of permanently changing requirements 
in the education system and stimulation of 
renewable qualifications description relevant  
to it.’

Comparing with the NQF 2010, this set of goals 
reflects a renewed vision of the NQF, which will 
now explicitly be open to such novel topics as non-
formal education; transparency in understanding 
the professional profiles for all types of users; 
and responsiveness to changing requirements 
and renewal of qualifications. The new NQF is 
increasingly seen as a bridge between the sub-
sectors of formal education, as well as between 
formal and non-formal learning. 

International cooperation
Georgia has been a full member of the Bologna 
Process since 2005 and participates in the 

282   Current (not yet amended) version of the Law available at: 
http://eqe.gov.ge/res/docs/2014120816015474706.pdf

283   According to the non-edited translation of the amended 

Law, as of December 2018.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSministerial meetings and regular reporting. The 
EU-Georgia Association Agreement was signed on 
26 September 2014 and entered into provisional 
application in September 2014. Chapter 16 of 
the agreement refers to cooperation towards 
recognition of qualifications. Annex XXXII lists the 
acquis to be adopted by the country, including the 
EQF Recommendation. Article 96 refers to mutual 
recognition (negotiation of mutual recognition 
agreements)284.

Georgia ratified the Lisbon Recognition Convention 
in 1999. The NCEQE represents Georgia in the 
ENIC-NARIC Networks. The NCEQE’s Department 
of International Education is responsible for 
providing ENIC-NARIC Networks’ representatives 
with the relevant and reliable information about the 
Georgian education system as well as educational 
institutions and credentials. The NCEQE closely 
cooperates with ENIC and NARIC in the process of 
recognition of foreign education in Georgia.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure 
The amended Law of Georgia on the Development 
of Quality of Education defines the NQF as an 
instrument that classifies qualifications for the 
education sub-systems’ (general, vocational and 
higher education, informal education) integration 
and coordination, as well as improvement of 
qualification quality, transparency, availability and 
development, taking the labour market and social 
interests into consideration.

The NQF includes quality-assured qualifications 
from general, vocational and higher education 
systems. 

The new legal base adopted in October 2018 
acknowledges the place for qualifications awarded 
outside of the formal education system, and 
the new VET Law (2018) places high priority on 
lifelong learning (training and retraining for better 
employability). This process of developing the legal 
base supporting implementation of the VET Law is 
in its initial phase.

Alignment to other classification systems
All occupational standards are linked with the 
national classification of occupations, based on 
ISCO-08. The approved template for occupational 
standards includes a field for the relevant code from 
ISCO-08.

284  https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/association_

agreement.pdf

The new classifier of fields of study is one of the 
legal acts following the adoption of the NQF-related 
amendments to the Law on the Development of 
Educational Quality. This new classifier is in the 
approval process. It is structured in accordance with 
ISCED-F 2013.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The new NQF has three categories of descriptors: 
knowledge and understanding, skills, and 
responsibility and autonomy. The new NQF is 
structured in eight levels; the first and second levels 
include the programmes for the development of 
key competences for those adults who have not 
received mandatory nine-year general education. By 
the completion of these programmes they will have 
the opportunity to continue their learning on the 
third or fourth level of vocational education. The basic 
education of general education (ninth grade certificate) 
is placed on the second level of the framework. 

Qualifications at level 1 require general basic 
knowledge, basic skills to perform simple tasks –  
identification of simple tasks and ability to evaluate 
and solve them; basic skills of using books 
and mathematical literature, oral and written 
communications, information technologies; in an 
homogenous environment, communication and 
exchanging of information on simple issues in 
foreign language.

Qualifications at level 2 require basic factual 
knowledge in the field of learning and activities; 
basic cognitive and practical skills for the use of 
relevant information in the field of learning and/
or work, simple tasks and methods to perform 
tasks and to solve routine problems; the ability to 
understand one’s and others’ actions, adapt to new 
situations, verbal and written communications and 
argumentative discussions about familiar activities; 
ability to find, process, store, share and analyse 
information using information and communications 
technologies on specific issues.

Since the new NQF acts as a system reform 
instrument, particularly important to minimize 
existing dead-ends between VET and higher 
education pathways and qualifications, certain 
qualifications are yet to be developed and assigned 
to the new NQF structure. 

Qualifications from formal vocational education are 
placed on the third, fourth and fifth levels of the 
framework. The general education programme is 
integrated in the secondary vocational programme 
of the fourth level, which gives the right to an 
individual holding the ninth grade certificate to add 
the learning outcomes of the vocational diploma 
with equal level to the 12th grade certificate  

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Volume II: National and regional cases(NQF level 4). This is a very important reform, but 
issues remain as to the practical reorganisation of 
this new secondary VET qualification of NQF level 4.

Qualifications at level 3 require knowledge and 
interpreting basic facts, principles, processes and 
general concepts characteristic of learning and/
or field; the combination of analytical and practical 
skills for solving tasks and solving problems, 
using appropriate information, tools, selection 
of materials and basic methods; evaluation of its 
activities in relation to the relevant standards; oral 
and written communication on issues related to 
studies and activities; use of relevant information 
and communication technologies; communication 
in everyday, familiar issues in foreign language, 
including terminology related to the field of activity.

Qualifications at level 4 require a wide context of 
actual and theoretical knowledge characteristic 
of learning and/or activities; the combination of 
cognitive and practical skills required to solve specific 
problems that are characteristic of learning and/or  
activities; seeking information to solve specific 
problems, critically analysing, selecting appropriate 
approach, reviewing alternatives and reasoning; 
oral and written communication on general issues, 
including relevant information and communication 
technologies, as well as in foreign language.

Higher education qualifications are placed on 
levels 6, 7 and 8 of the NQF. These levels are not 
open to other types of qualifications, such as from 
certain professional bodies, but only for quality-
assured academic qualifications.

Use of learning outcomes
Introducing a learning outcomes approach is an 
important part of the national reform programme 
for general education, VET and higher education, as 
indicated in the key legal acts. Linked to this is an 
increased interest for validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. 

Higher education and vocational education are more 
advanced in implementing the learning-outcomes 
approach; in general education this approach is 
more recent. The learning outcomes approach is 
an established and generalised principle in the 
Georgian education and training system, albeit 
with varied degrees of quality in different sub-
sectors and education institutions. The application 
of the learning outcomes approach is a mandatory 
requirement of the legislation on quality assurance 
of education, notably in authorisation and 
accreditation.

The new VET Law (2018) defines learning outcomes 
as a fundamental principle: 

Qualifications at level 5 require specialised, 
comprehensive and theoretical knowledge and 
understanding of its capabilities (boundaries) in 
the field of learning and/or activities; applying 
wide-range cognitive and practical skills to solve 
individual problems creatively; identification, 
analysis and evaluation of clearly defined abstract 
and concrete problems data; structural and 
consistent transmission of ideas and information 
by using qualitative and quantitative information 
for specialists and non-specialists; use of modern 
information and communication technologies.

In Georgia level 5 qualifications have seen a 
relatively good pace of development. Some 30% of 
all new VET qualifications adopted between 2015 
and 2018 are of level 5. As of December 2018, the 
total number of approved quality-assured modular 
VET programmes included in the register is 97, in 
62 sectors and 3 NQF levels (3, 4 and 5).

The higher education programme of the fifth 
level will be a short-cycle qualification (associate 
degree), which will be connected with the first-
level educational programme of higher education. 
The credits of short-cycle qualifications will be 
recognised for the goals of Bachelor and integrated 
Master programmes. The volume of short-cycle 
qualification is 120/180 credits. 

‘Learning outcome – a statement regarding 
the “knowledge and understanding” 
(which implies results of assimilation 
of information, facts, principles, theory, 
theoretical and practical methods of 
learning or activities) and “skills” (which 
implies the ability of using the appropriate 
knowledge to carry out specific assignment 
and solve the problems), and/or the 
“responsibility and autonomy” (which 
means the use of knowledge and skills 
by the person through appropriate level of 
values and independence).’

Since the modularisation of the VET programmes 
started, in 2013, all educational standards, as well 
as modular programmes are based on learning 
outcomes. Learning outcomes-based qualification 
levels were to strengthen the outcomes dimension 
and give learning outcomes a prominent role in 
planning education provision. 

In higher education, learning outcomes and the 
comparison between learning outcomes abroad 
and in the country are a key basis for recognition 
of acquired knowledge (Article 50 of the Law on 
Higher Education). The Law also prescribes to use 
learning outcomes for recognition of knowledge and 
skills acquired for a different qualification. 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLearning outcomes are fundamental elements of 
quality assurance of higher education, mentioned 
in both authorisation and accreditation standards. 
Authorisation standards require clearly defined 
learning outcomes aligned with NQF level 
descriptors. Programme accreditation has among 
its main functions to check the outcomes’ feasibility, 
relevance and correspondence to the existing NQF.

The Ministerial Decree on Regulation of Calculation 
of Credits for Educational Programmes (Ministerial 
Decree/Order No 3) defines details of use of ECTS 
credits in Georgian academia and the use of learning 
outcomes as mandatory for higher education. The 
decree defines ECTS as a student-centred system, 
which relies on learning outcomes and transparency 
of the learning process. It further defines details 
of assessment for the entire system, including 
regulations on mandatory intermediate assessment 
and thresholds for each type of assessment. The 
assessment should measure learning defined in 
the programme/course. The decree prescribes 
(Article 4.5) to align/introduce adequacy of 
assessment for the envisioned learning  
outcomes.

Definition of qualification
The amended Law of Georgia on the Development 
of Quality of Education defines ‘qualification’ as a 
formal result of evaluation and approval of a learning 
outcome that is asserted with a state-recognised 
certificate, a state document confirming higher or 
vocational education – diploma, or a state document 
confirming general education. This definition applies 
to qualifications from all sub-sectors: general, 
vocational and higher education.

The new VET Law (2018) defines qualifications as 
follows:

‘Qualification – formal outcome of 
assessment and confirmation of the 
achievement of the learning outcome 
by the authorised institution(s) which is 
confirmed by state-recognised certificate, 
by the state document confirming higher 
or vocational education – diploma, or by 
the state document certifying the general 
education.’

Educational standards in Georgia differ according to 
education sub-systems:

•  National Curriculum for general education;
•  vocational education standards for vocational 

education;

•  sector documents (benchmarks) on regulated 

programmes of higher education, which can be 
developed for other fields of study as well. 

The new VET Law (2018) defines standards as 
follows:

‘Professional standard – a combination 
of tasks and responsibilities related to a 
particular profession.’

‘Vocational education standard – a 
document that defines the qualification/
qualifications to be granted, number 
of credits required for the relevant 
qualification/qualifications, learning 
outcomes to be achieved, the combination 
of those modules the learning outcomes 
of which are necessary to achieve for the 
qualification/qualifications to be granted, 
and prerequisites for admission and 
implementation of the relevant education 
programme/programmes, as well as the 
areas of employment and requirements 
for development and implementation of 
educational programme/programmes  
(if any).’

‘Vocational education programme – a 
combination of learning objectives, learning 
outcomes, module/modules, relevant 
credits, teaching methods, assessment 
forms and organisational characteristics. 
The vocational education programme is 
completed with awarding the qualification 
relevant to the 3rd/4th/5th level of the national 
qualification framework and issuance of the 
diploma.’

The law includes important orientations on VET 
qualifications of all NQF levels (2–5) and types. 
Article 6 of the law provides explanation on 
vocational training and re-training programmes. 

‘Vocational education is implemented:

• 

• 

through a vocational training 
programme that prepares a person to 
perform individual tasks and obligations 
related to the profession. Learning 
outcomes under the vocational 
training programme may conform to 
the 2nd/3rd/4th/5th level of the national 
qualifications framework;
through a vocational re-training 
programme aimed at acquiring and/or 
developing competences in the same 
field for professional activities. The 
learning outcomes provided by  
the vocational re-training programme 
may comply with the 2nd/3rd/4th/5th level 
of the national qualifications 
framework.’

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Volume II: National and regional casesThe law distinguishes two types of programme: 
vocational education programmes, and vocational 
training and re-training programmes.

Vocational education programmes/qualifications 
conform to the NQF levels 3–5 and have the 
following characteristics:

•  These programmes are implemented within the 
education system, i.e. by the institution holding 
an educational institution status.

•  The admission right to these programmes is 
based on education system qualifications.
•  Studying at this type of programme, as a rule, 

precedes the employment period.  

•  Educational programme/qualification reflects all 
categories of the NQF-aligned level descriptors.

•  Holding this qualification makes it possible 

to pursue studies at a higher level, within the 
education system.

Vocational training/re-training qualifications conform 
with the NQF levels 2–5 and have the following 
characteristics:  

•  These programmes are implemented and 
qualifications are awarded by legal entities 
outside education system. The entity is not 
required to get an educational status, although it 
must be authorised to implement a programme 
and award a qualification. These programmes 
may be implemented by educational institutions 
as well.

•  These programmes aim at meeting labour 
market demands rapidly. A person starts 
studying at the programme after starting a job: 
it is oriented on a little academic workload or on 
upgrading current skills.

•  Admission right is not based on general 

education qualifications. For example, it is 
impossible to require minimum basic education 
qualification for admission to level 2 training/
re-training qualification, because these two 
qualifications are placed at the same level. 
However, professional experience or vocational 
education are required for participating in these 
programmes.

•  The learning outcomes of the programme/
qualification fail to reflect all the categories/
aspects of the relevant NQF level. Learning 
outcomes of vocational training/re-training 
programmes, outside the purpose of the 
programme, might be focused on the only 
category of the NQF level, for example, on 

acquiring the necessary skills for the labour 
market.

•  This qualification makes horizontal progression 
possible at NQF same level in correspondence 
with the recognition of formal education, 
stipulated by legislation, which provides a 
possibility to pursue studies at vocational 
education programme and acquire relevant 
qualification.  

The National Curriculum is an educational standard 
of general education. Learning outcomes of basic 
and complete general education shall correspond 
with the National Curriculum in compliance with 
the set rule of legislation. The National Curriculum 
comprises subject standards of basic and upper 
(full) secondary education. According to its 
glossary of terms, ‘subject standard’ determines 
the obligatory minimum of knowledge a student 
must have upon completion of the level. It provides 
answers to the following questions: what should a 
learner know, what is a learner able to do and what 
are the values a learner should share within the 
scope of a specific subject. 

The National Curriculum stipulates that learning 
outcome is knowledge, which is defined by the 
glossary of terms as synergy of three categories of 
knowledge – declarative, procedural and conditional, 
answering questions of three types: what do I 
know, how do I perform and when, why, in what 
case is knowledge applied. The National Curriculum 
provides a broad definition of ‘knowledge’ and the 
NQF provides a narrow definition of knowledge, 
as knowledge of only facts, principles, theories, 
concepts, theoretical and practical knowledge. 
This definition corresponds with the ‘declarative 
knowledge’ of the National Curriculum.

Development process of qualifications
In VET the linkage between various standards and 
qualifications is as follows: occupational standards, 
educational standards, VET qualifications. One 
educational standard can lead to several VET 
qualifications. 

The information published on educational 
standards leading to specific VET qualifications 
is comprehensive and regularly updated. The 
description of educational standards provides the 
following information – for example:

•  Name of the educational standard: Web 

programmer

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS•  Direction (grouped in 11 directions): information 

and communication technologies

•  Number of registration: 06108 
•  Level: V
•  Entry requirements: secondary education 
•  Credits: 170
•  Compulsory VET modules: 20 modules 
•  Elective VET modules: 1 module 
•  General compulsory modules: 9 modules 

All the modules, with detailed description of aim, 
credit, level, learning outcomes, organisation of 
teaching and assessment approach, are attached to 
the document.

Access, progression and credit
The Ministerial Decree on Regulation of Calculation 
of Credits for Educational Programmes (Ministerial 
Decree/Order No 3) defines the details of use of 
ECTS credits in the Georgian education system. 
The decree defines the ECTS as a student-centred 
system, which relies on learning outcomes and 
transparency of the learning process. 

The decree prescribes the hours or range 
of hours for each ECTS as 25–30 hours, and 
defines the workload for an academic year as 
60 ECTS, with a maximal amount of 75 ECTS in 
individual programmes. It further defines details 
of assessment for the entire system including 
regulations on mandatory intermediate assessment 
and thresholds for each type of assessment. The 
assessment should measure learning outcomes 
defined in the programme/course. 

Credits are allocated to qualifications and modules 
based on their size. According to the VET Law 

(2010), a credit expresses the amount of work to 
be done by a vocational student to master one 
subject. In the revised law, a credit expresses the 
educational workload for a vocational student/
listener, which can be obtained through achieving 
the learning results.

Credits are allocated by Curriculum Working 
Group members to the educational standards and 
modules. A one-year programme is about 60 credits 
in VET as well as in higher education. In the 
process of credit allocation to individual modules 
in VET, the working groups use the complexity 
of the learning outcomes. The sum of the credit 
values of all modules should be very close to the 
value of the full qualification; if the sum is not the 
same the working groups revisit the allocation 
of the credits. If the programme leading to the 
qualification is much shorter than other full-time 
VET programmes, a lower credit value may need to 
be considered. However, national VET qualifications 
delivered in schools will be of similar duration and, 
therefore, of the same credit value. VET providers 
use educational standards in the process of credit 
allocation to their educational programmes. 

In higher education 240 credits are allocated at 
Bachelor level (first cycle), 120 at Master level 
(second cycle) and 180 at Doctor level (third cycle). 

The NQF supports the credit system in two ways. 
First, credit accumulation and transfer are built 
into the NQF’s requirements for qualifications for 
approval within the framework. Second, the NQF 
defines quality assurance requirements that include 
monitoring the quality of the assessment that helps 
to build the reliability of the credits awarded. 

Figure 7. Integration of the credit system within the NQF

NQF

Quality
assurance 

Qualification
design 

Assessment to
award credits 

213

Volume II: National and regional casesStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis 
The first Georgian NQF was adopted by ministerial 
decree in 2010 and has affected the panorama of 
qualifications in Georgia through its level structure 
and descriptors. This NQF was sub-divided into 
three sub-frameworks (general, vocational and 
higher education). In 2017–18, a major revision 
of the NQF took place to improve coherence 
and better linkages between the sub-systems of 
education, and compatibility with the EQF. As a 
result, in October 2018 the Parliament adopted the 
NQF-related amendments to the Law of Georgia on 
the Development of Quality of Education. 

There is no single law fully dedicated to the new 
NQF. Instead Georgia decided to insert a new 
chapter in an existing law: Chapter IV2 (three 
articles) of the amended (2018) Law of Georgia on 
the Development of Quality of Education sets the 
goals and levels of the new NQF, and the role of the 
new classifier of fields of study.

Simultaneously, in 2017–18 a package of new legal 
acts supporting the implementation of the new NQF 
were drafted in consultation with the stakeholders. 
The main subordinate acts in form of orders of the 
Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sport 
(see http://mes.gov.ge/index.php?lang=eng), and rules 
and methodologies to be approved by the NCEQE’s 
director, developed in 2018 and 2019, are listed below.

In 2018 – for approval:

•  Ministerial Order on the eight-level structure 

of the NQF, level descriptors and list of typical 
qualifications;

•  Ministerial Order on the classifier of fields of 

study, based on ISCED-F 2013;

•  Ministerial Order on governance and monitoring 

of the NQF.

In 2019 – planned for finalisation and approval:

•  Ministerial Order on rules for development of 
education programmes aligned with the NQF 
levels;

•  Rules for recognition of non-formal education, 
and related regulations on quality assurance of 
the education and training institutions delivering 
such programmes and credentials;

•  Methodology for levelling programmes’ learning 

outcomes;

•  Concept and technical specifications for the new 

online register of qualifications; 

•  Rules for VET educational standards (to be 

The ongoing reform of the NQF is expected to 
deepen the coherence with the 2017–18 reforms of 
the education quality assurance system, enhance 
transparency and evidence-based decision-making 
on the NQF implementation, and support inclusion 
of quality-assured qualifications for lifelong learning 
awarded outside of the formal education sector.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The National Centre for Education Quality 
Enhancement (NCEQE)285 manages the NQF. Its 
functions include implementing quality assurance 
measures; maintaining the register of occupational 
standards and register of accredited programmes, 
and facilitating social partner engagement, such as 
in the development of occupational standards.

The Ministry of Education and Science defines 
policy, oversees validation arrangements, authorises 
the establishment of VET providers, and oversees 
the recognition of vocational education received in a 
foreign country.

Sector councils identify particular components of 
vocational qualifications, modules and need for 
development of frameworks/modules of vocational 
standards; they submit relevant proposals to the 
NCEQE. To date, 11 sector councils have been 
established in fields including humanities; business, 
administration and law; engineering; industry, food 
processing; construction, engineering; information 
and communication technologies; agriculture, 
forestry, fishing, veterinary; and healthcare and 
social care. Each council is composed of seven to 
nine members. Social partners are represented.

In 2017 and 2018, the debates to improve 
governance of the new NQF led to the proposal of 
creating a new consultative NQF body, composed 
of varied stakeholders: the NQF Advisory Board. 
The mission and full set of functions of this advisory 
board are defined in the new draft subordinate act 
on NQF governance and monitoring, as follows:

a.  review strategic directions of the NQF 

development, elaborate proposals on the 
amendments to be made and provide 
recommendations to the director for approval;

b.  review the draft action plan for the NQF 

implementation of its correspondence with the 
strategic directions of development, elaborate 
proposals for the changes to be made and 
provide recommendations to the director for 
approval;

developed).

285  https://eqe.ge/eng 

214

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSc.  review the performance report of the annual 
action plan, elaborate proposals for the next 
action plan and provide recommendations to the 
director to consider them;

d.  review the results of periodic, comprehensive 

monitoring and the draft of a roadmap of further 
development and implementation of the NQF, 
elaborate proposals for amendment and provide 
recommendations to the director for approval;

e.  review other issues related to the NQF 

development and elaborate relevant proposals.

Once this subordinate act is approved, the NCEQE 
and the new NQF Advisory Board will work together 
to further develop the NQF structure and content, 
develop learning outcomes-based programmes 
and respective qualifications, transparent inclusion 
of qualifications into the NQF, defining the format 
of the electronic qualifications register, and 
disseminating information for key stakeholders, 
users and the wider public.

The NCEQE was established as a legal entity 
of public law by Ministerial Order No 89/5 of 
14 September 2010 to support the promotion of 
educational quality assurance and improvement. 
It has independent management of its functional 
organisation, staffing and human resources 
development, and budget. 

The NCEQE performs its activities on the principles 
of transparency and publicity. Its activities can be 
grouped in three main components: (a) quality 
assurance of educational programmes and 
institutions; (b) support to quality improvement 
to educational institutions via information and 
advice; and (c) qualifications development and 
improvement. Furthermore, the NCEQE hosts 
the Georgian ENIC-NARIC centre and recognises 
foreign qualifications. The ministry supervises 
the NCEQE’s activities in accordance with the 
procedure envisaged by the Law of Georgia on 
Legal Entities of Public Law. Since 2013, the NCEQE 
has the status of affiliated member of the European 
Association for Quality Assurance in Higher 
Education (ENQA)286. 

The governance of the NQF, as a key policy 
instrument for transparency of qualifications and 
facilitation of recognition and mobility, is a matter 
for further debate and development. The new phase 
of the Georgian NQF opens new opportunities to 
include qualifications of different types beyond 
those from formal education, to promote closer 
links between education and the market demands, 
and to be better used by all stakeholder groups. 

These perspectives will require more participative 
governance and decision-making, and more active 
dissemination and information among stakeholders.

The NCEQE’s Strategy Document 2016–20 takes 
account of lessons from the activities carried out 
in 2013–16 and responds to international experts’ 
reviews, notably those conducted in the framework 
of the NCEQE’s application for full membership 
of the ENQA, as well as in the framework of 
cooperation with the European Framework for 
Quality Management287. This strategy defines key 
strategic landmarks for organisational development, 
indispensable to respond to challenges, raise 
effectiveness, service quality, customer satisfaction, 
sustainability and reliability as an institution. The 
strategy aims to:

1.  improve organisational management systems 

and build capacity of the NCEQE, strengthen its 
institutional independence according to state 
policy, government priorities and international 
standards;

2.  develop outcomes-oriented quality assurance 

systems for educational institutions and 
programmes and improve relevant services;

3.  improve services to support educational 

institutions;

4.  implement the principle of lifelong learning in 
qualification systems, using best international 
practice to optimise and improve education 
recognition services;

5.  raise awareness about Georgia in the 

European higher education area and support 
internationalisation of education.

Resources and funding
The state budget is the main source of funding of 
the past and ongoing activities related with NQF 
operations – coordination, steering and decision 
making, – exercised chiefly by the NCEQE. 

The development of the new NQF has benefited 
from some support from international partners, who 
contributed since 2017 to the debate on the new 
NQF, through knowledge sharing and analysis. The 
European Training Foundation has been the major 
partner of the NCEQE since 2017, supporting the 
review of the drafts of the new NQF legal base, 
the development of concept and policy notes and 
draft subordinate acts, the basis of the register of 
qualifications and of the NQF handbook.

From 2019 a new EU twinning project will support 
the NCEQE in further developing the key elements 
of the quality assurance framework of education (all 

286  www.enqa.eu/index.php/enqa-agencies/affiliates/

287  www.efqm.org/ 

215

Volume II: National and regional casessub-sectors) and the new NQF. This cooperation will 
focus on reviewing the legal and regulatory base 
of quality assurance and the NQF, methodology 
packages, reinforce capacity, and develop the 
conceptual and technical specifications of the new 
NQF online register and portal.

Quality assurance of qualifications
In 2005, Georgia joined the Bologna Process 
and took the responsibility to harmonise its 
educational system with the European higher 
education area and to implement a higher education 
quality assurance system. In 2006, the Ministry 
of Education and Science established a quality 
assurance agency – the National Centre for 
Educational Accreditation (Order N222), – which was 
authorised to conduct institutional accreditation of 
higher education institutions of Georgia. The system 
was reformed in 2010 to strengthen the role of 
external quality assurance and extend the mandate 
of the quality assurance body. 

In this regard, the Law on Educational Quality 
Enhancement was introduced. By this law, an 
independent quality assurance body – the National 
Centre for Educational Quality Enhancement 
(NCEQE), – was established in 2010 as a legal 
successor of the National Centre for Educational 
Accreditation. The core functions of the NCEQE 
are as follows: implementation of external quality 
assurance mechanisms of all educational institutions 
(higher education institutions, vocational education 
institutions and general education institutions) 
operating in the country, at both institutional and 
programme levels; development of the NQF; and 
recognition of foreign education.

In order to implement and develop external quality 
assurance mechanisms for higher education 
institutions, the NCEQE continuously works on 
the development of the education quality concept, 
creates and maintains up-to-date quality assurance 
standards and procedures, and ensures relevant 
mechanisms for their proper implementation. In 
this regard, several external reviews of the agency’s 
activities and the external quality assurance 
mechanisms have been conducted by international 
peers. The recommendations of the reviews have 
been considered for the development of the quality 
assurance system.

Currently, two main external quality assurance 
mechanisms – authorisation of educational 
institutions and accreditation of educational 
programmes – are in place.

recognised by the state. The procedure identifies 
the compatibility of educational institutions 
with authorisation standards. The term of the 
authorisation is six years after which the higher 
education institutions are obliged to go thought 
the re-authorisation procedure to continue their 
activates.

The accreditation of educational programmes 
determines the compatibility of educational 
programmes with accreditation standards. 
Programme accreditation is mandatory only for 
doctoral programmes and programmes of regulated 
professions (medicine, law, teacher education, 
veterinary, and maritime). However, due to the 
fact that state funding goes only to accredited 
programmes, 98% (1 950 accredited programmes) 
of all academic programmes are accredited.

To ensure the continuous development of 
education quality and the consideration of the 
external evaluation results by the higher education 
institutions, the NCEQE carries out follow-up 
monitoring procedures for both educational 
institutions and educational programmes. 
Furthermore, the NCEQE supports the development 
of internal quality assurance mechanisms of higher 
education institutions through providing various 
capacity building activities, including provision of 
guidelines, consultations and workshops.

In 2015–17, the NCEQE revised the system of higher 
education quality assurance to strengthen the 
development-oriented and outcome-based function 
of quality assurance and to ensure its compliance 
with the requirements of the Standards and 
Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European 
Higher Education Area (ESG 2015). Specifically, 
the quality assurance standards and procedures 
were revised; a formal procedure of complaints 
and appeals was introduced; students, employer 
representatives and international experts were 
involved in the review panels; and evaluation reports 
became publicly available.

In order to foster the proper implementation of 
the revised quality assurance system, the NCEQE 
carried out pilot evaluations of higher education 
institutions, provided capacity-building activities 
to higher education institutions and experts, and 
developed review process guidelines. A special 
programme under the project ‘Study in Georgia’ 
has been designed to support the above-mentioned 
activities.

The authorisation of higher education institutions 
is obligatory to be allowed to carry out educational 
activities and to issue a diploma that is 

In 2018, the NCEQE started the system-wide 
implementation of the revised quality assurance 
standards and procedures at higher education 
institutions. The key elements of the revised and 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSreinforced quality assurance framework in VET are 
listed below.

•  The main objective of quality assurance reform 
in VET is to revise authorisation standards 
and procedures to bring them in compliance 
with EQAVET principles and consider context 
of modular, competence-based teaching and 
assessment approaches including dual education 
principles.

•  New draft authorisation standards are mainly 

based on EQAVET principles.

•  The agreed changes in VET quality assurance will 

include:
 o The new draft quality assurance standards, 

besides programmes, material and 
human resources, will consider some 
important issues as strategic planning and 
development, student services, information 
resources and financial stability of an 
institution.

 o New procedures will introduce institution’s 

‘partial compliance to the standards’ 
assessment, which will enable institutions to 
work on further development without losing 
an authorisation.

 o New requirements to institutions’ self-

assessment will be introduced, which will 
enable the NCEQE to observe institutions’ 
progress between self-assessment periods.
 o Verification of student assessments will be 

introduced as an additional quality assurance 
mechanism.

•  Milestones for development of VET quality 

assurance are:
 o New standards and procedures will enter into 
the force after adoption of the new VET Law 
by the Parliament by 2019.

 o New self-assessment process piloting will 
take place in 2019 and self-assessment 
reporting for TVET providers will be 
mandatory in 2020.

 o Assessment verification was under piloting in 
2018. In 2019 the piloting will cover most of 
providers and in 2020 it will become official 
quality assurance mechanism.

education.’ The new VET Law (2018) establishes 
a clear link between the development of the 
NQF and the creation of validation mechanisms 
of non-formal learning (Article 2). The amended 
Law of Georgia on the Development of Quality of 
Education acknowledges the recognition of informal 
learning as a key objective of the new NQF, while 
the new VET Law (2018) gives high priority to 
lifelong learning (training and retraining for better 
employability). 

In 2018 a policy proposal was drafted on the 
recognition of non-formal education, to pave  
the way for further development of a legal base to 
quality-assure programmes and providers in this 
domain, and include such qualifications in the NQF. 

A decree by the Minister of Education and 
Science #8/n of 3 February 2011 on ‘Approving 
the Conditions and Procedures for Recognising 
Non-formal and Informal Vocational Education’ 
sets out framework regulations with regards to 
the validation of non-formal and informal learning 
in Georgia. The decree allows for recognition of 
vocational education at levels 1–3, defines the 
bodies responsible for recognising informal/non-
formal education and describes the framework 
for recognition and formation of validation/
examination committees. The decree delegates 
the definition of exact procedures and rules 
for validation of evidence (work experience, 
prior non-formal qualification) and assessment 
of competences to bodies responsible for 
recognition (VET institutions that deliver 
respective formal education).

The concept paper on the validation of non-
formal and informal learning developed in 2013, 
and revised in 2016, a draft guide to recognition 
and amendments to the decree and two pilots 
(in information technology and agriculture) were 
launched. The United Nations Development 
Programme and MCA project (USA) supports 
Georgia in improving the regulatory framework and 
the pilot implementation of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

In practical terms, the validation (recognition) of 
non-formal education in Georgia is currently possible 
and carried out at general and vocational education 
levels.

Georgian legislation uses the term ‘informal 
education’ for both non-formal and informal learning. 
The new VET Law defines informal education 
in its Article 3: ‘Informal education – a part of a 
lifelong learning system that implies acquisition of 
“knowledge and understanding” and/or “skills”  
and/or “responsibility and autonomy” beyond formal 

General education 
A citizen having acquired general education 
independently may receive a state document 
verifying general education through so called 
‘externat’ rule. This means that any person can apply 
to relevant authorised body for taking school-leaving 
examinations and gain qualification. 

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Volume II: National and regional casesVocational education 
Recognition of learning outcomes achieved by non-
formal learning is available at the following levels:

• 

• 

for vocational education qualifications – NQF 
levels 3–5;
for vocational training/re-training qualifications – 
NQF levels 2–5.

It should be noted that, according to Georgian 
legislation, definition of non-formal learning implies 
informal learning as well. 

3.  Field of study (ISCED-F 2013) 
4.  Country code (ISO standard, only in English 

form)

5.  Level of the qualification (NQF level)
6.  Description of the qualification

6.1  Learning outcomes: knowledge, skills, 

responsibility and autonomy, or

6.2  Open text field, describing what the learner 
is expected to know, understand and able 
to do upon completion of the educational 
process

7.  Name, address and web address of the awarding 

institution

In further discussing and developing non-formal 
learning validation, the following issues are 
important:

8.  Credits (ECTS or ECVET)
9.  Internal quality assurance processes (not 

mandatory)

•  possibilities of validation of non-formal education 

in Georgia; 

10. External quality assurance: agency ensuring 
quality assurance; address, web address

11. Date of authorisation/accreditation and validity 

•  bodies authorised to carry out the different 

terms

• 

phases of validation;
interconnections and specific features of the 
phases of validation;

•  outcomes of validation and link to the NQF.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
All VET qualifications together with occupational 
standards and educational standards in formal 
education are placed on www.vet.ge and  
www.eqe.ge. These registers are for public 
use. As of December 2018, the total number of 
approved quality-assured modular VET programmes 
(qualifications) included in the register is 97, in 
62 sectors and 3 NQF levels (3, 4 and 5).

As of November 2017, the total number of higher 
education programmes (qualifications) included in 
the NCEQE register is 1 940, in 12 sectors and all 
relevant levels. The large majority are in the three 
cycles (Bachelor, Master, Doctoral). This register is 
not open for public use.

The concept for the new common digital 
qualifications register was developed in 2018 and 
will be followed by a new IT system and platform 
open for users. The concept defines the common 
structure for any qualification to be inserted in the 
register, which is fully in line with Annex 6 of the 
EQF Recommendation (revised in 2017). Different 
compulsory and elective fields are defined for 
qualifications of different sub-systems, but the 
common information for all qualifications is as 
follows:

1.  Name of the programme
2.  Title of the qualification

12. Additional information about the qualification
13. Source of additional information
14. Qualification URL
15. Access and entry requirements
16. Ways to acquire the qualification
17.  Opportunities for pursuing studies
18. Terms of validity 
19. Qualification-relevant fields of employment: 

according to ISCO-08 for vocational education, 
training and re-training qualifications. 

Information about individual qualifications 
should be entered in the Electronic Register 
of the NQF on the basis of the external quality 
assurance procedures, defined by legislation and 
after acquiring authorisation to grant a specific 
qualification by an educational institution or 
another legal person. Inclusion of a qualification 
in the NQF is automatically reflected in the 
Qualifications Electronic Registry. The procedure 
of registering qualifications in the Qualifications 
Register is determined by the Ministerial Order on 
governance and monitoring of the NQF. The NCEQE 
is responsible for registering all quality-assured 
qualifications. The register will be bilingual (Georgian 
and English). 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
A new subordinate act supporting the 
implementation of the NQF was to be approved 
in 2018; it defines the modes of governing and 
monitoring the NQF. The new NQF monitoring will 
comprise two complementary dimensions: ongoing, 
annual monitoring; and periodic, comprehensive 
monitoring.

The ongoing monitoring aims to support good 
implementation of tasks defined in the NQF annual 
action plan. It will also include the evaluation of 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSactivities performed according to assessment 
criteria.

The periodic, comprehensive monitoring will support 
further NQF development and will be carried out 
every four to five years. A specially formed group 
will plan and coordinate the activities and analysis. 
The plan for further NQF development is based 
on the results and conclusions of comprehensive 
monitoring. Indicative questions for comprehensive 
monitoring: 

•  To what extent does the level descriptor 

correspond to requirements of educational and 
employment spheres?

•  Do NQF levels correspond to the wide variety of 

• 

qualifications in the country?
Is it necessary to introduce new types of 
qualifications? 

•  To what extent are the qualifications defined 
by legislation compatible with the country’s 
requirements? 

Impact for end-users
The NQF is an important driver of the learning 
outcomes approach for all sub-sectors of education 
and training, and it is increasingly acting as a linkage 
between formal and non-formal education and training 
and between the sub-sectors of the formal education 
system. The experience of NQF implementation 
has also contributed to interconnecting quality 
assurance and inclusion of qualifications in the NQF, 
and to identifying areas of difficult permeability in the 
education and training continuum.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Georgia has participated in the Bologna Process since 
2005, but has not yet presented a self-certification 
report. The structure and level descriptors of the 
new NQF are fully aligned with the EQF and the 
qualifications framework for the European higher 
education area. The new EQF Recommendation, 
adopted in May 2017, provides for comparison 
of third-country NQFs with the EQF. The EQF 
advisory group, which steers implementation of the 
recommendation, shall agree criteria and procedures 
for this comparison. Georgia is more advanced 
than other European Neighbourhood countries in 
readiness to link or benchmark its NQF in this way.

Important lessons and future plans

The 2010 NQF288 is undergoing a substantial 
reform in conceptual and structural terms. In 2018, 
the legislator was expected to adopt the NQF-
related amendments to the Law of Georgia on the 
Development of Quality of Education289. The NCEQE 
management recognises that implementation of 
the revised NQF legislation will require effective 
planning of key steps; coherence and coordination 
with the quality assurance reforms; as well as 
improved capacity at the NCEQE (human resources, 
instruments and information) to ascertain that the 
NQF stimulates the transparency of qualifications, 
permeability and the necessary interaction between 
qualifications and the world of work (demand for 
skills and qualifications). 

The governance of the NQF, as a key policy 
instrument for the transparency of qualifications 
and facilitation of recognition and mobility, is 
a matter for further debate and development. 
These perspectives will require more participative 
governance and decision-making, and more active 
dissemination and information among stakeholders.

The NCEQE coordinates the activity of the 
sector councils, which need further support and 
reorganisation to strengthen their capacity to 
deliver the expected contribution for high quality 
programmes and qualifications. The future legal 
status and sustainability of these councils is yet to 
be decided. 

The NCEQE prepares the new quality assurance 
rules and procedures, and is responsible for the 
adequate implementation of accreditation and 
authorisation processes with participation of the 
relevant actors (experts’ teams and decision-making 
councils). But effective implementation of the 
new and revised procedures is challenging, as it 
requires enhanced capacity at the NCEQE, efficient 
procedures, improved information and support 
documentation (handbooks and methodological 
support) for the stakeholders and practitioners; and 
the establishment of monitoring instruments to 
gather feedback and data necessary for the review 
and recalibration of the new quality assurance 
mechanisms. 

The reforms of quality assurance and the NQF have 
commonalities, as both concern the entire system 
of education and training, and express the country’s 
determination to improve the compatibility with 
similar developments in the EU and beyond.  

In 2017–18, the NQF regained a new impetus as 
the NCEQE and the Ministry of Education led the 
debate and stakeholders consultation on the new 
NQF and its implementation mechanisms.

288  The key legal acts of the NQF 2010, now being reformed, 

are accessible at: http://eqe.ge/eng/static/125/education-
system/national-qualifications-framework

289  Current (not yet amended) version of the law available at: 
http://eqe.gov.ge/res/docs/2014120816015474706.pdf

219

Volume II: National and regional casesThe NCEQE is the key implementing body of 
education quality assurance and the NQF, and 
its resources (human, technical), organisation 
and leadership will be under pressure to deliver 
the expected improvements in processes and 
outcomes. 

The NCEQE is called to join and cooperate with 
a range of international developments related to 

the recognition of qualifications, driven by the 
digital revolution (credentials from online courses 
and programmes) as well as by mass movement 
of people (migrants and refugees), such as the 
recognition of qualifications of refugees without 
documented qualifications. Some of these issues 
will be discussed/developed in the frame of the 
upcoming EU twinning project (from 2019).

Abbreviations
ECTS 

European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European credit system for vocational 
education and training
European Network of Information 
Centres
European Association for Quality 
Assurance in Higher Education
European quality assurance in 
vocational education and training
European Qualifications Framework 

ECVET 

ENIC 

ENQA  

EQAVET  

EQF 

ISCED 

ISCO 

NARIC 

NCEQE 

NEETs 

NQF 
SMEs 
VET  

International Standard Classification 
of Education
International Standard Classification 
of Occupations
National Academic Recognition 
Information Centres
National Centre for Educational 
Quality Enhancement
(young people) not in employment, 
education or training
national qualifications framework 
small and medium-sized enterprises 
vocational education and training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

220

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSGERMANY

Introduction and context

Germany has one of the highest employment 
rates for recent graduates in the EU. Employment 
of recent vocational education and training (VET) 
graduates reached 91.3 % in 2017 and 93.0% for 
highly qualified individuals (ISCED levels 5–8) in 
2017). Participation in early childhood education and 
care, tertiary education attainment and participation 
of adults in lifelong learning have increased in recent 
years, but the last two indicators remain below EU 
average levels. Despite this high employability rate 
and a long tradition, participation in VET slightly 
decreased to 46% in 2016, now below the EU 
average of 49%. The proportion of 15 year olds 
underachieving in reading and science has increased 
(fallen in maths) in 2017 compared to 2014, though 
still below the EU average. Early leaving from school 
(10.1% in 2017) is close to the EU target and slightly 
below the EU average. Socioeconomic background 
has a strong impact on educational outcomes; 
integration of high numbers of recently arrived 
refugees – many being young and poorly qualified – 
has been a major challenge. The Integration Act of 
2016 aims to aid refugee access to work, vocational 
training and university education (European 
Commission, 2018). 

Germany has an eight-level national qualifications 
framework (NQF) for lifelong learning based 
on learning outcomes (German qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning (Deutscher 
Qualifikationsrahmen für lebenslanges Lernen 
(DQR)). The framework is fully operational. It 
was given official status in May 2013 by the joint 
resolution of the Standing Conference of the 
Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of 
the Länder, the Federal Ministry of Education 
and Research, the conference of Ministers for 
Economics of the Länder and the Federal Ministry 
of Economics and Energy290. This resolution was 
the basis for administrative regulations such as 

290  Joint resolution on the German qualifications framework 

for lifelong learning: www.bmbf.de/files/Gemeinsamer_
Beschluss_final_ohne_Unterschriften.pdf

indicating NQF/EQF levels on certificates and 
diplomas. The DQR manual was drafted in 2013 
to support inclusion of qualifications291. Initially, 
the DQR included most VET and higher education 
qualifications, but inclusion of qualifications from 
general education was postponed for a later 
stage. Following subsequent discussions, general 
education qualifications and most of those from 
regulated further training have been assigned to 
DQR levels and included in the DQR database292. 
The upper secondary general education school 
leaving certificate (Allgemeine Hochschulreife) was 
allocated to DQR/EQF level 4. Qualifications from 
the non-formal sector have not yet been allocated 
to the framework, but the possibility of developing 
suitable procedures for the non-formal sector is 
currently being discussed. 

The DQR is the result of lengthy development work 
which started in 2006, when the Federal Ministry 
of Education and Research (Bundesministerium 
für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF)) and the 
Standing Conference of the Ministers for 
Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder 
(Kultursministerkonferenz (KMK)) agreed to 
work together on it in response to the emerging 
European qualifications framework. Following 
extensive preparatory work, a proposal for a 
German NQF was published in February 2009. The 
development and implementation of the DQR has 
been a widely supported initiative in which social 
partners and business organisations have played a 
fundamental role through the German qualifications 
framework working group (Arbeitskreis DQR). 

The DQR was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) in 2012. 

291  Handbuch zum Deutschen Qualifikationsrahmen 

[Manual for the German qualifications framework]. 
www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/veroeffentlichungen_
beschluesse/2013/130823_Handbuch_mit_nicht-
barrierefreier_Anlage_MAM.pdf

292  Available at: www.dqr.de/content/2316.php

221

Volume II: National and regional casesPolicy objectives

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Germany has actively supported the EQF 
initiative from the start and the extensive effort 
put into developing the DQR reflects this. The 
DQR focus on learning outcomes is seen as a 
catalyst for strengthening the coherence and 
overall permeability (Durchlässigkeit) of German 
education and training (Büchter et al., 2012), 
linking and integrating various subsystems and 
improving progression possibilities. Learners 
should be allowed to move between levels and 
institutions according to their knowledge, skills and 
competences, and be less restrained by formal, 
institutional barriers.

The objectives of the DQR are the following293:

a.  increase transparency in German qualifications 
and aid their recognition elsewhere in Europe;
b.  support learner and employee mobility between 
Germany and other European countries and 
within Germany;

c.  improve visibility of equivalence and 

differences between qualifications and promote 
permeability;

d.  promote reliability, transfer opportunities and 

quality assurance;

e.  increase skills orientation of qualifications;
f.  reinforce learning outcomes orientation of 

qualification processes;

g.  improve opportunities for validation and 

recognition of non-formal and informal learning;

h.  encourage and improve access to, and 

participation in, lifelong learning.

An eight-level structure has been adopted to cover 
all main types of German qualifications.

Level descriptors describe the competences 
required to obtain a qualification. The overall 
structure is guided by the established German 
terminological and conceptual approach, referring 
to the ability to act (Handlungskompetenz) 
(BMBF and KMK, 2013; Gehmlich, 2009). The 
DQR differentiates between two categories of 
competence: professional and personal. The term 
competence lies at the heart of the DQR and 
signals readiness to use knowledge, skills and 
personal, social and methodological competences 
in work or study situations and for occupational and 
personal development. Competence is understood 
in this sense as comprehensive action competence 
(Table 25). Methodological competence is 
understood as a transversal competence and 
is not separately stated in the DQR matrix. The 
DQR expresses only selected characteristics; 
the comprehensive and integrated notion of 
competence, underlying the DQR, has a strong 
humanistic and educational dimension294.

Descriptors are partly expressed as alternatives, 
such as ‘field of study or work’ and ‘specialised 
field of study or field of occupational activity’. The 
broad and inclusive nature of level descriptors, 
using parallel formulations if necessary, makes 
it possible to open up all levels to different kinds 
of qualification; higher levels are not restricted to 
qualifications awarded within the Bologna process. 

Table 25. Level descriptors in the German qualifications framework for lifelong learning

LEVEL INDICATORS*

STRUCTURE OF REQUIREMENTS

PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

PERSONAL COMPETENCE

Knowledge

Skills

Social competence

Autonomy

Depth and breadth

Instrumental and 
systemic skills, 
judgment

Team/leadership skills, 
involvement and 
communication

Autonomous responsibility/ 
responsibility, reflectiveness 
and learning competence

(*)  This is just an analytical differentiation; the interdependence between different aspects of competence is emphasised 
(DQR, 2011, p. 5). 

Source: The German qualifications framework for lifelong learning (DQR, 2011).

293  German EQF referencing report (BMBF and KMK, 2013). 
https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eaceqf/files/German_
EQF_Referencing_Report.pdf

school curricula is not restricted to the world of work, but 
implies individual ability and readiness to act adequately 
socially and be individually responsible.

294  The ability to act (Handlungskompetenz) in vocational 

222

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe table of level descriptors (DQR matrix) and a 
glossary are included in the DQR outline.

through the Bologna process, in general, and 
through the NEXUS project and the Quality Pact for 
teaching, among others.

Each reference level maps comparable/equivalent 
rather than homogeneous, qualifications. One key 
principle of DQR is that ‘alignment takes place in 
accordance with the principle that each qualification 
level should always be accessible via various 
educational pathways’ (DQR, 2011, p. 6).

Orientation to learning outcomes is increasingly 
becoming standard in education, vocational training 
and higher education (BMBF and KMK, 2013, p. 96). 
All subsystems of education and training have taken 
important steps since 2009, though to varying 
degrees (Cedefop, 2016). 

In VET, continuous development of the ‘ability to 
act’ concept (Handlungskompetenz), introduced 
in the 1990s, has gradually assumed a key 
role in qualifications definition, with clear input 
requirements about place, duration and content of 
learning in formalised learning programmes. The 
input-based governance approach in VET remains 
(Gössling, 2016). Competence-based training 
regulations and framework curricula structured in 
‘learning fields’ have been developed. In recent 
years, digital skills have been strengthened in VET 
in cooperation with companies, chambers and 
universities (BMBF, 2018).

Competence orientation is also characteristic of 
reform in general education and development of 
national educational standards (Bildungsstandards). 
These currently exist for German and mathematics 
in primary education; for German, mathematics 
and first foreign language (English/French) for the 
secondary general school certificate (Hauptschule); 
for German, mathematics, foreign language 
(English/French), biology, chemistry and physics for 
the intermediate leaving certificate (Realschule); 
and for German, mathematics and first foreign 
language (English/French) for the general higher 
education entrance qualification at the end of grade 
12/13 (Allgemeine Hochschulreife, Abitur) (BMBF 
and KMK, 2013, p. 99). Using the educational 
standards, a pool of Abitur examination tasks in the 
subjects of German, mathematics and advanced 
foreign languages - common for all Länder - has 
been established to guarantee the comparability and 
high quality of Abitur examinations. Curricula have 
been reformed to reflect educational standards and 
subject-specific requirements for the Allgemeine 
Hochschulreife since the beginning of 2014/15 and 
apply for the Abitur examinations as of the 2016/17 
school year (KMK, 2017).

In higher education, the implementation of a 
learning outcomes orientation was strengthened 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

Development and implementation of the DQR 
is characterised by a bottom-up and consensus-
seeking approach (Klenk, 2013). A national steering 
group (Bund-Länder-Koordinierungsgruppe) was 
jointly established by the BMBF and the KMK at 
the beginning of 2007. This coordination group 
appointed a working group (Arbeitskreis DQR) which 
comprises stakeholders from higher education, 
school education, VET, social partners, public 
institutions from education and the labour market, 
as well as researchers and practitioners. Decisions 
are based on consensus and each of the members 
works closely with their respective constituent 
institutions and organisations.

The body in charge of implementation is the 
coordination point for the German qualifications 
framework (Bund-Länder Koordinierungsstelle 
(B-L-KS)), set up by a joint initiative of the 
federal government and the Länder. This body, 
which emerged from the former Bund-Länder-
Koordinierungsgruppe, also assumes the function of 
the national coordination point for the EQF. It has six 
members, including representatives from BMBF, the 
Federal Ministry of Economics and Energy, the KMK 
and the Conference of Ministers for Economics of 
the Länder. Its main role is to monitor allocation of 
qualifications to ensure consistency in the overall 
DQR structure. 

The work of the B-L-KS is supported by the 
appropriate units of the BMBF and the Secretariat 
of the KMK. The units collaborate in performing their 
tasks.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning pathways295

Implementation of DQR, with its focus on learning 
outcomes, has also strengthened work on validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. 

Various arrangements permit full or partial 
recognition of informally or non-formally acquired 
competences. Validation of non-formal and informal 

295  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming). 

223

Volume II: National and regional caseslearning occurs in all education sectors but with 
different, tailor-made approaches using various 
instruments. Such validation also supports the 
transition from one education sector to another.

Legislation for validation of non-formal and informal 
learning is in place in VET. This includes the external 
students’ examination (Externenprüfung) under 
Paragraph 45(2) of the Vocational training Act296 
and Paragraph 37(2) of the Crafts code. These 
arrangements lead to award of a full qualification 
(equal to those formally acquired) in a recognised 
apprenticeship. Admission to the external students’ 
examination is subject to specific employment 
requirements: this is usually 1.5 times the length 
of the formal programme or equally long periods 
of initial training in another training occupation; 
applicants may also convincingly demonstrate that 
they have acquired vocational competence. 

Similar to the external students’ examination 
within initial VET, admission to further training 
examinations in the context of qualifications 
such as Industriemeister (industrial master) and 
Handwerksmeister (master craftsman) is also 
possible via validation. This means that access to 
the examination is granted by work experience 
only. Preparatory training for this examination 
is not compulsory. General education school 
leaving certificates can be also acquired through 
an external examination (Schulfremdenprüfung, 
Externenprüfung) in all Länder, fulfilling the 
residence and minimum age requirements as well 
as evidence of appropriate examination preparation.

The Vocational Qualifications Recognition Act 
(BQFG), introduced in April 2012, provides 
individuals with the right to have their foreign-
acquired qualifications matched to a German 
qualification by an appropriate authority. This act 
also includes, in Paragraph 14, other procedures 
for determining equivalence when no proof of prior 
learning can be provided; this opens opportunities 
for validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
The act applies to initial vocational education 
and training (IVET) as well as further vocational 
education and training (CVET). The implementation 
and impact of the BQFG are evaluated regularly297. 
The Qualifikationsanalyse (qualification analysis) 
instrument was developed to support practical 
implementation. This has developed methodological 

standards and tools for validating professional 
knowledge, skills and competences. 

The instrument has been further developed in the 
ValiKom project298 from 2015 and implemented 
for different target groups. ValiKom is a reference 
project to set up a validation system in Germany, 
addressing adults who acquired skills and 
competences through work but lack a formal 
qualification and a certificate. The development of 
procedure is based on standards  for assessing 
the equivalence of non-formally/informally acquired 
skills with reference to formal qualifications and 
‘reference occupation’ (recognised training or 
further training qualifications). It addresses not 
only low-skilled adults working in Germany but 
also employees from a variety of backgrounds 
who wish to access further training. At the end of 
2018, BMBF started ValiKom-Transfer involving up 
to 30 chambers and opening the validation process 
to more occupations. Using the results of this new 
initiative, possibilities of embedding the validating 
procedure in a law will be examined. 

Two KMK decisions provide the basis for validation 
in higher education. The first refers to access to 
higher education for qualified workers and has been 
in place since March 2009: those holding certain 
vocational qualifications, without a proper upper 
secondary qualification, can be admitted to higher 
education. The second refers to granting credits 
for competence acquired at work. According to 
these decisions, knowledge and skills acquired 
outside higher education can be recognised up to a 
maximum of 50% if content and level are equal to 
the equivalent in formal qualifications. Procedures 
to credit non-formal and informal learning were 
developed and tested in the Transitions from 
VET to higher education initiative (Übergänge 
von der beruflichen in die hochschulische Bildung 
(ANKOM))299.

There are also several other initiatives and 
research projects on the validation of non-formal 
and informal learning. The Federal Institute for 
Vocational Education and Training (Bundesinstitut 
für Berufsbildung (BIBB)) has concluded the project 
Implementation of methods for the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning – requirements and 
possible courses of action300. 

296  Berufsbildungsgesetz (BBiG). www.gesetze-im-internet.

de/bbig_2005/BBiG.pdf

297  BMBF (2017). Bericht zum Anerkennungsgesetz 2017 

298  ValiKom/Valikom-Transfer project:  
www.validierungsverfahren.de

(Report on the Recognition Act 2017]. www.bmbf.de/pub/
Bericht_zum_Anerkennungsgesetz_2017.pdf

299  The ANKOM initiative: http://ankom.dzhw.eu/beschluesse
300  See BIBB (2018).

224

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe German public employment service, in 
cooperation with Bertelsmann Stiftung, started a 
large-scale ICT-based assessment project to develop 
and implement digital tests for the assessment 
of competences gained at work in the MySKILLS 
project301. So far tests for eight professions have 
been completed and are available for use within 
placement processes.

NQF implementation

The DQR has reached its fully operational 
status. Key documents and responsibilities for 
its implementation have been agreed by main 
stakeholders and published: 

a.  the joint resolution of 1 May 2013 paved the way 

to full operation of the DQR302;

b.  a DQR website303 and a comprehensive 

database, including all allocated qualifications, 
are operational304;

c.  the DQR manual305 describes responsibilities, 
procedures306, standards and methods of 
qualification allocation. A description of the 
procedure for allocating qualifications from non-
formal learning contexts will be added when 
agreed.

Most qualifications from VET, higher education, 
general education and from regulated further 
training have been assigned to DQR levels and 
included in the DQR database. An important 
characteristic of DQR is that each qualification level 
should always be accessible via various education 
pathways. VET qualifications were allocated from 
levels 1 to 7. One example is allocation of the 
bachelor and master craftsman qualification to 
level 6, which shows that higher DQR levels are 
open to qualifications from different education 
sectors and regarded as comparable307. 

301  www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/en/topics/aktuelle-
meldungen/2018/maerz/myskills-new-test-makes-
professional-knowledge-visible/

302  See the joint resolution on the German qualifications 

framework for lifelong learning: www.bmbf.de/files/
Gemeinsamer_Beschluss_final_ohne_Unterschriften.pdf

303  DQR website: www.dqr.de/ 
304  DQR database: www.dqr.de/content/2316.php
305  BMBF (2013). Handbuch zum Deutschen 

Qualifikationsrahmen [Manual for the German 
qualifications framework]. www.kmk.org/fileadmin/
Dateien/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2013/130823_
Handbuch_mit_nicht-barrierefreier_Anlage_MAM.pdf

306  See www.dqr.de/content/2445.php
307  See www.bmbf.de/press/3574.php

Developing and implementing criteria and 
procedures to include qualifications from outside 
formal education and training is an important goal 
but also challenging, as criteria and procedures need 
to be agreed by all stakeholders308.

The DQR is a non-regulatory framework and its 
integration into policies of different education 
sectors is an evolutionary process. First references 
to the DQR and its categories have already been 
made in regulatory instruments of the formal sector, 
as in the new framework curricula for part-time 
vocational schools (Berufsschule) of the Länder, VET 
training regulations have been designed as more 
competence-oriented since 2015. The DQR has also 
been a driving force to strengthen further/higher 
VET and improve its quality309. Increasing interest is 
observed from providers of non-formal qualifications 
to use the DQR level descriptors when designing 
qualifications (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018). The DQR is also used in the academic sector 
within procedures to credit competences acquired 
in other education sectors.

BMBF, with the Federal Institute for VET (BIBB), 
social partners and universities, carried out a project 
exploring the possibilities of joint descriptions 
of learning outcomes and development of joint 
curricula based on DQR level 5. Two subprojects 
analysed the level 5 qualifications ‘IT specialist’ and 
‘motor vehicle service technician’ in comparison 
with higher education study programmes. The aim 
was to aid permeability between VET and higher 
education in both directions310. One of the findings 
was that the DQR, with its learning outcomes 
approach, is a helpful basis for joint development 
of curricula across education sectors. The project 
showed that, while DQR level 5 can be an important 
bridge from VET into higher education, more 
challenges remain in bridging the pathway from 
higher education into VET.

Implementation of the DQR is a joint process 
involving a whole range of stakeholders in different 
parts of education and training and on the labour 
market; all stakeholders use their channels to 
communicate the DQR to their target groups. 
Evidence on the awareness and use of the DQR 
is growing. An online survey of the Association 

308  European Commission and Cedefop (2018). Survey on 
implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 
[unpublished].

309  An important milestone was the BIBB Recommendation 
No 159 of 12.03.2014 on structure and quality assurance 
of State regulated further VET: www.bibb.de/dokumente/
pdf/HA159.pdf

310  See www.bibb.de/de/25789.php

225

Volume II: National and regional casesof German Chamber of Commerce and Industry 
in 2016311 revealed that 20% of company 
representatives had heard about the DQR, 6% 
more than in 2014. The relevance of the DQR 
for comparability of qualifications was seen as 
particularly positive by 51%. Companies use the 
DQR for various purposes, such as recruiting staff, 
though less for individual career and personnel 
development. However, there is a need to inform 
employers more about the benefits of the DQR. A 
recent study carried out in Germany on the potential 
use of the German qualifications framework 
(Hochschule für angewandtes Management 
et al., 2016) identifies several areas where the 
DQR can add value. It can be used to support 
human resource development (recruitment and 
development of employees); this applies especially 
to small and medium-sized enterprises with limited 
human resource capacity, but will require capacity 
building and awareness raising.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The joint steering committee set up by the federal 
government and the Länder in 2007 is in charge of 
referencing. The referencing report was presented 
in December 2012 (BMBF and KMK, 2013).

Gradually, from January 2014, EQF and DQR 
levels are featuring on VET certificates, certificate 
supplements and higher education diploma 
supplements. Since 2018 there has been work 
on indicating DQR and EQF levels on general 
education diplomas (in line with the practice of 
16 Länder). DQR/EQF levels are also indicated 
in the qualification database312. For example, 
German master craftsperson certificates have 
indicated the NQF/EQF level since 2014; like the 
bachelor degree, they are related to level 6. From 
an education and training policy perspective, 
this is considered a milestone313. Allocation to 
level and reference on certificates signal the high 
value and quality of this qualification. German 
VET qualifications are placed on nearly all NQF/
EQF levels except level 8, with three-year 
apprenticeships leading to level 4.

311  Available at: www.dqr.de/media/content/DIHK_Aus_und_

Weiterbildung_2016.pdf 

312  Available at: www.dqr.de/content/2316.php#qs-result 
313  See the relevant press release of the Federal Ministry of 
Education and Research: www.bmbf.de/press/3574.php 

Important lessons and future plans

Development of the DQR is embedded in a 
broader context of reforms to strengthen the 
outcome orientation of German education and 
training. It is also linked to initiatives to support 
permeability within VET and between VET and 
higher education, such as the ANKOM initiative, 
that involves stakeholders from VET and higher 
education supporting recognition of learning 
outcomes.

DQR development is also characterised by a 
comprehensive vision and coherent set of level 
descriptors, spanning all levels of education 
and training. The comprehensive nature of the 
framework has been strengthened with the 
inclusion of general education qualifications in 2017, 
now encompassing all sectors of formal education 
and training (VET, higher education, general 
education). Discussions on criteria and procedures 
to include qualifications awarded outside regulated 
education and training system are continuing. 
The comprehensive nature of level descriptors 
and scope of the framework makes it possible to 
identify and understand better the similarities and 
differences between qualifications in different areas 
of education and training. A permeable system, 
with better horizontal and vertical progression 
possibilities, is at the heart of DQR developments, 
as is parity of esteem between VET and general 
education and efforts to include non-formal and 
informal learning.

NQF development and implementation is also 
characterised by strong and broad involvement of 
stakeholders from all subsystems of education 
and training (general education, school and work-
based VET, higher education), and from the labour 
market, ministries and Länder. Creating and 
sustaining mutual understanding and trust between 
stakeholders from different education sectors is 
seen as a key condition and a challenge for further 
implementation of the DQR (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).

Stakeholders also agree that alignment of 
qualifications within German education to reference 
levels of the DQR should not replace the existing 
system of access. Achieving a DQR reference level 
does not provide automatic entitlement to access 
the next level. Achievement of a reference level has 
also not been considered alongside implications 
for collective wage bargaining and the Law on 
Remuneration (DQR, 2011, pp. 5–6).

226

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 26. German national qualifications framework (DQR)

DQR 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATIONS

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctorate (Doktor)

Master degree (Master)
Strategic IT professional (certified) (Strategischer IT Professional (Geprüfter))
Other further vocational training qualifications according to Vocational Training Act 
and Handicraft Code (level 7) 

Bachelor degree (Bachelor)
Commercial specialist (certified) (Fachkaufmann (Geprüfter))
Business management specialist (certified) (Fachwirt (Geprüfter))
Master craftsman (certified) (Meister (Geprüfter))
Operative IT professional (certified) (Operativer IT Professional (Geprüfter))
Trade and technical school (State-certified) (Fachschule (Staatlich Geprüfter))
Other further vocational training qualifications according to Vocational Training Act 
and Handicraft Code (level 6) 

IT specialist (certified) (IT-Spezialist (Zertifizierter))
Service technician (certified) (Service-techniker (Geprüfter))
Other further vocational training qualifications according to Vocational Training Act 
and Handicraft Code (level 5)

Upper secondary general education school leaving certificate (Allgemeine 
Hochschulreife (AHR))
Qualification entitling holder to study particular subjects at a higher education 
institution (Fachgebundene Hochschulreife (FgbHR))
Qualification entitling holder to study at a university of applied sciences 
(Fachhochschulreife (FHR))
Dual VET (three-year and three-and-a-half-year training courses)
Full-time vocational school (regulated under Länder law) (Berufsfachschule)
Full vocational qualification (full-time vocational school) (Berufsfachschule)

General education school leaving certificate after 10 years at Realschule (Mittlerer 
Schulabschluss)
Dual VET (two-year training courses)
Full-time vocational school (general education school leaving certificate obtained on 
completion of grade 10 at Realschule or, under certain circumstances, at other lower 
secondary school types) (Mittlerer Schulabschluss (Berufsfachschule)) 

Lower secondary school leaving certificate after 9 years (Hauptschulabschluss)
Vocational training preparation (Berufsausbildungsvorbereitung)
Employment agency measures (Maßnahmen der Arbeitsagentur)
Year of pre-vocational training (Berufsvorbereitungsjahr)
Introductory training for young people (Einstiegsqualifizierung)
Basic vocational training (Berufliche Grundbildung)

Vocational training preparation (Berufsausbildungsvorbereitung)
Employment agency measures (vocational preparation schemes) (Maßnahmen der 
Arbeitsagentur) (Berufsvorbereitende Bildungsmaßnahmen)
Year of pre-vocational training (Berufsvorbereitungsjahr)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Note: The DQR database can be accessed at: www.dqr.de/content/2316.php
The updated list of qualifications included in the DQR is available at: www.dqr.de/media/content/2018_DQR_Liste_der_
zugeordneten_Qualifikationen_01082018.pdf

Source: German Ministry of Education and Research; EQF national coordination point, 2018.

227

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
ANKOM   Übergänge von der beruflichen in die 

DQR  

BIBB  

B-L-KS  

BMBF  

hochschulische Bildung (transitions 
from vocational high school education)
Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung 
(Federal Institute for VET)
Bund-Länder Koordinierungsstelle 
(national coordination point)
Bundesministerium für Bildung 
und Forschung (Federal Ministry of 
Education and Research)

EQF  
IT  
KMK  

NQF  
VET  

Deutscher Qualifikationsrahmen 
für lebenslanges Lernen (German 
qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning)
European qualifications framework
information technology
Kultusministerk Konferenz (Standing 
Conference of the Ministers for 
Education and Cultural Affairs of the 
Länder)
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Federal government/Länder coordination point – assumes the function of EQF national coordination point. 
DQR website and qualifications database: www.dqr.de
BMBF and KMK (2013). German EQF referencing report: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/

German_EQF_Referencing_Report.pdf

References

BIBB (2018). Challenges associated with the introduction of procedures for the validation of non-formal 
and informal learning in Germany. BIBB report; No 3/2018. www.bibb.de/veroeffentlichungen/de/
publication/show/8608

BMBF (2017). Bericht zum Anerkennungsgesetz 2017 [Report on the Recognition Act 2017]. www.bmbf.de/

pub/Bericht_zum_Anerkennungsgesetz_2017.pdf

BMBF (2018). Berufstbildungsbericht 2018 [Vocational training report 2018]. www.bmbf.de/pub/

Berufsbildungsbericht_2018.pdf

BMBF; KMK (2013). German EQF referencing report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/

German_EQF_Referencing_Report.pdf

Büchter, K. et al. (2012). Der Deutsche Qualifikationsrahmen (DQR): ein Konzept zur Erhöhung von 

Durchlässigkeit und Chancengleichheit im Bildungssystem? [German qualifications framework 
(DQR): a framework for increasing permeability and opportunities in the education system?]. 
Bielefeld: W. Bertelsmann.

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

DQR (2011). The German qualifications framework for lifelong learning. www.dqr.de/media/content/The_

German_Qualifications_Framework_for_Lifelong_Learning.pdf

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Country analysis – Germany. 

Luxembourg: Publication office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-
library-docs/volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Germany. 

Gehmlich, V. (2009). ‘Kompetenz’ and ‘Beruf’ in the context of the proposed German qualifications 

framework for lifelong learning. Journal of European industrial training, Vol. 33, No 8/9, pp. 736–754. 
www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/03090590910993607 

Gössling, B. (2016). All new and all outcome-based? The German qualifications framework and the 

persistence of national governance approaches. Journal of education and work, Vol. 29, No 5, 
pp. 540–561. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13639080.2014.998181

Hochschule für angewandtes Management; Koordinierungstelle Weiterbildung und Beschäftigung e.V.; 

Dehnbostel, P. (2016). Studie zu den Nutzungspotenzialen des Deutschen Qualifikationsrahmens für 

228

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSlebenslanges Lernen [Study on the potential uses of the German qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning]. A study commissioned by BMBF and co-financed by Erasmus+. www.dqr.de/media/
content/Studie_Nutzungspotenziale_DQR_2016.pdf

Klenk, J. (2013). Nationale Qualifikationsrahmen in dualen Berufsbildungssystemen. Akteure, Interessen 

und politischer Prozess in Dänemark, Österreich und Deutschland [NQF in dual VET systems: actors, 
interests and political process in Denmark, Austria and Germany]. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann W.
KMK (2017). The Educational system in the Federal Republic of Germany 2015/2016: a description of the 

responsibilities, structure and developments in education policy for the exchange of information 
in Europe. Bonn: KMK. Written in cooperation with the German Eurydice Unit of the Federal 
Government in the BMBF. www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/pdf/Eurydice/Bildungswesen-engl-pdfs/
dossier_en_ebook.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

229

Volume II: National and regional casesGHANA

Introduction and context

Ghana’s National Technical and Vocational Education 
and Training Qualifications Framework (NTVETQF) 
came into effect on 3 September 2012 under the 
Council for Technical and Vocational Education and 
Training (COTVET) Act. The eight-level framework 
is tailored to the present realities of the Ghanaian 
education system and labour force. Its qualifications 
are designed to complement Ghana’s existing 
qualifications while providing the improvements and 
modernization necessary to take Ghana’s education 
system into the future. The qualifications framework 
provides space for apprenticeships in the informal 
sector and is also designed to accommodate 
recognition of prior learning (RPL).  

The education and training currently on offer 
in Ghana is failing to meet the needs of the 
country’s labour market. The majority of graduates 
lack the skills required for effective participation 
in industry. In a recent NUFFIC (the Dutch 
organization for internationalisation in education) 
report, a spokesperson for Ghana’s Ministry of 
Employment and Social Welfare reflected that, ‘the 
fact that our educational system continues to pour 
unskilled, semi-skilled, and unemployable young 
graduates into a job market with comparably few 
job opportunities shows there is a need for sober 
reflection and deeper thoughtfulness on the kind 
of policy interventions which will be needed to 
overcome the challenges’ (Gondwe and Walenkamp, 
2011, p. 41).

The government has responded to these 
developments and has equipped some technical 
universities with learning systems that integrate 
seamlessly into any manufacturing and production 
setup and cut across various technical fields. 
These learning systems are equally effective for 
technicians, engineers, production workers and 
anyone needing further skills in a variety of areas. 
Several reforms have also been put into motion, 
including the new technical and vocational education 
and training (TVET) governance structure, measures 
to align all TVET institutions with the Ministry of 

Education, and the implementation of the Strategic 
Plan for TVET Transformation.

The NUFFIC report concludes that ‘even if these 
graduates who enter the labour market were 
perfectly aligned and suited to the requirements of 
the labour market, the labour market would still have 
a problem since 90% of the workforce would still 
not have passed through the education system at 
an advanced enough level, or at all, to benefit from 
improvements’ (ibid). 

Together with the numerous African heads of state 
and ministers of education who attended the last 
meeting of the Association for the Development 
of Education in Africa (ADEA)314 in Ouagadougou, 
Burkina Faso, Ghana expressed the belief that 
national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) should 
no longer be reserved for formal qualifications, as is 
currently the case in most countries in the region, 
but should also take into account the informal 
and non-formal means by which many people 
acquire technical and vocational skills. NTVETQF 
qualifications are therefore modular or assessed 
in units of competences; outcome-based; and not 
restricted to academic attainment. 

Policy objectives 

The objectives of the NTVETQF are to:

•  bring all occupation-oriented qualifications 
together under a unified qualifications 
framework;

314  Every two or three years, ADEA organizes a major 
conference on key educational challenges facing 
African countries. At the 2012 conference in Burkina 
Faso, which brought together 650 representatives of 
some 45 countries including four heads of state and 33 
ministers of education, participants strongly agreed that 
the time had come to move away from the traditional 
dichotomies between post-primary education and TVET, 
and between TVET and alternative paths to technical and 
vocational skills development.

230

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS• 

• 

facilitate access to further education and 
training for individuals in technical and vocational 
occupations;
improve product and service quality by ensuring 
uniform standards of practice in the trades and 
professions;

•  promote access to lifelong learning for all, 
especially those working in the informal 
economy.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NTVETQF is an eight-level NQF for TVET. 
Levels 1 and 2, covering informal apprenticeships, 
are the lowest and least demanding, while Level 8 
(doctorate in technology) is the highest and most 
demanding (see Table 27).

Table 27. Ghana’s national TVET qualifications framework

LEVEL

QUALIFICATION

STATUS

CERTIFYING INSTITUTION

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctor of Technology

Formal

Master of Technology

Formal

Universities

Universities

Bachelor of Technology

Formal

Technical universities/Universities

Higher National Diploma

Formal

Technical universities/Polytechnics

Certificate II

Certificate I

Formal

Formal

Ghana Educational Service TVET institutes

Ghana Educational Service TVET institutes

Proficiency II

Informal/Non-formal

Proficiency I

Informal/Non-formal

National vocational training institutes/ Informal 
trade associations

National vocational training institutes/ Informal 
trade associations

Source: COTVET Legislative Instrument LI 2195 (2012)

Table 28. Level descriptors of Ghana’s national TVET qualifications framework

LEVEL

QUALIFICATIONS

KNOWLEDGE (I.E., ENABLES 
LEARNERS TO…)

REQUIREMENTS  
(SKILLS AND ATTITUDES)

1

National Proficiency I

2

National 
Proficiency II

1.  Demonstrate basic numeracy,  

literary and IT skills, e.g. carry out a 
limited range of simple  
data processing tasks

1.  Basic trade and craft skills and 
the ability to perform routine 
and predictable tasks

2.  Repetitive and familiar tasks
3.  Close supervision
4.  Practical and oral tests for 

qualification

1.  Competence in the handling 
of hand tools and machinery 
components

2.  Performance of varied activities 
that are routine, predictable 
and non-complex  
in nature

3.  Limited supervision
4.  Practical and oral tests for 

qualification

(Continued)

231

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 28. Level descriptors of Ghana’s national TVET qualifications framework (Continued)

LEVEL

QUALIFICATIONS

KNOWLEDGE (I.E., ENABLES 
LEARNERS TO…)

REQUIREMENTS  
(SKILLS AND ATTITUDES)

3

4

National Certificate 1 1.  Demonstrate a broad knowledge  
base incorporating some technical 
concepts

2.  Demonstrate knowledge of the   
theoretical basis of practical skills

3.  Demonstrate basic numeracy,  

literacy and IT skills

1.  A wide range of technical  

skills

2.  Skills are applied in a variety  
of familiar and complex 
contexts with minimum 
supervision

3.  Collaboration with others in  

a team

National Certificate 2 1.  Demonstrate specialized knowledge 
base with substantial depth in area(s) 
of study

1.  Specialized skills pertaining 
to different tasks in varied 
contexts

2.  Analyse and interpret a range of data 
and be able to determine appropriate 
and communicate appropriate 
methods, procedures and outcomes 
accurately and reliably to deal with a 
wide range of problems

3.  Demonstrate numeracy, literacy and 
IT skills commensurate with this 
level

4.  Present results of study accurately 

and reliably

2.  Wide and specialized technical 
and/or supervisory skills in 
different contexts

3.  The ability to adapt and apply 
knowledge and skills to 
specific contexts in a broad 
range of work activities

4.  Minimal supervision

1.  Demonstrate considerable 

1.  A wide range of highly 

theoretical knowledge and solid 
practical skills in area(s) of study
2.  Integrate, contextualize and apply 
knowledge to a range of complex 
technical or professional activities

3.  Have a command of planning, 
analytical, supervisory and 
management functions under 
minimal direction

4.  Display qualities and transferable 

skills for employment

1.  Demonstrate high level of conceptual 

knowledge in a broad range of 
complex and changing contexts
2.  Demonstrate basic research skills
3.  Undertake tasks involving high-

level organizational ability, resource 
management and personal 
responsibility

4.  Demonstrate a significant degree of 
strategic thinking and judgment
5.  Have a high level of supervisory and 

management capabilities

specialized technical and /or 
management and/r conceptual 
or creative skills

2.  Qualities and transferable  
skills necessary for formal  
and self-employment

3.  Some level of organizational 

ability, resource management 
and personal responsibility

1.  Application of methods, 
techniques and modes 
of practices learned and 
reviewed, to consolidate, 
extend and apply knowledge 
and understanding to initiate 
and carry out projects

2.  Promotion of further training, 
development of existing 
skills and acquisition of new 
competences that enable the 
qualification holder to assume 
responsibilities within an 
organization or when self-
employed.

3.  Qualities and transfer of  

skills necessary for formal  
and self-employment

5

Higher National 
Diploma (HND)

6

Bachelor’s 
(professional/ 
technical)

232

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 28. Level descriptors of Ghana’s national TVET qualifications framework (Continued)

LEVEL

QUALIFICATIONS

KNOWLEDGE (I.E., ENABLES 
LEARNERS TO…)

REQUIREMENTS  
(SKILLS AND ATTITUDES)

7

Master’s 
(professional/ 
technical); 
technically-oriented 
research Master’s

1.  Have a systematic understanding of 
knowledge and a critical awareness 
of current problems and/or new 
insights in academic discipline, fields 
of study or area of professional 
practice

2.  Possess a comprehensive 

understanding of relevant techniques 
in research or advanced scholarship

3.  Demonstrate originality in the 

application of knowledge, together 
with a practical understanding of 
established research techniques
4.  Critically evaluate current research, 
methodologies and advanced 
scholarship in the discipline and, 
where appropriate, propose new 
hypotheses

8

Doctoral degree 
(professional/ 
technical)

1.  Create new knowledge through 

research that extends the discipline

2.  Demonstrate a substantial 

acquisition of knowledge that is at 
the forefront of technology or area of 
professional practice

3.  Ability to conceptualize, design and 
implement a project to generate  
new knowledge, or applications at  
the forefront of technology or 
professional practice

4.  Comprehensive and detailed 

knowledge and application of  
research methodology applicable  
to complex inquiry

4.  Ability to communicate  

information in a variety of  
formats appropriate to both  
specialist and non-specialist  
audiences

1.  The  ability to resolve 

complex issues and make 
sound judgments in the 
absence of  complex data, 
and communicate these 
conclusions to both specialist 
and non-specialist audiences
2.  Self-direction and  originality 
in  tackling and  solving 
problems, and the ability to 
act independently in  planning 
and implementing tasks at 
a professional or  equivalent 
level

3.  Ongoing advancement of 

knowledge and understanding, 
and  development of new skills 
to  a high level

4.  Promotion of qualities and 

transferable skills  necessary 
for  employment, initiative 
and  personal responsibility; 
decision-making in  complex 
and unpredictable situations; 
and  t h e   independent  
learning ability required 
for  continuing professional 
development

1.  The ability to make informed 
decisions on complex issues 
in the area of technology or 
professional practice, often 
in the absence of complete 
data; and the capacity to 
communicate ideas and 
conclusions clearly to 
specialists and non-specialists 
in the discipline

2.  Qualities and transferable  

skills necessary for 
employment requiring 
the exercise of personal 
responsibility and initiative in 
complex and unpredictable 
situations

233

Volume II: National and regional casesStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Council for Technical and Vocational Education 
and Training (COTVET), a semi-autonomous body 
under the Ministry of Education, is responsible 
for coordinating and overseeing TVET and skills 
development across the formal and informal, 
and public and private sectors. It answers to a 
15-member board made up of stakeholders from 
various sectors, including industry. 

Act 718 of 2006, which established COTVET, 
has been mandated to set up three standing 
committees to support its activities. The following 
committees are currently operational:

1.  the Industry Training Advisory Committee, which 
is responsible for national occupational standards 
development;

2.  the National Training Quality Assurance 

Committee, which is responsible for quality 
delivery in the TVET sector;

3.  the National Technical and Vocational Education 

and Training Qualifications Framework 
Committee, which is responsible for overseeing 
the NTVETQF, taking into account non-formal and 
informal learning.

Two committees of the board provide additional 
support:

1.  the National Apprenticeship Committee, which is 
responsible for the preparation of apprenticeship 
policy to support the national apprenticeship 
programme;

2.  the Skills Development Fund Committee. 

COTVET has teamed up with a number of leading 
employers to develop competency-based training 
(CBT) programmes. The CBT approach is currently 
being rolled out on a national scale and has been 
successfully piloted in three TVET institutions: Accra 
Polytechnic (HND in Plant Engineering, Level 5); 
Accra Technical Training Centre (Certificate 2 in 
Welding and Fabrication, Level 4); and the National 
Vocational Training Pilot Centre in Accra (Certificate 1 
in Electronics, Level 3). 

Currently, 64 institutions have been accredited to 
run CBT programmes across the country.

Nevertheless, significant challenges remain. 
Participation from industry stakeholders in 
creating CBT programmes and in training and 
assessing students has so far been limited. Many 
TVET institutions have neither the infrastructure 
nor the teaching staff they need to deliver CBT 
programmes, and coordination problems across 

the many different ministries implementing the 
programmes are rife. Partly as a result of these 
difficulties, the quality of students admitted to CBT 
programmes is variable at best.

COTVET is making efforts to develop a demand 
and supply analysis to support the recognition and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning in Ghana.

General education qualifications in Ghana fall within 
the ambit of the Ministry of Education, whereas 
tertiary qualifications are coordinated by the National 
Council on Tertiary Education and the National 
Accreditation Board, both of which are semi-
autonomous organizations overseen by the Ministry 
of Education. The National Council on Tertiary 
Education has the financial authority to approve 
programmes for public universities, while the 
National Accreditation Board, which was established 
through the National Accreditation Board Act 744 of 
2007, provides quality assurance for programmes in 
both public and private tertiary institutions.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Within the general education system, transfer from 
one programme to another remains difficult. By 
contrast, the recently approved TVET qualifications 
framework is designed to offer learners who opt 
for the TVET pathway the possibility of transferring 
credits and progressing from the lowest to the 
highest qualification level in all subject areas. 

The validation of informal and non-formal learning 
is a key component of Ghana’s lifelong learning 
strategy. National regulations on RPL have 
been developed and are in the process of legal 
formalization. As a first step, the lowest two 
qualifications, National Proficiency I and II, recognize 
competences gained from traditional informal 
apprenticeships, which are an important means of 
training in Ghana. The new RPL policy will enable 
informal and non-formal learners to benefit from 
both formative and summative assessments. Some 
RPL mechanisms are already in use, such as oral, 
observation and demonstration-based assessments.

Equivalency programmes that allow non-formal 
learners to re-enter formal education, leading to a 
basic certificate in education, are currently permitted 
only in primary or junior high school (nine years of 
schooling) (Ministry of Education, 2010). Similarly, 
recognition of non-formal and informal learning in 
the TVET sector is currently possible only within 
national vocational training institutes leading to 
trade test grades I and II (TVET Final Report, 2007). 

234

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe NTVETQF will reform this situation, allowing 
employees to work towards new qualifications on 
the job through workplace-based assessments. 
Employees in industry may choose to work towards 
specific modules only in order to ensure that their 
skills keep pace with changes in technology. 

NQF implementation

COTVET and the Japanese International Cooperation 
Agency are currently working together to introduce 
demand-oriented, competence-based TVET curricula 
that will incorporate creative and innovative skills 
acquired through work and informal learning. It is 
hoped that these curricula will produce students 
who are more capable of responding to the practical 
demands of a wide variety of workplace challenges. 

Besides the Japanese International Cooperation 
Agency, COTVET is working with other development 
partners, including the World Bank, the Danish 
International Development Agency (DANIDA), 
the African Development Bank and the Deutsche 
Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit/KfW 
Bankengruppe

These partners supported the development of 
CBT quality assurance manuals and tools to guide 
its implementation. Other activities implemented 
under the Ghana Skills and Technology Development 
Project include: 

• 

retooling and minor renovation of 10 TVET 
institutes across the country selected through a 
completive process;

•  development of institutional development plans;
•  promotion of the Skills Development Fund;
institutional strengthening of science and 
• 
technology development at the Ministry 
of Environment, Science, Technology and 
Innovation;

•  development of a Workplace Experience 

Learning policy; 

•  establishment of a TVET guide; 
•  development of quality assurance and RPL 

policies.

Referencing to regional frameworks

ADEA leads the regional referencing of qualifications 
frameworks in Africa. At the second meeting of 
the Inter-Country Quality Node on Technical and 
Vocational Skills Development held in Abidjan, 
Côte d’Ivoire, from 19 to 21 September 2011, the 
ministers and representatives of the 20 countries 
present decided to create thematic groups on the 
following three topics:

the transition to work;

• 
•  NQFs;
• 

the role of trade and business associations 
in the field of technical and vocational skills 
development.

ADEA held a seminar on NQFs on 8 and 9 July 2013 
in Abidjan. The seminar produced a final synthesis of 
the regional referencing of qualifications frameworks 
in Africa, which was adopted by all participating 
countries and submitted to the ministerial meeting 
of the Inter-Country Quality Node on Technical and 
Vocational Skills Development in mid-September 
2013. 

Important lessons and future plans 

The following lessons have been learned over the 
four-year period that Ghana has been working on the 
NTVETQF (Baffour-Awuah, 2013).

It is important to hold regular discussions with 
all stakeholders so that they feel a sense of 
trust and ownership of the framework. Setting 
up a comprehensive NQF needs to be done 
incrementally; although Ghana has so far only 
initiated a sub-framework in the TVET sector, it is 
hoped that general education will be integrated into 
a full framework in the future. 

Policymakers need to decide which levels of a 
qualifications framework are the most important. In 
a country like Ghana, where approximately 80% of 
all basic skills and 82% of economic activity are to 
be found in the informal economy (Ghana Statistical 
Service, 2012), the focus needs to be on Levels 1 
and 2. 

When setting up the COTVET committees, it was 
important to find the right people with the requisite 
expertise. Committee members must be motivated, 
and should be well remunerated in order to maintain 
their motivation.

Obtaining parliamentary approval for the 
development of the NTVETQF was a vital step that 
could not have been taken without the commitment 
of the ministry responsible for TVET. The Minister of 
Education was instrumental in passing Law LI 2195, 
which laid the foundation for the framework. 

It is essential that governments provide the 
necessary financial resources to support the 
establishment and implementation of an NQF. Most 
of the funding to set up the NTVETQF came from 
development partners in Ghana, without whose aid 
COTVET could not have achieved any meaningful 
results. 

235

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
ADEA  

Association for the Development of 
Education in Africa
competency-based training

CBT 
COTVET   Council for Technical and Vocational 
Education and Training 
national qualifications framework

NQF  

NTVETQF   National Technical and Vocational 

NUFFIC 

RPL 
TVET 

Education and Training Qualifications 
Framework 
Dutch Organization for 
Internationalisation in Education
recognition of prior learning
technical and vocational education and 
training

References

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technical and vocational skills development (ICQN-TVSD). Accessed 18 February 2018at:  
www.adeanet.org/en/inter-country-quality-nodes/technical-and-vocational-skills-development

ADEA (2013). Concept note for NQF meeting in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. Tunisia: ADEA. (Unpublished).
COTVET (Council for Technical and Vocation Education and Training) and JICA/TVETS (Japanese International 
Cooperation Agency) (2009). Report of the technical committee on the harmonization of competency-
based training (CBT) in Ghana. Accra: COTVET

Ghana Statistical Service (2012). 2010 population and housing census. Accra: Ghana Statistical Service.
Gondwe, M. and Walenkamp, J. (2011). Alignment of higher professional education with the needs of the 

local labour market: The case of Ghana. Amsterdam, NUFFIC.

Government of Ghana (2007). Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) sub-committee. Final 

Report. Accra: Ministry of Education

Government of Ghana (2009). Educational Strategic Plan 2010 to 2020. Accessed 18 February 2019 at: 

www.voiceghana.org/downloads/ESP_Vol2_doc.pdf

Heitmann, W. (2012). Lessons learned from selected national qualifications frameworks in sub-

Saharan Africa. Accessed 14 December 2016 at: www.adeanet.org/triennale/Triennalestudies/
subtheme2/2_3_02_Heitmann_en.pdf

NVTI (National Vocational Training Institute) (2007). The role of the national vocational training institute in the 

technical and vocational education and training environment. A position paper by the NVTI Board. 
Accra: National Vocational Training Institute.

Tan, J-P., Lee, K.H., Flynn, R. and Roseth, V.V. (2016). Workforce development in emerging economies: 

Comparative perspectives on institutions, praxis, and policies. Washington DC: World Bank Group.

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

236

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSGREECE

Introduction and context

Greece has one of the lowest percentages of 
students who leave education and training early 
in the EU (6.0% in 2017, compared to the 10.6% 
EU average). However, spending on education is 
not sufficient as it was severely affected by the 
crisis. There are disparities in student performance 
and in the early school leaving rate, linked to 
socioeconomic background and migrant status. 
Integration of refugee children in mainstream 
education has been challenging, especially on the 
islands where most refugee children still lack access 
to education, but significant efforts have been made 
by the Greek government in this respect.  The Greek 
population lacks basic digital skills (46% in 2017) 
and the country remains in 25th position within the 
EU. While the rate of tertiary attainment at 43.7% in 
2017 exceeds the EU average of 39.9%, only 55.8% 
of recent tertiary graduates have a job, compared 
to 84.9 % across the EU, and the mismatches 
between qualifications and positions held in 
employment are frequent. There is also a strong 
outflow of highly skilled university graduates.

In order to strengthen the provision of vocational 
education and training (VET), the apprenticeship 
system was expanded. Greece introduced an 
optional fourth apprenticeship year for upper 
secondary VET graduates, which gives access 
to EQF level 5 qualifications. Following the 2016 
national strategic framework to improve the quality 
of VET and apprenticeships315 the apprenticeship 
year of vocational upper secondary school 
(Epagelmatiko Lykeio – EPAL) was regulated 
and the quality framework for VET curricula and 
apprenticeships was set. From October 2017, 
following an initiative of the Ministry of Education, 
Research and Religious Affairs316, A new beginning 
for EPAL, basic skills-enhancing measures, socio-
psychological support and integration actions 
were piloted as further support to first grade EPAL 
students. Nevertheless, ensuring the attractiveness 

315  Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs 

(2016). 

of VET and raising participation in adult learning 
remained a challenge (European Commission, 2018).

Greece has developed a comprehensive national 
qualifications framework (NQF) for lifelong learning, 
the Hellenic qualifications framework (HQF), 
aiming at a coherent and comprehensive system of 
qualifications from all parts and levels of education 
and training. The qualifications framework for higher 
education is a part of the overarching NQF. The 
Greek authority responsible for the accreditation of 
higher education programmes (HQAAA)317, uses, as 
evaluation criteria, the learning outcomes approach 
and expected competences in accordance with the 
qualifications framework for higher education318. 
In the Greek legal framework, the main types of 
higher education qualification are connected to NQF 
levels319. 

The NQF developments build on the Act on 
lifelong learning (3879/10)320, which introduced 
levels and the learning outcomes concept as 
essential elements of qualifications and awards. 
The act provided the basis for a more coherent 
and integrated approach to lifelong learning, as 
coordination of relevant issues is now under the 
ministry of education. The NQF also forms an 
integrated part of the overall national qualification 
system, including links to the relevant legislation in 
different policy areas, such as the National strategic 
plan for the improvement of vocational education 
and training and of apprenticeship, issued in April 
2016321.

317  HQAAA portal: www.adip.gr
318  This is anticipated by Law 3879/2010, Article 16, 

Paragraph 4, point (d), as supplemented by Article 46 of 
the present law. 

319  This is mentioned in Article 19 of Law 4521/2018, 

which connects bachelor degrees to level 6, and in the 
ministerial decrees on master and doctorate degrees 
connecting them to level 7 and 8 respectively (Ministerial 
Decree 3686/2018 and 1127/2018).

320  Law 3879/2010 on the development of lifelong learning 
and other provisions. Official Gazette, 163A/2010.  
www.edulll.gr/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/
nomos_-3879_2010.pdf

321  See Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs 

316  Hereafter referred to as ministry of education. 

(2016). 

237

Volume II: National and regional casesThe presidential decree – under development – 
will further strengthen the legal basis of the NQF. 
The draft has been submitted to the Minister for 
Education, Research and Religious Affairs for formal 
adoption, which is still pending. 

Policy objectives

Apart from responding to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) initiative, HQF work 
is directly linked to the country’s efforts to develop 
a framework for improving lifelong learning policies 
and practices, which will allow recognition and 
certification of all kinds of education and training 
and learning more generally. The aim of HQF is 
to create a coherent and comprehensive system 
of classification of all qualifications obtained from 
formal, non-formal education and informal learning 
in Greece to aid transparency and comparability 
of qualifications and promote mobility of learners 
and workers. This will be done gradually. In the 
first phase, the objective is the classification of 
qualifications within the formal education system 
of the country. At a later stage a classification 
system will be developed for qualifications acquired 
through non-formal education and informal learning 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Compared to other EU countries, participation of 
adults in lifelong learning in Greece remains low 
and has tended to stagnate over time: it stood at 
4.5% in 2017, compared to an EU average of 10.9% 
(European Commission, 2018) and systematic and 
coherent policies have largely been lacking. The 
2015 National reform programme322 recognised that 
Greece was still in need of a long-term strategic 
vision for improving access to lifelong learning. 
Strengthening the learning outcomes dimension in 
all parts of education and training is considered a 
precondition for moving towards lifelong learning. 
This will not only provide the basis for a more 
transparent and open qualification system, it will 
also allow individuals to have their learning validated 
and recognised throughout their lives. The Act 
on lifelong learning 3879/10 was an important 
milestone in these developments. Within the 
context of developing and updating the HQF323 in 

322  Hellenic Government (2015). National reform programme 
(NRP) for 2015. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/
file_import/nrp2015_greece_en_0.pdf

323  This section draws on input from a note by the National 
Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications 
and Vocational Guidance (the designated national 
coordination point for EQF): Latest developments of the 
Hellenic qualifications framework: response to the EQF 
advisory group, 2015. Available online at: www.esos.gr/
arthra/47414/ta-8-epipeda-toy-ethnikoy-plaisioy-prosonton 

line with recent social and economic developments, 
the HQF aims to:

a.  improve transparency of quality procedures for 

qualifications and qualification titles;

b.  increase horizontal mobility (within and outside 

the country), as well as vertical mobility 
(showing pathways that a person can follow to 
move from one level to another);

c.  support lifelong learning.

HQF is a communication and transparency 
framework, but is also intended to be reforming. 
In recent years it has become a main level for 
reforming the Greek education system. For 
example, the vocational upper secondary school 
degree of level 5 – post-secondary cycle (one 
year of apprenticeship class after three years of 
vocational upper secondary school of level 4) – has 
been regulated with relevant laws324. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

An eight-level structure has been developed for the 
HQF, reflecting the existing formal education and 
training system in Greece. Levels are defined in 
terms of knowledge, skills and competence. Work 
on level descriptors for HQF and on a qualifications 
framework for higher education has taken place 
separately, but the final objective is to have a 
comprehensive framework, covering all levels 
and types of qualification. HQAAA is responsible 
for elaborating the qualifications framework for 
higher education, based on HQF qualification types 
and level descriptors, developed by the National 
Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications 
and Vocational Guidance (EOPPEP). Strengthening 
the learning outcomes approach is seen as an 
important dimension of current reforms in primary, 
secondary and tertiary education. 

Following European education policies, since 
2006 Greece has developed – by Ministerial 
Decree 110998325 – a methodology for analysing 
occupational profiles (standards) incorporating the 
learning outcomes approach326. This was an early 
effort to create a methodology for modularising VET 
curricula and part of a broader strategy aimed at 
upgrading VET. It was also seen as a precondition 
for setting up a system for validating informal and 

324  These laws are: 4283/2014, 4310/2014, 4521/2018, 
4559/2018 and ministerial decrees, for example 
26381/2017, 90050/Y2/2018 and F7/15572/d4/2018.
325  Common Ministerial Decision 110998/2006 on the 

accreditation of occupational profiles. Official Gazette, 
566/B of 2.5.2006.

326  See Mile (2015).

238

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSnon-formal leaning and for accrediting training 
programmes. The decision was taken to shift from 
task (used in the past) to function, as it has been 
argued that function provides a broader perception 
for the content of the outcomes. Authorities 
developed 202 job profiles based on learning 
outcomes; updating and renewing outcomes in 
occupational profiles is a necessity, according to 
labour market research, surveys, and evaluation 
of existing curricula. This is a major task for all 
stakeholders, most importantly for social partners. 
The relevant legislative framework is under 
development.

Working groups were formed under the auspices 
of the ministry of education to draft learning 
outcomes of qualifications provided in subsystems 
of formal education, and to suggest their allocation 
to the eight levels of the HQF. Reforms in 
general education and VET were initiated under 
Law 4186/2013327 on restructuring secondary 
education328. Higher education qualifications are 
included in the HQF register and general descriptors 
of higher education programmes have been 
developed in cooperation with higher education 
institutions. Evaluation of higher education 
institutions has been completed329 and self-
certification against the framework of qualifications 
of the European higher education area is in 
progress330.

The reforms that were initiated with Law 4186/2013 
brought about developments in curriculum 
reform on the basis of learning outcomes. These 
developments have intensified over the last two 
years, starting from the post-secondary year/
apprenticeship class. The ministry of education 
cooperated with the Finnish organisation OMNIA 
(2016/17) under an EU structural reform support 
services joint project for the implementation of 
the national strategic framework for the upgrading 
of VET and apprenticeship331 in Greece. One 
of the project deliverables was the training of 
counsellors and teachers to reform curricula 

327  Law 4186/2013 stipulates that vocational education and 

apprenticeship programmes will include clearly formulated 
learning outcomes and will be analysed in knowledge, 
skills and competences per subject, field and specialty.

328  Law 4186/2013 on restructuring of secondary 

education and other provisions. Official Gazette, 
193/A, 17.9.2013. www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/
ELECTRONIC/100472/120536/F1637832161/
GRC100472%20Grk.pdf

329  In June 2016, HQAAA finished the evaluation of 36 higher 

education institutions.

330  Information on internal and external evaluation of higher 
education institutions can be found at: www.adip.gr/en/
insteval-reports.php

331  Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs 

(2016).

based on learning outcomes. In 2017, a ministerial 
decision on a quality framework for VET curricula 
was adopted332. The content of the decision 
included the definition of learning outcomes, the 
connection with occupational profiles, and issues 
regarding the design of VET curricula. Other 
ministerial decisions333, 334 taken were related to the 
curricula of the apprenticeship classes, based on 
learning outcomes, the apprenticeship certification 
scheme335 and assessment of apprenticeship 
courses336. Currently the development of vocational 
education curricula (400 subjects) based on learning 
outcomes is a major task to be undertaken by the 
Institute for Educational Policy337.

The shift to learning outcomes represents a 
significant change in the Greek system, which, until 
now, has mainly relied on an ‘input’ approach. The 
outcomes-based HQF is expected to support design 
of outcomes-based qualifications. One anticipated 
benefit of the HQF is to promote open dialogue and 
collaboration among a wide range of stakeholders; 
it will also help clarify and reinforce the relationship 
between education and training and the labour 
market. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The ministry of education is the competent 
authority, responsible for coordinating and 
monitoring the HQF. The National Organisation for 
the Certification of Qualifications and Vocational 
Guidance (EOPPEP) was set up in 2011 to develop 
and put the HQF into practice, link the HQF to EQF, 
as well as put the HQF and procedures for validation 

332  Ministerial Decision 26412/2017 on the quality framework 
of VET curricula. Official Gazette, 490B/2017, 20.2.2017. 
www.minedu.gov.gr/publications/docs2017/kya_
mathiteias.pdf

333  Ministerial Decision Φ2/181534/Δ4. Official Gazette, 

3820B/2017, 31.10.2017. www.minedu.gov.gr/publications/
docs2017/01_11_17epal_metalykeiako.pdf

334  Joint Ministerial Decision 90050/Y2. Official Gazette, 

2007A/2018, 4.6.2018. www.minedu.gov.gr/publications/
docs2018/KYA_PISTOP_MATH_EPAL.pdf

335  In this scheme, the process verifies whether the graduate 
participating in the theoretical and practical part of the 
exam can answer questions that cover the learning 
outcomes of the curriculum.

336  Presidential Decree 40/2018. Official Gazette, 76A/2018,  
30.4.2018. www.minedu.gov.gr/publications/docs2018/% 
CE%A0%CE%94_40_2018_%CE%91%CE%BE%CE% 
B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3_%CE% 
9C%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%84%CF%8E% 
CE%BD_%CE%95%CE%A0%CE%91%CE%9B__% 
CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%84%CE% 
B5%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%A6%CE%95% 
CE%9A_76%CE%91_30.04.2018.pdf

337  Institute of Educational Policies: http://iep.edu.gr/en/

239

Volume II: National and regional casesof learning outcomes into practice and assure 
quality in lifelong learning. EOPPEP operates as the 
national coordination point for the EQF and is the 
awarding body in relation to one qualification type in 
the framework: vocational training diploma, level 5. 
EOPPEP cooperates with HQAAA338 on quality 
issues in higher education and is the EQAVET 
national reference point, so there is coordination of 
the respective activities of the two national points 
regarding the quality subjects that arise from the 
implementation of NQF. The work programme of 
the national coordination point 2018–20 will include 
an integrated communication strategy developed 
among EOPPEP and quality assurance agencies 
such as HQAAA. 

An advisory committee, comprising representatives 
from public administration, the education and 
academic community, social partners and external 
consultants, was established to support EOPPEP 
in developing and implementing the HQF. The 
members of the advisory committee were 
appointed by the ministry of education, by social 
partners, by the National Centre for Public and Local 
Administration and by Cedefop. Greece is planning 
to reform the HQF advisory committee, which 
will be consulted for further development. A new 
advisory committee will be formalised by the Greek 
ministry of education. Till then, the main work of 
HQF’s implementation is done by EOPPEP.  

An independent administrative authority, the 
Authority for Quality Assurance in Primary and 
Secondary Education (ADIPPDE), has been 
established339 and is responsible for quality 
assurance both in general and vocational education. 
It is fully operational (qualifications at levels 1–4) and 
is working closely with the ministry of education. 

Involvement of social partners is very important 
for the framework. Their representatives are 
members of the governing board of EOPPEP, the 
Central Examination Board for the Certification of 
Vocational Training (KEEPEK)340 responsible for the 
accreditation of post-secondary initial VET (IVET), as 
well as of the committees for the development of 
occupational profiles/VET curricula. Social partners 
also take part in the new National Apprentice 
Coordination Body (ESOM), an advisory body 

338  www.adip.gr/en/index.php
339  Law 4142/2013.
340  KEEPEK consists of members of EOPPEP, representatives 
of the ministry of education, the Ministry of Labour, the 
Confederation of Greek Employers (SEB), the Employees’ 
associations (GSEE) and the Greek Chamber of Finance 
and Commerce. Source: EQAVET national reference point 
of Greece (2016). Report on Greece: summer 2016.  
www.eqavet.eu/Eqavet2017/media/Documents/2-EL_-final_
Template-for-updating-info-on-the-EQAVET-website.pdf

on apprenticeship issues established by Law of 
26 February 2018341. ESOM can cooperate with 
chambers, foundations and research organisations 
and other bodies to fulfil its purpose. 

The National Council of Education (ESYP) has been 
reformed into the National Council for Education 
and Human Resources Development (ESEKAAD)342, 
which now includes many representatives closely 
involved with VET issues. Its mandate has been 
extended to the overall link between education and 
the labour market343.

A significant number of private education bodies 
have engaged with EOPPEP and expressed interest 
in the inclusion of their awards (from formal or 
non-formal education) in the framework. A dialogue 
has also started with the Greek recognition 
and equivalence committees and competent 
authorities344 on the role and contribution of the 
framework to the recognition and equivalence of 
awarded qualifications. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways345

There has been slow progress in Greece in 
developing a framework for validation that can 
encompass non-formal and informal learning gained 
through work experience. A national system for the 
certification of outputs started development in 2016, 
expected to boost employment, but progress has 
not been quick. In 2018, this system remains one 

341  ESOM’s purpose is to provide the ministry of education 

and the Ministry of Labour, Social Security and 
Social Solidarity, with suggestions on improving the 
institutional framework for apprenticeship and designing, 
implementing and evaluating apprenticeship programmes.

342  Law 4452/2017, Article 18.
343  EOPPEP, ESOM and ESEKAAD operate under the 
supervision of the ministry of education, which is 
responsible for deciding the type of cooperation among 
relevant authorities

344  These are: the Hellenic NARIC (DOATAP) responsible 

for the recognition of foreign qualifications of higher 
education; the Directorates of Secondary Education, 
responsible for the recognition of foreign qualifications 
of general education; the Agency of the Technological 
Educational Institutes, responsible for the recognition 
of qualifications of tertiary – not higher – education that 
are no longer awarded; the National Council for the 
Recognition of Vocational Qualifications (SAEP); and 
EOPPEP, which acts as the committee for the recognition 
of foreign and Greek qualifications of secondary and 
tertiary vocational education and training. 

345  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming). 

240

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSof the strategic objectives of EOPPEP. Once it is in 
place, certification of learning outcomes/outputs 
will follow criteria and processes that will ensure 
that the certified learning outcomes will lead to 
qualifications that correspond to the requirements 
of the relevant occupational profiles (Epaggelmatiko 
perigramma). 

During the past two years, continuing vocational 
education and training (CVET) has been the policy 
priority making the biggest progress. A regulatory 
framework has been developed for the operation of 
lifelong learning centres (Kentra dia viou mathisis), 
which offer continuous vocational training, general 
adult education, vocational guidance and lifelong 
counselling.

According to Law 4186/2013, the General 
Secretariat for Lifelong Learning of the ministry 
of education is responsible for licencing and 
monitoring institutes of vocational training (IEK) and 
EOPPEP is responsible for accreditation of their 
training programmes, to boost quality assurance and 
enable progression pathways. During 2018, around 
40 IEK programmes were accredited, by decision of 
EOPPEP’s Board of Directors. 

Legislative provision for a new type of diploma 
at level 5 of the HQF and EQF has recently 
been prepared. This relates to the development 
of two-year, post-secondary vocational training 
programmes (Κέντρα Επαγγελματικής 
Εκπαίδευσης)346 provided by universities, in 
10 specialisations as of September 2018. The 
curriculum will provide specialised knowledge 
and skills for highly qualified technicians. Access 
to these programmes is foreseen just for upper 
secondary school leaving (EPAL) graduates 
(Cedefop, 2018b). According to Law 4485/2017 and 
Law 4521/2018, these training programmes lead 
to level 5 qualifications: they are not described as 
short cycle HE programmes and their qualification 
type descriptors have not yet been developed. 
These programmes will be accredited by higher 
education directly (the council of each university will 
submit them to the ministry of education for final 
approval). The criteria for EPAL graduate enrolment 
to the programmes will be decided by each 
council; in addition to the final degree grade, their 

346  This is foreseen by Law 4521/2018, Chapter 2, Article 8, 

Paragraph 2, according to which higher education 
institutes may establish two-year vocational training 
programmes for vocational lyceum (EPAL) graduates. 
Accreditation will be carried out by the universities, 
without the involvement of the validation authority 
(EOPPEP). www.kodiko.gr/nomologia/document_
pdf/345552

working experience and other social criteria will be 
considered

An example of validation of non-formal learning in 
Greece started since 2014, with adult trainers in 
non-formal learning. These trainers need to have 
certified educational competence/proficiency to 
train in non-formal learning programmes funded by 
public resources347. More specifically, enrolment 
for the examinations means meeting certain 
criteria regarding educational attainment or proven 
professional experience. The updated system 
foresees three pathways:

a.  direct certification of conditions and criteria;
b.  participation in an assessment process, and then 

certification;

c.  enrolment in training programmes and 

subsequent certification348.

Currently, a sectoral focus is in place for the 
certification of private security personnel.

Progress has been made on the upskilling 
pathways recommendation349 in terms of offering 
opportunities for basic skills training to low-skilled 
adults. A memorandum of cooperation is planned 
to be signed between EOPPEP (the validation 
authority) and the Manpower Employment 
Organisation (OAED) which is the Greek public 
employment service. Stakeholders have come 
together on occasions during the first half of 2018  
to develop their dialogue on upskilling pathways  
and validation; this dialogue is set to continue  
during 2019.

On a final note, the apprenticeship year attached to 
initial VET (Mathiteia IEK) has been initiated and a 
quality framework has been developed350.

Although these are significant steps for the country, 
validation of non-formal and informal learning is not 
yet as developed in Greece as in other EU countries. 
Even though informal and non-formal learning is 
gaining importance, such learning is not adequately 
valued and recognised in society. A cultural shift 

347  Law 4115/2013.
348  All the details of the assessment stage are explicitly 
described and analysed on EOPPEP’s website:  
www.eoppep.gr/index.php/en/

349  Council of the European Union (2016). Council 

recommendation of 19 December 2016 on upskilling 
pathways: new opportunities for adults. Official 
Journal of the European Union, C 484, 24.12.2016, 
pp. 1–6. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/
PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016H1224(01)&from=EN.
350  Ministerial Decree 26412/2017. Official Gazette, 

490B/2017. www.minedu.gov.gr/publications/docs2017/
kya_mathiteias.pdf

241

Volume II: National and regional caseswould also be required in favour of learning 
outcomes, to support steps towards recognition and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning.

NQF implementation

The ministry of education is responsible for 
HQF implementation, with EOPPEP as the main 
actor. The framework is at an early operational 
stage. A draft presidential decree entitled Terms 
of formulation and implementation of the HQF: 
referencing to the EQF has been prepared and 
submitted to the Minister for Education, Research 
and Religious Affairs to strengthen its legal basis. 
This is an important step in moving into a full 
operational stage. The legal framework for the 
validation of non-formal education and informal 
learning also need to be finalised and approved. 

Inclusion of qualifications in the framework is 
defined through qualification type specifications. 
They include title, level, awarding body, summary 
descriptor, volume of learning, purpose, education 
sector, learning outcomes, employment 
relevance, and progression possibilities. Having 
already developed qualification types, which is 
a key element in the framework, the country is 
now placing in each one the individual (named) 
qualifications expressed in learning outcomes. For 
example, in level 7 of the HQF, there is the type 
‘master degree’351. EOPPEP has also established 
a qualifications register352, which already includes 
724 qualifications of the formal education system 
expressed in learning outcomes; it is linked to 
the European Commission’s portal on learning 
opportunities and qualifications353. This has been 
done in cooperation with the respective education 
institutions. The register has been used as a 
pilot project to link the learning outcomes of the 
qualifications to the relevant ESCO pillar354. 

351  a. Master degree (MSc) in renewable energy systems 
(Department of mechanical engineering of the Faculty 
of applied technology of the Technological Educational 
Institute of Western Greece); b. Master degree in 
science and technology of food and human consumption 
(Department of food science and human nutrition of the 
Faculty of food, biotechnology and development of the 
Agricultural University of Athens; c. Master degree in 
techno-economic management and security of digital 
systems. Directions: techno-economic management of 
digital systems/digital systems security. (Department 
of digital systems of the School of information and 
communication technologies of the University of Piraeus). 

352  Greek qualification register: http://proson.eoppep.gr
353  https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/search/site?f[0]=im_field_

HQF (EQF) levels are being indicated on new 
certificates and diploma supplements, for 
instance issued by the various higher education 
institutions355; 205 certificate supplements have 
been issued so far with reference to HQF and 
EQF levels, mostly for IEK diplomas and EPAL 
apprenticeship class degrees356.

The main challenge preventing the indication of 
NQF and EQF levels on new certificates is the 
reluctance of awarding bodies (universities and 
other higher education institutions) to include this 
kind of information on their diploma supplements 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 
In terms of levelling, the qualifications that 
raise specific challenges are related to level 5. 
Qualifications from tertiary but not higher education 
coexist with qualifications in vocational training and 
this has become a subject of reflection among the 
interested parties).

Referencing to regional frameworks

The HQF was referenced to the EQF in 2015 but has 
not yet been self-certified against the qualifications 
framework for the European higher education area 
(Cedefop, 2018a). EOPPEP is the statutory body 
for the development and implementation of the 
HQF and the referencing with the EQF, under the 
supervision of the ministry of education. 

Important lessons and future plans

The HQF is expected to have an important impact 
on education and training: there has been increased 
attention to validation of non-formal and informal 
learning, improvement of the transparency and 
quality of the Greek qualification system, and 
reconstruction of the qualifications register in 
accordance with compatibility requirements of both 
the EQF portal and ESCO portal. An integrated 
communication strategy has been designed by the 
Hellenic EQF national coordination point and has 
been updated annually to increase the use and 
visibility of the framework. A creative design has 
also been produced with infographics to strengthen 
the identity and branding of the framework.

are relevant to the European labour market.  
https://ec.europa.eu/esco/portal/escopedia/ 
Qualifications_pillar

entity_type%3A97#

355  University diploma supplement (e.g. University of the 

354  The qualifications pillar is one of the three pillars of ESCO. 
It aims at collecting existing data on qualifications to 
provide a comprehensive listing of the qualifications that 

Peloponnese; diploma for level 6 qualification).
356  The certificate supplements are available online at:  
http://europass.eoppep.gr/index.php/en/certificate-en

242

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSInvolvement of a broad range of stakeholders 
in HQF development and implementation is 
seen as crucial, but remains a challenge. Other 
challenges include referencing international sectoral 
qualifications to the HQF, including non-formal 
qualifications and the rest of higher education 
qualifications to HQF levels 6–8, as well as 
qualifications acquired through programmes run by 
foreign universities which cooperate with private 
institutions in Greece. There is a clear division 
between non-university, mostly private, institutions 
and the university sector, which is public, charges 
no fees and offers entrance through national 
examinations in accordance with the constitution.

adding new ones. An upgraded version of HQF is 
expected.

Restructuring of secondary education and upgrade 
of the apprenticeship system357 is introducing a 
learning outcomes approach in curriculum design 
and development. Although the institutional 
framework and the building capacity of the public 
bodies underline a significant shift to a learning 
outcomes approach in all levels and subsystems of 
learning, common understanding and application 
of learning outcomes is not yet established; 
developing necessary methodologies, procedures 
and standards remains a major challenge. 

An updated evaluation of HQF implementation 
and its impact in the Greek education system 
will take place during 2018–20. The conclusions 
will help the reforms already planned by the 
ministry of education. The updated roadmap for 
2018/19 (EOPPEP, 2016) includes the development 
of methodology (by EOPPEP) for classifying 
qualifications (knowledge, skills and competences) 
acquired through non-formal education in the HQF. 
Upon EOPPEP’s authorisation, the awarding bodies 
will gain access to the qualifications register with a 
view to updating the qualifications they award and

The HQF is currently a communicative framework 
that promotes transparency, but with an important 
reform role as well; qualifications types defined 
in learning outcomes require a review of all 
qualifications in terms of learning outcomes to be 
included in the qualifications register; further work 
to modernise internal and external quality assurance 
systems, as well as validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, will be needed to enhance 
the reform role of the framework (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

Table 29. Hellenic national qualifications framework (HQF)

HQF 
LEVEL

VET

GENERAL 
EDUCATION

HIGHER EDUCATION

EQF 
LEVEL

8

7

6

8

7

6

Doctorate  
(Διδακτορικό 
Δίπλωμα)  
(Universities)

Master degree  
(Μεταπτυχιακό 
Δίπλωμα Ειδίκευσης)
(Universities/
technological 
educational institutes-
higher education)

Bachelor degree  
(Πτυχίο Ανώτατης 
Εκπαίδευσης)
(Universities/
technological 
educational institutes-
higher education)

(Continued)

357  Law 4186/2013 on restructuring of secondary education 

and other provisions: www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/
docs/ELECTRONIC/100472/120536/F1637832161/
GRC100472%20Grk.pdf

243

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 29. Hellenic national qualifications framework (HQF) (Continued)

GENERAL 
EDUCATION

HIGHER EDUCATION

EQF 
LEVEL

5

General upper 
secondary 
school 
certificate 
(Απολυτήριο 
Γενικού 
Λυκείου)

4

3

HQF 
LEVEL

5

4

3

VET

Vocational post-secondary school ‘degree’** 
for graduates of EPAL apprenticeship class, 
level 5 (post-secondary level)  
(Πτυχίο Επαγγελματικής Ειδικότητας, 
Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης  
Επιπέδου 5 – ΕΠΑΛ)
-------------------------------------------------------
Vocational training diploma  
(post-secondary level)  
(Δίπλωμα Επαγγελματικής Ειδικότητας, 
Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης Επιπέδου 5)  
(vocational training institute)  
(Ινστιτούτο Επαγγελματικής  
Κατάρτισης (IEK))
-------------------------------------------------------
Vocational training diploma*  
(Δίπλωμα Επαγγελματικής Ειδικότητας, 
Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης Επιπέδου 
Μεταδευτεροβάθμιας Επαγγελματικής 
Κατάρτισης, IEK)  
(post-secondary level)
-------------------------------------------------------
Post-secondary and not higher education 
diploma or ‘degree’** 
(Δίπλωμα ή Πτυχίο Ανωτέρας Σχολής)

Vocational school  
(Επαγγελματικές Σχολές) (EPAS, ΕΠΑΣ) 
certificate  
(Πτυχίο ΕΠΑΣ)
-------------------------------------------------------
Vocational upper secondary school  
(Επαγγελματικά Λύκεια) (EPAL, ΕΠΑΛ) 
‘degree’**  
(Πτυχίο Επαγγελματικής Ειδικότητας, 
Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης  
Επιπέδου 4 – ΕΠΑΛ)
-------------------------------------------------------
EPAL certificate  
(Απολυτήριο Επαγγελματικού  
Λυκείου – ΕΠΑΛ Επιπέδου 4)

Vocational training school  
(Σχολές Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης (ΣΕΚ)) 
certificate (post lower secondary level)  
(Πτυχίο Επαγγελματικής Ειδικότητας 
Επιπέδου 3 – ΣΕΚ)***
-------------------------------------------------------
IEK certificate* (initial vocational training-post 
lower secondary level)  
(Πιστοποιητικό Επαγγελματικής 
Κατάρτισης, Επίπεδο 1 – IEK)

244

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 29. Hellenic national qualifications framework (HQF) (Continued)

HQF 
LEVEL

VET

2

1

HIGHER EDUCATION

EQF 
LEVEL

2

1

GENERAL 
EDUCATION

Lower 
secondary 
school 
certificate 
(compulsory)  
(Απολυτήριο 
Γυμνασίου)

Primary 
school 
certificate 
(compulsory)  
(Απολυτήριο 
Δημοτικού)

(*) 

This qualification is no longer being awarded since the enactment of Law 4186/2013.

(**)  The word ‘degree’ used with quotation marks is a direct translation from the Greek terminology as it appears in the 

legislation (ptychio). In Greek, the word ptychio is used for titles of study from different education levels (higher, 
secondary, etc.). It is not to be confused with its usage in the English language, where degree refers to a higher 
education title of study, i.e. bachelor degree. 

(***)  This programme was abolished by law 4386/2016. Cohorts already enrolled at that time will be able to complete their 

studies and can still acquire the qualification; the last one is expected to graduate in 2018/19.

Source: Greek Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs and EOPPEP, 2018.

Abbreviations
EOPPEP   National Organisation for the 

EU  
HQAAA  

EPAL  

EQAVET 

EQF  
ESCO  

ESOM  

Certification of Qualifications and 
Vocational Guidance
Επαγγελματικά Λύκεια (vocational 
upper secondary school)
European Quality Assurance in 
Vocational Education and Training
European qualifications framework
European skills, competences, 
qualifications and occupations
National Apprentice Coordination 
Body

HQF  
IEK  

NQF 
VET  

European Union
Αρχή διασφάλισης και πιστοποίησης 
της ποιότητας στην ανωτάτη 
εκπαίδευση (Greek authority 
responsible for the accreditation of 
higher education programmes of 
study)
Hellenic qualifications framework
Ινστιτούτο Επαγγελματικής 
Κατάρτισης (vocational training 
institute)
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

EOPPEP (National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications and Vocational Guidance) – designated 

EQF national coordination point: www.eoppep.gr/index.php/en/ 

Greek qualifications register: http://proson.eoppep.gr
Further information about the HQF and the EQF: http://nqf.gov.gr/
EOPPEP (2016). Greece EQF referencing report: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/greek_

referencing_report_2016.pdf

245

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

Cedefop (2018a). National qualifications framework developments in Europe 2017. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/029873

Cedefop (2018b). Spotlight on VET 2018 compilation: vocational education and training systems in Europe 

(forthcoming).

EOPPEP (2016). Greece EQF referencing report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/greek_

referencing_report_2016.pdf

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Greece. 
European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: country analysis – Greece. http://

ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-greece_
en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report Greece.

Mile, D. (2015). Methodology for the design and development of learning outcomes [unpublished]. 
Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs (2016). Εθνικό Στρατηγικό Πλαίσιο για την  

Αναβάθμιση της Επαγγελματικής Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης και της Μαθητείας [National  
strategic framework to improve the quality of VET and apprenticeships]. www.minedu.gov.gr/ 
publications/docs2016/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B7%CE% 
B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%A0%CE%BB% CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%83%CE% 
B9%CE%BF_%CE%95%CE%95%CE%9A.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

246

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSHONG KONG  
SAR CHINA

Introduction and context 

The major functions of the HKQF are to: 

•  clearly define the competency standards 

required of practitioners in different industries;
•  ensure the quality of qualifications and enable 

citizens to obtain recognized qualifications either 
through education and training or through the 
recognition of prior learning (RPL) mechanisms;

•  ensure that education and training providers, 

employers and the public understand the range 
of qualifications available and appreciate how 
they can contribute to improving the skills of the 
workforce;

• 

•  delineate the links between different types and 
levels of qualifications and clearly articulate the 
qualifications;
recognize practitioners’ existing skills, 
knowledge and work experience through an RPL 
mechanism developed for industries that have 
adopted Specification of Competency Standards 
(SCS)359; 

•  simplify and standardize the use of award titles 

through the Award Titles Scheme (ATS), which is 
applicable to qualifications at all HKQF levels; 

•  specify the size/volume of learning by 

introducing a qualifications framework (QF) 
credit, which enables learners to discern 
the time it will take to complete a learning 
programme and facilitates credit accumulation 
and transfer.

During recent decades, the Hong Kong Special 
Administrative Region has undergone a dramatic 
transformation to become a leading international 
financial centre. To stay ahead in an increasingly 
competitive market, Hong Kong must constantly 
upgrade the capability of its workforce. However, 
with a shift in Hong Kong’s economy towards 
highly skilled activities, jobs for workers with low 
educational attainment are disappearing rapidly 
while demand for workers with higher education 
continues to grow. To narrow this gap, the 
government has taken steps to provide workers 
with more effective training to motivate them to 
increase their employment potential.

In response, the educational attainment of 
Hong Kong’s workforce has improved significantly. 
The proportion of the labour force with a post-
secondary education has increased from 20.4% in 
1996 to 41.1% in 2016358. However, the proliferation 
of training programmes and qualifications could 
potentially leave learners unsure about which course 
to choose or what qualifications they need. In 
addition, an employer presented with an assortment 
of certificates may be unsure of the actual 
competence level of the holder. 

Policy objectives 

The Education Bureau of the Hong Kong Special 
Administrative Region Government launched the 
Hong Kong Qualifications Framework (HKQF) in 
2008 to promote lifelong learning with a view to 
continuously enhancing the quality, professionalism 
and competitiveness of Hong Kong’s workforce in 
an increasingly globalized and knowledge-based 
economy.  

358  Government of HKSAR (2018).

359  The SCS sets out the skills, knowledge and competency 
standards required of the practitioners to perform various 
job functions in industries effectively. The SCS can be 
grouped together to form a qualification at a particular 
HKQF level. 

247

Volume II: National and regional casesLevels and use of learning outcomes 

Table 30. Hong Kong Qualifications Framework

HKQF 
LEVEL

CHOICE OF AWARD TITLES FOR DIFFERENT LEVELS

Doctor

Mastert

Bachelor

Postgraduate 
diploma

Postgraduate 
certificate

Associate

Higher diploma

Higher certificate

Professional 
diploma

Advanced 
diploma

Professional 
certificate

Advanced 
certificate

Diploma

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Certificate

Foundation 
certificate*

(*) Only applies to levels 1 and 2.

Source: HKQF website (www.hkqf.gov.hk)

Qualifications recognized under the HKQF are 
characterized by three key features: (1) level, which 
reflects the outcome standards, i.e. depth and 
complexity of learning leading to the qualification; 
(2) award title, which reveals the nature, area of 
studies and range of QF level of a qualification; and 
(3) credit, which indicates the volume of learning 
leading to the qualification.

Hong Kong introduced the ATS in 2012 with the 
aim of standardizing and simplifying the titles 
of HKQF qualifications. The ATS, together with 
the Operational Guidelines on Use of Credit and 
Implementation Timetable, stipulates the following: 

•  The ‘certificate’ title may be awarded for 

qualifications from Levels 1–6. 

•  Level 1 and 2 qualifications may also be called a 

‘foundation certificate’. 

•  A diploma can only be used for qualifications at 
QF Levels 3–6. A diploma must comprise 60 or 
more QF credits. There is no minimum credit 
requirement for a certificate programme. 

The ATS specifies which qualifiers (such as 
foundation, higher, advanced, professional and 
postgraduate) providers may use in the titles of 
their qualifications. No qualifier is allowed for 
qualifications at Level 3 (i.e. certificate and diploma). 
Providers may choose to add ‘QF Level’ to the titles 
of their qualifications: for example, ‘Professional 
Diploma in Business Management (QF Level 6)’. 
Providers may continue to use titles traditionally 
used for degree and sub-degree qualifications in 

248

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSmainstream education (i.e., Associate Degree at 
Level 4, Bachelor’s at Level 5, Master’s at Level 6, 
and Doctorate at Level 7).

Providers who wish to use non-ATS specified titles 
for their programmes may apply for approval from 
the Education Bureau. The use of titles outside 
ATS is not encouraged, as this would be contrary 
to the intention and purpose of ATS. Only in very 
exceptional circumstances is a provider allowed to 
use titles not specified in ATS.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Education Bureau issued a public consultation 
paper, Proposal to Set Up a Qualifications 
Framework and its Associated Quality Assurance 
Mechanism in Hong Kong (EDB, 2002). This 
was followed by a series of consultations, pilot 
studies and seminars for industries, employers’ 
associations, trade unions and professional bodies, 
culminating in the launch of the qualifications 
framework in 2008. 

The Qualifications Framework Secretariat is the 
executive arm of the Education Bureau and is 
responsible for implementing and promoting the 
HKQF. 

Industry Training Advisory Committees (ITACs) 
or Cross-Industry Training Advisory Committees 
(CITACs) play a pivotal role in the implementation of 
the HKQF and the development of Specification of 
Competency Standards (SCS). The Education Bureau 
establishes ITACs/CITACs for respective industries/
sectors. ITACs/CITACs consist of representatives 
of employers, employees, professional bodies, 
regulatory bodies and the relevant government 
bureaus and departments of an industry.

The ITACs have three main objectives: 

1.  to develop, maintain and update SCS and to 

formulate an RPL mechanism for the industry 
concerned; 

2.  to promote the HKQF within the industry 

concerned;

3.  to give advice on matters relating to the 

development and implementation of HKQF to 
the Secretary for Education. 

The Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of 
Academic and Vocational Qualifications (HKCAAVQ) 
is an independent statutory body established 
under HKCAAVQ Ordinance (Cap. 1150). This 2007 
ordinance represents a legislative amendment of 
the Hong Kong Council for Academic Accreditation 
(HKCAA), and came into effect in order to expand 

the scope of its services to cover accreditation of 
vocational qualifications. With the enactment of this 
ordinance, the council was renamed HKCAAVQ. 
In accordance with the Accreditation of Academic 
and Vocational Qualifications Ordinance (Cap. 592), 
which came into operation on 5 May 2008, the 
HKCAAVQ is now the accreditation authority and 
is responsible for developing and implementing 
the standards and approach for accreditation of 
academic and vocational qualifications to underpin 
the HKQF. The HKCAAVQ also took on the statutory 
role as the Qualifications Register Authority under 
Cap. 592. The Qualifications Register is a web-based 
database containing information on qualifications 
and their respective learning programmes that have 
been quality assured and recognized under HKQF, 
and is available to the public free of charge.

To widen the scope of the HKQF, the Education 
Bureau launched an initiative in September 2018 
for the recognition of professional qualifications 
under the HKQF. Professional qualifications 
recognized under the HKQF refer to qualifications 
granted by bona fide local organizations that are not 
underpinned by associated learning programmes. 
Individuals should meet the requisite academic 
qualifications and prescribed years of industry or 
professional experience as well as complete robust 
assessments in written or practical formats in 
order to obtain the qualifications. As of December 
2018, the Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public 
Accountants and the Marine Department were 
appointed as assessment agencies for issuing 
associate level qualification and seven types of 
certificates of competency, respectively, to be 
recognized under the HKQF. This initiative promotes 
a wider application of the HKQF and uplifts the 
professional image of vocational and professional 
education and training in Hong Kong.

To encourage people aged 18 to 60 to pursue 
continuing education, a continuing education fund 
of HKD 5 billion was set up by the government in 
2002. In order to provide fair and impartial reviews 
of the continuing education courses concerned, 
the fund was reviewed by a committee of quality 
assurance and accreditation experts, as well as 
specialists from commerce, finance, education and 
training, and other industries, and all such courses 
have to be recognized under the HKQF. With the aim 
of enhancing the linkage between the continuing 
education fund and the HKQF and the relevancy of 
courses to industry needs, all training courses that 
are developed with special reference to SCS (i.e. 
SCS-based courses)360 have been included in the 
reimbursable course list under the fund. The fund is 

360  To qualify for the labelling of a SCS-based course, at 

least 60% of the contents of the course (i.e. in terms of 
number of credits) must come from the SCS.

249

Volume II: National and regional casesfurther expanded to cover all QF-recognized courses 
starting from April 2019.

30,000 practitioners successfully obtained some 
55,000 RPL qualifications.

A credit accumulation and transfer system provides 
the flexibility needed to suit individual learners’ 
circumstances and minimize duplication of training. 
The system facilitates learners to accumulate 
credits from diverse courses and convert them into 
a recognized qualification. One QF credit consists 
of 10 notional learning hours, which takes into 
account the total time likely to be required by an 
average learner in all modes of learning, including 
class attendance, private study, online learning, 
practical learning, examination, etc. The HKQF 
is expected to facilitate credit accumulation and 
transfer arrangements between different sectors 
and training providers by providing a unified platform 
and common benchmarks. 

The HKQF also plays a role in secondary 
education, because the Specification of Generic 
Competencies361 developed under the HKQF serves 
as a useful reference for applied learning courses 
under the new structure for senior secondary 
education. These courses enable students to 
understand fundamental theories and concepts 
and to develop beginners’ skills sets and generic 
skills through application and practice. They also 
help students to explore their career aspirations and 
orientation for lifelong learning.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways: Recognition of prior learning 
mechanism 

The major purpose of setting up an RPL mechanism, 
which represents a form of validation of non-
formal and informal learning under the HKQF, is 
to enable practitioners of various backgrounds to 
receive formal recognition of the knowledge, skills 
and experience they have already acquired at the 
workplace. Whether or not to implement RPL and 
the suitable timing of implementation are matters to 
be determined mainly by the ITACs concerned.

So far there are 15 industries implementing RPL 
since its inception in 2008. Successful applicants 
will be awarded a statement of attainment (QF 
Level 1 to 4) issued by the relevant assessment 
agency appointed by the Secretary for Education on 
the basis industry sectors. Up to Dec 2018, around 

HKQF implementation

The implementation of the HKQF since 2008 can be 
characterized in the following way: 

•  Stakeholders and partners from various 

industries have supported and participated 
actively in the development of the HKQF, 
providing the valuable human resources needed 
in a knowledge-based economy. 

•  As of December 2018, a total of 22 ITACs/CITACs 
for 23 industries/sectors have been set up under 
the HKQF, covering about 53 per cent of the total 
labour force in Hong Kong. 

•  Some industries have applied the results of the 
HKQF to their work, for example by designing 
training courses in accordance with HKQF 
competency standards and applying these 
standards to human resource management (such 
as in designing recruitment advertisements, 
commending staff, formulating job descriptions, 
deploying manpower and organizing internal 
training) or by using the standards as references 
for performance benchmarking. 

•  Around 7,300 education and training courses 
have been quality assured to become HKQF-
recognized courses listed in the Qualifications 
Register.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Education Bureau is committed to developing 
Hong Kong SAR as the regional education hub 
through internationalization and diversification of 
the post-secondary education sector. To this end, 
it has increased the non-local student admission 
quotas of publicly funded institutions, provided 
government scholarships to outstanding non-local 
students, and relaxed employment and immigration 
restrictions for non-local students. The Education 
Bureau has also introduced various measures to 
support the development of the self-financing 
post-secondary sector; these include grant of land 
to training providers at nominal premium, interest-
free start-up loans, quality assurance subsidies, and 
a HKD 3.52 billion (about USD 450 million) self-
financing post-secondary education fund to provide 
scholarships to outstanding self-financing students. 

361  The Specification of Generic Competencies sets out the 

foundation competencies from HKQF Level 1 to QF Level 
4, which covers four strands of generic skills: English, 
Chinese (including Cantonese and Putonghua), IT and 
numeracy.

The Education Bureau also supports worthwhile 
initiatives and schemes to enhance and ensure the 
quality of self-financed post-secondary education: in 
November 2014, it collaborated with the European 
Commission on a comparability study of the 

250

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSHKQF and European Qualifications Framework 
(EQF) with a view to providing a translation device 
to understand and compare the level-to-level 
relationship between the two frameworks. The 
major objectives of the comparability study are to 
promote better understanding of the qualifications 
offered under HKQF and by European countries 
referenced to the EQF, and to facilitate mobility of 
learners and labour between the two places.

Over the years, the Education Bureau and the 
Qualifications Framework Secretariat have also 
signed memorandums of understanding with 
different overseas QF authorities, including the 
Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework 
Partnership, the New Zealand Qualifications 
Authority and the Thailand Professional 
Qualifications Institute, to strengthen international 
networks and to further explore possibilities for 
collaboration in matters of mutual benefits and 
interests with overseas partners. 

Important lessons and future plans

The Education Bureau plans to step up its 
publicity efforts to promote the HKQF for its wider 

References 

acceptance among all sectors. Industry-specific 
websites should enable stakeholders in a particular 
industry (as well as the general public) to search 
for the latest information on education and training 
and the development of the HKQF in the industry 
concerned.

Abbreviations
AAVQ  

ATS  
CITAC  

Accreditation of Academic and 
Vocational Qualifications 
Award Titles Scheme 
Cross-Industry Training Advisory 
Committee 
EQF  
European Qualifications Framework 
HKCAAVQ  Hong Kong Council for Accreditation 

HKQF 

ITACs  

QF  
RPL  
SCS  

of Academic and Vocational 
Qualifications
Hong Kong Qualifications 
Framework
Industry Training Advisory 
Committees 
qualifications framework 
recognition of prior learning 
Specification of Competency 
Standards 

EDB (Education Bureau) (2002). Consultation paper on the proposal to set up a qualifications framework 

and the associated quality assurance framework in Hong Kong. Accessed 15 February 2019 at: www.
info.gov.hk/arcchive/consult/2003/qf-eng/doc

EDB (2004). Opening ceremony of the international conference on ‘Internationalization of lifelong education: 
Policy and issues’. Accessed 15 December 2016 at: www.edb.gov.hk/mobile/en/about-edb/press/
speeches/sed/2012/20041208126861.html

EDB (2014). Qualifications Register (QR). Accessed 15 December 2014 at: www.hkqr.gov.hk/HKQRPRD/

web/hkqr-en/ 

Government of HKSAR (Hong Kong Special Administrative Region) (n.d.) Qualifications Framework. 

Accessed 15 December 2016 at: www.hkqf.gov.hk/en/home/index.html

Government of HKSAR (2007). Hong Kong Council for Accreditation of Academic and Vocational 

Qualifications Ordinance. Cap. 1150. Accessed 21 February 2019 at: www.elegislation.gov.hk/hk/
cap1150

Government of HKSAR (2008).  

. Cap. 592. Accessed 21 February 2019 at: www.elegislation.gov.hk/hk/

cap592

Government of HKSAR (2018). 2017 Economic Background and 2018 Prospects. p. 105. Accessed 

20 February 2018 at: www.hkeconomy.gov.hk/en/pdf/er_17q4.pdf

Qualifications Framework Secretariat (2012). Award Titles Scheme and the use of Credit Qualifications. 
Accessed 10 January 2017 at: www.hkqf.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_14/ATS_and_Credit%20
Leaflet_E%202012.pdf 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

251

Volume II: National and regional casesHUNGARY

Introduction and context

Employment rates of recent graduates in 
Hungary are above the EU average for all levels 
of qualification; however, skill shortages are 
relatively high and influenced by low levels of 
tertiary education enrolment and completion. One 
challenge in the country has been an increasing 
percentage of students with low achievement in 
basic skills, particularly in terms of problem-solving, 
suggesting insufficient emphasis on the application 
of knowledge. This triggered revision of the 
national curriculum that started in 2017 (European 
Commission, 2017). The drop in performance was 
the highest in the EU, and accompanied by the 
strongest impact of socioeconomic background 
on outcomes. Contrary to the general EU trend 
in early school leaving (10.6% in 2017), the rate 
has increased (12.5% in 2017), especially among 
students from disadvantaged groups. An action 
plan to tackle this was adopted in 2016, including a 
system for early warning and pedagogical support. 
Participation of adults in lifelong learning is also 
below the EU average (6.2% in 2017 with an EU 
average of 10.9%); although recent legislative 
changes have brought some flexibility to vocational 
education and training (VET) and adult education, 
the age of career choice is lower. Despite being 
associated with a high overall employment rate for 
recent graduates (ISCED 3 and 4) (85.9 % against an 
EU average of 76.6 %, in 2017), the Hungarian VET 
system is marked by a significant gap between its 
two pathways at upper secondary level, vocational 
secondary schools and vocational grammar 
schools; the former has lower achievement and 
employability, higher dropout rates and fewer 
opportunities in terms of progression routes 
(European Commission, 2018).

The comprehensive national qualifications 
framework (NQF) for lifelong learning was adopted 
in July 2012 by a government decision and published 
in the Hungarian official journal362. It encompasses 

362  So far, six government decisions dealt with the 

establishment of the Hungarian qualifications 
framework: Government Decision No 2069/2008 

all State-recognised national qualifications that 
can be acquired in general education (primary 
school and secondary education, Matura), higher 
education qualifications363 (BA/BSc, MA/MSc and 
PhD, postgraduate specialisation training) and 
those vocational qualifications registered in the 
national vocational qualifications register (NVQR, 
in Hungarian (OKJ) (full, partial, add-on364)365). There 
has been progress in recent years in social dialogue 
and dissemination, and linking qualifications from 
all education and training subsystems to the 
Hungarian qualifications framework (HuQF) levels. 
Inclusion of certain types of non-formal training for 
NVQR qualifications, regulated by the Act on adult 
training366 is on the country’s policy agenda. 

At present, a new draft version of the government 
decree on the operation, governance and quality 
assurance of the HuQF is being formulated but 
has not been published yet. It is expected to be 
approved in 2019.

The HuQF was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and self-certified to 
the qualifications framework of the European higher 
education area in 2015.

(VI.6); Government Decision No 1004/2011 (I.14); 
Government Decision No 1229/2012 (VII.6); Government 
Decision No 1791/2013 (XI.7); Government Decree 
No 139/2015; Government Decree No 25/2016. 
https://net.jogtar.hu/jogszabaly?docid=A1600025.
KOR&timeshift=fffffff4&txtreferer=00000001.TXT
363  Government Decree No 139/2015 on the register of 

qualifications acquired in higher education. Advanced 
VET qualifications (higher VET programmes, short-cycle) 
(Felso˝fokú OKJ szakképesítés) at level 5 are included in 
the higher education register.

364  The NVQR distinguishes partial qualifications, which cover 
only a limited number of modules, (full) qualifications, 
which cover all modules of its partial qualifications and 
add-on qualifications containing additional module(s) built 
on a full qualification.

365  The Government Decree No 25/2016 (II.25) on NVQR 

covers State-recognised NVQR qualifications linked to the 
correct HuQF level.

366  Act LXXVII of 2013 on Adult Training. http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/

gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1300077.TV

252

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSPolicy objectives

The main aims for development of the HuQF are to 
have a comprehensive framework that includes all 
State-recognised Hungarian qualifications gained 
at different levels of education and training, and 
to strengthen the learning-outcomes approach 
at each level. The framework is expected to 
increase education and training transparency, and 
compatibility and transferability of qualifications 
between national education subsystems and 
between formal and non-formal pathways. 

The HuQF has the following objectives (Hungarian 
Education Authority, 2015):

a.  to create a coherent national qualification system 
by bringing together regulative measures of 
different subsystems of education and training 
into a unified system, including those acquired 
outside the formal system;

b.  to strengthen the outcome-based approach in 

regulatory documents; 

c.  to strengthen quality assurance systems;
d.  to recognise learning outcomes achieved in non-

formal and informal settings;

e.  to strengthen coordination of education 

and training policies and cooperation with 
stakeholders;

f.  to orient better the design of new qualifications 
and education and training programmes, and 
revision of existing qualifications;

g.  to provide better support to individual career 
choices, as well as career guidance and 
counselling systems; 

h.  to systematise information about qualifications 
and to make the system understandable to 
employers in a European context;
to improve the relevance of qualifications in the 
labour market.

i. 

The NQF can also play an important role in 
supporting lifelong learning in Hungary. Adult 
participation remains a challenge, especially among 
the unemployed. Only 50% of the population has at 
least basic digital skills; the country’s aim is to reach 
the EU average with respect to digital literacy and 
usage. The need to maintain and develop new skills 
and to adapt to structural challenges is still regarded 
as particularly challenging (European Commission, 
2018).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The HuQF has an eight-level structure and is 
viewed as a ‘communication framework’. The 
level descriptors were based on analysis of 
existing approaches in the relevant subsystems. 

The hierarchic and cumulative nature of the level 
descriptions of the EQF has been taken into account 
and applied in the HuQF. Learning outcomes are 
defined in four categories: knowledge, skills, 
attitudes and autonomy/responsibility (Hungarian 
Educational Authority, 2015). The ‘knowledge’ and 
‘skills’ categories are directly comparable with 
homologous categories in the EQF, the ‘autonomy/
responsibility’ category shares common features 
with the ‘competence’, current autonomy and 
responsibility category from the EQF, while the 
‘attitude’ category (which includes emotional, 
cognitive and behavioural components in relation  
to the object of learning) is not present as such  
in the EQF. 

The focus on learning outcomes has received 
greatest support from qualification developers 
and in research studies in different education and 
training subsystems. It has been mostly driven 
by EU policy and the need to link the HuQF to 
the EQF. However, stakeholders’ views differ 
based on their previous knowledge, information 
and involvement. According to a Cedefop study, a 
shift to learning outcomes has not been a clearly 
articulated policy objective in recent years (Cedefop, 
2016). In practice, the education subsystems 
differ significantly in the extent to which they 
are outcome-oriented, and they apply different 
terminology and varying notions of competence in 
defining outcome requirements/standards.

General education is dominated by a curriculum-
content-based approach. The core curriculum, issued 
in 2012, redefines key competences and broad 
standards in 10 subject areas as learning outcomes, 
or outcome requirements; these are described in 
terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes. However, 
general education in Hungary has placed the main 
emphasis on process and content regulation since 
2010367, with the only outcome requirements being 
standards in the upper secondary school leaving 
examination. The General Educational Strategy, 
adopted in November 2014368, has been developed 
for the 2014–20 period with fields of intervention 
such as inclusive education, the teaching of 
heterogeneous groups of students, reducing the 
rate of early school-leavers and supporting the 

367  The national curriculum (2012) reintroduced the definition 

of ‘mandatory minimum content’ (with extensive 
amounts), which together with the new mandatory, 
centrally published framework curricula and the central 
selection of textbooks, leave little professional autonomy 
for schools. 

368  General No 1603/2014 (XI.4) in a government decree 

on the acceptance of the general educational 
development strategy. www.kormany.hu/download/6/
fe/20000/K%C3%B6znevel%C3%A9s-fejleszt%C3%A9s.
pdf#!DocumentBrowse

253

Volume II: National and regional casesschool success of vulnerable groups. Revision of 
the national core curriculum started in 2017. The 
new national curriculum aims at incorporating 
the learning outcome-based approach (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018), introducing the 
concept of experience-based learning that requires 
cross-subject cooperation. It reduces the content 
knowledge and provides more opportunities 
for introducing various teaching methods, with 
considerable emphasis on methods related to digital 
education369. However, it is not yet known what 
form the final version of the curriculum will take 
since the action is still in process. 

There have been two VET reforms in the past 
12 years: in 2004–06 and in 2011–12. The new 
Vocational training Act came into force in September 
2013. As a result of the introduction of the Act, 
the National vocational qualifications register 
(NVQR) was revised and continuously renewed (the 
renewed NVQR was generally introduced in all VET 
schools from 2008). The main aim of the changes 
was to eliminate the overlaps and professional/
content-related duplication (parallelism) among the 
qualifications. The previous modular principle and 
the competence-based approach have been kept, 
vocational (basic/primary) qualifications, partial 
qualifications and specialisations were retained, 
but the total number of qualifications has been 
reduced by about half. VET qualifications pursued 
in higher education have been excluded from 
the NVQR, since 2013 such type of training may 
only be launched within higher education. The 
development of the new NVQR was coordinated 
by the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and 
Industry370. In the latest piece of legislation371 the 
VET qualifications are linked to the level of the 
HuQF372. Vocational education and training was 
also reformed, both in terms of governance and 
the modernisation of the contents of traditional 
‘skilled worker’ vocational qualifications; the 
training period has been shortened from four years 
to three years373. In September 2015, steps were 
also taken to bring VET closer to the labour market 
by transferring the supervision of VET schools 
under the Ministry for Innovation and Technology374 

and updating the content of VET programmes375. 
In 2018 the amended VET Act CXCII came into 
force, encouraging apprenticeships, establishing 
sectoral skills councils and introducing mandatory 
requirements for practical instructors376. 

One of the most significant impacts of the HuQF 
was the spread of the use of learning outcomes 
(as a means of output-based approach to training). 
The greatest change in this field was in higher 
education: learning outcomes have partly appeared 
in higher education qualifications requirements 
through regulatory measures and acts. All first and 
second cycle higher education programmes and 
qualifications in Hungary, including advanced VET 
qualifications, are increasingly described in terms 
of both input and outcome criteria. The learning 
requirements and outcomes for qualifications listed 
in the higher education qualifications register were 
defined in line with the HuQF level descriptors 
in August 2016377. These new standards describe 
the name and credit value of each programme, its 
learning outcomes, the study areas and the specific 
requirements for traineeship, the final thesis 
and foreign language skills. Requirements and 
outcomes apply to all higher education institutions 
wishing to offer a qualification. The higher education 
accreditation committee (HAS) – member of the 
European Association for Quality Assurance in 
Higher Education (ENQA) – has to assess new 
programme proposals in accordance with HuQF-
compatible outcome requirements defined in the 
educational and outcome requirements. As a next 
step, higher education institutions must adjust their 
curricula to the new standards and introduce them 
from September 2017 (European Commission, 
2017). However, student-centred learning, 
outcomes-based orientation and use of learning 
outcomes in designing programmes and learning 
modules are still key challenges in higher education.

The descriptions of education and training 
programmes in adult education do not always 
include the term learning outcomes. The learning 
outcome approach is spreading gradually in this sub-
system of education.

369  Source: Eurydice online database: https://eacea.

ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/national-
reforms-school-education-29_en

370  HCCI, Hungarian name and abbreviation: Magyar 

375  Government of Hungary (2016). National reform 

Kereskedelmi és Iparkamara, (MKIK).

programme 2016 of Hungary.

371  Government Decree on NVQR of 4 March 2016.
372  Source: https://ec.europa.eu/epale/en/resource-centre/

376  Cedefop (forthcoming).
377  Decree No 18/2016 (VIII.5) of the Ministry of Human 

content/hungarian-national-qualification-register
373  Source: Eurydice online database: https://eacea.

ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/ongoing-
reforms-and-policy-developments-29_en

374  www.kormany.hu/hu/innovacios-es-technologiai-

miniszterium

Resources on the educational and outcome requirements 
of higher vocational programmes, bachelor and master 
programmes and on the modification of Decree No 8/2013 
of the Ministry of Human Resources on the common 
requirements for teacher training and educational and 
outcome requirements for teacher training programmes.

254

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Overall responsibility for developing and 
implementing the HuQF, and for initiating related 
legislation, is shared between the Ministry of 
Human Resources and the Ministry for Innovation 
and Technology (previously Ministry for National 
Economy). The Ministry for Innovation and 
Technology is responsible for qualifications 
standards in the NVQR and, together with the 
Ministry of Human Capacities, for VET framework 
curricula. The National Office of VET and Adult 
Learning378 supervised by the Ministry for 
Innovation and Technology, ensures coordination and 
implementation of national VET and adult learning 
policies379.

The establishment of the HuQF and its referencing 
to the EQF was legislated through two government 
decisions, in 2008 and 2011, respectively380. 
Between 2011 and 2014, framework development 
was carried out as part of three different projects 
of the Social renewal operational programme: one 
for general education, one for higher education, and 
one for vocational and adult education. Each of the 
three projects was responsible for involving its own 
sector-specific stakeholders through conferences 
and workshops. To ensure coordination, information 
sharing, and harmonised working methods, an 
operational interministerial task force381 was set up 
and met regularly. A government decree 2012382 
regulated the governance or the development phase 
of the HuQF while a new decree on management 
and quality assurance of the framework is being 
prepared.

Professional and secretarial support to the 
interministerial task force has been provided by 
the education authority since September 2012. In 
spring 2012, the national coordination point was 
placed within the education authority as a project 
unit. The national coordination point and the Tempus 
Public Foundation organised subsector-specific and 
horizontal consultations and events. Of the three 
education subsystems, involving stakeholders 
from general education remains a challenge to be 
addressed.

Quality assurance is regulated by legal frameworks 
in education and training subsystems. Quality 

378  www.nive.hu/
379  Spotlight on VET – 2018 compilation (forthcoming).
380  Government Decision No 2069/2008 and No 1004/2011.
381  The operational task force consisted of the projects’ key 

experts, the Hungarian national coordination point and the 
Hungarian representative in the EQF advisory group.

382  Government Decree No 1229/2012.

assurance in general education, as stated in the 
Law on General Education, is built on the processes 
of accreditation, authorisation, registration, control 
and evaluation. The planned government decree on 
the HuQF and its further operation will establish 
the legal basis for connecting the framework and 
different aspects of quality assurance in general 
education (Hungarian Education Authority, 2015). 

The Educational Authority (Oktatási Hivatal )383 
and the Hungarian Accreditation Committee 
(Magyar Akkreditációs Bizottság)384 support the 
minister responsible for education in higher 
education monitoring and evaluation. The Hungarian 
Accreditation Committee plays an important role 
in quality assurance. However, since the HuQF 
government decree on the operation, governance 
and quality assurance is still pending, reference to 
higher education quality assurance processes is 
missing.

The Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and 
Industry, as a public body, has decisive powers 
in adult education; in some cases it has exclusive 
decision-making competences. The National 
Office of Vocational Education and Training and 
Adult Learning385 determines whether the quality 
assurance systems submitted to it can be matched 
to the quality assurance framework set out in the 
Minister’s decree. 

The new Act CXCII, which came in force in 2018386, 
reinforces the role of employers in education and 
training by establishing sectoral skills councils. 
They will take over the tasks of the National 
Qualification Committees in monitoring economic, 
labour-market and technological developments in 
their sectors, making proposals for modifying the 
NVQR and the improving training programmes. Their 
mandate started in July 2018 when the national 
legislation came into force. Sectoral skills councils 
representatives will take part in the National Council 
for VET and Adult Learning, a forum for reconciling 
professional interests, representing the sectors 
vis-à-vis the Hungarian Government387. VET students 
will have the option to acquire a VET qualification 

383  www.oktatas.hu/
384  www.mab.hu/web/index.php?lang=en
385  www.nive.hu/
386  This act aims at supporting practical 

training in dual VET programmes. https://
net.jogtar.hu/jogszabaly?docid=A1700192.
TV&timeshift=fffffff4&txtreferer=00000001.TXT
387  A total of 20 sectoral skills councils will be set up for 

41 economic sectors. Of these, 13 sectoral skills councils 
(for engineering, tourism and catering, commerce, 
information technology, etc.) were set up in 2017, while 
new councils in sectors such as services, food  
industry, and agriculture, are being formed in 2018. 

255

Volume II: National and regional casesin parallel to the vocational grammar school leaving 
certificate (Cedefop, forthcoming). 

The HuQF provides the opportunity for dialogue 
between various education institutions. However, 
there are relatively few opportunities for end-users 
and other employees of the education system to 
share experiences. Since qualifications are under 
the authority of two different ministries (Ministry 
of Human Resources, Ministry for Innovation and 
Technology), dialogue between the institutions is 
relatively slow. For this reason, the EQF national 
coordination point’s role to ease communication 
at policy level is becoming very important 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). Unified 
coordination mechanisms and quality assurance for 
the whole framework operation are needed for the 
future.  

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways388

The legal framework governing VET, higher 
education and adult education allows for validation 
and recognition of prior learning, but there is 
no comprehensive policy on validation of non-
formal and informal learning in the country. 
There is limited practice and sectoral approaches 
dominate validation development. In several 
recent strategies – on lifelong learning 2014–20389, 
mid-term strategy against early school leaving390, 

  More information at: www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news-
and-press/news/hungary-sectoral-skills-councils-linking-
quality-vet-jobs

388  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

389  Az egész életen át tartó tanulás szakpolitikájának 

keretstratégiája a 2014/2020 közötti ido˝szakra – Az európai 
uniós fejlesztéspolitikáért felelo˝s államtitkárság, 2016.11.11 
[Framework strategy for lifelong learning policy for  
2014–20, by the Secretariat responsible for the 
development policy, 11.11.2016]. The original documents 
are available on the Government’s website: www.
kormany.hu/download/7/fe/20000/Egész%20életen%20
át%20tartó%20tanulás.pdf

390  A végzettség nélküli iskolaelhagyás elleni középtávú 
stratégia [Medium-term strategy against early school 
leaving]. The original documents are available on the 
Government’s website: www.kormany.hu/download/ 
5/fe/20000/Végzettség%20nélküli%20iskolael 
hagyás%20.pdf 
The strategy targeting low-educated young people and 
adults mentions one of the tools a ’comprehensive 
national recognition model/knowledge recognition 
system’, the operation of which uses a nationally-based 
territorial network-based career advisory system. 
However, the text of the strategy does not contain any 
detailed information on that system.

national social catching up strategy391 – validation 
as an objective is explicitly mentioned but there 
is no coherent approach to the detailed tasks, 
procedures and precise responsibilities. In mid-2016, 
the government adopted a decision on the National 
digital education strategy392; its implementation 
and validation is mentioned in the chapter on adult 
learning as a tool for access to training (without 
detailed recommendations).

Current validation practice is fragmented, while 
essential elements (strategic goals, funding, 
stakeholder participation, quality assurance, 
preparation for participants) are missing. The 
development of validation practice in each sector 
is done through one-off projects. In the framework 
of the New Hungary development plan, various 
sectoral development projects were launched (in 
public education, vocational education and higher 
education) that had, to varying extents, the objective 
of establishing a validation procedure. According to 
the amended Higher education Act (2011)393, at least 
one third of the credits in a qualification should be 
earned in the institution issuing the diploma. Two 
thirds can be acquired in another way, including 
through validation of non-formal and informal 
learning. The development of validation in higher 
education394 was concluded in 2015 and integrated 
into the NQF development. 

In adult training, matching previously acquired 
competences with training standards, evaluation 
(mostly test) and exemption from a given part of 
the training program are steps of the recognition 
procedure. Prior learning assessment and 
recognition was defined as an individual right in the 
first act on adult training (2011), enacted in 2013395. 
The new Adult training Act retained this scheme, 
made the assessment of prior learning an obligation 

391  Magyar nemzeti társadalmi felzárkóztatási stratégia II 

(2011–20) [The National Catching Up Strategy II, 2011–20)]. 
The original documents are available on the Government’s 
website: www.kormany.hu/download/1/9c/20000/
Magyar%20NTFS%20II%20_2%20mell%20_ 
NTFS%20II.pdf  
The strategy does not give details about the interpretation 
of validation activity, but the target group is designated: 
drop-out students, Roma youth.

392  Magyarország Digitális Oktatási Stratégiája [Digital 

Education Strategy for Hungary]. The original document is 
available on the Government’s website: www.kormany.hu/
download/0/cc/d0000/MDO.pdf

393  Act CCIV of 2011 on National Higher Education.  

http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1100204.
TV (in Hungarian only).

394  In the framework of the Social renewal operational 

programme 4.1.3: Social renewal operational programme 
in the frame of the new Hungary national development 
plan.

395  Act LXXVII of 2013 on Adult Training. http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/

gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1300077.TV

256

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSin vocational education and language training but did 
not manage to ease the application process in the 
case of State-subsidised programmes (European 
Commission et al., forthcoming).

learning, higher education and general education, 
following the logic of three education and training 
subsystems.

VET provision is modularised and the qualifications 
and requirements are described in terms of 
competences, so VET is closer to the learning-
outcomes-based approach. Regulation of the VET 
examination system has been ‘open’ to validation 
since 1993 (Law on VET)396, making it possible for 
applicants to take an examination without entering 
a formal VET programme, though this option is not 
much used.

Without an overall validation policy and procedure, 
education institutions tend to operate validation 
autonomously in the framework of their given 
legal environment. Adapting to a learning-
outcomes approach remains the major difficulty 
in implementing validation in Hungary as training 
programmes are not written in the form of 
learning outcomes. However, there are two very 
successful validation procedures in the field of 
single competence certification; the European 
computer driving licence examination scheme, 
which provides certification for ICT skills obtained 
by any means, and the foreign language proficiency 
examinations397.

Further NQF development and implementation 
is expected to assist validation through use of 
the learning outcomes approach and because 
the framework is open to including qualifications 
obtained through validation of prior learning 
achieved in non-formal and informal settings. 
However, no rules have been set out on the link 
between validation and the NQF. Validation mostly 
takes place in education institutions and social 
partners are not involved in its development.

NQF implementation

The HuQF was formally adopted by Government 
Decision No 1229/2012 and is partly operational. 
Since the adoption of the framework, its 
development and implementation has been 
carried out in the three projects of the Social 
renewal operational programme: VET and adult 

Over recent years, NQF developments were closely 
linked to new legal provisions in all subsystems 
of education and training: VET law (2011)398 and 
amendments, law on general education (2011)399, 
act on adult learning (2013)400 and amended law on 
higher education (2011)401.

A new NQF government decree is under 
development, aiming to streamline and formalise 
the governance, management and quality assurance 
of the HuQF. 

Currently, qualifications included in the framework 
are State-recognised from general education, 
vocational qualification included in the NVQR and 
higher education qualification, as well as certain 
types of adult education certificate (type B training 
certificate under the Act on adult training. The 
qualifications not included in the framework are 
those of authority regulated training402, language 
training certificates, and ‘other’ training programmes 
(under the scope of the Adult training law), 
international qualifications and those awarded by 
private providers. 

Following the legal basis for general education (Act 
on national general education) qualifications have 
been linked to HuQF levels: the leaving certificate 
awarded after six grades of primary school; the 
primary education qualification certifying the 
completion of the first eight grades; the secondary 
education qualification certifying the completion 
of secondary education after the 12th grade; 
the certificate for the secondary school leaving 
examination; and the two bridge programmes403. 
With the exception of the secondary school school-
leaving exam (level 4), the HuQF levels are not 
indicated on certificates or diplomas of general 
education). 

In VET, following the Act on vocational education and 
training, assignment of VET qualifications to HuQF 

398  Act CLXXXVII of 2011 on VET. http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/

getdoc2.cgi?dbnum=1&docid=A1100187.TV.
399  Act CXC of 2011 on National Public Education.
400  Act LXXVII of 2013 on Adult Training. http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/

gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1300077.TV.

396  Act CLXXXVII of 2011 on VET. http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/

401  Act CCIV of 2011 on National Higher Education. http://net.

getdoc2.cgi?dbnum=1&docid=A1100187.TV

jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1100204.TV 

397  These examinations have traditionally been open to 

learners from any learning environment; applicants can 
acquire certification (of the level in accordance with their 
actual language proficiency) without participating in any 
language training course (they can learn on their own in an 
informal way). www.nyak.hu/default-eng.asp

402  Provided by the relevant ministries 
403  Bridge programmes are one-year programmes that 
prepare students who have not completed lower 
secondary studies or who performed so poorly that they 
were not admitted to upper secondary education to 
continue their studies in vocational schools.

257

Volume II: National and regional caseslevels started with those included in the NVQR; this 
used technical comparisons between qualifications 
and HuQF descriptors and – if needed – social 
judgement and examination of legal backgrounds. 
In 2016, a government decree404 on the NVQR 
regulated the possibility for HuQF and EQF levels 
to be added to vocational education certificates. The 
new government decree405 modifies some rules of 
VET and the HuQF levels are to be presented on 
VET certifications from 2019 (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).

Reference qualifications from higher education and 
higher vocational qualifications were also assigned 
to HuQF levels. In higher education, the regulation406 
adopted made it compulsory to indicate HuQF and 
EQF levels in diplomas and to revisit and adjust the 
educational and outcome requirements for higher 
education study programmes in line with HuQF 
descriptors. Bachelor and master degrees include 
the relevant HuQF level. The levelling is not yet 
indicated on doctoral degrees. 

For future stages of development, the framework is 
open to linking qualifications acquired in non-formal 
settings, training regulated by the Adult education 
Act, international qualifications and other certificates 
awarded by private providers.

Two registers have been established: VET 
qualifications are included in the NVQR407 and higher 
education programmes and qualifications in the 
higher education register408. 

The HuQF currently serves as an instrument for 
transparency and communication of qualifications 
for experts and stakeholders, and plays a role in 
the lifelong learning narrative, but concrete actions 
are still limited. Within its limited budgetary and 
human resources capacity, the national coordination 
point has carried out information and dissemination 
activities, and staged workshops aimed at raising 
awareness about learning outcomes approaches 
among target groups from the different education 
subsystems. The development of a three-year 
communication plan is in progress, informing 
in various ways about the framework, using 
interactive methods, and participation in public 

404  Government Decree 25/2016 (II.25). http://net.

jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1600025.
KOR&timeshift=fffffff4&txtreferer=00000001.TXT

405  Government Decree 307/2018. (XII.27.)
406  Government Decree No 87/2015. (IV.9) on the execution of 

certain provisions of Act CCIV of 2011 on National Higher 
Education.

407  www.nive.hu/index.php?option=com_

content&view=article&id=297

events (job fairs, vocational exhibitions, workshops, 
conferences, and teacher training programmes). The 
communication plan focuses mostly on learners in 
general education, students in higher education, 
guidance counsellors and participants in adult 
education. Nevertheless, end-user knowledge of the 
framework is considered limited and no evaluation 
of the impact of the framework has yet been carried 
out (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The Hungarian qualifications framework was 
referenced to the EQF and self-certified to the 
qualifications framework of the European higher 
education area in 2015409. An updated referencing 
report is planned for 2020, following changes in the 
national qualification system, particularly in VET and 
inclusion of new qualifications. 

Important lessons and future plans

One main role of the NQF is to function as an 
interface between education and the labour market; 
it is crucial to get all stakeholders on board. As 
HuQF development has been running within three 
separate projects, following the three education 
subsystems (VET, higher education, general 
education), cross-subsystem cooperation remains 
a challenge. Adoption of the HuQF government 
decree (pending) streamlining and formalising 
its governance, and management and quality 
assurance of the HuQF would be an important 
step into full implementation of the framework. 
This requires further clarification of HuQF policy 
goals, agreeing roles and responsibilities and overall 
coordination of the HuQF for lifelong learning as 
well as intermediary implementation structures. An 
explicit strategic vision to integrate the HuQF in the 
different education subsystems is still to be defined. 
Future tasks include involving stakeholders from 
general education, as well as wider dissemination 
of the benefits of the framework among end-users 
(students, parents, employers and employees). 
Awareness among guidance practitioners and 
employment services – currently still low – could be 
raised through conferences and seminars (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Following the work on HuQF development and on 
the referencing process, use of learning outcomes 
is still identified as a key area for further work. 
HuQF development work and related work on 

408  www.felvi.hu/felveteli/szakok_kepzesek/

409  The report is available at: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/

szakleirasok/!Szakleirasok/index.php/szakterulet

sites/eac-eqf/files/HuQF_referencing_report.pdf

258

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSvalidation has generated more understanding of the 
learning outcomes approach and initiated revision 
of regulatory documents. Three supporting projects 
in school education, VET and higher education have 
disseminated the learning outcomes approach to a 
wider circle of stakeholders. However, the education 
subsystems are at different stages of development 
in this regard and strengthening the learning 
outcomes approach is an important step in moving 

on. In line with the lessons of the referencing report 
on the HuQF, revision of the contents of training 
programmes leading to qualifications at levels 5–7 
(higher vocational education and training, bachelor 
courses, master courses) was completed in 2016. 
Full implementation in practice among teachers and 
adult educators is an important task for the future. 

Table 31. Hungarian national qualifications framework (HuQF)

HUQF 
LEVELS

TYPES OF QUALIFICATION

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

PhD/DLA (doctor of liberal arts) (Doktori fokozat)

Master degree (MA/MSc) (Mesterfokozat) 

Bachelor degree (BA/BSc) (Alapfokozat)
Advanced VET qualifications (entry requirement is BSc degree) (Felso˝fokú 
szakképzettség)

Advanced VET qualifications (higher VET programmes – short cycle) (Felso˝fokú OKJ 
szakképesítés)
Postsecondary full and add-on* VET qualifications (based on upper secondary school 
leaving examination) (Érettségire épülo˝ szakirányú OKJ szakképesítés)

Certificate for upper secondary school leaving examination (érettségi bizonyítvány)
General upper secondary school leaving certificate (gimnáziumi záróbizonyítvány)
Vocational grammar school leaving certificate (szakgimnáziumi záróbizonyítvány)
Vocational secondary school leaving certificate (szakközépiskolai záróbizonyítvány)
Full/add-on* VET qualification of vocational secondary schools (szakiskolában 
megszerezheto˝ teljes vagy ráépüléses OKJ szakképesítés)
Partial**/full VET qualification of vocational grammar schools (szakgimnáziumban 
megszerezheto˝ rész- vagy teljes OKJ szakképesítés)

Leaving certificate and VET qualification (vocational schools for SEN students) 
(Speciális szakiskolai záróbizonyítvány és OKJ szakképesítés)
Lower secondary and secondary*** level partial**, full and add-on* VET qualifications 
(Alapfokú és középfokú teljes, rész- és ráépüléses OKJ szakképesítés) 

Primary (general) school leaving qualification (primary level educational attainment) 
(eight years) (általános iskolai záróbizonyítvány)
Leaving certificate of skills development (vocational schools for SEN students) eight 
years) (Speciális készségfejleszto˝ szakiskolai bizonyítvány) 
Partial** VET qualification after Vocational Bridge Programme (Híd program tanúsítvány)

Leaving certificate after six grades of primary school (for those who move to general 
secondary schools covering grades 7–12) (6. osztályos általános iskolai bizonyítvány)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(*) 

Add-on qualifications build on one or more full qualifications. These consist of additional modules that extend the scope 
of activities for which the holder is qualified.

(**)  Partial qualifications cover a subset of the modules included in a full qualification. They prepare the holder for simpler 

occupations or for a narrower scope of tasks.

(***)  Lower secondary and secondary qualifications have different access requirements.

Source: Hungarian Education Authority, 2016.

259

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
EQF  
HuQF  
NQF  
NVQR  
VET  

European qualifications framework
Hungarian qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
national vocational qualifications register
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Education Authority – hosting the EQF national coordination point: www.oktatas.hu/
HuQF website: www.oktatas.hu/kepesiteseknyito/kepesitesek/magyar_kepesitesi_keretrendszer
Register of vocational qualifications – NVQR (OKJ): www.nive.hu/index.php?option=com_

content&view=article&id=297

Register of higher education programmes and qualifications: www.felvi.hu/felveteli/szakok_kepzesek/

szakleirasok/!Szakleirasok/index.php/szakterulet

Hungarian Education Authority (2015). Referencing and self-certification report of the Hungarian 

qualifications framework to the EQF and to the QF-EHEA. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/
files/HuQF_referencing_report.pdf

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning-outcomes approaches across Europe. A comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office.

Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–19: Hungary. 

Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies. 

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Hungary. 
European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Hungary. https://ec.europa.eu/
education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-hungary_en.pdf
European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report Hungary.

Hungarian Education Authority (2015). Referencing and self-certification report of the Hungarian 

qualifications framework to the EQF and to the QF-EHEA. Budapest: Hungarian Education Authority. 
https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/HuQF_referencing_report.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

260

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSICELAND

Introduction and context

Policy objectives

Over recent years, the Icelandic education system 
has seen improvements in several key indicators of 
education and training. Iceland has exceeded the 
EU 2020 benchmark target on tertiary educational 
attainment (53.7% in 2017) and the employment 
rate of recent graduates is the highest in Europe 
(94.8% in 2016). Participation in adult learning also 
stands out, being only exceeded by Denmark, 
Finland, Sweden and Switzerland. However, early 
school leaving is still a challenge. The proportion 
of early leavers from education and training in 
2017 was 17.8% (22.5% for males and 12.7% for 
females). This is the third highest in the EU and 
EFTA (European Free Trade Association) countries 
(European Commission, 2018). Iceland has 
developed a national framework – the Icelandic 
qualifications framework (ISQF) – consisting of 
seven learning-outcomes-based levels covering 
all levels and types of qualification in the formal 
education and training system. Work started in 2006 
and has been closely linked to extensive reform of 
the Icelandic education system, including changes 
in legislation and education policy. The focus on 
the learning outcomes principle and the national 
qualifications levels was central to these changes. 
An earlier version of the ISQF was presented in 
2013 and revised in 2016. 

The main objective of the ISQF, formally adopted 
in October 2016, was to make sure that all formally 
certified education and training was referenced 
to a national qualifications framework (NQF) level. 
Compared to the 2013 ISQF, the 2016 ISQF is 
broader in scope as it includes qualifications from 
compulsory, upper secondary and tertiary education 
as well as from certified adult learning pathways. 
Level descriptors have been revised and the ISQF 
levels 5 and 6 split into sublevels.

The 2013 version of the ISQF was formally 
referenced to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) in December 2013 (Icelandic 
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, 2014). 
It is envisaged that an updated reference report will 
be submitted to the EQF advisory group in 2019.

The ISQF is defined as a lifelong learning framework 
and aims to cover all levels and types of education 
and training offered in the country. The framework 
is designed to make the pathways through the 
education system clearer, to increase student 
mobility within the country and between countries, 
and to motivate further learning.

The framework builds on a set of acts on education 
and training410, based on the learning outcomes 
approach. 

a.  The Compulsory School Act No 91/2008 offers 
the lowest level of certified training (hence 
level 1 in the ISQF, covers both level 1 and 2 
in the EQF). Attendance is compulsory for all 
children aged 6 to 16 and all of them graduate 
formally, regardless of their grades. 

b.  The Upper Secondary Education Act No 92/2008 

provides for a decentralised approach to 
organising study programmes and curricula. 
Education providers have a great responsibility, 
and enjoy considerable autonomy, in developing 
study programmes and curricula in general 
education and vocational education and training. 
The learning pathways have to be accredited by 
the Directorate of Education.

c.  The Higher Education Act No 63/2006 refers 
to the Bologna process and the introduction 
of a three-cycle approach for Icelandic higher 
education. 

d.  The Adult Education Act No 27/2010 only covers 
training for people who do not have an education 
qualification below ISQF level 4 (EQF 3). 

No separate legislative basis has yet been 
developed for the ISQF: this has been deemed 
unnecessary due to the integration of framework 
developments into the acts outlined above.

410  Links to all these acts in English can be found at: www.
government.is/publications/legislation/$LisasticSearch/
Search/?SearchQuery=&Ministries=Ministry+of+ 
Education+Science+and+Culture&Themes= 
Education&ContentTypes= 

261

Volume II: National and regional casesLevels and use of learning outcomes 

The Icelandic NQF, through its systematic 
application of learning outcomes, is seen as a tool 
for reviewing the overall functioning of education 
and training and supporting long-term reform. The 
ISQF consists of seven learning-outcomes-based 
levels, with two sub-levels at levels 5 and 6. The 
reason for the sub-division of levels 5 and 6 is 
that there are two different types of qualifications 
available for each of them. 

and the occupational councils, special attention is 
given to the link to NQF levels and is one of the 
prerequisites for accreditation. When developing 
templates for graduation certificates (diplomas) 
for upper secondary schools, emphasis will be on 
cooperation with higher education, as well as with 
the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture and 
members from upper secondary schools. At tertiary 
level, each university is responsible for assigning 
its offers to an NQF level (European Commission; 
Cedefop, 2018).

The level descriptors reflect knowledge, skills and 
competences, and the importance attributed to 
key competences and transversal skills. They are 
presented in an integrated way, where the increase 
in knowledge, skills and competences from one 
level to the next is clear and understandable411. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

A wide range of stakeholders from education and 
training, and from the labour market, has been 
involved in developing the ISQF. In between the 
adoption of the two versions of the ISQF, these 
stakeholders worked on a proposal, which was 
presented to the Ministry of Education, Science 
and Culture in autumn 2016. It was approved by 
the Ministry and formally signed by stakeholders in 
October 2016. 

From 2015 to 2017, the Icelandic Centre for  
Research – Rannís412 – was in charge of NQF 
coordination and implementation. The national 
coordination point was transferred to the Directorate 
of Education413 at the beginning of 2018. It is under 
the supervision of the Ministry of Education, 
Science and Culture. One of the main reasons for 
this transfer is that the Directorate has the role of 
certifying education provision at upper secondary 
level and in adult education. 

The Directorate of Education will continue to 
encourage the use of ISQF and EQF by social 
partners, public employment services and education 
providers. An important factor in this work will be 
to finish the accreditation of all study programmes 
within upper secondary education and within 
both general education and vocational education 
and training. Within this process, which involves 
the work of both the formal education system 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways414

A national strategy for validating non-formal and 
informal learning is in place for people with low 
levels of education and qualifications. Most of 
the work undertaken on validating non-formal 
and informal learning has been carried out by the 
Education and Training Service Centre415. The target 
group for the work of the centre and of its validation 
activities is people with little formal education; 
around 22% of those aged 25 to 64 on the labour 
market have not completed upper secondary 
education416.

The main objective of the national validation strategy 
is opening pathways for people with little formal 
education, focusing mainly on reducing the length 
of studies based on curricula at upper secondary 
level, and where a unit-based system is in place. 
The process focuses on assessing competences 
within each curriculum subject with a specific unit 
value. The results are calculated as recognised 
credits and certified specifically as ’passed’ into a 
general databank for upper secondary schools and 
formal adult learning. It is possible to obtain a full 
qualification through validation in some sectors, 
however this is rarely the case and a full qualification 
as a skilled worker is not granted until a trade – or 
journeyman’s examination – is completed. Validation 
against standards in specific occupations has not 
been linked to a credit system or modularised 
structure of qualifications. 

The Education and Training Service Centre 
works according to contract with the Ministry of 
Education, Science and Culture. Validation of prior 

411  www.government.is/media/menntamalaraduneyti-media/

media/frettatengt2016/Haefnirammi_A4_enska_anlogo.pdf

412  Icelandic Centre for Research: https://en.rannis.is/
413  The Directorate of Education: https://mms.is/directorate-

education

414  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming). 

415  Education and Training Service Centre: www.frae.is/ 

um-okkur/about-us/

416  Statistics Iceland, data from 2017: www.statice.is/

262

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSlearning (VPL) projects is conducted in cooperation 
with lifelong learning centres distributed around the 
country. VPL has a legal framework in Iceland and 
its practices are based on a regulation introduced  
in 2011.

c.  It is proposed that each university faculty 

develops its VPL to shorten the study time 
required, hence there may be differences 
between faculties. 

d.  The committee suggests a pilot project where 

Around 60 pathways at upper secondary school 
level have been validated against curricula at ISQF 
levels 2–3 (EQF levels 3–4), evenly spread between 
the certified trades and other sectors. In 2016–17, 
around 955 individuals had their competences 
validated: 426 within the certified trades; 404 
against curricula in other sectors; and 113 against 
specific occupational standards, of which 86 were 
linked to employability skills. Only 12 individuals 
had their competences validated against general 
subjects. In 2017, 6% of participants in VPL projects 
were immigrants. In the Erasmus KA3 project  
VISKA 2017–20 (visible skills for adults), the focus 
is on developing methods and processes for 
increasing migrants’ access to VPL processes, 
education and work417.

There have been developments in validation linked 
to occupational standards in cooperation with 
stakeholders in the service and tourism sectors, 
which have been growing rapidly. Validation of 
occupational standards for lighting technicians and 
sound technicians has already been successfully 
introduced. Pilot projects are to be planned soon 
for ISQF level 4/EQF level 5. A committee has been 
working over the last two years on developing VPL 
in higher education; it presented its findings in a 
report in June 2018418. The committee submitted 
four proposals on the development of VPL in higher 
education based on its work: 

a.  To support VPL in higher education, it is vital to 

coordinate a common understanding of VPL and 
the best practices to be used. Regulations need 
to be clear and it is very important to ensure a 
common definition of VPL and of ensuring that 
laws and regulations on the issue at the level 
of higher education are coordinated, although 
each education institution will devise its own 
implementation methods. Quality assurance is a 
vital part of carrying out VPL in higher education 
and it is important to keep track of statistics and 
results. 

b.  The committee suggests that an independent 
third party, e.g. the Directorate of Education or 
the Education and Training Service Centre, will 
conduct the validation. 

417  www.viskaproject.eu 
418  http://frae.is/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Raunf%C3% 
A6rnimat-%C3%A1-h%C3%A1sk%C3%B3lastigi- 
ni%C3%B0urst%C3%B6%C3%B0ur-vinnuh%C3% 
B3ps.pdf

VPL methods are developed in chosen faculties 
at university level, such as engineering, 
computer science and education. The methods 
developed in this project could be used in other 
faculties in the future. 

Validation methodology is not used at university 
level, but some university departments partly 
consider candidates’ work experience during intake 
procedures. 

NQF implementation

The first version of the ISQF was referenced to 
the EQF in December 2013. The revised ISQF was 
agreed upon by all stakeholders in October 2016 
and can be described as having reached an early 
operational stage.

The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture 
coordinates developments, supported by the 
Directorate of Education and Rannís. Recently the 
national website for the NQF/EQF was transferred 
to the Directorate of Education419.

The Directorate of Education will work closely with 
education providers to ensure that all new education 
offers will be assigned to the relevant qualification 
level. The compilation of a guidebook is envisaged, 
where education providers will be instructed in 
the whole process, from the creation of learning 
outcomes to a formal education offer where 
education content is referenced to the appropriate 
qualification level. The guidebook is seen as a living 
document which will be edited and updated when 
needed. 

The Directorate of Education will also continue 
supporting the setting up and use of the NQF and 
EQF by clearly referencing the appropriate NQF and 
EQF level on qualification documents. The focus 
will be on developing templates for graduation 
certificates (diplomas) for upper secondary school 
in close cooperation with the Ministry of Education, 
Science and Culture and the school community 
(European Commission; Cedefop, 2018).

A clear focus on learning outcomes through the 
development of the ISQF has been beneficial for 
the process of validating non-formal and informal 

419  https://mms.is/directorate-education

263

Volume II: National and regional caseslearning as well as for the recognition of foreign 
qualifications. It is also anticipated that the 
framework will provide transparency of standards 
and will promote a more open mindset towards 
non-formal and informal learning.

The link to higher education seems important in 
the years to come. This is linked to the discussions 
taking place at European level on changes to the 
Bologna Reform process, which is expected to be 
adopted in 2019.

One of the main challenges for adult education 
is to validate learning acquired in the non-formal 
system for formal education. At present, there is 
an unclear understanding of qualifications at adult 
education level and one of the next steps in the 
process is to set up curricula development, curricula 
certification, quality management and certified 
learning outcomes in adult education. The validation 
of non-formal education will be a vital element 
in this respect and there are expectations that in 
the future, all adult education qualifications will be 
formally assigned to an ISQF level. It is anticipated 
that a new act on adult education (expected in 2019 
or 2020) will be helpful in achieving this, as it is 
intended to stipulate that adult education curricula 
exceeding 40 hours in duration should be validated 
and certified. A vital part of the accreditation 
process of adult education curricula is the process 
of assigning qualifications to the correct ISQF level. 
Curricula in adult education has been accredited 
and assigned to ISQF levels since the agreement 
on the framework in the year 2016. The Directorate 
of Education and the Education and Training Service 
Centre are fully aware of the older curricula that 
have not gone through the same accreditation 
process and are, therefore, not properly linked to 
the ISQF. Dialogue is continuing on this issue. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

The link between the EQF and the ISQF is described 
in the Icelandic referencing report, submitted to the 
EQF advisory group in December 2013 (Icelandic 
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, 2014). 
It is anticipated that it will submit an updated 
referencing report based on the 2016 revision to the 
EQF advisory group in 2019.

ISQF/EQF levels are included in all formal 
qualifications certificates and Europass supplements 
(both the Diploma supplement and the Certificate 
supplements420). A discussion on whether to 
indicate the ISQF/EQF levels on certificates in adult 
education is currently taking place.

Important lessons and challenges

The overarching framework of the ISQF has created 
a dialogue between different education providers. 
That in itself has created greater understanding 
of different types of education, training and 
qualifications across the sector, although there 
is still a considerable way to go to reach parity 
of esteem between types of qualifications, both 
inside the education system, and in the eyes of the 
general public. A main challenge in the next few 
years is to continue the process of dialogue and 
information. 

Table 32. Icelandic qualifications framework (ISQF)

ISQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

7

6.2

6.1

5.2

5.1

Doctoral degree (Doktorspróf)

Master and candidatus degree (Meistarapróf)

Degree at master level but without a research report (Próf á meistarastigi)

Bachelor degree (Bakkalárpróf)

Diploma degree (short cycle) (Diplómapróf)

420  These supplements can be found at: www.erasmusplus.

is/menntun/stodverkefni/europass 

264

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 32. Icelandic qualifications framework (ISQF) (Continued)

ISQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

4

3

2

1

Additional studies of vocational subjects (Viðbótarnám á framhaldsskólastigi)

Matriculation examination (Stúdentspróf)

Upper secondary school leaving 
certificate (Framhaldsskólapróf)
Other final examinations (Önnur lokapróf)

Vocational examination for professional 
rights (Réttindapróf í starfsmenntun)

Vocational qualification for professional 
rights (Próf í starfsmenntun)

Compulsory school final examinations (Grunnskólapróf)
Diploma in adult education (Diplómapróf í fullorðinsfræðslu)

EQF 
LEVELS

5

4

3

2

Source: Icelandic Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, 2017.

Abbreviations
EQF  
ISQF  
NQF  
VPL  

European qualifications framework
Icelandic qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
validation of prior learning

Main sources of information

Directorate of Education – acting as EQF national coordination point: https://mms.is/directorate-education
Icelandic qualifications database: www.menntabrunnur.is
Information and documents covering Icelandic developments – available on the website of the Icelandic 

Ministry of Education, Science and Culture: http://eng.menntamalaraduneyti.is/ 

Icelandic Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (2014). Reference report of the Icelandic qualifications 
framework to the European qualifications framework on lifelong learning: https://ec.europa.eu/
ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/EQF_Reference_Report_2014.pdf

References

European Commission (2018). Education and Training Monitor 2018: EU targets for 2020. https://ec.europa.

eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/2018-et-monitor-leaflet_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

[unpublished].

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report Iceland.

Icelandic Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (2014). Reference report of the Icelandic qualifications 
framework to the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning. Reykjavík: Icelandic 
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/EQF_
Reference_Report_2014.pdf

Statistics Iceland: www.statice.is

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

265

Volume II: National and regional casesINDIA

Introduction and context

India is one of the youngest nations in the world: 
more than 62% of its population is working age 
(15–59 years old) and over 54% is aged 25 or below. 
It is estimated that, by 2020, the average age of 
the population in India will be 29, compared to 40 
in the USA, 46 in Europe and 47 in Japan (World 
Population Prospects, 2019). In fact, although the 
labour force in the more economically developed 
countries is expected to decline by 4% in the next 
20 years, it is expected to rise by 32% in India. 
This poses both a formidable challenge and a huge 
opportunity: To reap this demographic dividend 
(which is expected to last for at least 25 years 
(MSDE 2018), India needs to equip its workforce 
with the skills and knowledge that is needed to 
contribute substantively to the economic growth of 
the country.

India presently faces a dual challenge of paucity 
of highly trained workforce, as well as non-
employability of large sections of the conventionally 
educated youth who possess little or no job skills. 
According to a recent report by the country’s 
National Sample Survey Office, only 2.2% of 
the population aged 15–59 have received formal 
vocational training and only 8.6% have received non-
formal vocational training (MSDE, 2018). A skill gap 
study conducted by the National Skill Development 
Corporation from 2010 to 2014 revealed a net 
incremental requirement of 109.73 million skilled 
workers by 2022 in 24 key sectors (MSDE, 
2015, p. 6). Another challenge in India the public 
perception of technical and vocational education 
and training (TVET), which is seen as a last resort 
for those who have been unable to progress or who 
have opted out of the formal academic system. 
Efforts have been made by the government to make 
skilling relevant and responsive to industry needs 
and attractive to the country’s youth. 

In response to these challenges, the Government 
of India has implemented over 40 skills 
development programmes in over 20 ministries/
departments. However, these programmes are 
hampered by gaps in the capacities and quality 

266

of training of instructors, insufficient focus on 
workforce aspirations, lack of certifications and 
common standards, and a pointed lack of focus 
on the unorganised sector421. Recognizing the 
need to coordinate the efforts of all concerned 
stakeholders in the field of skill development and 
entrepreneurship, the government formed the 
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 
in 2014. The Ministry is responsible for the country’s 
skill development agenda, which was launched in 
2015 with an aim to catalysing skills development 
and creating a system that imparts employable skills 
to India’s growing workforce.

That same year, the Ministry also published the 
2015 National Policy on Skill Development and 
Entrepreneurship, which replaced the 2009 National 
Skill Development Policy and is designed to 
guide skills development strategies and initiatives 
and provide clarity and coherence on how skill 
development efforts across the country can be 
aligned with existing institutional arrangements 
to improve the employability and productivity of 
learners (MSDE, 2015). The policy aims to transcend 
both general and vocational education by providing 
a national framework for the implementation of 
learning activities in order to:

•  align them with international standards;
• 

link knowledge and skills with the demands of 
the labour market; 
identify the various institutional frameworks that 
can help achieve successful outcomes. 

• 

Realizing the need to have a unified framework 
that covers both TVET and general education, 
the government’s cabinet secretariat formed an 
interministerial committee with an aim to developing 

421  ‘Unorganised sector’, when used in the Indian contexts 
defined by the National Commission for Enterprises 
in the Unorganised Sector, can be interpreted as ‘[...] 
consisting of all unincorporated private enterprises 
owned by individuals or households engaged in the 
sale or production of goods and services operated on a 
proprietary or partnership basis and with less than ten 
total workers’. 

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSa National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF). 
This new framework is implemented through 
the National Skills Qualifications Committee and 
comprises both the National Vocational Qualifications 
Framework and the National Vocational Educational 
Qualifications Framework. More specifically, the 
functions of the Committee are to:

•  approve the national occupational standards, 
which sets out the performance criteria, 
knowledge and skills required by a certain job role;

•  approve the accreditation norms developed by 

Policy objectives

The NSQF aims to provide for multiple pathways, 
horizontal as well as vertical, within both TVET 
and formal education, thus linking one level of 
learning to another. This enables learner to develop 
competencies, transit to the job market and acquire 
additional skills to upgrade their competencies  
later on.

More specifically, the NSQF provides:

the Sector Skills Councils for training providers in 
the sector; 

• 

•  prescribe guidelines for ensuring that 

recognition of skill proficiency and competencies 
at different levels, leading to international 
equivalency;

implementing agencies, including training 
providers, address the special needs of 
disadvantaged sections of the population, 
including persons with disabilities and members 
of Scheduled Castes and Tribes and other 
disadvantaged groups, including women and 
girls; 
review and resolve any issues/disputes among 
ministries/departments/regulatory bodies 
regarding the alignment of courses to the NSQF, 
credit transfer, etc.; 
respond to all matters requiring a cross-sectoral 
approach, such as credit accumulation and 
transfer, recognition of non-formal learning, 
apprenticeship, online and distance learning, 
lateral mobility and bridging courses; 

• 

• 

•  multiple entry and exit points between vocational 
education, skills training, general education, 
technical education and the job markets;

•  progression pathways defined within the skills 

qualification framework;

•  opportunities to promote lifelong learning and 

skills development;

•  partnership with industries/employers;
•  a transparent, accountable and credible 

mechanism for skills development across various 
sectors;
increased potential for recognition of prior 
learning.

• 

The objectives of the NSQF are to:

•  coordinate and align Indian qualifications to 

•  accommodate the diversity of the Indian 

international qualifications frameworks to allow 
international mobility; 

education and training systems;

•  allow for the development of a set of 

•  address all transition issues, including developing 

suitable mechanisms for recognizing and 
aligning any qualifications that predate the 
implementation of the NSQF; 

•  map all existing certificates, diplomas and 

degrees and identify gaps, if any; 

•  determine whether progression from one level 
to another should be allowed for a specific 
course/discipline (e.g. should a progression link 
be established between a nursing qualification 
and a medical one?); 

•  determine progression pathways and decide 
how the progression will take place, i.e. how 
much credit would be allowed for movement 
from one level to the next and how such 
progression can be facilitated; 

•  determine progression links between courses 

and certifications that are granted by regulatory 
and/or professional bodies, and those that are 
currently unregulated; 
identify and specify bridge courses and 
processes, if any, which can be used to progress 
from one level to another; 

• 

•  establish and maintain high standards for skill 

training in each sector.

qualifications for each level, based on outcomes 
that are accepted across the nation;

•  provide structure for the development and 

maintenance of progression pathways in order 
to provide access to qualifications and enable 
learners to move easily and readily between 
different education and training sectors  
and between those sectors and the labour 
market;

•  give individuals an option to progress through 
education and training and gain recognition for 
their prior learning and experiences.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NSQF is competency-based framework 
composed of 10 levels, each representing a  
different level of complexity of knowledge, skills  
and aptitude, though not all of these factors are 
required at all levels. Level 1 of the framework 
represents the most basic skills a person is 
expected to have, while Level 10 represents skills 
with the greatest complexity (see Table 33). The 
levels are defined by descriptors in the form of 

267

Volume II: National and regional caseslearning outcomes and are characterized by the 
following competences: 

•  professional knowledge: what the person must 

know at that level;

•  professional skills: what the person should be 

able to do at that level;

•  core skills: soft and interpersonal skills;
• 

responsibility: the degree of supervision a 
person needs when doing a job or the degree 
of supervision a person is capable of exercising 
over others.

These are the competences a learner must possess 
regardless of whether they were acquired through 
formal, informal or non-formal education and 
training. The NSQF is expected to align curricula 
with the skills needs of industry and enhance 
flexibility in the provision of vocational courses 
by developing a ‘modular’ competency-based 
curriculum in collaboration with industry. 

Qualifications are made up of occupational 
standards for specific learning outcomes. This 
allows learners, educators, training providers and 
employers to gain information about the broad 
equivalence of qualifications across different 
skill sectors. The competence frameworks are 
expected to align curricula with the skills needs of 
industry. The NSQF also aims to include a range 
of qualifications that are currently being provided 
through TVET programmes run by more than 
17 different ministries (MHRD, 2011). A further 
objective is to enhance flexibility in the provision 
of vocational courses by developing a ‘modular’ 
competency-based curriculum in collaboration with 
industry. 

The NSQF aims to open up several entry and 
exit points between TVET and general education 
and facilitate movement between the two. It 
emphasizes industry participation in vocational 
education, with a specific focus on creating 
opportunities for learners who are not enrolled 
in colleges and universities. Vocational education 
courses are designed, assessed and certified 
in consultation with industry stakeholders and 
employers, who are encouraged to partner with 
educational institutions so that vocational students 
can work on their premises. 

•  The National Skill Development Agency (NSDA) 
is mandated to anchor and operationalize the 
NSQF to ensure that quality and standards meet 
sector-specific requirements. The NSDA also 
facilitates the setting up of professional certifying 
bodies and ensures that the NSQF acts as a 
quality assurance framework and facilitates 
capacity building. 

•  Sector Skills Councils (SSCs) are industry-
led national partnership organizations that 
bring together stakeholders, develop national 
occupational standards and qualification packs 
for various job roles and align them to the 
NSQF. SSCs work to supplement the existing 
vocational education system for the industry 
sector by ensuring the quantity and quality of 
the workforce. In addition, SSCs provide input to 
central- and state-level implementing agencies 
in developing curriculum packages, capacity-
building of institutions and training providers, 
and assessment and certification of skills. SSCs 
are licensed and regulated by the National Skills 
Qualification Committee. 

•  Central ministries ensure that stakeholders align 
the programmes being offered by institutions/
bodies under their aegis to the NSQF. 
•  State governments encourage the relative 
institutions/bodies to align their learning 
programmes to the NSQF in order to  
facilitate greater learner mobility. State 
governments also ensure that, while regional 
variations are provided for, they do not 
undermine the quality assurance associated 
with the NSQF. 

•  Regulatory institutions (e.g. All India Council 
for Technical Education, National Council 
for Vocational Training, University Grants 
Commission, school boards) define entry  
and exit competencies and qualifications in 
terms of the NSQF levels so that vertical 
progression in both general and vocational 
education is strengthened. Regulatory/ 
awarding bodies also regulate their courses, 
programmes, affiliation and accreditation 
systems to ensure alignment and conformity 
with the NSQF. 

•  Training providers/institutions ensure their 

courses/programmes align with NSQF levels.

Implementation of NSQF

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The NSQF is the joint responsibility of many 
stakeholders and each has a role to play in its 
development, implementation and maintenance. 
The main stakeholders are listed below. 

The NSQF in India was notified on 27 December 
2013. All other frameworks, including the National 
Vocational Educational Qualifications Framework 
released by the Ministry of Human Resource 
Development, stand superseded by the NSQF.  
The NSQF has a five-year implementation schedule 
(MSDE 2013). 

268

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSe
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Volume II: National and regional cases 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
After the third anniversary (27 December 2016) date 
of the notification of the NSQF,

•  Government funding would not be available for 
any training/educational programme/course, 
which is not NSQF-compliant. 

•  All government-funded training and educational 
institutions shall define eligibility criteria for 
admission to various courses in terms of NSQF 
levels. 

•  The recruitment rules of the Government of 

India and PSUs of the central government shall 
be amended to define eligibility criteria for all 
positions in terms of NSQF levels. The State 
governments and their PSUs shall also be 
encouraged to amend their recruitment rules on 
above lines.

After the fifth anniversary (27 December 2018) date 
of the notification of the NSQF, it is mandatory for 
all training/educational programmes/courses to be 
NSQF-compliant (MSDE, 2013).

Since its notification, 2,980 qualifications 
across sectors have been aligned. However, 
the understanding of implementation and 
operationalization of the NSQF is still evolving.

The NSDA has also developed the National 
Qualifications Register, the repository for all 
approved qualifications with their corresponding 
NSQF levels. As of January 2019, the register 
comprises 2,811 qualifications approved by the 
National Skills Qualifications Committee and has 
been published online for public viewing at www.
nqr.gov.in/. Further qualifications files are currently 
being brought before the Committee for approval. 
The NSDA follows a standard operating procedure 
for the NSQF alignment process, which includes 
sharing of the qualification files with relevant 
stakeholders.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

As a competency- and outcomes-based qualification 
framework, the NSQF will facilitate the recognition 
of prior learning (RPL) that is largely lacking in India. 
RPL is a very important associated function of 
the NSQF, especially in the Indian context, where 
majority of the workforce has not received formal 
training. The NSQF help individuals who have gained 
learning informally, such as through life, work and 
voluntary activities, to have this learning recognized. 
This will include knowledge and skills gained: 

•  outside of formal learning situations; 
• 

through informal learning and training in the 
workplace, the community and/or the voluntary 
sector;
from continuing professional development 
activities; 
from independent learning. 

• 

• 

RPL enables learners who have skills but not the 
certificate to prove it an opportunity for personal 
or career development or credit towards other 
qualifications or learning programmes. It helps them 
to connect the learning they have already achieved 
with future learning and/or career opportunities. 
Benchmarking an individual’s learning against the 
NSQF level descriptors will help them to identify 
the appropriate level of options for progression. This 
will improve their career prospects, opportunities to 
upgrade their skills, and facilitate the engagement of 
experienced practitioners as resource persons. 

According to the National Skill Development Policy 
(2015), the ‘RPL framework is an outcome-based 
qualification framework linked to NSQF against 
which prior learning through formal/informal 
channels would be assessed and certified. The RPL 
process would include a pre-assessment, skill gap 
training and final assessment leading to certification 
of existing skills in an individual. It will provide both 
horizontal and vertical pathways to an individual 
for acquiring additional skills for better livelihoods. 
Adequate resources will be earmarked under 
various government schemes for equitable access 
to RPL programmes’ (MSDE, 2015, p. 22).

RPL is the key instrument that can help map 
the existing skills in the informal or unregulated 
economy, and integrate them into the formal 
economy as well as into the formal training 
landscape. Indeed, skills recognition and 
certification initiatives will provide an important 
pathway for the 90% of Indians who work in the so-
called unorganized sector (NCEUS, 2009). However, 
the process of skills recognition in the informal 
economy will need to be supported by an RPL 
infrastructure that is affordable, reliable and efficient. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

Given that India is expected to have a workforce 
surplus of 56 million by 2020, the European Union-
funded India-EU Skills Development Project was 
developed to increase the employability and capacity 
for entrepreneurship of the country’s population. 
Aligning the NSQF with the European Qualifications 
Framework is a major objective of the project.

271

Volume II: National and regional casesIn addition, India and the other seven Member 
States of the South Asian Association for Regional 
Cooperation (SAARC) – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, 
Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka – 
finalized the SAARC Framework for Action for 
Education 2030, which led to its adoption at the 
Third Meeting of Ministers of Education/Higher 
Education held in Male, Maldives, in 2016. Through 
regional collaboration and partnerships, the 
ministers agreed to: 

•  share the NSQF and develop a regional quality 
assurance framework for vocational/ skills 
education;

•  undertake case studies, document country 

cases of qualification frameworks, and prepare 
a regional inventory of national qualifications 
frameworks in education and training; 

•  make technical support available to facilitate 

national qualifications frameworks development/
review in education and training, including 
national qualifications frameworks in TVET, and 
to develop links between national qualifications 
frameworks and the validation of formal, non-
formal and informal learning;
facilitate the mutual recognition of qualifications 
and student mobility; 
form an expert group to review the frameworks/
procedures followed in different SAARC 
countries for the recognition, validation and 
accreditation of the outcomes of formal, non-
formal and informal learning; 

• 

• 

•  establish a mechanism to develop and 

implement a regional framework for facilitating 
comparability and mutual recognition, validation 
and accreditation of tertiary education 
qualifications, and mobility of students and 
faculty across the South Asian region  
(SAARC, 2016).

Important lessons and future plans

In an effort to realize India’s demographic 
dividend, its workforce needs to be equipped with 
employable skills and knowledge so that they can 
contribute to economic growth in a substantive 
manner. In the past, most of the country’s skill 
training needs were met through courses offered 
by the Industrial Training Institutes and under the 
Modular Employable Scheme, regulated by the 
National Council for Vocational Training. Since 
this infrastructure was not enough to meet the 
increasing skill requirements of the country as well 
as the skilling needs of the growing workforce, the 

government took a number of initiatives to scale 
up the skilling efforts. These efforts resulted in a 
large expansion of training infrastructure, much 
of which is in the private sector. At present, there 
are 20 ministries/departments implementing skills 
development programmes mostly using private 
sector training providers.

However, in the absence of adequate regulatory 
oversight, numerous stakeholders have been 
offering training programmes of varying quality 
with multiplicity in assessment and certification 
systems that are not comparable. This has had 
serious consequences for the vocational training 
system and thus the employability of the country’s 
youth. An attempt towards some measure of 
regulation was made with the establishment of the 
National Skill Development Agency (NSDA) in 2013, 
to coordinate and harmonize the skill development 
efforts of the government and the private sector. 
The primary role of the NSDA has been to anchor 
and operationalize the NSQF to ensure that quality 
and standards meet sector specific requirements.

Subsequently, a need was felt for an overarching 
regulatory authority that could tend to all aspects 
of short- and long-term skills-based training and 
entrepreneurship promotion in the country to suit 
the needs of the industry and enable decent quality 
of life to the Indian population. In view of this, 
the National Council for Vocational Education and 
Training (NCVET) was developed to perform the 
regulatory functions so far vested in the National 
Council for Vocational Training and the NSDA. The 
functions currently being carried out by the National 
Skill Development Corporation through the Sector 
Skill Councils (SSCs) will also be housed in the 
NCVET.

This institutional reform will lead to improvement in 
quality and market relevance of skill development 
programmes, lending credibility to vocational 
education and training, and encouraging greater 
private investment and employer participation in 
skills development. This in turn will help achieve 
the twin objectives of enhancing aspirational value 
of vocational education and of building a skilled 
workforce, thereby furthering the prime minister’s 
agenda of making India the skills capital of the world 
(MSDE 2018).

The NCVET will also regulate the functioning 
of entities engaged in vocational education and 
training, both in the long and short term, and 
establish minimum standards for the functioning of 

272

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSsuch entities. The primary functions of NCVET will 
include:

• 

recognition and regulation of awarding bodies, 
assessment bodies and skill-related information 
providers;

•  approval of qualifications developed by awarding 

• 

bodies and SSCs;
indirect regulation of vocational training institutes 
through awarding bodies and assessment 
agencies;
research and information dissemination;

• 
•  grievance redress.

Abbreviations
NCVET 

NSDA  
NSQF 

RPL  
SAARC  

SSCs  
TVET 

National Council for Vocational 
Education and Training
National Skill Development Agency 
National Skills Qualifications 
Framework
Recognition of Prior Learning 
South Asian Association for Regional 
Cooperation 
Sector Skills Councils 
technical and vocational education 
and training

References 

MHRD (Ministry of Human Resource Development) (2011). Fifty-Eighth Meeting of the Central Advisory 

Board of Education. Agenda Items and Background Notes. New Delhi: MHRD, Government of India.
MHRD (2013). Conference on the National Skills Qualifications Framework: Making it happen. New Delhi, 

22–23 May 2013. New Delhi: India-EU Skills Development Project.

Ministry of Finance (2013). NSQF Gazette Notification. 27 December 2013, pp. 22–23. Accessed 

26 February 2019 at: https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/NSQF-
NOTIFICATION.pdf

MSDE (Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) (2013). NSQF Gazette Notification. New Delhi, 

India. 

MSDE (2015). National policy for skill development and entrepreneurship 2015. New Delhi: MSDE.
MSDE (2018). Annual Report 2017–18. New Delhi, India. Accessed 26 February 2019 at: https://msde.gov.in/

assets/images/annual%20report/Annual%20Report%202017-2018%20(English).pdf

NCEUS (National Commission on Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector) (2009). Growth Pole Programme 

for Unorganised Sector Enterprise Development. New Delhi, India. 

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) (2016). Education 2030: SAARC Framework 
for Action. Technical meeting of senior officials on education. New Delhi, 15–16 September 2016. 
SAARC/TC-SOE/06 (Unpublished).

United Nations Population Division (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision. New York:  

United Nations. 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

273

Volume II: National and regional casesINDONESIA

Introduction

The Indonesian national qualifications framework 
(Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia (KKNI)) 
has been developed and issued in the Presidential 
Decree No 8/2012. It provides nine qualification 
levels from elementary education up to tertiary 
level education, with each level based in four main 

dimensions: (a) job skills, (b) science or knowledge 
comprehension, (c) capacity to select and apply 
methods and knowledge, and (d) management 
skills. The framework has a strong focus on 
equivalency and recognizing all pathways to 
obtaining qualifications and promotes recognition of 
prior learning, as follows. 

Figure 8. Indonesian national qualifications framework (KKNI)

PhD

S3(A)

SPECIALIST
S
PECIALIST

S2

S2(A)

PROFESSIONAL

S1

S1(A)/DIV

DIII

DII

DI

General High
School

Vocational High
School

LERNING
PROGRESS IN
ACADEMIC BASED
EDUCATION

LERNING
PROGRESS IN
COMPETENCE
BASED EDUCATION

PROFESSION ENHANCEMENT IN
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OR
EDUCATION PROGRAMS

IQF

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

EXPERT

TECHNICIAN/
ANALYST

OPERATOR

OCCUPATION UPGRADING OR JOB CAREER
PATHWAYS IN TRAINING / NON FORMAL
EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Source: http://appskils.ilo.org 

274

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe KKNI is a reflection of human resources quality 
in Indonesia, which acts as a neutral reference that 
can equalize learning outcomes obtained through 
formal education, training, work experience, and 
independent learning. This policy is not intended 
to create new social stratification, but rather to 
strengthen the quality and identity of Indonesian 
people through the national education and training 
system. At the international level, the KKNI serves 
as a device that can recognize and translate 
international workforce or students’ qualifications to 
the Indonesian qualifications system. 

The development of the KKNI has been carried 
out through a collaborative effort between the 
Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry 

of Manpower. When the Framework was issued 
in 2012, the Ministry of Education and Culture 
produced a key strategic document on Kerangka 
Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia – Indonesian 
Qualification Frameworks: Peraturan Presiden 
No 8 Tahun 2012, elaborating the definition and 
boundaries of the KKNI especially for higher 
education in Indonesia. The document states that 
the KKNI is ‘one of the national standards in the 
education sector from which graduates, education 
and training institutions under the authority of the 
Ministry of Education and Culture could assess 
their learning outcomes or certificates’ proficiency 
in conjunction with one of the relevant qualification 
levels specified in the KKNI’ (Directorate-General of 
Higher Education, n.d.).

Figure 9. Indonesian KKNI and the higher education system

Doktor
(S3)

Doktor
(S3) Terapan

Sub
spesialis

Magister
(S2)

Magister
(S2) Terapan

Spesialis

Fokus pada
pengembangan
dan peningkatan
keahlian kerja
yang spesiﬁk

Profesi

Sarjana
(S1)

Diploma 4
(D4)

Politeknik
Politeknik

Fokus pada
pengembangan
ﬁlosoﬁs -
keilmuan

Diploma 3 (D3)

Diploma 2 (D2)

Akademi Komunitas
Akademi Komunitas

Diploma 1 (D1)

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

AHLI

TEKNISI /
ANALIS

OPERATOR

Sekolah Menegah Atas/ Kejuruan/ Madrasah Alyah

LEVEL
KKNI

PENGEMBANGAN
KARIER

The KKNI is intended to address the needs of an 
increasingly mobile and globalized higher education 
and job market. It provides a clear and transparent 
qualification for each level allowing manpower 
to be deployed more effectively in both formal 
and informal sectors of the economy. It specifies 
frameworks for equivalencies between Indonesian 
and foreign qualifications thus improving Indonesia’s 
international competitiveness and making the 
country more open to global trade. Further, the KKNI 
is intended to provide a unified reference point for 
all education and training providers in Indonesia, 

especially those engaged in efforts to direct workers 
towards appropriate job opportunities. When 
difficulties arise for employees to upskill, reskill 
and upgrade their qualifications, the KKNI will set 
out qualification levels against which employees 
can be assessed and proceed with professional 
development programmes. In addition, education 
or training providers whose learning outcomes 
statements do not accord with KKNI descriptors 
are able to carry out internal quality improvements 
to bring their qualifications in line with KKNI level 
descriptors.

275

Volume II: National and regional casesPolicy objectives

As a reference for training and education of 
manpower, the KKNI is expected to provide:

•  a clear scheme of qualification of Indonesian 

manpower to warrant international 
competitiveness and comparability in the 
international job market; 

•  clear learning outcomes of qualification level 

achieved through formal, non-formal and informal 
education, and through work experience;

•  a clear scheme for recognition and equivalency 
of education qualification based on learning 
outcomes;

•  methods and procedures for recognition of 

foreign education qualifications for employment 
purposes in Indonesia. 

The main policy objectives of the KKNI are to 
increase:

• 

• 

the quantity of qualified Indonesian manpower 
for greater access to both national and 
international job markets;
the contribution of all learning outcomes to 
national economic growth, whether achieved 
through formal, non-formal or informal education 
or work experience;

•  educational mobility to foster mutual 

• 

understanding and collaboration between higher 
education institutions across the world;
recognition of qualification of inbound as well 
as outbound manpower, both regionally and 
internationally (Directorate-General of Higher 
Education, n.d.).

With the KKNI, Indonesia expects that in the long 
run, there will be:

• 

•  an increased level of learning outcomes to 
contribute to national economic growth;
increased academic mobility based on mutual 
recognition of education qualifications and 
collaboration between and among countries;
increased mutual recognition at bilateral, 
multilateral, regional and/or international level of 
Indonesian education, while still maintaining the 
Indonesian character and way of life. 

• 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The KKNI consists of nine levels characterized 
by both learning outcomes and job-specific 
competences. Descriptors at each level specify 
the learning outcomes or competences that can 
be demonstrated by an individual at that particular 
level. Descriptors are divided into two categories: 
general and specific. The general descriptors cover 
personality, working attitude and ethics, and are 
applicable to every Indonesian citizen at every level 
of education. The specific descriptors describe 
the body of knowledge and skills mastered by the 
individual and are level-specific. 

Table 34 illustrates the referencing scheme between 
the learning outcomes of different education 
streams and KKNI qualification levels. This scheme 
will make it easier to ensure that graduates 
of educational programmes possess the right 
competences at the right level.

Table 34. Equivalences between learning outcomes from different types of education in Indonesia

ACADEMIC 
QUALIFICATIONS

IQF

TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

S3

S2

S1

General high school

Junior high school

Specialist

Profession

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

S3 (Applied)

S2 (Applied)

D IV

D III

D II

D I

Vocational high school

Junior high school

Source: Directorate General of Higher Education, n.d.

276

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Three ministries have been chiefly responsible 
for the development of the KKNI: the Ministry of 
Education and Culture, the Ministry of Manpower 
and the Ministry of Research, Technology and 
Higher Education. Within the Ministry of Education 
and Culture, the KKNI has been administered by the 
Directorate-General of Elementary and Secondary 
Education Management and the Directorate-General 
of Early Childhood, Non-Formal and Informal 
Education. Within the Ministry of Manpower, the 
KKNI has been the responsibility of the Directorate-
General of Training and Productivity Development. 

Since the issuance of the KKNI in 2012, the Ministry 
of Manpower has issued Decree No 21/2014 on the 
Implementation Guideline of the KKNI, which allows 
each ministry to develop its own implementation 
strategy of the KKNI based on the provision of the 
general guideline and supervised by the Ministry of 
Manpower. 

At present, education and training provision in 
Indonesia is devised by each sector based on the 
Decree of the Ministry of Manpower No 21/2014. 
Professional competence and skills training are 
managed by the Badan Nasional Sertifikasi Profesi 
(National Office of Professional Certification) 
under the auspices of the Ministry. Thus, workers 
needing a professional certificate of competence 
may go to the Professional Certification Body 
established in various higher education institutions 
and public workshops to take the exams and 
obtain the certificate. Students in higher education 
institutions are also expected to earn a certificate 
of competence upon graduation, in addition to the 
degree diploma granted by the higher education 
institution. 

In 2014, higher education merged with research 
and technology to become the new Ministry of 
Research, Technology and Higher Education. The 
KKNI has four main implications in relation to the 
Ministry:

Within the Ministry of Research, Technology 
and Higher Education, the KKNI has been the 
responsibility of the Directorate-General of Learning 
and Students’ Affairs. Considering the implication 
of the KKNI, and based on the Law of Higher 
Education No 12/2012, the Presidential Decree 
No 08/2012 on the KKNI, and the Ministry of 
Manpower’s Decree No 21/2014, the Ministry has 
devised a number of implementation guidelines of 
the KKNI for higher education, namely: 

•  Ministerial Decree on National Standards for 
Higher Education No 44/2015, renewed with 
Ministerial Decree on National Standards for 
Higher Education No 50/2018;

•  Ministerial Decree on Guideline of Recognition 

of Prior Learning No 26/2016; 

•  Guideline on Curriculum Development in Higher 

Education, 2016;

•  Guideline on Development of Learning 
Outcomes in Higher Education, 2016;
•  Ministerial Decree on Integrated Higher 
Education System (Multientry Multiexit) 
No 54/2018;

•  Ministerial Decree on National Committee on 

KKNI No 49/2018.

In addition, the Ministry has also devised a number 
of other operational regulations for higher education 
to support the implementation of the KKNI. 

The stakeholders consider that the KKNI should 
be a basis for the development of national 
standards of education and professional (vocational) 
competency standards. These will then provide a 
point of reference for accreditation, assessment 
and certification by bodies such as the National 
Accreditation Board and the National Professional 
Certification Board, as well as professional and 
occupational competence certification boards and 
private accreditation bodies.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and links with  
the NQF

1.  equivalency and recognition of learning 

outcomes of formal education against the 
qualification stated in various levels of the KKNI;

2.  recognition of prior learning as a recognition 

process of learning outcomes obtained through 
various channels;

3.  regulation on access to various levels and kinds 
of higher education based on the KKNI’s levels;
4.  quality assurance for various kinds and levels of 

higher education. 

The Ministry of Education and Culture and the 
Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 
Education define recognition of prior learning as 
the process by which learning outcomes acquired 
through non-formal or informal education or life 
experiences are recognized in the formal education 
sector. Recognition of prior learning has two 
purposes: (1) to provide wider access to formal 
educational pathways, thus fulfilling the mandate 
authorized by Indonesian law for promoting 

277

Volume II: National and regional casesindividuals’ lifelong learning; and (2) to recognize 
learning outcomes from various forms of learning 
outside the formal education system for the 
purpose of awarding an equivalent degree. Law 
No 14/2005 on Teachers and Lecturers recognizes 
persons with expertise in a particular field, such as 
industry, as lecturers in higher education.

A credit transfer scheme has been designed to 
improve mobility across the different educational 
streams with the aim of developing learners’ 
expertise in specific fields. Inbuilt into the scheme 
are bridging programmes, which aim to boost the 
performance of individuals who fail to meet the 
minimum requirements of the institution conferring 
their credits.

NQF implementation

The Ministry of Education and Culture, the Ministry 
of Research, Technology and Higher Education and 
the Ministry of Manpower believe that a quality 
assurance system is necessary for the KKNI to be 
trusted nationally and internationally. It is envisaged 
that the National Standards of Education Board will 
adopt KKNI’s level descriptors in designing national 
standards of education for the Ministry of Education 
and Culture and associated assessment procedures. 

The Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 
Education has already referenced existing learning 
outcomes in higher education to qualifications 
levels in the KKNI. In the process, it analysed 
learning outcome descriptions from more than 
1,000 study programmes within 97 higher 
education institutions all over Indonesia (A and 
B accreditation category). Selected institutions 
had implemented an appropriate internal quality 
assurance system and held a good track record in 
international collaborations. The referencing process 
was enriched by comparative studies carried out by 
qualifications agencies in various countries, as well 
as through rigorous discussions with professional 
associations, scientific collegium, and employers 
and recruiters of university graduates in Indonesia 
(Directorate-General of Higher Education, n.d.).

The Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher 
Education has developed its national higher 
education standards (Decree 44/2015) based on the 

KKNI. In addition, higher educational institutions 
ensure the quality of graduates through their own 
internal quality assurance systems, which refer 
to the KKNI. This policy covers implementation of 
the KKNI across various fields, levels, and types of 
higher education: vocational education, academic 
stream higher education as well as professional 
education. 

Moreover, the National Accreditation Board has 
reformed its external quality assurance procedures 
by taking into account learning outcomes as 
described in the KKNI. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

The KKNI was designed in response to the 
Indonesian ratification of the International 
Convention of the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas 
and Degrees in Higher Education in Asia and the 
Pacific (Bangkok Convention), which was signed 
on 16 December 1983 and renewed on 30 January 
2008. The ratification was legalized by Presidential 
Decree No 103/2007. 

Important lessons and future plans

Thus far, Indonesia has developed a recognition 
of prior learning system, a credit earning and 
credit transfer mechanism, the KKNI, the 
National Accreditation Board, the National Board 
for Professional Certification, and the foreign 
degree recognition system. Given the increasing 
development of the global vocational and higher 
education market, the government sees the KKNI as 
an evolving concept that needs to be continuously 
updated in order to maintain the highest standards. 
It is for this reason that the KKNI is legally enshrined 
in a presidential decree rather than a government 
regulation or law, since this allows the necessary 
leeway for qualifications and level descriptors to be 
improved and updated over time.

Abbreviation
KKNI  

Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional 
Indonesia (Indonesian national 
qualifications framework)

278

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

Bateman, A., Keating, J., Burke, G., Coles, M., and Vickers, A. (2012). Final Report: ASEAN Regional 
Qualifications Framework. Education and Training Governance: Capacity Building for National 
Qualifications Frameworks (AANZ-007). ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area (AANZFTA) 
Economic Cooperation Work Programme (EWCP). Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat.

Directorate-General of Higher Education (n.d.). Indonesian Qualifications Framework (Kerangka Kualifikasi 

Nasional Indonesia) Presidential Decree No 8/2012: Implication and Implementation Strategies. 
Jakarta: Ministry of Education and Culture.

SHARE (2015). ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework and National Qualifications Frameworks, State of 

Play Report.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

279

Volume II: National and regional casesIRAQ

Introduction

The Iraqi Technical-Vocational Qualifications 
Framework (TVQF) was officially signed off by 
the Iraqi Inter-Ministerial Working Group, the EU 
and UNESCO-Iraq on 17 July 2018. However, the 
qualifications will only come into full force and 
effect once the draft Law on National Council for 
Technical and Vocational Education and Training 
(TVET) is approved by the Council of Ministers 
and the Parliament. For the time being, it acts as a 
guiding framework, supporting the piloting of new 
curriculum and competency-based training and 
assessment. The National TVET Council will have a 
stated mission to manage, coordinate and quality 
assure the development of a responsive world-class 
vocational education and inter-related labour-market 
system in Iraq. As part of the new institutional 
arrangements established through the law, and 
falling under the auspices of the National TVET 
Council, a Vocational Qualifications Department will 
be established, responsible for the TVQF and its 
implementation. 

The development of the Iraqi TVQF is a component 
of the EU-funded, UNESCO-implemented 
project ‘Reforming TVET in Iraq’, which aims at: 
(1) increasing access to, and improving the quality 
of, the TVET system as well as its relevance and 
responsiveness to the needs of the labour market; 
and (2) transforming TVET into a key driver for Iraq’s 
economic growth, employment and social cohesion. 

The TVQF is aligned to, and coherent with, the 
fundamental principles, values and intentions of the: 

•  Constitution of Iraq (2005), 
• 
Iraqi Educational Philosophy (2008), 
•  National Employment Policy (2011), 
•  Kurdistan Region National Employment Policy 

(2013), 
Iraqi Curriculum Framework (2012), 

• 
•  National Strategy for Education and Higher 

Education 2012–2022, 

•  National Development Plan (2013–2017);  
and Proposed National Development Plan 
(2018–2022), 

•  Strategy for the Development of the Private 

Sector (2017–2030), 

•  TVET Strategy 2014–2023, 
•  Kurdistan Region Roadmap: Reforming the 

Economy for Shared Prosperity and Protecting 
the Vulnerable (2016), 

•  Kurdistan Region Regional Strategic 

Development Vision for 2020, 

•  UN Sustainable Development Goals 2030, 
•  Recommendations of the 3rd Economic 

Conference on the Role of Private Sector in 
Kurdistan Economic Development (Kurdistan 
Federation of Chambers of Commerce and 
Industry, 2016). 

Iraq, located on the eastern flank of the Middle 
East and North Africa region, is a federal country 
of 18 provinces or governorates, within which 
Kurdistan, comprised of three governorates, is a 
semi-autonomous region in the north governed 
by the Kurdistan Regional Government. The 
country has a population of almost 38 million and 
a population growth rate of 3% with approximately 
40.2% under 15 years of age. The percentage of 
those of working age (aged 15–64) has increased 
at a sustained pace – from 48% in 1987 to 53% in 
1997, 58% in 2008, and 21.5 million (approximately 
57%) in 2015.

Considered in the 1970s among the fastest 
developing countries in the world, during the past 
three decades Iraq has witnessed major political, 
economic and social changes and turmoil. The Iraq-
Iran war of 1980–88, the invasion of Kuwait in 1990, 
the economic sanctions of 1991–2003, the 2003 
Iraq war and the continued instability that followed 
have severely affected the economic and human 
development of the country. 

To address these challenges, Iraq needs to develop 
and implement a flexible, responsive and demand-
led education and training system, integrating 
general education, higher education, and TVET, 
in which the role of industry, in partnership with 
government, is to take the lead in shaping the 
system’s future direction. The development of a 
TVQF forms part of these efforts. 

280

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSIn the Iraqi context, the TVQF is based on a defined 
set of reference points using clearly specified, and 
stakeholder-agreed, outcome-based statements 
called learning outcomes. The set of outcome 
statements are often expressed across a series 
of hierarchical levels, and supported by a series 
of systematic conventions, mechanisms and 
processes that apply, irrespective of the body 
awarding a particular qualification. These learning 
outcomes are described in terms of knowledge, 
skills and the application of knowledge and skills  
(or ‘competence’). 

Within the context of Iraq, the main philosophy of 
the TVQF is to ‘regulate’ formally-recognized TVET 
qualifications in the country under the auspices of 
a single qualifications framework for TVET (non-
academic education). Important too is that the 
Iraqi TVQF has regard for the interrelationship of 
qualifications with labour market demand and be 
a catalyst and pivotal instrument for reforming the 
education and training system towards relevant 
and timely delivery of quality of outcomes for the 
country, consistent with the national development 
strategy and the TVET Reform Strategy. That is, it 
serves as a key input to realising improvements in 
technological, economic and social advancement 
and wellbeing.  

Accordingly, it is envisaged that the TVQF will 
ensure that the education system will be an 
element of socio-economic development through 
the delivery of qualifications that meet the 
requirements of labour market needs, improve 
international competitiveness, and the shift towards 
a knowledge-based economy. More importantly, 
it precipitates improvements in information 
management and the exchange of qualitative and 
quantitative education, and training and labour 
market data for a multiplicity of outcomes involving 
learning. 

To this end, the TVQF is seen as a tool to meet the 
following challenges:

•  diversity of TVET institutions and TVET 

institutional outcomes;
increasing demand for quality;

• 
•  addressing skills gaps and anticipated future 

demand for skills;

•  providing entry points for unemployed young 
people and pathways to employment and 
continuing studies;
increased international competition for 
competent and highly skilled human resources;
•  promotion of effective lifelong learning strategies 

• 

and methods.

Policy objectives 

The Iraqi TVQF has been established as a normative 
and single referent framework covering vocational, 
technical, and professional education and training 
that can permit the recognition of existing in-
country qualifications, function as a structure for 
the development of all new regulated qualifications, 
and serve as an instrument for the comparison and 
alignment of international qualifications. It includes a 
framework architecture, conventions, processes and 
procedures for governing and quality assuring the 
framework.

The objectives of the TVQF are to provide a current 
and flexible framework of TVET qualifications that:

•  accommodates all aspects and levels of training 

in Iraq and the Kurdistan Region;  

•  contributes to national economic performance 
by supporting current, relevant and nationally 
consistent qualification outcomes, which build 
confidence in the qualifications;

•  supports access to qualifications and assists 
people to move easily and readily between 
different training sectors and between those 
sectors and the labour market;

•  supports prior learning and lifelong learning by 
providing the basis for individuals to progress 
through training and gain recognition of such 
informal/non-formal learning and experience;

•  underpins national regulation and quality 

assurance governance for training;

•  enhances national and international mobility 
of graduates and workers in Iraq through 
recognition of qualifications;

•  enables the alignment with national and pan-

national qualifications frameworks in the region 
and internationally.

Equally important is that the Iraqi TVQF is 
augmented by quality assurance arrangements 
to support its implementation and, at the same 
time, provide a guarantee to stakeholders within 
the country and the international community to 
have confidence in the TVQF. This quality assurance 
system aims, once fully implemented, to satisfy 
three measures: validation, accreditation and quality 
assurance of assessment, leading to the awarding 
of qualifications.

Levels and learning outcomes

The Iraqi TVQF is a central reference point for 
ensuring that Iraq qualifications are awarded on 
the basis of achievement of learning outcomes 

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Volume II: National and regional casesmeasured against respective qualification 
descriptors and assessment criteria that maintain 
the quality assurance of TVET in Iraq. Accordingly, 
the TVQF is:

1.  made up of 10 levels covering all sectors of TVET 

interrelated with the labour market;
2.  based on learning outcome statements 

(performance outcomes);

3.  a provider of a framework of common language, 
based on a conceptual hierarchical structure, e.g. 
from basic, to complex, to advanced, to highly 
specialized;

4.  an enabling framework of complexity and 

breadth from one level to another;

5.  a national frame of reference to accommodate 
and compare all types of qualifications existing, 
or to be developed;

6.  an enabler of alignment with other national 

frameworks; 

7.  a tool to support recognition of formal learning 
(structured learning achieved and formally 
recognized) as well as informal and non-formal 
learning (structured and unstructured learning 
achieved), and prior learning;

8.  an instrument to quality assure consistency and 

integrity of qualifications outcomes.

As stated earlier, the Iraqi TVQF is based on learning 
outcomes and on a hierarchy of levels. It has been 
proposed that a 10-level structure be adopted for 
Iraq. Collectively called level descriptors, each  
TVQF level is expressed in terms of three  

domains: knowledge, skills and competence. 
The competence domain is further divided into 
contextual facets or dimensions involving the 
application of the requisite knowledge and skills: 
autonomy and responsibility, and process and 
engagement. 

For each of the 10 levels of the TVQF, level 
descriptor (learning outcome) statements for each 
dimension of learning are developed, accumulating 
to a grid of 40 learning outcomes statements. The 
descriptor statements are the foundation of the 
TVET qualifications framework, and all qualifications 
are to be designed and aligned against this grid of 
level descriptors.

The levels and their descriptors represent an agreed 
number of levels that best serve Iraq’s economy, 
education system and the nation’s long-term vision. 
Importantly, the TVQF endeavours to complement, 
with an eye to the future, the current educational 
system in the country. Its purpose is to:

1.  set nationally agreed upon qualifications with the 
same breadth and depth across providers in Iraq;

2.  reduce the constraints and strains on trying to 
establish equivalency across providers in Iraq;
3.  enable the country’s qualifications to be more 
easily aligned with regional and international 
qualifications;

4.  establish TVET as an important sector in 

education and provide it with state and status in 
society.

Table 35. Iraqi TVQF levels and employment indicators

OCCUPATIONAL 
LEVEL

LEVEL

VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION 
QUALIFICATIONS

VOCATIONAL 
TRAINING 
QUALIFICATIONS

TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
QUALIFICATIONS

Managerial/ 
professional

Technician

Craftsman

Skilled

Semi-skilled

Foundation

Basic

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

282

Technical Doctorate

Technical Master

Technical Higher Diploma

Technical Bachelor

Technical Diploma

Vocational Preparatory 
Certificate

Level 5 Certificate

Level 4 Certificate

Level 3 Certificate

Level 2 Foundation 
Certificate

Basic Education Certificate

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 36. Iraqi TVQF domains of knowledge, skills and competence

LEVEL

NAME OF QUALIFICATION

KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS

COMPETENCE, 
AUTONOMY AND 
RESPONSIBILITY, AND 
ENGAGEMENT AND 
PROCESS

10

Technical Doctorate

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Technical Master

Technical Higher Diploma

Technical Bachelor

Technical Advance Diploma

Diploma

Certificate 4

Certificate 3

Certificate 2

Certificate 1

Level descriptors must reflect all 3 strands

Increasing  
level of 
complexity

In the context of the Iraqi TVQF, one credit stands 
for approximately 25 hours of learning. The 
minimum, maximum and multiples for the purposes 
of calculating credit will be part of the design of 
each programme offered by providers, along with 
the Rules of Combination policy. Still, the TVQF will 
set the general report lines of credit minimums and 
maximums for each qualification (level). Based on 
credit values and allocations in the TVQF, a learner 
can gain one of a number of types of qualifications.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

An Inter-Ministerial Working Group, chaired by the 
Prime Minister Advisory Committee comprised 
of members of the Federal Government and the 
Kurdistan Region Government, and supported 
by representatives from the industry and private 
sectors, was established in 2015. In addition, a 
High-Level Focal Point Committee was established 
(including three line ministries at federal level as 
well as the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: the Ministry 
of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education and 
Scientific Research, and the Ministry of Labour). 
The Committee takes responsibility for a range of 
activities associated with the development and 
approval of the proposed TVQF. 

Among the key factors seen by the Inter-Ministerial 
Working Group as vital as the design, scope, and 

purpose of the TVQF, are the national contextual 
factors identified by Raffe (2011), cited in Bjornavold 
and Pervec-Grm (2012).

In terms of transitional governance of the TVQF, it 
is common to incubate the development of a new 
qualifications framework within an existing structure 
or organization, with the secondment of selected 
staff from ministries and agencies representing the 
spectrum of general education, TVET and higher 
education, to be the ‘champions’ of the framework 
for their organizations. These personnel form the 
team needed to start implementing a ‘bridging’ type 
of framework, which establishes common principles 
across all levels but recognizes essential differences 
between the sub-sectors. Such an approach has 
been considered appropriate in Iraq.

TVQF implementation 

Under the UNESCO TVET Reform programme, it 
is planned to constitute a small group of technical 
experts with experience in curriculum development 
and quality assurance representing the non-formal 
vocational training, vocational preparatory education 
and technical higher education. The work of these 
local experts will engage in intensive liaison with 
their own seconding ministries, and advocacy with 
other organizations. After significant on-the-job 
training and capacity building the local experts will 
be able to take the governance of the framework 

283

Volume II: National and regional casesforward, within the final agreed governance 
arrangements for the TVET sector on establishment 
of the law.

•  develop learning outcomes-based qualifications, 
leading to the recognition of non-formal and 
informal learning;

One of the first tasks in the implementation of the 
TVQF will be the inclusion of qualifications in the 
framework. This requires the development of a tool 
in the form, for example, of a searchable database. 

Once the framework is operational, it will be the 
responsibility of each registered or accredited 
awarding body to examine the learning outcomes 
associated with each of their qualifications 
and arrive at an opinion as to the level of the 
qualification, its volume of learning, and whether it 
conforms to a generic type. 

It is recommended that this policy should not cover 
foreign qualifications obtained by Iraqi individuals 
studying abroad, developed by foreign awarding 
bodies working in the country, or held by expats 
working in the country. Rather, such qualifications 
should be aligned/mapped to the framework 
through agreements with their awarding bodies, or 
with national authorities in the case of the national 
awards of other countries. 

Recognition of prior learning

There is lack of recognition of workers’ prior learning 
in the main education and training stream in Iraq, 
as well as poor articulation of the various training 
and education programmes. Iraq’s education 
system does not recognize workers’ knowledge 
acquired through alternative and less formal 
means, and it is difficult to move from the path 
of vocational education to technical education or 
academia. Furthermore, there is limited support 
for occupational and career development in the 
public and private sectors. The draft System and 
Guidelines for the Recognition of Prior Learning, 
developed as a part of the TVQF, intends to improve 
the interconnection between various training and 
education programmes and address the poor public 
perception of current programmes through the 
following actions:

•  classify, develop, and recognize qualifications;
•  promote the integration of qualifications 

through the development of alternative learning 
pathways between the various education and 
training sectors;

•  provide quality, robust, and multiple learning 

pathways that can put vocational and academic 
qualifications sectors on a more equal level.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Iraq is a Gulf Cooperation Council neighbouring 
country that shares, to a particular degree, common 
features in its education system. To this end, when 
developing the Iraq TVQF, the possible future 
referencing to the Gulf qualifications framework, a 
10-level meta-framework approved in Riyad in May 
2014, was considered. Further consideration was 
given, for the purposes of mutual recognition of 
qualifications and enhanced mobility of the labour 
force, to any future alignment/referencing to other 
meta-frameworks or regional frameworks such 
as the European qualifications framework and the 
Asian qualifications framework.

Lessons learned and future plans

The implementation of the Iraqi TVQF requires 
teh establishment of a permanent technical 
taskforce that can ensure the understanding and 
implementation of the key principles of the TVQF: 
clarity, quality and access. While clarity refers to the 
promotion of the concept of learning outcomes in 
Iraq and building relationships between different 
qualifications that will be aligned to, or placed at, the 
TVQF levels, quality necessitates the establishment 
of a quality-assured system for developing, 
approving, and issuing the qualifications. Whereas 
access highlights the vital need for establishing 
clear pathways for the recognition of prior learning 
and creation of flexible learning opportunities for 
all. The taskforce should bring together all relevant 
stakeholders to work out proposals on institutional 
management and the identification of the elements 
each key stakeholder – particularly the three 
line ministries (Education, Higher Education and 
Scientific Research, and Labour and Social Affairs) – 
is engaged in and responsible for. 

Abbreviations
TVET  

technical and vocational education 
and training
Technical-Vocational Qualifications 
Framework

TVQF  

284

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

Cedefop (2017). Defining, Writing, and Applying Learning Outcomes. European Handbook. 
Cedefop et al. (2017). Global Inventory of Regional and National Qualifications Frameworks 2017. Volume I: 

Thematic Chapters.

Department of Statistics (2015). Singapore Standards and Occupational Classification.
EU (2012). TVET and Skills Development in EU Development Cooperation. Final Report.
From Concepts to Implementation. EU-India Handbook 2015.
GIZ (2013). Through Competence-Based to Employment-Oriented Education and Training. A Guide for TVET 

Practitioner.

Rand Education (2014). Improving Technical Vocational Education and Training in the Kurdistan Region – Iraq.
TVET Strategy 2014–2023.
UNESCO (2015). Level setting and recognition of learning outcomes.
UNESCO TVET Strategy 2016–2021.
UNESCO (2018). Draft Report on the Assessment of the Labour Market and Skills Analysis, Iraq and 

Kurdistan Region.

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Allais, S. (2010). The impact and implementation of NQFs: Report of a study in 16 countries. Geneva: ILO. 
Allais, S., Raffe, D., Strathdee, R., Wheelahan, L. and Young, M. (2009). Learning from the first qualifications 

frameworks. Geneva: ILO. 

Bjornavold, J. and Pervec-Grm, S. (2012). Development of national qualifications frameworks in Europe. 

Luxembourg: Cedefop. 

Bouder, A. (2003). Qualifications in France: towards a national framework. Journal of Education and Work, 

16(3).

Coles, M. and Oates, T. (2005). European reference levels for education and training: an important 

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Granville, G. (2003). Stop Making Sense: chaos and coherence in the formulation of the Irish qualifications 

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Howieson, C. and Raffe, D. (1999). The ‘unification’ of post-16 education and training. CES Briefing. 

University of Edinburgh.

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Raffe, D. (2003). Simplicity Itself: The Creation of the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework. Journal 

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Young, M. (2002). Contrasting approaches to qualifications. In: Evans, K., Hodkonson, P., and Unwin, L. 

(Eds). Working To Learn. London: Kogan Page.

Young, M. (2003). National Qualifications Frameworks as a Global Phenomenon: a comparative perspective, 

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Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

285

Volume II: National and regional casesIRELAND

Introduction and context

Ireland is well situated according to several 
performance indicators for education and training, 
surpassing EU average figures and, in some cases, 
EU targets. The country has one of the highest rates 
of tertiary education attainment in Europe (53.5%  
in 2017) and a low percentage of early leavers  
from education and training (5.1%, compared 
with the EU average of 10.6%). The performance 
of 15-year-olds in basic skills is very good. Adult 
participation in lifelong learning and participation  
in vocational education and training (VET) are, 
however, below EU averages. Employment rates  
are strongly correlated with skill levels. Current 
reforms have among their priorities to increase 
quality, relevance and achievement across all levels 
of the education system, to modernise curricula, 
increase the labour market relevance of higher 
education with a focus on science, technology, 
engineering and mathematics (STEM) subjects, 
upskilling and reskilling in further education and 
training, and development of the apprenticeship 
system. The Department of Education and Skills 
published its 2018 Action plan for education with  
more than 370 actions and sub-actions422  
(European Commission, 2018). 

The Irish national framework of qualifications 
(NFQ) is among the early developed qualifications 
frameworks in Europe, the concept having been 
first proposed in legislation in 1999423. Development 
of the framework was undertaken by the National 
Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI) supported 
by the two main awarding bodies, the Further 
Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) and 
the Higher Education and Training Award Council 
(HETAC)424. The NFQ was officially established in 

422  Department of Education and Skills (2018). Action plan for 
education 2018: strategy statement. www.education.ie/
en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/Strategy-Statement/
action-plan-for-education-2018.pdf

423  Qualifications (education and training) Act No 26/1999. 
www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1999/act/26/enacted/en/pdf

2003 following extensive public consultation. The 
statutory basis of the framework was reaffirmed 
in the 2012 Qualifications and Quality Assurance 
(Education and Training) Act425 which also 
established Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI) 
as the custodian of the NFQ, and most recently 
in the 2018 Qualifications and Quality Assurance 
(Education and Training) (amendment) Bill426. QQI 
was set up as a single national qualifications and 
external quality assurance body for post-school 
education and training in Ireland, and is responsible 
for the promotion, maintenance, implementation, 
further development and review of the NFQ.

The NFQ is a comprehensive and learning 
outcomes-based framework, covering all 
subsystems and levels of qualifications. It 
has 10 qualification levels, defined in terms of 
knowledge, skills and competence, capturing all 
learning, from initial stages to the most advanced. 
All qualifications awarded by the national awarding 
bodies in Ireland are now included in the NFQ. 
At the time of writing (November 2018), draft 
legislation is before the Irish Parliament, intended 
to provide for regulated access to the NFQ to 
qualifications issued by private, professional and 
international awarding bodies. 

The NFQ has reached an advanced operational 
stage. Implementation has been carried out by 
agreement within the education and training 
subsectors, with strong support from national 
stakeholders. The framework is seen as an 
enabler of institutional reform and further 
policy development in education, training 
and qualifications. A study on the impact and 
implementation of the Irish NFQ covering the period 
between 2003 and 2008 was published in 2009 
(NQAI, 2009), emphasising the long-term, cyclic 
and iterative nature of framework development. 

425  Qualifications and Quality Assurance (Education and 

Training) Act, 2012. www.oireachtas.ie/documents/bills28/
acts/2012/a2812.pdf

424  HETAC is the qualifications awarding body for higher 

426  Qualifications and Quality Assurance (Education and 

education and training institutions outside the university 
sector.

Training) (amendment) Bill No 95/2018. www.oireachtas.
ie/en/bills/bill/2018/95/ 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAn independent external evaluation of the policy 
impact of the framework (Indecon, 2017) was also 
carried out; results published in 2017 suggest that 
the NFQ has a positive impact on the quality and 
transparency of qualifications and on the mobility 
and employability of qualification holders; it also 
makes qualification pathways easier to access and 
understand.

In 2006 the NFQ was the first national qualifications 
framework to be self-certified to the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area 
and in 2009 it was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning (EQF) 
(NQAI, 2009a). 

Policy objectives

A national objective of moving towards a lifelong 
learning society, in which learners can benefit from 
learning opportunities at various stages throughout 
their lives, was a key factor in the developments 
that have taken place in Ireland. Major changes 
were envisaged for the qualifications system to 
achieve coherence, relate all qualifications to each 
other, ensure the quality of awards and shift the 
focus of qualifications from inputs to outcomes. 
In this context, the NFQ aims to encompass in 
its 10 learning outcomes-based levels the entire 
spectrum of learning achievements. It was defined 
as a ‘single, nationally and internationally accepted 
entity, through which all learning achievements may 
be measured and related to each other in a coherent 
way and which defines the relationship between all 
education and training awards’ (NQAI, 2003).

Although the NFQ was conceptualised as a driver of 
systemic change towards the objective of lifelong 
learning and rationalisation of the VET qualification 
system, it is currently viewed more as an enabler –  
rather than a driver – of wider reform, with 
implications for setting standards, quality assurance, 
developing awards, teaching, assessment, and 
programme design. 

The aims for the development of the NFQ included: 

a.  to promote development of a more flexible 

and integrated system of qualifications and of 
alternative learning pathways; 

b.  to establish learning outcomes as a common 
reference point for qualifications and for 
recognition of non-formal and informal learning;

c.  to respond to the qualification needs of 

individuals, society and the economy through 
increasing the range of available qualifications 
and the recognition of diverse forms of learning 
(NQAI, 2009a).

The 2012 Qualifications and Quality Assurance 
(Education and Training) Act reaffirms the role of the 
NFQ as:

a.  a system for the development, recognition and 

award of qualifications in the State;

b.  a system of levels of awards based on standards 

of knowledge, skill and competence to be 
acquired by a learner, to entitle the learner to an 
award at a particular level within the framework.

The potential of the Irish NFQ to fulfil its purpose 
is strongly linked to its integration with related 
policies and initiatives. This has been aided by 
the establishment of QQI, whose work on quality 
assurance reinforces key elements of the NFQ, 
such as the learning outcomes approach. One of 
the conclusions of the 2017 NFQ policy impact 
assessment was the need to embed the NFQ in 
quality assurance policy and practice; this was seen 
by 76% of study respondents as a high priority for 
the future. At the same time, stakeholders had 
diverse views on future policy priorities for the 
NFQ: communication (67% of respondents viewed 
this as a high priority); progression and recognition 
functions (60% of respondents); curriculum design 
function (45% of respondents); and regulatory 
function (41% of respondents) (Indecon, 2017). 

The 2018 amendment to the Qualifications and 
Quality Assurance (Education and Training) Act427 
includes provisions giving QQI statutory powers 
to include in the NFQ, qualifications issued by a 
broader range of awarding bodies. This development 
is seen as strengthening the comprehensive nature 
of the framework and its regulatory role. Over 
the past 15 years, the NFQ has taken on a more 
regulatory role compared to what was originally 
intended. While classification and transparency of 
qualifications remain important objectives, many 
users of qualifications that exercise regulatory or 
quasi-regulatory functions in relation to access to 
study or to employment have used the NFQ as a 
regulatory tool. In addition to the NFQ being used in 
regulatory ways by stakeholders such as employers 
and funding bodies for education and training, it is 
also true that the implementation of the framework 
has assumed more of a regulatory character over 
time. For example, statutory quality assurance 
guidelines for education and training providers428 
make repeated reference to the NFQ and related 
policies, embedding the NFQ in the statutory quality 
assurance arrangements for post-school education 

427  Ibid.
428  Quality and Qualifications Ireland (2016). Core statutory 
quality assurance guidelines. www.qqi.ie/Downloads/
Core%20Statutory%20Quality%20Assurance%20
Guidelines.pdf 

287

Volume II: National and regional casesand training in Ireland. This shifting balance between 
the information and regulation functions of the NFQ 
is not well understood. In time, commentators may 
come to understand the significance of the altered 
institutional settings prompted by the 2012 Act, 
whereby the functions of the National Qualifications 
Authority of Ireland, were subsumed into an 
integrated quality assurance and qualifications 
agency, QQI. Regardless of the causes that may 
have prompted rebalancing of the informative and 
regulatory properties of the NFQ, these kinds of 
change are likely to have implications for its future 
development (European Commission and  
Cedefop, 2018).

The 2017 policy impact assessment of the NFQ also 
reports that the potential opportunities and benefits 
brought about by the NFQ are relevant to many of 
the strategic objectives set out in Ireland’s National 
skills strategy 2025429: active collaboration between 
employers and education and training providers; 
strengthening the role of employers in skills 
development; and improving career information and 
guidance services.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The learning outcomes approach was central to 
establishment of the NFQ, associated legislation 
and system reforms. The added value of learning 
outcomes is seen in giving direction to what a 
person is expected to know, understand and be 
able to do at the end of a programme of study. 
Concerning the differing views of learning outcomes 
as result-oriented, measureable and objective, and 
learning outcomes as process-oriented, open to 
negotiation and only partly measurable, the country 
recognises that both approaches may be needed 
and have a role, and sees the focus on learner 
profile and on programme context as part of the 
answer to this issue.

The main building blocks of the Irish NFQ are 
the 10 learning outcomes-based levels of the 
framework, level indicators and award-types430. 
The 10 levels of the NFQ capture all learning, from 
initial stages to the most advanced: qualifications 
achieved in schools, further education and training, 
and higher education and training are all included, 
and are all quality assured. Over time, the NFQ 
also seeks to accommodate qualifications obtained 

429  The National skills strategy 2025 – Ireland’s future is 
available at: www.education.ie/en/Publications/Policy-
Reports/pub_national_skills_strategy_2025.pdf 
430  The structure of the Irish NFQ can be seen in the fan 
diagram available at: www.nfq-qqi.com/index.html

through non-formal learning, offered by international, 
private and professional bodies.  

Each level has a specified level descriptor (broad 
description of the learning outcomes at a given 
level) and one or more award types also expressed 
in terms of learning outcomes. Levels describe 
nationally agreed standards of learning in terms of 
eight sub-strands of learning outcomes grouped as 
follows: knowledge (breadth and kind), know-how 
and skills (range and selectivity) and competence 
(context, role, learning to learn, and insight). 
Knowledge, skills and competences are defined 
following a constructivist approach. 

At VET award level, in the Common award system 
(CAS-2008), learning outcomes are written using 
the NFQ sub-strands but customised to the specific 
vocational area. Detailed learning outcomes are 
written at subject specific level. This allows learning 
outcomes in CAS standards to vary in number 
and detail depending on requirements (such as 
broad in art and design, detailed in business, and 
very detailed in agriculture). Professional award 
type descriptors were published in 2014431 to aid 
the levelling of qualifications from apprenticeship 
programmes; they are similar to those in the 
NFQ, but with an occupational/professional focus 
related to specific programme context. In 2016 QQI 
introduced a new policy and criteria for validation 
of provider programmes leading to awards issued 
by QQI432, requiring them to develop minimum 
intended programme learning outcomes for the 
overall programme and minimum intended module 
learning outcomes for each module within it.

NFQ award-types describe the purpose, volume 
and progression opportunities associated with a 
particular award. Each award-type includes a wide 
range of qualifications developed by awarding 
bodies. Four classes of award-type have been 
determined to ensure that the framework is capable 
of recognising all types and sizes of learning 
achieved by a learner: 

a.  major: the principal class of awards at each 
level, capturing a typical range of learning 
achievements at the level;

b.  minor: for partial completion of the outcomes for 

a major award;

431  QQI (2014). Professional award-type descriptors (award 
class: professional) for the alignment of professional 
awards at NFQ levels 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Available at: www.
qqi.ie/Publications/Publications/Professional_Award-types_
PS3_2014.pdf 

432  More information on validation of provider programmes 
is available at: www.qqi.ie/Articles/Pages/Programme-
Validation07.aspx

288

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSc.  supplemental: for learning that is additional to a 

major award;

d.  special purpose: for relatively narrow or purpose-

specific achievements.

As all types of qualification involve their own 
unique combination of technical, social and political 
dimensions, the principle of ‘best fit’ was found 
useful for allocating qualifications to NFQ levels 
in Ireland. Levelling of the main school leaving 
certificate433 and the initial levelling of qualifications 
linked to apprenticeships were relatively more 
challenging, while allocating higher education 
qualifications to levels, broadly mirroring the 
Bologna three-cycle system, was less contentious. 
For apprenticeship qualifications leading to advanced 
certificate at NFQ level 6/EQF level 5, the initial 
‘block levelling’ of traditional craft apprenticeships 
has been revisited and largely confirmed (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). The need to revisit 
the original levelling of certain qualifications in the 
light of emerging practice, experience and evidence 
was highlighted in the most recent (2017) NFQ policy 
impact assessment.  

The 2009 study on framework implementation and 
impact (NQAI, 2009a) concluded that adopting the 
learning outcomes-based approach entailed a long-
term cultural shift that required time and continued 
attention, and that implementation of learning 
outcomes was progressing at variable speeds in 
the different subsystems. The study reported that 
‘although different strategic approaches have been 
and are being taken to the introduction of learning 
outcomes, there appears to be a common lag in 
implementation between the administrative centres 
within awarding bodies and institutions and those 
engaged in teaching, training and assessment’ 
(NQAI, 2009a, p. 39). The need for continued debate 
within and across sectors, and the need to tackle 
the implications of the learning outcomes approach 
for assessment practices, were also emphasised.

According to a Cedefop study, ‘there is no 
literature that explicitly sets out the definition 
used for learning outcomes in Ireland’, but the 
concept is widely used in the literature and 
discussions related to the NFQ (Cedefop, 2016). 
The learning outcomes approach has started to 
provide common ground for different stakeholders 
(general education, higher education, VET, policy-
makers, students, trade unions) and has become 
the basis for shared dialogue on the purpose of 
education. Increased progression between VET 
and higher education is considered the biggest 

433  The school leaving certificate was placed at NFQ levels 4 

and 5 (EQF levels 3 and 4). 

achievement in the steps taken so far. A key area 
to be addressed is implementation of an integrated 
and effective quality assurance process for learning 
outcomes referenced qualifications, operating 
across institutions, sectors and levels of education 
and training. The NFQ and the learning outcomes 
approach feature prominently in statutory quality 
assurance guidelines434 for post-school education 
and training in Ireland. 

The 2017 policy impact assessment of the NFQ also 
concluded that the learning outcomes approach has 
become integral to the Irish education and training 
system. The study indicated strong agreement 
across all stakeholder groups on the view that the 
NFQ has had a positive impact on course design, 
teaching, assessment and the monitoring of 
standards.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Development of the NFQ was initially coordinated 
by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland 
(NQAI), established in 2001 by the Department 
of Education and Science and the Department of 
Enterprise, Trade and Employment, following the 
Qualifications (education and training) Act from 
1999. Two awards councils (HETAC and FETAC) 
were also created under the 1999 Act. For a decade, 
implementation of the framework was carried out 
by NQAI, designated EQF national coordination 
point and responsible for referencing the Irish NFQ 
to the EQF. A national steering committee – made 
up of the National Council for Curriculum and 
Assessment, HETAC and FETAC – was convened by 
NQAI to oversee the referencing process.

A new agency, Quality and Qualifications Ireland 
(QQI), was established on 6 November 2012 under 
the Qualifications and Quality Assurance (Education 
and Training) Act 2012435, as an independent State 
agency of the Department of Education and Skills. 
It was created by an amalgamation of four bodies 
that had both awarding and quality assurance 
responsibilities: FETAC, HETAC, NQAI and the 
Irish Universities Quality Board. QQI has assumed 
all functions of the four legacy bodies while also 
having new statutory responsibilities in particular 
areas. The agency is now responsible for promotion, 

434  QQI (2016). Core statutory guidelines for providers of 

education and training. www.qqi.ie/Articles/Pages/Core-
QA-Guidelines.aspx

435  Qualifications and Quality Assurance (Education and 

Training) Act, 2012. www.oireachtas.ie/documents/bills28/
acts/2012/a2812.pdf 

289

Volume II: National and regional casesmaintenance, implementation, further development 
and review of the NFQ.

The four key priorities outlined in QQI’s strategy for 
2019–21 are:

This was an important step in consolidating the 
governance structure for deepening implementation 
of a comprehensive framework. It also suggests 
that Ireland’s focus on qualifications has become 
more systematic, with stronger coordination of 
qualifications and quality assurance policies. QQI 
also has other functions: conducting reviews 
of access, transfer and progression policies in 
education and training; approving programmes 
offered by a variety of education providers; 
and promoting and regulating the quality of 
programmes436. It sits at the centre of the 
qualification system and cooperates with ministries, 
higher education institutions, employers and the 
voluntary sector. 

NFQ governance is currently ensured within the 
broader structures of QQI, which follow two 
strands: corporate and operational/academic. 
The corporate strand includes the QQI board, 
appointed by the Minister for Education and Skills, 
and a consultative forum consisting of stakeholder 
representatives from further and higher education 
and training. The board includes 10 members, of 
which at least two must represent learners. The 
operational/academic strand includes four sub-board 
committees made up of experts in the areas of their 
remit437.

Along with the staff dedicated to NFQ development, 
other staff across QQI contribute to its work on 
NFQ implementation: staff in awards development, 
validation, quality assurance, corporate services 
and communication, as well as the national 
Europass centre and the Irish National Recognition 
Information Centre (NARIC), both hosted by QQI. 

The 2018 Qualifications and Quality Assurance 
(Education and Training) (amendment) Bill 
strengthens the regulatory role of QQI, giving it 
statutory power to include qualifications issued by 
a broader range of awarding bodies in the NFQ. 
National awarding bodies offering qualifications 
included in the NFQ are currently QQI, the State 
Examinations Commission, the institutes of 
technology, and the universities.

436  QQI (2017). Who we are and what we do. www.qqi.ie/

Downloads/Who%20We%20Are-Booklet-August%2017.
pdf

437  The four sub-board committees of QQI are: programmes 
and awards executive committee, programmes and 
awards oversight committee, policies and standards 
committee, and approvals and reviews committee. More 
information about the governance of QQI can be found at: 
www.qqi.ie/Articles/Pages/QQI-Governance-.aspx

a.  ensuring the integrity of the NFQ;
b.  analysis and impact of measures taken to 
improve quality in education and training;

c.  collaboration and engagement of stakeholders 

through strategic partnerships;
d.  building organisational capacity438.

Consultation and stakeholder involvement have 
been key features of the national qualifications 
framework (NQF) process since the beginning. 
The development and early implementation of 
the NFQ drew together many actors from across 
the skills and education system. Awarding bodies 
and education and training providers from all 
subsystems were engaged in accordance with 
their statutory roles and responsibilities. Early 
cooperation and collaboration has arguably led 
to the position where the NFQ reflects a strong 
consensus about the kind and complexity of 
knowledge, skill and competence associated with 
qualifications at each of its ten levels. As the NFQ 
has become more settled, engagement has become 
more an issue of specific interests of different 
stakeholder groups. The risk that the NFQ may 
become taken for granted has been acknowledged; 
periodic reviews and renewal of the NFQ are seen 
as a way to regenerate stakeholder engagement, 
and this has already taken place (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways439

There is currently no single national strategy for 
validation in Ireland, but there have been positive 
developments towards a system for recognition of 
prior learning (RPL)440, including the commitment of 
the Department of Education and Skills, announced 
in the Action plan for education 2016–19441, to 
establish a national policy. The National skills 

438  QQI (2019). Statement of strategy 2019–21: adding value 
to qualifications. www.qqi.ie/News/PublishingImages/
Pages/QQI%E2%80%99s-Statement-of-Strategy-2019-
2021-%E2%80%93-Adding-Value-to-Qualifications/
QQI%27s%20Statement%20of%20Strategy%202019-
2021.pdf

439  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

440  RPL includes prior formal, informal and non-formal 

learning.

441  Department of Education and Skills. Action plan  
for education 2016–19: strategy statement. 

290

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSstrategy 2025 – Ireland’s future442, published in 2016, 
also included among its objectives the development 
of a system for RPL and better recognition of 
workplace learning, supporting lifelong learning. 
Both the further education and training strategy and 
the higher education strategy called for systematic 
implementation of RPL in the two sectors and a 
national RPL framework spanning sectors. 

RPL-related initiatives over recent years grew 
organically and with commitment to excellent 
practice, but they have also highlighted the 
complexity of the RPL concept and implementation. 
While RPL is established as a powerful tool for 
widening participation in education and training and 
the labour market, the lack of a national policy based 
on a solid theoretical foundation has raised concerns 
that RPL implementation should not be done very 
quickly. 

QQI provides an overarching governing structure 
for the coordination of RPL and supports 
implementation in partnership with stakeholders. 
Under the 2012 Qualifications and Quality 
Assurance (Education and Training) Act, the agency 
has policy responsibility for access, transfer and 
progression of learners. In 2015, QQI issued a 
restatement of the Policy and criteria for access, 
transfer and progression for providers of further and 
higher education and training443 – first published in 
2003 – and the Principles and operational guidelines 
for the recognition of prior learning in further and 
higher education and training444, first published in 
2005 by NQAI. Providers must comply with QQI 
policies on credit accumulation, credit transfer, 
and identification and assessment of previously 
acquired knowledge, skill and competence, and 
must establish at local level their own policies and 
procedures on access, transfer and progression. 
With the 2018 Qualifications and quality assurance 
(amendment) Bill, providers are to be given a more 
central role in application processes for RPL.

voluntary RPL practitioner network445 created in 
2015 and supported by major stakeholders. Aims 
include contributing to policy development and it 
has enabled collaboration and sharing of practice. 
These developments demonstrate a targeted and 
strategic approach towards RPL implementation.

Arrangements for the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, linked to the NFQ and leading to 
full or partial qualifications and/or giving access to 
education and training programmes, are in place 
in all education and training sub-sectors except 
general education. Learners can achieve entry to a 
programme through RPL, and can gain exemptions 
within a programme, gain credit towards an award 
and attain an award. In higher education, the 
national forum for the enhancement of teaching 
and learning commissioned a research project on 
RPL in higher education446 which showed that most 
institutions considered claims for RPL in relation to 
advanced entry to a course and module exemptions; 
a limited number considered claims for full awards. 
QQI also funded a parallel research project on 
RPL approaches and practices in further education 
and training447, which suggested that RPL is seen 
more appropriate at the lower levels of the NFQ 
(levels 1–3); at higher levels (4–6) it seems to be 
approached with more caution, due to more direct 
links at these levels to entry to the labour market.

There is also evidence that employer attitudes 
towards RPL are becoming more favourable, 
but there are important differences in the use 
of RPL in the education sector compared to the 
labour market and the third sector. Four stages of 
validation consistent with those in the 2012 Council 
recommendation on the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning448 (identification, documentation, 
assessment and certification) are used, but the use 
and combination of these stages differs in practice 
depending on the purpose of RPL.

Another strength of the Irish approach to the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning is the 

Qualifications acquired through validation of non-
formal or informal learning use the same standards 
as formal qualifications. The definition of levels of 

445  More information about the RPL practitioner network is 

available at: https://rpl-ireland.ie/

  www.education.ie/en/Publications/Corporate-Reports/ 

446  National forum for the enhancement of teaching and 

Strategy-Statement/Department-of-Education-and-Skills-
Strategy-Statement-2016-2019.pdf

442  The National skills strategy 2025 – reland’s future is 

available at: www.education.ie/en/Publications/Policy-
Reports/pub_national_skills_strategy_2025.pdf

443  The 2015 restatement of the 2003 version is available 

at: www.qqi.ie/Downloads/ATP%20Policy%20
Restatement%20FINAL%202018.pdf

444  The first version, published in June 2005 by NQAI, is 
available at: www.qqi.ie/Downloads/Principles%20
and%20Operational%20Guidelines%20for%20RPL%20
2005.pdf

learning in higher education (2015). A current overview 
of recognition of prior learning (RPL) in Irish higher 
education. Focused research report, No 2. 

447  Goggin et al. (2017). Recognition of prior learning in Irish 
further education and training. A study commissioned 
by QQI and ETBI, available at: www.qqi.ie/Downloads/
Prior%20Learning%20Report.pdf

448  Council recommendation of 20 December 2012 on 
the validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
Official Journal of the European Union. C398/1. 
22.12.2012. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32012H1222%2801%29

291

Volume II: National and regional caseslearning and the articulation of learning outcomes 
in the NFQ have been found useful for RPL 
purposes. OECD indicated that ‘RPL arrangements 
in Ireland that lead to qualifications in the NFQ 
are fully integrated with existing arrangements 
for qualifications, e.g. they operate within the 
overarching funding arrangements, rules and 
regulations on provision, quality assurance and 
assessment’ (Harold et al., 2008, p. 39). On the 
other hand, it is not yet clear how, if at all, the NFQ 
will play a role in the current process of policy 
formation and implementation of validation of non-
formal and informal learning (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).

Among the challenges that Ireland is facing are the 
need for common definition and understanding, 
as well as data collection systems and indicators, 
on RPL, perceived lack of resources for capacity 
building (especially in the further education and 
training and third sectors) and need for clarity 
around the drivers and priorities for RPL.

NQF implementation

The Irish NFQ is an inclusive framework that has 
reached an advanced operational stage. Initial 
implementation prioritised qualifications in general 
education, VET and higher education awarded by 
national public bodies, which have now all been 
included in the framework. The NFQ is also open to 
fit-for-purpose qualifications offered by professional 
bodies and private and international awarding bodies 
operating in Ireland (NQAI, 2003). Work is currently 
under way to include qualifications awarded outside 
the nationally regulated qualification system, aiming 
to reach the NFQ’s original aspirations (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

QQI maintains a national database of the further 
education and training qualifications that it offers449. 
The development of a statutory comprehensive 
database of all qualifications included within the 
NFQ is under way. The new national database is 
expected to include VET qualifications currently in 
the QQI database, higher education qualifications 
and private and international ones, pending policy 
development on non-formal qualifications and the 
interest of awarding bodies. General education 
qualifications are not intended to be included in any 
national database. NQF and EQF levels are indicated 
in the existing QQI database and foreseen to be 
included in the comprehensive national database. 

449  The QQI database for further education and training 
qualifications is available at: https://qsearch.qqi.ie/
WebPart/Search?searchtype=awards

Since June 2015 they have also been included on all 
further education and training qualifications issued 
by QQI (since June 2015) as well as on Europass 
diploma supplements in higher education and 
Europass certificate supplements in VET (since 
2012 and 2013, respectively). However, they are not 
included on general education and higher education 
qualification documents, which are issued by 
autonomous bodies; this decision was the result 
of cost-benefit analysis. Inclusion of NQF and EQF 
levels on Europass supplements was facilitated by 
coordination at central level and is believed to have 
made NQF/EQF level references on qualification 
documents less important (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).  

Independent measures of public awareness of the 
NFQ and EQF suggest that both are well known 
(33% and 28%, respectively, of all adults are aware 
of the two frameworks) (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). The NFQ is known and used 
extensively by education and training institutions 
and providers, and guidance and counselling 
practitioners; it is well known and reasonably well 
used by labour market stakeholders. It is also well 
known by recognition authorities and bodies within 
the education system, but less so by those outside 
the system.

Initial communication of the NFQ at the time of 
its establishment targeted the general public with 
TV campaigns but, over time, communications 
strategies have shifted toward the use of 
intermediaries or brokers to promote awareness and 
use of the NFQ. Education and training providers 
are the primary channel for promoting awareness of 
the NFQ to learners, while the guidance community 
has also had a significant impact on promoting to 
end users. Other intermediaries such as the Irish 
Central Statistics Office (CSO) disseminate the 
NFQ in surveys, including the national census. The 
Central Statistics Office has adopted the framework 
as an official classification for collection of data and 
publication of statistics on educational attainment. 
The National Skills Council collects and reports 
outputs of the education and training system 
using the NFQ in its annual publication Monitoring 
Ireland’s skill supply450. In higher education, 
the Central Applications Office manages the 
applications process using NFQ levels451. Evidence 
also suggests that the framework is now a widely 
used instrument in employment offices (Elken, 
2016). For direct promotion, QQI relies primarily on 

450  The 2017 report is available at: www.solas.ie/

SolasPdfLibrary/Monitoring%20Ireland’s%20Skills%20
Supply%20%202017_FinalVersion_WEB.pdf

451  More information is available at: www.cso.ie/en/methods/

education/

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthe QQI website452, podcast/radio and social media, 
post/mail, and newsletters of various national 
networks. An NQF video, podcasts, infographics and 
other promotional materials have been produced.

A comprehensive NFQ/EQF communication 
strategy is currently being developed, aiming to 
bring the frameworks closer to the end-users. 
The target groups for NQF communication are 
education and training providers, awarding bodies, 
learners, government officials, advocacy bodies, 
researchers, legislators and social partners, with 
a current focus on recruiters. The QQI strategy for 
employers and recruiters is intended to involve 
participation in events and consultations with 
targeted stakeholders, providing insights into labour 
market requirements and socio-economic realities. 
An instrument is intended to be developed to survey 
employers/recruiters with a view to getting a better 
understanding of the role and use of qualifications in 
recruitment (European Commission and  
Cedefop, 2018).

Two NFQ evaluation studies have been carried 
out so far: a 2009 study on the impact and 
implementation of the NFQ453 and a 2017  
policy impact assessment of the Irish NFQ  
(Indecon, 2017)454. 

Although the 2009 study (NQAI, 2009) could not 
authoritatively determine the impact of the NFQ 
or identify causal contributions by the framework, 
it provided important insights into policy formation 
and implementation. Three distinct processes 
related to the implementation of the NFQ were 
discerned: placement of existing awards in the 
framework; introduction of framework standards 
and associated programme validation; and the 
deeper implementation of a learning outcomes 
approach in all aspects of qualifications. The study 
also indicated that progression routes into higher 
education and training have increased and have 
become more transparent since the introduction of 
the NFQ, and that the framework had considerable 
potential to be used in recruitment, in developing 

452  www.qqi.ie/Articles/Pages/National-Framework-of-

Qualifications-(NFQ).aspx

453  See NQAI (2009). The 2009 Study on the impact and 
implementation of the Irish NFQ was commissioned 
by the NQAI and carried out by an international study 
team panel based on a background paper, reports from 
stakeholders, case studies, reports and submission from 
public and consultative forum.

454  See Indecon (2017). The 2017 Policy impact assessment of 
the Irish NFQ was commissioned by QQI and conducted 
by Indecon International Economic Consultants. It 
used a mixed method approach: an online survey of 
national stakeholders and bilateral interviews with key 
representative bodies. 

career pathways, and in planning work-based 
learning and training. The challenges identified 
at that time for NQF implementation included 
concerns about the accurate placement of awards 
on framework levels, the development and use of 
awards at all framework levels, the need to embed 
the framework in quality assurance arrangements, 
and the challenge of raising awareness about the 
NFQ within the education and training system.

The 2017 policy impact assessment of the Irish 
NFQ (Indecon, 2017) found that the NFQ had a 
positive impact on the quality, transparency and 
comparability of qualifications, and the mobility and 
employability of holders of qualifications in Ireland. 
It also showed that there was continued strong 
support for the NFQ as an important element of 
the national skills and qualifications architecture, 
continued interest in a qualifications agenda 
and support for a national forum for knowledge 
exchange on all qualifications developments, 
including NFQ and EQF. At the same time, the risks 
of the NFQ becoming taken for granted and of the 
weakening of vigilance in maintaining the integrity of 
the NFQ were acknowledged, including the need to 
revisit the original levelling of certain qualifications 
in the light of emerging practice, experience and 
evidence. Specific recommendations included: 

a.  to continue to develop and implement the NFQ 
as a responsive and adaptable mechanism for 
qualifications and skills policy; 

b.  to consider initiatives to improve awareness 
of the NFQ among stakeholders, particularly 
recruiters;

c.  to revisit the operation of the NFQ for upper 

secondary school qualifications in Ireland and for 
qualifications at EQF level 5; 

d.  to examine QQI’s awarding function and NFQ 

levelling processes more generally; 

e.  to ensure clarity and simplicity of 

communication; 

f.  to include a broader range of qualifications within 

the NFQ; 

g.  to ensure strong international engagement;
h.  to establish data to investigate transfer and 
progression pathways through the national 
qualifications system;
to establish a national forum for qualifications 
(Indecon, 2017).

i. 

The NFQ is an outward-looking framework with a 
strong external dimension through engagement 
with non-European countries: Australia, Hong Kong, 
Jordan and Bahrain, Malaysia and New Zealand455. 

455  Information on qualification recognition arrangements 

between New Zealand and Ireland is available at: www.
nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/our-role-in-international-

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Volume II: National and regional casesThe importance of maintaining the international 
connectedness of the NFQ was also highlighted 
in the 2017 review (Indecon, 2017), while the EQF 
was seen as a valuable asset for promoting the 
international recognition of Irish qualifications 
abroad and of foreign qualifications in Ireland.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The Irish NFQ was the first national qualifications 
framework to complete its referencing to the 
European qualifications framework (EQF), in 2009. 
The country built on experiences and conclusions 
of self-certification of compatibility of the Irish NFQ 
with the qualifications framework for the European 
higher education area, completed in 2006. 

Since then, significant changes in the institutional 
and legislative landscape have taken place. Most of 
the agencies that endorsed the 2009 referencing 
report were abolished and the 2012 Qualifications 
and quality assurance Act established new 
institutional arrangements for NFQ governance. 
It introduced more coherent and strengthened 
provisions for the integration of the NFQ and 
access, transfer and progression policies into quality 
assurance arrangements in post school education 
and training. The NFQ has also undergone some 
technical changes. A new professional award type 
at NQF levels 5 to 9 (EQF levels 4 to 7)456 was 
introduced and is now operational. A new school 
qualification at NQF level 3 (EQF level 2) has been 
introduced to replace the junior certificate which 
was last issued in 2016.

Drawing on the conclusions and recommendations 
of the most recent evaluation of the framework, it is 
envisaged to commence re-referencing of the NFQ 
to EQF in 2019.

Important lessons and future plans

Following an incremental approach to 
implementation, the NFQ has reached an advanced 
operational stage. A combination of factors 
contributed to its success: a strong legislative 
basis; institutional reform leading to increased 
institutional coherence, including the establishment 
of QQI in 2012 as an integrated quality assurance 
and qualifications body; political support; and a 
commitment to decision-making by consensus. 
All these led to a better integration of the NFQ 

with broader education, training and labour market 
policies and practices. 

Experience with the framework and available 
evidence indicate that the NFQ has had a strong 
influence on the promotion of learning outcomes 
in Ireland and on the permeability of education 
and training by improving access and progression 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). It has 
had impact on access of non-traditional students 
to higher education (Elken, 2016). The 2009 study 
on the impact and implementation of the Irish NFQ 
(NQAI, 2009) suggested that there was a common 
lag in learning outcomes implementation. A Cedefop 
study (2016) on the application of learning outcomes 
suggested that further work to implement the 
learning outcomes approach may strengthen the 
capacity of the NFQ to meet its aims. Establishing 
an effective quality assurance process for learning 
outcomes, operating across institutions and levels 
of education and training, could be a positive step 
forward. The NFQ and the learning outcomes 
approach feature prominently in statutory quality 
assurance guidelines457 on post-school education 
and training in Ireland.

The NFQ is also perceived as an important tool in 
supporting the recognition of foreign qualifications. 
It has had a moderate influence on the review, 
renewal and quality assurance of qualifications, 
and on increasing parity of esteem between 
types of education and training and qualifications. 
Implementation relied on strong support from, 
and partnerships between, different stakeholders. 
The NFQ is seen as having had a strong influence 
on improved dialogue and cooperation between 
stakeholders within education and training and 
a moderate influence on cooperation between 
education and training and labour market stakeholders 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

One of the key challenges for the future 
implementation of the framework is ensuring 
the protection of standards and improving quality 
through developing and promoting the integrity of 
the Irish NFQ. The 2017 policy impact assessment 
(Indecon, 2017) showed that the need to embed the 
NFQ in quality assurance policy and practice was 
seen by the majority of responders (76%) as a high 
priority for the future. This is particularly important in 
the context of opening the Irish NFQ for inclusion of 
qualifications from other awarding bodies following 
the 2018 amendment to the Qualifications and 
Quality Assurance (Education and Training) Act. 
Another aspect that will require careful attention 

education/country-specific-recognition-arrangements/
ireland/  

456  One university is now delivering an apprenticeship 

programme at NFQ level 10 (EQF level 8).  

457  QQI (2016). Core statutory guidelines for providers of 

education and training. www.qqi.ie/Articles/Pages/Core-
QA-Guidelines.aspx

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSin the next period is clear communication about 
the framework, particularly in the context of the 
changing role and nature of the NFQ. The use of 
‘jargon’ was identified by a number of stakeholders 
as both a challenge to a broad understanding of the 
framework and a potential barrier to engagement 
with the NFQ and its associated policies (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

An important point of discussion in the country 
is related to demonstrating the impact of the 
framework. The sustainability of the NFQ depends 
on whether or not it can be shown to contribute to 
education, training and labour market national policy 

agendas. The Irish experience has highlighted an 
important difference between framework use and 
framework impact. The latter is believed to be more 
difficult to assess and any general conclusions are 
still tentative and partial. What has become clear 
is that the NFQ on its own is capable of delivering 
relatively modest impact. The timely and effective 
deployment of the NFQ alongside, and appropriately 
integrated with, other policy interventions seems 
to concentrate its reform impact. Analysts and 
commentators are only beginning to understand the 
precise combination of conditions and interventions 
required for the NFQ to address real-world problems 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Table 37. Irish national framework of qualifications (NFQ)

NFQ 
LEVELS

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS

Doctoral degree
Higher Doctorate 

Master degree 
Postgraduate diploma
Professional Award

Honours bachelor degree 
Higher diploma
Professional Award

Ordinary bachelor degree
Professional Award

Advanced certificate 
e.g. level 6 advanced certificate in horticulture
Higher certificate
Professional Award

Level 5 certificate 
e.g. level 5 certificate in hospitality operations
Leaving certificate
Professional Award

Level 4 certificate 
e.g. level 4 certificate in engineering skills
Leaving certificate

Level 3 certificate 
e.g. level 3 certificate in information and communication technology
Junior certificate*

Level 2 certificate 
e.g. level 2 certificate in general learning

Level 1 certificate 
e.g. level 1 certificate in communications

8

7

6

6

5

4

3

2

1

1

(*)   The Junior certificate (NFQ level 3) was last issued in 2016. It has been replaced by a Junior cycle profile of achievement 
(JCPA); the formal inclusion of the JCPA within the NFQ is subject to discussion.

Source: Adapted from QQI: www.nfq-qqi.com/index.html

295

Volume II: National and regional cases Abbreviations

CAS 
EQF  
FETAC  

HETAC  

common award system
European qualifications framework
Further Education and Training Awards 
Council
Higher Education and Training Award 
Council

NFQ  
NQAI  

NQF  
QQI  
RPL  
VET  

national framework of qualifications
National Qualifications Authority of 
Ireland
national qualifications framework
Quality and Qualifications Ireland
recognition of prior learning
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI) – hosting the EQF national coordination point: www.qqi.ie/
QQI qualifications database: https://qsearch.qqi.ie/WebPart/Search?searchtype=awards
National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (2009). Referencing of the Irish national framework of 

qualifications to the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning. www.qqi.ie/Documents/
Referencing%20Irish%20NFQ%20to%20the%20European%20QF%20for%20Lifelong%20
Learning.pdf

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning-outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Elken, M. (2016). ‘EU-on-demand’: developing national qualifications frameworks in a multi-level 

context. European Educational Research Journal, Vol. 15, No 6, pp. 628–643. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1474904116642778 

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Country analysis – Ireland. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-
library-docs/volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop, ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Ireland. 

Harold, A.; Taguma, M.; Hagend, K. (2008). Thematic review and collaborative policy analysis recognition of 

non-formal and informal learning: Ireland country note. Paris: OECD. https://vince.eucen.eu/ireland-
country-note/

Indecon (2017). Policy impact assessment of the Irish national framework of qualifications. A study 

commissioned by QQI and supported by Erasmus+. www.qqi.ie/Downloads/Policy%20Impact%20
Assessment%20of%20NFQ_Indecon%20Report%20with%20Cover_FINAL.pdf

NQAI (2003). Policies and criteria for the establishment of the national framework of qualifications. Dublin: 
NQAI. www.qqi.ie/Publications/Publications/Policies%20and%20Criteria%20for%20the%20
Establishment%20of%20the%20NFQ.pdf

NQAI (2009a). Framework implementation and impact study: report of study team. www.qqi.ie/Downloads/

Framework%20Implementation%20and%20Impact%20Study.pdf 

NQAI (2009b). Referencing of the Irish national framework of qualifications (NFQ) to the European 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning (EQF). Dublin: NQAI. www.qqi.ie/Documents/
Referencing%20Irish%20NFQ%20to%20the%20European%20QF%20for%20Lifelong%20
Learning.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

296

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSITALY

Introduction and context

The Italian education system has seen 
improvements in several key indicators of education 
and training in recent years. There has been a 
steady decrease in the rate of early school leaving, 
which has fallen to 13.8%, and adult participation in 
lifelong learning has been increasing, reaching 8.3% 
in 2016. The proportion of students in vocational 
education and training (VET) is above the EU average 
(55.8% in 2016, compared to 47.3%). However, 
the employment rate of recent VET graduates is 
among the lowest in the EU. VET reforms, including 
a diversification of study pathways and support for 
the dual system, are expected to address this issue. 
Student performance in basic skills in the 2015 
Programme for International Student Assessment 
(PISA) showed large regional differences between 
the north-east and the south, and between Italian 
and migrant pupils, while the overall percentages of 
underachievers in reading, maths and science are 
above EU averages. The percentage of young people 
not in employment, education or training (NEETs) 
is the highest in the EU (24.3% for the 15–29 
age group in 2016, compared to the EU average 
of 14.2%). School reform is expected to improve 
education outcomes; student testing has been 
extended, mainly through formative assessment 
at primary and secondary level, and work-based 
learning is a requirement for the final three years of 
upper secondary school. The rate of attainment in 
tertiary education is the second lowest in the EU, 
at 26.2% in 2016, compared to the EU average of 
39.1%, and is being addressed with measures to 
increase student financial aid. While the take-up of 
higher education graduates on the labour market 
is slower compared to other EU countries, the 
employment rate of recent tertiary graduates has 
started to recover (European Commission, 2017). 

The reforms carried out since 2003 across 
education and training (upper secondary general 
education, VET and higher education), – motivated 
by a need to bridge education and labour market 
needs – anticipated the principles of a learning-
outcomes-based NQF. Given the complex model of 
governance in the country and the fragmentation 

of the education and training system458, one of the 
challenges has been to achieve effective inter-
regional coordination to encourage recognition of 
the regional qualification systems and inter-regional 
mobility459. 

Initial European qualifications framework (EQF) 
referencing was carried out between 2009 and 
2012 linking national formal qualifications, as well as 
those awarded by regions within the framework of 
the State-Regions agreement, directly to the eight 
EQF levels. The first Italian referencing report was 
adopted in December 2012 and presented to the 
EQF advisory group in May 2013 (Italian technical 
working group, 2012). 

The Italian qualifications framework for higher 
education (quadro dei titoli italiani dell’istruzione 
superior – QTI)460 was published in 2010 by the 
Ministry of Education, University and Research. 
Self-certification to the qualifications framework for 
the European higher education area was completed 
in 2012461 and decisions made about higher 
education qualifications were taken up in the initial 
EQF referencing. 

Following the first referencing process (2012), a 
national strategy on lifelong learning was defined, 
which led to the adoption of Law No 92/2012 on 
labour market reform462 and Legislative Decree 
No 13/2013463; this established a national system 

458  There are 21 regions and two autonomous provinces 
in Italy. With the modification of the V Title of the 
Constitution in December 2001, the regions increased 
their competence in education, maintained their 
competence in the vocational training field and in the 
definition of professional profiles and qualifications. As a 
result, there is a greater need for coordination between 
regions.

459  Cedefop (2014). The common European tools reaching 
European citizens – Country studies: Italy (unpublished).
460  The Italian qualifications framework for higher education is 
available at: www.quadrodeititoli.it/index.aspx?IDL=2

461  National report regarding the Bologna process 

implementation 2012–15 – Italy, 2015.  
www.ehea.info/pid34250-cid101267/italy.html 

462  Italian Government (2012). 
463  Italian Government (2013). 

297

Volume II: National and regional casesfor certification of competences and a national 
repository of education, training and vocational 
qualifications awarded at national and regional levels 
and described in terms of learning outcomes. To 
enable the setting up of the national repository, 
stakeholder agreement was reached in 2015 on 
an operational common framework for national 
recognition of regional qualifications and related 
skills – the national framework of regional 
qualifications – followed by an inter-ministerial 
decree464. 

These developments were also preconditions for, 
and served as steps towards, putting in place a 
comprehensive NQF through dialogue with all 
national stakeholders. The Italian NQF was adopted 
through an inter-ministerial decree in January 
2018465. It is structured on eight levels described in 
learning outcomes in the three domains of the EQF 
(knowledge, skills, and responsibility and autonomy). 
Sub-descriptors have also been developed by 
extending the EQF level descriptors to cover all 
qualifications available nationally. The framework 
covers qualifications from general education, higher 
education and VET qualifications administered at 
regional level. Professional and private qualifications 
are to be included in the future.

Policy objectives

Italy has faced the challenge of integrating different 
levels of lifelong learning systems into a coherent 
national qualification system. The context for 
designing and awarding qualifications is complex: 
it is governed by multiple legislative acts under 
different regional and national authorities. The 
comprehensive NQF adopted in January 2018 
represents the main tool for the description and 
classification of qualifications awarded within the 
national and regional system and for referencing 
Italian qualifications to the EQF.

An increasing focus on lifelong learning as a 
strategic lever for economic growth, social cohesion 
and quality of education, training and employment 
services was influenced by EU-level developments: 
the 2008 recommendation on the establishment 
of the EQF for lifelong learning; the 2009 Council 
conclusions on a strategic framework for European 
cooperation in education and training (ET 2020); 
the 2012 recommendation on the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning; and, more 
recently, the New skills agenda for Europe and 
the 2017 recommendation on the EQF (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). In this context, 

the NQF aims to help coordinate and strengthen the 
national lifelong learning systems and the services 
for the validation and certification of competences. 

Inspired by the principles of the EQF, the objectives 
of the Italian national framework include (Italian 
Government, 2018):

a.  to improve access, transparency and 

permeability of the qualifications system; 
b.  to promote the currency of qualifications at 

national and European level, including in terms of 
geographical and professional mobility;

c.  to promote the centrality of the person and the 

value of individual experiences, including through 
validation and certification of competences 
acquired in non-formal and informal contexts, 
and those acquired through work-based learning;

d.  to contribute to the quality of education and 
competences acquired by individuals for 
personal, civic, social and professional growth.

Adoption of the NQF is also expected to make 
referencing to the EQF easier and to help represent 
the Italian education and qualifications system and 
its relation to the labour market.

Given its aim to increase citizens’ knowledge, skills 
and abilities in formal, non-formal and informal 
learning contexts in line with the general rules 
and minimum standards set out by the Legislative 
Decree No 13/2013 setting up the national system 
for certification of competences466, the NQF is 
expected to be used as a ‘multitasking tool’ in a 
variety of contexts (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018):

a.  in general education, VET and higher education 
for strengthening links between subsystems to 
reduce barriers to progression and to increase 
permeability of subsystems;

b.  in the validation process for the identification, 
assessment and certification of skills acquired 
in formal, non-formal and informal learning 
contexts;

c.  in public employment services and guidance 

centres for skill profiling and in developing career 
pathways;

d.  in the labour market for recruitment, workforce 
development, planning of work-based learning, 
and for certifying skills and competences 
acquired in work contexts;

e.  in institutional contexts for developing actions 
and measures to support vulnerable groups  
(e.g. NEETs) or to support specific programmes 
(e.g. upskilling).

464  Italian Government (2015a). 
465  Italian Government (2018). 

466  Italian Government (2013).

298

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLevels and use of learning outcomes

The Italian education and training system has 
introduced the learning outcomes approach at 
national and regional levels, with each subsystem 
having its own characteristics. The debate on using 
learning outcomes in the country started about 
a decade ago and continues, along with gradual 
reform of the entire education and training system. 
A main forum for this debate was the public 
consultation that preceded the adoption of the first 
EQF referencing report in 2012.

The eight EQF levels and level descriptors were 
used directly in the first Italian referencing process 
to link all national qualifications from formal 
education and training to the EQF. The starting 
point of the referencing process was to analyse 
both learning processes and learning outcomes 
in relation to the EQF levels, including a critical 
analysis of the EQF level descriptors: knowledge, 
skills and competence. The ‘knowledge’ and ‘skills’ 
descriptors of the EQF were deemed clear enough 
to allow correlation with Italian qualifications, while 
the ‘competence’ descriptor was divided into three 
dimensions: work/study context; type of tasks, 
problems and problem-solving approaches; and 
autonomy and responsibility. 

The comprehensive NQF, adopted in January 
2018467, was developed using the learning outcomes 
approach in close alignment to the structure of 
the EQF. It consists of eight qualification levels 
defined by level descriptors covering three 
dimensions: knowledge, skills, and responsibility 
and autonomy. To ensure all national qualifications 
are included, sub-descriptors have also been 
developed, extending the EQF level descriptors. 
The explicit and implicit dimensions embedded in 
the EQF descriptors were analysed by a national 
technical-methodological working group, resulting 
in the adoption of the explicit dimensions and in 
making the implicit dimensions more explicit. In 
some cases, in particular for the ‘knowledge’ and 
‘responsibility and autonomy’ descriptors, the 
explicit and implicit dimensions were adjusted to 
the national context; in other cases, especially 
for the ‘skills’ descriptors, additional elements 
were adopted to make the NQF descriptors more 
inclusive. 

The framework covers qualifications from general 
education, higher education and VET qualifications 
administered at regional level, while professional 
and private qualifications are to be included in 
the future. In the current, continuing process of 

467  Italian Government (2018).

allocating qualifications to NQF levels, specific 
attention will be given to NQF level 5, which marks 
the transition between secondary and tertiary 
education, and – from a labour market perspective – 
between the production and delivery of goods and 
services (levels 2 to 5) and the managerial levels 
(levels 6 to 7) (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018). 

One significant area of work in recent years has 
been on regional qualifications (numbering about 
4 000) to enable their inclusion in the national 
repository of education, training and vocational 
qualifications. This work has been carried out 
through the Atlas of work and qualifications468, a 
methodological tool for the rationalisation of the 
high number of regional VET qualifications with 
different content and awarding criteria. This is based 
on a classification of 24 economic-professional 
sectors using the classification codes adopted by 
the Italian National Institute of Statistics concerning 
economic activities – ATECO 2007469, and 
professions – CP 2011470. The atlas is expected to be 
extended to all national qualifications in the future. 
Regions are responsible for the redesign of regional 
qualifications using learning outcomes and this work 
is continuing.

In terms of take-up of the learning outcomes 
approach in the different subsystems, in general 
education, qualifications awarded by upper 
secondary schools and regional qualifications 
awarded within the State-Regions agreement are 
described in learning outcomes according to a 2010 
Presidential decree on general education reform. 
There are three main pathways at upper secondary 
level: general (licei), technical and vocational 
education. Each pathway lasts five years, leading to 
a diploma, and learning outcomes are linked to the 
EQF level 4. 

In vocational training, where the regions have 
principal responsibility, there is a focus on 
competences, which are described in terms of 
learning outcomes. There are two different options 
for vocational training: a three-year or a four-year 
pathway. Both lead to a diploma and a qualification 
acknowledged at national level. The four-year course 
can open up higher education options, provided 
the student takes an additional year and sits a 
State exam. The apprenticeship system has been 
reformed in recent years to integrate training and 

468  The atlas, based on the decree of 30 June 2015, is 

available in Italian at: http://atlantelavoro.inapp.org

469  ATECO 2007: www.istat.it/en/archive/17959 
470  CP 2011: www.istat.it/it/archivio/18132 

299

Volume II: National and regional casesemployment within a dual system471. The 2011 
State-Regions agreement on VET learning pathways 
describes 21 vocational profiles using learning 
outcomes. Competences are defined as the 
smallest units for certification defining a vocational 
profile, collected into codified lists based on the 
relevant EQF level and on a clear explanation of 
learning outcomes (Italian technical working  
group, 2012). 

The higher (non-academic) technical education and 
training pathway (istruzione e formazione tecnica 
superiore – IFTS) used a national standard system 
based on competences dating from 2000; since 
2008 the standards have been updated to make 
them more coherent with the learning outcomes 
approach. Following this 2008 amendment, IFTS 
was reorganised and a higher technical education 
pathway (istruzione tecnica superiore – ITS) was set 
up472. IFTS courses run for one year; ITS courses 
for two years. Both types of curricula are made 
up of units consistent with the learning outcomes 
approach. They are linked to EQF levels.

In academic education (universities), policy-
makers reinforced the need to align diplomas 
and certificates with the commitments of the 
Bologna process. In the existing framework for 
higher education (QTI), Dublin descriptors473 are 
used nationally for the cycles of higher education 
agreed within the Bologna process. More specific 
descriptors are being defined for each programme 
by universities but clear evidence of applying 
the learning outcomes approach is still missing 
(Cedefop, 2016). Higher education is still under 
reform, aiming to move the system closer to the 
European standards designed by the Bologna 
process.

However, despite the move towards a learning 
outcomes approach474, a gap still exists between 

471  Italian Government (2015b). This legislative decree was 

set up by the ministerial decree of 12 October 2015 on the 
definition of vocational standards for apprenticeship and 
general criteria for the implementation of apprenticeship 
learning pathways, putting the dual system into effect. 
472  Higher technical education and training courses organised 

by higher technical institutes with qualifications awarded 
by the Ministry of Education.

473  The Dublin descriptors used are: knowledge and 

understanding; applying knowledge and understanding; 
making judgements; communication skills; learning skills.

474  Other legislative developments that take into 

consideration the learning outcomes orientation include: 
the State-Regions agreement of 24 September 2015 on 
the dual system in VET, which introduces the principle of 
learning by working and the development of work-based 
learning policies; the new guidelines on internships 
(25 May 2017), managed by the regions and aimed at 
(re)inclusion on the labour market, which introduce the 

theory and practice. While the benefits of the 
learning outcomes orientation and its potential to 
change teaching and learning are recognised, in 
practice teachers continue to use a more traditional 
input-oriented approach. Learning outcomes 
implementation is mainly part of pilot projects. It is 
not yet possible to assess the extent to which the 
approach is applied or its impact on the ground. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

One of the main challenges in establishing and 
implementing a comprehensive NQF in Italy has 
been the high number of stakeholders involved 
and the complexity of the national education 
and training system, with diverse qualification 
repositories at national and regional level managed 
autonomously by the awarding bodies. The Ministry 
of Education, University and Research is responsible 
for qualifications awarded in general and higher 
education, while the regions and the Autonomous 
Provinces of Trento and Bolzano are responsible 
for VET qualifications. The Ministry of Education, 
University and Research and the Ministry of Labour 
and Social Policies have been leading developments 
in EQF-related processes, in agreement with the 
regions, autonomous provinces and social partners, 
as laid down in several agreements. 

The first Italian referencing report, linking 
qualifications recognised at national level directly 
to the EQF, was adopted in the State-Regions 
conference, following public consultation in 2012. 
A total of 150 stakeholder organisations took part 
in the consultation, along with universities, regions 
and enterprises.

A preliminary step towards developing an NQF 
that includes all Italian qualifications has been 
the complex task of rationalising and recognising 
at national level the diverse range of regional 
qualifications. This work was grounded in the 
National Law No 92/2012 on the reform of the 
labour market475 and the Legislative Decree 
No 13/2013 on the national certification of 
competences and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning476. Article 8 of this decree  
provides for the creation of a national repository  
of education, training and vocational qualifications 
and the definition of a minimum standard 
framework of services for certification of 

construction of a competence-based curriculum and the 
validation of competences in internships programmes 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

475  Italian Government (2012).
476 
Italian Government (2013).

300

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScompetences. For the implementation of the 
national repository, an agreement was reached on 
the operational common framework for national 
recognition of regional qualifications and related 
skills, adopted by the two ministries (education and 
labour) through the decree of 30 June 2015477. 

At technical level, this work has been supported 
by a technical committee, composed of 
representatives of those authorities responsible for 
qualifications478. Its role is to establish partnerships 
and exchange technical solutions and practices with 
all the main institutional stakeholders involved. Its 
responsibilities include (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018):

a.  setting up, implementing and maintaining the 

national repository of qualifications;

b.  the description and monitoring of the minimum 
standards for validation and certification of 
competences;

c.  the description of technical provisions to develop 
and implement the information system for the 
interoperability of the authorities responsible for 
the certification of competences. 

In 2015, the EQF national coordination point (NCP), 
hosted at that time by the National Institute for 
the Development of Vocational Training (ISFOL, 
now INAPP), was mandated to prepare a technical 
proposal for the comprehensive framework. This 
proposal, which also benefited from the contribution 
of the national methodological working group, was 
finalised and adopted through the inter-ministerial 
decree of January 2018479. The decree regulates the 
procedures and criteria for allocating qualifications 
to NQF levels. The EQF NCP is responsible for 
implementing the comprehensive NQF, for the 
coordination of the allocation process, and for 
updating the referencing report. 

Since 2017, the EQF NCP has been part of the 
new National Agency for Active Labour Market 
Policies (ANPAL), as a result of the 2015 Jobs 
Act480; ANPAL is the main institution implementing 

477  Italian Government (2015a). 
478  The technical committee is composed of representatives 
of the following national authorities: the Ministry of 
Labour and Social Policies, the Ministry of Education, 
University and Research, the regions and the Autonomous 
Provinces of Trento and Bolzano, the Department for 
European policies of the Presidency of the Council of 
Ministers (for qualifications of regulated professions), the 
Ministry of Economic Development and social partners.

479  Italian Government (2018). 
480  The Jobs Act represents a major labour market reform 
undertaken in Italy in 2014–15, which aimed to reform 
employment services through active labour market 
policies, and to promote employment and employability-
oriented initiatives.

active labour market policies. ANPAL’s mission is 
to reduce unemployment and improve skills and 
employability. Its main tasks are to coordinate 
all the actors delivering employment services at 
local level (such as public employment centres, 
private providers, and other actors within the 
network of employment services) and to support 
developing skills and qualifications for entry to the 
labour market and for further learning. The agency 
has also been designated the national Europass 
centre and the national coordination point for 
Euroguidance, and is responsible for promoting all 
EU tools designed to contribute to employability 
and mobility, to support young people’s transition to 
the labour market, and to connect jobseekers with 
employers. In this respect, ANPAL develops training 
and information actions on the use of EU tools for 
intermediary bodies (public employment service 
operators, schools and training centres, universities, 
enterprises) and for end users (students and 
workers). The activities of the EQF NCP are included 
in, and coherent with, ANPAL’s broader mission, 
such as (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018):

a.  implementing skill profiling tools: use of the 
OECD Education and skills online tool in the 
public employment services;

b.  implementing the unique information system: a 
web-portal whose aim is to provide information 
to both jobseekers and employers on vacancies 
and skills available in the labour market;

c.  adopting the EURES Regulation as a tool for the 
cooperation network between the European 
Commission and the public employment 
services of Member States;

d.  participating in national upskilling policies and the 
implementation of national skills strategies (such 
as the OECD Skills strategy).

Another body involved in work on qualifications 
has been the National Institute for Public Policies 
Analysis (INAPP, formerly ISFOL), which is 
currently involved as an independent evaluator 
in implementing and maintaining the national 
repository, in the allocation of qualifications to NQF 
levels, and in referencing the NQF to the EQF.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways481

A national legal framework on validation has been 
progressively developed in Italy since 2012.  

481  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
of the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al. 
(forthcoming).

301

Volume II: National and regional casesLaw No 92/2012482, for reform of the labour market, 
paved the way for creating a national system of 
competence certification and validation of non-
formal and informal learning as key elements 
of lifelong learning. The law fixed rules and 
regulatory requirements (standards) concerning the 
characteristics of validation/certification services 
and the parties involved, with the aim of ensuring 
transparency, usability and broad accessibility. 
Law No 92/2012 led to the adoption of different 
provisions, including Legislative Decree No 13/2013 
on national certification of competences and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning483. 
Article 3 of the decree defined some important 
principles and features of the validation system:

a.  the focus is on the competences acquired by 
an individual in formal, non-formal or informal 
contexts;

b.  a whole qualification or parts of it can be 

obtained through validation;

c.  the system is designed to serve the individual, 
assuring simplicity, accessibility, transparency, 
accuracy, confidentiality and fairness;
d.  documents and certificates issued in the 

validation process are public;

e.  quality assurance for the reliability of national 
competence certification is based on a shared 
and progressive system of indicators, tools and 
quality standards applied at national level.

The validation system defined by Decree No 
13/2013 is national and comprehensive as it 
covers all qualifications from general and higher 
education (under the authority of the Ministry of 
Education) and VET (under the authority of the 
Regions and Autonomous Provinces of Trento and 
Bolzano). It also includes professional and regulated 
qualifications (under the Ministry of Labour and the 
Ministry of Economic Development). Qualifications 
obtained through validation are the same as 
those obtained in the formal system. The decree 
defines three types of standards for validation and 
certification services: process standards (outlining 
the main steps of identification, assessment 
and attestation (Article 5)); attestation standards 
(outlining what kind of certificate must be awarded 
and what kind of information must be registered 
(Article 6)); and system standards (outlining 
the roles and responsibilities of actors involved 
(Article 7)). The standards used for the validation 
of non-formal and informal learning are the same 
as in the formal system and depend on the sector: 
education standards for school and higher education 
qualifications; occupational standards related 

482  Italian Government (2012).
483  Italian Government (2013).

302

to qualification learning outcomes for VET; and 
occupational standards for regulated or unregulated 
professional qualifications. The decree also 
established the national repository of education, 
training and professional qualifications484, a 
collection of existing national, regional and sectoral 
repertories of qualifications referenced to the EQF, 
which is the single framework for the certification 
of competences. Over time, it is expected that 
progressive work of descriptive standardisation will 
allow greater permeability between subsystems 
and recognition of credits. The institutional authority 
in charge of setting up the validation system is the 
national technical committee led by the Ministry 
of Labour and by the Ministry of Education and 
comprising all qualification authorities (entitling 
bodies). The committee took office on 28 January 
2014 and it is responsible for defining the national 
guidelines for validation of non-formal and informal 
learning and certification of competences. This task, 
which represents the final step for setting up the 
validation system, is yet to be completed.

Agreement on an operational common framework 
for national recognition of regional qualifications 
and related skills was reached in 2015, followed by 
an inter-ministerial decree signed by the Ministry of 
Labour and Ministry of Education485. This operational 
framework establishes a mechanism of mutual 
recognition for regional qualifications, and standard 
procedures for the process, attestation and system 
for validation services. 

Progress in implementing this policy at regional level is 
currently at various stages. One significant application 
was in the third sector, in the National programme 
of competence validation for volunteers in the civil 
service under the Youth Guarantee 2015–17486. It 
aimed to validate the competences of over 5 000 
volunteers in the civil service, in 11 regions, 
following the standards outlined in the decree on 
the national framework of regional qualifications. 

Currently the regions are the only operational 
entitling validation body. The main challenge for 
the future will be to extend the new validation 
services to other target groups to ensure reliability 
and sustainability. Further development and 
implementation of the validation system nationally 
is expected once the national guidelines on the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning and 
certification of competences are defined by the 
national technical committee in 2019. 

484  Repertorio nazionale dei titoli di istruzione e formazione e 
delle qualificazioni professionali: http://atlantelavoro.inapp.
org/atlante_repertori.php 
485  Italian Government (2015a).
486  Data and outcomes of this project are not yet available.

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNQF implementation

Prior to the adoption of a comprehensive NQF, Italy 
referenced its formal qualifications recognised at 
national level directly to the eight levels of the EQF. 
The qualifications described in the first referencing 
report are used by almost 85% of people involved 
in education and training in Italy. One important 
aspect not covered in this early stage regarded the 
qualifications awarded by regional authorities, their 
importance, the methodologies used for developing 
them and their recognition beyond the regions.

A major milestone was reached in January 2018, 
when the comprehensive Italian NQF was adopted 
through an inter-ministerial decree487. The decree 
regulates the procedures and criteria for allocating 
qualifications to NQF levels, a process coordinated 
by the National Agency for Active Labour Policies 
(ANPAL) and carried out in cooperation with the 
National Institute for Public Policies Analysis 
(INAPP), which acts as an independent evaluator 
for levelling and referencing. The adoption decree 
conceptualises the NQF as a component of the 
technical infrastructure of the national repository of 
education, training and vocational qualifications, that 
had been established through Decree No 13/2013488 
as the single framework for certifying competences. 
The comprehensive NQF is seen as supporting the 
link between the national repository and the EQF. 
Thus, NQF implementation in Italy is part of wider 
education and labour market reform and current 
efforts are focused on implementing both decrees 
mentioned above.

The national repository is envisaged as a 
comprehensive collection of existing national, 
regional and sectoral repertories, under the 
responsibility of the competent authorities or 
‘entitling bodies’. Once set up, it will serve as a 
comprehensive database of qualifications from 
the following subsystems: higher education 
(universities); secondary education; vocational 
education and training; national framework of 
regional qualifications; apprenticeships; the 
regulated professions. For each title, it is necessary 
to identify standard features: competent certification 
bodies, definition of qualifications, including the 
relevant competences, and correlation with the 
national statistical code of standard classifications 
of industries and occupations. To be included in the 
national repository, qualifications must be levelled 
to the NQF and referenced to the EQF. To enable 
referencing of regional qualifications and their 
inclusion in the national repository, stakeholder 

agreement was reached in 2015 on an operational 
common framework for national recognition of 
regional qualifications and related skills – the 
national framework of regional qualifications489. 
The Atlas of work and qualifications, which is 
the technological infrastructure of the national 
repository490, has been developed by INAPP as 
a methodological tool for the rationalisation of 
the high number and diversity of qualifications 
characterised by their different content and awarding 
criteria. So far, 4 000 VET regional qualifications 
have been classified and included in the Atlas 
of work and qualifications. Re-description of 
qualifications using learning outcomes, for inclusion 
in the national repository, is the responsibility of the 
Regions. This work is currently in progress.

Given its recent adoption, the comprehensive 
NQF is not yet operational and it is premature to 
discuss its impact on the qualification system. 
The main tasks of the EQF NCP to support NQF 
implementation in the following period include:

a.  the Guidelines for levelling and inclusion of 
qualifications to the national qualifications 
framework, which are intended to provide the 
methodology and the operational procedure for 
the definition and levelling of qualifications to the 
NQF and referencing to the EQF; the guidelines 
are expected to be developed and ready to use 
in 2019;

b.  updating of the first national referencing report 

to the EQF.

In addition, challenges for the future include:

a.  developing procedures for the inclusion of 

private, sectoral and international qualifications in 
the NQF.

b.  implementing, maintaining and updating the 

NQF and its impact evaluation at national level.

To support implementation, the EQF NCP has 
started a dissemination campaign aimed at raising 
awareness of the framework among stakeholders 
responsible for the management of qualification 
repositories and for allocating qualifications to NQF 
levels: public authorities, social partners, public 
employment services, education providers, quality 
assurance and awarding bodies. It is intended to 
stimulate debate on the implementation of the NQF/
EQF, and on issues related to referencing, levelling, 
learning outcomes, validation of competences, 
quality assurance, etc. by a range of communication 
methods. So far, the NQF is well known by 

487  Italian Government (2018). 
488  Italian Government (2013). 

489  Italian Government (2015a). 
490  The atlas, based on the decree of 30 June 2015, is 

available at: http://atlantelavoro.inapp.org

303

Volume II: National and regional casesstakeholders involved in its development, while 
guidance and education and training providers have 
shown interest in NQF-related topics in relation to its 
use in guidance and counselling, matching demand 
and offer of work, designing learning pathways and 
validation of competences. The general public is 
considered a difficult target group to reach at the 
moment, given the complexity of this topic and 
because of a fragmented vision of the logic and 
aims of the NQF by all the actors directly involved 
in its implementation (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

In 2017, the communication and dissemination 
actions of the EQF NCP included moving the 
existing EQF NCP page from the INAPP website 
to the ANPAL website491 and updating its 
contents in accordance with the new 2017 EQF 
recommendation. A dedicated mailbox and a 
help desk service492 were also set up to address 
questions on EQF and NQF from practitioners and 
end users. Cooperation with the Euroguidance NCP 
and with the national Europass centre was also 
initiated by participation in joint seminars and in 
the national job and career fair and exhibition. It is 
believed that this cooperation played an important 
role in increasing awareness about, and visibility 
of, the European tools for transparency of skills 
and qualifications. It has been reinforced by the 
submission of a joint grant agreement for the new 
EQF NCP communication strategy493, informed by a 
‘convergence-driven model’, based on co-designed 
and joint activities of the three NCPs, aiming to 
maximise the impact as well as the benefits for 
all main target groups at political and operational/
technical level. A national public conference 
was organised in December 2018494 to present 
the NQF inter-ministerial decree and its future 
implementation. A national public event for the 

491  www.anpal.gov.it/europa/European-Qualifications-

Framework/Pagine/default.aspx

492  Mailbox: EQF_Italia@anpal.gov.it and Call Centre: 

800.00.00.39.

493  Grant agreement VS/2018/0254 – 2018/2020. The new 
communication strategy includes a new common 
homepage for the three NCPs with content specific areas 
for each NCP; a common smartphone application with 
downloadable documents on the EQF/Euroguidance/
Europass; joint social media accounts for the three NCPs; 
a common brochure targeting practitioners and experts; 
and several promotional gadgets to be distributed at 
conferences and events.

494  About 300 representatives of the national and regional 
institutions, European Commission, research institutes, 
education and VET systems, public employment 
centres, counselling and mobility network, professional 
organisations and associations, social partners  and 
other national and local stakeholders took part in the 
event. More information is available at: www.anpal.gov.
it/europa/European-Qualifications-Framework/Pagine/
Documentazione.aspx

presentation of the updated version of the national 
referencing report and the national guidelines for 
referencing qualifications to the NQF/EQF is planned 
for 2019. 

Starting with the school year 2015/16, it has been 
compulsory to indicate the EQF level on Europass 
certificate supplements and diploma supplements. 
However, no information is available at present on 
which types of qualification documents indicate the 
NQF/EQF level. Over the next three years the EQF 
NCP will carry out a monitoring activity of the NQF/
EQF implementation. Data will be gathered on the 
use and level of awareness of the NQF/EQF within 
the national education system. It will use a variety 
of research methods, such as online and face-to-
face interviews, focus groups, study visits and 
analysis of administrative datasets.  

Referencing to regional frameworks

The referencing of Italian qualifications to the EQF 
started in 2008; the first report was adopted in 
2012 and presented to the EQF advisory group in 
May 2013. National qualification descriptors were 
analysed in terms of learning outcomes and mapped 
directly to EQF level descriptors. At this stage, all 
formal qualifications awarded by public authorities 
and recognized nationally (general education, higher 
education and initial VET qualifications awarded in 
the framework of State-Regions agreements) were 
referenced to EQF levels. 

Following the adoption of the comprehensive NQF 
in 2018, the EQF NCP aims to present an updated 
referencing report in 2019. For this, the following 
lines of work will need to be undertaken, in dialogue 
with stakeholders:

a.  the levelling and inclusion of regional 

qualifications in the NQF and referencing to the 
EQF;

b.  the inclusion in the NQF of all qualifications 
referenced in the first national referencing 
report.

The country is preparing a national qualifications 
repository and all qualifications included in it will 
indicate the EQF level. 

Important lessons and future plans

Italy has been carrying out reforms consistent 
with EQF principles and the learning outcomes 
approach in various subsystems of education and 
training. In recent years, legislative initiatives as 
part of the reform of the labour market have led to 

304

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSimportant steps forward: setting important priorities 
in defining national qualifications standards based 
on learning outcomes; developing a national public 
certification system; and setting out principles for 
developing a system of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning. The main challenge has 
been the complexity of the education and training 
system, the high degree of fragmentation of the 
qualification system, with different repositories 
managed by different awarding bodies, and the 
difficulty of harmonising qualifications issued 
at regional level. Steps to tackle these aspects 
included the establishment of the national 
repository of education, training and professional 
qualifications; an agreement on an operational 
common framework for national recognition of 
regional qualifications and related skills; and the 
creation of the Atlas of work and qualifications 
as a methodological tool for rationalising the high 
number and diversity of existing qualifications. 
Around 4 000 regional VET qualifications have been 
classified so far and included in the atlas, facilitating 
their referencing to the NQF/EQF and inclusion in 
the national repository.

A major milestone was reached in 2018 with the 
adoption of the comprehensive NQF, including all 
qualifications awarded nationally and in the regions. 
The framework is not yet operational and it is 
premature to discuss its impact on the qualification 
system. However, work toward its development has 
fostered dialogue and cooperation among different 
institutional stakeholders, primarily through the 
national technical committee and through efforts 
of resulted in the adoption of a learning outcomes 
orientation in a number of legislative acts495, and 

further implementation of the learning outcomes 
approach is expected to have an impact on teaching 
and learning. However, the gap between formal 
regulations and practical implementation of learning 
outcomes remains a challenge. For example, 
curricula in VET and higher education are still 
influenced by the subject-based approach, despite 
the requisite regulations being in place. According 
to Cedefop (2016), more tools and incentives should 
be provided to teachers and a cultural change from 
an input to an output orientation is necessary. 

NQF implementation work that is to be undertaken 
in the near future includes: raising awareness about 
the framework among stakeholders responsible 
for the management of qualification repositories 
and for allocating qualifications to NQF levels; 
the continuing work of levelling and inclusion 
of qualifications in the NQF and referencing to 
the EQF; setting up operational guidelines for 
describing and levelling new qualifications that are 
expected to be ready for use in 2019; updating 
the EQF referencing report; and developing 
procedures for the inclusion of private, sectoral and 
international qualifications in the NQF. Monitoring 
of the NQF/EQF implementation is also planned by 
the EQF NCP to take place over the following three 
years, focusing on both qualifications referenced 
to the EQF in the first stage (2012) and regional 
qualifications that are currently being referenced.

495  For example: the 2010 decree of the Ministry of Education 
on the reform of general education; Legislative Decree 
No 13/2013 on the setting up of the National repository 
of qualifications; Law No 107/2015 on school-work 
alternation in upper secondary schools; the State-Regions 
agreement of 24 September 2015 on the dual system 
in VET; Legislative Decree No 81/2015 on the reform 
of employment contracts; and the 2017 guidelines on 
internships.

305

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 38. Italian qualifications referenced to the EQF

EQF 
LEVELS

ITALIAN FORMAL QUALIFICATIONS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Research doctorate (Dottorato di ricerca)
Academic diploma for research training (Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca)
Specialisation diploma (Diploma di specializzazione)
Second level university master (Master universitario di secondo livello)
Academic specialisation diploma (II) (Diploma accademico di specializzazione (II))
Higher specialisation diploma or master (II) (Diploma di perfezionamento o Master (II))

Master degree (Laurea magistrale)
Second level academic diploma (Diploma accademico di secondo livello)
First level university master (Master universitario di primo livello)
Academic specialisation diploma (I) (Diploma accademico di specializzazione (I))
Higher specialisation diploma or master (I) (Diploma di perfezionamento o Master (I))

Bachelor degree (Laurea)
First level academic diploma (Diploma accademico di primo livello)

Higher technical education diploma (Diploma di tecnico superiore)

Professional technician diploma (Diploma professionale di tecnico*)

Upper secondary education diploma (Licei diploma liceale)
Upper secondary education diploma – technical schools (Diploma di istruzione tecnica)
Upper secondary education diploma – vocational schools (Diploma di istruzione professionale)
Higher technical specialisation certificate (Certificato di specializzazione tecnica superiore)

Professional operator certificate (Attestato di qualifica di operatore professionale*)

Compulsory education certificate (Certificato delle competenze di base acquisite in esito 
all’assolvimento dell’obbligo di istruzione**)

Lower secondary school-leaving diploma (Diploma di licenza conclusiva del primo ciclo di 
istruzione)

(*)  Competent authority: regions.

(**) Competent authority: Ministry of Education, University and Research or regions, according to type of education pathway.

Source:   Adapted from Italian Ministry of Labour; ISFOL (2012).

Abbreviations

ANPAL  

EQF  
IFTS 

INAPP 

ISFOL  

National Agency for Active Labour 
Policies
European qualifications framework
istruzione e formazione tecnica 
superiore (higher (non-academic) 
technical education and training 
pathway)
Istituto Nazionale per l’Analisi delle 
Politiche Pubbliche (National Institute 
for Public Policies Analysis)
Istituto per lo sviluppo della 
formazione professionale dei 

ITS 

NCP  
NEETs 

NQF 
QTI 

VET 

lavoratori (National Institute for the 
Development of Vocational Training)
istruzione tecnica superiore (higher 
technical education)
national coordination point
young people not in employment, 
education or training
national qualifications framework
quadro dei titoli italiani dell’istruzione 
superiore (Italian qualifications 
framework for higher education)
vocational education and training

306

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMain sources of information

National Agency for Active Labour Market Policies (ANPAL) – hosting the EQF NCP (as of 2017):  
www.anpal.gov.it/europa/European-Qualifications-Framework/Pagine/default.aspx

Atlas of work and qualifications – available at: http://atlantelavoro.inapp.org
Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research: www.miur.gov.it/web/guest/home 
Italian Ministry of Labour and Social Policies: www.lavoro.gov.it/Pagine/default.aspx
Italian Ministry of Labour; ISFOL (2012). First Italian referencing report to the European qualifications 

framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series; No 105. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/
publications-and-resources/publications/3074

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Italy.
European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Italy.

Italian technical working group (2012). First Italian referencing report to the European qualifications 

framework (EQF), adopted on 20 December 2012. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-
reports-and-contacts

Legislation
Italian Government (2010). Presidential decree of 15 March 2010 on general education reform. Gazzetta 

Ufficiale. Serie generale, No 137, 15.6.2010. www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/gu/2010/06/15/137/so/128/sg/
pdf

Italian Government (2012). Law No 92/2012 on labour market reform. Gazzetta Ufficiale. Serie generale, 

No 153, 3.7.2012. www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/gu/2012/07/03/153/so/136/sg/pdf

Italian Government (2013). Legislative Decree No 13/2013 on the definition of general rules and basic 

level of performance for the identification and validation of non-formal and informal learning 
and minimum service standards of the national system of competences certification. Gazzetta 
Ufficiale. Serie generale No 13, 15.2.2013. www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2013/02/15/13G00043/
sg;jsessionid=QtVQDnVhW+1EjOvvz7I8GA__.ntc-as1-guri2b

Italian Government (2015a). Decree of 30 June 2015 of the Ministry of labour and Social Policies and 
the Ministry of Education, University and Research on an operational common framework for 
national recognition of regional qualifications and related skills. Gazzetta Ufficiale. Serie generale, 
No 166, 20.7.2015. www.lavoro.gov.it/documenti-e-norme/normative/Documents/2015/Decreto-
Interministeriale-30-giugno-2015.pdf

Italian Government (2015b). Legislative Decree No 81/2015 on the reform of employment contracts which 

integrates training and employment in a dual system. Gazzetta Ufficiale. Serie generale, No 144, 
24.6.2015. www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/gu/2015/06/24/144/so/34/sg/pdf

Italian Government (2018). Inter-ministerial decree of 8 January 2018 of the Ministry of Labour and Social 

Policies and of the Ministry of Education, University and Research on the establishment of the 
national qualifications framework. Gazzetta Ufficiale. Serie generale No 20, 25.1.2018.  
www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2018/01/25/18A00411/sg 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

307

Volume II: National and regional casesJORDAN

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The technical and vocational qualifications 
framework (TVQF) has four levels and covers all 
vocational qualifications offered in Jordan. The 
Employment, Technical and Vocational Education 
and Training (E-TVET) Council (acts as the national 
qualifications framework (NQF) board, while 
operational management lies with the Centre for 
Accreditation and Quality Assurance (CAQA).

A new 10-level NQF has been designed by the 
Accreditation and Quality Assurance Commission 
for Higher Education Institutions (AQACHEI) at the 
request of the Cabinet. This new framework, not yet 
approved, is intended to cover the entire education 
and training system.

The E-TVET Council acts as the NQF board, while 
operational management lies with CAQA and 
AQACHEI. The latter has seen its role expand over 
the last two years.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context

As a nation with a fast growing young population 
and a lack of natural resources, Jordan considers 
well-educated human resources to be one of its 
major priorities. Jordan’s education system performs 
relatively better compared to its neighbours: the 
adult literacy rate is the highest in the region, 
standing at 97.9% in 2012496. Nevertheless, 59.1% 
of the population aged 15+ has low educational 
attainment in 2017, while 23.2% are medium-
skilled and only 17.7% have a tertiary education. 
Gross enrolment rates in education are relatively 
high. In 2016, it had a 95% enrolment rate at 
basic education level (6 to 15 years) (90% when 
Syrian refugees and others were included)497. 
82.4% enrolment rate was registered in secondary 
education in 2014, with a share of VET students 
at 3.8%. Slightly more girls than boys enrol at all 

education levels, but the gender-biased subject 
choices narrow future careers (more girls in 
education, health and social services). 

There are indications of quality problems in Jordan’s 
education system. Although PISA 2015 results show 
some improvement compared to the results of PISA 2009 
round, the share of low achievement students remains 
quite high and is far from optimal: in mathematics 
(67.5%), in reading (46.3%) and science (49.8%).

Technical and vocational education and training 
(TVET) in Jordan is mainly delivered in the initial 
VET system (IVET). The large majority of training 
provision is public and consists of:

•  secondary vocational education of two years’ 
duration in comprehensive upper secondary 
schools under the Ministry of Education;
•  vocational training (targeting 16–18-year-olds) 
by the Vocational Training Corporation (VTC), a 
semi-autonomous agency under the Ministry of 
Labour);
technical education after secondary 
comprehensive school, delivered by 26 publicly 
supported community colleges, which offer  
two-year programmes leading to a diploma;

• 

•  national education and training delivering  

one-year training programmes.

Jordan is an upper middle-income country and 
considered as emerging market with an open 
economy as per the World Bank income group 
classification. The country has scarce water 
supplies and limited natural resources, with a high 
dependency on energy imports. The GDP growth 
rate was 2.1% in 2017 and is expected to reach 
2.4% in 2018. However, the economy remains 
burdened with ongoing uncertainty in Syria, slow 
revival of economic cooperation with Iraq, and 
an economic slowdown in the Gulf Cooperation 
Council. In addition, the economy is subject to a 
slow pace of structural reforms that is impeding a 
strong recovery in growth498.

496  UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012
497  Department of Statistics, 2016

498  World Bank, Jordan’s Economic Outlook, April 2018

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSService is the most important sector in Jordan, it 
accounted for 66.8% of the Gross value added in 
2016, followed up by industry 28.9%, while the 
contribution of agriculture remains quite low, only 
4%. The importance of services is even much higher 
when it comes to employment as more that 80% 
are employed in this sector, compare to 17.6% in 
industry. Less than 2% are employed in agriculture.

The private sector is dominated by small and 
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which represent 
around 94% of existing companies. SMEs account 
for more than 60% of economic output and employ 
around 31% of the labour force.  

The public sector employed over half the Jordanian 
labour force until the late 1990s, and it continues to 
be the preferred option for the majority, particularly 
women. The phenomenon of queuing for public 
sector employment is very important. Public sector 
employment offers better job security, shorter 
working hours and guaranteed medical insurance; 
but employment opportunities in the public sector 
are diminishing. Nevertheless, in the first quarter 
of 2014, 39% of Jordanians in employment were 
still government employees, 52% of all employed 
women and 37% of employed men. 

Jordan has one of the lowest economic activity 
rates in the world. Reasons for high general 
inactivity are the large number of inactive women 
and students, remittances, high reservation wages 
and early retirement arrangements (e.g. retirement 
after 16 years of service in the military). Female 
activity rates are at a record low, with a mere 
13% of women participating in the labour force, in 
comparison to 60% of men.

In general, the high level of unemployment is 
explained by:

• 

insufficient job creation to absorb the increasing 
influx of job seekers and the already existing 
unemployed;

•  mismatches between educational outputs and 

labour market needs;

•  high job expectations and high reservation 
wages due to remittances from abroad;
•  geographical mismatches and low mobility.

Unemployment is particularly high for young people 
(31%); within the youth age group (15–24 years) the 
female unemployment rate was as high as 55% in 2013. 

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
A key feature of the E-TVET ecosystem in Jordan 
is the proliferation of policies and strategy design, 

but at the same time, the implementation of these 
principles is limited. 

To date, and prior to the approval of the new human 
resources development strategy, there have been 
several coexisting strategies that have had an 
impact on TVET.

The most important one is the Jordan vision for 
2025. Jordan 2025 charts a path for the future and 
determines the integrated economic and social 
framework that will govern economic and social 
policies based on providing opportunities for all. Its 
basic principles include promoting the rule of law 
and equal opportunities, increasing participatory 
policy making, achieving fiscal sustainability and 
strengthening institutions. Jordan 2025 is based on 
identifying a set of goals that Jordan aspires to, how 
they can be achieved through certain procedures 
and policies that will be adopted on the sector 
level according to a flexible timetable that takes 
into account the developments on the global and 
regional levels and how to adapt to those changes. 

The second one is the National Employment 
Strategy 2011–2020 (NES), which preceded 
Jordan vision 2025. It put a ‘focus on employment 
generation: improving standards of living for 
Jordanians through increased employment, wages, 
and benefits, and productivity improvements’  
(NES strategy, 2007). It promotes amongst others 
the gradual replacement of foreign workers with 
(skilled) Jordanians, gives more attention to 
structural unemployment, and the upgrading of  
the TVET system. 

The National E-TVET Strategy is the national 
policy most closely related to TVET. It covers 
the period 2014–20. It is based on the following 
acknowledgement:

‘An effective, efficient, competitive, flexible 
and responsive E-TVET sector – as part of 
the broader system of human resources 
development – will re-shape the skills 
of the labour force and contribute to the 
development of Jordan’s human capital, 
address mismatches between supply and 
demand for labour, provide more employment 
opportunities for the Jordanian workforce, 
and support the values of inclusion and 
opportunity for all Jordanians, particularly 
youth and women.’ (E-TVET Council, 2014)

Lastly, in September 2016, the government adopted 
a new Human Resources Strategy to ‘enable 
the country to meet its goals for sustainable 
development, which includes the development 
of the nation in economic, cultural, social, and 

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Volume II: National and regional casesenvironmental terms. It will ensure current and 
future generations develop the skills and capabilities 
they need to live happy and fulfilled lives, and 
collectively realise the ambition of a prosperous and 
resilient Jordan’ (human resources development 
strategy document, 2016).

The human resources development strategy 
recognises that despite many initiatives and 
strategies implemented, ‘student learning outcomes 
are lagging and the skills of graduates are not 
meeting the needs of the economy’. There is no 
evidence to assess the extent to which the E-TVET 
strategy has been implemented and has or has not 
achieved all or parts of its objectives. It is likewise 
very difficult to say how the human resources 
development strategy builds on the success/failure 
of the E-TVET strategy and how it will manage to 
achieve the objectives that the E-TEVT strategy 
failed to achieve.

International cooperation
Various donors and agencies (EU, GIZ, USAID, the 
World Bank and others) are working in E-TVET in 
Jordan and both the international donors and the 
Jordanian Government have a responsibility to 
coordinate the diverse projects and initiatives to give 
coherent and efficient support to the reform of the 
sector. According to donors’ interventions mapping 
carried out by the Ministry of Labour in April 2018, 
36 projects are currently being implemented with a 
total budget of JOD 223 350 000 (approx. EUR 268 
million). The interventions cover the areas of job 
placement, enhancement of workforce participation 
and curriculum development and career guidance. 
The two key target beneficiaries across all projects 
are women and youth.

Current policies, strategies and action plans for 
adult training in the TVET sector pay little attention 
to lifelong learning and the continuing education 
system. There is no vision suggesting how 
continuing training could become an integrated part 
of the TVET sector and which institutional setting 
would best fit the needs of the labour force and the 
private sector. Education and training for adults have 
been neglected and reforms and restructuring have 
focused on initial training.

The TVQF was developed in the scope of a former 
EU project. IT is now being implemented with EU 
budget support.

In October 2014, the EU and Jordan established 
a mobility partnership to manage mobility and 
migration better.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure 
The TVQF covers all vocational qualifications offered 
in Jordan. A new NQF covering the whole education 
system has been designed but not yet adopted.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The TVQF has four levels. The proposed descriptors 
for the planned 10-level NQF are knowledge, skills 
and competences.

Definition of qualification

TVET in Jordan is mainly delivered in the initial VET 
(IVET) system.

•  The Ministry of Education develops secondary 
vocational education programmes leading 
to secondary education certificates. These 
qualifications are based on educational 
standards.

•  The Vocational Training Corporation (VTC), a 

semi-autonomous agency under the Ministry of 
Labour develops vocational training (targeting 
16–18-year-olds) leading to a VTC occupational 
certificate. CAQA issues occupational 
licenses for holders of a VTC certificate after 
an assessment. The assessment is based on 
occupational standards.

•  The National Education and Training (NET), 
a semi-public body, provides a one-year 
vocational training programme that leads 
to qualifications, some of which have been 
registered by CAQA.

CAQA uses DACUM – developing a curriculum 
method – to produce occupational standards. To 
date occupational standards have been produced 
for six sectors. For seven other sectors occupational 
standards are being prepared.

The planned NQF makes a clear distinction between 
academic and vocational qualifications.

Access, progression and credit
Entry to one type of education or another is 
based on grades, and the pathways from one 
type to another are very limited. Almost 90% 
of the students who complete the 10th grade of 
basic education are streamed on the basis of 
their performance either to general education 
(high performers) or to vocational education in 
the comprehensive secondary schools, while the 
remainder (low performers) can continue to one of 
the VTC institutes. 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThere is no accreditation to allow mobility across 
the system pathways, and this, together with the 
low-status image of TVET as an educational last 
resort, has a negative impact on the demand for 
TVET.

The rigorous General Secondary Education 
Certificate (GSEC) examination, or Tawjihi, 
determines whether students are qualified to go to 
university, at which public university they can enrol 
and in which specialism they can major. Without the 
Tawjihi, students have access only to the VTC, and 
VTC students are prevented from progressing to any 
form of advanced studies. Bridging from vocational 
to academic education is possible through Tawjihi 
and community colleges, but it works for only a few.

is required. AQACHEI is better equipped in human 
resources and would be entrusted with the 
management of the new NQF.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality, efficiency and effectiveness in the TVET 
system are affected by the fragmentation of 
TVET providers. The sector is characterised by 
a centralised, top-down approach, with each 
subsector (vocational education, vocational training 
and technical education) having bureaucratic 
systems that seldom work together to improve 
relevance, quality or efficiency.

Three accreditation and quality assurance systems 
are operating within the E-TVET sector: 

Those vocational education students who succeed 
in the Tawjihi have access to community colleges, 
where they can obtain a diploma and may then 
progress from community college to university. 
A very rough estimate is that less than 4% of the 
secondary VET students are able to bridge the gap 
and get to university.

• 

• 

• 

the Accreditation and Quality Assurance 
Commission for Higher Education Institutions 
(AQACHEI); 
the Centre for Accreditation and Quality 
Assurance (CAQA) for vocational training;
the Ministry of Education for vocational 
education. 

Pathways are being opened from TVET to higher 
education; however, by an agreement between 
the VTC and the Al-Balqa’ Applied University (BAU) 
in 2012, graduates from some VTC institutes who 
pass the Tawjihi can enrol in a two-year diploma 
programme in a community college, and VTC 
graduates who do not pass the Tawjihi can still have 
access to a one-year technical diploma at the VTC. 
However, this type of bridging at the technician level 
for VTC students is still limited.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis 
No legal adoption formalised of the TVET NQF.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The E-TVET Council acts as the NQF board, while 
operational management lies with CAQA.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
While the E-TVET Council includes labour market 
actors, CAQA’s board does not.

Funding
CAQA currently lacks the necessary staff numbers 
and technical capabilities to act as a qualifications 
authority, so capacity-building and financial support 

CAQA’s cooperation with AQACHEI and the 
Ministry of Education towards the establishment 
of a system of external quality control for the 
whole TVET sector is essential as part of an overall 
external quality assurance approach for human 
resources development in Jordan. However, CAQA 
falls within the Ministry of Labour’s oversight and 
the E-TVET Council’s technical operation. To provide 
greater coherence and independence, by-laws 
for the E-TVET Council and CAQA are needed to 
enforce accreditation and standards across all 
VET providers, including those within the Ministry 
of Education and Higher Education Accreditation 
Commission’s oversight. The establishment of 
CAQA is a considerable step towards setting up 
a quality assurance system in TVET, but for it to 
play its role in full it needs further resources and 
political empowerment to coordinate beyond  
the VTC.

The lack of a system of transparent qualifications 
and the limited flexibility of the current pathways 
for progression are persistent challenges. The 
focus of quality assurance also needs to shift from 
inputs and control to outcomes and employability 
for students and the performance of teachers and 
TVET institutes. The recent steps towards designing 
an NQF create an opportunity to reinforce quality 
assurance and at the same time make it sector-wide 
rather than divided into three subsystems.  
(Torino process report 2014). 

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Volume II: National and regional casesCAQA has defined the following steps to increase 
the quality of TVET qualifications:

1.  a validation committee is created from the 

employers from the private sector to validate 
occupational standards;

2.  TVET qualifications are developed based on 

occupational standards;

3.  occupational standards are developed 
by sector skills committees (these are 
committees established by CAQA from 
sector representatives who are also skilled 
practitioners);

4.  each qualification registered on the TVQF should 
be based on at least one occupational standard 
to ensure relevance to labour market demand.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Based on CAQA by-law, procedures have been 
created for recognition of prior learning of workers 
who have experience and knowledge. The aim is to 
provide workers with a VET qualification (Practice 
License) based on their experience or knowledge. 
From 1 January 2016, around 6 000 workers have 
gone through the recognition of prior learning 
procedure on three levels: semiskilled, skilled and 
craftsman. Recognition of prior learning is also one 
of the indicators of EU budget support – Indicator 
No 6: number of people benefiting from recognition 
of prior learning.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
Up to December 2017, CAQA had registered 
more than 60 qualifications in the TVET 
qualification framework, while AQACHEI 
registered 20. Registration of qualifications is 
one of the disbursement indicators of the current 
EU programme. Two institutions are in charge of 
registering qualifications (accrediting programmes): 
CAQA for the three first levels of qualifications; and 
AQACHEI, which covers the fourth level (technician).

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of TVQF 
implementation have not yet been defined.

Impact for end-users
The TVQF is currently being populated with 
qualifications. When Jordan revises and strengthens 
the integrated policy and regulatory framework 
governing the E-TVET sector (as part of the 
indicators for the EU budget support), the impact 

of the TVQF for end-users will be considerable. 
These indicators are not limited to the number 
of qualifications included in the TVQF but also 
to the quality of provision (including learning 
materials, assessment criteria, instruction manuals, 
equipment, and facilities) and teachers’ professional 
training and internship in companies. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

There are currently no regional qualifications 
frameworks in the Middle East/Arab region. Jordan 
has adopted the unified Arab standard classification 
of occupations 2008 (ASCO), which is compatible 
with the international standard classification of 
occupations (ISCO), as a general framework for 
occupational classification and standards in Jordan.

Important lessons and future plans

It is important that political backing for the 
framework is secured; it has already been 
significantly delayed by disagreements or opposition 
from various national actors. Without stakeholder 
and institutional consensus, the framework will not 
be implemented or it will exist only on paper, as has 
been the fate of previous NQF initiatives.

To improve the quality and relevance of 
qualifications (ultimately) the social partners should 
be engaged at least in the sector teams, which are 
developing occupational standards, if they are not to 
sit on CAQA’s board.

Abbreviations
AQACHEI   Accreditation and Quality Assurance 

Commission for Higher Education 
Institutions
Centre for Accreditation and Quality 
Assurance (the qualifications and 
quality assurance agency)
Employment-Technical and 
Vocational Education and Training
national qualifications framework
Programme for International Student 
Assessment
technical and vocational education 
and training
technical and vocational 
qualifications framework
Vocational Training Corporation

CAQA 

E-TVET  

NQF 
PISA 

TVET 

TVQF 

VTC 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

312

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSKAZAKHSTAN

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
According to the registered Joint Order 8022 of 
2012, the national qualifications framework (NQF) 
comprises eight levels. The NQF concept was 
updated jointly by the Ministry of Education and 
Science and the Ministry of Healthcare and Social 
Development on 16 March 2016. 

A National Council for Personnel Training is formally 
in the lead. The Main Directorate for Skills and Jobs 
in the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection 
of the Population leads the development of the 
national qualification system (NQS).

There is no national register or database yet, but 
employers have generated significant numbers of 
occupational standards. Kazakhstan is a member 
of the Bologna Process in higher education, joining 
in March 2011, and so bound to implement the 
Qualifications Framework for the European Higher 
Education Area (QF-EHEA).

Educational, social, economic and  
political context

The country has a population of 18.2 million, and 
growing. Youth of 15 years and under account for 
26% of the population. This follows low birth rates 
in the 1990s.

Kazakhstan has seen high economic growth and 
decline over the last 10 years, strongly influenced by 
oil and gas prices. Efforts are being made to move 
the country away from heavy resource-dependency, 
including attempts to stimulate small- and medium-
sized enterprise expansion. Yet, impressively, 
the proportion living below the nationally-defined 
poverty line has fallen dramatically, from 47% in 
2001 to almost 0% in 2015. Growth has thus been 
inclusive and prosperity quite widely shared.

There are now signs that participation in vocational 
education and training (VET) is improving. Pathways 
to higher education are complex and enrolling in 
higher education with a secondary VET qualification 

requires taking both VET and higher education entry 
exams. Yet, the Ministry of Education and employers 
call for more VET graduates – general education 
graduates often struggle to find work; the Ministry 
continues to fund more VET places. 

The Ministry is also encouraging flexibility of VET 
provision, so that colleges and other providers 
determine 25% of the curricula, as opposed to the 
previous system of completely centralised curricula.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Since 2008, Kazakhstan has launched a series of 
initiatives aimed at modernising its education and 
training system, including the State Programme 
for Modernising Technical and Vocational Education 
and Training (TVET) 2008, and the Accelerated 
Industrialisation and Innovation Strategy, adopted 
in 2010. In July 2012, the President outlined the 
main challenges for the changing labour market in 
his speech ‘Social modernization of Kazakhstan: 
twenty steps to the society of universal labour’. 
This was followed by the strategy Kazakhstan 2050 
that calls for attracting inward investment. The 
Joint Order 8022 of 19 October 2012, adopted by 
the Ministries of Health and Social Development 
and Education and Science, specified the structure 
of the NQS: the NQF, the sectoral qualifications 
framework (SQF) and occupational standards. A plan 
to elaborate the national system of qualifications 
was adopted in 2013 (governmental regulation 
No 616 of 18 June 2013) and in accordance with 
amendments to the Labour Code, the first official 
occupational standards were developed. 

The Labour Code mentioned as well the NQF, 
SQFs and assessment. The Ministry of Education 
and Science undertook the development of 
147 new VET standards and programmes based 
on occupational standards with support from the 
World Bank. The Ministry of Health and Social 
Development established a coordinating council 
for the NQS in 2014. In 2015, 147 occupational 
standards were approved. In 2016, in accordance 

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Volume II: National and regional caseswith the Labour Code and the Law on the National 
Chamber of Employers Atameken, the responsibility 
for occupational standards passed to the Chamber. 
The NQF was formally confirmed on 16 March 2016 
by the tripartite committee for social partnership 
and regulation of social and labour relations. A new 
project was started by the Ministry of Labour and 
Social Protection on Skills and Jobs (2016–20). 

In 2017, an interdepartmental committee under 
the Deputy Prime Minister established the 
programme for productive employment and the 
NQS, including a new classifier for employment 
and 70 new occupational standards. In 2018, new 
methodologies for SQFs and for occupational 
standards development were adopted.

International cooperation
The country’s NQF is influenced by the European 
Qualifications Framework and the QF-EHEA. 
Progress has drawn heavily on international 
support, especially from the World Bank. It is now 
working with national authorities and actors on the 
KZ Skills and Jobs Project 2016–20. There are many 
international projects linked to specific areas of 
development as well. Recently, the cooperation with 
Russia has been intensified in the framework of the 
policy coordination of the countries in the Eurasian 
Economic Union. Kazakhstan and the Russian 
Federation lead in the development of qualification 
systems and it is expected that the coordination 
between the reforms in the five EAEC countries will 
be strengthened.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The NQF covers VET, post-secondary and higher 
education qualifications as well as qualifications for 
adults. It is an eight-level structure. Currently, levels 
6–8 are reserved to degrees awarded in higher 
education. Levels 2–4 are reserved to qualification 
for TVET education. Level 5 is reserved for post-
secondary education. The newly introduced Applied 
Bachelor Degree at Level 5 is part of technical and 
vocational education, but there are identical level 
descriptors for these qualifications as for academic 
bachelors awarded by higher education institutions at 
level 6. The applied bachelor is not in fact a short cycle 
qualification as the duration is typically four years.

Alignment to other classification systems
Related instruments and references include the 
state classifier of occupations; the Union-wide 
classifier of workers’ professions; the unified tariff 

manual of workers’ professions; qualifications 
manual; the state compulsory educational standards 
in TVET; and the state compulsory educational 
standards in higher education, both created in 2012 
(with amendments in 2016).

Kazakhstan had 23 active SQFs, and their number 
is expected to grow up to 38 in 2020. The SQFs 
classify industry requirements for each qualification, 
levelling by complexity and demand of skills 
required. The SQFs are used to certify industry 
personnel.

Kazakhstan has an ambitious programme for 
developing occupational standards, 449 were 
developed until 2016, when the approach changed. 
By 2020, 560 new occupational standards should be 
available. Atameken coordinates the development of 
occupational standards.

The World Bank project KZ Skills and Jobs is used 
to invite sectoral bodies to develop new sets of 
sectoral qualifications and occupational standards.

In higher education, more than 60 universities in the 
country have signed the Bologna Process.

NQF levels and level descriptors
Descriptors are knowledge, skills and competences, 
competencies (personal and professional) and ways 
of achievement.

Use of learning outcomes
Since 2012, expected learning outcomes have 
been systematically used in educational standards 
for different types of education. Occupational 
standards are seen as essential for defining 
qualifications and learning outcomes. Hence the 
emphasis on the development of occupational 
standards. While standards are mentioning learning 
outcomes, this does not mean that they are 
systematically used in teaching and learning and 
assessment.

Definition of qualification
A qualification is defined as ‘an official recognition 
of the value learned competences for the labour 
market and further education and training, giving 
right to carry out work’ (NQF, 16 March 2016). 

Access, progression and credit
The framework allows for progression but links 
between the various sectors of education and 
training should be strengthened. In particular, 
levels 6–8 remain the preserve of higher education 
institutions and their qualifications.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The Joint Order 8022 of 19 October 2012, 
adopted by the Ministries of Health and Social 
Development and Education and Science, specified 
the structure of the NQS: the NQF, the SQF and 
occupational standards. A plan to elaborate the 
National System of Qualifications was adopted in 
2013 (governmental regulation No 616 of 18 June 
2013) and in accordance with amendments to the 
Labour Code the first official occupational standards 
were developed. The Labour Code mentioned as 
well the NQF, SQFs and assessment. The Labour 
Code has been amended several times since 2012. 
By Government Resolution No 616 of 18 June 
2013, the Gradual Development Plan of National 
Qualification System was approved. The Ministry 
of Health and Social Development established a 
coordinating council for the NQS in 2014. In 2016, 
in accordance with the Labour Code and the Law 
on the National Chamber of Employers Atameken, 
the responsibility for occupational standards passed 
to the Chamber. The NQF was formally confirmed 
on 16 March 2016 by the tripartite committee for 
social partnership and regulation of social and labour 
relations. In 2017, an interdepartmental committee 
under the Deputy Prime Minister established the 
programme for productive employment and the 
NQS, including a new classifier for employment 
and 70 new occupational standards. In 2018, new 
methodologies for SQFs and for occupational 
standards development were adopted.

TVET and higher education is regulated by the  
2015 Law on Education. The Labour Code  
regulates the NQS.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The structures are complex and coordination 
is not always ensured. A National Council for 
Personnel Training is formally in the lead. The Main 
Directorate for Skills and Jobs in the Ministry of 
Labour and Social Protection of the Population 
leads the development of the NQS. The Ministry 
of Education and Science, with support of different 
entities such as Kasipkor (methodological innovation 
centre supporting the development of technical 
and vocational education) and the Centre for the 
Bologna Process (supporting higher education 
reforms), is responsible for developing competency-
based education standards. Line ministries under 
the government work with sectoral committees 
or sectoral councils. Sectoral committees and 
sector experts of professional associations with 

methodological support from Atameken and 
the World Bank are working in SQFs on the 
development of occupational standards. In the new 
methodology adopted in 2018, this starts with a 
mapping of occupations in each sectors.

The Ministry develops State Education Compulsory 
Educational Standards for qualifications and 
occupations.

Sixteen sector councils oversee skills development. 
They have also led development of a significant 
number of occupational standards. Businesses are 
gradually becoming more engaged in VET, including 
in qualifications and curricula. The National Chamber 
Atameken leads these developments, including the 
establishment of sector qualifications frameworks, 
the development of occupational standards and 
the accreditation of centres for the certification of 
specialists.

Sector representatives do not feel involved enough 
in the decision-making processes and have 
concerns about the use of occupational standards 
in education. The coordination between the key 
ministries and Atameken could be strengthened. 
The developments in the Bologna Process 
and those linked to developing more relevant 
qualifications could be better linked.

Resources and funding
While the country is resource-rich and can fund 
some of its TVET initiatives, it also relies on donor 
support, notably in the NQF from the World Bank, 
that acts as well as a resource for organising 
targeted development of occupational standards.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Sector-led testing and certification is now 
implemented in many sectors. Accreditation of 
providers and programmes has progressed but 
needs to look more at validating qualifications and at 
assessment procedures, paying special attention to 
adapting to the learning outcomes paradigm.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The system of personnel certification carried out by 
the centres for the certification of specialists based 
on occupational standards is a form of validation 
of non-formal and informal learning (VNFIL), albeit 
mainly focused on personnel that is working in the 
sectors. The Ministry of Education and Science is 
also looking at a more generic use of the VNFIL; 

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Volume II: National and regional casesforeign practices have been studied and a set 
of rules have been developed for the VNFIL that 
have been adopted by Ministerial Order No 508 of 
28 September 2018.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
There is no national register or database yet. 
Atameken, the employer body, is managing three 
registers for occupational standards, for certification 
centres for specialists (both at national level) and 
for certificated specialists (at regional level). Some 
449 occupational standards were developed before 
Atameken became responsible for occupational 
standards. Since then 88 new standards have 
been adopted, from 23 functioning SQFs. Many 
more are in the process of development. For 2019, 
480 occupational standards should be developed 
and 38 SQFs. In total 560 occupational standards 
are planned until 2020. Some 34 centres for the 
certification of specialists exist in the register. In 
2017, 6 400 specialists were certificated. 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of NQF 
implementation are not clear.

Impact for end-users
Providers are influenced by qualifications and 
curricula via the country’s membership of the 
Bologna Process. Many sectoral organisations are 
now involved in the development of occupational 
standards and the certification of specialists. In VET, 
a number of competency-based programmes are 
being introduced.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Important lessons and future plans

The country’s strong economic growth and 
consequent need to develop relevant qualifications 
has propelled the NQF forward. In particular, the 
strength of industries in the county has contributed 
to a focus on labour market relevance, via 
occupational standards especially. The supporting 
role of Atameken has helped to increase the role 
of different sectoral stakeholders. There is a very 
active group of sectoral actors, but they do not feel 
involved enough in implementing changes in the 
education system.

The NQF descriptors need to be reviewed. There is 
a risk of fragmentation with a very high number of 
sector qualifications frameworks. Links between 
occupational standards and educational standards 
and programmes and the assessment of graduates 
need to be strengthened. Better coordination is 
needed. The NQS is seen as the sum of the NQF, 
SQFs, occupational standards and independent 
assessment centres, but is much more than that. 
It would be good if a concept for the NQS could be 
developed, like in Belarus or Kyrgyzstan, to clarify 
the links with the education and training system.

national qualifications framework
national qualification system

Abbreviations
NQF  
NQS 
QF-EHEA   qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area
sectoral qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

VET  
VNFIL  

SQF  
TVET  

Kazakhstan is a member of the Bologna Process 
in higher education, joining in March 2011, and so 
bound to implement the QF-EHEA.

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

316

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSKENYA

Introduction and context

The Kenyan National Qualifications Framework 
(KNQF) was developed in 2015 when the Kenyan 
Qualifications Framework Act was enacted. Since 
then a subsidiary legislation to operationalize the 
provisions of the Act has also been gazetted. 

The Sessional Paper of 2005 (MoE, 2005) and the 
policy framework for education of 2012 (MoE, 2012) 
highlighted the need both to coordinate and to 
clarify Kenya’s education and training. The current 
multiplicity of qualifications and awarding bodies 
makes it difficult for employers to understand 
what competences they can expect the holder of 
a particular qualification to possess. The KNQF is 
intended to address this situation by establishing a 
common regulatory system for the development, 
assessment and award of qualifications. A central 
register of qualifications is under development, 
which will set out clear criteria for achieving awards, 
detailing the knowledge and skills required in each 
case (MoHEST, 2014). The KNQF has created levels 
and linkages between various qualifications levels 
and pathways both vertically and horizontally. 

Curricula are currently being reviewed and revised 
so that the qualifications are aligned to the KNQF 
standards. National assessment and quality 
assurance standards are also being developed 
against which the qualifications will be assessed.

Main policy objectives

The objectives of the KNQF are set out in the KNQF 
Act No 22 of 2014 (MoHEST, 2014). They are as 
follows: 

d.  to align the qualifications obtained in Kenya with 
global benchmarks in order to promote national 
and transnational mobility of workers;

e.  to strengthen quality assurance systems for 

national qualifications; 

f.  to support mobility and progression within 

education, training and career paths. 

No institution may award national qualifications 
unless it is recognised or accredited in accordance 
with the KNQF or unless it is a university accredited 
in accordance with the Kenya Universities Act No 42 
of 2012.

Level descriptors and learning 
outcomes

The 10-level KNQF is aligned with the East African 
Community (EAC) qualifications framework. The 
EAC framework is annexed to the EAC common 
market protocol for mutual recognition of academic 
and professional qualifications, to which Kenya is 
a signatory. 

The KNQF acknowledges two separate sub-
frameworks within this overarching framework: 
one for academic and the other for vocational 
qualifications. However, core generic competences 
involving the application of knowledge in practical 
situations are the same for both domains. These 
core competences include the ability to: 

a.  analyse, synthesise and create; 
b.  solve problems; 
c.  organise, plan and communicate; 
d.  use information communications technology; 
e.  work in teams; 
f.  engage in developing projects, research and 

a.  to establish the Kenyan National Qualifications 

innovations; 

Authority; 

g.  work autonomously. 

b.  to establish standards for recognising 

qualifications obtained in and outside of Kenya; 

c.  to develop a system of competence, lifelong 

learning and attainment of national qualifications; 

KNQF qualifications incorporate both theoretical 
knowledge and employability skills. Credits obtained 
through recognition of prior learning (RPL) are 

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Volume II: National and regional casestaken into account to determine which level of 
qualification an individual should work towards. 

The KNQF contains level descriptors at primary, 
secondary, tertiary, technical and vocational 

education and training (TVET) and university 
levels. Descriptors are also provided for ‘short 
cycles’ linked to the main TVET levels and graded 
‘subcycles’ for artisanal skills. 

Figure 10. Kenyan national qualifications framework (KNQF) structure 

Source: Kenya National Qualifications Authority

Stakeholder involvement

The legal framework for KNQF is Kenya National 
qualifications Framework Act No 22 of 2014 and 
the subsidiary legislations of 2018. The KNQF is 
implemented by the Kenya National Qualifications 
Authority (KNQA) which is governed by a council. 
The KNQA works closely with quality assurance 
bodies in education and assessment and 
examinations bodies. The education regulators are 
expected to play a key role in the registration of 
qualifications since they have to be aligned with the 
KNQF. The assessment and examination bodies will 
carry out the assessment of experiential learning 
against standards developed by the KNQA. 

Given the importance of the international 
comparability of qualifications, the KNQA also 

establishes standards for harmonisation and 
recognition of national and foreign qualifications, and 
promotes the recognition of national qualifications 
internationally. It builds confidence in the national 
qualifications system that contributes to the national 
economy and provides pathways that support the 
development and maintenance of flexible access to 
qualifications (MoHEST, 2014).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning

One of the key goals of the KNQF is to recognise 
and assess the outcomes of learning in all settings, 
whether formal, non-formal or informal, including in the 
workplace. A number of measures are being taken to 
pursue this goal. Progression pathways from primary 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSto higher education in the TVET sector are being 
promoted through the TVET curriculum development 
framework, which was established in 2010 according 
to KNQF occupation standards. This is helping to link 
youth polytechnics and vocational and industrial training 
qualifications to formal TVET provision. 

Several agencies offer courses at various levels to 
young people and adults. Open universities offer 
a range of distance learning, evening, bridging and 
RPL courses; such courses were previously available 
only at the University of Nairobi. Complementary 
basic education (COBET) programmes (non-formal 
programmes equivalent to formal education) offer 
children and teenagers who have dropped out of 
school the opportunity to reintegrate into the formal 
system. 

Currently the KNQA is developing standards and 
guidelines for RPL for individuals with competences 
acquired through experiential learning. Individuals 
issued with RPL certifications will be located on the 
KNQF from where they will be able to progress up 
the qualification pathways if they so wish.

NQF implementation

The KNQA is working towards raising the awareness 
of key stakeholders, especially the qualifications 
awarding bodies, regarding the provisions of the 
KNQF and the need to register their qualifications. 
An information management system and database 
are being developed in order to seamlessly 
register qualifications. The criteria for registering 
qualifications are: meeting the KNQF requirements 
on volume of learning, assigning credits to modules 
or units of competences in a programme and 
inclusion of integrated assessment and examination 
methods. The qualifications will be assessed against 
registered occupational standards. A website has 
also been developed to provide outreach to the 
social media audience. It is expected that once the 
qualifications and qualifications bodies have been 
registered, labour markets actors and recruitment 
agencies will use the platform provided by the 
KNQA for credential verification.

and levels in the region. This framework emerged as 
a result of an audit of qualifications frameworks in 
the East African Partner States, which have agreed 
to harmonise the qualifications frameworks within 
the EAC. An exercise on harmonisation of the East 
African education systems and training curricula is 
currently in progress.

Important lessons and future plans

The country has no central register or inventory 
of the various qualifications, their award criteria 
or the competences acquired. This often leads to 
the existence of qualifications in the same field 
that are different in terms of content, knowledge, 
competencies and skills. The national examinations 
bodies offer qualifications that are uniform and 
almost aligned to the KNQF. However, some public 
and private institutions and professional bodies offer 
international or their own qualifications, which are 
not aligned to KNQF standards. TVET is offered in a 
variety of formal, non-formal and informal settings, 
mostly with no uniform curriculum standards. In 
addition, every industry sector has developed its 
own occupational standards with some sectors 
keeping their standards within private mechanisms 
in the interest of security or as a business secret. 
This has created entry requirements which are not 
uniform leading to disparity in recognition of the 
final qualifications.

In this context, the Kenyan Government sees the 
KNQF as a tool to aid accreditation, teaching and 
assessment in accordance with established national 
curriculum development practices and standards. 
The KNQF has already had a number of successes. 
For example, mutual recognition of Kenyan and 
international qualifications has been greatly helped 
by the KNQF. Foreign qualifications can now be 
much more easily assessed, which has resulted in 
an influx of foreign teachers to Kenya.

Abbreviations
EAC  
KNQA  

East African Community
Kenya National Qualifications 
Authority (
Kenyan national qualifications 
framework
recognition of prior learning
technical and vocational education 
and training

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Annex to the EAC common market protocol for 
mutual recognition of academic and professional 
qualifications has proposed a 10-level framework 
designed to accommodate all qualification types 

KNQF  

RPL  
TVET  

319

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

Kerre, B.W.; Hollander, A. (2009). National qualifications frameworks in Africa. In: Maclean, R.; Wilson, D. 
(eds). International handbook of education for the changing world of work, Vol. 6, Springer,  
pp. 2899–2915. 

MoE (Ministry of Education) (2005). Meeting the challenges of education, training and research in Kenya in 

the 21st century. Sessional paper No 1. Nairobi: MoE.

MoE (2012). A policy framework for education: aligning education and training to the constitution of Kenya 

(2010) and Kenya Vision, 2030 and beyond [draft]. Nairobi: MoE.

MoE; MoHEST (Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology) (2012). A policy framework for 

education and training: reforming education and training in Kenya. Nairobi: Government of Kenya.

MoHEST (Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology) (2014). The Kenya national 

qualifications framework Act. Available at: http://kenyalaw.org/kl/fileadmin/pdfdownloads/Acts/
KenyaNationalQualificationsFrameworkAct2014.pdf

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

320

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSKOSOVO499

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
Kosovo ratified its national qualifications framework 
(NQF) in law in 2008. The framework comprises 
eight levels, embracing lifelong learning. It is 
overseen by a dedicated and autonomous body, 
the National Qualifications Authority (NQA), and 
is supported by other public institutions with 
responsibility for different education subsectors, 
such as higher or general education.

Implementation has begun, with more than 
25 qualifications already included in the 
qualifications framework.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
A Stabilisation and Association Agreement between 
the European Union (EU) and Kosovo came into 
force on 1 April 2016. The Agreement will support 
the implementation of reforms and will give Kosovo 
an opportunity to move closer to Europe as an 
important anchor of stability.

It is essential to underline the EU’s influence on 
the NQF: Kosovo intends its NQF to be compatible 
with the European qualifications framework (EQF), 
an aim reflected in the structure and nature of the 
framework, which is largely influenced by the EQF. 
The Kosovo authorities have opened discussions 
with the Commission on how to establish a 
relationship between the Kosovo NQF and the EQF.

Kosovo’s NQF has to be placed within the context 
of the recent history of the country and its resulting 
economic, social and education challenges and, 
specifically, the continuing political uncertainty. The 
tense relationship with Serbia particularly hinders 
the country’s economic growth and social stability.

499  This designation is without prejudice to positions on 

status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ 
Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence – 
hereinafter ‘Kosovo’.

Unemployment levels remain high and the country 
has the weakest employment record in Europe. 
Growth is limited, the private sector is small and 
foreign investment limited. The country depends 
largely on remittances from the many Kosovars 
abroad and on donor activity and support.

Approximately 57% of upper secondary students 
in Kosovo follow a vocational education and training 
(VET) pathway500 (292), but the sector remains 
dogged by its lack of attractiveness to students and 
their families, with general and higher education 
enjoying greater prestige. Several surveys of 
Kosovo’s education and training system have 
emphasised the need to make it more relevant to 
the labour market and to develop the education 
infrastructure. For example, teacher-training 
provision is limited and most VET instructors, for 
example, do not have a teaching qualification.

Opportunities for young people to access work-
based learning, whether through placements, 
internships and apprenticeships or some other 
variation of professional practice, remain limited, 
mainly owing to the small size of the private sector 
and the predominance of small and medium-sized 
enterprises, which have scant provision to offer 
structured work experience.

Kosovo governments have sought to address these 
issues, developing strategies for human resources 
development and education reform. In education, 
the key action plan is the Kosovo education 
strategic plan 2011–16 (KESP), the overarching 
national education and training strategy. Lifelong 
learning and inclusiveness are the key underpinning 
principles of the plan. The development of the 
Kosovo NQF is a key element within KESP. Since 
2012, the Ministry of Education, Science and 
Technology (MEST) has hosted a joint annual review 
conference to review the progress of KESP.

Kosovo’s education and training system reflects the 
country’s very specific circumstances. For example, 

500  Data from the ETF Torino Process 2016–17 Kosovo report.

321

Volume II: National and regional casesit is characterised by a large international donor 
community and strong external influences from 
the USA and the EU. The centres of competence 
established by donors, in particular Norway and 
Luxembourg, in regional centres across the 
country are key to VET, specialising in fields such as 
business, medicine and agriculture. This approach is 
not without its critics who cite the high set-up costs 
of the centres and their alleged isolation from the 
rest of the national VET system. However, in recent 
years, especially in VET, donors have been either 
scaling down or withdrawing.

example, a large international donor community and 
strong external political and economic assistance. 
Kosovo is receiving financial support and technical 
assistance from donors, including multilateral and 
bilateral international organizations.

Arguably, the education and training system is 
overly-influenced by donors, who pull in different 
directions, offering their funding support to Kosovo’s 
VET sector but undermining efforts at coherent 
reform. Stronger donor coordination mechanisms 
and practices are very much needed.

The NQF was developed by the Kosovo government 
in cooperation with EU support provided under 
various projects, including KOSVET II, KOSVET III 
and, finally, KOSVET V; the European Training 
Foundation (ETF) has also assisted and advised the 
Kosovo authorities. KOSVET V concluded its work at 
the end of 2011, and subsequently the NQA, as an 
autonomous agency, has been solely responsible for 
implementing the framework.

Strategic challenges facing the NQF are: how to 
contribute to the establishment of KESP, including 
the overall improvement of the quality of education 
and training provision; how to support the move to 
an education training system with lifelong learning 
at its core; and how to link higher education and VET 
more closely.

Specific challenges include: conducting accreditation 
of vocational schools and other providers; carrying 
out validation processes for new qualifications 
so that these can be registered in the NQF, and 
ensuring the NQF performs its quality assurance 
role.

International cooperation
A Stabilization and Association Agreement between 
the EU and Kosovo entered into force on 1 April 
2016. It will support the implementation of reforms 
and will give Kosovo an opportunity to move closer 
to Europe as an important stability anchor.

The EU assistance to Kosovo under the priority 
sector of education, employment and social policies 
(financial assistance under IPA II501) is focusing on: 
(i) improving the functioning of the labour market; 
(ii) raising education standards; (iii) promoting 
skills development; and (iv) restructuring the social 
welfare system. 

Kosovo’s education and training system reflects 
the country’s very specific circumstances, for 

501 

IPA – Instrument for pre-accession assistance (the EU’s 
support programme for candidate and potential candidate 
countries).

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The Kosovo qualifications framework is central 
to the government’s aim to improve the quality 
of the education and training system and to drive 
it towards EU standards. The NQF is explicitly 
intended as a reform instrument. Indeed, it even 
goes beyond other ‘reforming’ NQFs in being 
perceived as a key tool in building and structuring 
the national education system. It will, therefore, 
not only relate or link the different subsectors of 
the national system, but also initiate and stimulate 
curricular and qualifications re-design and promote 
institutional change.

Kosovo’s vision is to develop its VET system as 
part of an inclusive education system, based 
on lifelong learning principles offering quality 
education to all. The government’s continuing 
education reforms aim to increase the quality of 
pre-university education, develop teaching as a 
career, ensure that VET programmes better reflect 
economic demands, and expand practical elements. 
Reforms in the education sector are building on 
recent evaluation of KESP 2011–16, which has 
identified key achievements and the need for 
further interventions. Based on this evaluation and 
measures identified under the national development 
strategy, which recognise the need for investment 
and improvements in the education sector, including 
VET, to turn Kosovo’s labour force into an engine for 
development, the government is developing a new 
KESP for the period 2017–21.

Since 2015, VET has been identified as the top 
priority among the different education sectors, 
confirmed by the considerable efforts of MEST 
in establishing both the Agency for Vocational 
Education and Training and Adult Education 
(AVETAE) in 2014 and setting up the Council 
for Vocational Education and Training and Adult 
Education. The functioning and capacity building of 
AVETAE as well as the Council is both a challenge 
and a prerequisite for creating a more coherent 

322

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSapproach in VET and adult education, and for 
bringing all relevant stakeholders together to 
improve cooperation between the public and private 
sector.

The second priority is the implementation of the 
NQF. Kosovo has already put in place many of the 
elements of a modernised qualification system. 
However, it needs to accelerate its development 
and the adoption of occupational standards for use 
in developing new qualifications, validate more 
new qualifications for inclusion in the framework 
and implement its developing system of validation 
of non-formal and informal learning, which is also 
one of the key issues for European education 
policy.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Scope and structure of NQF
The Kosovo qualifications framework is a 
comprehensive, lifelong learning framework; its 
descriptors are intended to cater for all types 
of learning contexts and experiences: general 
education, higher education, VET, and formal, non-
formal and informal learning. 

The Qualifications Law (2008) defines the NQF as 
the national mechanism for classifying qualifications 
awarded within the national qualification system 
according to a set of criteria defining levels. There 
are six specified types of qualification recognised in 
the NQF:

National strategies related to the NQF are as 
follows:

a.  Kosovo education strategy plan 2011–16;
b.  Strategy for development for pre-university 

education in Kosovo 2007–17;

c.  Strategy for integration of Roma, Ashkali, and 
Egyptian communities in Kosovo (Education 
component 2007–17);

d.  Strategy for the development of higher 

a.  higher education qualifications under the 

institutional responsibility of the higher education 
accreditation agency (Kosovo Accreditation 
Agency);

b.  general education qualifications under the 

institutional responsibility of MEST;

c.  national combined VET/general qualifications 

under the institutional responsibility of the NQA;

d.  national vocational qualifications under the 
institutional responsibility of the NQA;

education in Kosovo (2005–15);

e.  qualifications based on international standards 

e.  Sectoral strategy 2014–20 of the Ministry of 

under the institutional responsibility of the NQA;

Labour and Social Welfare.

f.  tailored qualifications under the institutional 

The country also developed and adopted the Youth 
Employment Action Plan of the Ministry of Labour 
and Social Welfare following the recommendation 
of the Economic Reform Programme 2017 
assessment.

Qualifications are for the most part being developed 
along unit or modular lines, in both VET and higher 
education (general school compulsory education 
does not, however, use a modular approach).

responsibility of the NQA.

Table 39. NQF and qualification types in Kosovo

NQF 
LEVELS

EDUCATION/TRAINING 
PROGRAMMES

CURRENTLY AVAILABLE 
QUALIFICATIONS (TYPE)

POTENTIAL 
WORK ROLES/
OCCUPATIONAL 
REQUIREMENTS

Entry to, or continuing 
professional 
development within, 
senior levels of 
management or higher 
level professional 
occupations

Higher education – Bologna 
3rd cycle (Doctorate)

Doctorate

Higher education – Bologna 
2nd cycle (Master)

Master degree

Higher education – Bologna 
1st cycle (Bachelor)

Bachelor degree

8

7

6

5

Bologna short cycle and/or 
post- secondary VET

Diploma of formal providers

Certificates of non-formal 
providers

Specialist/trainer/
manager

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

(Continued)

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 39. NQF and qualification types in Kosovo (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

EDUCATION/TRAINING 
PROGRAMMES

CURRENTLY AVAILABLE 
QUALIFICATIONS (TYPE)

POTENTIAL 
WORK ROLES/
OCCUPATIONAL 
REQUIREMENTS

EQF 
LEVELS

4

3

2

Preparation for progression 
into higher education and/or 
labour market entry

Preparation for labour 
market entry (young people 
and adults)

Progression from lower to 
upper secondary education 
(young people), preparation 
for labour market (adults)

1

Basic education

Matura certificate in general 
or vocational subjects

Qualified worker/
supervisor

Vocational education 
diploma

Vocational education 
certificate

Certificates of non-formal 
VET providers

No existing qualifications 
of formal education system 
identified 

Certificates of non-formal 
providers

Semi-skilled worker

Low-skilled worker

No existing qualifications 
of formal education system 
identified 

Certificates of non-formal 
providers

Minimum level of basic 
skills, including literacy/
numeracy, required for 
entry to lowest level of 
employment

4

3

2

1

Alignment to other classification systems
The NQF is the national mechanism for classifying 
qualifications awarded within the national 
qualification system according to a set of criteria 
defining levels.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The basic structure of the Kosovo qualifications 
framework consists of eight levels of qualifications 
and modules; other qualification components can 
be placed across the existing levels and types. 
According to the Law 03/L-060 of 2008, the 
level descriptors are defined in terms of learning 
outcomes. The NQF classifies a learning  
outcome as: 

a.  knowledge: which may be theoretical or 

practical;

b.  skills: which may be cognitive, practical or 

creative;

c.  wider competences: specifically, autonomy and 

responsibility.

The descriptors, as well as the framework overall, 
are strongly influenced by the EQF and also drawn 
from elements of other existing NQFs, such as the 

Scottish qualifications framework. They have been 
elaborated for Kosovo’s context.

Use of learning outcomes
The NQF is built on the principles of learning 
outcomes. The qualifications are defined through 
the learning outcomes, which state what the 
learner is expected to know and to be able to do 
on the successful completion of the module or of 
the full programme. For occupational qualifications, 
the learning outcomes derive directly from the 
competences identified in the occupational standards.

Definition of qualification
The definition of ‘qualification’ in the NQF  
(Law 03/L-060 on national qualifications, 2008) is:  
‘an official recognition of achievement that 
recognises completion of education or training or 
satisfactory performance in a test or examination.’

Most qualifications are being developed as unit 
or modular structures for both VET and higher 
education. General compulsory education, however, 
uses a modular approach, which was introduced 
with the adoption of the new Core Curriculum 
Framework in 2011. Following pilots in a sample 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSof schools, the full-scale implementation of the 
learning outcomes curricula in general education 
schools only started in 2017.

i.  specific quality assurance requirements of the 

qualification,

j.  any mutual recognition agreements with other 

qualifications,

Other related definitions also stated in the NQF 
include:

k.  detailed specifications (e.g. modules; 

programmes etc.).

a.  A certificate is an official document attesting to 
a person’s completion of a course, education 
or training programme, or the requirements 
for award of a qualification, or recording partial 
completion of a qualification.

b.  Certification is the process of recognising the 
achievements of candidates for qualifications 
through the award of a certificate or diploma.

c.  ‘Diploma’ means a document given upon 
completion of an extensive education 
programme.

Qualification standards
Law No 03/L-060 (Article 2) defines standards as 
measurable indicators of achievement, defined 
either in terms of qualitative or in terms of 
quantitative criteria that are required to be achieved 
by candidates for the award of qualifications.

In the context of the development of a system 
of vocational qualifications for Kosovo, there are 
two main applications of the term ‘standards’. 
Occupational standards are descriptions of 
expected work tasks and responsibilities in a given 
occupation. Learning outcomes within the adopted 
qualification standards are measures of assessed 
learning achievements.

The definition of occupational standards should be 
the starting point for development of curricula and 
assessment for outcomes-based VET qualifications 
and competence-based VET programmes. When 
submitting a qualification for validation and approval 
for inclusion in the NQF, the following features will 
be described in the qualification specification and 
application:

a.  qualification title,
b.  rationale for the qualification, and evidence of 

the need for the qualification,

c.  aims of the qualification, main target groups of 

learners,

d.  NQF level of the qualification and the credit value 

of the whole qualification,

e.  recommended access routes to enter the 
qualification and any entry requirements,

f.  progression routes after completion of 
qualification (e.g. further learning),

g.  structure of qualification,
h.  approaches to assessment for the award of the 

qualification,

The specifications for a VET qualification also 
include describing how the qualification links 
to employment structure, and evidence about 
consultation with labour market stakeholders. 
As well as providing the information required for 
validation, the qualification specification can ensure 
that relevant information is also easily available for 
users of the qualification, including learners and 
employers.

Qualifications development process
The NQA is responsible for standard-setting for 
the validation (approval) of qualifications and the 
accreditation of providers (authorisation to develop, 
offer and assess qualifications). Qualifications/
modules are developed by MEST, AVETAE, 
relevant ministries and other providers. Most VET 
qualifications are developed by the providers, then 
submitted for approval to the NQA.

VET qualifications have to be based on occupational 
standards (of which 88 now exist). Occupational 
standards are the starting point for outcomes-based 
curricula and outcomes-based VET qualifications. 
VET qualifications can be placed in the NQF if they 
are based on occupational standards.

Occupational standards should be used to provide 
a reference point for identifying the modules to be 
included in each qualification, together with the 
learning outcomes to be achieved for the candidate 
to be credited with having achieved each module. 
The main functions generally identified in the 
occupational standards will lead to the definition of 
modules for learning and assessment.

Modules provide building blocks for qualifications, 
enabling systems of credit accumulation and credit 
transfer to be developed. They can be offered in 
combination to meet the requirements of particular 
programmes, as elective options or individually. 
Vocational qualifications should normally be based 
on a ‘core’ and ‘elective’ structure, allowing some 
degree of choice with regard to the modules  
taken.

Occupational standards are developed in 
cooperation with MEST, the Ministry of Labour and 
Social Welfare, other relevant ministries and social 
partners. They are verified by the NQA and approved 
by the Council for Vocational Education and Training.

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Volume II: National and regional casesTo date, the NQA has validated 26 qualifications, 
which have been placed at NQF levels 2–5.

Access, progression and credit
The NQF has been designed to enable and promote 
access, progression and transfer and to support the 
building of pathways between different subsectors 
of education and training, for example higher 
education and VET. The redesign of qualifications 
using learning outcomes and the structuring of 
courses on modular lines should, in many cases, 
support progression and transfer, for example where 
units or modules are the same or similar between 
different courses or qualifications.

In practice, however, direct linking of qualifications 
to particular types of programme in many cases is 
a barrier to flexible access to qualifications. Some 
institutions remain reluctant to be flexible in offering 
learner access to programmes or qualifications. Within 
higher education, for example, it can be difficult for 
students to transfer credits between universities or 
even across faculties at the same university. In some 
cases, providers are unwilling to accept assessment 
of the learner’s previous institution.

According to the Law on national qualifications, 
qualifications must be ‘designed to allow for the 
accumulation and transfer of credit’. This can be 
achieved through developing modular qualifications. 
The qualifications and individual learning modules 
should be developed in subject hierarchies to allow 
learners to progress within the NQF to their ability 
level.

One of the objectives of the NQF is to facilitate the 
accumulation and transfer of learning outcomes 
between different learning contexts or systems, 
which includes also the formal and non-formal 
learning. The NQA has developed a VET credit 
system based on ECVET recommendations. 
This aims to support learners’ geographical 
and occupational mobility by enabling them to 
accumulate and combine learning outcomes 
from different settings and use them in different 
education pathways.

The NQA’s credit system uses learning outcomes, 
categorises qualifications by measuring the volume 
of learning, and identifies providers who have a role 
and responsibility in allocating credit.

One credit is awarded for 10 notional learning 
hours. This convention was selected because it 
allows credit to be awarded for learning outcomes 
gained in very short periods of time (for example, 
one- or two-day training programmes). It also 
offered relatively easy conversion to ECTS points 
(2.5 ECVET points = 1 ECTS point).

The NQA regulates the credit system by accrediting 
providers and setting criteria to determine which 
providers can submit qualifications for inclusion in 
the NQF. These criteria include strict procedures 
for allocating credits, which ensures that providers 
have the necessary capacity and expertise. The NQF 
also provides the basis for cooperation and mutual 
recognition of VET qualifications with other countries.

A credit system has been established for the higher 
education sector and is aligned to the European 
credit transfer and accumulation system (ECTS).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis 
Law No 03/L-060 on national qualifications, adopted 
on 7 November 2008, established the Kosovo NQF. 
Related legal and regulatory measures are the 
Law on primary and secondary education, the Law 
on higher education, the Law on adult education 
and training and the Law on vocational education 
and training. The NQA established under the 
provisions of this Law (03/L-060) shall also regulate 
the awarding of qualifications in the framework 
with the exception of qualifications which are 
regulated under the provisions of the Law on higher 
education, and qualifications explicitly regulated and 
under the provisions of other legislation.

Secondary legislation:

a.  Administrative Instruction No 28/2014 on criteria 

and procedures for the verification of the 
occupational standards;

b.  Administrative Instruction No 35/2014 on criteria 
and procedures for the validation and approval 
of national qualification and accreditation of 
institutions providing qualification in Kosovo;
c.  Administrative Instruction No 31/2014 for prior 

learning recognition;

d.  Administrative Instruction No 32/2014 on criteria 
and procedures for quality assurance in VET 
institutions internal processes.

Various laws interact with those directly linked with 
NQF implementation. Related legislation includes:

a.  Law on vocational education and training 
(No 02/L-42, 23 February 2006) defines 
occupational standards whereas the Law  
on national qualifications (No 03/L-060, 
7 November 2008) provides a more general 
definition of standards;

b.  Law No 04/L-032 on pre-university education in 
the republic of Kosovo (20 August 2011) deals 
with the level of qualifications;

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSc.  Law No 04/L-037 on higher education in the 
Republic of Kosovo (20 August 2011) dealing 
with levels and the accreditation of higher 
education programmes and institutions is carried 
out by the Kosovo Accreditation Agency, and the 
recognition of qualifications obtained abroad is 
carried out by MEST;

one of the key objectives of the NQF is to provide 
a basis for cooperation and mutual recognition 
between the NQF and the EQF. As such, the NQA 
is the national coordination point responsible for 
overseeing the referencing of the NQF to the EQF, 
which was successfully completed in December 
2016.

d.  Law No 02/L-42 on vocational education and 

training (23 February 2006) defines qualification 
standards, relating to the level of entry and 
several other definitions (student, diploma, etc.);
e.  Law No 02/L-24, on adult education and training 
(22 July 2005) defines certification as well as 
informal and non-formal learning.

Other laws:

a.  Law No 04/L-143 on adult education and training 

(2012);

b.  Law No 03/L-068 on education in the 
municipalities of Kosovo (2008);

c.  Law No 03/L-018 on final examination and State 

matura examination (2008);

d.  Law No 02/L-52 on pre-school education (2006);
e.  Law No 2004/37 on inspection of education in 

Kosovo (2004).

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The NQA, established in 2008, has the overall 
responsibility for implementing the NQF. It has a 
staff of six employees, and a governing board of 
13 members who represent VET, general education 
and higher education, trade unions, employers and 
employers’ organisations, chambers of commerce 
and voluntary bodies. While the NQA leads and 
coordinates, it shares responsibility for developing 
and implementing the NQF with MEST, the Kosovo 
Accreditation Agency for higher education and the 
Council for Vocational Education and Training.

The Council for Vocational Education and Training has 
statutory responsibility for proposing and approving 
standards for the VET system. It is a tripartite body 
(government, employers and trade unions) designed 
to support the development of the VET sector.

Stakeholder involvement outside the key institutions 
is developing but is still quite limited. However, this 
situation is not unique to the NQF or wider education 
and training; rather it reflects the position in society 
generally, where civic institutions are still developing.

A new actor is AVETAE, which began work in spring 
2014, supported by the German government donor, 
GIZ. Its mandate is not completely clear yet. 

The NQA has the responsibility for registering, 
within the framework, the VET and adult education 
qualifications developed by providers such as 
vocational schools or special occupational schools or 
academies, such as the police college. It conducts 
quality assurance processes relevant to the 
validation, assessment and certification of these 
qualifications to ensure they are of sufficient quality 
to be included in the NQF, and is responsible for the 
accreditation of VET providers.

MEST oversees general education qualifications 
and develops secondary school-level general 
qualifications, such as the lower secondary leaving 
diploma and the upper secondary matura.

The Kosovo Accreditation Agency oversees higher 
education provision and accredits higher education 
institutions as providers. Universities generally 
develop their own qualifications, quality assured by 
the Kosovo Accreditation Agency.

The Council for Vocational Education and Training 
intends to coordinate contributions from across 
the VET stakeholder community, including various 
ministries, but in particular the social partners. 
Its remit includes engaging the social partners 
in coordinating the development of occupational 
standards and initiatives to improve the quality of 
VET. It is the responsibility of the Council to ensure 
that the standards proposed meet the needs of 
Kosovo’s labour market as well as ensuring support 
from all interested parties.

AVETAE has, according to the 2014 Administrative 
Instruction, extensive responsibilities in VET, 
including setting strategic priorities, and over 
curricula. Its relationship with the NQA and other 
actors and their respective remits needs to be 
clarified as the agency develops.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
Social partners are formally involved in the 
qualification design and development process. 
They are members of the NQA governing board 
and of the Council for Vocational Education and 
Training. The Council recommends the approval of 
programmes and occupational standards.

The NQA is the authority responsible for developing 
and maintaining the NQF. According to the NQF law, 

Social partners have been involved in the three 
working groups established for the referencing 

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Volume II: National and regional casesprocess of the NQF to EQF and are acting as 
sectoral experts and advisors. Nevertheless, the 
commitment of social partners remains limited 
as they act more in consultative roles rather 
than taking a more proactive, driving role in NQF 
implementation.

Resources and funding
The Law No 03/L-060 on qualifications covers 
resources and funding.

•  Article 21: financing – The funds necessary to 

fulfil the responsibilities set out in the provisions 
of this Law shall be provided from the Kosovo 
State Budget. The NQA, in compliance with 
the provisions of this law, has the right to 
obtain funding from other resources including 
other ministries and donors according to this 
law. Levies and payments from education and 
training institutions, including fees for education 
services, registration fees, charges for the award 
of certificates and diplomas, and donations, can 
be used to cover the cost of activities additional 
to its core functions. This shall be regulated by 
secondary regulation, issued by MEST.

•  Article 22: budget procedure – The NQA shall 
formulate and submit to MEST for approval 
an annual financial plan setting out its budget 
for the year. The plan shall include preliminary 
estimates of income and a breakdown of 
estimated expenditure.

Quality assurance of qualifications
All qualifications or modules proposed for validation 
must follow quality assurance arrangements. 
This includes institutional self-assessment and 
monitoring, including keeping candidate records to 
meet requirements for internal and external quality 
assurance of the assessment and certification 
processes and to provide verifiable evidence on 
candidates’ achievements.

Kosovo has adopted a national quality assurance 
framework (NQAF) in VET in line with the European 
quality assurance reference framework for 
vocational education and training (EQAVET) to build 
a functional system of quality assurance for VET 
qualifications and to meet the needs of Kosovo 
society and European standards. The NQAF has six 
quality principles, each of which is defined by the 
following quality indicators:

a.  management responsibilities (15 criteria),
b.  resource management (9 criteria),
c.  design and development (12 criteria),
d.  learning, assessment and certification 

(28 criteria),

The NQA Administrative Instruction defines the 
process of accreditation. The progress is evidenced 
by the measures taken to date.

a.  Providers implement the NQAF.
b.  More than 100 providers are involved in the 

quality assurance process.

c.  Self-assessment reports are produced annually.
d.  Quality assurance coordinators are appointed 

and trained.

e.  Providers implement the principles and 

criteria of accreditation according to the NQA 
Administrative Instruction.

f.  The NQA has accredited 36 providers/

institutions.

The criteria for the evaluation and procedures 
for accreditation of higher education institutions 
include internal policies and procedures for quality 
assurance of their study programmes and awards.

Other important components of the quality system 
include:

a.  common regulation: MEST approves 

programmes and licenses institutions which 
contributes to national concepts, curricula, and 
vocational standards;

b.  external evaluation of vocational schools through 
administrative and professional inspections by 
the MEST Department of Inspection;

c.  quality assurance of the Ministry of Labour 

and Social Welfare’s vocational training centres 
and mobile centres by the VET Division at the 
Ministry;

d.  internal evaluation of schools through  
the recently introduced practice of  
self-assessment;

e.  external tests and examinations, especially the 
matura and the standardised tests after year 9;

f.  the quality assurance role of the Office for 

Standards and Evaluation at MEST;

g.  statistical data gathering by the Education 
Management Information Section (EMIS);

h.  the municipalities’ role according to the Law on 
VET for the ‘supervision and inspection of the 
education process in accordance with guidelines 
established by MEST’ and in other areas which 
impact on the quality of VET provision;
the involvement of social partners and 
stakeholders via the Council for Vocational 
Education and Training.

i. 

Within this system, three kinds of quality activity 
can be distinguished: quality control, quality 
assurance and quality improvement.

e.  self-evaluation (13 criteria),
f.  continuous improvement (10 criteria).

Self-assessment by accredited institutions will 
demonstrate their commitment to the continuous 

328

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSimprovement of the quality of their provision. Self-
assessment reports will be produced annually and 
should reflect the conclusions of the continuing 
self-assessment process. The self-assessment 
model used in Kosovo’s NQF reflects the European 
common quality assurance framework model 
(common core quality criteria) and principles.

The legal basis for quality assurance is provided by 
Law No 03/L-060 on qualifications: Article 5 (NQF), 
Article 15 (Regulation of the award of qualifications), 
Article 17 (Responsibilities of assessment bodies); 
and Administrative Instruction No 32/2014 on 
criteria and procedures for quality assurance in VET 
institutions – internal processes.

The Kosovo Accreditation Agency – and its 
governing board, the National Quality Council – is 
the institution responsible for quality assurance in 
the higher education system. In addition to its main 
role, it is responsible for accrediting post-secondary 
VET colleges.

The NQA plays a major role in terms of quality 
assurance of VET in Kosovo. It is the institution 
monitoring the quality of the VET system. It 
has responsibility for validating and approving 
qualifications and modules for inclusion in the 
framework; accrediting and monitoring the 
institutions which deliver qualifications and modules, 
and/or assess learners for these qualifications and 
modules and issue certificates or diplomas; carrying 
out external quality assurance of assessments 
leading to the award of these qualifications and/or 
modules; and considering appeals from learners in 
respect of disputed assessment decisions.

MEST currently has direct responsibility for the 
quality of provision in vocational schools. It is 
responsible for licensing and regulating schools,  
and the Inspectorate is a department of MEST.

The role of the Ministry of Labour and Social 
Welfare in the quality assurance of VET is to support 
and monitor the work of the vocational training 
centres, which are established by the Ministry.

The municipalities have a role in the supervision and 
inspection of the education process in accordance 
with guidelines established by MEST and in other 
areas, which impact on the quality of VET provision.

The Council for Vocational Education and Training 
has an important role to advise the government 
on matters concerning the quality and promotion 
of VET in Kosovo. It has both a direct and indirect 
responsibility for the quality of VET in a wide range 
of areas. It has a key role for the external evaluation 
of VET provision, not directly, as is the case with the 

Inspectorate or NQA, for example, but indirectly. It 
needs to be very well informed about VET to be able 
to request appropriate reports and data, analyse 
them and make appropriate recommendations to 
MEST or to the government.

The Kosovo Accreditation Agency is full member 
of European Association for Quality Assurance in 
Higher Education (ENQA); and of the Central and 
Eastern European Network of Quality Assurance 
Agencies in Higher Education and the International 
Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher 
Education. Kosovo has observer status in EQAVET, 
the community of practice, which supports 
implementation of the EU Recommendation on 
Quality Assurance in VET.

The Kosovo NQF provides a basis for cooperation 
and mutual recognition of higher qualifications 
between Kosovo and other countries. Initially this is 
being achieved by ensuring compatibility with the 
‘Standards and guidelines for quality assurance in 
the European higher education area’ developed by 
the ENQA.

Criteria for the validation of a qualification by the 
NQA for inclusion in the NQF include ensuring:

a.  delivery, assessment and certification of the 
qualifications are supported by an effective 
quality assurance system including institutional 
self-assessment and monitoring;

b.  candidate records are sufficient to meet the 
requirements for internal and external quality 
assurance of the assessment and certification 
processes and to provide verifiable evidence of 
candidates’ achievements.

MEST is responsible for quality assurance in general 
education. It approves programmes and licences 
schools that deliver national curriculum and learning 
standards.

The Kosovo Curriculum Framework is aligned with 
the United Nation’s millennium development goals 
and the UNESCO Education for all initiative. It aims 
to provide equal access to quality education for 
all learners, regardless of their gender, ethnicity, 
age, social and economic background, skin colour, 
culture, language and beliefs. It has been developed 
in compliance with quality standards (in terms 
of both content and student achievements). It 
complies with quality criteria such as relevance, 
connectivity, balance, coherence and meaningful 
progression of learning in compliance with the 
European reference framework – key competences 
for lifelong learning. Kosovo Curriculum Framework’s 
learning outcomes for general education levels are 
integrated into NQF level descriptors and fit within 

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Volume II: National and regional casesthe EQF paradigm in relation to the acquisition of 
the key competences.

sub-sectors are minimized and pathways opened up 
to facilitate learner progression.

The Office for Standards and Evaluation in MEST is 
responsible for the evaluation of the quality of the 
matura exam and other standardised exams.

VET and the adult education and training system
The Kosovo NQF provides a basis for cooperation 
and mutual recognition of VET qualifications 
between Kosovo and other countries. Initially this is 
being achieved by ensuring compatibility with:

a.  the European qualifications framework for 

lifelong learning (EQF);
b.  EQF level descriptors;
c.  quality principles for VET attached to the EQF 

and relevant criteria for referencing NQFs to the 
EQF;

d.  the European credit system for vocational 

education and training (ECVET);

e.  the European credit transfer and accumulation 

system (ECTS);

f.  the European quality assurance reference 

framework for vocational education and training 
(EQAVET);

g.  the Europass suite of tools for the transparency 
of diplomas, certificates and competences.

MEST is responsible for planning the development 
of higher education in Kosovo and for licensing 
higher education institutions, whereas the Kosovo 
Accreditation Agency is the institution that conducts 
external quality evaluation. 

According to the Law on higher education, the 
responsibilities of the Agency include: undertaking 
the periodic quality audit of licensed higher 
education providers and issuing decisions on 
accreditation or re-accreditation including the 
power to award degrees and diplomas; undertaking 
periodic quality assessment of courses and 
programmes offered by accredited higher education 
providers; and advising with the Ministry on the 
results of quality assessment. According to this law, 
the Agency is obliged to publish its conclusions, 
recommendations and advice.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The NQF, as a lifelong learning framework, should 
support the building of pathways between different 
sub-sectors of education and training, for example 
linking higher education and VET. The framework has 
been designed to take account of modern learning 
and career patterns, so that barriers between  

Additionally, the re-design of qualifications using 
learning outcomes and structuring of courses 
on modular lines in many cases should support 
progression and transfer – for example where 
units or modules are the same or similar between 
different courses or qualifications.

In practice, though, the direct linking of 
qualifications to particular types of programme 
in many cases is a barrier to flexible access to 
qualifications. Additionally, some institutions 
remain reluctant to be flexible in offering 
learners access to programmes or qualifications. 
Within higher education, for example, it can be 
difficult for students to transfer credit between 
universities or even across faculties at the same 
university. In some cases, providers are unwilling 
to accept the assessments of the learner’s 
previous institution.

Existing programmes or courses are also in 
some cases inflexible, being mainly designed 
for younger people in full-time study. Similarly, 
assessment methods tend to be very traditional 
i.e. formal written examinations, rather than 
comprising a range of assessment approaches, e.g. 
interview, oral exam, practical. This can also have 
discrimination issue implications. 

The NQF aims to support inclusiveness and the 
2008 Law on national qualifications explicitly 
provides for the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. 

The process of evaluation of the knowledge and 
skills, which an individual has previously acquired 
through different learning contexts. The NQA has 
developed a policy paper and guidelines for the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. It has 
also developed the Administrative Instruction for 
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL); this legislation 
sets general principles, responsibilities and 
procedures for validation of non-formal and informal 
learning, within the NQF. The NQA will accredit 
providers for validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

The set of RPL guidelines, which describe the 
conditions for recognising prior learning that will 
lead to award of NQF credits, or to advanced 
standing on a programme or course leading to an 
NQA-approved qualification. Indeed, one of the 
general criteria set by the NQA for assessment 
bodies is that they must ensure access and 
certification to candidates other than those following 
traditional courses and provide for validation of  

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSnon-formal and informal learning. The NQA also has a 
communication strategy to promote the advantages 
of RPL and validation among stakeholders such as 
employers and awarding bodies.

Some organisations in Kosovo do recognise prior 
learning and VET qualifications are awarded to RPL 
candidates. Voluntary bodies such as the training 
centre APPK (Employment Promotion Agency) 
also support adults through validation processes. 
However, in some cases it is reported that 
institutions and employers consider qualifications 
obtained through validation routes inferior to those 
acquired through the traditional, linear path.

The NQA has engaged, with the support of the ETF, 
a training of trainers in the perspective of training 
assessors, mentors and coordinators, as of 2015. A 
pilot of the RPL methodology and procedures was 
developed in 2017 in two qualifications involving 
public and private providers. The revised RPL policy 
and procedures document was adopted officially by 
the NQA board in December 2017.

In 2018, the NQA elaborated a legal framework 
for the accreditation of the RPL providers. This 
new administrative instruction was expected to 
be adopted by MEST by the end of the year, thus 
making possible the implementation of RPL at 
system level as of 2019. The cooperation with 
the National Employment Agency has led to the 
discussion of considering RPL/validation of non-
formal and informal learning as a potential active 
labour market measure, as a way of supporting the 
labour market integration of unemployed registered 
jobseekers in the state employment offices.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
Qualifications in general education are awarded by 
MEST at the end of a learning programme. These 
qualifications are developed and quality assured by 
the pre-university education department of MEST 
based on national standards for the qualifications 
and their curriculum areas. As such they are 
automatically part of the NQF. 

The formal education structure is based on a 
programme of education, most of which leads to 
tangible outcomes, defined in terms of nationally 
recognised standards.

for the accreditation of providers to offer these 
qualifications.

The validation process, specified in law, is 
transparent and consists of four stages. In 
stage one, the institution seeking validation of a 
qualification/module makes an application which 
clearly states the rationale for the qualification/
module. In stage two, a panel of experts 
appointed and supported by the NQA evaluates 
the application. In the third stage the experts’ 
report and recommendations are presented to the 
Governing Board of NQA for the final decision and 
in stage four, the approved qualification/modules are 
included in the NQF and made public.

Qualifications or modules that are proposed for 
validation must state the following:

a.  rationale/justification,
b.  credit value and duration,
c.  entry requirements and access,
d.  proposed level of the qualification/module in the 

NQF,

e.  content, outcomes and standards,
f.  assessment knowledge, skills and competences,
g.  quality assurance arrangements,
h.  progression.

Decisions on the level at which each qualification 
is placed in the NQF are made on the basis of their 
match against level descriptors. Once qualifications 
are validated and placed in the NQF the decision is 
made public on the NQA website.

The institution responsible for the implementation 
of the NQF descriptors in higher education is the 
Kosovo Accreditation Agency. The implementation 
of the NQF at this level is ensured through the 
process of accreditation, the criteria for which they 
are regulated by a well-established legal framework 
and are published on the agency’s website.

The process of accreditation is carried out at the 
level of the higher education institution and at the 
level of programmes offered by the institutions. The 
criteria for the evaluation and the procedures for 
accreditation of higher education institutions are as 
follows:

a.  the scope and number of programmes that 

different types of institutions need to offer to be 
eligible to apply for accreditation as a specific 
type of higher education institution;

VET qualifications are included in the NQF through 
a mechanism developed and managed by the 
NQA. It consists of procedures for validating and 
approving qualifications for inclusion at defined 
levels of the framework, and criteria and processes 

b.  for academic degrees, as with other institutions 
in the European higher education area, the 
comparability of studies and overall educational 
outcomes with those of similar institutions in the 
European higher education area;

331

Volume II: National and regional casesc.  availability, demonstrated through legally binding 
contracts, of adequately qualified staff to meet 
international scientific, artistic and professional 
standards;

d.  facilities;
e.  academic freedom in research and teaching;
f.  research taken at the institution and its 

contribution to teaching;

g.  internal policies and procedures for quality 
assurance of their study programmes and 
awards;

h.  admission criteria and study plans (detailed 
curricula) and examination regulations.

Once programmes and institutions are accredited 
the decision is made public on the Kosovo 
Accreditation Agency’s website.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
The NQA is the responsible body for development 
and monitoring of the NQF implementation. Regular 
monitoring reports are also due to the EQF Advisory 
Group following the completion of the referencing 
process.

Impact for end-users
The Kosovo NQF has not yet had a wide and 
tangible impact on end-users. The NQF is technically 
operational (learning outcomes-based structure 
and descriptors are in place, modular or unitised 
qualifications are available, levels and descriptors 
are clearly defined, the quality assurance framework 
is complete, and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning/RPL mechanisms are being 
developed further. Nevertheless, the number of VET 
qualifications registered remains limited. It is expected 
that the NQF-EQF referencing process will have a 
wider economic and social impact in the near future.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Kosovo has been a member of the EQF advisory 
group since 2015 and referenced its NQF to the EQF 
in 2016. However, Kosovo is not yet a member of 
the Bologna Process. It intends to join the European 
higher education area and is currently conducting 
the necessary technical measures, even if its 
political administrative status is still unclear.

Important lessons and future plans

Kosovo is more advanced than most countries in 
South Eastern Europe in implementing its NQF. 

From a political point of view, the NQF also occupies 
a central place in the government’s education and 
training strategy. As a reform instrument, the impact 
of the NQF depends in part on its relationship with 
other policy measures and institutions. A strong 
legislative framework is in place to support the 
development of the NQF. The role of the NQA is 
central to the NQF’s success.

From a technical point of view, the NQF is in line 
with European standards. The Kosovo qualifications 
framework consists of eight qualifications levels. It 
is a comprehensive, lifelong learning framework so 
its descriptors cater for all types of learning contexts 
and processes: general education, higher education, 
and VET. It also allows for the inclusion of formal, 
non-formal and informal learning activities and 
qualifications.

The level descriptors are learning outcomes-
based, divided into knowledge, skills and wider 
competences. There are six specified types of 
qualification recognised in the NQF. The quality 
assurance approach is well designed and supports 
the qualifications and NQF development. 

Nevertheless, there are still challenges to face in the 
near future related to the extension of the number 
of qualifications registered in the NQF, and the 
impact on end-users, in terms of quality and trust in 
qualifications awarded. A key challenge is to reach 
full engagement with, and the active participation 
of, the various stakeholders such as departments, 
social partners, agencies and institutions necessary 
to ensure a sustained implementation of the NQF in 
the long term.

Key future tasks include:

a.  the addition of new qualifications to the 

framework: the number of VET qualifications 
placed in the NQF remains small (27), though the 
number of occupational standards validated so 
far (88) has increased substantially;

b.  developing and implementing validation of non-

formal and informal learning/RPL mechanisms at 
the system level; full implementation in selected 
occupations and accredited providers is foreseen 
for 2019;

c.  engaging a diverse range of stakeholders 
systematically and reach out end-users;
d.  implementing fully the well-designed quality 

assurance mechanisms at all levels and types of 
qualifications.

332

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
AVETAE  

ECTS 

ECVET 

ENQA 

Agency for Vocational Education and 
Training and Adult Education 
European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European credit system for vocational 
education and training
European Association for Quality 
Assurance in Higher Education

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

EQF 
KESP 
MEST 

NQA 
NQAF 
NQF 
RPL 

European qualifications framework 
Kosovo education strategic plan 
Ministry of Education, Science and 
Technology
National Qualifications Authority 
national quality assurance framework 
national qualifications framework
recognition of prior learning

333

Volume II: National and regional casesKYRGYZSTAN

Introduction and context

Policy objectives

NQF snapshot
Kyrgyzstan adopted its national qualifications 
framework (NQF) by Ministerial Order on 17 March 
2016. The law provides for nine levels in the NQF, 
the ninth level covering highly specialized post-
doctoral qualifications.

Although Kyrgyzstan ratified the Lisbon Convention 
on the recognition of qualifications in 2004, it is 
outside the geographical coverage of the European 
Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Kyrgyzstan is a developing country with a population 
of approximately 5.7 million. People aged under 20 
account for 41% of its population; those aged 20–29 
are a further 20%. The economy is unable to provide 
adequate work for many young people, so youth 
unemployment is high, at 18%.

More than 600,000 Kyrgyz are outside the country. 
Agriculture and construction are key industries, 
while the service sector is expanding at the fastest 
rate. Remittances are an important source of 
revenue. High poverty levels are present; in 2016, 
25.4% of the population was still below the poverty 
line Poverty is most entrenched in the countryside. 
Educational attainment is broadly greater among 
urban citizens.

The informal economy is extensive, in fact it is 
estimated that three-quarters of all employment is 
in the informal sector.

Politically, the country crossed a watershed in 2010 
with the establishment of a parliamentary system of 
government; a new government and new president 
were elected.

The education and training system is poorly 
integrated, requiring the NQF to build pathways. 
Vocational education and training (VET) remains a 
second-class option, although specialists from the 
VET system are in more demand from the labour 
market than alumni of higher educational institutions.

Education and training reforms
The NQF is an element in the Education 
Development Strategy 2020; its other aims in VET 
include improving quality, boosting labour market 
relevance and increasing access.

Objectives of the NQF are to enhance transparency 
of qualifications; facilitate mobility of citizens to 
other countries; structure and integrate education 
and training systems in the country; enhance 
employability; boost lifelong learning; and link 
qualifications better to the labour market.

International cooperation
NQF development in the country has been 
dependent on donor support, including from 
the EU, e.g. via Tempus in higher education or 
the European Training Foundation; the Asian 
Development Bank, DVV and the Gustav Streseman 
Institute, the Soros Foundation and others. Sectoral 
frameworks were developed, for example in 
tourism and construction.

More broadly, the NQF and sectoral qualification 
frameworks are significantly influenced by the 
European qualifications framework and the Bologna 
Process, evident in the structures, functions, and 
learning outcomes basis. The Ministerial Order 
explicitly refers to these frameworks as influences.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
All existing qualifications for VET, general and higher 
education are included.

The Ministerial Order specifies 10 levels including 
sub-levels 7a and 7b. Level 9 is for post-doctoral 
qualifications, corresponding to the former Soviet 
degree of Doctor of Science. Sub-level 7a also 
includes the former Soviet qualification type of 
Specialist, whereas 7b includes Masters degrees, 
as in the European Qualifications Framework or the 
Bologna framework in higher education.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAlignment to other classification systems
A manual on the national classification of 
occupations is applied. It includes 10 consolidated 
groups, divided into subgroups, but these concern 
occupations rather than qualifications in an 
explicit form; the levels used in the classification 
correspond to educational levels. At the same time 
these qualification levels can be obtained outside 
the education system, using various approaches. In 
addition:

•  The Law on Education indicates the levels of 

education in force in Kyrgyzstan. It is foreseen 
that in current legislative changes these will be 
related to the NQF.

•  State educational standards are confirmed with a 

specific credit value.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The descriptors are described in learning outcomes, 
using three columns: knowledge and understanding, 
abilities and skills and personal competences 
(independence, responsibility).

Use of learning outcomes
Learning outcomes are used in the descriptors 
although the Ministerial Order does not explicitly say 
all qualifications, at least new qualifications must be 
outcomes-based.

Traditionally, qualifications have been inputs-based. 
The state educational standards define how learners 
can reach specified levels of education; student 
attainment of such levels is confirmed by award 
certificates, diplomas etc.

In the EU and other internal projects, qualifications 
were outcomes-based.

Definition of qualification
The Ministerial Order does not define qualification. 
However, it refers to qualification in the context 
of levels and study programmes based on cycle, 
credits and length of the study programme, for 
some levels. Levels are differentiated between 
qualification types, however further specification is 
needed. The structure of the NQF takes into account 
advanced training in short-term courses (non-
formal education), but the NQF Ministerial Order 
lacks the concept of validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. The term sectoral qualifications is 
sometimes used in specific cases (e.g. for the food 
industry or in gold mining) that are not part of the 
formal system.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
Formally, the Order of the Ministry of Education 
and Science of the Kyrgyz Republic No 308/1 and 
the Order of the Ministry of Labour and Social 
Development of the Kyrgyz Republic No 87 of 
17 March 2016.

In 2018, work began on promoting the NQF through 
making changes to the Law on Education: the 
conceptual apparatus on the national qualification 
system is also introduced in the amended Law 
on Education that passed several readings in the 
Parliament at the time of writing.

A Concept on the national qualification system is in 
preparation and there is work ongoing to update the 
NQF Ministerial Order. The Order is consistent with 
the Law on Education, the Law on Initial Vocational 
Training and the Labour Code of the Kyrgyz 
Republic.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The policy lead lies with the education and labour 
ministries. The institutional mechanisms are 
being developed by the Ministry of Education and 
Science and the Ministry of Labour and Social 
Development. Roles and functions are not yet 
defined or allocated, but actors will include the 
national VET agency. Currently, the Concept of the 
national qualification system is being developed, 
where the roles and functions of institutions in the 
implementation of the components of the system 
will be defined. 

Beyond the institutions, stakeholder engagement 
in developing the NQF, or in its project forerunners, 
has been limited. The degree of organisation of 
sectoral stakeholders is one of the difficulties, with 
small and medium-sized enterprises dominating 
the economy. Some employers are aware of and 
understand NQF concepts via their involvement 
in the various EU and other donor-driven projects. 
Under the mandate of the Ministry of Education 
and Science, an interdepartmental working group 
and a group of experts is created that will directly 
deal with the development of the NQF concept, the 
action plan and the implementation arrangements. 
There is also a partially overlapping group supported 
by the GIZ project on employment promotion and 
VET that develops the system for validation.

Access, progression and credit
The NQF Ministerial Order includes progression as a 
basic principle of the framework. Credit volumes are 
assigned to each NQF level. 

The Ministerial Order was issued in 2016 and the 
relevant ministries are developing a roadmap as part 
of the national qualification system concept, taking 
into account the discussions of functions of various 
players.

335

Volume II: National and regional casesResources and funding
Funding for earlier NQF-related projects came from 
international donors but sustained state funding, or 
support from social partners locally, is a challenge.

Quality assurance of qualifications
The Ministerial Order does not refer to quality 
assurance, and quality measures are yet to be 
defined and developed for validation of qualifications 
and provider accreditation, for example. 

The Decree of the Government of the Kyrgyz 
Republic is in force, where accreditation criteria 
for educational institutions that wish to provide 
qualifications included in the NQF are specified. 
In 2018, most educational institutions passed the 
accreditation procedure through the authorized 
body (Ministry of Education) and other independent 
accreditation agencies (five independent accreditation 
agencies are currently operating in the country).

Moreover, in the programming documents 
concerning education, such as the Strategy for 
the Development of Education until 2020, quality 
assurance is important. Broader education policies 
place emphasis on quality assurance. GIZ is also 
supporting work on independent assessment.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Experiments have been carried out over the 
last 10 years, including with support of the 
Asian Development Bank in the industry for 
seamstresses, and more recently in the food 
industry where an independent certification centre 
has been established with GIZ support. 

More systemic approaches have been developed 
within the framework of GIZ project Support to 
Employment and VET, where an interdepartmental 
working group, consisting of key ministries, the 
chamber and sectoral organisations, has been 
working on the development of a national system in 
accordance with a three-year (2017–19) plan. 

In November 2018, a methodology was adopted by 
key stakeholders, which has been tested for several 
occupations in personal care, and food and catering 
sectors (so far 11 candidates have been certificated). 
Legislation has also been drafted but is not yet 
approved.

NQF implementation

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of NQF 
implementation have not yet been defined. As soon 
as the roadmaps have been specified there could be 
a tool to start monitoring the implementation.

Impact for end-users
None yet. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

No formal relationship, although Kyrgyzstan ratified 
the Lisbon Convention on the recognition of 
qualifications in 2004. 

Important lessons and future plans

Adoption in spring 2016 of the NQF law was a 
step forward. Initiatives such as NQF-Quadriga 
under Tempus have proposed methodologies to 
develop an NQF. Various donor-funded projects, 
including the Asian Development Bank and GIZ, 
have contributed elements of a qualification system, 
including occupational standards. Further, sectoral 
frameworks were piloted in sectors such as mining, 
light industry and food processing.

The Ministry of Education and Science is more 
engaged in the NQF now. Parliament is discussing 
amendments to the Law on Education. A working 
group bringing together all relevant stakeholders and 
experts is improving and operationalising a Concept 
for a national qualification system with international 
donors to develop the wider system. 

Independent development of an NQF is unlikely in 
the near future and the country will need to draw 
on international support and finance to progress its 
NQF. Understanding of the functions and benefits 
of an NQF, especially among different stakeholders, 
remains limited among necessary actors; 
stakeholder involvement remains weak. While 
state institutions, the chamber and providers are 
more consistently involved, the wider involvement 
of stakeholders from sectors and regions needs 
strengthening.

Abbreviations
DVV  

NQF  
VET  

German development agency, 
supporting adult education
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
Tools for registration have not been developed yet.

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

336

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLATVIA

Introduction and context

In recent years Latvia has made remarkable 
progress in reducing its early school leaving rate, 
increasing participation in early childhood education 
and care, raising the tertiary education attainment 
rate, and improving basic skills attainment. It is 
now outperforming the EU averages for all these 
indicators. The employment rate of recent graduates 
has fallen and is now below EU level (78.0% 
compared to the EU average of 80.2% in 2017). 
Participation in adult learning (7.5%) continues to be 
a challenge despite measures to boost it. 

The Latvian education system is making progress 
on quality standards. The new competence-based 
curriculum in upper secondary is being implemented 
gradually and may improve learning outcomes. The 
aim is to complete curriculum modernisation by 
2022. Access to quality education, however, is not 
fully equitable, with students in larger secondary 
schools and gymnasiums having much better access 
than students in the small schools more common in 
rural areas. Government pressure on municipalities 
to streamline the school network continues and 
may eventually lead to a network with fewer, but 
larger upper secondary schools that are better able 
to provide quality education. Shrinking student 
population and an ageing teaching corps point in 
the same direction. A new amendment to Latvia’s 
Education Law, planned to come into force in 2020, 
gives the government the right to set the minimum 
number of students per class in upper secondary 
schools.

Latvia is preparing a gradual switch to Latvian as the 
sole language of instruction by 2021. Amendments 
in the Education Law passed in March 2018 abolish 
the possibility to have up to 40% of instruction 
in the minority language in minority secondary 
schools. There is concern for the 25% of students 
whose Latvian language proficiency in writing is 
not sufficient and that there could be an increase in 
dropout rates for Russian speakers. 

The government is promoting STEM502 subjects in 
higher education by increasing the proportion of 
publicly financed study places in order to achieve 
a better balance in the supply of skills. Latvia has 
one of the lowest shares of tertiary educated 
adults with a degree in STEM fields (European 
Commission, 2018).

The Latvian qualifications framework (LQF) 
was adopted in 2010503 and linked to the 
European qualifications framework (EQF) and 
the qualifications frameworks in the European 
higher education area (QF-EHEA) in 2011; the 
referencing report was published in 2012. 
Qualifications from formal education (vocational 
education and training, higher education and 
general education), were included in the first 
phase of implementation (2009–11). The second 
phase (2013–15) saw revision of a number of 
laws (Vocational education Law, Law on higher 
education institutions and Education Law) and 
was supported by several large European Social 
Fund (ESF) projects (focusing on aspects such as 
development of sectoral qualifications frameworks 
and evaluation of programmes). Government 
regulations504 were amended accordingly to adapt 
the LQF to the current requirements of labour 
and education sectors. Journeyman and master 
craftsman qualifications are included in the sectoral 

502  STEM stands for science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics.

503  Regulations No 990 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 

2 December 2008: Regulations on the education 
classification of Latvia, Appendix 1, Table 2 (with 
amendments 5 November 2010). Available at:  
https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=184810. Currently the 
regulations are no longer in force. They were replaced 
by new Cabinet Regulations No 322 Regulations on the 
education classification of Latvia (in force as of 16 June 
2017). Available at: https://likumi.lv/ta/id/291524

504  Regulations No 322 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 13 June 

2017: Regulations on the education classification of 
Latvia. It came into force on 16 June 2017. It determines 
the descriptions of knowledge, skills and competences 
corresponding to the LQF levels and the conformity of the 
types of education programmes with the LQF/EQF levels. 
Available at: https://likumi.lv/ta/id/291524-noteikumi- 
par-latvijas-izglitibas-klasifikaciju

337

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications frameworks that are referenced to 
the LQF, but these qualifications are not reflected 
in the LQF. 

Policy objectives

The main objective of the Latvian qualifications 
framework was setting a united scale of levels for 
all qualifications, comparable with the qualifications 
of other countries via the EQF. The LQF expands 
individuals’ opportunities for mobility between 
countries and between various institutions and 
education levels. It complements a parallel process: 
recognition of knowledge and skills acquired outside 
formal education (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

The development of a comprehensive LQF aims to:

a.  increase transparency and consistency of 

qualifications;

b.  develop a comprehensive national qualifications 
framework (NQF) in line with the needs of 
lifelong learning;

c.  strengthen the link between the labour market 

and education;

d.  strengthen cooperation of those involved in the 

design and award of qualifications;

e.  increase public understanding of national 

qualifications and help build links to the EQF.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

There is growing emphasis on learning outcomes 
at policy and practice level; they are widely used in 
higher education and for occupational standards. 
The level descriptors of the eight-level framework 
are based on learning outcomes and are defined as 
knowledge (knowledge and comprehension), skills 
(ability to apply knowledge, communication and 
general skills) and competence (analysis, synthesis 
and assessment)505. 

Subject-based outcomes in general education 
have been defined in terms of knowledge, skills 
and attitudes. The ESF operational programme 
project506, introduced in 2016, began the 

505  Level descriptors are included in Regulation No 322 of 
the Cabinet of Ministers: Regulations on the education 
classification of Latvia. 

506  Regulations No 670 of Cabinet of Ministers of 

24 November 2015: The implementation regulations of 
the operational programme ‘Growth and employment’, 
specific target 8.3.1: ‘To develop competences-
based general education content’ [Latvian: Darbıˉbas 
programmas ‘Izaugsme un nodarbinaˉ tıˉba’ 8.3.1. specifiskaˉ 
atbalsta meˉrk¸a ‘Attıˉstıˉt kompetencˇu pieejaˉ  balstıˉtu 

development of a competence-based general 
education programme. A learning-outcomes-based 
approach has been implemented in vocational 
education and training since 2007. Vocational 
institutions must use learning-outcomes-oriented 
occupational standards (stipulating knowledge, 
skills and competences necessary to performing 
relevant professional activity) when developing 
new vocational education programmes or 
altering programmes which have already been 
accredited (Cedefop, 2016). By updating and 
improving the quality of occupational standards507, 
and by a greater focus on learning outcomes, 
vocational education programmes were improved 
(MoES, 2013b, p. 13). In addition to occupational 
standards mentioned above, or requirements for 
professional qualifications and descriptors of the 
sectoral qualifications frameworks, the content 
of vocational education programmes is defined 
by the State vocational education standards 
specified by the relevant Cabinet regulations. 
These standards outline the strategic aims of 
education programmes, the mandatory content of 
education, and the basic principles and procedure 
for evaluating that content. 

The development of modular vocational education is 
a policy priority. The Cabinet of Ministers approved 
regulations508 outlining measures for developing 
occupational standards, vocational education 
content, teaching/learning aids and assessment 
methods using the learning outcomes approach and 
EU tools509. 

vispaˉ reˉjaˉ s izglıˉtıˉbas saturu’]. http://likumi.lv/ta/id/278201-
darbibas-programmas-izaugsme-un-nodarbinatiba-8-3-
1-specifiska-atbalsta-merka-attistit-kompetencu-pieeja-
balstitu-visparejas

507  Regulations No 633 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 

27 September 2016: Procedure on the development 
of occupational standard, professional qualification 
requirements (if there is no approved occupational 
standard) and sectoral qualification framework, [Latvian: 
Profesijas standarta, profesionaˉlaˉs kvalifikaˉcijas prasıˉbu 
(ja profesijai neapstiprina profesijas standartu) un nozares 
kvalifikaˉciju struktu‐ras izstraˉdes kaˉrtıˉba]. http://likumi.lv/
doc.php?id=285032 

508  Regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers on the 

implementation of operational programme’s growth and 
employment specific objective No 8.5.2: To ensure the 
compliance of vocational education to the European 
qualifications framework (in force since May 2016).
509  The project is implemented by the National Centre for 

Education in cooperation with Employers’ Confederation 
of Latvia, Free Trade Union Confederation of Latvia 
and Latvian Agricultural Organisation Cooperation 
Council. During the project it is planned to elaborate 
160 occupational standards/professional qualification 
requirements, 184 modular vocational education 
programmes, 80 teaching/learning aids, and the content 
of 210 professional qualification exams.

338

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe qualifications framework for higher education is 
founded on three Bologna cycles, based on learning 
outcomes. The Law on Higher Education Institutions 
includes the term ‘learning outcomes’, and provides 
a brief definition of the term. The State standards 
for academic and professional higher education set 
acquisition of knowledge, skills and competences 
in line with EQF levels510. Other documents 
relating to the higher education sector, including 
the National concept of the development of higher 
education and higher education institutions in 
Latvia 2013–20 (Council of Higher Education, 2013), 
focus on learning outcomes. The latest strategic 
document, Guidelines for education development 
for 2014–20 (MoES, 2013a), provides continuity of 
policy planning from the guidelines of the previous 
planning period 2007–13 (MoES, 2006) with a 
strong focus on learning outcomes-based principles 
in all education subsystems.

In 2013, the Latvian national coordination point 
(NCP) also carried out the study Introduction 
of learning outcomes in the Latvian education 
institutions to assess how learning outcomes 
are introduced and used in education institutions 
in Latvia. The study revealed that work in the 
implementation and application of learning 
outcomes differs significantly by level and type of 
education; differences are seen also in education 
institutions of the same level and type. The 
differences could be explained by the fragmented 
education system, lack of common understanding, 
as well as the huge workload of education institution 
personnel and their lack of time. However, the 
majority of respondents saw the positive aspects 
of learning outcomes (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Education and Science has the 
leading role in developing and introducing the LQF. 
The Academic Information Centre was designated 
the EQF NCP and played a key role in coordinating 
the referencing process, preparing and updating 
the referencing report, and communicating and 

510  Regulations No 240 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 

13 May 2014: Regulations on State standard of academic 
education [Latvian: Noteikumi par valsts akadeˉmiskaˉs 
izglıˉtıˉbas standartu]. http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=266187
Regulation No 512 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 
26 August 2014: Regulation on State standard of second 
level professional higher education [Latvian: Noteikumi 
par otraˉ lıˉmen¸a profesionaˉlaˉs augstaˉkaˉs izglıˉtıˉbas valsts 
standartu]. http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=268761

disseminating information to all stakeholders. Since 
February 2008 it has the following tasks:

a.  to reference existing national qualifications levels 

to the eight levels of the EQF; 

b.  to ensure that transparent methodology is used 
to reference the national qualifications levels to 
the EQF; 

c.  to provide access to information and guidance to 
stakeholders on how national qualifications relate 
to the EQF through the national qualifications 
frameworks or systems; 

d.  to promote the participation of stakeholders 

in the comparison and use of qualifications at 
the European level in accordance with national 
legislation and practice. 

During the first stage of the referencing process 
(2009–11) implementation of the LQF was 
supervised by the referencing working group, 
which included the main education stakeholders: 
ministerial representatives, national agencies, 
employer organisations, trade unions, student 
organisations, and education quality assurance 
agencies. The working group evaluated materials 
and level descriptors prepared by experts and 
recommended the agreed level descriptors to the 
Cabinet of Ministers (approved in October 2010). The 
group was also involved in the consultation on the 
Bologna process initiated self-assessment report 
produced in 2011–12. 

Following amendments to Vocational Education Law, 
Law on Higher Education Institutions and Education 
Law in 2015, the Cabinet of Ministers Regulations 
No 322 on the education classification of Latvia 
came into force in June 2017 and determined the 
descriptions of knowledge, skills and competences 
corresponding to the LQF levels and the conformity 
of the types of education programme with the  
LQF/EQF levels. With this regulation the LQF is now 
firmly embedded in Latvian education system.

As a result of the project Development of sectoral 
qualification system and increasing efficiency and 
quality of vocational education, 12 sectoral expert 
councils were established for the main economic 
sectors. They include representatives of sectoral 
employers’ organisations, trade unions, the Ministry 
of Education and Science and other relevant 
ministries. Their main tasks include developing 
occupational standards, defining the content of 
vocational qualifications and vocational examinations 
requirements, and enrolment of students in 
vocational education programmes. Fifteen 
sectoral qualifications structures were developed, 
including core occupations; linked occupations 
and specialisations have been defined (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

339

Volume II: National and regional cases 
Most higher education institution programmes, 
and individual courses, will have their learning 
outcomes defined as part of this changeover. 
Quality assurance is also specified at different levels 
in the education system: at policy, programme 
and institutional level. The Education Law states 
that all education institutions, except those with 
only interest-related education programmes, have 
to be accredited. Higher education institutions 
receive accreditation if at least half of the study 
fields they offer are accredited. Study fields are 
accredited for either two or six years. The Council of 
Higher Education (Augstaˉ kaˉ s izglıˉtıˉbas padome) is 
responsible for quality assurance in higher education 
institutions. Since 2015 study programmes and 
study directions have been licensed and accredited 
by the Academic Information Centre–Quality 
Agency for Higher Education (AIKA) in line with 
amendments to the law on higher education 
institutions511 and Cabinet regulations. Since 2018, 
AIKA512 is a member of the European Association for 
Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) and 
has been included in the European quality assurance 
register for higher education (EQAR). 

Stakeholders are well informed of the existence 
of the LQF and they are actively participating 
in national discussions concerning LQF and its 
development. The Latvian NCP has encouraged 
exchange of views on the LQF via several studies513 
and events514 at national level. In 2019, the Latvian 
NCP will present the updated referencing report to 
the EQF AG, prepared on the base of the evaluation 
studies conducted. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways515

The system for validating professional competences 
obtained outside formal education became a 
legal requirement in February 2011, prescribing 
the procedure for validation of non-formal and 

511  Parliament of the Republic of Latvia (2015). Law on higher 
education institutions [Augstskolu likums]. LR Saeima 
2.11.1995. http://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=37967

512  The Academic Information Centre (Latvian ENIC/NARIC, 
Latvian NCP for EQF, national Europass centre and 
ReferNet) has also taken over the function of external 
higher education quality assurance in Latvia. 
513  The studies are available at: www.nki-latvija.lv/en/

514 

publikacijas/publications-of-latvian-ncp 
Information on the events: www.nki-latvija.lv/en/
pasakumu-materiali

515  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming) and from Academic Information Centre 
(2018).

informal learning outcomes for acquisition of 
professional qualifications at LQF levels 2 to 4516. 
These regulations do not apply to regulated 
professions. Procedures for assessment and criteria 
for recognition of prior learning at LQF levels 5 
to 7 were set up for higher education in 2012517. 
Validation of non-formal and informal learning 
outcomes is not carried out at LQF levels 1 and 8, 
for the validation of a full qualification in regulated 
professions, as well as for general education 
qualifications.

The validation process in higher education is 
largely decentralised, with education institutions 
provided with rights to conduct validation. In 
vocational education validation is also decentralised 
but to a lesser extent, with the State Education 
Quality Service, coordinating the process and 
delegating responsibility for validation of vocational 
competences to educational institutions and 
examination centres upon a formal evaluation.

Both in vocational education and higher education 
the occupational standards or programmes are used 
as a reference in validating non-formal and informal 
learning. To acquire a professional qualification a 
candidate is assessed in a professional qualification 
examination against requirements specified 
in occupational standards. Higher education 
institutions are allowed to assess the learning 
outcomes achieved in an individual’s previous 
education or professional experience and, if they 
meet the programme requirements, to recognise 
them and to give appropriate number of credit 
points for it.  

During the years 2011–17, 5 543 individuals 
acquired a certificate of professional qualification 
through validation of non-formal and informal 
learning outcomes at LQF levels 3–4518. There is no 

516  Regulations No 146 of the Cabinet of Minsters of 
22 February 2011: Procedure for the validation of 
professional competences acquired outside of formal 
education system. https://likumi.lv/ta/en/en/id/226788

517  Regulations No 36 of the Cabinet of Ministers: 

Regulations regarding the validation of learning outcomes 
achieved in previous learning or professional experience, 
as adopted on 10 January 2012 and no longer in force 
since 17 August 2018. Replaced by new Regulations 
No 505 of the Cabinet of Ministers: Regulations for 
validation of competences acquired outside formal 
education or during professional experience an learning 
outcomes achieved in previous education. https://likumi.
lv/ta/id/301013-arpus-formalas-izglitibas-apguto-vai-
profesionalaja-pieredze-iegutokompetencu-un-iepriekseja-
izglitiba-sasniegtu 

518  Validation of non-formal and informal learning at LQF 

level 2 has not been carried out as there is no clear 
demand for qualifications at this level on the labour 
market.

340

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScentralised collection of data on the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning outcomes carried 
out by higher education institutions or colleges.

The main activities on the agenda concern further 
adjustments to the system and nationwide 
measures aimed at promoting the availability 
and accessibility of validation among candidates. 
However, EU funds have been allocated to promote 
the system, strengthen its link to the labour market 
and do this inclusively of the groups at risk of 
unemployment: young people not in employment, 
education or training, persons with unfinished 
and with education level LQF/EQF 3 or less, older 
than 50, and refugees. These EU funded projects 
will have a large impact on validation activities in 
Latvia, especially in the years to come, both through 
activities and duration of the projects that will last 
for five years. Most projects started in 2017, so it 
is still too early to evaluate the potential outcome. 
Project activities envisage provision of career 
consultations, skills audit and covering the costs of 
validation.

NQF implementation

Development of the LQF started in 2009, building 
on reforms initiated in the 1990s, particularly the 
introduction of a five level structure of vocational 
qualifications in 1999 (through the Vocational 
Education Law). It was carried out in two stages: 
the first stage (2009–11) involved inclusion of 
formal qualifications in the LQF and referencing to 
the EQF; further development and revision took 
place in a second stage (2013–15). The Vocational 
Education Law (1999) was amended in 2015 and 
the initial five levels of vocational (professional) 
qualifications (still in use today) were referenced 
to the eight levels of the LQF519. The Education 
Law (1998) was also amended in 2015 and now 
includes the definition of the LQF and its general 
characteristics. Consequently, the Cabinet of 

519  The Vocational Education Law (from 1999, with 

amendments of 23 April 2015, which came into force 
16 July 2015) states how professional qualification levels 
are referred to the LQF levels:
•	

level 1 of professional qualification corresponds to 
the LQF level 2;

•	

•	

•	

•	

level 2 of professional qualification corresponds to 
the LQF level 3;

level 3 of professional l qualification corresponds to 
the LQF level 4;

level 4 of professional qualification corresponds to 
the LQF level 5;

level 5 of professional qualification corresponds to 
the LQF levels 6 and 7.

Ministers Regulations No 322 on the education 
classification of Latvia came into force in June 
2017, determining the descriptions of knowledge, 
skills and competences corresponding to the LQF 
levels and the conformity of the types of education 
programme with the LQF/EQF levels. With this 
regulation the LQF is now firmly embedded in the 
Latvian education and training system.

The LQF is operational. Several large ESF projects 
have supported its implementation. Strong 
emphasis has been placed on increasing the quality 
of vocational education and developing a system for 
sectoral qualifications linked to the LQF. 

The Latvian EQF NCP conducted a number of 
studies to support LQF implementation. In 2013, 
there was a study on the development of LQF: 
Referencing of the Latvian education system 
to the European qualifications framework for 
lifelong learning and the qualifications framework 
for the European higher education area situation 
assessment. This amongst others elaborated 
on a possible re-evaluation of the allocation of 
qualifications to LQF levels 1 to 4520. The study 
International qualifications in Latvia aimed 
to describe existing practice with regard to 
international qualifications and to raise general 
awareness about relating international qualifications 
to the LQF. The conclusions of the evaluations have 
already been used for the further development 
of the LQF (e.g. results after evaluating LQF 
levels 1 to 4) and proposals for change have been 
submitted to the respective authorities during the 
period since adoption of LQF. The results of the 
evaluation The European qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning and the qualifications framework 
for the European higher education area: situation 
assessment in 2016 was used for preparing the 
updated referencing report in 2018–19. No major 
research has yet been conducted on the use of the 
LQF by the labour market (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).

In 2016, the Latvian qualifications database521, 
an information system that contains data on 
qualifications referenced to the European and 
Latvian qualifications framework, was also 
established, allowing the framework to become 
operational.

520  One point of discussion in the referencing report was 

assigning EQF/LQF levels 1–3 to educational programmes 
of basic general education. 

521  Latvian qualifications database: www.latvijaskvalifikacijas.

lv/en/

341

Volume II: National and regional casesIt has been compulsory since 2013 to indicate the 
LQF/EQF level in diploma supplements (higher 
education). The Cabinet of Ministers Regulations 
No 202 on the Procedures by which State-
recognised education documents certifying higher 
education are issued 522 have been amended to 
update the content of the diploma supplements 
to correspond to the results of referencing LQF 
to the EQF; it indicates either the European/
Latvian qualifications framework level or the EHEA 
qualifications framework level. From 1 January 
2017, LQF levels are indicated on vocational 
education certificates and diplomas. Implementation 
of Europass certificate supplements is under 
development. No decision has been taken on 
including LQF and EQF levels on certificates in 
general education.  

The Latvian NCP develops its communication 
strategy annually and evaluates the results of the 
communication activities at the end of each year. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Latvia referenced its national qualifications levels 
to the EQF and self-certified to the qualifications 
framework for the European higher education 
area in October 2011; the referencing report 
was published in 2012. Taking into account the 
development of education and changes in laws  
and regulations, an updated report will be  
submitted in 2019.

Table 40. Latvian qualifications framework (LQF)

LQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

8

7

Doctor diploma  
(doktora diploms)

Professional Doctor diploma in arts  
(profesionaˉlaˉ doktora diploms maˉkslaˉs)

Master diploma  
(mag` istra diploms)

Professional Master diploma  
(profesionaˉlaˉ mag` istra diploms)

Important lessons and future plans

Setting up the NQF in line with the EQF and placing 
this issue on the policy agenda has had an impact 
on the education system and is one of the major 
driving forces for promoting the use of learning 
outcomes. The higher education sector is at the 
forefront of the changes: learning outcomes are 
defined in the Law of Higher Education Institutions 
and research shows that most universities have 
completed the task of describing learning outcomes 
for all individual courses and programmes.

Latvian ENIC/NARIC uses the LQF and other NQFs 
in recognising foreign qualifications. 

It remains an important issue to embed the LQF in 
qualifications, curricula, assessment and teaching 
practice, the success of which will be heavily 
dependent on the involvement and contribution 
of practitioners. The experience of setting up and 
implementing the Latvian qualifications framework 
shows that understanding concepts and promoting 
cultural change takes time. Feedback loops need 
to be in place to ensure that the focus on learning 
outcomes and the assignment of qualifications 
to levels is systematically reviewed and renewed. 
Capacity-building on the ground seems to be the key. 
The views and expectations of different stakeholders 
need to feed back into policy development. Further 
work is necessary to implement policies, support 
teachers and include learning outcomes as part of 
their continuous professional development. 

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

Diploma of professional higher education and Diploma of higher professional 
qualification  
(profesionaˉlaˉs augstaˉkaˉs izglıˉtıˉbas diploms and augstaˉkaˉs profesionaˉlaˉs kvalifikaˉcijas 
diploms)

522  Regulations No 202 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 16 April 
2013: Procedures by which State-recognised education 
documents certifying higher education are issued 
[Latvian: Kaˉrtıˉba, kaˉdaˉ izsniedz valsts atzıˉtus augstaˉko 
izglıˉtıˉbu apliecinošus dokumentus] http://likumi.lv/doc.
php?id=256157/

342

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 40. Latvian qualifications framework (LQF) (Continued)

LQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

6

5

4

3

2

1

Bachelor diploma 
(bakalaura diploms)

Professional Bachelor diploma  
(profesionaˉlaˉ bakalaura diploms)

Diploma of professional higher education and Diploma of higher professional 
qualification  
(profesionaˉlaˉs augstaˉkaˉs izglıˉtıˉbas diploms and augstaˉkaˉs profesionaˉlaˉs kvalifikaˉcijas 
diploms)

Diploma of first level professional higher education  
(pirmaˉ lıˉmen¸a profesionaˉlaˉs augstaˉkaˉs izglıˉtıˉbas diploms)

Certificate of general secondary education  
(atestaˉts par vispaˉreˉjo videˉjo izglıˉtıˉbu)

Diploma of vocational secondary education  
(diploms par profesionaˉlo videˉjo izglıˉtıˉbu)

Certificate of professional qualification (at secondary education level)  
(profesionaˉlaˉs kvalifikaˉcijas apliecıˉba (videˉjaˉs izglıˉtıˉbas pakaˉpeˉ))

Certificate of vocational education  
(atestaˉts par arodizglıˉtıˉbu)

Certificate of professional qualification (at vocational education level)  
(profesionaˉlaˉs kvalifikaˉcijas apliecıˉba (arodizglıˉtıˉbas pakaˉpeˉ))

Certificate of general basic education (9 years)  
(apliecıˉba par vispaˉreˉjo pamatizglıˉtıˉbu)

Certificate of vocational basic education  
(apliecıˉba par profesionaˉlo pamatizglıˉtıˉbu)

Certificate of professional qualification (at basic education level)  
(profesionaˉlaˉs kvalifikaˉcijas apliecıˉba (pamatizglıˉtıˉbas pakaˉpeˉ))

Certificate of general basic education  
(apliecıˉba par vispaˉreˉjo pamatizglıˉtıˉbu)

(special education programmes for learners with (severe) mental development 
disorders or several severe development disorders)

Source: Regulations No 322 of the Cabinet of Ministers: Regulations on the education classification of Latvia,  
https://likumi.lv/ta/id/291524-noteikumi-par-latvijas-izglitibas-klasifikaciju

6

5

4

3

2

1

Abbreviations
EHEA  
EQF  
ESF  
LQF  
NCP  
NQF 
STEM  

European higher education area
European qualifications framework
European Social Fund
Latvian qualifications framework
national coordination point
national qualifications framework
science, technology, engineering and mathematics

343

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Academic Information Centre – the Latvian EQF NCP: www.nki-latvija.lv/en/par-lki
EQF/LQF website: www.nki-latvija.lv/en
Database of Latvian qualifications – available at: www.latvijaskvalifikacijas.lv/en/ 
Academic Information Centre (2012). Referencing of the Latvian education system to the European 

qualifications framework for lifelong learning and the qualifications framework for the European 
higher education area: self-assessment report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
Latvian%20Self-Assessment%20Report%202nd%20version_May%202012.pdf

References

AIC (Academic Information Centre) (2018). Country report Latvia and the self-assessment report: 

Implementation of validation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes in Latvia. https://
ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/file/1170/download?token=Dp1VNgsW

AIC (Academic Information Centre) et al. (2012). Referencing og the Latvian education system to the 

European qualifications framework for lifelong learning and the qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area: self-assessment report. http://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/
files/Latvian%20Self-Assessment%20Report%202nd%20version_May%202012.pdf 
Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Cedefop (2017). National qualifications framework developments in Europe 2017. www.cedefop.europa.eu/

en/publications-and-resources/publications/4163

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Latvia. https://ec.europa.eu/education/

sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-latvia_en.pdf 

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report Latvia.

MoES (Latvian Ministry of Education and Science) (2006). Guidelines for the development of education for 

2007–13 [Izglıˉtıˉbas attıˉstıˉbas pamatnostaˉ dnes 2007.–2013.gadam]. http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/LoadAtt/
file4460.docx 

MoES (Latvian Ministry of Education and Science) (2013a). Guidelines for the development of education 
for 2014–20 [Izglıˉtıˉbas attıˉstıˉbas pamatnostaˉ dnes 2014.–2020.gadam]. http://m.likumi.lv/doc.
php?id=266406 

MoES (Latvian Ministry of Education and Science) (2013b). Informative report: implementation of the 

guidelines for lifelong learning policy 2007–13 in the years 2011 and 2012. [Informatıˉvais zin¸ojums. 
Mu‐žizglıˉtıˉbas pamatnostaˉ dn¸u 2007. – 2013. gadam ıˉstenošanas gaita 2011. un 2012. Gadaˉ ]. http://
polsis.mk.gov.lv/LoadAtt/file5686.doc 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

344

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLEBANON

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The planned national qualifications framework (NQF) 
has not yet been adopted by law. So far, Lebanon 
has only defined levels, eight, and descriptors. 
In practice, work on the NQF is on hold because 
of the country’s continuing political deadlock and 
the priority given to handling the presence in the 
country of many Syrian refugees.

Although the Ministry of Education and Higher 
Education led an earlier NQF project, the 
governance structure and the body that would 
manage the qualifications framework has not yet 
been officially decided.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
Lebanon has a unique socio-political setting, due to 
the fragile institutional situation, the growing pressure 
of the Syrian crisis and the absence of a government 
following the elections in May 2018. The country´s 
unique faith-based political system and challenging 
geopolitical environment have made it difficult for 
governments to implement reforms, which are often 
blocked or in delay due to changing priorities and 
problems in reaching consensus. The spill-over effects 
of the Syrian conflict represent an increasing threat to 
Lebanese internal security and impact on all aspects 
of socio-political and economic life.

Lebanon’s total population has increased by more 
than 25% in six years, from 4.3 million in 2010 
to just over 6 million in 2016523.  The influx of an 
estimated 1.5 million Syrian refugees since 2011, 
in addition to the presence of Palestinian refugees 
caught in a protracted refugee situation (estimates 
vary between 174 422524 and 469 331525), has 

523  United Nations Development Programme, World 

population prospects, 2016

524  According to the government’s Lebanese-Palestinian 

Dialogue Committee census figure covering 12 refugee 
camps and about 150 informal Palestinian communities 
released in December 2017

525  United Nations Relief and Works Agency figures

strained public finances, infrastructure and service 
delivery. The Syrian refugees in Lebanon are 
generally young; approximately 65% of all registered 
Syrians are under the age of 25. 

Lebanon is a middle-income country with an open 
and largely service-oriented economy that has 
a strong commercial tradition of domestic free 
trade and investment policies. The service sector 
constitutes more than 70% of the country´s GDP 
and employs around 70% of the work force. 
Industry amounts to one quarter of GDP and 
agriculture 6% (World Bank, world development 
indicators). Small and medium-sized enterprises 
remain the main form of business organisation, 
particularly micro and small enterprises and there 
is a large informal sector in the country. Economic 
growth was high in recent years (up to 8–9% 
although mostly jobless) but significantly dropped 
since 2011 and the forecast for the near future is not 
promising.

An average of 44.2% of the working-age population 
was estimated to be economically active in 2017 
(ILO KILM), with female labour force participation 
rates just over 21% compared with 66.9% among 
males aged over 15. The low employment and low 
activity rates of females can be attributed to social, 
cultural and economic factors. The unemployment 
rate was estimated at 6.3% in 2017, with youth 
(aged 15–24) unemployment estimated at 16.5%.  
In addition, the country is affected by huge 
migration flows in terms of a high influx of foreign 
workers and a large number of skilled Lebanese 
people seeking employment abroad.

Although Lebanon’s economy is characterised by 
a proportionately bigger private sector compared 
to most countries in the region, and a population 
known for its entrepreneurial spirit (incidence of 
self-employment526 amounts to 30% of the total 

526  This indicator measures the share of self-employers as a 
proportion of total employment. Self-employers includes 
employers, own-account workers, members of producers’ 
cooperatives and contributing family workers.

345

Volume II: National and regional casesemployment), it remains extremely vulnerable to 
domestic and regional politics and civil unrest.

Policy objectives

Lebanon has a relatively low-skilled527 labour force, 
although still amongst the most highly-skilled in the 
region528. Almost 20% of adults have attained higher 
education, the third highest percentage country 
of the region after Israel and Palestine, while 12% 
of adults have not followed any education, which 
is much lower than the average percentage in 
the region. Males are slightly highly skilled than 
females, although the difference is not as sharp as it 
is for participation in the labour market.

The education and training system in Lebanon is 
among the best-performing in the Middle East 
and North Africa region. Education is traditionally 
highly valued. In recent years, there has been 
an increasing socio-political awareness of the 
importance of education and training for sustainable 
and cohesive socioeconomic growth. In this 
context, the Lebanese government – with the 
support of Unicef and the ILO – has recently 
launched the National Strategic Framework for 
Technical Vocational Education and Training 2018–22 
(NSF). This proposed strategy is a key outcome of 
the government’s TVET initiative and seeks to widen 
access and improve the quality of TVET provision.

As stated in the NSF, instead of TVET being 
perceived as an alternative pathway to productive 
and decent work, young Lebanese generally 
associate TVET with academic failure and poor-
quality provision. The association of TVET-level jobs 
with low wages, poor working conditions and lack 
of career prospects has discouraged youth from 
enrolling in TVET courses at secondary and post-
secondary levels. As a result, just over 26% of 
students enrolled in secondary education opted for 
a vocational track in 2015.

The low attractiveness of the vocational education 
system may also be influenced by weak links to 
the labour market, which exacerbates the difficult 
transition young people experience from education 
to the labour market. One in four young people aged 
15–24 (almost one in three young women) are not in 
employment, education or training (ILOSTAT, 2007), 
which, while lower than the average in the region, is 
significant.

527  Educational attainment is frequently used as a proxy 
measure of the skills associated with a given level of 
education and available in the population, and to the 
labour force. Higher levels of educational attainment are 
associated with several positive individual and social 
outcomes (see also OECD Education at a Glance, 2015).

528  Traditionally Lebanon retains high education standards 
with a large proportion of private education at all levels.

Education and training reforms
The Lebanese NQF should be able to classify all 
qualifications and certificates issued by the different 
sectors of the education and training system. In 
particular, the qualifications framework should 
ensure:

a.  transparency and readability of qualifications 

delivered in Lebanon and their relevance for the 
labour market;

b.  recognition of qualifications based on well- 
defined competences whether acquired via 
formal, non-formal or informal education;
c.  mobility between different sectors of the 

education system;

d.  coherence with qualifications frameworks of 

other countries.

The NQF is one of the building blocks of the 
NSF. In 2012, the NQF was piloted in selected 
sectors, including education, agro-food, health, 
electrical works, and hospitality. Within the NSF, 
the development of a national qualification system, 
centred on a competency-based approach to training 
and testing allowing for better signalling of graduate 
skills to employers, is foreseen. The intention is to 
adopt the NQF with eight levels of qualifications 
in order to classify the various certificates and 
diplomas and establish pathways between them.

International cooperation
The NQF is one of the components of the World 
Bank’s Education Reform programme. It is also 
currently being addressed for the construction 
sector by the EU-funded project, which is being 
implemented by GIZ ‘Improving quality of vocational 
training and education for Lebanese youth’.

The need to bring coherence to the many and diverse 
qualifications offered in Lebanon remains a priority. 
International cooperation is focused on issues linked 
to access and education for all, especially as a result 
of the need to provide education for Syrian refugees 
currently living in the country.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure 
The Lebanese NQF is intended to be lifelong 
learning in scope, covering general, vocational and 
higher education qualifications.

NQF levels and level descriptors
An eight-level structure is planned. The descriptors 
have been under the descriptors knowledge, skills 
and competences.

346

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSUse of learning outcomes
The NQF’s descriptors are outcomes-based.

Definition of qualification
There is no legal definition yet as the NQF itself has 
not been adopted by law. Qualifications have been 
developed on a learning outcomes basis in  
the construction sector.

Access, progression and credit
There has been no further development in this area.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Legal basis of NQF
The NQF has not been adopted by law.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
At the time of the ETF-led project on the NQF, 
the Ministry of Education and Higher Education 
coordinated the project and hosted the NQF 
working group. However, the institutional 
arrangements proposed by the NQF working 
group were never officially approved. Therefore,  
no institution is currently leading the NQF.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The NQF working group brought together 
representatives from the different sectors of 
the education sector but no other stakeholders 
participated, such as employers. Invitations were 
extended nonetheless.

Resources and funding
Except for the earlier ETF-led project funded  
by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, there  
has been no donor support for the development  
of the NQF.

Quality assurance of qualifications
There is a traditional approach to quality  
assurance related to the qualifications cycle  
with a quality control emphasis. In vocational 
education, quality assurance systems operate but 
need to be modernised. Currently, they include 
internal and external evaluation of providers, 
addressing curricula etc. There is formal teacher 
training and an education inspectorate relevant to 
qualifications such as standards and assessment, 
but there are no existing mechanisms to validate 
quality of qualifications.

Since the NQF has not yet been adopted by law  
and therefore has not been implemented, the  
NQF has not introduced new quality assurance 
tools.  

The Ministry of Education and Higher Education, 
through the Directorate for Higher Education, has 
been working for more than 10 years on creating 
a quality assurance agency for higher education. 
However, the law to create the agency has not been 
approved and is currently on hold.

There is a traditional quality assurance approach 
with regulatory mechanisms such as accreditation, 
inspection, examinations etc. but no distinct legal 
framework per se. Ministries licence provider 
institutions, set standards for programmes, set 
exam standards, and run an inspectorate. There 
is no independent quality assurance agency yet. 
However, there have been discussions about 
establishing a quality assurance agency for higher 
education.

Lebanon participates in the ETF Forum for Quality 
Assurance in Vocational Education and Training.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

There is no mechanism in place for validation of non-
formal and informal learning.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
No register has been formally adopted. The ETF-led 
project had developed methods and procedures. 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
None has taken place yet, given the very early stage 
of development of the qualifications framework.

Impact for end-users
The NQF is not functional yet.

Referencing to regional frameworks

No referencing to regional frameworks has been 
considered yet. The Arab Standard Classification of 
Occupations (ASCO) has been a reference instrument 
to inform development of the Lebanese NQF. 

Important lessons and future plans

Progress on the NQF would be achievable via the 
framework of the NSF, but other conditions currently 
inhibit progress, in particular political stasis and 
the national priority accorded to responding to the 
Syrian refugee crisis.  

347

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
ETF  
ILO  
KILM  
NQF 

European Training Foundation
International Labour Organisation
Key Indicators of the Labour Market
national qualifications framework 

NSF 

TVET 

National Strategic Framework for 
Technical Vocational Education and 
Training 2018–22
technical and vocational education and 
training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

348

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLESOTHO

Introduction and context

Policy objectives

The Government of Lesotho embarked on the 
development of a Lesotho qualifications framework 
(LQF) as a fulfilment of the Southern Africa 
Development Community protocol on education 
and training. This encourages member States 
to work progressively towards the equivalence, 
harmonisation and standardisation of education 
and training systems. As a result, the Ministry 
of Education and Training commissioned 
a multisectoral task force in 2001 to develop 
a national qualifications framework (NQF) 
system across the wide spectrum of training and 
occupations in Lesotho. 

At the moment there are many providers offering 
a diverse range of programmes leading to 
qualifications at different levels, from certificate to 
diploma and degree. Some of these qualifications 
are offered by foreign institutions and/or 
examination bodies while others are offered by local 
institutions. Consequently, there is no comparability, 
articulation or linkage between and among courses 
and qualifications offered by the various bodies and 
institutions. As a result of these challenges, the 
Government of Lesotho deemed it necessary to 
introduce and develop the LQF. 

All literacy completers receive awards through the 
Ministry of Education and Training. The Lesotho 
Distance Teaching Centre provides certificated 
learning for national school qualifications. All 
technical colleges provide nationally recognised 
vocational qualifications that have parity with South 
Africa’s NQF. All tertiary institutions are in the 
process of planning for bridging programmes that 
will support entry to tertiary programmes through 
non-traditional routes. 

The LQF: 

a.  aims at supporting the nation of Lesotho in 

realising the full potential of its entire people 
by developing, monitoring and evaluating 
learning systems that ensure quality, coherence, 
comparability and recognition of education and 
training opportunities; 

b.  will create an integrated system that brings 

coherence and portability between the worlds 
of schooling, higher education and technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET); 

c.  provides the national economy with a skills base 
required for growth and poverty alleviation; 
d.  facilitates access, comparability, transferability 
and consistency in education and training 
standards at identified levels; 

e.  improves linkages and articulation between 

courses and qualifications; 

f.  supports the movement towards quality 

attainment through criteria on referenced or 
standards-based education and training; 

g.  allows for the recognition of a more diverse array 
of education and training courses and outcomes, 
including adult education, short courses and 
work-based learning; 

h.  provides a basis for bringing a wide range of 
education and training organisations, courses 
and qualifications into a common standards 
framework; 

i.  provides stronger and clearer links between 
courses and qualifications at regional level;
j.  contributes to the full personal, social and 
economic development of each learner.

Levels and learning outcomes

The Government of Lesotho proposed the 
development of an LQF in the education sector 
strategic plan 2005–15 (Government of Lesotho, 
2005a) to ensure and improve the quality of 
education and training. The LQF is in its final policy 
draft stage through the Lesotho Qualifications 
Authority.

The LQF is planned to have ten qualifications levels 
registered in accordance with an agreed set of 
definitions. Any educational qualification must be 
assigned to one of these levels. The qualification 
level is determined by the highest number of credits 
that are at or above the particular level at which the 
qualification is registered.

349

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 41. Lesotho qualifications framework and pathways

LEVEL

TVET TRACK: FORMAL AND INDUSTRY-BASED 
TRAINING

ACADEMIC TRACK

10

Doctorate

Masters

Doctorate

Masters

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Honours Bachelor, PGC, PGD

PGC, PGD, Honours Bachelor

Bachelor

Diploma

Bachelor

Diploma

National Craft Certificate

Trade Test A 

National Certificate, A Level 

Vocational Training 
Certificate

Trade Test B  

O Level/LGCSE

Basic Vocational Certificate

Trade Test C 

Basic Operative Certificate

Trade Test Operative

Junior Certificate

Foundation Certificate

Foundation Certificate

Sub-Junior Certificate Education and 
Training

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

Institutions responsible for managing and 
coordinating adult learning at national level include: 

a.  Lesotho Association for Non-formal Education, 

which coordinates non-governmental 
organisation (NGO) provision; 

b.  Government Non-formal Education 

Inspectorate, which monitors non-formal 
education provision and is the link between 
NGOs and government; 

c.  Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre, which 

coordinates and manages adult learning and 
education national awards and associated events 
at the national level; 

d.  Institute for Extra-Mural Studies at the National 
University of Lesotho, which coordinates open 
and distance learning in adult education via its 
four regional centres. This includes diploma, 
degree and postgraduate qualifications in adult 
education, diploma and degree qualifications in 
business administration, diploma qualifications 
in media studies, and a range of short 
courses and community-based workshops 
through the Department for Non-formal and 
Continuing Education.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The number of people engaged in non-formal 
education is quite significant: it amounts to 30% 
of the population in the rural mountainous regions. 
The main providers are NGOs, the community, 
private individuals and some church organizations. 
The Ministry of Education and Training also offers 
non-formal education through the Lesotho Distance 
Teaching Centre and the Institute of Extra-Mural 
Studies, which is part of the University of Lesotho 
(Akoojee et al., 2005).

The Ministry is expected to ensure that minimum 
entry requirements are set in the LQF for various 
phases of the schooling system. These would take 
the form of statements of learning assumed to be 
in place prior to a child or young adult entering a 
specified phase of school learning. This practice 
will allow children who for various reasons have 
missed a phase of schooling to re-join the system 
without prejudice, provided they have acquired the 
necessary learning competences.

For general academic streams in higher education 
the Lesotho Qualifications Authority will require the 

350

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCouncil on Higher Education to design and develop 
a system for general academic programmes in 
higher education. The Council will also formulate 
statements of learning assumed to be in place that 
will be attached to each qualification registered in 
higher education. This statement will make explicit 
to learners wishing to enter a programme what 
the legitimate academic expectations are of them. 
The Department of Technical and Vocational Training 
administers the recognition of prior learning and the 
recognition of current competences to recognise 
prior learning or current competences for the skills 
obtained in the industry-based learning.

Recognising foreign qualifications 

Lesotho relies on the South African Qualification 
Authority for the external qualification verification. 
The development of the national organ is in process.

integrates with other Southern Africa Development 
Community systems. Such a system will recognize 
credit achieved in one institution as counting 
towards learning in another. This will facilitate 
mobility of students and portability of qualifications.

Important lessons and future plans

The Ministry of Education and Training is reviewing 
the LQF with the intention to maintain the 
integrated structure so as to cover basic education, 
technical and vocational education and training, 
academic, professional development awards, and 
part-qualifications. It will also define qualifications, 
provide pathways for learners and sets clear 
parameters for registering qualifications, verifying 
qualifications, and evaluating foreign qualifications 
among other things. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

All technical colleges provide nationally recognized 
vocational qualifications that have parity with South 
Africa’s NQF-registered qualifications. The Council 
for Higher Education will ensure the establishment 
of a credit recognition and transfer system that 

Abbreviations 
LQF  
NGO  
NQF  
TVET  

Lesotho qualifications framework 
non-governmental organisation 
national qualifications framework 
technical and vocational education 
and training

References

Akojee, S.; Gewer, A.; McGrath, S. (eds) (2005). Vocational education and training in Southern Africa: 

a comparative study. A project co-funded by the JET education services, the British Council and the 
Human Sciences Research Council South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press.

Government of Lesotho (2005a). Kingdom of Lesotho: education sector strategic plan 2005–15. Maseru: 

Ministry of Education and Training, Government Printers.

Government of Lesotho (2005b). Qualifications framework for Lesotho. Maseru: Ministry of Education and 

Training.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

351

Volume II: National and regional casesLIECHTENSTEIN

Introduction and context 

Policy objectives

In 2011, the government laid the foundation for 
developing an integrating national qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning for Liechtenstein 
(NQFL), potentially covering all parts of education 
and training529. From the beginning, the 
development of NQFL was closely coordinated 
with Switzerland with whom Liechtenstein has 
established a common vocational education and 
training (VET) system. 

In the first phase, the NQFL has been developed for 
formal education in higher education and vocational 
education. In 2013, a qualifications framework 
for higher education, defined in terms of learning 
outcomes in line with the qualifications framework 
in the European higher education area, was adopted 
and included in higher education law530. It was 
self-certified against the qualifications framework 
for European higher education area in 2013531 and 
forms an integral part of the NQFL. The Ordinance 
on national qualifications framework for vocational 
qualifications – Nationaler Qualifikationsrrahmen 
des Fürstentums Liectenstein für Abschlüsse der 
Berufsbildung (NQFL-BBV)532 – was adopted on 
19 December 2017 and put in force on 1 January 
2018 paving the way to full implementation of the 
framework. As in Switzerland, general education is 
currently not included in the framework.   

The NQFL was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) in October 2016 with 
the referencing report published in 2017.

529  Governmental Decree RA 2010/2909-4000.
530  Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein (2013). 
Qualifikationsrahmen für den Hochschulbereich im 
Fürstentum Liechtenstein (NQFL-HS) [Qualifications 
framework for higher education in the Principality 
of Liechtenstein]. www.llv.li/files/sa/pdf-llv-sa-
qualifikationsrahmen_fuer_den_hochschulbereich_im_fl_
nqfl_hs_2013.pdf

531  www.llv.li/files/sa/nqfl-hs-prufbericht-v130710-def.pdf
532  www.gesetze.li/konso/pdf/2017396000?version=1

The NQFL, and certificate and qualification 
supplements, aim at improving the transparency and 
comparability of qualifications from Liechtenstein 
and referencing them to the EQF. 

More specifically, the NQFL aims to (Ministry of 
Education, 2017, p. 25): 

a.  describe adequately the education system, 

improving the transparency, the clarity and the 
comparability of qualifications in VET, higher VET 
and higher education; 

b.  support, in terms of labour market needs, an 

employer’s assessment of the skills of vocational 
graduates from Liechtenstein and enable a 
similar process for graduates with qualifications 
from abroad; 

c.  improve the employability of Liechtenstein-
educated specialists and managers in the 
country and abroad. 

In the longer term, NQFL is seen as a tool 
to support lifelong learning through better 
understanding of qualifications and learning 
opportunities, improved access to and participation 
in education and training, and valuing all learning 
outcomes, in formal, non-formal and informal 
settings.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NQFL comprises eight levels. Competence-
oriented descriptors describe requirements for 
each level; these are closely aligned with the 
EQF descriptors, but also adjusted to suit specific 
national features. Level descriptors533 are identical to 
level descriptors of the Swiss NQF-VPET.

533  Level descriptors are included in Annex 1 of the ordinance 

on NQFL-BBV. 

352

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 42. Main elements of the descriptors in 
NQFL-BBV

administration and coordination tasks connected 
with the NQFL. 

Knowledge

Knowledge 

Skills

Understanding

Procedural skills

Sensorimotor skills

Social 
competence

Professional competences

Personal competences:

•  autonomy
•  social competences
•  leadership competences

Source: Adapted from Government of the Principality of 
Liechtenstein (2017).

Level descriptors are defined in terms of 
knowledge, skills and competences. Knowledge 
refers to declarative knowledge and is further 
subdivided into knowledge and understanding. Skills 
refer to the capacity to apply knowledge and solve 
problems: a distinction is drawn between procedural 
and sensorimotor skills. Competences express 
application of knowledge and skills in the work 
context and are subdivided into professional and 
social competences. 

All subsystems have taken important steps in 
implementing a learning outcomes approach, 
but to varying degrees. Learning outcomes 
already play an important accreditation role in 
higher education; a qualifications framework for 
higher education was implemented in 2013. In 
general education, standards were introduced 
in 2010 and subsequently tested for grades 3, 4, 
and 8. A competence-based approach is being 
strengthened in teaching and evaluation of general 
education. In line with the amended VET law in 
2008534 qualifications and curricula have been 
revised with stronger focus on competences and 
equipping students with the competence to act 
(Handlungskomptenz) (Cedefop, 2016).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The NQFL is supervised by the Ministry of 
Education. The National Agency for International 
Education Affairs (AIBA)535 has been appointed the 
EQF national coordination point (NCP) to carry out 

534   Article 6 of the Vocational Training Act. Government of the 
Principality of Liechtenstein (2008). Berufsbildungsgesetz 
[Vocational Training Act]. Liechtenstein law gazette, 412.0,  
No 103. www.gesetze.li/konso/pdf/2008103000?version=3

535   AIBA is an independent institution, supervised by the 
Ministry of Education, see website: www.aiba.li/

Liechtenstein started the Bologna process several 
years ago and this is now an integral part of the 
University of Liechtenstein. The NQFL builds 
on experience in developing the qualifications 
framework for higher education.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways536

Since the 2016 Inventory on non-formal and 
informal learning, no major changes have been 
made. Validation approaches have been developed 
in initial VET and higher education, taking into 
account different target groups, responsibilities and 
methods. The Vocational Training Act determines 
that admission to any examination or qualification 
does not depend on undertaking specified 
educational programmes; those who have at least 
five years’ work experience can participate in the 
final examinations. The validation process in VET 
is based on a similar process to that developed 
by Switzerland, following a similar series of steps. 
However, due to the small size of the country, only 
the first step (information and advising) is performed 
in Liechtenstein; after that the candidates are sent 
to Switzerland.  

Most development in higher education has occurred 
in the past five years. The Education Authority 
(Schulamt) regards development of the national 
qualifications framework for higher education 
(Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen Fürstentum 
Liechtenstein für den Hochschulbereich) (NQFL-HS) 
as an opportunity for anchoring lifelong learning 
more within higher education, and for improving 
validation and recognition of prior learning achieved 
outside the higher education system. The legal 
bases for admission to higher education have been 
formalised. The Law on higher education regulates 
conditions and process of admission without a 
matura certificate537 and limitation of crediting 
learning acquired outside the higher education 
system. It is possible to recognise non-formal and 

536   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

537   Article 24 of the Higher Education Act. Government of 

the Principality of Liechtenstein (2005). Gesetz über das 
Hochschulwesen (Hochschulgesetz; HSG) [Law on higher 
education (Higher Education Act; HSG)]. Liechtenstein 
law gazette, 414.0, No 2. www.gesetze.li/lilexprod/
lgsystpage2.jsp?formname=showlaw&lgblid= 
2005002000&gueltigdate=07032017

353

Volume II: National and regional casesinformal learning as contribution to achieving a 
qualification, up to a maximum of one sixth of the 
necessary workload (European credit transfer and 
accumulation system credit points) for the whole 
qualification. 

Standards used in VET and higher education for 
validation, are those of existing programmes. The 
NQFL offers opportunities to integrate further non-
formal and informal learning outcomes. However, 
the NQFL-BBV was adopted in 2017 with no plans to 
include non-formal and informal learning.

NQF implementation 

Liechtenstein has committed to an integrating 
national qualifications framework for lifelong learning 
for Liechtenstein (NQFL) (Ministry of Education 
(2017). The first phase of implementation focuses 
on formal education in VET and higher education, 
underpinned by two sectoral qualifications 
frameworks: one encompassing higher education 
qualifications (NQFL-HS), adopted in 2013 and one 
for vocational education (NQFL-BBV), in force since 
January 2018. As in Switzerland, general education 
qualifications are not included in the NQFL. 

An important characteristic of the NQFL is that 
levels 6 to 8 are also open to higher vocational 
qualifications awarded outside higher education 

as a separate strand next to higher education 
qualifications.  

The process of assigning vocational and professional 
qualifications a level is carried out by Switzerland. 
By January 2019538 a total of 474 formal vocational 
and professional qualifications had been attributed 
levels in Switzerland: 207 IVET qualifications mostly 
distributed to levels 3 and 4; and 264 professional 
qualifications, most at levels 5 to 7; and three to 
level 8. The process is expected to continue539.

As defined in the ordinance on NQFL-BBV (Article 7), 
the Liechtenstein Government has to approve 
the inclusion and the level of a qualification, in a 
separate procedure, and can take into account those 
qualifications assigned by the State Secretariat 
for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) in 
Switzerland. So far, the Liechtenstein Government 
has approved the first 37 qualifications. The NCP –  
the National Agency of International Education 
Affairs – will publish the necessary documents on 
the website at the end of March 2019. No database 
has yet been set up. 

The NQF for higher education (NQFL-HS) is already 
operational.

For public involvement and information, the 
NQFL website (Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen 
Fürstentum Liechtenstein) was established in spring 
2013, providing information and updates540.

Figure 11. Y-Model of NQFL

Vocational and 
education and traning
professional 
Level 8
Level 7

Level 6

Higher academic 
Level 8 - Doctoral degree
education
Level 7 - Master degree
Level 6 - Bachelor degree

Level 5

Level 4

Level 3

Level 2

Level 1

Source: Ministry of Education (2017).

538   www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20151046/

index.html

539   For more information, please consult the chapter on 
Switzerland in the NQF European inventory 2018.
540  NQFL (Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen Fürstentum 

Liechtenstein) website: www.nqfl.li/

354

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFigure 12. Main steps of the levelling process

Preparation

(sectoral  
view)

Consistency 
check

(systemic  
view)

Decision 1

Decision 2

Publication

Awarding body

External  
competence centre

SERI

Government of 
Liechteinstein

NCP

Source: Ministry of Education (2017), p. 29. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The NQFL was referenced to the EQF in October 
2016 and the referencing report was published in 
2017 (Ministry of Education, 2017). 

The qualification framework for higher education 
(NQFL-HS) is fully operational and well embedded in 
the higher education sectors. Having both sectoral 
frameworks as part of integrating the NQFL offers 
opportunities to integrate further non-formal and 
informal learning outcomes. 

Important lessons and future plans

With the first qualifications approved by the 
Liechtenstein Government and included in 
the NQFL-BBV, the framework for vocational 
qualifications has entered an early operational stage. 

One important task of the EQF NCP is to make 
the NQFL more visible to end-users: students, 
employers, guidance practitioners and training 
providers. The NQFL homepage is currently under 
construction and will be available by the end of 
March 2019. 

Figure 13. Indication of qualification types included in the NQF-VPET and approximate levels 

Qualification type

NQF 
VPET 
levels

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Federal VET 
diploma

Federal VET 

certificate 

Advanced 
federal 
diploma 
of higher 
education

Federal diploma 

College of higher 

of higher 

education

education diploma

EQF 
levels

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Notes: Federal certificate of vocational education and training – two-year VET programmes; Federal diploma of 
vocational education and training – three- and four-year VET programmes; Federal diploma of higher education – 
part-time tertiary level professional education and training (federal professional examination); Advanced federal 
diploma of higher education issued by a college of higher education (federal professional examination); Advanced 
federal diploma of higher education – formal study programme.

Source: SERI, 2018.

355

Volume II: National and regional casesNQFL-HS   Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen 

Furstentum Liechtenstein für 
den Hochschulbereich (national 
qualifications framework of the 
Principality of Liechtenstein for higher 
education)
State Secretariat for Education, 
Research and Innovation 
(Staatssekretariat für Bildung, 
Forschung und Innovation)
vocational education and training

SERI 

VET  

European qualifications framework
national coordination point

Abbreviations
EQF  
NCP 
NQF-VPET   Swiss national qualifications 
framework for vocational and 
professional education and training
national qualifications framework for 
Liechtenstein

NQFL  

NQFL-BBV   Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen 

des Furstentum Liechtenstein für 
Abschlüsse der Berufsbildung 
(national qualifications framework of 
the Principality of Liechtenstein for 
vocational education)

Main sources of information

National Agency for International Education Affairs (AIBA) – the EQF NCP: www.aiba.li/
NQFL website: www.nqfl.li/ 
Ministry of Education (2017). Referencing report for the Principality of Liechtenstein (NQFL).  

https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/nqfl-referencing_report_liechtenstein_en2017.pdf

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning-outcome approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series; No 105. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/
publications-and-resources/publications/3074

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report Liechtenstein.

Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein (2011). Bildungsstrategie Fürstentums Liechtenstein 

2020 [Education strategy of the Principality of Liechtenstein for 2020]. Vaduz: Government of the 
Principality of Liechtenstein. www.llv.li/files/sa/pdf-llv-sa-broschuere_bildungsstrategie_2020.pdf

Government of the Principality of Liechtenstein (2017). Verordnung über Nationaler Qualifikationsrrahmen 

des Fürstentums Liechtenstein für Abschlüsse der Berufsbildung (NQFL-BBV) [Ordinance 
on national qualifications framework for vocational qualifications]. www.gesetze.li/konso/
pdf/2017396000?version=1

LLV (2013). Bericht über die Überprüfung der Kompatibilität des Qualifikationsrahmens für den 

Hochschulbereich im Fürstentum Liechtenstein (NQ.FL-HS) mit dem Qualifikationsrahmen für 
den europäischen Hochschulraum [Report on the review of the compatibility of the qualifications 
framework for higher education in the Principality of Liechtenstein (NQ.FL-HS) with the qualifications 
framework for the European Higher Education Area]. www.llv.li/files/sa/nqfl-hs-prufbericht-v130710-
def.pdf

Ministry of Education (2017). Referencing report for the Principality of Liechtenstein (NQFL).  

https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/nqfl-referencing_report_liechtenstein_en2017.pdf

Swiss Confederation State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (2015). Swiss EQF 

referencing report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/e_referencing_report_final_ch.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

356

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLITHUANIA

Introduction and context

Key indicators for education and training show a 
mixed picture in Lithuania. On the one hand, the 
country has the one of the lowest percentages of 
early leavers from education and training in the EU 
(5.4% in 2017, compared to the 10.6% EU average) 
and the highest rate of tertiary education attainment 
(58.0% in 2017, compared to the 39.9% EU 
average). The employment rate of recent graduates 
is also above the EU average, and one of the 
highest in the EU for tertiary education graduates 
(91.5% in 2017). In contrast, rates of investment on 
education and training that are among the highest 
in Europe are not translated into excellence and 
equity. The school system and the higher education 
sector are faced with quality and efficiency 
challenges, especially in light of a shrinking school 
population. The proportion of 15 year-old students 
with underachievement in mathematics, reading 
and science is relatively high and the share of top 
performers has declined.

Student performance is strongly linked to school 
location and socioeconomic status, with especially 
large disparities between urban and rural areas. 
Participation in vocational education and training 
(VET) is substantially below the EU average. Among 
the points of focus in the country are increasing 
the quality of teaching and the attractiveness of 
the teaching profession, reforming VET curricula 
to increase their labour market relevance, and 
increasing participation in adult learning. Reforming 
the tertiary education sector is also high on the 
agenda, including a plan for restructuring and 
consolidation of universities and measures to 
promote quality and efficiency, adopted in 2017 
(European Commission, 2018).

eight learning- outcomes-based levels, and covers 
all officially recognised qualifications in general 
(primary and secondary) education, VET and higher 
education. Two amendments to the resolution  
(June and August 2011) clarified the role and 
function of the framework. A joint referencing/
self-certification to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) and to the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area 
(QF-EHEA) was completed in late 2011 and the 
referencing report was published in 2012. 

Policy objectives

The development of the LTQF forms part of a (more 
than) decade-long effort to reform and modernise 
Lithuanian education and training. The national 
education strategy for 2003–12 stressed the need 
for flexible and open education structures, for better 
coordination between general education and VET, 
and for stronger links to non-formal and informal 
learning542. The LTQF supports this strategy and 
addresses five main objectives.

a.  The framework should play a role in better 

adapting qualifications to the needs of the labour 
market and society.

b.  It should help to improve the clarity of 

qualifications design to improve assessment and 
recognition.

c.  It should increase transparency of qualifications 

and assist individuals in using them.

d.  It should support national and international 

mobility.

e.  It should encourage lifelong learning and allow 
individuals to build on outcomes of non-formal 
and informal learning (QVETDC, 2012, p. 33).

The Lithuanian qualifications framework (LTQF) 
was formally adopted through a government 
resolution on 4 May 2010541. The LTQF is based on 

The LTQF aims have not changed over time 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

541  Government of Lithuania (2010). Resolution on approving 

the description of the Lithuanian qualifications framework. 
www.kpmpc.lt/kpmpc/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/LTQF_
official_translation.pdf

542  Parliament of the Republic of Lithuania (2003). Provisions 
for the national education strategy 2003–12, No IX-17000, 
4 July 2003. http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/en/2003/
lithuania-resolution-provisions-national-education-strategy-
2003-2012-no-ix-1700-4-july-2003

357

Volume II: National and regional casesLevels and use of learning outcomes

The eight levels of the LTQF combine the existing 
structure of the Lithuanian qualifications system 
with the descriptor principles introduced by the EQF. 
Two existing level arrangements (the five vocational 
education levels introduced in 1997 and the three 
levels (cycles) of higher education introduced in 
1992) directly influenced the design of the LTQF. 
The level descriptors are defined according to two 
parameters: focusing on activity characteristics and 
on types of competence.

labour market needs and they are linked to the LTQF 
(European Commission et al., forthcoming). 

During 2010–15, the Centre for the Development of 
Qualifications and Vocational Education and Training 
carried out the European Social Fund (ESF)-funded 
project Development of qualifications and creation 
of the modular VET system. This had the goal of 
developing the national system of qualifications 
through sector-based occupational standards and 
corresponding national modular VET curricula. Ten 
sectoral standards have been designed. Project 
follow-up was launched at the end of 2016, aiming 

Table 43. Level descriptors in the Lithuanian NQF

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVITIES

TYPES OF COMPETENCE

PARAMETERS

a
i
r
e
t
i
r

C

• Complexity of activities

• Autonomy of activities

• Variability of activities

Source: Adapted from QVETDC, 2012 

• Cognitive competences

• Functional competences

• General competences

While the distinction between cognitive, functional 
and general competences broadly reflects the 
EQF distinction between knowledge, skills and 
competence, now autonomy and responsibility, 
the activity criteria can be seen as a further 
development and specification of the third EQF 
pillar, focusing on autonomy and responsibility. 
The combination of the two parameters allows for 
detailed description of each level543.

The learning outcomes (competence) approach is 
broadly accepted and implemented in all areas of 
Lithuanian VET system (Lauzackas et al., 2009). 
VET has used a learning outcomes or competence 
approach for several decades, partly linked to the 
introduction of VET standards in the early 1990s544. 
Sectoral qualifications standards and descriptions 
of study fields aim to improve education’s link to 

543  QVETDC, 2012, pp. 36–41.
544  VET standard is designed for a qualification and comprises 
three interrelated components: parameters characterising 
occupational activities, training objectives and assessment 
parameters. The first VET standards were developed 
in 1998. There were 77 standards that regulated VET 
qualifications. In 2007 it was decided to change VET 
standards gradually to sectoral qualification standards. 
Sectoral qualifications standards are being developed for 
a specific sector of the economy and describe the most 
important qualifications in this sector at all levels of the 
LTQF.

for the development of occupational standards for 
the remaining 14 economic sectors. 

The methodology for designing occupational 
standards has been based on a combination of 
competence and work-process analysis approaches. 
It involved an important shift from functional 
analysis, which was previously applied in the design 
of initial VET standards, to work-process analysis. 
One of the key advantages of this latter approach is 
potentially identifying and covering all qualifications 
required for the execution of work processes in the 
economic sector, as well as mapping the links and 
interrelationships between the qualifications inside 
the sector and between the sectors.

At the beginning of 2018, only one standard 
had been officially approved, with nine (already 
developed earlier with ESF support) undergoing 
revision and 14 still needing to be developed. It is 
planned that standards revision and design of new 
ones will be completed by mid-2019. Adoption of 
a modular approach to VET curricula has gained 
speed, with 27% of VET learners enrolled in 
modular programmes in 2017 compared to just 
11% the year before. However, challenges remain: 
ensuring the timely update of standards; completing 
the corresponding revision of VET programmes; 
and promptly launching the programmes’ 
implementation (European Commission, 2018).

358

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThis revision of standards also covers professional 
qualifications at levels 6 and 7, signalling that the 
learning outcomes approach is being adopted in 
higher education as well as in traditional VET. The 
level descriptors of the LTQF are used as an explicit 
reference point for this exercise and help to improve 
consistency between single qualifications and 
across the different sectors. 

The traditional university sector is also progressing 
in adopting the learning outcomes approach. 
LTQF descriptors are taken into account when 
designing study field descriptors and are used 
as reference points for the development, review 
and renewal of university programmes and 
qualifications. Descriptions of study fields aim to 
link higher education and labour market needs 
better545. Implementation of the LTQF is seen as 
an important part of a strategy to move towards 
a more consistent and comprehensive use of 
learning outcomes across education and training 
levels and types. Initiatives taken to address the 
use of learning outcomes in general education 
exemplify this. In 2015, a description of primary, 
lower secondary and upper secondary programmes 
was approved (with changes in April 2016); work 
continues to develop general education curricula 
statements at levels 1–4 in accordance to LTQF. 
This is one of the reasons that levelling of general 
education qualifications at these levels remains 
unfinished. 

Until recently there was no political consensus on 
level 5 qualifications, considering if they should 
be attributed to VET or to short-cycle programmes 
within EHEA, or to both (European Commission; 
Cedefop, 2018). In November 2018 the Law 
on Science and Higher Education legitimated 
short-cycle studies that should lead to level 5 
qualifications. Implementation issues remain 
unclear, as well as the relationship to level 5 VET 
qualifications and programmes.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Work on the LTQF was initiated by the Labour 
Market Training Authority of Lithuania, which 

545  They define benchmark statements for different discipline 
areas (for example informatics, technologies, engineering), 
developed in cooperation between representatives from 
higher education institutions and employers. Descriptions 
should serve as guiding documents for study programmes 
development, implementation and evaluation. It is 
expected that study programmes will better correspond 
to labour market needs. 53 drafts have been developed 
during the period 2012–14; the majority came into force in 
2015 (European Commission et al., forthcoming).

launched an ESF-funded project for national 
qualifications framework (NQF) design in 2006. 
Following extensive technical work, a National 
Authority of Qualifications was established in 2008 
to coordinate LTQF implementation. This authority 
was abolished in 2009, following the election of 
a new Parliament in late 2008. The Ministry of 
Education and Science then took over the main 
responsibility for LTQF development in 2009 and 
has retained this role since. The Qualifications and 
VET Development Centre (QVETDC)546 has been 
responsible for day-to-day coordination since 2009 
and was also appointed as national coordination 
point for the EQF at this point. National coordination 
points’ tasks are:

a.  to reference existing national qualifications levels 

to the eight levels of the EQF;

b.  to ensure that a transparent methodology is 
used to reference the national qualifications 
levels to the EQF;

c.  to provide access to information and guidance to 
stakeholders concerning issues on how national 
qualifications relate to the EQF through the 
national qualifications systems;

d.  to promote the participation of stakeholders 

(education institutions, social partners, sectors 
and experts) in the process.

The Qualifications and VET Development Centre 
is also the ReferNet contact point and the quality 
assurance reference point for VET in Lithuania. 
A current ESF-funded project for 2016–20 is 
developing a framework of sectoral qualification 
standards and vocational training curricula in line 
with the Lithuanian and European qualifications 
frameworks. In 2013, the Centre for Quality 
Assurance in Higher Education (SKVC)547 was 
officially delegated to take part in the coordination 
and implementation of the LTQF, with a particular 
focus on universities and universities of applied 
sciences. The Centre is a member of the European 
Association for Quality Assurance in Higher 
Education (ENQA) and listed in the European 
assurance register for higher education (EQAR). 

The influence of labour market stakeholders has 
been strengthened by the involvement of the 
Central Professional Committee (abolished in 2018 
following a change to the Law on VET) in referencing 
the LTQF to the EQF. The Committee played a key 
role in LTQF implementation, notably in planning a 
framework of sector-based occupational standards. 
It was a tripartite committee, established under the 
Law on VET in 2007, signalling the need for active 

546  QVETDC: www.kpmpc.lt/kpmpc/en/
547  SKVC: www.skvc.lt/en/

359

Volume II: National and regional casesinvolvement of stakeholders outside education 
and training. There were also established sectoral 
professional committees: multilateral bodies at 
economic sector level, mainly responsible for the 
assessment and quality assurance of occupational 
standards and qualifications. With an amendment 
to the law on VET in 2017, the role of sectoral 
professional committees has increased and 
they have overtaken the functions of the central 
professional committee. 

While some progress has been made in 
coordinating VET and higher education, general 
education involvement in the LTQF is limited and 
needs to be strengthened.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways548

Validation in Lithuania is an integral part of the 
lifelong learning system and is covered by national 
strategies and programmes. In 2014, a national 
framework was set up, with implementation 
decentralised at training provider level. A number of 
Lithuanian laws recognise the rights of individuals 
to access validation initiatives. The law on VET 
amended in 2017 defines that the competence 
acquired outside formal education may be 
recognised as a qualification of an appropriate 
LTQF level or part thereof. In higher education prior 
learning may be recognised as part of a programme; 
the maximum credit is 75% of a total study 
programme volume.

Since 2012 significant progress has been achieved 
in validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
Lithuania has put in place validation arrangements, 
which make it possible to assess non-formal or 
informal learning in VET and higher education. The 
skills and competences acquired outside formal 
education are assessed against standards or 
programmes used in formal education. The results 
of validation are recognised by the education 
system and may lead to a formal qualification 
linked to the national qualifications framework. 
Those wishing to formalise their non-formal and 
informal learning must apply to an appropriate VET 
or HE provider; each of these has an internal quality 
system which also applies to the assessment of 
learning outcomes. Arrangements for validation of 
non-formal and informal learning in VET and higher 
education include all the elements specified in the 

548  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming). 

Council recommendation of 2012549 (identification, 
documentation, assessment and certification). 

However, there is still room for improvement. 
There is no evidence that validation is used in 
general education. Although the level of awareness 
of validation of non-formal and informal learning 
amongst the public is rather poor, it is not currently 
among strategic priorities and lacks necessary 
funding. Information about validation users is 
not monitored. There is also a lack of validation 
reference material, methodologies and tools. 
There is no provision for the development of the 
professional competences of staff involved in 
the validation process. The quality of VET student 
competences assessment, which also covers 
validation of non-formal and informal learning, is 
insufficient (QVETDC, 2017). 

Further developments of the validation system 
include the introduction of a new cumulative 
assessment approach (that shall cover learning 
outcomes outside formal education) into general 
education (Lithuanian Government, 2017). It is 
also planned to create a digital tool to inform 
about the possibilities to validate non-formal and 
informal learning and direct an applicant to a certain 
validation provider. This tool shall also allow initial 
testing and monitoring of applicant competences.

NQF implementation

LTQF was formally adopted through a government 
resolution in 2010 and further refined with 
amendments in 2011. It has been embedded in the 
relevant strategies (the 2017–20 Action plan for 
the development of lifelong learning system; the 
2014–20 Employment development programme; 
the 2013–22 National education strategy) (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). The LTQF 
level descriptors are considered as the basis for 
formulating qualifications and ensuring their integrity 
among different levels. Qualification standards, 
modular programmes, and higher education 
benchmark statements are written in line with 
qualification level descriptors. The LTQF has had 
positive impact on the parity of esteem between 
types of education and training and qualifications. 
The framework contributes to increasing the 
integrity, comparability and transparency of 
qualifications. Qualifications standards define 

549  Council of the European Union (2012). Council 
recommendation of 20 December 2012 on the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. Official 
Journal of the European Union, C 398, 22.12.2012, 
pp. 1–5. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.
do?uri=OJ:C:2012:398:0001:0005:EN:PDF

360

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKStitles, levels and content of qualifications (in terms 
of units of qualifications and competences) and 
also provide a clear landscape of qualifications 
in a particular sector, with mobility options for 
holders of qualifications. However, there is a lack of 
coordination on other initiatives: application of the 
LTQF in access, transfer and progression policies; 
quality assurance; and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning policies. The influence on support 
to recognition of foreign qualifications has also been 
minor. 

To achieve full operation of the LTQF, revision and 
update of all VET programmes, study programmes 
and the qualifications register has to be finalised. 
In addition, the revision of general education 
curriculum statements in line with the LTQF level 
descriptors is to be finalised and the issues of level 
5 qualifications (including their implementation 
provisions) need to be solved. Award of 
qualifications using validation of non-formal and 
informal learning still needs to be developed to 
function on a larger scale. (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018)

Lithuania was one of the first countries (together 
with Denmark) to start indicating NQF and EQF 
levels in the annexes of VET certificates and 
diplomas, starting in 2016. As of today LTQF and 
EQF levels are included on certificates and diplomas 
for VET and higher education qualifications and 
Europass supplements. 

A national register of qualifications and programmes 
has been set up, including VET and higher education 
qualifications and indicating LTQF and EQF levels550.

The LTQF has been used as a reference point 
for developing post-secondary VET qualifications 
at level 5 of the framework. The development 
and implementation of the LTQF demonstrated 
this missing link in the national education and 
training system and has directly influenced reform 
and modernisation of the system. Only VET 
qualifications for ballet and modern dance are 
presently awarded at LTQF level 5. Discussions on 
whether these qualifications should be awarded 
solely within the European higher education area 
or outside it have strengthened in 2017–18; at 
the end of 2018, the law on science and higher 
education legitimated short-cycle qualifications 
leading to level 5 qualifications. Still, implementation 
provisions for qualifications at this level have not 
been clarified.  

The LTQF is well known to education and training 
providers but to a lesser extent to other sectors and 
stakeholders. The main communication channels 
and tools used for disseminating information on 
the LTQF and the EQF are the national coordination 
point’s website and newsletter, seminars, 
conferences, training events and production of 
informal material. Education and training institutions 
and employer representatives have been the 
prioritised target groups but no communication 
strategy has been developed. Though no analysis of 
awareness has been done, the general public needs 
to be more informed about the LTQF (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Discussions about opening up the framework to 
qualifications outside the formal education system 
were initiated, and Ministry of Economy and 
Innovation plans to create and pilot schemes for 
including non-formal labour market qualifications 
into LTQF in 2019–20.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The Lithuanian NQF was referenced to the EQF in 
November 2011, with one integrated report covering 
both the EQF and QF-EHEA, published in 2012. The 
report outlines a one-to-one relationship between 
TLQF and EQF levels. 

Important lessons and future plans

No evaluation has so far been carried out. There 
have been discussions about the need for such 
activity, but no final decision has been reached. 
Implementation of qualification standards, revision 
of VET curricula and reform of the framework of 
higher education qualifications degrees might call 
for an updated referencing report, but no such 
update is planned as yet. 

The key challenges have been level 5 qualifications 
and systemic coordination of efforts among 
different departments of the Ministry of Education 
and Science, Qualifications and VET Development 
Centre and Centre for Quality Assessment in Higher 
Education. The Qualifications and VET Development 
Centre has been delegated a managing function 
for the LTQF, but it has no real power on higher 
education issues (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

550  www.aikos.smm.lt/Puslapiai/Pradinis.aspx

361

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 44. Lithuanian national qualifications framework (LTQF)

NQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctoral diploma (Daktaro diplomas)

Master diploma (Magistro diplomas)
Certificate of residency (Rezidentu‐ros pažyme˙ jimas)

Bachelor diploma (Bakalauro diplomas)

Professional bachelor diploma (Profesinio bakalauro diplomas)

VET diploma (Profesinio mokymo diplomas)*

Study certificate (Studiju˛ pažyme˙ jimas) – short-cycle higher education programmes

VET diploma (Profesinio mokymo diplomas)

Matura diploma (Brandos atestatas)**

(on completion of the upper secondary education programme  
and passing matura examinations) 

VET diploma (Profesinio mokymo diplomas)

Lower secondary education certificate 
(Pagrindinio išsilavinimo pažyme˙ jimas)** 
(completion of lower secondary education programme and testing learning 
outcomes) (grades 5 to 10)

VET diploma (Profesinio mokymo diplomas)

VET diploma (Profesinio mokymo diplomas)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(*)  Presently only VET qualifications for ballet and modern dance are awarded at NQF level 5. 

(**) The legislation defining provisions for general education curricula stipulates that learning outcomes of lower secondary 
education programmes are referenced with a third NQF level, whereas learning outcomes of upper secondary education 
programmes are referenced with a fourth NQF level. 

Source: Qualifications and VET Development Centre, 2018. 

Abbreviations
EQF 
ESF 
LTQF 

European qualifications framework
European Social Fund
Lithuanian qualifications framework

national qualifications framework 

NQF 
QF-EHEA   qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training

VET 

Main sources of information

Qualification and VET Development Centre – appointed EQF national coordination point: www.kpmpc.lt/

kpmpc/en/

LTQF/EQF website: www.kpmpc.lt/kpmpc/en/information/qualifications-framework-2
Qualifications register: www.aikos.smm.lt/Puslapiai/Pradinis.aspx
QVETDC (2012). Referencing the Lithuanian qualifications framework to the European qualifications 

framework for lifelong learning and the qualifications framework for the European higher education 
area: national report 2012. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/LTQF_EQF_report_ENG.pdf  

362

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2017: Lithuania. https://ec.europa.eu/
education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-lithuania_en.pdf
European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Lithuania.

Lauzackas, R.; Tutlys, V.; Spudyte, I. (2009). Evolution of competence concept in Lithuania: from VET reform 
to development of national qualification system. Journal of European industrial training, Vol. 33, 
No 8/9. 

Lithuanian Government (2017). Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybe˙ s programos i˛gyvendinimo planas 
[Implementation plan for the Government’s programme of the Republic of Lithuania].

QVETDC (Qualifications and VET Development Centre) (2012). Referencing the Lithuanian qualifications 

framework to the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning and the qualifications 
framework for the European higher education area: national report 2012. Vilnius: QVETDC. https://
ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/LTQF_EQF_report_ENG.pdf

QVETDC (Qualifications and VET Development Centre) (2017). Profesinio mokymo bu‐kle˙ s apžvalga 2017 
[Overview of the vocational education and training status in 2017]. www.kpmpc.lt/kpmpc/

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

363

Volume II: National and regional casesLUXEMBOURG

Introduction and context

Luxembourg has the highest average spend on 
education by student per year among EU countries. 
Other strengths of the education and training 
system are a high rate of participation in early 
childhood education and care, the second highest  
of tertiary education attainment in the EU (52.7%  
in 2017 compared to the EU average of 39.9%), 
a rate of employment of recent graduates which 
is also above the EU average, and a very high 
percentage of adults participating in lifelong learning 
(17.2% in 2017, compared to the EU average of 
10.9%). In contrast, student performance in school 
is a challenge, influenced by the ability of children 
to cope with the trilingual education system in the 
country. Levels of underachievement in reading, 
maths and science among 15-year-olds are  
significantly higher than EU averages. The 
percentage of pupils leaving education and 
training early is low (7.3% in 2017), though national 
sources indicate that the figure is on the rise, 
with 13.5% of students dropping out in 2015 
(European Commission, 2018). Grade repetition is a 
widespread phenomenon in the country, particularly 
in the vocational education and training (VET) sector. 
While it is often considered a measure of quality 
assurance, it has been shown to be a strong factor 
in school dropout and to have negative psychological 
impact on students. The VET Law was amended 
in 2016 and two new laws, one on secondary 
education and one on guidance, were adopted in 
July 2017. The new legislation aims to meet better 
the needs of learners and to improve student 
outcomes through a diverse set of measures 
(European Commission, 2017).

Starting in 2009, and based on an initial government 
go-ahead, detailed work continued during 2010 and 
2011, resulting in an eight-level comprehensive 
Luxembourg qualifications framework (Cadre 
luxembourgeois de qualifications (CLQ)) covering all 
types and levels of qualification. 

The framework was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) in 2012. 
Implementation of the CLQ was slow during 

2013–14, partly reflecting the lack of a clear 
legislative basis and an agreed strategy shared by 
all stakeholders on how to proceed. The adoption, 
in November 2016, of a law on recognition of 
professional qualifications551, established the 
CLQ as the formal reference point for recognition 
of professional qualifications acquired outside 
Luxembourg. This integration into the legislative 
structure signals official commitment to the 
framework and represents an important step 
towards full operational status. 

Policy objectives

Increased transparency of qualifications is a 
key objective underpinning the CLQ, seen as 
contributing to the overall modernisation of national 
education and training. The CLQ also serves as 
guidance for stakeholders across the education 
and training system and the labour market. The 
philosophy of the CLQ is to show that lifelong 
learning is not fragmented and that it should not 
be restricted to formal qualifications (INFPC, 2016). 
The initial scope of the framework, acting as a non-
binding and a guiding tool for lifelong learning, has 
not changed: individuals will be able to position their 
qualifications in relation to others, in the context of 
lifelong learning. Providers of education and training, 
as well as certification bodies, will find it easier to 
position learning outcomes with a view to offering 
the learner training, or even a qualification, at the 
same level or higher (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018). 

One element in favour of the CLQ is the geographic 
and labour market location of Luxembourg. 
Being host to a large number of workers from 
neighbouring countries like Belgium, Germany and 
France, Luxembourg sees the development of the 
CLQ as a way to aid comparison and recognition. 

551  Loi du 28 Octobre 2016 relative à la reconnaissance des 
qualifications professionnelles [Law of 28 October 2016 
on the recognition of professional qualifications]. Journal 
Officiel, A231, 18.11.2016. http://data.legilux.public.lu/file/
eli-etat-leg-memorial-2016-231-fr-pdf.pdf

364

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe adoption of the 2016 law on recognition of 
professional qualifications (op. cit.) confirms this 
objective and establishes the CLQ as the main 
reference point to which foreign qualifications 
should be compared (see Articles 68 to 70). 
When the work started in 2009, development and 
implementation of the EQF was originally seen 
as an opportunity to make explicit the existing 
education and training levels and the relationships 
between them. This was considered important not 
only for qualifications users (to support lifelong 
learning for individuals and to enable employers 
to see the relevance of qualifications), but also for 
education and training providers. The explicit levels 
of learning outcomes introduced by the framework 
are expected to function as a reference point for 
curriculum development and may help to improve 
overall consistency of education and training 
provision. 

Level descriptors and learning 
outcomes

Luxembourg has introduced an eight-level reference 
structure. While the number of levels corresponds 
with the EQF, the descriptors reflect the national 
tradition and context. At each level, descriptors 
are differentiated according to knowledge, skills 
and attitude (connaissances, aptitudes, attitudes). 
While the level of detail is higher, the relationship 
to the EQF can be clearly identified. This is, for 
example, the case for the third (attitude) column, 
which is based on the principles of responsibility, 
autonomy and context552 as with the EQF553. The 
CLQ level descriptors are included as annex of the 
regulation of 17 February 2017 on the recognition of 
professional qualifications554. 

The decision to use the aforementioned concepts 
reflects gradual development of a learning-
outcomes or competence-based approach in VET; 
the competence-based approach has a prominent 

552  Attitudes refer to ‘personal and social dispositions in 

work or study situations and for professional or personal 
development. Personal abilities are characterised by an 
autonomous, responsible disposition that allows critical 
consideration of one’s own actions and the actions of 
other people; they also define the scope of a person’s 
own development through either study or practice’ 
(Ministry of Higher Education and Research; Ministry of 
National Education, Childhood and Youth, 2014, p. 19).
553  Descriptors defining levels in the EQF: https://ec.europa.

eu/ploteus/en/content/descriptors-page

554  Règlement grand-ducal du 17 février 2017 relatif à la 

reconnaissance des qualifications professionnelles 
[Regulation of 17 February 2017 on the recognition of 
professional qualifications]. Journal Officiel, Mémorial 
A241, 6.3.2017. http://data.legilux.public.lu/file/eli-etat-leg-
memorial-2017-241-fr-pdf.pdf

position in VET reform. Use of learning outcomes 
(or compétences) in education and training has 
varied between subsectors; there is a different 
degree of implementation in different education and 
training systems, most advanced in compulsory 
and vocational training (particularly following the 
Law on VET reform, 2008555). Competences for 
primary education are formulated in the socle de 
compétences (skills base)556; whereas for secondary 
and VET education competences are elaborated in 
the acquis d’apprentissage (Cedefop, 2016).

Recent years have brought about a change; most 
qualifications are described through learning 
outcomes. In initial vocational education, all 
qualifications have been described using learning 
outcomes and can be accessed via the register of 
the education ministry557.

In secondary VET, development of programmes 
(in cooperation with chambers) is based on the 
occupational profile558, on the training profile559 and 
on the training programme based on the training 
profile which: 

a.  defines the learning outcomes for each 

competence and regroups them by learning 
domain;

b.  organises the learning domains and outcomes in 

modules and credits;

c.  for curriculum, determines the content of the 

different modules (INFPC, 2016, p. 28). 

Further work on standards and training profiles 
based on explicit learning outcomes will support 
coherence between qualifications and CLQ levels.

Higher education is organised in courses lasting one 
semester, each constituting assessable modules 
allocated credit points (European credit transfer 

555  The law of 19 December 2008 implementing vocational 
education reform modernises Luxembourg’s system of 
initial and continuing vocational education and training. The 
main points of the reform consist of the reorientation of 
initial vocational education (IVET) towards a modular and 
competence-oriented structure. Luxembourg’s Vocational 
Education and Training Act of 2008 defines competences 
as the totality of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are 
necessary in order to practise an occupation. 
556  The socle de compétences defines a set of key 
competences referring to subject-independent 
competences, and should be seen as the ‘core set’ of 
competences (KeyCoNet, 2013).
557  See http://programmes.myschool.lu 
558  An occupational profile lists the areas of activity as well as 
the activities and tasks of future occupations after two to 
three years of workplace experience (INFPC, 2016).
559  A training profile is based on the occupational profile 
by areas of competence: occupational and general 
competences (INFPC, 2016).

365

Volume II: National and regional casesand accumulation system). These courses are 
increasingly defined and described using learning 
outcomes. Learning outcomes are included in the 
new law regarding the organisation of the University 
of Luxembourg560, which lays down that each 
programme requires specific objectives, based on 
the acquisition of certain knowledge, competences 
and transversal skills. Further, the obligation to 
define learning outcomes is also included in the 
2010 Grand-Ducal decree561 on the organisation 
of short-cycle programmes and related student 
graduation. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The LQF development and implementation is being 
coordinated by the Ministry of National Education, 
Children and Youth, which also acts as EQF national 
coordination point in cooperation with the Ministry 
of Higher Education and Research. As the bodies 
responsible for formal qualifications, both of these 
ministries (in conjunction with the bodies mentioned 
below) are responsible for quality assurance of 
the relevant qualifications. Apart from the national 
coordination point’s natural connection with the 
Ministry of Higher Education, which ensures 
the link with all the parties involved, including 
the University, there is also a link with the social 
partners. Consultation and active involvement of the 
various parties concerned has benefitted from this 
centralised situation (Ministry of Higher Education 
and Research; Ministry of National Education, 
Childhood and Youth, 2014).

Although framework responsibilities are clearly 
defined, there is cooperation among the various 
stakeholders on different aspects of the framework. 
Qualifications referenced at levels 1 to 4 are the 
responsibility of the Ministry of National Education, 
Children and Youth562, while at levels 6 to 8 they 
are the responsibility of the Ministry for Higher 
Education and Research; at level 5 they are the 
responsibility of the Ministry for National Education, 

Children and Youth together with the Chamber of 
Trades for the master craftsman’s diploma (Ministry 
of Higher Education and Research; Ministry of 
National Education, Childhood and Youth, 2014). 
Social partner involvement is a core principle in VET 
policy; the professional chambers563 are independent 
policy institutes and with the 2008 reform their 
role is reinforced (Cedefop, 2017). Chambers act 
as partners for official consultation and are directly 
associated with the legislative and executive 
procedure of the Grand Duchy. 

The Department for Coordination of Educational and 
Technological Research and Innovation (SCRIPT) – 
under the authority of the education ministry – and 
its School Quality Development Agency (Agence 
pour le développement de la qualité scolaire, ADQS) 
are responsible for quality assurance of school 
education (INFPC, 2016). External evaluation of the 
education system is outsourced to the University 
of Luxembourg. A National Observatory of School 
Quality564 was also created in January 2018 at the 
Ministry of National Education, Children and Youth 
to report on the school system; it produces findings 
based on research and recommendations (Cedefop, 
forthcoming). 

Quality assurance in higher education uses external 
evaluation as there is no national quality assurance 
agency. Instead, the Ministry of Higher Education 
and Research has outsourced this process to 
foreign agencies and experts. The University of 
Luxembourg is evaluated every four years565, 
with the focus of evaluation alternating between 
research and learning and teaching. The Minister 
of Higher Education and Research commissions 
a foreign EQAR-registered566 agency to perform 
the institutional evaluation567. The 2009 Law568 

563  The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has five professional 

chambers: three chambers of employers (chamber of 
commerce, chamber of trades, chamber of agriculture) 
and two chambers of employees (chamber of employees 
and chamber of civil servants and public-sector 
employees).

564  Observatoire national de la qualité scolaire: www.men.
public.lu/fr/actualites/articles/communiques-conference-
presse/2018/02/08-observatoire/index.html

560  Loi du 27 juin 2018 ayant pour objet l’organisation de 

565  Loi du 27 juin 2018 ayant pour objet l’organisation de 

l’Université du Luxembourg [Law of 27 June 2018 on the 
organisation of the University of Luxembourg]. Journal 
Officiel, Mémorial A587, 11.7.2018. http://legilux.public.lu/
eli/etat/leg/loi/2018/06/27/a587/jo

l’Université du Luxembourg [Law of 27 June 2018 on the 
organisation of the University of Luxembourg]. Journal 
Officiel, Mémorial A587, 11.7.2018. http://legilux.public.lu/
eli/etat/leg/loi/2018/06/27/a587/jo

561  Règlement grand-ducal du 23 février 2010 relatif à 

566  EQAR is the European quality assurance register for 

l’organisation des études et à la promotion des étudiants 
des formations sanctionnées par l’obtention du brevet 
de technicien supérieur [Decree of the Grand Duchy of 
23 February 2010 regarding the organisation of short 
cycle programmes in higher education]. Journal Officiel, 
Mémorial A30, 8.3.2010. http://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/leg/
rgd/2010/02/23/n1/jo

562  Previously described as Ministry of Education and 

Vocational Training.

higher education.

567  The bachelor, master and PhD programmes offered 

by the University of Luxembourg, created by law, are 
automatically recognised.

568  Loi du 19 juin 2009 portant organisation de 

l’enseignement supérieur [Law of 19 June 2009 on 
the organisation of higher education]. Journal Officiel, 
Mémorial A153, 1.7.2009. http://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/
leg/loi/2009/06/19/n1/jo

366

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSon the organisation of higher education provides 
for external quality assurance of private higher 
education institutions and their programmes, as 
well as the short-cycle programmes of secondary 
schools. Private higher education institutions 
and their programmes are also evaluated every 
five years by a foreign EQAR-registered agency 
commissioned by the Minister of Higher Education 
and Research569. Short-cycle programmes offered by 
secondary schools are evaluated by an expert group 
nominated by the Minister of Higher Education and 
Research, which is an ENQA570 affiliate member. For 
both foreign private higher education institutes and 
their programmes, and short-cycle programmes in 
secondary schools, only accredited programmes 
and institutions are officially recognised by the state. 

The VET Law of 2008, which lays down the basic 
objectives of vocational education and training and 
also covers the main aspects of quality assurance, is 
currently under revision, expected to be completed 
by 2020 (Cedefop, forthcoming). 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways571

The development of validation systems In 
Luxembourg has been closely related to national 
lifelong learning strategy. Legislation recognises 
an individual right for all individuals to benefit from 
the validation of formal, non-formal and informal 
learning, (under some conditions)572. This process is 
known as ‘validation of prior experiential learning’ 
or validation des acquis de l’expérience (VAE) and 
has been operational since 2010573. The current 
legal framework on validation consists of several 
laws, covering secondary technical and vocational 
education, advanced technician diplomas and the 
University of Luxembourg. VAE arrangements are 
in place for formal qualifications awarded through 

569  Based on the evaluation report of the agency, the Minister 
decides on accreditation and refusal of accreditation.
570  ENQA is the European Association for Quality Assurance 

in Higher Education.

571  This section draws mainly on input from European 

Commission et al. (forthcoming).

572  Validation can lead to access to, or acquisition of, full 

or partial qualifications, provided that the candidate can 
supply evidence that the total length of prior experiential 
learning amounts to at least 5 000 hours over a minimum 
of three years and is effectively related to the targeted 
qualification.

573  VAE has become a known way of obtaining a formal 

qualification based on formal, non-formal and informal 
learning outcomes or, in other words, based on the 
individual life and work experience of the person. Even if 
the procedure is not perfect, the path one has to follow 
is clearly set up (see Ministry of National Education, 
Children and Youth (2019)).

the ‘general secondary education’ system in 
Luxembourg (including technical and vocational 
education, to be distinguished from ‘classical 
secondary education’, not covered by VAE)574, post-
secondary non-tertiary education qualifications 
such as master craftsperson certificates, and higher 
education qualifications (both short-cycle degrees 
and qualifications awarded by the University of 
Luxembourg). Since 2016, new legal provisions575 
guarantee the right to individualised guidance 
to VAE candidates for qualifications under the 
responsibility of the Ministry of National Education. 

Vocational and technical qualifications can be 
acquired through validation. An exception is the 
secondary general school leaving certificate 
(Diplôme de fin d’études secondaires générales) 
that cannot be acquired through validation. In higher 
education, qualifications at levels 6 to 8, only parts 
of qualifications or modules can be recognised 
through validation. Any type of prior experiential 
learning relevant to the targeted qualification, 
whether it is the result of formal, non-formal or 
informal learning activities in the education and 
training sector, the labour market or the third sector, 
can be used to apply for validation. 

The Ministry of National Education takes 
responsibility for the implementation of VAE in 
relation to secondary level vocational and technical 
qualifications as well as master craftsperson 
certificates. 

In higher education, the Ministry of Higher 
Education holds general responsibility for 
validation arrangements, but VAE procedures are 

574  Following adoption of the law of 29 August 2017, 

the Luxembourgish secondary education includes 
both ‘classical’ secondary education (enseignement 
secondaire classique) and ‘general’ secondary education 
(enseignement secondaire général), corresponding to 
vocational and technical education, the latter giving access 
to higher education. Source: Eurydice online database: 
https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/
content/secondary-and-post-secondary-non-tertiary-
education-32_en

575  Loi du 24 août 2016 modifiant la loi modifiée du 

19 décembre 2008 portant réforme de la formation 
professionnelle [Law of 24 August 2016 modifying the 
amended law of 19 December 2008 on the reform of 
vocational training]. Journal Officiel, Mémorial A175, 
1.9.2016. http://data.legilux.public.lu/file/eli-etat-leg-
memorial-2016-175-fr-pdf.pdf#page=1&zoom=auto,-12,318 

and 

Règlement grand-ducal du 15 décembre 2017 portant 
sur l’accompagnement par entretiens personnalisés du 
candidat sollicitant la validation des acquis de l’expérience 
[Regulation of the Grand Duchy of 15 December 2017 
on the personalised interviews of the candidate seeking 
the validation of acquired experience]. Journal Officiel, 
Mémorial A1080, 18.12.2017. http://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/
leg/rgd/2017/12/15/a1080/jo

367

Volume II: National and regional cases 
 
decentralised, with a key role played by the short-
cycle higher education providers (lycées) for the 
advanced technician diplomas (brevet de technicien 
supérieur, BTS) and the University of Luxembourg 
for bachelor, master and PhD programmes. The new 
law on the University of Luxembourg, affecting VAE, 
was being discussed at the parliament and came 
into force on 1 August 2018.

The small size of the country aids informal 
coordination between different validation 
stakeholders. Validation is a regular topic of 
discussion in Luxembourg, with changes to 
the legislative framework on validation and 
improvements in the provision of orientation and 
guidance to validation candidates being considered. 
The value of learning outcomes from non-formal 
and informal contexts is largely accepted in 
Luxembourg. This is due to the high value attributed 
to lifelong learning and to the consensual political 
culture of Luxembourg, with social partners and 
stakeholders involved in the validation process at 
all stages (Houot, 2016). 

Changes are expected in the coming years, creating 
an overarching legal framework with general 
principles for validation for all sectors.

NQF implementation 

The CLQ was adopted by the Government Council 
in September 2010. Following completion of the 
referencing of the national qualifications framework 
(NQF) to the EQF in mid-2012, implementation has 
slowed. While the CLQ can be described as having 
reached an early operational stage, the lack of a 
clear legislative basis was considered a draw-back. 
In November 2016, an important milestone was 
reached with the adoption of the Law on recognition 
of professional qualifications, which establishes the 
CLQ as the formal reference point for recognition 
of professional qualifications acquired outside 
Luxembourg (Cedefop, 2018). The education 
ministry has been using the CLQ since 2016 for 
the registration/recognition of foreign diplomas, in 
which the national diploma register decides for each 
recognised diploma on an equivalent NQF level576. 
The ministry also requests the inclusion of an NQF/
EQF level on each issued diploma supplement.

Some qualifications posed challenges in terms 
of levelling. The vocational aptitude diploma 
(diplôme d’aptitude professionnelle, DAP) that can 
be acquired through apprenticeships has been 
assigned to the CLQ/EQF level 3, and the master 

576  This is done according to national and European 

standards.

craftsman qualification577 to CLQ/EQF level 5 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). This is 
different in the frameworks of the German-speaking 
countries where these types of qualification were 
referenced to EQF levels 4 and 6 respectively.

A comprehensive national database of qualifications 
has not yet been set up. It will be possible to 
create a database when qualifications acquired 
outside formal education and training are aligned 
to the framework. Currently there are registers 
of available VET programmes/qualifications578 and 
higher education programmes and diplomas579. Only 
Europass supplements580 include an NQF/EQF level 
and there are no immediate plans to indicate NQF 
and EQF levels on new certificates and diplomas.

So far, the CLQ’s communication efforts have not 
been oriented towards the general public as the 
framework is known to a certain number of actors in 
education and the labour market. In order to assist 
short-cycle programme providers with the concept 
of learning outcomes, the ministry (in cooperation 
with a national expert) organised a workshop on this 
topic in 2017. Within the framework of the revision 
of the (national) diploma supplement template, the 
ministry has informed higher education stakeholders 
about the importance of learning outcomes, 
providing related material. Disseminating CLQ on 
a wider level and to larger target groups is the key 
challenge for the next period.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Luxembourg referenced its qualifications levels to 
the EQF and the qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA) in June 
2012; a referencing report was published in 2014. 

Important lessons and future plans

While a solid basis for the NQF has been 
established in Luxembourg, implementation 

577  The master craftsperson qualification (brevet de maîtrise; 
ISCED 453, EQF 5) entitles the holder to settle in the craft 
industry as self-employed and to train apprentices. The 
qualification confers the title of master craftsperson in 
the particular trade. The master craftsperson qualification 
does not give any access right for higher education; 
progression opportunities depend on the certificate 
gained at secondary level (INFPC, 2016).

578  www.lifelong-learning.lu/Detail/Article/Diplomes/registre-

des-titres-et-homologation/en

579  Register of higher education diplomas: www.mesr.public.

lu/enssup/registre_des_titres/index.html 

580  The Europass website is directly linked to the website of 
the national Erasmus+ agency, which is also the national 
Europass Centre.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSslowed following the referencing to the EQF in 
2012. This was caused by the lack of a clear legal 
basis and some uncertainty among stakeholders 
over the role to be played by the CLQ at national 
level. The CLQ can be considered to have reached 
an early operational stage. Adoption of the 2016 
Law on recognition clarified the position of the 
CLQ at national level and provided the basis for a 
development towards more advanced operational 

status. Discussions continue on strengthening the 
role of the CLQ as a lifelong learning tool while no 
political decision has been taken yet. 

The development of procedures for inclusion of 
qualifications from outside the formal education and 
training system and setting up a comprehensive 
national database of qualifications are being 
considered. 

Table 45. Luxembourg qualifications framework (CLQ)

NQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

Doctoral diploma (Phd) (Doctorat)

Certificate following specific training course in medicine (Diplôme de formation 
spécifique en médecine générale)

Master diploma (Master)

Bachelor diploma (Bachelor)

Master craftsman diploma (Brevet de maîtrise)

Advanced technician diploma (Brevet de technicien supérieur)

Specialised advanced technician diploma (Brevet de technicien supérieur spécialisé)

Upper secondary general education school leaving certificate (Diplôme de fin d’études 
secondaires)

Technical secondary school leaving certificate (Diplôme de fin d’études secondaires 
techniques)

Technician diploma (Diplôme de technicien)

3

Vocational aptitude diploma (Diplôme d’aptitude professionnelle)

Certificate attesting completion of middle cycle technical secondary education 
(Certificat de réussite du cycle moyen de l’enseignement secondaire technique)

Certificate attesting completion of five years secondary education (Certificat de 
réussite de cinq années d’enseignement secondaire)

Vocational capability certificate (Certificat de capacité professionnelle)

Certificate attesting completion of lower cycle, technical secondary education 
(Certificat de réussite du cycle inférieur de l’enseignement secondaire technique)

2

1

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Law 231/2016 on the recognition of professional qualifications. Official Journal of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, 
No 4263, 18.11.2016. http://data.legilux.public.lu/file/eli-etat-leg-memorial-2016-231-fr-pdf.pdf

Abbreviations
CLQ  

EQAR  

Cadre luxembourgeois des 
qualifications (Luxembourg 
qualifications framework)
European Quality Assurance Register 
for Higher Education

EQF  
NQF  
VAE 

VET 

European qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
validation des acquis de l’expérience 
(validation of non-formal and informal 
learning)
vocational education and training

369

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Ministry of National Education, Childhood and Youth – acts as EQF national coordination point:  

www.men.public.lu/fr/index.html

Luxembourg qualifications framework: www.men.public.lu/fr/actualites/grands-dossiers/formation-adultes/

clq/descripteurs-niveaux/index.html

Information on IVET qualifications: http://portal.education.lu/programmes
Register of VET programmes/qualifications: www.lifelong-learning.lu/Detail/Article/Diplomes/registre-des-

titres-et-homologation/en

Register of higher education diplomas: www.mesr.public.lu/enssup/registre_des_titres/index.html
Ministry of Higher Education and Research; Ministry of National Education, Childhood and Youth (2014). 

Report on referencing the Luxembourg qualifications framework to the European qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning and to the qualifications framework in the European higher education 
area. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Referencing%20report.pdf

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series, No 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/735711

Cedefop (2017). Spotlight on VET in Luxembourg. Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.

eu/files/8112_en.pdf

Cedefop (2018). National qualifications framework developments in Europe 2017. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/029873

Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–19: Luxembourg. 

Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies.

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Luxembourg.
European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Luxembourg. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-
2018-luxembourg_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission et al. (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-formal and informal 

learning 2018: country report: Luxembourg.

Houot, I. (2016). La validation des acquis de l’expérience au Luxembourg. https://ec.europa.eu/epale/en/

node/29911

INFPC (2016). Vocational education and training in Europe: Luxembourg. Cedefop. ReferNet VET in Europe 

reports. http://libserver.cedefop.europa.eu/vetelib/2016/2016_CR_LU.pdf

KeyCoNet (2013). KeyCoNet 2013 literature review: key competence development in school education 
in Europe. http://keyconet.eun.org/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=060f39a1-bd86-4941-a6ca-
8b2a3ba8548e&groupId=11028

Ministry of Higher Education and Research; Ministry of National Education, Childhood and Youth (2014). 

Report on referencing the Luxembourg qualifications framework to the European qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning and to the qualifications framework in the European higher education 
area. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Referencing%20report.pdf
Ministry of National Education, Children and Youth (2019). Implementation of the 2012 Council 

recommendation on validation of non-formal and informal learning. One-off report Luxembourg. 
https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/content/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

370

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMADAGASCAR

Introduction and context

Madagascar does not have a national qualifications 
framework (NQF). However the national 
employment and vocational training policy 
(Politique nationale de l’emploi et  de la formation 
professionnelle – PNEFP) provides a framework 
for the future development and implementation 
of an NQF (UNEVOC, 2015, p. 10). The Malagasy 
qualifications framework (Cadre national de 
certification) was already one of the objectives of 
the 2010 technical and vocational education and 
training (TVET) strategy.

In February 2016, the PNEFP came into force. 
Since then, the Ministry of Education has been 
working together with other stakeholders, technical 
and financial partners on the implementation 
of the policy, including the development and 
implementation of the NQF. 

The PNEFP proposes the set up of a NQF 
committee, which will play the role of a new 
qualification authority. Both the private and the 
public sectors will be represented in this committee. 
Five priority economic sectors have already been 
identified and become actively involved in the 
process.

charge of private sector development), and, for the 
private sector, the Malagasy Association of Directors 
of Human Resources, representatives of the social 
partners and five economic priority sectors (building 
and construction, ICT, tourism, textiles). The main 
challenges are inter-ministerial dialogue and the 
support of professional associations. Developing a 
participatory approach from the start is considered a 
way to overcome those challenges. 

Important changes are currently taking place. TVET 
is now managed by the Ministry of Education. The 
management of the new training fund has moved 
from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of 
Employment. The issue on whether vocational 
training will migrate from the Ministry of Education 
to the Ministry of Employment is still under debate.  

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The NQF will allow recognition of current 
competences to enable individuals to obtain 
qualifications through either training or recognition 
of prior learning. The related decree was published 
in December 2018.

Policy objectives

Important lessons and future plans

The policy objectives of the NQF are currently under 
discussion.

The following main activities are proposed for the 
development of the NQF in the near future:

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The proposed NQF will comprise ten levels, defined 
by descriptors in five domains: knowledge, know-
now, autonomy, ICT and cognitive capacities.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The key role players are the Ministries of 
Employment, Agriculture and Industry (which is in 

1.  the setting up of an inter-ministerial commission 
that will be responsible for the governance 
and piloting of the NQF. Under this overarching 
commission, thematic sectoral commissions 
will be in charge of referencing particular 
qualifications within their domain of competence 
to the NQF;

2.  the piloting of the NQF and associated quality 

assurance mechanisms in one economic sector. 

371

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
NQF  
PNEFP  

national qualifications framework 
Politique nationale de l’emploi et de 
la formation professionnelle (national 

TVET  

employment and vocational training 
policy)
technical and vocational education and 
training

References

UNEVOC (2015). World TVET database: Madagascar. www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv:82427 

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

372

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMALAWI

Introduction 

Main policy objectives

The Malawi formal education system is based on 
an 8:4:4 structure, which specifies eight years for 
primary education, four for secondary and four 
for tertiary education. The non-formal education 
system comprises early childhood development 
(i.e. nursery schools, crèches, community-
based child care centres and pre-schools), 
complementary basic education (which offers a 
second chance education to out-of-school youths), 
and adult literacy classes. Currently, Malawi does 
not have a national qualifications framework (NQF) 
but efforts are underway to establish one. A draft 
bill has been developed by the government to 
establish the Malawi Qualifications Authority, 
which will have powers and functions for, among 
others, the development and implementation 
of an NQF, the regulation and coordination of 
qualifications-awarding bodies and connected 
matters. The Malawi Qualifications Authority’s 
draft bill is undergoing review by the Ministry 
of Justice and will be tabled in the National 
Assembly to enact it into law. Simultaneously, 
efforts are being made to refine and develop the 
various components of the NQF. The technical, 
entrepreneurial and vocational education and 
training (TEVET) policy of 1999, developed 
following the enactment of the TEVET Act No 6 of 
1999 that led to the establishment of the TEVET 
Authority (TEVETA) in July 1999, was reviewed in 
2013. Similarly, the TVET qualifications framework 
(TQF), which was set up in 2004 has been 
reviewed. TQF levels and level descriptors have 
been redefined and developed. Similar efforts are 
being made in higher education. Following the 
enactment of the Higher Education Act No 15 of 
2011, the National Council for Higher Education 
was established to regulate the higher education 
sub-sector with a primary purpose of providing 
accreditation and quality assurance services in 
higher education institutions in Malawi. Efforts 
are being made to develop the national higher 
education qualifications framework (HEQF). A 
draft HEQF is being developed through a series of 
national consultations with input from international 
experts. Both the TQF and the HEQF are being 
aligned to regional and international frameworks.

The objectives of the NQF are to:

• 

improve national education and training in order 
to determine the quality of education required 
for all students;

•  make national education systems easier to 
understand through an integrated national 
framework for learning achievement;
improve permeability of education and training 
by clarifying and strengthening the horizontal and 
vertical links within existing systems;

• 

•  support lifelong learning by making learning 
pathways visible and by aiding access, 
participation and progression;

•  strengthen the links and improve communication 
between education and training and the labour 
market;

•  open up national qualification systems to 

qualifications awarded outside formal education 
and training (for example awarded by sectors);
•  provide a reference point for quality assurance.

Level descriptors and learning 
outcomes

Because Malawi does not yet have an NQF system, 
level descriptors and learning outcomes are being 
developed. This section reports on the levels in the 
TQF which are in place and are being developed.

Technical, entrepreneurial and vocational 
education and training
In TEVET, occupational competency levels go up 
to TQF level 4, which is seen as equivalent to a 
diploma. A level 1 certificate holder (foundation 
level) is described as an assistant operative, a 
level 2 certificate holder (intermediate level) as an 
operative, a level 3 certificate holder (advanced 
level) as an artisan, and finally a level 4 certificate 
holder (diploma) as a technician (Heitmann, 2012).

According to Sheqafrica.com (Furter, 2011), Malawi’s 
TQF actually comprises eight levels as shown in 
Table 46. However, this is being realigned with the 
draft HEQF within the overall NQF.

373

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 46. Malawi’s vocational education and 
training qualifications framework

LEVEL

DESCRIPTION

Executive, doctoral

Specialist, master’s

Professional, bachelor’s

Managerial, higher diploma

Technician, diploma

Artisan, higher certificate

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

of Inspectorate and Advisory Services in the 
Ministry of Education; the Department of Technical 
Education and Vocational Training in the Ministry of 
Labour; and the Department of Quality Assurance 
in TEVETA) link the various stakeholders and 
subcommittees. Stakeholders that are closely 
involved in the qualifications framework include 
the technical qualifications committees, sector 
advisory committees, occupational working 
groups, service centres and training providers, 
universities (both public and private), the Malawi 
National Examinations Board, and employers and 
employees.

Operative, intermediate certificate

Assistant operative, foundation certificate

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and links with  
the NQF

Higher education
The draft HEQF which is being aligned to the 
Southern African Development Community (SADC) 
regional qualifications framework goes up from 
level 5 to level 10 as shown in Table 47 (Source: 
draft HEQF).

Table 47. Malawi’s higher education qualifications 
framework

LEVEL

DESCRIPTION

10

Doctorate

9

8

7

6

5

Master’s

Honours

Bachelor’s

Diploma/Advanced Diploma

Certificate

Stakeholder involvement

The main key players in the development and 
implementation of the Malawi NQF are the 
National Council for Higher Education, TEVETA, the 
Department of Human Resources, Management 
and Training, the Ministry of Education, Science and 
Technology, the Ministry of Labour, Youth, Sports 
and Manpower Development, and the Ministry 
of Justice and Constitutional Affairs. The relevant 
departments in the ministries responsible (i.e. 
Department of Higher Education and Department 

As noted, these aspects are not yet relevant to a 
full NQF since none exists. However, the TQF also 
touches on these aspects, in ways that are briefly 
noted below.

In technical and vocational education and training 
(TVET) non-formal training is offered through 
a variety of private training providers and non-
governmental organisations. Course duration and 
subject areas covered vary between institutions. 
Private providers of sector-specific training also 
exist, such as the National Construction Industry 
Council and the Bankers’ Association of Malawi. 
Companies may also offer training to their 
employees, and when courses are regulated by 
TEVETA, it refunds half of the training expenses. 
Larger companies have their own training centres, 
and others sponsor staff to attend external courses. 
A large part of workplace training is on-the-job. 
Informal training is provided mainly through 
traditional apprenticeships in the informal sector, 
whereby a trainee enters into an agreement with 
a master craftsperson. This type of TVET is by far 
the largest in terms of student numbers. Traditional 
apprenticeships are mostly in traditional and 
typically male-dominated trades, including bicycle 
repair, boat-building, construction, mechanics, 
welding, woodwork and shoe repair (UNEVOC, 
2012).

Malawi has been slow to adopt recognition of prior 
learning in higher education due to the absence 
of the NQF. The draft HEQF, however, provides for 
the recognition of recognition of prior learning and 
acknowledges that it is one of the reforms that 
could be considered within the framework and that 
more work needs to be done within the context of 
open and distance learning.

374

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferencing to regional frameworks

The NQF system is being developed along the 
lines of the SADC Protocol on Education and 
Training of 1997 and the SADC Qualifications 
Framework 2017. Although Malawi has not yet 
ratified the Addis Ababa Convention on Higher 
Education and the Global Convention on Higher 
Education, the aim of the development of the 
NQF is to reform and develop a qualifications 
framework that is compatible with regional and 
international standards. This, in part, is in response 
to the liberalized education system which has 
seen a lot of growth and development in education 
providers, both local and international, with different 
philosophies, approaches, demands and intents 
resulting in different requirements and levels of 
qualifications considered.

Important lessons and future plans

Good coordination, strong leadership and availability 
of funding have enabled the planned activities in 

References

the development of NQF to meet the schedule. 
A task team has been formed to champion 
the development of the NQF and is led by the 
Department of Inspection and Advisory Services in 
the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. 
The bill for the establishment of the Malawi 
Qualifications Authority has now been drafted and is 
ready for submission to parliament.

Abbreviations
HEQF  

NQF 
SADC  

TEVET  

TEVETA  

TQF  
TVET  

higher education qualifications 
framework
national qualifications framework
Southern African Development 
Community
technical, entrepreneurial and 
vocational education and training 
Technical, Entrepreneurial and 
Vocational Education and Training 
Authority
TVET qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

[URLs accessed 4.10.2017]
Allgoo, K. (2019). Higher Education Qualifications Framework (draft). Malawi: National Council for Higher 

Education.

Furter (2011). SADC develops regional qualifications framework. http://sheqafrica.com/author/edmond-

furter/ 

Heitmann, W. (2012). Lessons learned from selected national qualifications frameworks in sub-Saharan 

Africa. Document prepared by the Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) for 
its Triennial meeting on education and training, Ouagadougou, 12 to 17 February 2012. Tunis: ADEA. 
www.adeanet.org/triennale/Triennalestudies/subtheme2/2_3_02_Heitmann_en.pdf

UNEVOC (2012). World TVET database: Malawi. www.unevoc.unesco.org/wtdb/worldtvetdatabase_mwi_

en.pdf

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

375

Volume II: National and regional casesMALAYSIA

Introduction

In Malaysia, higher and vocational education and 
training institutions contribute to the nation’s social, 
economic and political development through the 
production of quality citizens, a highly skilled and 
talented workforce and new knowledge. These 
developments have been guided broadly by the 
National Education Philosophy. Empowering the 
actualization of the policy is the Malaysia Education 
Blueprint 2015–2025 (Higher Education), which 
outlines the strategies, plans, key performance 
indicators, responsible departments, institutions and 
agencies within a number of strong enabling legal 
frameworks. 

The Malaysian qualifications framework (MQF), 
which was first introduced in 2007 under the 
Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) Act, 2007, 
has a key role within these complex arrangements, 
i.e. to set qualification standards for all qualifications 
in the higher education and training sectors. 
The MQF serves as an overarching framework 
for all post-secondary qualifications, with a set 
of objectives to be served and serviced by the 
MQA. The framework is ‘development-oriented’, 
and enabled by strong government policies and 
regulations, centrally mandated for the MQF and 
its stakeholders and in partnership with higher 
education and training institutions. It sets the 
national classifications of qualifications, levels of 
learning achievements based on learning outcomes, 
academic load at each level and is associated with 
qualification nomenclature. The implementation 
of the MQF is underpinned by quality assurance 
and accreditation practised by the MQA and other 
competent bodies in Malaysia.

In 2017, the MQF was revised to strengthen 
and address the developing needs for access 
and responsiveness towards emerging skills 
or knowledge needs and to ensure coherency 
within the higher education and technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET) sector. The 
revised MQF is now a unified and comprehensive 
framework to enhance the standards of 
qualifications and to ensure it continues to serve 

the National Education Philosophy; the various 
policy goals stated in the Malaysia Education 
Blueprint 2015–2025 (Higher Education); and the 
11th Malaysian Development Plans which focus on a 
stronger quality TVET workforce with qualifications 
to be driven by the requirements of the industry; 
and strengthening the external comparability and 
recognition of Malaysian qualifications, especially 
with the increasing mobility of learners and workers 
across borders. 

Policy objectives

The objectives of the MQF, as specified in the 
Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007, are:

1.  to secure standards of qualifications and 
reinforce policies on quality assurance;
2.  to promote accuracy or consistency of 

nomenclature of qualifications;

3.  to provide mechanisms for the progression or 
inter-relation between qualifications, including 
non-degree and degree qualifications;

4.  to encourage collaboration between public and 
private sector higher education providers and 
skills training providers;

5.  to encourage parity of esteem among academic, 
professional, technical, vocational, and skills 
qualifications;

6.  to establish a credit system to facilitate credit 
accumulation and transfer, which is acceptable 
within and outside Malaysia;

7.  to provide clear and accessible public information 

on programmes or qualifications in higher 
education;

8.  to promote, where applicable, the presentation 
of qualifications in forms that facilitate their 
evaluation by any key stakeholders; and

9.  to articulate links with qualifications from outside 

Malaysia. 

Levels and learning outcomes

The MQF provides eight levels of outcome-
based qualifications organised hierarchically. The 

376

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSframework enables clear progression along these 
levels, beginning with basic level knowledge and 
skills up to very complex and specialised knowledge 
and sophistication of practice. It reflects the 
accumulation of knowledge and skills from each 
level progressively. 

Each level in MQF is provided with a generic 
descriptive statement in qualitative terms, which 
describes learning achievement at a particular 
level. The level descriptors define the expected 
knowledge, capabilities and/or competences of 
learners on successful completion of learning 
programmes in the context of work and study. The 
broad statements account for the content-free 
nature of learning standards in the MQF. It is within 
the specific programme design that the descriptors 
are translated and contextualized, by the specific 
discipline, technical and vocational, and professional 
fields. The levels and qualification types are seen in 
Table 48.

Learning outcomes orientation is integral in the 
implementation of the MQF. The MQF outlines a 
set of generic learning outcomes, which are critical 
across field outcomes, and generic and relevant to 
different types and levels of programmes. These 

generic learning outcomes are clustered into the 
following five categories: 

1.  Knowledge and understanding 
2.  Cognitive skills 
3.  Functional work skills with focus on: 

•  Practical skills 
• 
Interpersonal skills 
•  Communication skills 
•  Digital skills 
•  Numeracy skills 
•  Leadership, autonomy and responsibility 

4.  Personal and entrepreneurial skills 
5.  Ethics and professionalism. 

The application of the learning outcomes in 
each level is situation-based, and depends on 
the complexity of tasks, study and work to be 
performed. The level descriptors broadly explain 
the context of application of the learning outcomes 
and are often influenced by levels of autonomy and 
responsibility. 

As a general practice, individual programme designs 
should address the clusters of learning outcomes 
appropriately. They describe the general and specific 
content for knowledge and skills in a subject(s) and 

Table 48. Malaysian qualifications framework (MQF)

MQF LEVEL MINIMUM 

ACADEMIC SECTOR

TVET SECTOR

GRADUATING CREDIT

No credit rating

PhD by Research Doctoral Degree by Mixed 
Mode & Coursework

No credit rating

Master’s by Research

40

30

20

120

66*

36*

40

90

60

30

15

Master’s by Mixed Mode & Cousework

Postgradute Diploma

Postgraduate Certificate

Bachelor’s degree

Graduate Diploma

Graduate Certificate

Advanced Diploma

Diploma

Certificate

Certificate

Certificate

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

377

Volume II: National and regional casesrelated field(s), the level of cognitive skills, and, 
where relevant, the specialised technical skills. The 
other generic skills are capabilities that all learners 
should develop in the course of further study and 
training, which is either integrated in the teaching or 
learning strategies or available through specialised 
courses.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The MQF is administered by the Malaysian 
Qualifications Agency (MQA), with the involvement 
of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of 
Human Resources as well as other stakeholders 
such as professional bodies. The Department of 
Higher Education, under the Ministry of Education, 
is responsible for the approval and licensing of 
higher education institutions while the MQA is 
responsible for the accreditation of higher education 
and TVET qualifications. The Department of Skills 
Development, Ministry of Human Resources is 
responsible for the approval of skills providers and 
performs accreditation of skills qualifications based 
on the national occupational skills standards. For 
professional qualifications, the MQA performs joint 
accreditation with the professional bodies through 
joint technical committees to ensure synchronization 
of accreditation processes and results. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The MQF provides multiple learning pathways 
with flexible points of entry, opportunities for 
advanced standing and recognition of prior learning 
and experiences. The provisions for pathways, 
articulation and lifelong learning under the MQF 
include: 

1.  A credit transfer system for vertical or horizontal 
transfers between programmes, institutions and 
sectors. This includes the articulation policy and 
mechanisms for mobility between academic 
and TVET sectors and vice versa. This is usually 
evidenced by policy and/or agreements on 
articulation between institutions. 

2.  Stackable qualifications for the TVET sector from 
Level 1 to 4 which allows multi-entry and multi-
exits and which also provides credit transfers 
from Level 1 to 4. 

3.  Flexible access to quality assured provisions of 

flexible, open and online learning. 

4.  The accreditation of learning acquired through 

formal, non-formal and informal learning, which 
can provide access to as well as advanced 

standing in a programme. The accreditation of 
prior experiential learning is applied to both the 
academic and the TVET sectors, although the 
assessment approach must be fit for purpose.

5.  The accumulation of credits and learning 

outcomes, which is possible through partial 
qualifications, professional certifications, 
modularisation of programmes, short courses, 
micro learning and MOOCs. Such credits can 
be considered for transfer to a full programme. 
The provision of a bridging programme exists to 
suit circumstances where it may be necessary 
to prepare individuals to undertake higher level 
programme or where there may be other entry 
requirements set by higher education providers. 

Recognising foreign qualifications 

Quality assurance or accreditation of qualifications 
performed by national competent bodies is key 
in facilitating acceptance and recognition of 
qualifications. In general, foreign qualifications which 
satisfy this basic requirement are accepted and 
recognized for the purpose of further studies and 
employment in Malaysia. However, they may still 
be subject to additional requirements by employers, 
higher education providers, professional bodies as 
well as other relevant laws and regulations.

The MQA offers equivalency assessment services 
of foreign qualifications vis-a-vis the MQF which 
serves as an advisory statement to the relevant 
parties.

NQF implementation

The MQA is responsible for the accreditation 
of higher education and TVET qualifications. 
It establishes joint accreditation with key 
professional bodies for the accreditation 
professional programmes. The Department of 
Skills Development, Ministry of Human Resources 
is responsible for the accreditation of skills 
qualifications.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The MQA has undertaken several comparability 
projects on qualification and quality assurance 
systems with other international organizations. 
The accreditation system of the MQA which 
underpinned the MQF implementation was 
endorsed in 2013 as aligned to the Guidelines of 
Good Practices of the International Network for 
Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education. In 
2016, the MQA and the New Zealand Qualifications 

378

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAgency completed the comparability process of 
Malaysian and New Zealand’s Bachelor, Master, and 
Doctoral degrees. The MQA has also completed 
accreditation comparability with the Higher 
Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of 
Taiwan in 2012 and with the National Institution 
for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation 
of Japan in 2017. Currently, the MQF is being 
referenced to the ASEAN Qualifications Reference 
Framework (AQRF) and the process is expected to 
be completed in 2019.

and strengthening innovative and lifelong learning 
culture.

The MQF, as the national standard of qualifications, 
has improved the international visibility, 
comparability, acceptance and recognition of 
Malaysian qualifications. Various and continuous 
benchmarkings, engagements and interactions 
with international counterparts over the years have 
strengthened common expectations on standards 
and practices and have reinforced mutual interest in 
quality learning.

Important lessons and future plans

The experience of implementing the first version of 
the MQF in 2007 and the revised version in 2017 
shows the importance of MQF-related policies 
and standards remaining dynamic in addressing 
new emerging forms of learning and learners as 
well as growing demands of more flexible learning 
environments. As the system continues to evolve in 
response to these changes, the MQF must be able 
to retain its grit and agility in promoting, supporting 

Abbreviations
ASEAN 

Association of Southeast Asian 
Nations

MOOCs  massive open online courses
MQA 
MQF 
TVET 

Malaysian Qualifications Agency
Malaysian qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

References

Allais, S. (2010). The Implementation and Impact of National Qualifications Frameworks: Report of a study in 

16 countries. Geneva: ILO.

Gobaloo, V. and Fahmi, Z.M. (2013). The Malaysian Qualifications Framework and the recognition of prior 

learning. In: M. Singh and R. Duvekot (eds). Linking Recognition Practices to National Qualifications 
Frameworks: International benchmarking of experience and strategies in the recognition, validation 
and accreditation (RVA) of non-formal and informal learning. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong 
Learning.

Government of Malaysia (2006). Ninth Malaysia Plan. Kuala Lumpur: The Government Press. 
Government of Malaysia (2007). Strategic Plan for Higher Education: Laying the foundation beyond 2020. 

Kuala Lumpur: The Government Press.
Government of Malaysia (2015). 11th Malaysia Plan.
International Labour Organization (2010). Qualifications Frameworks: Implementation and Impact 

Background Case Study on Malaysia. Geneva: ILO.

Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007, Law of Malaysia
Malaysian Qualifications Agency (2009). Malaysia Qualifications Register. Selangor: MQA.
Malaysian Qualifications Agency (2010). Malaysian Qualifications Framework. Selangor: MQA. 
Malaysian Qualifications Agency (2017). Malaysian Qualifications Framework 2nd Edition. Selangor: MQA. 
Ministry of Higher Education (2011). Blueprint on Enculturation of Lifelong Learning for Malaysia 2011–2020. 

Selangor: Univision Press Sdn.

SHARE (2015). ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework and National Qualifications Frameworks, State of 

Play Report.

Vassu, B. (2012). Development Phases of the National Qualifications Frameworks in Perspective: Malaysia. 

Asia-Europe meeting (ASEM): TVET symposium, Berlin, Germany, 27–28 February 2012. Selangor: 
MQA.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with  national experts.

379

Volume II: National and regional casesMALDIVES

Introduction and context

The Maldives National Qualifications Framework 
(MNQF) was established by the Maldives 
Accreditation Board (MAB) in September 2001. The 
MAB was replaced by the Maldives Qualifications 
Authority (MQA) on 17 May 2010. The process 
to revise the MNQF began in 2005, and was 
completed in February 2009 (MAB, 2009) and 
implemented on 1 September 2011. 

The MNFQ addresses two main issues. 

1.  The Maldivian higher education sector is growing 
rapidly, with an increasing number of private 
providers entering the sector to meet demand. 
This has resulted in a need to assure the 
quality of qualifications awarded for educational 
attainment (ibid.).

2.  Cross-border higher education is both an 
opportunity and a challenge. International 
recognition of Maldivian qualifications, especially 
in the Asia and Pacific region, is emerging as a 
major concern as more and more students enrol 
in higher education abroad. Information needs 
to be gathered about overseas qualifications, 
institutions and academic programmes, and 
the status of institutions needs to be clarified 
with respect to the recognition and credibility of 
qualifications. 

Policy objectives

The government sees the revised MNQF as a tool 
to bring all recognized qualifications together under 
a single, unified structure. The main policy objectives 
of the strengthened MNQF are to: 

•  establish national competency standards; 
•  assure the quality of teaching, assessment and 

certification;

•  promote student and learner support and 

reporting;

•  allow for a possible future interface with 

secondary education;

•  allow technical and vocational education and 

training (TVET) graduates to progress seamlessly 

to advanced technical, professional and 
postgraduate learning;

•  provide an internationally benchmarked suite of 
higher education qualifications from associate 
and foundation degrees through bachelor’s 
and master’s degrees to higher technical and 
professional diplomas and doctorates; 
•  allow valid international higher education 

qualifications to be recognized in the Maldives;
•  promote mobility and recognition for Maldivian 

citizens abroad; 

•  establish a national technical and vocational 
qualifications system based on national 
competency standards, allowing flexibility in 
worker skills acquisition.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The MQA assigns qualifications by means of a 
10-level framework using the descriptors for Levels 
3-to-12 of the Scottish credit and qualifications 
framework (ibid.).

Table 49. Maldives national qualifications 
framework (MNQF)

LEVEL 

QUALIFICATION

10

Doctoral degree 

Higher Professional Diploma 

Higher Professional Certificate 

Master’s degree

Advanced Professional Diploma

Advanced Professional Certificate

Graduate/ Postgraduate Diploma

Graduate/ Postgraduate Certificate

Bachelor’s Honours degree

Bachelor’s degree

Professional Diploma, Professional 
Certificate

Advanced Diploma/ Associate degree/ 
Foundation degree

9

8

7

6

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 49. Maldives national qualifications 
framework (MNQF) (Continued)

LEVEL 

QUALIFICATION

5

4

3

2

1

Diploma 

Certificate IV/ Advanced Diploma

Certificate III 

Certificate II

Certificate I 

Source: Maldives Accreditation Board, 2009 

Certificate I recognizes the acquisition of core 
entry-level skills for a new worker. Certificates II, III 
and IV recognize increasing levels of competence 
up to the full range of skills required to qualify as 
a tradesperson. Diplomas, advanced diplomas and 
higher diplomas recognize technical-, managerial- 
and professional-level knowledge and skills. 

The MNQF level descriptors set out the learning 
outcomes at each level. They provide a general 
understanding of each level and allow broad 
comparisons to be made between qualifications and 
learning at different levels. The learning outcomes 
fall into five categories: 

•  knowledge and understanding;
•  practice: applied knowledge and understanding;
•  cognitive skills;
•  communication, ICT, and numeracy skills; 
•  autonomy, accountability and working with 

others.

Through benchmarking already undertaken by the 
multinational education and examination body 
Edexcel, it is possible to assign General Certificate 
of Secondary Education (GCSE) Grades D–G to 
Level 2, GCSE Grades A–C to Level 3, and A-levels 
to Level 4 of the MNQF (ibid.). 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

to by the MQA until otherwise decreed by the 
regulatory board (ibid.). The MQA’s mandate is to 
assure the quality of post-secondary qualifications 
awarded for educational attainment (MQA, 2016). 
The process of revising the framework began in 
2005 and was concluded in February 2009 after 
extensive research and discussion with experts 
and relevant authorities. The strengthened MNQF 
came into effect after the MAB formally endorsed 
it in September 2009. In September 2011, the 
MAB verified that all qualifications submitted for 
approval were consistent with the new national 
system.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The assigning of levels to all MQA-approved courses 
and the inclusion of all post-secondary qualifications 
under one banner – from initial certificates to 
advanced academic, technical and professional 
qualifications – facilitates students’ progression 
pathways and encourages lifelong learning. All 
qualifications, regardless of subject area, can be 
recognized under the new competency-based 
framework. The MQA has included a full list of all 
approved local programmes on its website along 
with the associated levels. 

Some students or workers may not achieve all of 
the competences required for a full technical and 
vocational qualification. Nevertheless, they are 
still able to receive an official record of that partial 
qualification (certificate of achievement). The credit 
system therefore allows students to receive credit 
for all achievements, no matter how modest. One 
credit is assigned when a learner achieves the 
learning outcomes for a specific 10-hour learning 
module. In higher education, this equates to 
120 credits per academic year. The assessment 
system makes provision for credit accumulation 
and transfer, and allows for the recognition of prior 
learning and progress towards qualifications even 
without course attendance, since assessments can 
also be conducted in the workplace (ibid.).

From 2010, the MQA has been the official accrediting 
agency of the Maldives. Prior to this, it was known 
as the MAB, formed by the president of the Maldives 
in 2000. Before the establishment of the MAB, the 
qualification recognition process was carried out by 
the Department of Public Examinations. 

The functions of the MAB were handed over to 
the MQA on 17 May 2010. During the first meeting 
of the regulatory board of the MQA on 30 August 
2010, it was decreed that all rules, regulations and 
procedures of the former MAB would be adhered 

NQF implementation 

Under the strengthened MNQF, trainers can 
modularize training in addition to developing  
full-time training programmes. Modular programmes 
offer workers part-time courses so that they can 
achieve a full qualification over time. The revised 
framework allows for a combination of theoretical 
instruction and workplace training, with assessment 
results being combined to count towards a  
full award. 

381

Volume II: National and regional casesmobility of students and faculty across the South 
Asian region (SAARC, 2016).

Important lessons and future plans

The Government of the Maldives hopes that its 
strengthened MNQF will serve as a sustainable and 
strategic solution for the development of national 
and human resources. It is further hoped that the 
incorporation of national competency standards 
and a broader and more coherent technical and 
vocational qualifications system will allow for 
considerable flexibility in worker skills acquisition.

One of the lessons to be learned from the MNQF 
is the increase in international recognition of the 
qualifications, skills and knowledge of Maldivian 
citizens that is guaranteed by a shift to a unified 
qualifications system. The Maldives has been 
successful in making all qualifications consistent 
with the new national system. It has achieved 
this by requiring all existing qualifications to be 
submitted for approval by the MQA. 

The MQA also plays a significant role in ensuring 
that students, employers, education providers and 
the community at large can easily understand the 
learning outcomes involved in various qualifications. 
Furthermore, the MQA has encouraged employers, 
parents and students to seek out only accredited 
programmes, while at the same time promoting 
quality assurance of teaching, assessment and 
certification.

Abbreviations
ICT 

MAB  
MNQF  

MQA  
SAARC  

information and communications 
technology
Maldives Accreditation Board
Maldives national qualifications 
framework 
Maldives Qualifications Authority
South Asian Association for Regional 
Cooperation 

Where qualifications are delivered through training 
institutions, the MAB proposes three areas of 
activity to support the new national qualifications 
arrangements:

•  establishment of a quality management system 

at the time of registration;
•  programme accreditation; 
•  ongoing monitoring and institutional quality  

audit (ibid.).

Referencing to regional frameworks

The MQA’s recognition of overseas institutions/
colleges/universities is based on the following 
criteria: 

• 

• 

• 

recognition of the institution/college/university in 
that particular country;
recognition and acceptance of qualifications in 
the Maldives if those qualifications are issued 
by a government-recognized institution in the 
country of origin. Not all of the qualifications 
issued by a recognized institution/college/
university are recognized by the MQA;
the institutions/colleges/universities in question 
meet standards and criteria set by the MNQF.

The MQA also verifies the recognition status 
of academic programmes and institutions for 
individuals planning to enrol in a programme of 
study overseas.

The eight member states of the South Asian 
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) – 
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, 
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka – unanimously 
adopted the SAARC Framework for Action for 
Education 2030 at the Third Meeting of Ministers of 
Education/Higher Education held in Male, Maldives, 
in 2016. The ministers agreed that the objectives of 
this action plan are to establish, through regional 
collaboration and partnerships, a mechanism for 
the development and implementation of a regional 
framework for facilitating the comparability, mutual 
recognition, validation and accreditation of tertiary 
education qualifications, and for promoting the 

382

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

ETF (European Training Foundation) (2010). Transnational Qualifications Frameworks. Turin: ETF.
MAB (Maldives Accreditation Board) (2009). The Maldives National Qualifications 

Framework (MNQF). Accessed 23 January 2017 at: http://mqa.gov.mv/static/uploads/
MNQF2009withAmmendment1_2018-06-26T00-45-48.pdf

MQA (Maldives Qualifications Authority) (2016). The Maldives National Qualifications Framework. Accessed 

23 January 2017 at: http://mqa.gov.mv/static/uploads/Maldives-National-Qualifications-Framework-
V2_2-witheffectfrom01stJan2017_2018-06-26T00-49-48.pdf

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) (2016). Sub-regional workshop on the SAARC 
Framework for Action for Education 2030. 30–31 October 2016. Delhi: UNESCO New Delhi Office. 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts. 

383

Volume II: National and regional casesMALTA

Introduction and context

Malta has been investing significantly in its 
education and training system in recent years. The 
percentage of young people not in employment, 
education or training (NEET) is smaller than the 
EU average (8.6% in 2016, compared to 11.5%) 
(European Commission, 2017) and employment 
rates of recent graduates are high (94.5 % in 
2017, compared to the EU average of 80.2%) at all 
qualification levels (European Commission, 2018). 
However, the early school leaving rate – even if 
declining – is the highest in the EU at 18.6% in 
2017. This may be improved in the future due to 
the current almost 100% rate of participation in 
early childhood education and care, and to specific 
measures taken by the government to address early 
school leaving. Student performance in reading, 
science and mathematics is below the EU averages, 
strongly linked to socioeconomic background and 
type of school. Despite government support for free 
access to tertiary education, the tertiary educational 
attainment rate of 30.0% is below the EU average 
of 39.9%). The country has the highest share of 
low-qualified adults in the EU and the foreign-born 
population living in Malta tends to be better qualified 
than the native population. Engaging low-skilled 
adults in lifelong learning is a challenge, with the 
rate of participation in adult learning at 10.1% 
(compared to the EU average of 10.9%). Various 
strategic measures have been taken to address 
skill shortages, encourage quality and inclusion, 
and improve learning outcomes. A framework for 
the validation of non-formal and informal learning 
is already in place and a skills forecasting system 
is being developed. In the vocational education 
and training (VET) sector, efforts are focused on 
increasing the quality and societal relevance of 
the offer, and development of apprenticeship 
schemes and work-based learning. School education 
reforms aim to modernise curricula using a learning 
outcomes approach, to improve the training of 
teachers, and to promote proficiency in basic and 
digital skills (European Commission, 2018). 

Malta has been putting in place its comprehensive 
national qualifications framework for lifelong 

learning (MQF) since June 2007. It includes 
qualifications and awards at all levels acquired 
through formal, non-formal and informal learning. 
Important amendments in 2012 to the Education 
Act established the legal basis for the National 
Commission for Further and Higher Education 
(NCFHE), replacing the Malta Qualifications Council 
and the National Commission for Higher Education. 
The NCFHE is responsible for all aspects of the 
MQF. In 2012, three legal notices were published: 
on quality assurance and licensing of further and 
higher education institutions and programmes581; 
on validation of informal and non-formal learning582; 
and on strengthening the legal basis of the MQF 
for lifelong learning as a regulatory framework for 
classification of qualifications and awards583. Malta 
was the first country to reference the MQF to two 
European overarching frameworks: the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education 
area (QF-EHEA), as well as the transnational 
qualifications framework of the small States of the 
Commonwealth (TQF).

The referencing report was revised several times, 
with the latest version published in February 2016584. 
This report has updated the MQF by introducing 
two additional levels covering learning below level 1: 
introductory level A and introductory level B. These 
new levels have been introduced to recognise any 
prior learning, as well as to provide a stepping stone 
towards MQF/EQF level 1 and further learning and 
employment.

Policy objectives

The Malta qualifications framework (MQF) makes 
the qualifications system easier to understand 
and review, and more transparent at national and 
international levels. This framework also functions 
as a referencing tool for describing and comparing 

581  See Government of Malta (2012a). 
582  See Government of Malta (2012b). 
583  See Government of Malta (2012c). 
584  See NCFHE (2016a). 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSnational and foreign qualifications to promote and 
address the following issues:

Levels and use of learning outcomes

a.  transparency and understanding of qualifications;
b.  valuing all formal, informal and non-formal 

learning;

c.  consistency and coherence with European and 

international qualifications frameworks;

d.  parity of esteem of qualifications from different 
learning pathways, including vocational and 
professional degrees and academic study 
programmes;

e.  lifelong learning, access and progression and 

mobility;

f.  the shift towards learning outcomes-based 

qualifications;

g.  a credit structure and units as qualification 

building blocks;

h.  the concept of mutual trust through quality 

assurance mechanisms running across all levels 
of the framework.

The MQF is seen as an important tool in promoting 
lifelong learning and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. Its quality assurance function 
is getting stronger in line with the national 
quality assurance framework for further and 
higher education institutions585. The NCFHE has 
implemented its legal obligation to set up a national 
external quality audit system that complements the 
internal quality assurance mechanisms of individual 
further and higher education bodies. The framework 
provides the conceptual context for this work, and 
situates it in the paramount need to develop a 
national quality culture586. 

585  This framework was presented in a consultative 

conference with stakeholders on 25 July 2014 and was 
officially launched on 1 July 2015. The national quality 
assurance framework for further and higher education 
was a key deliverable of the European Social Fund (ESF) 
project 1.227 Making quality visible. https://ncfhe.gov.
mt/en/resources/Documents/Publications/Quality%20
Assurance/National%20Quality%20Assurance%20
Framework%20for%20Further%20and%20Higher%20
Education.pdf

586  According to the national quality assurance framework, 
self-accrediting entities shall have processes for the 
design and approval of their programmes that are in line 
with the MQF and the Malta referencing report 2012 and 
subsequent updates. The provider and programme/course 
accreditation procedures are presently being revised. 
At a second stage, the framework shall be expanded 
to incorporate adapted provider and programme/course 
accreditation procedures and adapted procedures 
for all categories of entities. In the third stage of the 
development of the framework, it will be reviewed to 
consider how best to incorporate quality assurance 
requirements for informal and non-formal learning 
(NCFHE, 2015b).

Strengthening the learning outcomes approach 
has become fundamental to education and training 
reform and has been applied across all qualifications 
and levels in recent years. The education strategy 
framework 2014–24 – Sustaining foundations, 
creating alternatives, increasing employability 587 –  
has reinforced the intention to adopt a learning 
outcomes approach in all sectors of education and 
training linked to the MQF, and to update existing 
learning programmes and assessment modes. 
The MQF has eight learning-outcomes-based 
qualification levels, plus the two additional entry 
levels below level 1; introductory levels A and B. 
These two new levels have no equivalence on the 
EQF. The descriptors highlight specific attributes: 
communication, judgemental and learning skills, 
and the complexity, volume and level of learning 
expected for the particular qualification or award. 
Progression within the MQF is recorded in terms of:

a.  knowledge and understanding;
b.  applying knowledge and understanding;
c.  communication skills;
d.  judgemental skills;
e.  learning skills;
f.  autonomy and responsibility.

There is increased focus on the review and revision 
of the level descriptors of the MQF and further 
promotion of digital skills following input from a 
consultation committee on such skills588. The results 
arising from the review of the digital life-skills, digital 
workplace skills and digital expert skills required, 
and the extent to which these are mirrored in the 
level descriptors of the MQF or require revision, will 
be presented in a national colloquium to be held in 
October 2019.

The MQF includes all types of qualification, 
including general, vocational, higher education and 
adult education, acquired in formal, non-formal and 
informal learning; it provides a clear commitment 
to focus on the learning outcomes approach at 
policy level. The reference levels are useful for 
education and training providers as they describe 
the knowledge, skills and competences and a set of 
learning outcomes which indicate what the learner 

587  Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment (2014a).
588  The consultation committee will be supported in its 

work by staff from the NCFHE, which will support the 
scheduling, organising and reporting of the meetings held. 
The results of the meetings of the consultation committee 
will advise the NCFHE on the review and revision of the 
level descriptors of the MQF, if applicable, and the further 
promotion of digital skills in Malta (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018).

385

Volume II: National and regional caseswould have achieved at the end of the learning 
process (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

One of the tasks of the NCFHE has been to 
introduce national standards of knowledge, skills 
and competences, and to ensure that these are 
systematically implemented, used and revised. 
Courses accredited by the NCFHE and those by the 
self-accrediting education and training providers 
(public, further and higher education institutions) 
use the learning outcomes approach.

The report A national curriculum framework for all 
outlines the role of learning outcomes in general 
education589. The reform of the national curriculum 
framework has led to the development of learning 
outcomes for all subjects in compulsory education; 
this aims to move away from a prescriptive 
curriculum based on standalone subjects and 
promote inclusion, diversity and citizenship. During 
2016, a plan to introduce the learning outcomes 
framework was prepared by the government590 
to support the national curriculum framework 
implementation. The national curriculum 
framework and the learning outcomes framework 
together form the backbone of education 
programmes in Malta. The learning outcomes 
framework will be implemented by September 
2019, under the new 2017 collective agreement591.
This agreement applies to all teaching grades in 
state schools and also in church schools, following 
agreement between the Maltese Government 
and the Holy See592. The aim of the framework 
is to achieve a more learner-centred education, 
where learning progress is documented for each 
student and learning is targeted to their stage of 
development; new learning outcome programmes 
and syllabi will be introduced for kindergarten 
years 1, 3 and 7593. It is eventually intended to 

lead to more curricular autonomy for colleges 
and schools, to address better the learning needs 
of students594. The One tablet per child (OTPC) 
project595 at primary level is in its second year of 
implementation, while in 2018, all student-teachers 
received pre-service teacher training in using 
tablets (European Commission, 2018).

The government is also working on a reform called 
My journey: achieving through different paths, that 
is expected to be implemented in lower secondary 
school in the school year 2019/20596. The aim of this 
reform is to move from a ‘one size fits all’ system 
to more inclusive one catering to pupils’ individual 
aptitudes, and to make it more equitable to reduce 
the number of early school leavers597. Under the 
current system, students are focused mainly on 
areas of general education, such as science and 
business. But, in recent years, several vocational 
subjects were introduced and learning outcomes 
developed to be offered at levels 1–3 on the MQF 
(European Commission, 2017). 

The MQF is intended to ensure that VET curricula 
are focused on key competences and learning 
outcomes based on feedback from industry. Malta  
is developing occupational standards to inform the 
VET programmes. With the introduction of the  
work-based learning and apprenticeship Act that 
came into force in 2018598, a framework was 
provided for the development of effective work 
placements, apprenticeships and internships. 

Malta also has a range of adult education courses 
accredited and level-rated on the MQF. These 
qualifications and awards enable adults to engage  
in lifelong learning and perhaps to progress  
to higher MQF levels. The programmes of  

589  See Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment 

(2012). 

590  www.schoolslearningoutcomes.edu.mt/en/ 
591  In December 2017, the Malta Union of Teachers and the 
Education Ministry signed a sectoral agreement for  
2018–22. The agreement includes a significant salary 
increase for educators across the different levels; 
allowances for professional development and career 
progression based on voluntary professional development 
(European Commission, 2018).

592  The Holy See (not the State of Vatican City) maintains 
formal diplomatic relations with, and for the most  
recent establishment of diplomatic relations with,  
183 sovereign states, and also with the European  
Union, and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta:  
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See

593  The development of the learning outcomes framework 

includes ten levels of achievement. In a differentiated 
learning context, different learners in the same classroom 
will naturally be progressing at different rates through 
these levels of attainment, and the teaching and learning 
will need to cater for this diversity.

594  The ESF 1.228 project Design of learning outcomes 
framework, associated learning and assessment 
programmes and related training is intended to deliver this 
learning outcomes framework approach to the educators 
within compulsory schooling and relevant stakeholders. 
www.schoolslearningoutcomes.edu.mt/en/pages/about-
the-framework

595  This project is jointly financed by the ESF. More 

information at: www.digital.edu.mt/

596  See Ministry for Education and Employment (2016). 
597  The Ministry for Education and Employment has already 
set up a committee of different education bodies such as 
the University of Malta and Institute for Tourism Studies 
(ITS) to provide training for new and existing teachers. The 
Haaga Helia University of Sciences will provide training to 
teachers in vocational education. https://eacea.ec.europa.
eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/ongoing-reforms-
and-policy-developments-43_en

598  More information at: www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/

news-and-press/news/malta-work-based-learning-and-
apprenticeship-act-comes-force 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSself-accrediting institutions599 are subject to external 
quality assurance audits where they are checked for 
a learning outcomes base distinguishing between 
knowledge, skills and competences (NCFHE, 2016c).

competences and attitudes for selected occupations 
within the economic sectors for which a sector skills 
unit is in place.

Learning programmes being developed in higher 
education are remodelled based on learning 
outcomes. The course descriptions are the ones 
offered by the state VET providers, the Malta College 
of Arts, Science and Technology and the Institute of 
Tourism Studies, and the higher education provider 
University of Malta. The licensed private further and 
higher education institutions whose courses are 
accredited by NCFHE are also described in terms of 
learning outcomes (NCFHE, 2016a). 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

A wide range of stakeholders has been involved 
in developing and setting up the MQF. The Malta 
Qualifications Council initiated the work, following 
Legal Notice 347 of 2005600 in cooperation with 
stakeholders, including ministries and the National 
Commission for Higher Education.

The NCFHE (under the Ministry of Education and 
Employment) is the authority responsible for all 
aspects of the MQF implementation, particularly for 
maintaining the Malta qualifications framework. It is 
also the EQF national coordination point (NCP) for 
Malta and runs the Qualifications and Recognition 
Information Centre (QRIC) which is responsible 
for providing the referencing and equivalence 
of foreign qualifications. The NCHFE acts as the 
competent authority for licensing, accreditation, 
quality assurance and recognition of providers and 
programmes as provided by the Act No XIII of 2012 
(NCFHE, 2016a).

From a labour market sectoral perspective, the 
NCFHE is charged with leading the development 
and implementation of occupational standards in 
cooperation with social partners, the sector skills 
committee and sector skills units.

The NCFHE is also responsible for convening 
meetings with key stakeholders on sector skills 
units. It approves and ensures the publication 
of national standards of knowledge, skills, 

599  In Malta there are self-accrediting education and training 

institutions as identified by Subsidiary Legislation 327.433. 
These include the main state further and higher education 
institutions: the University of Malta; the Malta College of 
Arts, Science and Technology; and the Institute of Tourism 
Studies.

The MQF is seen to have improved cooperation 
between stakeholders (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018) through meetings such as 
the annual national colloquium and the Network 
on Quality Assurance Professionals in Further and 
Higher Education, known as Net-QAPE601.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways602

Validation of non-formal and informal learning 
in Malta is regulated by Subsidiary Legislation 
327.432 of 2012603, which sets the principles for 
the process. In addition, the value and importance 
of validation are emphasised in several national 
policy documents, published during 2014–16 but 
remaining valid in 2018, reinforcing the potential 
of validation of non-formal and informal learning in 
Malta. These documents include: Malta’s National 
lifelong learning strategy 2020 604 that sets a target 
for setting up a transparent and sustainable system 
within NCFHE to validate and recognise non-formal 
and informal learning by the end of 2016; and the 
National youth policy: towards 2020 605 published in 
2015 and stating that the validation of non-formal 
and informal learning would be pursued.

The 2012 legislation designates the National 
Commission for Further and Higher Education 
(NCFHE) as the authority responsible for 
introducing a national validation system and for 
establishing the necessary structures. The NCFHE 

601 

In December 2013 the NCFHE set up the Network on 
Quality Assurance Professionals in Further and Higher 
Education, known as Net-QAPE. The aim of Net-QAPE 
is to bring together all personnel involved in quality 
assurance in the education sector, to provide concrete 
and continuing support, upskilling and continuous 
professional development. Net-QAPE is a key concept in 
the commitment of the NCFHE to developing a National 
further and higher education quality assurance framework, 
which will be the basis for internal and external quality 
processes and audits. https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/services/
Documents/QA%20Communications/2014/Comm%20
No%2006%202014%20-%20First%20Meeting%20
of%20Net-QAPE.pdf

602  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
of the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al. 
(forthcoming).

603  See Government of Malta (2012e). 
604  See Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment 

(2014b).

605  See Parliamentary Secretariat for Research, Innovation, 

600  See Government of Malta (2012d). 

Youth and Sport (2015). 

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Volume II: National and regional caseshas been responsible for providing the resources 
needed for validation of informal and non-formal 
learning to function effectively and for leading 
the development and implementation of national 
occupational standards in specified areas. The 
national occupational standards published by the 
NCFHE consist of a set of job-related standards 
that highlight the performance expected from an 
individual when carrying out a specific function.

The NCFHE extended the process to more sectors 
through the continuing development of sector skills 
units606. Validation is now available in the following 
sectors: hairdressing, childcare, and building and 
construction sectors, for which validation has 
started to take place. The NCFHE has also extended 
the number of sector skills units to eight with the 
introduction of the IT Sector Skills Unit in August 
2018. Validation in the automotive sector started in 
November 2017 while discussions have taken place 
to start validation and introducing ECVET points 
with the validation awards in the tourism sector. The 
entities entrusted with the validation process have 
also been extended from Jobsplus607 in childcare to 
the Institute of Tourism Studies. The NCFHE signed 
a memorandum of understanding with the Institute 
of Tourism Studies to carry out assessment for the 
hospitality and tourism sector608.

In response to labour market needs and to overcome 
skills gaps, the government set up the National Skills 
Council in 2016609. The functions of the council are 
stated as similar to that of a consultative committee, 
working on different sectors and undertaking the 
role of highlighting needs. One of the areas that 
the National Skills Council has identified is digital 
competences. This links to occupational standards 
currently being developed, including those in IT, and 
which can serve as a basis for the development 
of validation of informal and non-formal learning in 
the sector. In total, 27 occupational standards are 

606  A key function of the units is to develop and propose 
to this committee guidelines and mechanisms for the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning for all skills 
within their respective sector. They also ensure that 
validation institutions are meeting the required standards 
set out for the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning. These sector skills units will identify the different 
jobs in their particular sector, outline the knowledge, skills 
and competences required to perform these jobs and map 
them against the NQF. 

607  Jobsplus is the successor to the Employment and  
Training Corporation; its objective is to meet the  
needs of employers, jobseekers and employees:  
https://jobsplus.gov.mt/

published on the NCFHE website610 and another 28 
are being drawn up. 

The fourth edition of the referencing report of the 
Malta qualifications framework to the European 
qualifications framework611, published in 2016, 
reflects a move towards a more modular based 
concept as building blocks for qualifications. Such an 
approach allows for better integration of non-formal 
learning within mainstream education routes, as 
well as setting out the principles on which validation 
of informal and non-formal learning is to be based. 

Malta has been working towards the implementation 
of 2012 Council recommendations612. The process 
has not been as fast as desired, but the extension 
to a number of sectors registered, as well as the 
full implementation of validation of non-formal and 
informal, learning is promising. The NCFHE has also 
worked on providing information and training to 
further and higher education and training providers 
on the validation of non-formal and informal learning 
so that they can familiarise themselves with the 
concept. Greater effort to extend validation to a wider 
number of sectors is still needed. Ensuring parity of 
esteem of qualifications obtained through validation 
in the labour market, and for further education as part 
of lifelong learning, remains a challenge. 

NQF implementation

The MQF is operational; key documents and 
responsibilities for its implementation have been 
agreed among stakeholders and published613. The 
MQF forms an integrated part of the overall national 
qualification system, including links to relevant 
legislation and policy strategies, the National lifelong 
learning strategy 2020 614, the National literacy 
strategy for all in Malta and Gozo 2014–19  615 and 
the Strategic plan for the prevention of early school 
leaving in Malta 2014 616.

The main body responsible for the MQF is the 
NCFHE (the former Malta Qualifications Council 
and the National Commission for Higher Education 

610  https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/services/Pages/All%20Services/

vinfl_nos.aspx 
611  See NCFHE (2016a).
612  See Council of the European Union (2012). 
613  See the relevant legislation at the end of this report: 
Government of Malta (2012a, 2012b and 2012f).
614  See Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment 

(2014b). 

615  https://education.gov.mt/en/Documents/Literacy/

ENGLISH.pdf

608  More information available at: www.cedefop.europa.eu/el/

616  https://education.gov.mt/en/resources/Documents/

news-and-press/news/malta-vinfl-takes

609  See Government of Malta (2016). 

Policy%20Documents%202014/School%20Leaving%20
in%20Malta%20June%202014.pdf 

388

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSmerged in 2012); it decides which qualifications and 
awards to include in the framework. This agency 
stipulates strategic policies for further and higher 
education, promotes and maintains the MQF, 
accredits and licenses all further (post-secondary) 
and higher education institutions and programmes, 
and assists training providers in designing 
qualifications, assessment and certification. 
The Directorate for Quality and Standards in 
Education (based at the Ministry of Education and 
Employment) is responsible for quality assurance 
and standards in compulsory education.

Qualifications and awards included in the MQF 
should satisfy the following conditions (Government 
of Malta 2012c):

a.  be issued by nationally accredited institutions;
b.  be based on learning outcomes;
c.  be internally and externally quality assured;
d.  be based on workload composed of identified 

credit value;

e.  be awarded on successful completion of formal 

assessment procedures.

The term ‘qualification’ refers to substantial courses 
based on learning outcomes at the respective MQF 
level and a required minimum number of credits, 
whereas ‘award’ refers to courses which fulfil the 
level of learning, but not the requirement in terms of 
minimum credits. The terms are used to distinguish 
between ‘full qualifications’ and shorter courses at 
the respective level.

Following the setting up of the ESF project 1.227 
Making quality visible617, the NCFHE has established 
the national quality assurance framework (NCFHE, 
2015a), which sets the standards for internal and 
external quality assurance for all further and higher 
education providers. Another key deliverable was 
the manual of procedures for external quality 
assurance618, which set out procedures for the 
implementation of external quality audits. In 2015, 
the first three pilot external audits were conducted 
with the University of Malta, Malta College of Arts, 
Science and Technology, and the Institute of Tourism 
Studies619. The outcomes of the external audit 
pilots contributed to the development of a quality 
assurance system to be adapted for validation. 
The quality assurance arrangements have not 
changed since 2016, with the NCFHE remaining 
the designated competent authority for licensing, 
accreditation and quality assurance of providers 

617  ESF project 1.227 Making quality visible. https://ncfhe.

gov.mt/en/Pages/Projects/ESF%201.227%20Making%20
Quality%20Visible/esf1227_making_quality_visible.aspx 

618  See NCFHE (2016c). 
619  https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/services/Pages/All%20Services/

eqaa.aspx 

and programmes, including cross-border provision 
from Malta or in Malta. The Quality Assurance 
Department, within the Directorate for Curriculum, 
Lifelong Learning and Employability will also provide 
quality assurance support620.

A register of accredited further and higher education 
institutions and a national register of qualifications 
have been set up621. Qualifications from VET and 
higher education have been included in the national 
register, as well as non-formal and private ones. 
International qualifications have not yet been 
included. MQF and EQF levels are included in new 
certificates and diplomas and Europass supplements. 
The Malta College for Arts, Sciences and Technology 
and the University of Malta use NQF (and EQF) levels 
on certificate and diploma supplements.

The national colloquium is expected to launch the 
revised national qualifications database in the next 
year622. In November 2018, stakeholders discussed 
the development of a new qualification database, 
the introduction of the sectoral framework and the 
setting up of a new working group, which will also 
be composed of licenced educational providers as 
partners.

The NCFHE also maintains the register of accredited 
further and higher education institutions623, in 
accordance with Subsidiary Legislation 327.433 on 
licensing, accreditation and quality assurance624. The 
growth in licence holders from 30 in 2007 to 140 in 
2016 has necessitated the publication of this register. 
It also includes a list of accredited courses offered by 
licensed institutions with reference to both the MQF 
and the EQF. This register highlights the level of each 
course accredited and is updated weekly. 

An effective network to promote use of the NQF 
has been established with employers by the NCFHE 
through its qualifications recognition information 
centre. Both employers and individuals are invited 
to attend information sessions and seminars where 
they are given information about the MQF and other 
developments in further and higher education. 

Other methods of informing potential users about 
the framework include social media and the NCFHE 
website, which is continuously updated, as well as 

620  https://education.gov.mt/en/education/quality-assurance/

Pages/default.aspx

621  https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/register/Pages/register.aspx
622  This will allow for both the presentation of the findings 
from the review and linking it with available, accredited 
programmes so that individuals interested in developing 
their education in digital skills will find it easy to find 
relevant accredited programmes.

623  Both registers are available at: http://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/

register/Pages/register.aspx

624  See Government of Malta (2012a).

389

Volume II: National and regional casesdissemination of information posters,  leaflets and 
an explanatory video to public and private education 
institutions, local councils, and other government 
entities. Jobsplus625 also uses the MQF as its main 
criterion for issuing work permits, and MQF levels 
are used in incentive schemes such as scholarships 
and tax rebates (Cedefop, 2017). The NCFHE intends 
to cooperate with the Europass and Euroguidance 
contact points in Malta. Employers use the MQF in 
their recruitment and career development practices 
and the public sector specifies the required MQF 
level in its vacancy notices (Cedefop, 2017). There is 
a planned communication strategy that will include 
the dissemination of a joint leaflet for the three 
networks in exhibitions and fairs and an update of 
the MQF’s website.

The MQF is used by education and training 
institutions and providers, guidance and counselling 
practitioners, though the level of awareness differs. 
A study on the widespread understanding and 
appreciation of the Malta qualifications framework 
(MQF) and the European qualifications framework 
(EQF)626 was conducted by the NCFHE in 2016. 
Its aim was to identify the level of usefulness and 
methods of use of the MQF as well as its link to 
the EQF. One of the key messages of the study 
was that while the level of awareness of the MQF 
was high (6.9 out of 10), the awareness of the link 
between the MQF and the EQF was lower (6.61 
out of 10). Awareness was greater for those making 
regular use of the MQF. The role of academics 
and parents as multipliers of information on the 
MQF and its link to the EQF remained limited. 
This stresses the importance of direct and regular 
engagement with both frameworks to ensure good 
public awareness. Respondents to the survey 
stressed the need for the MQF to contribute 
to simplifying and accelerating accreditation, 
recognition and validation processes for the benefit 
of all involved (NCFHE, 2016b).

Another message was that MQF needs to strike 
an adequate balance between its institutional and 
intrinsic logic to ensure that it is flexible enough 
to encompass all learning. The rationale which 
underpins the design and implementation of the 
NQF should correspond to the ways in which 
education institutions, employers and others 
actually use and value qualifications (Raffe, 2009). 
In connection to the study, further research is 
to be conducted under the EQF-NCP 2018–20 
project. This includes focusing on review of MQF 
operating procedures, the body in charge of it, and 
consultation with stakeholders.

A consultation committee is expected to be set up to 
review the framework and its impact. The committee 
will be supported in its work by the MQF Coordinator 
as this will assist the scheduling, organising and 
reporting of the meetings held. The results of the 
committee meetings will advise the NCFHE on the 
development of a systematic review mechanism for 
the MQF, the implementation of impact assessment, 
and recommendations for revisions of the MQF 
arising from such an impact assessment.

Referencing to regional frameworks

In 2009, Malta was the first Member State to 
prepare a single, joint report which referenced 
the MQF to both the EQF and the qualifications 
framework in the European higher education area 
(QF-EHEA) (Malta Qualifications Council and Maltese 
Ministry of Education, Culture, Youth and Sports, 
2009). This approach has been followed by many 
other countries in their own referencing process. The 
establishment and referencing of the MQF have led 
to substantial modernisation. Further editions were 
published in 2010, 2012 and 2016627. The last – the 
fourth edition – is in use and reflects the range of 
reforms that have taken place within the education 
system over the past few years (NCFHE, 2016a). 
The MQF is also referenced to the transnational 
qualifications framework of the small States of the 
Commonwealth (TQF). The 2016 referencing report 
is currently being revised to include validation of 
non-formal and informal learning.

Important lessons and future plans

Development of the MQF has served as a catalyst 
for education reform, addressing key challenges 
in education, training and the labour market. 
Consultation on the development of the MQF and 
preparation for referencing to the EQF and the 
QF-EHEA were interrelated processes that helped 
bridge the gap between stakeholders from different 
subsystems of education and employment. The 
updated referencing report628 and the development 
of the national quality assurance framework for 
further and higher education629, as well as the 
higher education strategy630 which proposes further 
changes in the validation of informal and non-formal 
learning, are important reforms aimed at increasing 
lifelong learning, mobility and employability. 

627  See all four editions online: http://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/Pages/

625  Previously known as the Employment and Training 

Corporation: https://jobsplus.gov.mt/

626  See NCFHE (2016b). 

referencing_report.aspx

628  See NCFHE, 2016a.
629  See NCFHE, 2015b.
630  See NCFHE, 2015a.

390

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSQuality assurance in further and higher education 
has been important in guaranteeing transparency 
and efficiency in both state and non-state sectors. 
Its function is getting stronger as it safeguards 
the quality of further and higher education within 
the economic, social and cultural context, at 
national, European and international levels. All 
courses accredited by the NCFHE are included in 
the national register for accredited courses with 
identifiable credit points, improving quality in the 
educational system.

Despite the improvements brought about by the 
development and introduction of the MQF, there 
are still issues to be addressed. Although there 
has been a move towards a more modular concept 
as building blocks for qualifications to support 
lifelong learning and non-traditional learners, the 
development of accreditation and quality assurance 

parameters for digital/online learning is needed, 
as well as for work-based learning (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). The easier 
movement of students between general education 
and vocational streams is also important, along 
with better integration of non-formal learning within 
mainstream education.

The main future challenges lie with the writing of 
learning outcomes in specific study programmes and 
further promotion of the MQF, and transitions towards 
online learning. Since awareness and use of the MQF 
appear to be interlinked, the benefit and relevance of 
the framework to the needs of different actors needs 
to be ensured and made clearer. Solid guidance tools, 
regular dialogue and continuous improvement based 
on the feedback from users, have been highlighted 
as important, by the study on the widespread 
understanding and appreciation of the MQF.

Table 50. Maltese national qualifications framework (MQF)

NQF LEVELS

QUALIFICATIONS 

EQF LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

B

A

Doctoral degree

Master degree
Postgraduate diploma
Postgraduate certificate

Bachelor degree

Undergraduate diploma
Undergraduate certificate

Matriculation certificate
Advanced level
Intermediate level

VET higher diploma
foundation degree

VET diploma (iv)

General education (level 3)
Secondary school certificate grade 1–5

VET level 3 (iii)

General education (level 2)
Secondary school certificate grade 6–7

General education (level 1)
School leaving certificate

Introductory level B*

Introductory level A*

VET level 2 (ii)

VET level 1 (i)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

(*)  These are not yet included in legislation.
(i) 

 A full VET level 1 qualification should enjoy the same parity of esteem as a full secondary school certificate 
and profile (SSC&P) Level 1.

(ii)   A full VET level 2 qualification should enjoy the same parity of esteem as four secondary education certificate 

subjects at grade 6–7.

(iii)   A VET level 3 qualification should enjoy the same parity of esteem as six secondary education certificate 

subjects at grades 1–5.

(iv)   A VET diploma should enjoy the same parity of esteem as the matriculation certificate.
Source: Adapted from NCFHE (2016a). 

391

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
EQF 
ESF 
MQF 
NCFHE  

NCP 

European qualifications framework
European Social Fund
Malta qualifications framework
National Commission for Further and 
Higher Education
national coordination point

Net-QAPE   Network on quality assurance 

professionals in further and higher 
education 
national qualifications framework

NQF 
QF-EHEA   qualifications framework in the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training

VET 

Further sources of information

NCFHE – designated national coordination point: http://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/Pages/default.aspx

References

Cedefop (2016). The application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series, No 105. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/
publications-and-resources/publications/3074

Cedefop (2017). Vocational education and training in Malta: short description. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/42549

Council of the European Union (2012). Council recommendation of 20 December 2012 on the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C398, 22.12.2012, pp. 1–5. 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2012:398:0001:0005:EN:PDF

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Malta.
European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: country analysis. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/
volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Malta.

Malta Qualifications Council; Maltese Ministry of Education, Culture, Youth and Sports (2009). Referencing 

of the Malta qualifications framework (MQF) to the European qualifications framework (EQF) and the 
qualifications framework of the European higher education area (QF/EHEA). https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/
Documents/Referencing%20Report/Referencing%20Report%202009.pdf

Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment (2012). A national curriculum framework for all.  

https://curriculum.gov.mt/en/Resources/The-NCF/Documents/NCF.pdf

Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment (2014a). Framework for the education strategy for Malta 
2014–24: sustaining foundations, creating alternatives, increasing employability. https://education.
gov.mt/en/resources/Documents/Policy%20Documents%202014/BOOKLET%20ESM%202014-
2024%20ENG%2019-02.pdf

Maltese Ministry of Education and Employment (2014b). Malta national lifelong learning strategy 2020 (draft 

for public consultation). https://education.gov.mt/en/Documents/Malta%20National%20Lifelong%20
Learning%20Strategy%202020.pdf

Ministry for Education and Employment (2016). My journey: achieving through different paths: equitable 

quality education for all. Floriana: Ministry for Education and Employment. www.myjourney.edu.mt/
wp-content/uploads/2016/11/My-Journey-Booklet.pdf

NCFHE (National Commission for Higher Education) (2015a). Higher education strategy for Malta: within the 

context of the further and higher education strategy 2020 (NCHE, 2009) and the framework for the 
education strategy for Malta 2015–24. https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/resources/Documents/Strategy%20
Documents/Higher%20Education%20Strategy%20for%20Malta.pdf

NCFHE (2015b). National quality assurance framework for further and higher education. https://ncfhe.gov.
mt/en/resources/Documents/Publications/Quality%20Assurance/The%20National%20Quality%20
Assurance%20Framework%20for%20Further%20and%20Higher%20Education%20A5%20
Brochure.PDF

392

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNCFHE (2016a). Referencing of the Malta qualifications framework to the European qualifications 

framework and the qualifications framework of the European higher education area: 4th edition, 
February 2016. http://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/Documents/Referencing%20Report/Referencing%20
Report%202016.pdf

NCFHE (2016b). Study on the widespread understanding and appreciation of the Malta qualifications 

framework and the European qualifications framework. https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/resources/
Documents/Publications/The%20Malta%20Qualifications%20Framework/MQF%20-%20EQF%20
Report.pdf

NCFHE (2016c). Manual of procedures for provider licensing and programme accreditation: version 
1.2, October 2016. https://ncfhe.gov.mt/en/resources/Documents/Publications/Accreditation/
Accreditation%20Manual%20Version%201.2.pdf

Parliamentary Secretariat for Research, Innovation, Youth and Sport (2015). National youth policy: towards 
2020: a shared vision for the future of young people. https://education.gov.mt/en/resources/
Documents/Policy%20Documents/National_Youth_Policy_Towards_2020.pdf

Raffe, D. (2009) National qualifications frameworks: what can be learnt from the international experience? 

Journal of contemporary educational studies 4/2011. www.sodobna-pedagogika.net/en/
articles/04-2011_national-qualifications-frameworks-what-can-be-learnt-from-the-international-
experience/

Legislation
Government of Malta (2012a). Education Act (CAP. 327.433): further and higher education 

regulations (licensing, accreditation and quality assurance). Legal Notice 296 of 2012, as 
amended by Legal Notice 150 of 2015. www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.
aspx?app=lom&itemid=11929&l=1

Government of Malta (2012b). Education Act (CAP. 327): validation of non-formal and informal learning 

regulation, 2012. Legal Notice 295 of 2012, as amended by Legal Notice 194 of 2014.  
www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=11928&l=1
Government of Malta (2012c). Malta qualifications framework for lifelong learning. Legal Notice 294 

of 2012 (Subsidiary Legislation 327.431). www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.
aspx?app=lom&itemid=11927

Government of Malta (2012d). Subsidiary legislation 343.26. Malta qualifications council regulations. 
Legal Notice 347 of 2005. Revoked by Legal Notice 325 of 2012. www.justiceservices.gov.mt/
DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=10141&l=1

Government of Malta (2012e). Validation of non-formal and informal learning regulation. Subsidiary 

Legislation 327.432. Legal Notice 295 of 2012, as amended by Legal Notice 194 of 2014.  
www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app=lom&itemid=11928&l=1
Government of Malta (2012f). Malta qualifications framework of lifelong learning regulations, 2012.  
Legal Notice 294 of 2012. www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.aspx?app= 
lp&itemid= 23719&l=1   

Government of Malta (2016). National Skills Council (establishment), Legal Notice 278 of 2016. 
Subsidiary Legislation 327.546. www.justiceservices.gov.mt/DownloadDocument.
aspx?app=lom&itemid=12510&l=2

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

393

Volume II: National and regional casesMAURITIUS

Introduction

Policy objectives 

One of the most significant challenges currently 
facing Mauritius is the need to make education 
and qualifications more relevant to the world of 
work. To do this, it is necessary to raise the status 
of vocational training. According to Dr Kaylash 
Allgoo, director of the Mauritius Qualifications 
Authority (MQA), if problems such as the skills 
crisis, unemployment and lack of social mobility 
in Mauritius are to be solved, it is vital to change 
the perception that vocational qualifications are for 
people of lesser intelligence (Allgoo, 2013). 

Prior to the introduction of the Mauritius 
qualifications framework (MQF), there were 
a large number of education and training providers 
offering a huge variety of courses. There was no 
standardisation in subject area, level, duration or 
quality. The certificates offered by these providers 
often contained no information about the learning 
outcomes achieved in course attendance. 
As a result, the career pathways available to 
qualification holders were limited. Many were also 
hampered by historic regulations and bureaucracy. 
The system was widely seen as elitist, since 
only a fortunate few were able to gain entry into 
reputable institutions. Further, the certification 
system did not recognise learning, skills and 
knowledge acquired in informal or non-formal 
settings (Keevy et al., 2011, p. 57). 

Lacking natural resources, Mauritius’s only resource 
is its human capital. As in all parts of the world, 
rapid technological change in recent years has 
created a powerful demand for new skills and left 
the unskilled less employable. In this unforgiving 
labour market, the gap is widening between those 
who are sufficiently qualified to stay afloat and 
those who are not. It is essential that Mauritius 
gives its citizens the opportunity to gain the skills 
and qualifications they need to sustain themselves 
throughout their lives. 

The MQA was developed to improve the articulation 
between education, training and the world of work 
and to ensure that training responds to the changing 
standards and demands set by industry.

More specifically, the MQF was established to: 

a.  raise the value of vocational qualifications; 
b.  integrate education and training and promote 

lifelong learning; 

c.  improve the quality of training provision and 

provide quality assurance; 

d.  promote the mutual recognition of Mauritian and 

foreign qualifications; 

e.  give learners a clear indication of the level of 
their learning and the possibilities for further 
progression; 

f.  recognize and formally certify competences 

obtained outside formal education and training. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The MQA was established as a body under 
the Mauritius Qualifications Authority Act 2001 
and operates under the Ministry of Education 
and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and 
Scientific Research. The MQA is the national 
regulator of the technical and vocational education 
and training (TVET) sector and custodian of the 
national qualifications framework. As such, it 
has the responsibility to ensure compliance with 
provisions for registration and accreditation of 
training providers, that standards and qualifications 
are internationally comparable and to recognize and 
validate competences acquired outside of the formal 
education and training system.

The main provider of TVET in Mauritius is the 
Mauritius Institute of Training and Development, 

394

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSunder the Ministry of Education and Human 
Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific 
Research, which is currently operating 22 training 
centres in the country. The Human Resource 
Development Council, also operating under 
the Ministry, facilitates training through the 
management of the training levy/grant scheme in 
the country.

Other stakeholders include the Mauritius 
Examinations Syndicate, which has the mandate 
to organize and conduct examinations in Mauritius 
both for general/academic and TVET programmes. 

The MQA Act was amended in 2005, giving 
the MQA the new function of evaluating and 
establishing equivalences between qualifications 
obtained in the primary, secondary and post-
secondary sectors, and those obtained in non-
formal and informal settings, for example through 
workplace learning. The MQA also establishes 
355 equivalences between foreign and local 
qualifications. It has set up 20 industrial training 
advisory committees comprising experts from both 
the public and private sectors. 

In the course of this work, a number of fruitful 
collaborations have been established to develop 
qualifications in particular areas. For example, the 
MQA has worked together with the Mauritius 
Institute of Health to develop qualifications in 
health and social care. Such collaborations have 
been consolidated over the years, and sustainable 
relationships have been built with the stakeholders 
involved. 

Qualifications are included in the MQF based on 
their potential to equip learners with the skills 
required to meet the demands of the economy. The 
industrial training advisory committees oversee the 
quality, relevance and international comparability of 
MQF qualifications, making sure that they are ‘fit for 
purpose’ and accord with industry expectations. 

So far the MQA has generated some 
143 qualifications together with 3,710 unit standards 
in the following sectors: agriculture, automobiles, 
adult literacy, beauty and hairdressing, building 
construction and civil works, early childhood 
education and care, electrical and electronics 
engineering, furniture-making, handicrafts, health 
and social care, information and communications 
technology, jewellery-making, language, 
management, mechanical engineering, printing, 
seafood and marine industry, textiles and apparel, 
tourism and hospitality, and transport and logistics. 

MQF qualifications are offered by both public and 
private providers. 

Only nationally recognized qualifications from 
accredited awarding bodies are included in the 
MQF. At present there are four awarding bodies: 
the Mauritius Institute of Training and Development, 
the Mauritius Institute of Health, the University 
of Mauritius, and the University of Technology. 
International awarding bodies include the City and 
Guilds and the Association of Business Executives. 

One of the functions of the MQA is to register and 
accredit training institutions. Currently, around 525 
training providers are registered with the MQA, 
offering TVET programmes both with and without 
awards. Training institutions have to meet strict 
requirements regarding safety, security, finances, 
equipment, resources and infrastructure. The MQA 
has formulated a set of quality assurance standards 
in accordance with the MQA Act 2001, starting with 
the registration of training institutions and staff, and 
the accreditation of programmes. Institutions are 
registered for up to three years subject to continued 
compliance with conditions and regulations, in order 
to safeguard the interests of learners. The MQA 
accredits courses through a three-stage process.

a.  A self-evaluation report is prepared by the 

training institution based on criteria defined by 
the MQA.

b.  The report is validated following an on-site visit 

by a team appointed by the MQA.
c.  Accreditation is recommended by the 

accreditation committee and approved by the 
director of the MQA. 

The MQA also approves non-award courses 
intended to upgrade skills and employability. 
Approval of non-award courses not only ensures the 
quality of education and training offered, but also 
encourages lifelong learning. However, non-award 
courses are not registered on the MQF. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The MQF is a 10-level framework ranging from 
Primary School Achievement Certificate (PSAC) at 
level 1 up to doctorates at level 10. It covers all three 
education sectors: primary and secondary education 
(levels 1–5), TVET/workplace training (levels 1–10) 
and tertiary education (levels 6–10). MQF levels are 
described with descriptors which state the expected 
learning outcomes thus facilitating links between 
the different streams. 

395

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 51. Mauritius qualifications framework (MQF)

MAURITIUS QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY

THE NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK

LEVEL

PRIMARY / SECONDARY 
EDUCATION

TVET / WORKPLACE

TERTIARY EDUCATION

LEVEL

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctorate

Masters Degrees e.g. MA, 
MSc, MPhil Post-Graduate 
Diploma, Post-Graduate 
Certificate

Bacherlor Degree with 
Honours

Bachelor (Ordinary Degree)

HSC / GCE 'A' Level / BAC 
/ IBAC / HSC Professional

National Diploma Level 6

Diploma

National Certificate Level 5

Certificate

SC / GCE 'O' Level

National Certificate Level 3

National Certificate Level 4

National Certificate of 
Education (NCE)

Primary School 
Achievement Certificate 
(PSAC)

National Certificate Level 2

National Certificate Level 1

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

A significant proportion of the Mauritian labour 
force have acquired skills and competences through 
workplace or other forms of non-formal or informal 
learning, without having undergone any academic or 
formal training.

The MQA has introduced mechanisms for the 
recognition of prior learning (RPL) with the aim 
to ‘recognize and validate competences for the 
purpose of certification obtained outside the formal 
education and training systems’. RPL renders 
visible, and rewards, knowledge and skills, no 
matter what learning environment they were 
acquired in, allowing individuals greater mobility 
within the labour market. People who have dropped 
out of the education and training system can now 
re-enter it without starting again at the lowest level. 
They can acquire qualifications from levels 2–4 of 
the MQF through validation of their prior learning. 

The RPL process comprises four stages: pre-
application, pre-screening, facilitation and 

assessment. Candidates are provided with services 
and support in terms of advice and counselling in 
the first stages of the process. The MQA ensures 
that they are eligible to claim RPL and have selected 
the appropriate qualifications. In the facilitation 
stage candidates are assigned a facilitator who 
helps them to build a portfolio of evidence to be 
submitted for assessment. At the assessment 
stage, the awarding body compares this with the 
standards required at the level assessed before 
awarding a formal qualification.

The RPL model has been widely accepted by all 
stakeholders. Employers have welcomed RPL since 
it provides them with qualified and well-motivated 
personnel. Since the pathways for further learning 
have been clearly defined, some trade unions have 
shown greater interest in the system.  

Pilot RPL projects have been funded by the 
National Empowerment Foundation. Training of RPL 
facilitators and assessors is a continuous process 
with the ultimate aim of implementing RPL in all 
sectors. Awareness campaigns have been organized 
throughout the island to inform the public about the 
development and benefits of the MQF and RPL. 

396

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferencing to regional frameworks 

Mutual recognition and harmonisation of 
qualifications frameworks across the globe is 
rapidly becoming a necessity. The MQA has signed 
memoranda of technical cooperation with Barbados, 
Botswana, Namibia, The Gambia, Ghana, Réunion, 
Seychelles, Tanzania and Zambia. The MQA is 
working in close collaboration with countries in the 
African region through the Virtual University for 
Small States of the Commonwealth, an initiative of 
ministers of education which aims to build human 
resource capacity in small Commonwealth countries 
to stimulate an increase in the courses they offer 
and to facilitate the transfer of credits and qualified 
people across borders. 

The MQA is a member of the Southern African 
Development Community (SADC) Technical 
Committee on Certification and Accreditation and 
works towards aligning the MQA to the SADC 
qualifications framework.

Important lessons and future plans 

The process of designing and implementing the MQF 
has led to enhanced synergy between academia and 
the TVET sector, as well as between education and 
training and the world of work. This is partly due to 
the improved visibility of the outcomes of non-formal 
and informal learning as a result of the MQF. 

The Mauritius education and training system is 
currently undergoing reforms with the introduction 
of the Nine-Year Continuous Basic Education 
(NYCBE) plan implemented in 2017. The NYCBE is 
in line with the international commitment to the 
UN SDGs and aims, among others, to ‘give greater 
recognition to the value of TVET in building human 

QAF 
RPL 
SADC 

TVET 

References

capital that will spearhead the transformation of 
the Republic into a knowledge-based, skills driven 
economy’ (Ministry of Education and Human 
Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific 
Research, 2016).

TVET has therefore an important role to play in 
the NYCBE. Entry to TVET will be delayed until the 
end of basic education (abolishing pre-vocational 
education) and new pathways at post-secondary 
and tertiary education will be opened for TVET 
graduates, notably with the establishment of 
polytechnics. The latter currently offer programmes 
in ICT, hospitality and tourism, languages, 
engineering and health. 

Another relevant development is the introduction by 
the MQA of the new Quality Assurance Framework 
(QAF) for the TVET sector. It aims to ensure that 
the MQA and training institutions work together to 
enhance the quality of TVET and to have a single 
unified quality assurance process for the promotion 
of the sector. The QAF comprises the following 
components: (i) the QAF process; (ii) quality principles; 
(iii) self-assessment report; and (iv) audit (MQA, 2018).

Abbreviations
MQA 
MQF 
NYCBE 

Mauritius Qualifications Authority
Mauritius qualifications framework
nine-year continuous basic education 
plan
quality assurance framework
recognition of prior learning
Southern African Development 
Community
technical and vocational education 
and training

Allgoo, K. (2007). The national qualifications framework in context: the Mauritian experience. Paper 

delivered at the IVETA Conference Mauritius. Port Luis: MQA. 

Allgoo, K. (2010). The introduction of recognition of prior learning in TVET Mauritius: the Mauritian RPL 

model. Mauritius Qualifications Authority report. Port Luis: MQA. 

Keevy, J.; Charraud, M.; Allgoo, K. (2011). National qualifications frameworks developed in Anglo-Saxon 

and French traditions: considerations for sustainable development in Africa. Paper prepared by the 
Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) for its Triennial meeting on education 
and training, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 27 November to 2 December 2011. Tunis: ADEA. 

Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research (2016). 

Inspiring every child. Accessed 20 March 2019 at: http://ministry-education.govmu.org/English/
educationsector/nys/Documents/NYCBE%20Booklet.pdf

MQA (2018). Quality Assurance Framework for the TVET Sector in Mauritius. Accessed 21 March 2019 at: 

www.mqa.mu/English/Documents/QAF.pdf

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

397

Volume II: National and regional casesMEXICO

Introduction and context

The Mexican qualifications framework (Marco 
Mexicano de Cualificaciones [MMC]) is a 
comprehensive framework developed by the 
General Directorate of Accreditation, Authorisation 
and Recognition (Dirección General de Acreditación, 
Incorporación y Revalidación [DGAIR]), within the 
Secretariat of Public Education (DGAIR, 2011a).

While Mexico’s economic productivity has grown 
over the last two decades, the pace of growth today 
is lower than in other emerging economies. This is 
largely attributable to deficiencies in human capital, 
workforce training and education. The country was 
ranked 100th overall out of 148 countries, 124th in 
mathematics and science, 81st in information and 
communications technology, and 75th in the uptake 
of new technology in business.

Due to demographic changes and migration of 
many young people to the USA, a gradual aging 
of the population has taken place. At the same 
time, the proportion of people who never entered 
school or who left school early is higher than 
those who are registered in initial education. 
Regardless of these facts, Mexican society is 
credentialist and places high importance on 
qualification levels. Raising levels of education, 
skills development and social engagement are 
therefore seen as crucial for the continued 
development of a strong social and economic 
democracy in Mexico. 

Over the last decade, capacity building in higher 
education has been the main concern of the 
Mexican higher education policy. The gross 
enrolment ratio of 19- to 23-year-olds was only 13% 
in 1991–92, yet reached 32.4 two decades later. In 
2008, however, Mexico’s enrolment coverage was 
still the lowest among the big countries in Latin 
America, which includes Argentina, Brazil and Chile, 
and was the lowest recorded by the Organization for 
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 
where most countries are well above 50 or even 
70% (e.g., in the Nordic region). 

Most of the growth in Mexican higher education 
has been at the licenciatura level (i.e. the first 
degree, requiring 4.5–5 years of study); shorter 
vocational higher education grew at a much slower 
pace (it represents only 1% of graduates in Mexico 
compared to an OECD average of 9%). In recent 
years, Mexico’s attention has therefore focused 
more on postgraduate studies. 

A major priority of the Secretariat of Public 
Education is to increase the contribution of higher 
education to the development of the country and 
its transition to the knowledge society. Graduates 
currently experience a higher than average 
private return on their higher education studies, 
with smoother access to the labour market than 
elsewhere in Latin America and in Europe. 

Policy objectives

The main objectives of the MMC are to: 

•  serve as a reference for the process of 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

certification, which is the responsibility of the 
DGAIR;
recognize partial qualifications through the 
accumulation and transfer of credits;
recognize existing qualifications in the national 
education system in cooperation with other 
national bodies and institutions;
recognize learning outcomes from formal, non-
formal and informal learning;
facilitate the readability and coherence of each 
qualification in the national system of education;
improve the quality, accessibility and 
comparability of qualifications as well as of 
labour certification by explicitly classifying 
qualifications according to complexity of level 
descriptors;

•  cover all sectors: general education, higher 

education, vocational and technical education as 
well as labour competences; learning in formal, 
non-formal and informal learning settings; as 
well as knowledge, skills and broader social and 
personal competences, aptitudes and values;

398

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS• 

improve comparability between different 
subsystems of the education system – i.e., 
formal, non-formal and informal – and between 
vocational education and training and labour 
competences. 

•  offering recognition and certification to all 

who require it, including private sector and 
self-employed workers, government workers, 
teachers and students;

•  developing educational curricula aligned to the 

The National System of Competence Standards 
(NSCS) is a framework for the recognition and 
accreditation of labour competences. It is based on 
six strategic principles:

NSCS;

•  promoting new paradigms for assessment based 
on demonstration of competences in addition to 
traditional knowledge tests.

•  helping employers, workers, educators and 

the government to work together to improve 
economic competitiveness and growth;
involving all sector leaders in setting agendas 
and making decisions;

• 

•  encouraging employers and workers to play an 

active role in designing the NSCS, thus fostering 
demand for competent workers;

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The MMC has eight levels and is similar in design 
to the European Qualifications Framework. 
Competences are evaluated through the NSCS, 
which, in addition to providing for technical 
and professional education, includes five levels 
dedicated to vocational qualifications. 

Table 52. Mexican qualifications framework (MMC)

MMC 
LEVELS

REFERENCE TO UNESCO ISCED LEVELS 

REFERENCE TO THE LEVELS IN THE 
MMC IN THE FIELD OF GENERAL AND 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

ISCED 8: Doctoral level education or equivalent 

Doctorate

ISCED 7: Master level education or equivalent

Master’s degree (7B)

Diploma of higher specialization (7A)

ISCED 6: Bachelor level or equivalent

Bachelor’s degree

ISCED 5: Short-cycle tertiary education or 
equivalent

Professional licence (5B)

Technical licence (5B)

Associate professional (5A)

Superior technician (5A)

ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education

Superior technician

ISCED 3: Upper secondary education

General secondary or equivalent (3B)

Vocational secondary technician (3B)

Basic technician (3A)

Assistant technician (3A)

ISCED 2: Lower secondary education

Secondary

ISCED 1: Primary education

Primary

ISCED 1: Early childhood education

Preschool (0B)

Initial education (0A)

Note: ISCED is UNESCO’s International Standard Classification of Education (UIS, 2012). 

Source: Mexican Qualifications Framework (MMC, 2014).

399

Volume II: National and regional casesThe five labour competence level descriptors 
developed by the National Council for 
Standardization and Certification of Labour 
Competences (CONOCER) are aligned with the first 
five levels in the MMC. CONOCER adopts a holistic 
approach to competences. ‘Competence’ may refer 
to any combination of the following:

• 

the knowledge and abilities required to 
execute a particular function in any service or 
manufacturing sector;

•  social skills, including the ability to work in teams 
and build social networks based on relationships 
of trust with others;

•  attitudes, including self-reliance and resilience, 
motivation to achieve projected goals, and the 
strength to fight for one’s beliefs;
intellectual competences, including the ability to 
generate new ideas;

• 

•  ethical competences, including core values and a 

sense of right and wrong.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The DGAIR is responsible for the development of 
the MMC; its other relevant responsibilities include: 
regulating and assessing the national system of 
accreditation and certification of studies, promoting 
the national and international mobility of students, 
regulating the operation of private providers of 
education, and allocating scholarships. 

Stakeholders from all sectors (industry, education 
and civil society) have participated in the 
development of the MMC, and CONOCER has 
been active on issues related to the National 
System of Competence Standards (NSCS) and on 
equivalencies with formal educational degrees. 
The NSCS was created by CONOCER to organize, 
implement and regulate the recognition and 
accreditation of all learning: formal, non-formal and 
informal. A government organization with a three-
party governance model, CONOCER provides a 
platform for linking education and the world of work 
in order to make the Mexican labour force more 
competitive. NSCS recognition practices are agreed 
by all stakeholders: employers, workers, educators 
and the government. They are designed to ensure 
that Mexican society has a competent workforce, 
thus promoting economic growth, educational 
development and social progress. Mexico’s NSCS is 
sustained by three institutional pillars, which are:

1.  sector committees;
2.  mechanisms for alignment between educational 

curricula and on-the-job training; 
3.  a national structure for evaluation and 

certification.

Sector committees comprising employers and 
workers develop competence standards for the 
economic sector they represent. They may also 
adjust educational curricula and recommend the 
creation of ad-hoc programmes. Members are 
high-level executives and experts from key areas 
(e.g. production, logistics, sales, purchasing, human 
resources, research and development), as well as 
representatives of employers’ organizations, social 
organizations and government institutions.

Mechanisms for aligning educational curricula with 
on-the-job training depend on the competence 
standards developed by the sector committees. 
These are formally enshrined in the National 
Register of Competence Standards, which functions 
as a national reference for CONOCER-certified 
affiliates. 

The national structure for evaluation and certification 
is a network of training, evaluation and certification 
providers which assures credibility to users, both 
within the country and internationally.

All formal basic education and most upper-medium 
(baccalaureate and technological) education is 
coordinated by the Secretariat of Public Education 
(SEP); however, some institutions for upper-medium 
education are run or recognized by autonomous 
universities or by the National Polytechnic Institute 
(Instituto Polotécnico Nacional [IPN]). SEP issues 
nationally valid formal certificates at the end of 
primary, secondary, upper-medium and higher 
education, and confers technical titles upon 
completion of a specialization in upper-medium 
technological education. On behalf of SEP, the 
General Directorate of (Liberal) Professions registers 
and confers títulos (titles) upon completion of 
bachelor’s and master’s degrees, and doctorates. 

In addition to this, the Secretariats of Education, 
Labour and Economy, which belong to the governing 
board of CONOCER, have been working together 
for some time on improving training, evaluation 
and certification in the workplace. This involves 
identifying the sectors of the economy that are 
most in need of greater human capital, and using 
competence standards to make educational 
curricula more relevant to the needs of these 
sectors.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Since the 1990s, lifelong learning has played 
an increasingly important role in the thinking of 
Mexican policymakers, and a number of measures 
have been introduced accordingly. The conception 

400

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand development of Agreement 286 (and the 
associated agreements) is a key policy response 
to the above challenges. It is designed to give 
learners access to all levels of the education 
system by offering an alternative pathway to that 
provided by the formal system. This act also allows 
equivalences of competence certificates with 
credits of formal education programmes at the 
vocational and professional levels. The Mexican 
approach distinguishes between separate pathways 
to the same educational or qualification outcome. 
The informal and non-formal pathways, though 
outside the traditional institutional structures, are 
nevertheless considered significant enough to be 
deemed equivalent pathways to a qualification 
(Campero Cuenca et al., 2008).

Mexico displays a sub-sectoral approach to the 
recognition of non-formal and informal learning, 
with different approaches in primary and secondary 
education, higher education and the employment 
sector.

The Mexican national education system covers 
all schools in the country, public (federal and 
state) and private. It consists of four main levels: 
basic education; upper-middle (baccalaureate and 
technological) education, which can be either 
terminal or a preparation for further study; bachelor’s 
degrees; and postgraduate degrees (including 
specializations, master’s degrees and doctoral 
degrees). The system also includes training-for-
work via technical diplomas. In Mexico, alternative 
pathways for basic education for youth and adults 
as well as certification are the main responsibility of 
the National Institute for Adult Education (Instituto 
Nacional para la Educación de los Adultos [INEA]).

Standards for recognizing the competences 
of employers and workers are developed by 
CONOCER, which also accredits the assessment 
and certification unit standards and issues official 
labour competence certificates. Companies, 
whatever their focus, are now legally obliged 
to provide their employees with training and 
skills development based on the standards of 
competence set out in the NSCS. Assessment is 
based on portfolios of evidence, observation of 
work performance, interviews and demonstration of 
knowledge. Where necessary, attitudes, behaviour 
and personal values may also be assessed. 

Tools for assessment are designed to have a 
positive impact on the career development of both 
employers and employees, thus contributing to 
the success of the organization. Trainees in some 
international companies in Mexico are even involved 
in designing their own learning processes and in 
recognizing and validating the competences gained 

from them. In most companies, however, models 
for assessment are still in the process of being 
developed. Policies for the recognition of prior 
learning are designed to provide value and credibility 
for employers, workers, educators and society in 
general. This involves:

1.  recognizing competences that are relevant to a 

particular sector;

2.  conducting recognition and accreditation in a 

way that is credible for employers;

3.  providing mobility and better working conditions, 

including higher salaries, for employees;

4.  generating information to help align educational 
curricula with the requirements of industrial 
sectors.

Certification of competences under the NSCS is 
largely driven by the need to make certain industries 
more economically competitive. Certification 
often occurs as a result of a personal decision by 
employers, trade unions, academic institutions 
or individuals within the industry concerned. 
In the case of voluntary work, certification is 
often mandatory in order to comply with the 
legal requirements of government institutions, 
government-funded civil organizations, or 
international institutions. Specific programmes 
for certification of competences exist for disabled 
people, non-Spanish-speaking indigenous people 
and social workers serving these sectors, as well 
as in the areas of childcare and women’s protection. 
Low-skilled workers who lack formal education 
can have their labour competences evaluated and 
certified by a national programme managed by INEA 
and credited by CONOCER. The Secretariat of Public 
Education is continually engaged in identifying 
targets for the recognition of prior learning in 
particular industries and areas of the country. 
Employers and trade unions play a significant 
role in this process, both in the design of training 
programmes and in the evaluation and certification 
of workers’ competences according to the NSCS 
framework. 

NQF implementation

The implementation of the Mexican qualifications 
framework benefits from the comprehensive quality 
assurance system and the link to the Mexican Bank 
of Academic Credits.

Curricula in recognized national educational 
institutions are set by the DGAIR and certificates 
awarded by the Secretariat of Public Education 
(De Anda, 2010, pp. 5–8). Outside the national 
education system, constancias (diplomas) are 
awarded for certain courses and for non-formal 

401

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 53. Mexican Bank of Academic Credits

MQF 
LEVELS

LEVELS

DOCUMENTATION OF 
CERTIFICATION (NSCS)

CREDITS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Doctorate 

Master’s degree

Diploma of higher 
specialization

300 credits (3 years)

60–120 credits (1–2 years)

Professional licence

Specialized diploma

240–300 (4–5 years)

Superior technician 

Advanced diploma

120–180 (2–3.5 years)

Professional technician

Certificate IV

136–180 (2–3 years)

Bachelor’s degree

Certificate III

91–135 (1–2 years)

Secondary

Primary

Preschool

Certificate II

Certificate I

46–90 (3 years)

1–45 (6 years)

Certificate of preschool

(3 years)

Source: DGAIR, 2011b

education. Following completion of certain legally 
required procedures, these diplomas can be 
recognized by the Secretariat of Public Education as 
equivalent to qualifications in the national system. 

In October 2012, the Secretariat of Public Education 
introduced the Mexican Bank of Academic 
Credits631. This allows certificates of accredited 
certification centres, including those from 
CONOCER, to count towards formal educational 
programmes at upper-middle and higher levels.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Both the MQF and the NSCS aspire to create 
links with international qualifications frameworks 
in order to facilitate labour mobility within the 
country, the region and eventually the wider world 
(García-Bullé, 2013). 

In light of the internationalization of higher 
education, Mexico is developing transparency tools 
to facilitate mobility and academic cooperation 
across regions, particularly with the European 
Union. Historically, the emphasis of ‘good-quality’ 
higher education has been based on cooperation 
and mobility with the USA. Proximity and the North 
American Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA) play a big 
role in US-Mexico trade and migration relations. 

Important lessons and future plans 

While several of the reforms in qualifications and 
credit systems have been initiated by the DGAIR, 
they can only be successfully implemented with the 
full support of the federal government as whole.

The MMC has facilitated the work of CONOCER 
by setting out equivalencies between labour 
certificates and formal educational degrees.

The recognition model of CONOCER is succeeding 
in Mexico. More than 706,000 certificates were 
issued up to 2016 and there is an expected growth 
of 36% annually. The National Competence Standard 
System in Mexico, although promoted and regulated 
by government, is driven by employers and workers. 
Social partners (employers, trade unions, and the 
voluntary sector) participate in the design and 
development of competence standards through 
sector committees responsible for evaluating and 
certifying workers in their sectors. These standards 
are then utilized by the educational sector for 
curricula adjustments and validation.

Although the recognition of prior learning of labour 
competences is promoted, regulated and financed 
by the federal government through CONOCER, it 
is driven by employers, workers’ associations and 
academic institutions. 

631  Article 8 of the Announcement published by the DGAIR 
on the official Mexican Government diary of 4 October 
2012.

At a deeper level, the success of the Mexican 
initiative is perhaps also explained by the fact that it 
is fundamentally motivated by a desire to increase 

402

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScompetitiveness in order to promote progress and 
prosperity. Operational issues of training, evaluation 
and certification, although critical, are seen as 

instruments for the pursuit of this aim and not as 
ends in themselves. 

Abbreviations
CONOCER   National Council for Standardization 

DGAIR  

and Certification of Labour 
Competences 
Dirección General de Acreditación, 
Incorporación y Revalidación 
(General Directorate of Accreditation, 
Authorisation and Recognition)

INEA 

MMC 

NSCS 

SEP 

Instituto Nacional para la Educación 
de los Adultos (National Institute for 
Adult Education)
Marco Mexicano de Cualificaciones 
(Mexican qualifications framework)
National System of Competence 
Standards
Secretariat of Public Education 

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DGAIR (2011b). Normas Aplicables a La Asignación, Acumulación, Incorporación y Revalidación Official 

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de créditos académicos (SAATCA) 2014–2015. Normas de Acreditación y Certificación 
correspondientes a los conocimientos, habilidades, capacidades y destrezas adquiridos a través del 
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García-Bullé, S. (2012). Towards a National System of Standards of Competence, for Competitiveness, 

Educational Development and Social Progress of all Mexicans. Mexico: CONOCER. Accessed 
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Garc%2B%C2%A1a%20-%20Bull%2B%C2%AC.pdf

National Council for Standardization and Certification of Labour Competences (CONOCER). Website. 

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Singh, M. and Duvekot, R. (eds) (2013). Linking Recognition Practices to National Qualifications 

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2011. Montreal: UIS.

World Bank (2016). Data. Washington, DC, The World Bank. Accessed 22 December 2016 at: http://data.

worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=MX&order=wbapi_data_value_2011+wbapi_data_
value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL).

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Volume II: National and regional casesMOLDOVA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
Moldova adopted a national qualifications framework 
(NQF) in 2010 in higher education. In November, it 
adopted an eight-level NQF for all levels.

Moldova participates in the Bologna Process in 
higher education and the European area for higher 
education. The country has developed tools and 
approaches to create new qualifications and now 
needs to move towards implementation and 
delivery.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
The main factors shaping the structure of the 
population and demographic change in Moldova are 
ageing and migration. The official population figure 
of 3.55 million in 2017 from the National Bureau of 
Statistics shows a decrease of 9,000 people since 
2012. However, alternative sources indicate that 
official statistics overestimate the actual size of 
the population. A Population Barometer conducted 
by the Demographic Research Centre suggests 
that the actual Moldovan population is around 
2.9 million, pointing to an overestimation of over 
660,000 people (16%). This difference is attributable 
to the official definition of migration and the related 
records, which include migrants no longer residing 
in the country, even for over a year. According to an 
ILO report, over 888,000 Moldovans (23% of the 
total population) were living outside the country in 
2015 (mainly in Russia and Italy). Outward migration 
plays an important socioeconomic role in the 
country and remittances contribute substantially to 
consumption, accounting for an estimated 23.4% 
of GDP. 

pensions. Moreover, in the following decades the 
population decline will continue at rapid pace.  
In accordance with the demographic forecast  
(2015–35), the annual decrease in population will 
fluctuate between 1.1 and 2%. The National Strategic 
Programme on Demographic Security (2011–25) 
aims at implementing demographic stabilisation 
policies in order to increase labour market supply 
and improve conditions for safety and welfare to 
discourage outward migration. More than half the 
population is rural, making Moldova a country with 
one of the lowest levels of urbanization in Europe.

Moldova is a small lower-middle-income economy, 
with rather high share of agriculture in economy and 
employment, and uneven territorial distribution of 
economic opportunities and growth, as Chisinau, 
the capital city, generates more than half of 
GDP. The main economic activities that generate 
revenues for GDP are manufacturing (food products 
constitute 37%), trade, agriculture, construction and 
transportation, as well as ICT and communication 
services.

Following the 2015 recession (due, not least, to 
large scale banking fraud), Moldova’s economy 
recovered in 2017. There was a GDP growth of 4.5%, 
backed by a good performance in agriculture (good 
harvest supported export growth to +12.7%) and 
private consumption (increased by 4.9% in 2017) 
that was fuelled by remittances, strong growth in 
wages and the indexation of public transfers in 2016. 
Growth is expected to be robust and reach 3.8% 
in 2018 and 3.7% in 2019, still below the historical 
averages of 4.6%. With economic outlook in the 
baseline scenario subject to considerable external 
and internal risks, further structural reforms are 
needed for private sector growth and job creation.

Demographic ageing is clearly visible in the 
population structure. The share of young people 
(aged 15–24) in the active population has declined 
from 20.3% in 2012 to 15.5% in 2017. The increasing 
dependency ratios – youth (21.3%), senior citizens 
(14%) – have important economic and social 
implications, threatening sustainable growth and the 
future sustainability of social protection, including 

Moldova’s development path in recent years 
has been guided by the Association Agreement 
between Moldova and the European Union (signed 
in 2014 and fully in force from July 2016). Deep 
and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), 
a component of the Association Agreement, 
provides for mutual elimination of customs duties 
on industrial and most agricultural products and 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSfor further liberalization of the services market. 
It also addresses other barriers to trade and 
reforms in economic governance, with the goal of 
strengthening transparency and competition and 
adopting EU product standards.

Moldova has been spending a high percentage of its 
GDP on education (around 7%) in the last decade, 
although it has entered a trend of decline from 
6.9% in 2015 to 6.4% in 2017. The relatively high 
levels of education expenditure pays off in terms 
of relatively high education attainment of active 
population (aged 15+). In 2017, 55.6% of population 
have attained medium level education, 24.5% high 
level education and 19.9% low level education. 
However, there is a negative trend of an increasing 
share of population with low level education (16.5% 
in 2012) and decreasing share with medium level of 
education (57.8% in 2012) and high level education 
(25.7% in 2012). 

Moldova has relatively low enrolment rates 
in primary and secondary education; in 2015, 
net enrolment rates were 86.85% and 76.4% 
respectively. At the same time, gross enrolment 
rate in higher education is relatively high, 41.21% 
in 2015. Vocational education and training (VET) is 
well represented at the upper secondary level and 
enrolments in vocational programmes is increasing, 
reaching 48.7% in 2017, in comparison to 35.4% in 
2012. Moldova has a significant problem with school 
dropouts, as the number of early leavers (although 
slightly decreasing) remains very high (one in five of 
those aged 18–24).

The National Development Strategy ‘Moldova 2020’ 
represents the overall strategic vision of the 
government for the period 2012–20. Its main policy 
objective is to promote sustainable economic 
development and poverty reduction. One of its 
priorities is ‘aligning the education system to 
labour market needs in order to enhance labour 
productivity and increase employment in the 
economy’. The Strategy for Development of 
Education for 2014–20, ‘Education 2020’ stresses 
the importance of quality of education and lifelong 
learning and, in particular, relevance of the labour 
market. It aims at increasing access to education 
and lifelong learning, ensuring the relevance of 
studies for life, active citizenship and success 
in career, and developing an effective system of 
evaluation, monitoring and quality assurance in 
education.

The Education Code (2014) establishes the legal 
framework for organisation, implementation and 
development of education and provides basis 
for modernisation of the education and training 
system. The Code structures the education system 

into levels and cycles following the ISCED 2011 
system and establishes a new professional training 
system in the form of TVET (technical/vocational 
education) that has two paths: secondary TVET 
(vocational schools and centres of excellence) 
and post-secondary TVET (colleges and centres of 
excellence).

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Dissatisfaction with the existing education and 
training system among the general population is one 
of the main reasons for the education reforms that 
underpin the development of the NQF in Moldova. 
A range of policy documents have been adopted 
recently to create a much clearer policy framework 
for education and training reforms and for the 
NQF. These include the Moldova 2020 strategy, 
the Strategy for the Development of Technical 
Vocational Education 2013–20, the Strategy for 
the Development of Education 2014–20, the new 
Education Code 2014, the Association Agreement 
between the Republic of Moldova and the EU and 
the Association Agenda. These policies underline 
the importance and need of an integrated lifelong 
learning approach: to develop VET and adult learning; 
to improve access, relevance and the quality of 
education; and to adapt and diversify the changes 
to needs identified in the labour market. The NQF 
is a tool for each of these policy documents. The 
Moldova 2020 National Development Strategy 
recognises that professional training is a key 
dimension for sustainable development. The first 
of the seven development priorities is ‘linking the 
education system to labour market demands in 
order to increase productivity and employment’.

According to the Strategy for the Development of 
Technical Vocational Education 2013–20, technical 
vocational education has to become attractive, 
qualitative, and relevant to market demands; 
affordable, career-oriented and flexible; and must 
allow for the validation of non-formal and informal 
learning and for mobility throughout Europe in 
compliance with the provisions of the Copenhagen 
Process and the Bruges Communiqué. Graduates 
of the technical vocational education system 
should have increased employment opportunities 
because of the key skills, attitudes and professional 
competences acquired. The modernisation of 
professional training and the improvement of 
mechanisms for continuous in-work training will 
enable people to adapt to new labour market 
conditions. Strategic partnerships between the 
education system and the labour market should 
be created to allow the education system to adapt 
quantitatively, qualitatively and structurally to 

405

Volume II: National and regional caseslabour demand. Technical and vocational education 
providers will provide training at level 3 and 4 of 
the NQF, merging secondary VET and secondary 
specialised education into one integrated system. 
VET graduates should expect enhanced job 
opportunities as a result of improved key skills, 
attitudes and professional competences. 

A National Quality Agency should be responsible 
for assessment and accreditation of providers; and 
curricula and trainer development should be aligned 
with the NQF. The Strategy for Education 2020 
stresses the importance of the quality of education, 
competences and lifelong learning and, particularly, 
the relevance of the labour market. It defines 
policies for better access, improved relevance, 
enhanced quality and a stronger focus on the 
efficiency of public expenditure in education and 
training. It goes beyond the VET strategy, providing 
a detailed analysis of the situation in each subsector 
of the education system and proposes concrete 
actions as solutions. It stresses that adult learning 
provision should be extended in line with social and 
economic needs, and better integrated with the 
initial education system. The structures and quality 
of education in Moldova should make it comparable 
with the European area for higher education. New 
policies should be tested and then improved. 
Solutions that have worked well elsewhere 
should be considered for adoption, and the role of 
institutions should be clarified and developed.

The Strategy for Education 2020 was adopted 
following the introduction of the new Education 
Code (2014), which provides the legal basis of the 
reforms, including a strong orientation towards 
lifelong learning that includes general, technical 
vocational, higher education and continuous training 
for adults. Learning outcomes established for eight 
key competences should be provided to every 
citizen, together with the introduction of a credit 
system, as well as a system for the recognition of 
non-formal and informal learning.

International cooperation
The Association Agreement and the Association 
Agenda state that Moldova and the EU shall 
cooperate to develop an NQF to improve the 
transparency and recognition of qualifications and 
competences. 

transparency and recognition of qualifications 
and competences; promoting the aims set out in 
the Copenhagen process on enhanced European 
cooperation in vocational education and training.’

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The national qualifications framework of the 
Republic of Moldova (NQFRM) is designed to 
support a lifelong learning approach as an eight-
level framework that corresponds to the eight level 
descriptors defined in the European qualifications 
framework (EQF). The lifelong learning approach 
is an important facet of the EQF, as are the higher 
education Bologna reforms associated with the 
qualifications framework in the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA). However, there are 
various interpretations of exactly what ‘lifelong 
learning’ can mean in practice. 

Two different processes can be identified 
in Moldova. While discussion on the higher 
education dimension of the national framework 
started in 2006, within the context of the 
Bologna commitments, the conceptualisation 
of a comprehensive NQF started relatively 
recently. Current progress towards developing 
an overarching NQF is driven by a desire to 
align to the EQF. Two approaches, therefore, are 
used to describe the structure of the NQF. The 
first is an occupationally-oriented set of level 
descriptors based on three generalised indexes of 
human activity: diversity of empowerments and 
responsibility (general competences); complexity 
of activity (nature of competences); and scientific 
intensity of activity (knowledge). The second 
adopts a lifelong learning approach that can be 
directly referenced to the EQF but goes beyond 
EQF descriptors by covering not only knowledge, 
skills and competences, but also by including a 
chart describing how the given level of qualification 
can be attained. The existence of two sets of level 
descriptors is not unique to Moldova. However, 
while the purpose of each set of level descriptors 
is explained, using two different sets does not 
promote an integrated approach to the NQF. From 
a technical point of view it seems feasible to 
integrate both sets of descriptors.

•  Article 122: ‘The parties shall cooperate to 
promote lifelong learning and encourage 
cooperation and transparency at all levels of 
education and training, with a special focus on 
higher education.’ 

•  Article 123: ‘The cooperation shall focus, inter 
alia, on the following areas: [...] establishing a 
national qualification framework to improve the 

A draft Act was issued in September 2016 setting 
up the national qualifications framework of the 
Republic of Moldova, providing instructions for its 
implementation, functioning and administrative 
supervision in accordance with Articles 66 and 97 
of the Education Code. The NQF is defined as ‘a 
unique system at the national level or at the level 
of an education system, known and accepted by 

406

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthe international community, and through which all 
qualifications and other achievements in the field of 
vocational education can be reported to each other 
in a coherent way through a series of concepts: 
qualification, knowledge, abilities, competences, 
skills, study outcomes, etc’.

Alignment to other classification systems
The new classifier of occupations of Moldova is 
based on both international standards (ISCO 08), 
identifying nomenclatures of occupations/
professions and specialties for the education and 
training of staff through VET, and on the Education 
Code, which is a basis for institutionalising the 
reforms within the vocational training system. 
The qualifications awarded by technical vocational 
education institutions will be included in the 
national register of qualifications in professional 
education, developed by the Ministry of Education, 
in cooperation with the relevant central bodies 
(Education Code, Article 66). The qualifications 
awarded in higher education will be included in 
the national register of qualifications in higher 
education, managed by the Ministry of Education 
(Education Code, Article 97).

NQF levels and level descriptors
The Moldovan NQF has eight levels, analogous to 
the EQF.

a.  Level 1 and 2 qualifications are awarded for 

general education, practical training and various 
forms of individual training, including workplace 
or education programmes for adults.

b.  Level 3 is for secondary technical vocational 

education.

c.  Level 4 is for post-secondary vocational and 

technical education.

d.  Level 5 is for post-secondary, non-tertiary 

technical vocational education.

e.  Levels 6, 7 and 8 are awarded for higher 
education qualifications: cycle l: licence 
(bachelor); cycle ll: master; cycle lll: doctorate. 
Qualification levels define the quantitative and 
qualitative parameters of professional skills 
that the graduate must have to carry out the 
job/profession or specialty, in accordance with 
the NQF. In VET institutions, qualifications 
can be obtained in accordance with the NQF 
nomenclature (NQFRM) of areas of vocational 
training and trades/professions and the 
nomenclature of vocational training areas, 
specialties and qualifications for secondary and 
non tertiary post-secondary VET.

to study/learning outcomes is analogous to that of 
the EQF:

•  Knowledge is described as theoretical and/or 

factual.

•  Skills are described as cognitive (involving the 
use of logical thinking, intuitive and creative 
thinking), or practical (involving manual dexterity 
and use of methods, materials, tools and 
instruments).

•  Competences are described in terms of 

responsibility and autonomy.

Use of learning outcomes
A professional qualification is based on a 
standardised format that describes learning 
outcomes in line with labour market requirements, 
specified in the occupational standard. Each 
qualification is defined by the professional 
competences (knowledge and skills) and transversal 
skills acquired during the respective level of 
education.

Included in the NQF for higher education in Moldova 
is a matrix-table covering skill levels, categories and 
types of skills, generic descriptors of skills and level 
descriptors for higher education qualifications.

Definition of qualification
Occupational standards form the basis of vocational 
qualifications and are defined as ‘the process of 
formal validation of acquired skills in the formal, non-
formal and informal education context, as a result of 
the standard assessment procedure’.

Qualifications – according to the reference 
framework of the university curriculum (2015) –  
represent official recognition of the value of 
individual learning outcomes both for the labour 
market and for continuous study and training 
through an education document (diploma, 
certificate, attestation), conferring the legal right to 
practice an occupation/profession. Each qualification 
is defined through the learning outcomes, 
expressed in terms of professional knowledge and 
competences achieved during the relevant period  
of study.

Qualification (in the draft Act of September 2016) 
is defined as an ‘official recognition of the value of 
individual learning outcomes both for the labour 
market and for continuous education and training, 
through a study document (diploma, certificate) 
awarding the legal right to practice a profession/ 
trade’.

NQFRM qualification levels determine the 
knowledge, skills and competences a person 
can demonstrate on completion of learning. The 
description of qualification level structures in relation 

Qualification standards
The term ‘qualification standard’ is not used as 
such. According to Article 66 of the Education 

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Volume II: National and regional casesCode, the qualifications in technical and vocational 
education shall be awarded in line with the NQF, 
based on occupational standards for each level of 
VET, in line with the EQF and the skills required for 
the labour market.

The methodology (approved by Government Decision 
No 863 of 8 October 2014) states that occupational 
standards are the basis for the description of 
qualifications and the development of educational 
standards related to the vocational training of 
workers, according to labour market requirements.

An occupational standard is a description of the 
specific professional duties and tasks related 
to professions from a particular domain and the 
qualitative benchmarks associated with their 
successful performance and professional training 
need to be adjusted to labour market demands. 
The authority responsible for the qualitative 
development of occupational standards is the 
respective sectoral committee.

Qualifications development process
According to the Education Code, professional 
qualifications (VET and higher education) shall 
be awarded in line with the NQF and developed 
on the basis of occupational standards. The NQF 
is developed by the Ministry of Education, in 
collaboration with the relevant ministries, sectoral 
committees, technical vocational education 
institutions, economic agents and other social 
partners, and is approved by the government.

The qualification levels shall establish the quantitative 
and qualitative parameters of the professional skills 
a graduate needs to have to work in a particular 
trade/profession or specialty, in line with the NQF. 
According to the methodology (for the development 
of occupational standards for working profession 
No 863 of 8 October 2014) the development of 
occupational standards is coordinated by the 
Ministry of Labour, Social Protection and Family. 
Ministries, and the relevant central administrative 
authorities, are responsible for verifying the quality 
of occupational standards developed in a given 
branch; approving occupational standards that have 
been developed; and cooperating with the sectoral 
committees to complete the development of 
occupational standards.

Currently six equivalent sectoral committees have 
been established in different economic sectors, 
each containing representatives of social partners 
at branch level. Each committee is responsible for 
developing occupational standards in its sector by 
mapping relevant occupations; approving standards 
in stages according to agreed methodology and an 
integrated management process; setting up working 

groups to develop a clear occupational standard 
profile and commissions to evaluate and validate 
standards; and identifying financial resources. 
The general process of qualification development 
ultimately involves a group of stakeholders with 
different interests. It is the responsibility of those 
involved to recognise these trends and to reach an 
agreement and consensus in the drafting process.

According to the process for developing 
occupational standards set out in the methodology, 
the standards will be developed in the following 
stages:

a.  development of the occupational profile;
b.  assessment and validation of the occupational 

profile;

c.  development of the occupational standards 

according to the approved format;

d.  assessment and validation of occupational 

standards;

e.  approving the occupational standard.

Currently the NQF has been approved 
for 143 qualifications in higher education  
and 53 professional qualifications for VET.

Access, progression and credit
Access to VET is provided for by Article 60 of the 
Education Code of the Republic of Moldova No 152 
of 17 July 2014.

With the emphasis on lifelong learning, the 
permeability and progression pathways are likely to 
be strengthened, although improved progression 
routes in education are not mentioned as a specific 
goal. The emphasis on the eight key competences 
that have been identified in the Strategy for 
Education is seen as an implicit condition for 
improved mobility and progression opportunities.

The upgrading and quality enhancement of the 
network of VET providers could certainly boost 
the reputation of VET and hence bring it closer 
in status to higher education. In accordance with 
the Education Code, the modules/subjects of the 
VET training programmes, which are used as the 
basis for awarding professional qualifications, can 
be expressed in credits under the European credit 
transfer system, based on agreements between 
training programme providers.

In higher education the European credit transfer and 
accumulation system (ECTS) shall be applied. The 
ECTS credits shall measure the student’s workload 
in an academic course/subject during a time unit. 
The methodology for applying the credit transfer 
and accumulation system shall be approved by the 
Ministry of Education.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

VET institutions, businesses and other social 
partners, and approved by the government.  

NQF legal basis
The Education Code of the Republic of Moldova 
No 152 of 17 July 2014 states:

a.  Article 66, paragraph 2: ‘The national framework 

of qualifications shall be developed by the 
Ministry of Education, together with the relevant 
ministries, sector committees, vocational 
education institutions, businesses and other 
social partners, and shall be approved by the 
government.’

b.  Article 97: ‘The national framework of 

qualifications in higher education shall ensure 
the transparency, academic mobility and the 
recognition of international diplomas.’ 

A draft Act (September 2014) set up the NQFRM 
and provides the basis for its implementation, 
functioning and administrative supervision, and is 
developed according to Articles 66 and 97 of the 
Education Code.

In addition to the Education Code several 
related legislative acts are linked to the NQF’s 
implementation:

a.  Government Decision No 863 of 8 October 2014 
on the development of occupational standard for 
specific professions;

b.  Government Decision No 191 of 22 April 2015, 
regulation on the organisation and functioning 
of the National Agency for Quality Assurance in 
Vocational Education;

c.  Order of the Ministry of Education No 1228 

of 22 December 2015: approval of the Quality 
Management Guide in VET for ensuring the 
quality of VET;

d.  Order of the Ministry of Education No 550 
of 10 June 2015; Official Monitor of the 
Republic of Moldova, 2015, No 206-210; Article 
1362, ‘Framework on the organisation and 
functioning of post-secondary and non-tertiary 
postsecondary VET institutions’;

e.  Order of the Ministry of Education No 840 of 

21 August 2015; Official Monitor of the Republic 
of Moldova, 2015, No 275-280; Article 1918 ‘on 
the organisation and functioning of secondary 
VET institutions and technical vocational 
education institutions’;

f.  Education Development Strategy for 2014–20.

In September 2018, the National Council for 
Qualifications, the consultative body of the Ministry 
of Education, Culture and Research, which includes 
representatives of the relevant ministries, sectoral 
committees, economic agents and educational 
institutions, was set up to facilitate the development 
of the NQF.

The Ministry of Education, in cooperation with  
the relevant central bodies, developed the national 
register of qualifications for professional education 
in which the qualifications awarded by the  
technical vocational education institutions shall  
be included.

In higher education, the government, at the 
Ministry of Education’s request, shall approve the 
nomenclature of professional training fields and 
specialties by mutual agreement with the relevant 
ministries. 

The methodology for applying the credit transfer 
and accumulation system shall be approved by the 
Ministry of Education.

In higher education, the content standards and 
standards for competence shall be developed by the 
Ministry of Education by professional training fields 
and shall be approved by the government. 

According to the Education Code, the National 
Agency for Quality Assurance in Professional 
Education is responsible for developing a 
methodology for evaluating and accrediting 
providers of training programmes in VET and higher 
education. For secondary vocational education it will 
evaluate the curriculum, the education process and 
learning outcomes. The agency will establish criteria 
for the qualifying examination. This applies both to 
the summative assessment of formal education and 
to the validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
The quality assurance agency may develop into 
a qualifications agency, but this has not yet been 
decided. The Ministry of Education will maintain the 
national register of qualifications. 

The certification of knowledge and skills acquired in 
non-formal education and informal contexts can be 
made under a regulation approved by the Ministry of 
Education. 

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The NQFRM has been developed by the Ministry 
of Education, Culture and Research in collaboration 
with the relevant ministries, sectoral committees, 

The framework regulation on the work of the 
sectoral committee in vocational training has 
been approved by Decision of the National 
Commission for Consultation and Collective 
Bargaining No 4 of 28 March 2012.  

409

Volume II: National and regional casesThe Commission has decided that this committee 
will be established at the branch level as a 
consultative body, without legal status, on 
parity principles of representatives of the social 
partners. Not less than three members and two 
alternates from each will be appointed for a 
period of at least five years without being paid.

In 2011 a procedure and format for the development 
of occupational standards was established, with 
the full involvement of the social partners, and 
approved by the Prime Minister (Government 
Decision No 952/2011). Sector committees are 
in charge of drafting new and reviewing existing 
occupational standards. The sector committees 
have been established by the National Committee 
for Collective Bargaining and Consultation. There 
are currently five sector committees, covering 
construction, agriculture and food, transport and 
road infrastructure, and the recently established 
information and communication technologies, and 
trade workers and non-food sectors (both within the 
Ministry of the Economy).

For the development of occupational standards, 
the sector committees established the following 
working groups and commissions:

a.  the working group for occupational analysis and 

development of occupational profiles;

b.  the working group for developing occupational 

standards;

c.  the occupational standards verification and 

validation committee charged with verifying and 
validating occupational standards.

As a next step the National Council for Occupational 
Standards needs to examine and approve the 
occupational standards before they are adopted by a 
common order of the Ministry of Education and the 
Ministry of Labour, Social Protection and Family.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
There are currently six sectoral committees with 
their own rules of activity and regulation framework 
which operate as advisory bodies without legal 
status. 

Article 8 of the Code of Education encourages 
social dialogue and partnership between 
education institutions and trade unions, business 
environments, civil society and media, and in 
research. The Ministry of Education plans and 
implements national development strategies of 
the education system in consultation with central 
government and local authorities, and social 
partners.

Resources and funding
Resources for implementing the NQF are:

a.  the EU budget support programme  

(EUR 25 million);

b.  the EU project ‘Technical assistance for the 

education and training in Moldova’ funded by  
the EU and implemented by a consortium led 
by the German company GOPA Worldwide 
Consultants;

c.  the State budget, where available.

Quality assurance of qualifications
All qualifications in the NQFRM must be quality-
assured. In practice, effective quality assurance is 
still being developed. VET legislation states that 
quality assessment shall be carried out based on 
the national reference and accreditation standards 
and methodology developed by the National Agency 
for Quality Assurance in Professional Education 
(NAQAVET) and approved by the government. It 
aims to improve institutional capacity, educational 
efficiency (including academic outcomes), and the 
quality of training programmes and institutional 
management, to achieve consistency between 
internal and external assessments. External 
assessment of the quality of TVET will be carried 
out by NAQAVET, as well as by other authorised 
structures.

Internal assessment of the quality of TVET shall be 
carried out by the institutional structures for quality 
assurance, based on the national reference and 
accreditation standards, as well as on institutional 
regulation. The Education Code (17 August 2014) 
defines quality assurance arrangements. A specific 
article of the draft Act of September 2016, which 
set up the NQFRM, specifies its assurance  
quality role.

The Government Decision No 191 (22 April 2015) 
approved the regulation on the organisation and 
functioning of the National Agency for Quality 
Assurance in Professional Education (ANACIP). 
The agency’s Governing Board is composed of 
15 members (president, vice president, general 
secretary plus 12 members). The agency is 
composed of:

a.  three departments: Higher Education 

Accreditation Department (one person); Higher 
Education Evaluation Department (two people); 
VET Department (two people);

b.  two services: the economic-financial and legal 
service (two people); the human resources, 
public relations and secretariat service (two 
people).

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe methodology for external quality assessment, 
for authorising the temporary functioning and 
accreditation of curricula (programmes) in TVET, 
higher education and continuing education, and 
the regulation for calculating charges for rendered 
services in the external evaluation of the quality of 
study programmes in TVET, higher education and 
continuing education, was approved by Government 
Decision No 616 of 18 May 2016. On 17 December 
2015 in Brussels, the European Association for 
Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) 
accepted the National Agency for Quality Assurance 
in VET as an affiliate member.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Recognition of non-formal and informal learning 
is one of the policy priorities of the government. 
Article 123 of the Education Code provides for the 
certification of knowledge and skills acquired in  
non-formal education. Piloting in food processing 
and electrical repair has been carried out.

In March 2017, a government decision, regulation on 
continuing adult training, was adopted. 

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
In December 2018, a government decision  
approved the national register of qualifications.  
It is an automated information system, which 
records data on qualifications, qualification criteria, 
VET providers, learning outcomes, and qualification 
levels and certification mechanisms. The register will 
be developed in 2019 for higher education and VET 
qualifications. 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
No evaluation has yet taken place.

Impact for end-users
The NQF has not yet been used as a reference 
system or tool by end-users.

Referencing to regional frameworks

A strong motivation for Moldova to develop an 
NQF is the link to the EQF and alignment with 
the qualifications framework of the European area 
for higher education. The country’s Association 
Agreement with the EU refers to its NQF. 

Further, the National Action Plan for the 
Implementation of the Moldova-EU Association 
Agreement between 2017 and 2019, provides for 
the establishment of an NQF (in 2017) to improve 
the transparency and recognition of qualifications 
and professional skills and the creation of the 
national functional qualifications register. However, 
there is no reference to the EQF in the Association 
Agreement, despite the fact that the development 
of the NQF is discussed.

Important lessons and future plans

The new Education Code incorporates all the legal, 
institutional and technical arrangements required 
for the development and settlement of an NQF 
for lifelong learning. Other strengths include the 
development of the NQFRM, aligned to the EQF, as 
a unique tool establishing a training qualifications 
structure contributing to national and international 
recognition of the skills achieved in the formal 
national education system or through non-formal and 
informal learning; the creation of the National Agency 
for Quality Assurance in VET; and the commitment of 
social partners though sectoral committees. 

Education and training needs to better respond 
to current labour market demands, through 
the development of relevant outcomes-based 
qualifications. The present education system has 
very few VET national standards (53) that are quality-
assured and meet the needs of the labour market.

There is still a challenge in moving from a focus on 
setting curricula to a stronger orientation on assessing 
achieved learning outcomes. Standards for different 
subsectors of the education system, and the provision 
of adult learning should be better aligned to improve 
permeability of the education and training system 
and facilitate lifelong learning, including through the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning.

Migration and reintegration of migrants is a 
major concern in the country and the lack of 
transparency and transferability of skills is one 
among other factors preventing returning migrants’ 
access to employment that matches their skills. 
VET governance structure is characterised 
by the concentration of policy processes and 
implementation functions within the Ministry of 
Education. Intermediary organisations have been 
created over the years but have only recently 
been strengthened. There is scope for greater 
involvement of the labour market and social actors 
in governance within clearly defined roles in 
particular in adult learning.

411

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
EQF 
NAQAVET   National Agency for Quality 

European qualifications framework

NQF 
NQFRM  

TVET 
VET 

Assurance in Professional Education
national qualifications framework
national qualifications framework of 
the Republic of Moldova
technical/vocational education
vocational education and training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMONTENEGRO

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The Montenegrin qualifications framework (MQF) 
was adopted by law in 2010. It is lifelong learning 
in scope and consists of eight qualification levels, 
with sublevels at levels I, IV and VII. Level and sub-
level descriptors are based on three categories: 
knowledge, skills and competence. Learning 
outcomes for each qualification in the framework 
are described through these three categories and 
each higher level incorporates knowledge, skills and 
competence from the lower level.

The framework is managed by the Montenegro 
Qualifications Council, in cooperation with the 
National Council for Education and the Higher 
Education Council.

The MQF is advanced in its implementation and 
qualifications have been integrated into its levels. It 
referenced to the European qualifications framework 
(EQF) and self-certified against the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area 
(QF EHEA) in November 2014.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
Montenegro has a population of 622 099 (2015), 
which is ageing. According to preliminary data 
from the Montenegrin Statistical Office (Monstat), 
GDP growth in 2015 was 3.2%. Construction and 
tourism are the biggest economic sectors. Short-
term indicators for the first quarter of 2016 indicate 
weak total economic activity due to a reduction in 
industrial manufacturing, even though at the same 
time there was increased activity in construction 
and tourism. According to preliminary Monstat  
data, real GDP growth in the first quarter of 2016 
was 1.1%.

decreased from 18.2% in 2014 to 17.8% in 2015.  
The unemployment rate of women (15 to 64) 
in 2015 was 17.6% (18.4% in 2014) and their 
employment rate was 46.9% (45.3% in 2014),  
which is five percentage points lower than  
for men.

The total NEETs rate (young people not in 
employment, education or training) of the 15 to 24 
age group grew in 2015 to 19.1%

Performance related to ET2020 benchmarks and the 
headline indicators of Europe 2020 is variable. The 
country performs best against the following two 
indicators:

•  Early leavers from education and training 

(18 to 24): at 5.7%, Montenegro stands better 
than the EU-28 average of 11.4% (2015).
•  Attainment in tertiary education (30 to 34): at 

31% in 2015, the country is close to the EU-28 
average of 38.7%.

However, difficulties persist for other indicators. 
Adult participation in learning (25 to 64) reached 
3% in 2015, against the EU average of 10.7%. 
Underachievement in reading, mathematics and 
science – measured by PISA (Programme for 
International Student Assessment) – is at 33% in  
all three areas.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The government adopted the Vocational education 
development strategy in Montenegro (2015–20) 
in December 2014. Priorities for the next two-year 
period are:

Positive trends in the labour market are visible 
through increased employment, declining 
unemployment and small wage rises overall. The 
employment rate (for the age group 15 to 64) shows 
an increase from 50.4% in 2014 to 51.4% in 2015. 
The unemployment rate for the same age group 

a.  revision of existing and development of new 
educational programmes, based on learning 
outcomes;

b.  creating conditions for work-based learning in all 

sectors and enhancing its quality;

c.  ensuring that students develop vocational and 

key competences for life and work;

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Volume II: National and regional casesd.  improving initial and continuing teacher 

education;

e.  defining enrolment policy reflecting labour 

market needs and the demands of long-term 
and short-term developmental policies in 
Montenegro.

The foundation for introducing and developing the 
national qualifications framework (NQF) was laid 
through the work carried out in setting up the NQF 
framework, which was adopted in law in 2010. The 
main reform objectives linked with the NQF are 
to introduce transparent learning outcomes; link 
education and training subsectors; facilitate the 
validation of non-formal learning; and to make it 
easier to obtain qualifications and pursue lifelong 
learning.

The MQF is an instrument, which regulates the 
entire system of qualifications at all levels of 
education in Montenegro. It contains a list and 
description of all the qualifications that can be 
acquired in the country and is based on learning 
outcomes. Its role is to reform and modernise 
the system of qualifications. The MQF enables 
the classification, comparison, development and 
understanding of qualifications, their connectivity 
and a clear overview of the different ways of 
acquiring qualifications for the needs of both the 
labour market and society. 

The aims of the establishment and development of 
the MQF are the following: 

a.  to make the system of qualifications based on 

learning outcomes easier to understand at both 
the national and international level;  
b.  to increase the coherence of the system 

of qualifications by linking different parts of 
education and training;  

c.  to enable the valuation of non-formal and 

informal learning and link them with formal 
education;  

d.  to make the process of gaining qualifications 

more transparent;  

e.  to encourage lifelong learning;  
f.  to connect the world of education and the world 
of work and to  ensure the greater involvement 
of all partners. 

International cooperation

Montenegro submitted its application for 
EU membership on 15 December 2008. On 
17 December 2010, Montenegro was awarded 
candidate status by the European Council. Formal 
accession negotiations between Montenegro and 
the EU began on 29 June 2012. The first accession 

chapter, Chapter 25 on science and research, was 
provisionally closed on 18 December 2012, while 
Chapter 26 on education and culture was closed on 
15 April 2013.

The Lisbon Convention on recognition of higher 
education in the region of Europe, which was 
ratified in Montenegro in March 2004, was the 
basis for drafting the Law on the Recognition of 
Foreign Educational Credentials and Qualifications 
Equivalence, approved by the Parliament on 
17 November 2011632. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The NQF is comprehensive (all levels) and inclusive, 
i.e. open for qualifications acquired through formal 
and non-formal/informal pathways of learning. It 
includes three types of qualifications: education 
qualifications, vocational qualifications and additional 
qualifications.

Alignment to other classification systems
The NQF includes 15 sectors, including humanities, 
sciences engineering, construction, law, IT and 
agriculture. Sectors of qualifications have their 
qualification frameworks that include sub-sectors, 
fields and qualifications of all types and levels. The 
sector qualification framework reflects current affairs 
in each sector, indicating existing qualifications and 
their relationship. The MQF consolidates the sector 
qualification frameworks and interconnects them in 
a general systemic context.

NQF levels and level descriptors
NQF qualifications are placed in eight qualification 
levels, with sublevels at levels I, IV and VII. 
Sublevels at levels I, IV and VII reflect the need to 
facilitate the placement of non-outcomes-based 
qualifications attained in the education system prior 
to adopting the MQF Law. Levels and sublevels 
have their descriptors, each based on three 
categories: knowledge, skills and competences. 
Each qualification included in the framework 
includes learning outcomes that are described 
through these three categories of descriptors and 
each higher level incorporates knowledge, skills and 
competences from the lower level.

The MQF includes three types of qualifications: 
educational qualifications, vocational qualifications 
and additional qualifications.

632  The text of this Law is available in the English version at: 
www.erasmusplus.ac.me/uploads/file/Law%20on%20
Recognition%20(2)%20(1).pdf

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSIn accordance with the MQF Law, the qualifications 
framework includes: 

a.  qualification levels and sub-levels;
b.  descriptors for each qualification level and  

sub-level;

c.  types of qualifications, where qualifications 
can be educational qualifications, vocational 
qualifications and additional (other) qualifications;

d.  credit value of qualification.

The NQF is based on: 

a.  defined learning outcomes (knowledge, skills 

and competence);

b.  credit transfer; 
c.  progression from one qualification to another;
d.  recognition and valuation of knowledge acquired 

in a non-formal and informal manner;

e.  cooperation of all stakeholders and transparency 

of procedures; 

f.  quality assurance in the process of qualification 

development and attainment.

The referencing of NQF levels to the EQF 
established a demonstrable connection between 
NQF and EQF level descriptors in the following 
manner:

a.  NQF level 1 (1.1 and 1.2) and EQF level 1;
b.  NQF level 2 and EQF level 2;
c.  NQF level 3 and EQF level 3;
d.  NQF level 4 (4.1 and 4.2) and EQF level 4;
e.  NQF level 5 and EQF level 5;
f.  NQF level 6 and EQF level 6;
g.  NQF level 7 (7.1 and 7.2) and EQF level 7;
h.  NQF level 8 and EQF level 8.

Levels of knowledge, skills and competences 
progress, so that descriptors at level I, for 
example, represent the basic knowledge, skills 
and competences, while at level VIII, for example, 
they reflect more complex expectations in terms 
of depth and breadth of knowledge, skills and 
competences.

Knowledge is defined as a set of acquired and 
correlated information that is the result of learning. 
Skills represent the abilities to apply knowledge 
when solving tasks and problems and can be 
cognitive and manual (practical). Competence 
includes the ability to apply knowledge and skills 
that an individual demonstrates in a working or 
learning environment. They include autonomy and 
responsibility.

Use of learning outcomes
Learning outcomes are the central concept of the 
NQF structure. They are defined as statements that 

indicate what an individual knows, understands 
and is able to do at the end of a learning process, 
regardless of the manner in which s/he learned. 
Qualifications are included in the NQF based 
on the complexity of accomplished learning 
outcomes, described through knowledge, skills 
and competence in eight levels of the qualifications 
framework.

Knowledge is defined as a set of acquired and 
correlated information that is result of learning. 
Skills represent abilities to apply knowledge 
when solving tasks and problems and they can 
be cognitive and manual (practical). Competence 
includes abilities to apply knowledge and skills that 
an individual demonstrates in a working or learning 
environment. They include the domain of autonomy 
and responsibility.

Level and sub-level descriptors of MQF 
qualifications are defined by the Rulebook on 
descriptors for qualification levels and sub-levels. 
In accordance with Article 10 of the MQF Law, 
descriptors for qualification levels and sublevels 
were discussed by the National Council for 
Education, the Higher Education Council, and the 
Qualification Council.

The Qualifications Council has adopted the 
Guidelines for sectoral commissions, the  
Guidelines for qualifications development  
(levels 1–5), the Methodology for assigning codes 
to qualifications, and the Methodology for placing 
qualifications in the NQF. The National Council 
for Education has adopted the Methodology for 
modularisation and credit valuation of education 
programmes in vocational education. With the 
adoption of these documents, conditions have  
been created to develop qualifications in  
compliance with the National Qualifications 
Framework Act, i.e. based on the learning  
outcomes approach.

Definition of qualification
The National Qualifications Framework Act defines 
three types of qualifications (groups of types of 
qualifications): education qualifications, vocational 
qualifications and additional qualifications.

An education qualification is attained on completion 
of a State-approved education or study programme 
and the attainment of the necessary qualification 
volume (measured by units of learning outcomes). 
This qualification is obtained within the formal 
education system and validated with a diploma. The 
procedures for awarding education qualifications 
are set by the National Qualification Framework 
Act in conjunction with other education acts and 
rulebooks.

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Volume II: National and regional casesA vocational qualification is awarded after the 
assessment of formally and informally attained 
knowledge or upon completion of a special 
programme of education. It may also be attained 
after the successful completion of part (a module) of 
a formal education programme that corresponds to 
an occupational standard. A vocational qualification 
is validated with a certificate. The procedures for 
awarding vocational qualifications are set by the 
National Vocational Qualifications Act and the 
National Qualification Framework Act.

Additional qualifications are required for  
undertaking a specific task or set of tasks, upon 
attaining basic qualifications, and are mostly 
demanded by employers. These qualifications do 
not increase the basic qualification level, but instead 
supplement it by indicating additional individual 
competences needed for progressing in the labour 
market, such as a professional exam for a job in 
education. They are validated with a certificate, 
confirmation or a proof, in line with the particular 
regulation.

Development process of qualifications
The register of qualifications currently includes 
160 VET qualifications (levels 3, 4 and 5). There are 
separate methodologies for the development of 
occupational standards and for the development of 
qualification standards.

Qualification development at levels I to V 
encompasses the development of an occupational, 
educational or additional standard and of a 
qualification standard. The qualification standard 
is based on an occupational, educational or other 
standard. An education programme, special 
programme of education or other programmes are 
based on a qualification standard, on completion 
of which a learner is awarded the relevant 
qualification (education level, vocational or additional 
qualification).

The Vocational Education and Training (VET) Centre 
develops occupational and qualification standards 
for level V qualifications, in cooperation with social 
partners. These standards incorporate a basic 
description – the profile of a qualification that 
includes learning outcomes – and are presented in 
the qualification development initiative.

For qualifications from level VI onwards, higher 
education institutions develop a study programme 
using a description: a profile of qualification 
that includes basic learning outcomes, defines 
objectives and outcomes for specific subjects or 
modules, and assigns credit points programmes 
(subjects/modules).

Access, progression and credit
The MQF concept emphasises that the framework 
is a vehicle to understand and compare 
qualifications, to be used by learners, employers 
and the general public to show the links between 
different types and levels of qualifications, and the 
progression pathways available for lifelong learning.

Vocational education and training

a.  Lower vocational education (two years): 

completion leads to the award of a lower 
vocational education qualification.

b.  Secondary vocational education (three or four 

years): completion leads to the award of a three- 
or four-year secondary vocational education 
qualification.

c.  Post-secondary vocational education (including 
two years of continued secondary vocational 
education): completion leads to the award of a 
higher vocational education qualification.

d.  The master craftsman’s exam is also classified as 

vocational education.

After successful completion of two-year education, 
it is possible to continue studies for a third year, 
by taking additional programmes. A student who 
completes a two- or three-year programme may 
continue his/her studies to a four-year programme 
after taking and passing additional courses. 
Candidates who pass the externally assessed 
vocational exam may enrol directly at a post-
secondary vocational school. Individuals who pass 
the master craftsman’s exam may also enrol at a 
post-secondary vocational school, after they take 
and pass additional exams (general education 
subjects).

An individual who graduates from a four-year 
vocational school and wishes to obtain the general 
secondary (gymnasium) matura qualification is 
eligible to take the matura course. An individual 
who graduates from the general secondary school 
(gymnasium) and wishes to obtain a four-year 
vocational school diploma is eligible to take the 
relevant vocational course.

Higher education
Since 2004, all higher education institutions in 
Montenegro have been required to apply the 
European credit transfer and accumulation system 
(ECTS). Student workload per study year is 
60 credits. Workload per subject is indicated through 
a numerical value corresponding to the overall 
workload per study year, i.e. the 60 credits.

The MQF Law introduced the Montenegrin credit 
transfer system, which provides for learning 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSoutcomes achieved in one context to be taken into 
account in another. It is based on assessment, 
confirmation and recognition processes, and is 
aligned with the ECTS and with the European 
credit system for vocational education and training 
(ECVET).

One credit (Montenegrin credit transfer system) 
is awarded for 25 hours of work, which is fully 
compatible with the ECTS. Student workload per 
subject/course is determined by the number of 
hours of lectures, seminar papers needed to master 
a subject: achieve a set objective, including learning 
outcomes.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The Montenegrin system of qualifications is 
determined by the Law on the Montenegrin 
qualifications framework (adopted in December 
2010), the Rulebook on descriptors for qualification 
levels and sublevels633, the Rulebook on procedures 
for developing qualifications from level I to level V634, 
the Rulebook on procedures for developing 
qualifications from level VI to level VIII635, as well 
as by a range of additional education regulations, 
including the National Vocational Qualifications Act.

The MQF Law sets out the legal basis for the 
establishment of a single framework covering 
all types and levels of qualifications. The law 
establishes the legal basis for new bodies 
to oversee the development and approval of 
qualifications, specifies the levels and sublevels, 
the types of qualification, the types of award and 
certification and describes the system of credit 
transfer.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The Ministry of Education is responsible for 
planning, implementing and improving education 
policy. It calls on the professional expertise of 
three advisory bodies: the Qualifications Council, 
the National Council for Education and the Higher 
Education Council to support the implementation of 
reform.

The Qualifications Council is responsible for 
the development and inclusion of qualifications 
in the framework and the improvement of the 
qualifications system. It adopts basic qualification 
descriptions: learning outcomes, estimates 
of the labour market needs and international 
comparability, occupational standards and 
qualification standards. The Council also makes 
decisions on aligning existing qualifications for their 
inclusion in the qualification framework; defines 
criteria for nominating the members of sectoral 
commissions; adopts instructions and guidelines 
for the work of sectoral commissions; coordinates 
their work and makes decisions on their proposals; 
adopts decisions on the establishment of sectoral 
commissions; decides on definitions for subsectors 
and fields within a qualification sector at the 
proposal of sectoral commissions; and promotes 
the qualification framework.

Members of the Council are higher education 
institutions (public and private), Employment Agency 
of Montenegro, Ministry of Labour and Social 
Welfare, Chamber of Economy, representative of 
employers’ associations, representative of trade 
unions, Ministry of Education, Centre for Vocational 
Education, Bureau for Educational Services, and 
Examination Centre.

The Qualifications Council has set up sectoral 
commissions for each of the 15 qualification 
sectors. The sectoral commissions perform a range 
of tasks, including analysing the labour market, 
identifying the need for, and proposing, new 
qualifications and providing the specifications for 
new qualifications.

The National Council for Education determines 
the compatibility of qualification standards and 
education programmes and makes proposals for the 
adoption of publicly valid education programmes 
to the ministry. The Council is responsible for the 
qualification attainment process; the organisation 
of formal education, programmes for adults, 
programmes for children with special educational 
needs, exams at the end of educational cycles, 
elective subjects, textbooks and teachers.

The Higher Education Council is responsible for 
quality assurance in higher education, notably the 
accreditation procedure of study programmes and 
the reaccreditation of higher education institutions.

633  Rulebook on descriptors for qualification levels and 
sublevels, Official Gazette of Montenegro, 51/11.

634  Rulebook on procedures for developing qualifications from 
level I to level V, Official Gazette of Montenegro, 21/12.
635  Rulebook on procedures for developing qualifications from 
level VI to level VIII, Official Gazette of Montenegro, 21/12.

Other key institutions are the VET Centre, 
responsible for development, advisory support, and 
research in vocational education for young people 
and adults; and the Examination Centre, which 
conducts the external assessment of knowledge, 

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Volume II: National and regional casesskills and competences at the end of each primary 
education cycle, exams at the end of four-year 
secondary education, as well as assessments for 
the award of national vocational qualifications.

of findings from both processes helps the 
institutions with in-depth understanding of the state 
of the quality culture and mechanisms – essential 
for plans and decisions for improvement.

Resources and funding
Montenegro allocates resources from the State 
budget to assure the operation of the qualifications 
unit at the Ministry of Education and in 2015, a 
budget was allocated to support the operation 
of the sectoral commissions. It has also used 
EU funding, for example to set up qualifications 
databases (2015). Several Tempus and IPA projects 
have supported activities and expertise related 
with NQF implementation and this cooperation 
continues.

Quality assurance of qualifications
The legal framework of the quality assurance 
model in formal education and its implementation 
is defined in the provisions of the General Act on 
Education and provisions of the Rulebook on the 
contents, forms and methods of quality assurance 
of education in institutions (Official Gazette of the 
Republic of Montenegro 18/04 and 8/12) and other 
rulebooks indicated below.

The elements of the quality assurance framework 
encompass institutions as well as programmes/
qualifications, in general, vocational and higher 
education. Quality assurance obligations and 
procedures are applied at the stage of licensing of 
education and training institutions, and throughout 
the activity of the institutions (via external and 
internal assessment).

Licensing of education and training institutions
Quality assurance at the point of entry into the 
educational system is ensured through a procedure 
of licensing institutions implementing state-
approved educational programmes, i.e. through the 
obligation to meet requirements for establishment 
of institutions in the field of education, in 
accordance with provisions of the Rulebook on 
more detailed requirements for establishment 
of institutions in the field of education and the 
Rulebook on the procedure for licensing institutions 
in the field of education and on the method for 
keeping the register of licensed institutions.

These processes include public and private 
educational institutions and they are conducted by 
commissions, set up by the Ministry of Education 
for licensing purposes.

External and internal assessment – indicators
The above-mentioned rulebook establishes that 
quality assessment of education in an institution has 
external and internal dimensions. The combination 

External evaluation can be regular or extraordinary. 
Quality assessment is carried out in line with 
relevant secondary legislation (the Rulebook on the 
contents, form and method for quality assessment 
of education in institutions) at least once in four 
years, and external evaluation process is conducted 
based on the Methodology for quality assessment 
of education that includes 7 key indicators with 
49 sub-indicators. When compared to EQAVET 
(European quality assurance reference framework in 
VET), there is a similarity with indicators 1(a), 2(a), 
8(a) and 10(b).

External quality assessment is carried out by 
authorised advisors and educational supervisors 
of the Bureau for Educational Services (in general 
education institutions), or the Bureau for Educational 
Services and the VET Centre (if it is about vocational 
education). The report on quality assessment of an 
institution includes a description of factual situation 
with proposed measures the institution needs 
to implement to improve the quality. Based on 
recommendations from the report, the institution 
drafts a plan for education quality improvement, 
which is delivered to the Bureau for Educational 
Services or to the VET Centre and Ministry of 
Education. The report is public and is published on 
the institution’s notice board, as well as on the web 
sites of the Bureau for Educational Services and the 
VET Centre. 

Internal evaluation (self-evaluation) process is a 
legally defined obligation of schools, for some 
indicators every year and for some other indicators 
every second year. The same key areas and the 
same indicators are also used within self-evaluation, 
which is carried out by the educational institution’s 
management.

A model for internal quality assurance has been 
in place since 2006, providing support to schools 
in their preparation for external evaluation which, 
based on a catalogue of 25 questionnaires sorted 
by key areas, facilitates assessment of current 
situation and based on which institutions are able to 
introduce improvements.

In line with the General Act on Education, internal 
evaluation has been mandatory since 2010. 
Since 2011, a model of VET development by way 
of internal evaluation in initial VET (IVET) has 
been implemented in vocational schools. This 
model comprises key indicators, quantitative and 
qualitative indicators relevant for the quality of 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSschools’ work, teaching, learning and for student 
achievements. IVET quantitative self-evaluation 
indicators are aligned with EQAVET indicator 1  
(a and b; IVET providers involved in quality 
assurance self-assessment, accredited education 
providers – led by the Ministry); indicator 2 (a and b; 
continuous in-service training of teachers, resource 
management); indicator 3 (students by programmes 
and education providers); indicator 4 (student 
achievement by programmes, drop-out by years 
of schooling, programmes and new generations); 
indicator 6 (a and b; destination of students after 
they complete education, and employer satisfaction 
with the level of knowledge and skills of students); 
indicator 7 (Monstat and Employment Agency); 
indicator 8 (a and c; support for students with 
disabilities); indicator 9 (survey of employers, the 
Employment Agency); and indicator 10 (b; resource 
management).

Up to the level of higher education, the performance 
educational system is also measured through 
external assessment of student achievements at 
the end of each cycle or level of education, which 
is the responsibility of the Examination Centre of 
Montenegro.

Programmes
Quality assurance encompasses also the elaboration 
and adoption of educational programmes for 
different levels of education. The method for 
adopting educational programmes, based on which 
teaching process is conducted, is prescribed by 
the General Act on Education. The National Council 
for Education, established by the government, 
is a body responsible for adoption of educational 
programmes and it operates independently from 
the Ministry of Education. The ministry cannot 
modify an educational programme adopted by 
the National Council for Education. Educational 
programme development procedures are predefined 
and transparent and facilitate full involvement of 
stakeholders, including teachers associations. The 
Bureau for Educational Services and the VET Centre 
are responsible for conducting these procedures.

Teachers
Quality assurance of teaching is an important 
element of the approach. Teachers’ level of 
education is prescribed by the General Act on 
Education, while the required profile is set by an 
educational programme.

School work organisation
Schools define quality as a model of good 
organisation of work with clearly defined goals 
and as policy making that will be accepted and 
supported by teachers, students, parents, partners 
and local community. Internal quality assurance 

processes indicate the state of affairs at schools, 
factors influencing their work, development 
trends in schools and outcomes, i.e. formation of 
professionals for labour market needs, continuation 
of schooling, bringing education to a higher level and 
integrating it into the European educational system. 
Quality is the result of planning, implementation, 
evaluation – assessment and estimates, as well 
as of possible modifications, up to the level of 
achieving set standards.

School leaving exams
The graduation exam (Matura) is taken 
externally, upon completion of the fourth year of 
general secondary school (gymnasium), in two 
compulsory subjects (the Montenegrin language 
or mother tongue and literature and mathematics 
or the first foreign language) and two elective 
subjects, with defined graduation standard. In a 
vocational exam, students who want to continue 
their education in higher education institutions 
take external exam in the Montenegrin language 
or mother tongue and literature and mathematics 
or the first foreign language, depending on 
the vocational school’s profile. Vocational part 
of the exam, typical for a qualification profile, 
is organised by school, but exam material is 
prepared externally.

Monitoring and evaluation mechanisms at the 
level of higher education
System monitoring and evaluation at the higher 
education level is also carried out by means 
of external and internal quality assessment 
mechanisms, i.e. through procedures implemented 
in various stages, starting from initial accreditation, 
through monitoring of teaching process to 
reaccreditation of higher education institutions 
in Montenegro. These mechanisms are applied 
through a number of explicit procedures of 
validation or assessment regarding study 
programmes, teaching and conditions for work at 
institutions, defined in cooperation with international 
agencies for quality of the European higher 
education area, as quality assessment is defined 
according to the provisions of Article 8 of the Higher 
Education Act.

Overall improvement of higher education is the 
competence of the Higher Education Council, which 
is appointed by the government and, in accordance 
with provisions of Article 13 of the Higher Education 
Act; it is particularly responsible for achieving 
quality in higher education. Among other things, 
the Higher Education Council is authorised to 
undertake periodical checks of licensed institutions 
and is responsible for issuing certificates on initial 
accreditation, accreditation or reaccreditation 
(Article 12 of the Higher Education Act).

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Volume II: National and regional casesMonitoring and evaluation start with initial 
accreditation of study programmes, which represent 
a guarantee to interested individuals that the study 
programme provides quality education and fulfils 
applicable standards, or criteria, to ensure national 
quality system is applied in higher education. The 
Higher Education Council adopts the standards or 
criteria for initial accreditation of study programmes.

The initial accreditation process starts from the 
day of submitting the application to the Higher 
Education Council and lasts for not longer than six 
months from the day of application is received. 
Upon receiving the application, the Higher Education 
Council forms an accreditation commission, which 
is comprised of three to five members from a list 
of experts set for a specific field by the Ministry 
of Education and whose task is to pay a visit to 
the educational institution, check data from the 
application, prepare a report with a proposal for 
initial accreditation and submit it to the Higher 
Education Council for adoption. In its report the 
commission may offer suggestions for improvement 
of study programme quality assurance. This is 
the procedure for determining validity of study 
programmes, or institutions, and their conformity 
with relevant quality standards and labour market, 
as well as for issuing a certificate that ensures the 
institution’s right to award a degree of education and 
a professional title. Initial accreditation is awarded 
for the period of maximum three years.

Upon being granted the initial accreditation 
certificate by the Higher Education Council, the 
licensing process starts, given that every institution 
established for or already providing teaching in 
Montenegro must have a license to work, issued by 
the Ministry of Education. This license identifies the 
type of institution, accredited study programmes, 
maximum number of students that can be enrolled 
on certain study programmes, as well as degrees and 
diplomas that can be awarded. The license is issued 
on the basis of standards and norms pertaining to:

•  adequacy of premises and equipment, including 
classrooms, laboratories, library and computer 
equipment;

•  number and qualifications of academic staff;
•  premises for student extracurricular activities;
•  financial means.

A licensed institution can make changes in the 
study programmes up to 30 (ECTS) credits, without 
accreditation. The Ministry determines standards 
and norms, as well as procedures for issuing, 
changing and divesting a license, taking into account 
the opinion of the Council.

In addition to these mechanisms, there are 
also external and internal quality assessment 
procedures. External quality assessment for 
each study programme, in line with provisions of 
Article 31 of the Higher Education Act, is carried out 
by an expert body formed by the Higher Education 
Council. External evaluation procedure is carried 
out in line with provisions of the Rulebook on 
reaccreditation of study programmes and higher 
education institutions, adopted by the Higher 
Education Council.

Self-evaluation and quality assessment of its own 
study programmes and conditions for work, in 
accordance with the provisions of Article 30 of the 
Higher Education Act, are performed continuously 
by each institution in line with its statute, 
monitoring, control and reporting on implementation 
of the educational process, including the monitoring 
of results in all courses, work of teaching staff, 
teaching conditions (i.e. library, laboratory, IT).

Self-evaluation is based on questionnaires and various 
checks, involves management and faculty councils, 
as well as students. Feedback from students in 
taken into account to improve curricula and teaching. 
Given the importance of involving students in the 
overall self-evaluation process, Article 93 of the 
Higher Education Act defines student right to express 
their opinion on the quality of teaching and work of 
academic staff of an institution.

An institution or a study programme is subject to 
reaccreditation within a period of maximum five 
years. Reaccreditation of an institution and a study 
programme is based on internal and external quality 
check. The results of internal and external quality 
check are presented in the self-evaluation report 
and the report on external quality check, but the 
Reaccreditation Commission starts from the self-
evaluation report, which institutions elaborate based 
on standards, namely:

1.  policy and procedures for assuring quality of 

work of the institution and study programmes;
2.  business activities and development priorities;
3.  organisation and management;
4.  study degrees and qualifications;
5.  study programme structure;
6.  assessment of students;
7. 
8.  students;
9.  academic, professional and non-academic 

inspection and valuation of teaching and exams;

personnel;

10. scientific and research, artistic and professional 

work;

11. publishing activities;

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS12. premises, and material and technical resources;
13. institution’s information system;
14. informing the public about its work;
15. cooperation and mobility;
16. financing.

The Reaccreditation Commission visits the 
institution, and panel discussions with institution’s 
representatives allow deeper analysis of the quality 
of the institution and study programmes. Within 
two months after the visit the Commission’s 
report is submitted to the Council, which takes the 
reaccreditation decision – for a determined period 
of time. The law includes provisions for the cases of 
denied reaccreditation of institutions/programmes.

The legal framework of the quality assurance 
model in formal education and its implementation 
is defined in the provisions of the General Act on 
Education and provisions of the Rulebook on the 
contents, forms and methods of quality assurance 
of education in institutions (Official Gazette of the 
Republic of Montenegro 18/04 and 8/12).

Higher education
The Law on Higher Education and relevant 
rulebooks form the legal basis for application of 
quality assurance rules and procedures in higher 
education. The three councils – Qualifications 
Council, National Council for Education, and Higher 
Education Council – play a key role in quality 
assurance of education.

In line with the Higher Education Act, the Higher 
Education Council plays a key role in improving the 
quality of higher education, through accreditation of 
study programmes and external quality assurance 
by means of reaccreditation, in accordance with 
adopted official documents.

The VET Centre and the Examination Centre 
fulfil essential functions in assuring quality of 
qualifications and in external assessment of 
learners. The latter is responsible for external 
assessment of knowledge, skills and competence 
at completion of primary and four-year secondary 
education, as well as assessments for attainment of 
national vocational qualifications.

Montenegro’s body in charge of quality assurance 
in higher education is neither member nor affiliate 
of the European Association for Quality Assurance 
in Higher Education (ENQA). According to the 
newly adopted Higher Education Act (2014), for the 
process of reaccreditation foreign agencies from 
the European Quality Assurance Register for Higher 
Education (EQAR) are appointed.

The EQF referencing report provides clarifications 
on the possible issues of compatibility with the 
European Standards and Guidelines for Quality 
Assurance in higher education, notably the status 
of the Higher Education Council. Montenegro 
does not have an independent quality assurance 
agency, therefore the Ministry has taken some 
steps to foster the capacity of the Higher 
Education Council, through precise regulations in 
line with the European Standards and Guidelines 
for quality assurance in higher education. A 
precise analysis of the actual situation with the 
recommendations for the future performance of 
the Council as the independent and professional 
quality assurance body was made in 2013, and 
a wide spectrum of activities has been taken 
to foster the capacity and quality assurance 
performance of the Council.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Adult learners may attain a national vocational 
qualification, which is verified with a certificate, 
in accordance with the National Vocational 
Qualifications Act. Attainment of a national 
vocational qualification means assessment and 
verification of knowledge, skills, and competence by 
the Examination Centre, regardless of the method 
of their attainment, after which a publicly recognised 
certificate is issued.

The National Vocational Qualifications Act aims to 
enable individuals to attain nationally recognised 
vocational qualification by way of an assessment, 
i.e. evaluation of their previously acquired 
knowledge, then by an assessment after they 
complete a programme of education, or when they 
complete a part or a module of a programme, if 
that part is based on an occupational standard. An 
occupational standard is an element connecting 
formal education and non-formal and informal 
learning, for qualification levels I–V.

In accordance with the National Vocational 
Qualifications Act, a national vocational qualification 
is an officially recognised qualification, developed 
based on an occupational standard and attained by:

•  assessment after completing special 

programmes of education and training;
•  direct assessment of previously acquired 

knowledge, skills and competence, regardless of 
the manner they are acquired;

•  completion of a part/module of a programme.

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Volume II: National and regional casesNQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
As of December 2018 the database of qualifications 
contains 160 qualifications (certificates and 
diplomas) at levels 3, 4 and 5, with a complete 
description of codes, learning outcomes, credit 
structures, progression to related qualifications, and 
assessment methods636.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Montenegro monitors and reports on progress and 
issues to be solved as regards NQF implementation 
through the reporting procedures linked with the 
Riga objectives.

Impact for end-users
The NQF is an important driver of the learning 
outcomes approach for all sub-sectors of education 
and training, and for demand-oriented qualifications 
development. Learners are using the qualifications 
in the framework and some candidates have 
obtained certificates via validation of non-formal 
learning.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Montenegro participates as a full member in 
the EQF process; it is a member of the EQF 
advisory group, the EU group which guides the 
EQF’s implementation, and referenced the MQF 
to the EQF in November 2014. Montenegro is a 
full member of the Bologna Process and its self-
certification report (QF EHEA) was presented 
in November 2014, in a joint report with EQF 
referencing637.

Montenegro continues the implementation of a 
wide range of measures directly related with NQF 
implementation and its further development, in 
particular those reported in the 2015 inputs to the 
Riga objectives report. Many of the listed measures 
reflect an implementation stage in which feedback 
from experience is mature and calls for deepening 
and review of a number of parameters and 
instruments for NQF implementation:

•  analysis of the situation with regulations 

in different sectors and preparation of the 
methodological framework for classification of 
other (additional) qualifications in the NQF;

•  classification of other (additional) qualifications in 
the NQF – analysis of the existing qualifications 
(levels II–V) and identification of needs for their 
modernisation and/or development of new ones;

•  analysis and, according to the needs, 

modification of the existing methodologies 
for development of occupational standards, 
qualification standards, curricula, programmes of 
education and examination catalogues;
identification of proposal for dynamics of 
qualifications development, for qualifications for 
which the initiatives and standards were adopted 
in 2015 and earlier;

• 

•  preparation of the plan for development of 
qualifications according to the sectors;
•  preparation of occupational standards for 

qualifications of different levels and types, and in 
accordance with the foreseen dynamics;
review of occupational standards;

• 
•  preparation of examination catalogues for 
assessments for the purpose of acquiring 
national vocational qualification;
review of examination catalogues.

• 

Important lessons and future plans

Montenegro’s development of its NQF has been 
influenced and supported by its EU accession goals, 
and indeed EU financial support, itself part of the 
accession preparation.

The MQF’s sectoral commissions are 
functioning and are critical for achieving genuine 
implementation.

636  Complete details are available at: www.cko.edu.me 
637  https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/documentation 

In its regular reporting on the Riga objectives (2015) 
Montenegro stressed the need to improve the 
matching of skills and qualifications demanded by 
the economy, and the qualifications available and 
provided by the education and training system. 
More and better involvement of the world of work 
(businesses, sectors, workers) in designing and 
awarding qualifications is one of the proposed 
solutions for this structural issue.

Continuing teacher professional development, 
enabling teachers to improve the application of the 
learning outcomes approach in various learning 
contexts (classroom, laboratories, workshops, work-
context), is also required.

422

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
ECTS 

EQAVET 

EQF 
IPA 

European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European quality assurance reference 
framework in vocational education 
and training
European qualifications framework 
Instrument for Pre-accession 
Assistance

IVET 

initial vocational education and 
training
Statistical Office of Montenegro 
Montenegrin qualifications framework 
national qualifications framework

Monstat 
MQF 
NQF 
QF EHEA  qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area

Further information
LAW on Montenegrin NQF (December 2010): www.cko.edu.me/Library/files/Law%20on%20MQF.pdf
NQF webportal: www.cko.edu.me/ 
NQF video: https://youtu.be/03OYE2AhA-4 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

423

Volume II: National and regional casesMOROCCO

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
No national qualifications framework (NQF) legal 
acts have been approved to date, but work is 
under way to establish the appropriate NQF 
legal basis. The inaugural meeting of the National 
NQF Commission held on 23 May 2016 under 
the leadership of the Prime Minister took three 
fundamental decisions: approving the NQF 
governance scheme; the roadmap 2016–17 for NQF 
development; and the NQF concept and structure. 
Unlike other countries, the Moroccan NQF level 
descriptors are composed of six categories.

Morocco is at the initial stage of NQF development. 
In 2018, the new Framework Law on Education 
(loi cadre), approved by the government but still 
in discussion at Parliament, explicitly mentions 
the importance of the NQF to foster transparency, 
quality and recognition of qualifications and 
stipulates the establishment of a dedicated NQF 
Agency to manage the NQF and its instruments 
and processes. The NQF permanent secretariat is 
set to be created, under coordination of the Prime 
Minister’s office, to pave the way towards the NQF 
Agency. The EU pledged support to the institutional 
capacity building of the NQF, through a twinning 
project that could be effectively launched in 2019, 
once the national institutional base has been set.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context

Education and training and social context
The Moroccan government and society are aware 
of the important social and economic challenges to 
be addressed through better education and training 
for all. In this context, the country has developed 
and started implementation of a number of strategic 
and policy plans to improve participation, quality, 
governance and innovation of the whole system of 
education and training (Vision 2030); to strengthen 
the performance and outcomes of vocational 
education and training (VET) (National strategy VET 
2021); progressed the draft of the new Framework 
Law on Education; and established and made 

operational the new Agency for Accreditation and 
Evaluation of Higher Education. The vision set out 
in the VET strategy 2021 is: ‘Quality VET for all and 
throughout life, to support development, valorisation 
of human capital and competitiveness.’638

Morocco has maintained a high ratio of education 
budget to GDP (between 5.5% in 2000 and 7.7% 
in 2013) over the past decade639. Gross enrolment 
rates in all levels of education improved significantly, 
but the persistence of high school drop-out rates 
(between 3.2% (ISCED 1) and 11% (ISCED 3)640 
remain a serious challenge in terms of social 
inclusion, preparedness for lifelong learning and 
competitiveness of the labour force.

The share of the working age population with 
low educational attainment remains high, despite 
progress. Official statistics (2013) classify 59.8% 
of the population over 15 years in the category 
‘without diploma’, with a clear gender bias. Holders 
of higher education qualifications represent 12.8% 
of the population aged 15 and over, while 27.4% 
have medium level diplomas. Tertiary educational 
attainment (age group 25 to 34) was 9.8% in 
2013. These indicators show a marked difference 
compared with EU-28 figures. The literacy of the 
population improved substantially, though the 
illiteracy rate is still high (2012)641: 25% (men) and 
48% (women)642.

Enrolment in initial vocational education and training 
(IVET) continued to increase in 2015, particularly in 
the public sector: this was led by the key operator, 
the Office for Vocational Training and Promotion 
of Work (Office de la formation professionnelle 
et de la promotion du travail – OFPPT). Growth in 
VET graduates has been stronger in qualifications 

638  Ministry of National Education and Vocational Training 

(2015). Stratégie nationale de la formation professionnelle 
2021 (unpublished).

639  ETF (2015). Processus de Turin 2014: Maroc, p. 45.
640  Ministry of National Education (2012).
641  Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs (2015). Bilan 

social 2014, p. 9.

642  Illiteracy rates in 1960 were 96% (women) and 78% 

(men) (Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs, 2015).

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSof higher level (equivalent to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) level 5), which 
reached 59% of total in 2013. Over half of graduates 
are concentrated in three sectors: management and 
commerce; metallurgy-mechanics; and construction.

The objective to increase the share of 
apprenticeships has not been met. Stakeholders 
and the government will have to put in place more 
effective measures to expand apprenticeships and 
their quality and relevance.

Aiming to improve the link of upper secondary 
school with vocational training, enhance 
permeability and curb early school leaving, the 
VET department, in a joint initiative with the 
employers’ confederation (Confédération générale 
des entreprises du Maroc – CGEM), the Ministry 
of National Education and Vocational Training, and 
several large companies, launched the professional 
baccalaureate in the academic year 2014/15. This 
pilot focuses on industrial maintenance, mechanical 
industry, aeronautical industry and management of 
agricultural land in five cities.

Morocco’s population was approximately 34.4 
million in 2015. In the past decade, the demographic 
growth rate has decreased (to 1.3% annually); 
the population is estimated to reach 37.5 million 
in 2020. The shape of the age pyramid changed, 
with a growing share of the population over 60 and 
contraction of the share of the group below 15. 
This demographic transition translates into lowering 
pressure on the capacity of the school system, on 
the one side, and strongly growing labour supply 
on the other. The age structure of the population 
is young; the working age population has grown 
steadily and doubled in three decades. In 2015, 
26.6% population is young (15 to 24), 51% are 
women and 60.4% is urban643.

Morocco is historically a country where emigration 
plays an important socioeconomic role. Official data 
show that 3 million Moroccans are resident abroad, 
primarily in the EU (Spain, France and Italy),  
but the real figure is thought to be higher  
(around 4.5 million).

Economic context
The economic performance of Morocco improved in 
the past decade, with GDP growth averaging 4.5% 
and, in 2015, recovering previous levels (4.5%) after 
two years of slowdown. The services and agriculture 
sectors have increased their share in GDP (to 56% 
and 16% respectively in 2014), unlike industry 

where the share continues to fall (28%, 2014). This 
trend reflects problems in the competitiveness of 
Moroccan companies and weak resilience to the 
effects of the Euro crisis. Morocco’s ranking in the 
global competitiveness index was 73rd in 2011 and 
72nd in 2014.

Despite government policies, economic growth 
has not translated into commensurate creation of 
decent jobs and the rate of employment growth is 
low. Job creation has grown mainly in the services 
sector and, to a lesser extent, in agriculture. But in 
construction and manufacturing (including crafts) 
the trend is negative and has resulted in net job 
losses. In 2014, almost 80% of the employed are 
concentrated in services and agriculture.

The share of wage employment has grown, 
including in rural areas. In 2014, 1.1 million persons 
were underemployed, an underemployment rate 
of 10.3%644. This phenomenon is stronger in the 
construction sector, but is also in agriculture and 
fisheries, services and crafts. The most recent 
national statistics (2015)645 confirm the growing 
trend of underemployment. In 2014, the employed 
population totalled 10 646 persons, of which 45% 
were wage employed.

Activity and employment rates (population 15 and 
over) has continued to shrink. The activity rate 
declined from 51.5% in 2005 to 47.4% in 2015. 
The rate shows a substantial gender disparity 
(71.5% for men, 24.8% for women, 2015), which 
places Morocco among the lowest performers in 
the Middle East and North Africa region as far as 
female activity is concerned. Young people (15 to 
34) are 47.3% of the active population but the active 
youth population has been declining by an average 
of 0.3% annually (2000–12); the most affected 
are young women and the youngest of the group. 
Low activity affects urban Morocco more severely 
than rural areas. Factors explaining these trends 
are: discouragement of women and young people; 
expansion of schooling years for young people; and 
growing share of women in household activity646.

The employment rate continued to decline and 
was 41.2% in 2015 (15 to 64), marked by a strong 
gender difference (62.4% for men against 24.8% 
for women). Some of the features of employment 

644  Ministry of Labour and Professional Integration (2015). 

Bilan social 2014, p. 22.

645  HCP (2015). Note d’information du Haut Commissariat 
au Plan au sujet de la situation du marché du travail au 
deuxième trimestre de l’année 2015. www.hcp.ma/La-
Situationdu-marche-du-travail-au-deuxieme-trimestre-de-
lannee- 2015_a1585.html 

643  Ministry of Employment and Social Affairs (2015). Bilan 

646  Ministry of Labour and Professional Integration (2015). 

social 2014, p. 8.

Bilan social 2014, pp. 15–16.

425

Volume II: National and regional caseshighlighted by official sources – Haut Commissariat 
au Plan (HCP)647 – that will continue to be strategic 
issues for policies are listed below.

a.  62% of the employed people have no 

qualification (diploma); 38% hold a middle or 
higher level qualification. Agriculture has the 
highest concentration of the employed without 
diploma.

b.  Female employment rate is 22.6% (13.9% in 

rural areas and 36.2% in urban).

c.  The underemployment rate is 10.3%, with large 
sectoral discrepancies: 17% in construction; 
10% in agriculture and fisheries; 9.4% in 
services; 8% in industry and crafts.

d.  62.6% of employees have no regular labour 

contract. This rate is highest in agriculture and 
fisheries (91.6%).

e.  Unpaid employment is 22.5% nationally  

(41.6% in rural areas).

f.  79.5% of the employed people have no medical 
insurance. Considering only the paid employed 
people, this indicator is 58.2% nationally. 
g.  1.6% of the paid employed people (2.1% in 

urban areas) have participated in training paid by 
the employer in the past 12 months.

h.  3% of the employed people are affiliated to a 
trade union (5% in rural areas). Even among  
the paid employed people this rate is low  
(6% nationally and 7% in urban zones).

The unemployment rate for people aged 15 and over 
had stabilised at around 8.9% in 2011, but increased 
to 9.7% in 2015. It is much higher in urban areas 
(14.8%) than in rural (4.2%)648. The unemployment 
rate of the age group 15 to 24 grew from 19.3% to 
20.8% between 2013 and 2015. In 2014, the highest 
unemployment rates were among holders of higher 
education diplomas (20.9%)649.

The rate of young people (15 to 24) not in 
employment, education or training (NEET) was 
27.9% in 2015, with marked gender difference 
(11.4% for men, 45.1% for women)650.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Stakeholders have high expectations of the NQF 
as a catalyst for change, as expressed in the NQF 
reference document:

a.  to strengthen the responsiveness of education 
and training programmes and qualifications to 
skill needs of the economy;

b.  to generalise the use of learning outcomes, 

which should reflect the knowledge, skills and 
competences required by the labour market;
c.  to serve as a ‘label’ of quality for qualifications 

allocated in the NQF;

d.  to improve permeability between different 
subsectors and encourage citizens’ lifelong 
learning.

In this context, the limitations of the NQF may 
be a challenge for some stakeholders. The NQF 
contributes to improving transparency and linkages 
between subsectors and levels – for better 
individual mobility lifelong and life-wide. But the 
NQF alone cannot solve systemic problems related 
with dead-ends and limited permeability between 
levels/qualifications from different subsystems. 
Stakeholders/institutions need to define and 
use appropriate strategic and legal mechanisms, 
and pertinent technical solutions to improve 
pathways and assure that learning outcomes can 
be validated, certified and used in career, personal 
and professional development. The National VET 
strategy (2021) includes measures geared towards 
improvement of permeability between levels and 
subsystems. One such measure is the creation in 
2014 of new programmes integrating general and 
vocational curriculum, such as the professional 
baccalaureate.

International cooperation
The EU-Morocco cooperation framework is an 
international factor for development of the NQF and 
the country takes account of the EQF. A first visit 
of the NQF Moroccan delegation, composed of all 
focal points and the representative from the Prime 
Minister’s office, to a meeting of the EQF Advisory 
Group took place in May 2015 (observer status).

647  HCP. Note d’information du Haut Commissariat au Plan au 
sujet de la situation du marché du travail en 2014, pp. 4–5. 
www.hcp.ma/La-Situation-dumarche- du-travail-en-2014_
a1503.html 

648  HCP. La situation du marché du travail en 2014. www.hcp.
ma/La-Situation-du-marche-du-travailen-2014_a1503.html 

649  HCP. Note d’information du Haut Commissariat au Plan au 
sujet de la situation du marché du travail en 2014, pp. 6–7. 
www.hcp.ma/La-Situation-dumarche-du-travail-en-2014_
a1503.html 

650  HCP. Labour force survey. Cited in ETF (2017). Processus 

de Turin 2016–17: Maroc – Résumé analytique.

The ‘Statut avancé’ (advanced status) of cooperation 
with the EU signed in 2008 opens up prospects 
for deep and comprehensive approximation. 
Different chapters of the Statut avancé point to 
approximation in areas related to higher education 
and the qualifications system and framework: 
strengthening of cooperation in qualifications, in 
particular to support transparency and recognition; 
negotiation of mutual recognition of qualifications to 
aid the mobility of service providers and investors; 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand negotiation of mutual recognition of vocational 
bachelor’s degrees (licences professionnelles) in the 
transport trade, particularly sea and air transport. 
Chapter 4 (human dimension) dedicates a whole 
section to the approximation of Moroccan higher 
education to VET to the European area, and to 
approximation of the qualification system to  
the EQF.

Although not a member of the Bologna Process, 
Morocco is reforming its higher education sector 
taking account of developments in the European 
higher education area (EHEA), implementing 
the three-cycle structure. It cooperates with 
projects funded by the EU and in 2014 the country 
established the national independent quality 
assurance body for higher education (Agence 
nationale d’evaluation et d’assurance qualité 
de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche 
scientifique du Maroc).

Current and planned EU programmes (sector reform 
contracts) include indicators and complementary 
assistance (twinning) targeting  
NQF implementation.

EU-Morocco agreements include:

a.  Association agreement signed in 1996 (entry 
into force in 2000) – Euro-Mediterranean 
agreement establishing an association between 
the European Communities and their Member 
States, on the one side, and the Kingdom of 
Morocco651;

b.  Statut avancé, September 2008652 – The text 

mentions (p. 12) the possibility of approximation 
with the EQF, in the long term, as a result 
of the modernisation of the education and 
training system, and enhanced transparency of 
qualifications;

c.  alignment of the Moroccan higher education and 
research, and vocational training systems with 
the European space for higher education and 
scientific research, and vocational training.

This will contribute to the modernisation of the 
education and training systems and to the evolution 
of acquired qualifications. In the long term, this will 
permit comparison with the EQF653.

651  http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/downloadFile.

do?fullText=yes&treatyTransId=692 

652  http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/morocco/documents/

eu_morocco/feuillederoute-sa_fr.pdf 

653  Translated by the ETF.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The description below is based on the NQF 
reference document, validated on 23 February 
2013 at an interministerial conference, and 
updated in October 2015. On 23 May 2016, the 
NQF Commission, chaired by the Prime Minister, 
approved the structure of the NQF and the level 
descriptors.

NQF scope and structure
In the reference document, the NQF is defined 
as: ‘An instrument for regulation of qualifications 
based on objective characteristics of quality, in view 
of their recognition by the labour market. It is an 
instrument for referencing of qualifications, whose 
quality is in line with a quality assurance system that 
takes account of learning outcomes, prescribed by 
the labour market following a prospective analysis.’

The objectives of the NQF are:

a.  promoting the quality of all programmes/courses 

across education and training;

b.  coherence between qualification subsystems;
c.  transparency and quality of all certifications;
d.  link of qualifications to the labour market;
e.  comparability of qualifications between 

countries, to aid mobility;
lifelong learning.

f. 

The NQF is a comprehensive framework, 
encompassing public and private qualifications in 
all subsystems (national education, VET and higher 
education). Qualifications acquired outside the formal 
system are not currently being considered in the NQF.

This NQF definition appears to restrict the 
framework to labour market needs and objectives. 
Other policy and legislative documents currently in 
development have broadened the scope and basis 
of the NQF to include also the needs of societal 
development.

Alignment to other classification systems
The NQF is the national instrument for structuring 
and classification of qualifications but it is not 
operational yet.

Other relevant classifications in place are:

a.  Haut Commissariat au Plan (HCP): Nomenclature 

nationale des diplômes (June 2000)654;
b.  REM/REC (Répertoire des emplois-métiers 
[repertories of occupations]/Référentiel 
emplois-compétences [referential jobs and 
competences]).

654  Available at: www.hcp.ma/file/103334 

427

Volume II: National and regional casesThe nomenclature developed by the HCP (national 
statistical entity) structures all diplomas in 10 large 
groups, with subdivisions by large group to four-digit 
disaggregation. The large groups are:

a.  diplomas and certificates of fundamental 

education;

b.  diplomas of secondary education;
c.  higher diplomas delivered by faculties;
d.  higher diplomas delivered by ‘grandes écoles’ 

and higher institutes;

e.  diplomas of technician and medium-level 

personnel;

f.  diplomas of higher technicians;
g.  diplomas of professional qualification;
h.  certificates of professional specialisation;
i.  certificates of professional initiation;
j.  persons without diplomas, undeclared diplomas.

Important foundations for the NQF are the 
repertories of occupations (REM) and the associated 
referential (standards) of occupational competences 
(REC), designed by sector/branche (such as textile, 
tourism and IT). REM and REC are developed by the 
VET department in cooperation with the sectoral 
federations/professionals and the relevant sector 
ministries (industry, tourism and others), and other 
partners. REM and REC are based on the principle 
of learning outcomes. REM describes key functions 
and activities by occupation, as well as key required 
competences. REC provides a fine and detailed 
description of tasks, skills and competences.

Together, REM and REC are management tools 
for the occupations (by sector) to reinforce 
coherence between learning outcomes (expressing 
enterprises’ needs) and VET programmes from 
different provider categories. As such, REM and 
REC can contribute to the quality of training 
and qualification outcomes. They are also good 
foundations to establish mechanisms for validation 
of non-formal and informal learning, and elements 
of career information and guidance. REM and REC 
have been developed for 13 sectors655, totalling  
246 and 288 fiches respectively.

The NQF is seen as a tool for quality assurance and 
credit recognition, hence its links with the quality 
assurance framework and the European credit 
transfer and accumulation system (ECTS, still in its 
early development stage).

655  Sectors: REM-REC before 2009: tourism/hotels; textile/
clothing; ICT; building and public works; industrial 
maintenance and automotive repair; leather industry. 
REM-REC developed in 2009–12: offshoring; aeronautic 
industry; trade and distribution (Rawal plan); automotive 
equipment; renewable energy and energy efficiency; 
electronics; security and cash transportation.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The Moroccan NQF is composed of eight levels 
with no sublevels. The level structure of the NQF 
signals vertical progression, based on relevant 
criteria (level descriptors) defined by the principle of 
learning outcomes. Since 2015, the National Agency 
for the Struggle Against Illiteracy has proposed to 
add a level, capturing the quality-assured certificate 
of functional literacy. This is obtained by numerous 
candidates at completion of programmes and in 
assessment carried out under the auspices of the 
agency.

The level descriptors are learning-outcomes-based, 
formulated in six categories: knowledge, skills, 
complexity, autonomy/responsibility, adaptability, 
and communication skills.

The descriptors, as with the framework overall, 
are inspired by the EQF, in higher education by the 
framework of qualification of the European higher 
education area, and generally by lessons learned 
from different countries, particularly in Europe.

In developing the categories, stakeholders took 
account of certain strategic areas which will require 
greater attention in education and training in the 
future, such as communication skills.

Use of learning outcomes
The NQF reference document explicitly places 
the concept of learning outcomes at the heart of 
defining level descriptors, allowing indication of 
vertical progression, comparison of qualifications 
and their referencing of qualifications to levels. 
Application of learning outcomes reflecting 
relevance to labour market needs is considered 
the fundamental element of NQF quality 
assurance.

The learning outcomes approach is well established 
in the APC (approche par compétence [competence-
based approach]) in VET, and is applied throughout 
all main elements of the APC cycle of qualifications 
development and implementation. Schematically 
the APC cycle can be depicted as in Figure 14. 
The initial design of learning outcomes for the 
qualification is undertaken at the stage of the 
analysis of work situation (occupational standard): 
these are specific descriptors (cognitive and 
motor abilities, complexity, communication and 
others). Deeper and finer definition of the learning 
outcomes corresponding to tasks and operations 
is done at the stage of elaboration of the standard 
of competences. These are multidimensional 
learning outcomes (knowledge, skills, attitudes 
and perception), used throughout the training 
programme and assessment guide.

428

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFigure 14. APC cycle 

1. 
Sector study – training:
defines needs by  
jobs groups

5.
Assessment guide  
(by training module): 
graduate receives 
certiification with list of 
specific and transversal 
competences  
(from 3.)

2. 
Analysis of work 
situation (AST)/ 
occupational standard:
defines tasks and  
operations by jobs groups. 
Specific  
descriptors. 

4. 
Training + pedagogic 
guides (competences  
from 3.):
Each competence = 1 
training module

3. 
Standard of 
competences: 
derives learning outcomes  
by tasks and operations 
(specific and transversal 
competences)

Definition of qualification
The definition of ‘qualification’ in the NQF reference 
document is identical to the definition given in the 
EQF recommendation (2008): ‘qualification’ means 
a formal outcome of an assessment and validation 
process which is obtained when a competent body 
determines that an individual has achieved learning 
outcomes to given standards.

Access, progression and credit
Credit systems are not yet in place in Moroccan 
education and training. Higher education reforms 
started in early 2000 led to generalisation of the 
three-cycle structure (licence-master-doctorat 
(LMD)).

In 2016–17 work was undertaken towards 
development of an acceptable ECTS approach, 
which paved the way to a learning outcomes (rather 
than workload) orientation. Final consolidation of the 
ECTS principles and practice is expected to progress 
in 2018–20 with EU support through a 24-month 
twinning project, which started in February 2018.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
Currently only one legal act directly related to the 
NQF has been enacted, the Circulaire of the Prime 
Minister of June 2014, establishing the National 
NQF Commission.

Approval by the National NQF Commission of the 
structure and level descriptors, the governance 
scheme and the roadmap for NQF development 
(2016–17) will be followed by publication of the 
approved report of the cited meeting in official 
channels. Implementation will require legal acts and 
decisions, notably concerning the establishment of 
the permanent secretariat, the executive committee 
and the NQF regulations/bylaws and procedures.

The NQF has been mentioned in two important 
strategic documents: the Strategic vision for reform 
2015–30 (education and training)656, and the National 
VET strategy657.

656  Pour une école de l’équité, de la qualité et de la 

promotion: vision stratégique de la réforme 2015–30. 
www.csefrs.ma/pdf/Vision_VF_Fr.pdf 

657  Stratégie nationale de la formation professionnelle 
2021. http://dfp.gov.ma/images/pdfdocs/2016/
Strate%CC%81gie%20Formation%20FR.pdf 

429

Volume II: National and regional casesThe Strategic vision 2015–30 mentions the NQF 
in the following terms658: ‘Establish a national 
system of certification enabling the organisation and 
classification of certificates and diplomas, on the 
basis of a reference structure that will be defined by 
the departments in charge of education, training and 
scientific research. Such a framework will guarantee 
transparency and clarity, and also comparability of 
diplomas on the basis of a national qualifications 
guide; it will improve the instruments for 
assessment of learning outcomes from education 
and training and enhance their credibility and 
effectiveness. It will likewise ascertain the national 
and international mobility of graduates.’

The same document also stipulates: ‘Establish a 
system of validation of skills and competences from 
professional experience to the benefit of workers/
personnel with experience, with the aim to allow 
their access to opportunities of lifelong learning.’

Under the fifth strategic axis – ‘Enhance the value 
of the professional pathways through a better 
articulation of the components of the education and 
training system’ (p. 38 of the main document) – the 
National VET strategy 2021 mentions the NQF.

The draft Framework Law on Education mentions 
the establishment of the NQF under an autonomous 
commission, as one of the measures for global 
reform of the mechanisms of assessment, 
examination and certification. The NQF is defined in 
broader terms, which take account of the needs of 
both the labour market and societal development.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
In the current period of gradual institution building, 
two institutions are operational: the National 
Commission and the first format of the future 
executive committee (called comité de pilotage 
[steering committee]).

The governance scheme is based on the principle 
of complementarity and coordination between two 
levels, strategic and operational:

d.  permanent secretariat (technical level): hosted 
by the services of the Prime Minister, has 
administrative autonomy, a budget and trained 
staff. Not yet established.

According to the Circulaire (June 2014), the National 
NQF Commission has the following missions:

a.  follow-up the NQF implementation, its update, 
evaluation of the award mechanisms, and 
validation of levelling decisions;

b.  link the various components of the education 
and training system and employment, in view 
of implementation of the NQF, and recommend 
reforms and improvements based on evidence 
gathered through the implementation of the 
NQF;

c.  ensure cooperation and links with the NQF of 

other countries.

The main planned missions of the NQF governance 
instances can be summarised as follows:

National NQF Commission:

a.  monitoring NQF implementation, endorsement 

of levelling decisions and registration of 
qualifications from public and private providers 
(certifying bodies) in the NQF;

b.  formulation of strategic orientations for 

improving the systems of education, training and 
employment;

c.  approval of decisions regarding alignment with 
other countries’ qualifications frameworks, and 
long-term preparation of a correspondence/link 
with the EQF;

d.  approval of the annual/multiannual action plan;

Executive committee:

a.  coordination between the permanent secretariat 

and the National NQF Commission;

b.  validation of processes of allocation/levelling of 

qualifications and their registration;

c.  validation of the proposals of levelling of 

qualifications and their registration in the NQF 
register;

a.  political strategy (higher decision-making): NQF 

d.  establishment of working groups and planning 

Commission;

activities;

b.  operational strategy: two instances;
c.  executive committee (organisational level): based 
on rotating chairmanship and composed of the 
secretaries general of education and training 
(national education, VET and higher education), 
the employers’ confederation (CGEM);

658  Strategic vision 2015–30, p. 45.

430

e.  validation of the annual/multiannual action plan;

Permanent secretariat – in charge of the NQF 
operational activities:

a.  coordination and preparation of the meetings 
of the executive committee and the working 
groups;

b.  elaboration and implementation of the levelling 
processes and registration of qualifications;

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSc.  proposals to update/improve the NQF register of 

qualifications;

d.  elaboration and implementation of the 

communication plan and the annual/multiannual 
action plan;

e.  opinion on the opportunity to create new 

qualifications.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
NQF focal points include nominated 
representatives from the two ministries, the 
CGEM, and the Higher Council for Education 
Training and Scientific Research. Working/technical 
groups can be formed ad-hoc or permanently to 
support focal point work.

Stakeholder consultation is via the steering 
committee and the focal points organising/hosting 
workshops and events to consult and inform 
stakeholders groups.

The CGEM has strong outreach to all professional 
and branch associations and representatives and 
takes care of their involvement, at national and 
regional levels.

The development of the NQF – concepts, structure 
and governance scheme – is the result of several 
years of analysis, consultation and final approval, on 
23 May 2016, of three key documents: the structure 
of the NQF and its level descriptors; the governance 
scheme; and the roadmap for NQF implementation 
for 2016–17. In 2015, the decision was taken 
to transform the temporary secretariat into a 
permanent secretariat, to be hosted by the services 
of the Prime Minister and act as the operational 
entity of the NQF. The legal basis of this secretariat 
is not yet developed/approved, which is slowing the 
pace of NQF implementation.

Resources and funding
Financial resources for NQF functions and bodies 
are the State budget allocated to the ministries and 
departments involved, and a budget for the future 
permanent secretariat hosted by the services of the 
Prime Minister.

International partners contributing directly to 
develop the NQF and its instruments are the EU  
and the ETF.

Quality assurance of qualifications
VET programmes and related qualifications are 
approved by a legal decision, which allows the 
award of officially recognised diplomas and 
certificates. Activities of private sector VET 
institutions are regulated by a specific law and 
abide by a strict set of external quality assurance 
requirements and procedures.

Quality assurance of VET qualifications is consistent 
within the APC segment, through rigorous 
methodology and practice for qualifications 
development, based on learning outcomes, 
identified with involvement of labour market 
actors. Learner assessment is carried out using the 
Assessment Guide; it covers the learning outcomes 
defined in the standard of competences and uses 
criterion assessment (pass or not).

In higher education, the introduction of the principle 
of quality assurance was based on three main 
measures stipulated by the Law 01.00:

a.  accreditation of the programme/qualification 

(filière de formation);

b.  evaluation system (of education and training, 
research and higher education institutions);

c.  creation of the institutions in charge of 

evaluation and regulation – the National Higher 
Education Coordination Commission in 2003, 
the Coordination Commission of Private Higher 
Education in 2005, the National Evaluation 
Instance in 2006, and the Coordination Council 
of the Higher Education Institutions not related 
to Universities in 2008.

Procedures and practice of accreditation are 
fully generalised to all cycles, programmes and 
higher education institutions. The accreditation 
system is mandatory for programmes leading to 
qualifications of public higher education institutions, 
and is optional for those of private higher education 
institutions. Accreditation is for a fixed period.

The principle of evaluation of institutions is 
another lever for higher education reform and is 
characterised by:

a.  global nature, regularity and ex-post approach;
b.  mandatory self-evaluation for all higher education 

institutions (public and private);

c.  obligation to disclose the results of evaluation to 
the elected bodies at national and regional levels;
d.  obligation to inform the public on the evaluation 

results;

e.  audits and evaluations by specialised and 

independent institutions.

An integrated quality assurance framework covering 
all forms and types of VET and institutions is yet to 
be created. A number of legal texts regulate parts of 
the VET system: Law 12.00 on apprenticeship, and 
Law 13.00 on private VET.

Authorisation to open VET institutions follows 
differentiated principles and procedures, due to 
incoherence in the legal basis, problems in the 
application of the rules, and other factors such 

431

Volume II: National and regional casesas low capacity of certain institutions to analyse 
applications promptly.

The main quality assurance bodies relevant in 
NQF implementation are not yet explicitly defined, 
though a strong role is anticipated for:

a.  in VET: department of VET (under the Ministry of 

National Education and Vocational Training);
b.  in higher education: ANEAQ (Agence nationale 

d’évaluation et d’assurance qualité de 
l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche 
scientifique)659, the new Agency for Evaluation 
and Quality Assurance of Higher Education and 
scientific research.

A strong point of the NQF concept in Morocco is 
its focus on quality of qualifications and stakeholder 
expectation that the allocation of qualifications in 
the NQF shall reflect quality based on objective 
criteria, such as learning outcomes and compatibility 
with the principles and structure of the NQF.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The Strategic vision 2015–30 explicitly mentions 
validation of learning outcomes from experience 
(validation des acquis de l’expérience – VAE) as 
follows: ‘Establish a system of validation of skills 
and competences from professional experience to 
the benefit of workers/personnel with experience, 
with the aim to allow their access to opportunities 
of lifelong learning.’ In past years, the validation of 
learning outcomes from experience has benefited 
from experimentation projects and initiatives, 
in sectors with high demand for labour with 
qualifications, but there is no general framework 
approach and procedures accessible to all.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The NQF is still in development.

To reach expected transparency in allocating 
qualifications to the NQF a number of issues and 
challenges regarding NQF and qualifications quality 
assurance need to be addressed:

The roadmap 2016–17 is structured in five main 
components, each with a list of key activities and 
milestones:

a.  the clarity of mission and interactions of future 

a.  governance: establishment of the legal basis and 

NQF governance structures, which impact on the 
effectiveness of NQF operations;

installation of the permanent secretariat;

b.  support to launch operations of the permanent 

b.  the consistent application of the learning 
outcomes principle, from design of the 
qualification, to provision and assessment of 
learners’ achievements;

secretariat;

c.  organisation and strengthening of the permanent 

secretariat;

d.  levelling of qualifications in accordance with NQF 

c.  publication of the future register of NQF 

principles and registration;

qualifications;

e.  register of qualifications (répertoire).

d.  publication of information for users on 

qualifications content and results of graduate 
tracking studies and other analyses of graduate 
employability.

In 2017 the EU supported modernisation of the 
quality assurance framework and procedures in 
higher education, through technical assistance. This 
cooperation contributed to further convergence 
with the aspects of the European higher education 
area and concretely developed evaluation standards 
for institutions, programmes/curricula, research, 
centres of doctoral studies and cooperation; a 
quality assurance procedures handbook; and an 
action plan 2018 for ANEAQ, the key body in charge 
of quality assurance in higher education.

In line with component 4 of the roadmap, in 
2016–17 the ETF supported NQF stakeholders in 
preparing the methodology package and procedures 
to carry out transparent allocation of qualifications 
in the NQF. The first phase of this pilot project 
was focused on qualifications in two pilot sectors 
(construction and automobile), and developed:

a.  the draft procedures and methodology for 
allocation of qualifications to the NQF;

b.  two inventories of qualifications relevant for the 

two pilot sectors, one covering VET qualifications 
and the other higher education qualifications.

Following validation by NQF stakeholders, the 
procedures and methodology will be tested on 
a sample of qualifications selected from the two 
inventories. The second project phase will analyse 
lessons from the first, expand the levelling to 
new sectors, build the capacity of the permanent 

659  www.aneaq.ma/fr/index.php 

432

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSsecretariat and create a first simple integrated 
database of qualifications.

Monitoring, evaluation and review  
of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of NQF 
implementation have not yet been defined.

Impact for end-users
No impact yet on end-users.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The roadmap for implementation of the advanced 
status of EU-Morocco relations, dated 2008, 
includes the objective to foster approximation of 
the Moroccan NQF with the EQF. The format of 
such approximation is not defined. A first visit of a 
Moroccan delegation – with observer status – to a 
meeting of the EQF advisory group took place in 
May 2015.

f.  support of international partners (EU, ETF and 

bilateral cooperation);

g.  statut avancé EU-Morocco: emphasis on 
modernisation of education and training, 
transparency of qualifications and, eventually, 
approximation with the EQF.

Governance of the NQF is not free from 
misunderstandings between partner institutions. 
It is expected that the upcoming publication of 
new legal acts related to the establishment of the 
executive committee and the permanent secretariat 
will clear the situation and prompt more effective 
development of the regulatory framework and of 
NQF instruments, and start of operations.

Abbreviations
ANEAQ 

Agence nationale d’évaluation 
et d’assurance qualité de 
l’enseignement supérieur et de la 
recherche scientifique (National 
quality assurance agency for higher 
education)
approche par compétence 
(competence-based approach)
Conféderation générale des 
entreprises du Maroc (employers’ 
confederation)
European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European qualifications framework 
European Training Foundation
Haut Commissariat au Plan
national qualifications framework 
référentiel emplois-compétences 
(referential (standards) of 
occupational competences)
répertoire des emplois-métiers 
(repertory of occupations)
vocational education and training

Important lessons and future plans

Success factors to date include:

a.  highly advantageous policy momentum: VET 

strategy, Vision 2030, draft Framework Law on 
Education;

b.  NQF focal points: continuity, mutual trust; 
commitment of actors from the business 
community;

c.  APC: main officially endorsed approach to 

develop, implement, assess and award VET 
qualifications is centred on learning outcomes;
d.  reforms of higher education and further steps for 
convergence with the European higher education 
area, notably introduction and generalisation of 
the ECTS; 

e.  consolidation of operations by the National 

Agency for Evaluation and Quality Assurance of 
Higher Education (2017) and effective application 
of new quality assurance procedures and 
standards, developed together with EU partners;

APC 

CGEM 

ECTS 

EQF 
ETF 
HCP 
NQF 
REC 

REM 

VET 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF) in collaboration with national experts.

433

Volume II: National and regional casesNAMIBIA

Introduction and context

Main policy objectives

Introduced in 2006, the Namibian qualifications 
framework (NQF) is comprehensive and inclusive, 
spanning all certification levels from school to 
university and including all forms of learning: formal, 
non-formal and informal. The NQF is intended to be 
a register of all official qualifications in Namibia, as 
well as being a crucial tool for promoting lifelong 
learning. Inequality in the education system 
inherited from the colonial regime was one of many 
major challenges confronting the new government 
that came to power in Namibia in 1990. Following 
independence, large-scale education reforms 
were undertaken with the aim of correcting the 
imbalances of the past and creating an inclusive, fair 
and learner-centred education system for the future. 

The policy directive Towards education for all: 
a development brief for education, culture and 
training (Republic of Namibia, 1992) highlighted 
the four development goals of access, equality, 
quality and democracy, and gave special importance 
to lifelong learning as an organising principle of 
Namibia’s education sector. Other reforms included 
the Presidential Commission on Education, Culture 
and Training of 1999 (Republic of Namibia, 1999) 
and the Education and training sector improvement 
programme (ETSIP) of 2005 (Republic of Namibia, 
2007). A key continuing challenge for Namibian 
education and training is the perception that 
learning attained via the conventional, formal route 
is superior to that attained in informal or non-formal 
settings, for example open and distance learning, 
workplace-based learning, and learning acquired 
through general life experiences. The government 
and concerned stakeholders are committed to 
changing this perception, and have developed 
a national recognition of prior learning (RPL) policy 
for this purpose.

The NQF was revised in 2013. The review exercise 
consisted of a consultation with all relevant 
stakeholders; the review concluded that the NQF 
should remain structurally as it is, while there were 
some recommendations for amendments to some 
of the related regulations.

The NQF aims to: 

a.  introduce unity and consistency to the Namibian 
qualifications system by bringing all qualifications 
together under one umbrella;

b.  support horizontal and vertical mobility 
throughout the education and training  
system; 

c.  promote the consistent use of qualification titles; 
d.  provide clear information about the knowledge 

and skills that can be expected of a qualification 
holder or an RPL learner, making it easier for 
both learners and employers to understand 
the similarities and differences between 
qualifications; 

e.  harmonise different education and training 

sectors and improve their alignment with the 
world of work; 

f.  provide assurance of the quality of education, 

training and assessment in Namibia; 

g.  enhance the reputation of Namibia’s education 
and training system in the regional, continental 
and international communities (Namibia 
Qualifications Authority, 2011).

Level descriptors and learning 
outcomes

The NQF comprises 10 levels, covering secondary, 
vocational and higher education. Each level is 
defined by a level descriptor. Accredited institutions 
register all the qualifications they award on the 
NQF. To qualify for registration, the learning 
outcomes required for successful completion 
of a qualification must be clearly stated. Some 
learning outcomes are expressed as unit standards 
which can be awarded independently of the 
whole qualification. This allows learners to receive 
recognition for their learning achievements, even if 
these fall short of the requirements for the award 
of a full qualification. The NQF uses a credit system 
which consists of notional hours of learning. Ten 
notional hours of learning are equivalent to one 
NQF credit unit.

434

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFigure 15. Namibian qualifications framework

Source: Namibia Qualifications Authority: www.namqa.org/framework/ 

Stakeholder involvement

The Namibia Qualifications Authority (NQA) was 
established as a statutory body through Act 29 of 
1996. Its purpose is to oversee the development 
and implementation of the NQF. The NQA networks 
with other organisations to keep abreast of current 
trends and developments in education and training 
at local, regional and international levels. It makes 
formal agreements with stakeholders on setting 
standards, accrediting education and training 
institutions and their courses, and facilitating 
student mobility and credit transfer. One agreement 
between the NQA and the Namibia Training 
Authority mandates the latter to coordinate the 
setting of competence standards and associated 
national curriculum modules and assessment 
criteria for vocational trades up to NQF level 5. 
These are made available as packages to training 
providers. 

While the NQA has the mandate to accredit 
vocational training providers, the Namibia Training 
Authority is responsible for their registration. The 
NQA has signed an agreement with the National 
Council for Higher Education mandating the latter 
to register private higher education institutions. 
Recognised higher education programmes 
are those that are accredited by the NQA and 
other statutory bodies such as the Ministry 
of Education or examination boards. The NQA 

maintains close working relationships with the 
awarding bodies. These include the Directorate 
for National Examinations and Assessment, the 
National Institute for Educational Development, the 
University of Namibia, the Polytechnic of Namibia, 
and the Namibian College of Open Learning 
(NAMCOL). Two statutory bodies, the Namibia 
Tourism Board and the Roads Authority of Namibia, 
have developed unit standards for registration on 
the NQF.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning, and links with 
the NQF

In 2009 the Namibia Qualifications Authority and 
the Namibia Training Authority were assigned the 
responsibility of overseeing the development 
of a national policy on RPL. An RPL steering 
committee, with representatives from different 
sectors, was constituted to work on the draft policy. 
Following consultation, approval was granted by 
the Minister for Education. The Namibia National 
RPL Policy was approved in March 2015. In the 
technical and vocational education and training 
(TVET) sector, RPL has been piloted in three fields, 
in which candidates were assessed and awarded 
qualifications. Registered education and training 
providers are required to develop institution-specific 
policies for RPL which must be aligned to the 

435

Volume II: National and regional casesnational policy. Once this policy is implemented, 
RPL candidates will be able to earn credit for unit 
standards or full NQF qualifications.

Two separate policies on RPL are currently in 
operation. One was developed by the Namibia 
Training Authority for TVET institutions, the other by 
NAMCOL. NAMCOL’s policy defines RPL as ‘the 
process of identifying, matching, assessing and 
accrediting the knowledge, skills and experience 
that candidates have gained through formal, 
informal or non-formal learning’ (NAMCOL, 2008). 
NAMCOL’s RPL policy is currently being applied 
to broaden access to the college’s post-secondary 
programmes at certificate and diploma levels. RPL 
applicants to NAMCOL enter into an agreement 
with the college before undergoing a series of 
assessments designed to allow them to display 
their competences. The process involves pre- and 
post-assessment interviews, portfolio development 
and proficiency tests. At the end, candidates are 
given written feedback on the outcome of their 
assessment. Apart from a few institutional initiatives 
on RPL, as exemplified by NAMCOL, there very little 
horizontal or vertical movement of learners between 
the different education and training subsystems. 
One reason is that these subsystems still function 
in silos, with insufficient coordination leading to 
duplication of the programmes on offer. Another 
reason is that the founding acts of publicly funded 
educational institutions empower the latter to award 
their own qualifications, weakening NQF efforts to 
unify the system. Training bodies have been slow 
to register their qualifications on the NQF, creating 
a further obstacle to mobility. To address this, the 
NQA issued a directive that all qualifications must 
be registered on the framework by 2015. However, 
at the time of this research many qualifications were 
still being reformatted to fit NQF requirements; 
as a result, most are not registered. The NQA has 
received many applications for NQF registration of 
qualifications from the training providers, but a few 
pre-NQF qualifications still await registration, and 
some will never be registered as they are being 
phased out. From 2006 to 2013 a total of 266 
qualifications were registered on the NQF, and from 
2014 to 2015 192 qualifications were registered.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The NQA represents Namibia on the Southern 
African Development Community (SADC) technical 
committee on certification and accreditation, which 
oversees progress towards a regional qualifications 
framework for the SADC. The NQA has signed 
formal memoranda of understanding with quality 

436

assurance bodies in the region, with the aims of 
strengthening information sharing about providers 
and their courses, building and sharing staff 
expertise in quality assurance, and supporting 
research on matters of shared interest. Formal 
agreements currently exist with the Botswana 
Training Authority, the Tertiary Education Council of 
Botswana, the South African Qualifications Authority 
(SAQA), the National Council for Higher Education 
(South Africa), the Ministry of Education and Training 
in Eswatini, the Roads Authority of Namibia, and the 
Mauritius Qualifications Authority.

Important lessons and future plans

Namibia has been at the forefront of NQF 
development in SADC countries. It aims at 
facilitating assessment, certification and quality 
assurance as well as learner mobility across 
education and training systems. This has had 
implications for the development of post-primary 
education in Africa. Post-primary education and 
diversified secondary education are increasingly 
perceived to include skills development and TVET, 
which form elements of a coherent system of 
education and training that includes both theoretical 
and applied learning. However, while the NQF 
covers the whole spectrum of general education 
and vocational training activities, there is still work 
to be done to create a linked system with common 
structures for transferability between education and 
training, and vice versa. Namibia has worked on 
automating its evaluation of qualifications process 
(which has now been achieved). 

There are numerous challenges that the country 
faces in implementing not only the NQF but also 
the quality assurance system in the education 
and training sector. One of the biggest challenges 
relates to capacity: human resources as well as 
financial and other resource requirements to ensure 
quality in education and training.

Abbreviations

NAMCOL   Namibian College of Open Learning 
NQA 
NQF 
RPL 
SADC 

Namibia Qualifications Authority
national qualifications framework
recognition of prior learning
Southern African Development 
Community
technical and vocational education 
and training

TVET 

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

Namibian College of Open Learning (NAMCOL) (2008). Policy on recognition of prior learning. Windhoek: 

NAMCOL.

Republic of Namibia – Ministry of Education and Culture (1992). Towards education for all: a development 

brief for education, culture and training. Windhoek: Ministry of Education and Training.

Republic of Namibia (1999). Report of the Presidential Commission on Education, Culture and Training. 

Windhoek: Capital Press (reprinted in 2001 by Gamsberg Macmillan).

Republic of Namibia (2007). Education and training sector improvement programme (ETSIP): planning for a 
learning nation. Programme document: phase I (2006–2011). Windhoek: Republic of Namibia.

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

437

Volume II: National and regional casesNEPAL

Introduction and context

Nepal is a landlocked country located between 
China and India. It is inhabited by people of diverse 
social, cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds 
– although Hindus, who comprise over 80% of its 
29 million-plus population with an annual growth 
rate of 1.35%, make up the majority (CBS, 2011). 

The national vocational qualifications framework 
(NVQF) of Nepal is in the process of being 
developed by the Council for Technical Education 
and Vocational Training on the basis of the existing 
National Skills Testing Board (NSTB) certification 
system. 

Nepal’s technical and vocational education and 
training (TVET) system is in urgent need of 
reform in order to tackle the many developmental 
challenges the country currently faces. A lack 
of skills development activities is considered 
to be at the root of the country’s poverty and 
unemployment problems, and large numbers of 
Nepali are leaving the country because of the 
severe lack of employment opportunities. The 
majority of young people leave school before 
completing Grade 10. Opportunities for moving 
horizontally between general education and TVET 
are limited. Despite the rapid economic growth that 
Nepal has experienced since 1951, there are still 
not enough technical higher education institutions 
(Tulhadar, 2011). 

Nepal’s 14th Three-Year Plan (2016/17–2018/19) 
projected that, by 2018/19 the net enrolment rates 
in lower secondary (Grades 1–8) and secondary 
schools (Grades 9–12) would reach 94% and 45% 
respectively. Additionally, the retention rate in 
Grade 8 and Grade 10 would reach 80% and 50% 
respectively. Employment-oriented skills training in 
Nepal is equally in need of an overhaul. At present, 
there is no overarching system to govern and fund 
such training, meaning that what courses there 
are tend to be short-term and donor-driven with 
little return on investment. Moreover, there is no 
functioning system for the recognition of skills 
gained in informal and non-formal settings. 

A further challenge concerns the recognition of 
foreign qualifications, which is not currently governed 
by any legal framework. Nepalis who have studied 
abroad often encounter difficulties when they return 
to Nepal and find that the qualifications they have 
gained are not recognized in their home country. 

The Nepali economy has not performed well in the 
last decade. Gross domestic product (GDP) has 
grown by an average of around 4% annually, and 
one in four Nepali lives in poverty. The gross national 
income (GNI) per capita for fiscal year 2072/73 
(2015/16) was USD 760. More than 60% of the 
population is currently dependent upon agriculture 
for its livelihood. However, the sector has been 
subject to major changes over the past decade; 
agriculture and industry are in decline while the 
service sector is on the rise. Although the official 
unemployment rate is negligible (2.1%), seasonal 
underemployment is significantly higher at almost 
46% (CBS, 2011). 

Over the past two decades, migration overseas for 
the purposes of seeking employment has become 
a prominent feature of Nepali economy and society. 
Approximately 1.9 million Nepalis work overseas, 
excluding India. About 5% of them are women. In 
2011, at least another 800,000 (undocumented) 
Nepalis were working in the private sector in 
India, and about 250,000 in India’s public sector. 
The highest remittances were from India (21%), 
followed by Malaysia (19%), Saudi Arabia (15%), 
Qatar (14%) and the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Northern Ireland (2%); other countries 
accounted for a further 29% in total.

Policy objectives

In alignment with the TVET reform agenda, the 
NVQF aims to: 

•  create a skilled workforce that is recognized both 

in Nepal and overseas; 

•  provide a structured system of vocational 
qualifications that opens up pathways and 
possibilities for the individual learner. 

438

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLevels and use of learning outcomes

Nepal has a five-level certification system, from 
elementary level to levels 1–4.

•  Skill level – elementary:

 o successful completion of 140 hours of 

vocational training in a relevant occupation/
trade.
•  Skills test level 1:

 o literate, with knowledge and skills in the 
relevant occupation and a minimum of 
one year’s work experience in a related 
occupation/trade, or

 o successful completion of one month 

(160 hours) of vocational training in a relevant 
occupation/trade, or

 o six months’ work experience in the relevant 
occupation/trade, having basic knowledge 
and skills in a related field.

•  Skills test level 2:

 o literate, with knowledge and skills in the 
relevant occupation and a minimum of 
three years’ work experience in a relevant 
occupation/trade, or

 o one year’s training (minimum 600 hours 
of theory and 800 hours of practice) in a 
relevant occupation/trade, or

 o one year’s work experience after completion 
of skills test level 1 in a relevant occupation/
trade.
•  Skills test level 3:

 o literate, with knowledge and skills in the 
relevant occupation and a minimum of 
five years’ work experience in a relevant 
occupation/trade, or

 o two years’ work experience and one year’s 
training in a relevant occupation/trade, or
 o one year’s work experience after completion 

of the skills test level 2 in a relevant 
occupation/trade.

•  Skills test level 4 (specifically for ophthalmic 

assistants):
 o three years’ work experience and one year’s 

training after completion of the level 3 
ophthalmic assistant skills test, or 

 o certificate in health science (ophthalmology) 
or equivalent with three years’ experience 
and one year’s training. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The NSTB certification system was initiated in 
Nepal in 1983 by an autonomous body called the 
Skills Testing Authority. The Authority introduced 
systems for the classification of occupations and 
the testing and certification of skills in accordance 

with the guidelines of the Asian and Pacific Skill 
Development Programme/International Labour 
Organization (APSDEP/ILO). When the Council 
for Technical Education and Vocational Training 
was formed in 1989, the Skills Testing Authority 
was replaced by the NSTB and placed under the 
jurisdiction of the Council, which oversees TVET in 
Nepal.  

The NSTB is formed of representatives from 
government organizations and the public sector, 
craftspeople, trade unions, industrialists and 
employers. Half of its 16 members are from the 
public sector and half are from the private sector. 
Under the NSTB, various subject committees 
are working to develop national occupational 
skills standards/profiles and regulate skill-
testing activities. As of January 2019, profiles for 
290 different occupations have been developed. 
The NSTB has so far tested 452,901 craftspeople 
and certified 338,568. Skills tests are performance-
based and require candidates to achieve 
occupational skills standards for their chosen trade 
in order to obtain a national skills certificate. An 
occupational skills standard is a written specification 
of the practical skills, knowledge and experience 
demonstrated by an individual in a particular 
occupation. 

In 2013, the Swiss Agency for Development and 
Cooperation and the Council for Technical Education 
and Vocational Training signed a Memorandum 
of Understanding in which they pledged to work 
jointly to facilitate the development of sector skill 
committees as well as the NVQF. An sector skill 
committee is an informal body for a specific market 
sector, comprising government representatives, 
employers, training institutions and federations. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Skills tests conducted under the NSTB recognize 
prior formal and non-formal learning, competences 
and work experience. Skills tests are designed with 
three target groups in mind:

•  graduates from pre-employment vocational 

training programmes who need help in making 
the transition from training to work;

•  experienced workers (employed or unemployed) 

who lack official certification;

•  workers who have completed an in-service 

training programme and are seeking an upgrade 
or additional certificate.

Figure 16 illustrates the skills testing process.

439

Volume II: National and regional casesFigure 16. Nepal’s skills testing procedures

START

Preparation activities

Individuals/companies/institutes
apply for testing

Application form
processed

Acceptable?

No

Yes

Form registered and ''admission card''
issued

Screening test
required?

Yes

Candidate informed

Yes

1st time?

No

Test fee refunded 
Told to reapply 
next time

END

No

Screening test
passed?

No

Candidate informed 
and encouraged to seek 
further training

Yes

Testing schedule
published

Test conducted and evaluated

Results ﬁnalized and recommended
to NSTB for approval

Passed

Recommendation for
certiﬁcation

Results registered and
certiﬁcate produced

Results published

END

Failed

Result registered

Candidate recommended
to apply for the next test

Certiﬁcate produced
and issued

Encourage to take next
level when eligible

END

Source: CTEVT, 2013.

440

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
One of the NVQF’s major goals is to provide 
educational opportunities for young people who 
lack access to institution-based TVET provision. At 
present, TVET leading to diplomas and certificates 
is available only in institutions (which include 
constituent technical schools/training centres, 
affiliated technical colleges/institutes and technical 
education in community schools). However, plans 
are underway to make the TVET pathway more 
attractive to young people by embracing all forms of 
training: formal, non-formal and informal. 

There are many good reasons for attempting to 
attract more young people to TVET. Numerous 
studies have shown that TVET graduates are more 
likely than graduates of academic programmes to 
find employment. Moreover, TVET is an effective 
pathway to jobs in the international market. 
Foreign employment surveys have shown that 
skilled workers, such as plumbers, carpenters, 
and mechanics, earn significantly higher wages 
than unskilled workers. Countries such as the 
United States, Canada, Australia, the UK and other 
European nations offer attractive incentives, such 
as residency and work permits, to foreign workers 
with technical and vocational skills. Promoting 
international worker mobility is therefore a major 
priority for the NVQF.

NQF implementation

The NVQF will be developed and implemented 
together with the unified national qualifications 
framework (NQF). With the support of the Swiss 
Agency for Development and Cooperation, the 
Council for Technical Education and Vocational 
Training will put the national vocational qualification 
system (NVQS) into effect. This new system will 
enable women and men, including those belonging 
to disadvantaged groups, to:

•  gain access to employment and self-

employment; 

•  work more productively; 
•  earn higher incomes; 
•  enhance their livelihoods and resilience.

and formulation, and upgrades to the NSTB. 
Stakeholders will then be able to use the sector-
specific Vocational Qualification Framework (VQF) 
and lay the foundation for the emerging NVQS. 

During the second phase (2019–23), the NSTB 
will become the National Vocational Qualification 
Authority. 

In the third and final phase (2023–25), it is expected 
that the qualifications offered by the National 
Vocational Qualification Authority will be recognized 
for entry to higher-level education and training, both 
in Nepal and abroad.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The eight member states of the South Asian 
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) – 
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, 
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka – finalized the 
SAARC Framework for Action (SFFA) for Education 
2030, which was adopted at the Third Meeting 
of Ministers of Education/Higher Education, held 
in Male, Maldives, in 2016. The ministers agreed 
that the objective of this action plan is to develop, 
through regional collaboration and partnerships, 
an expert group to review the frameworks/
procedures followed in different SAARC countries 
for the recognition, validation and accreditation of 
the outcomes of formal, non-formal and informal 
learning (SAARC, 2016).

As a member of the World Trade Organization 
(WTO), Nepal strives to create a competent and 
qualified workforce comparable with those of other 
countries in Asia and the Pacific region and beyond. 

Important lessons and future plans

The Council for Technical Education and Vocational 
Training is confident that the NSTB certificates will 
become increasingly popular and widely recognized 
in both domestic and foreign labour markets. 

It is hoped that this will reduce poverty and promote 
inclusive growth. 

The NVQS project will be implemented in three 
phases. During the first phase (2015–19), planned 
activities to strengthen participation by stakeholders 
of the TVET system include policy dialogue 

In the long run, the Council plans to link the NVQF 
to a more comprehensive, overarching NQF that 
will encompass all education sectors rather than 
just TVET. This broader NQF will create greater 
coherence between TVET and general education, 
ensuring that Nepali qualifications are further 
adapted to respond to the changing needs of today’s 
global economy. 

441

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
NQF 
NSTB 
NVQF 

national qualifications framework
National Skills Testing Board 
national vocational qualifications 
framework 

NVQS 

SAARC  

TVET 

national vocational qualification 
system 
South Asian Association for Regional 
Cooperation 
technical and vocational education 
and training 

References

CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics) (2011). National population and housing census 2011: National report. 

Kathmandu: CBS.

CTEVT (Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training) (2013). National skills testing board. 

Bhaktapur: CTEVT. Accessed 18 February 2019 at: www.nstb.org.np/skilltesting.php?page=Skill%20
Test%20flow%20chart 

CTEVT (2016). A glimpse of technical education and vocational training in Nepal. Bhaktapur: CTEVT.
ILO (International Labour Organization) (2010). Labour and social trends in Nepal 2010. Geneva: Universal 

Copyright Convention.

Kusago, T. and Phuyal, K. (2009). TVET and secondary school education in Nepal: A Case study of Hetauda, 
Makwanpur. Accessed 18 February 2019 at: www2.ipcku.kansai-u.ac.jp/~tkusago/pdf/japdf/reseach/
final_nepal_tivet_report_fInal.pdf

Nepalese National Planning Commission (2016). The Fourteen Plan (FY2016/17–2018/19). Kathmandu: 

Government of Nepal.

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) (2016). Sub-regional workshop on the SAARC 
Framework for Action for Education 2030. Delhi, UNESCO New Delhi Office,30–31 October 2016. 
Delhi: UNESCO New Delhi Office.

SDC (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation) (2013). Vocational pathways: Conceptual framework 

for education, vocational training and learning for Nepal. Berne: SDC.

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

442

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNETHERLANDS

Introduction and context

The Netherlands have a well-functioning education 
and training system, with very good performance 
on all key education and training indicators, 
reflective of a relatively high and stable level of 
public investment on education. The country has 
exceeded EU 2020 benchmarks on participation 
in early childhood education and care, tertiary 
education attainment, the employment rate of 
recent graduates, participation of adults in lifelong 
learning and the percentage of students leaving 
education and training early. Student performances 
in basic skills in reading, science and mathematics 
are above EU averages according to the Programme 
for international student assessment (PISA) 2015, 
though the proportion of underachievers has 
increased over recent years in all three domains 
(European Commission, 2018). Performance gaps 
between students are mainly related to immigrant 
background and to differences between schools 
and education tracks660. A dialogue on a national 
curriculum for compulsory education was initiated 
in 2015 and measures to increase the quality of 
teaching are being implemented.

In higher education, the partly grant-based system 
was replaced with a loan system in 2015, with 
the aim of investing funds saved in increasing the 
quality of higher education. Vocational education 
and training (VET) performs well and is closely 
linked to the labour market (European Commission, 
2017). An agreement between the upper secondary 
vocational education (middelbaar beroepsonderwijs, 
MBO) sector and the government was signed in 
February 2018 aiming to improve quality in initial VET 
and to make continuous VET more flexible, better 
adjusting provision to adults’ needs in terms of 
time, place and forms of learning. In October 2017, 
short-cycle programmes (two years) in the form of 

660  At the end of primary education (age 12), Dutch students 
are directed to different types of secondary education 
based on study results and advice from school (Cedefop, 
2018b). 

associate degrees were introduced as a separate 
level of education in higher professional education 
(hogescholen), alongside bachelor and master 
degrees661. They are particularly suited to graduates 
of a secondary vocational education programme 
(MBO 4) and employees, extending access to higher 
education and offering opportunities for continuous 
professional development. Adult participation in 
lifelong learning is almost double the EU average 
(19.1% in 2017 compared to 10.9%) (European 
Commission, 2018).

Development of a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) for the Netherlands (Nederlands 
Kwalificatieraamwerk, NLQF) started in 2009, 
building on and integrating the qualifications 
framework for higher education which was self-
certified to the qualifications framework in the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA) in the 
same year. The resulting comprehensive framework 
was adopted by approval of the framework proposal 
by the Dutch Government and the Dutch Parliament 
in September 2011.The NLQF national coordination 
point (NCP) and its tasks were also established at 
that time.

The NLQF is a systematic classification of all 
qualifications in the country, aimed at transparency 
and increased comparability. It has eight levels, 
plus an entry level below European qualifications 
framework (EQF) level 1 and a sublevel at level 4 
(4+). It covers two main groups of qualifications: 
government-regulated qualifications in the formal 
education and training system, and non-regulated 
(mainly) private qualifications awarded on the 
labour market. The NLQF is now operational. Since 

661  Associate degrees had been piloted in the Netherlands 
since 2006. In September 2013 the qualification was 
formally introduced in the legal framework (revised Law 
on higher education and science) as a two-year segment 
within a four-year professional bachelor programme, 
allowing entry to the labour market and further study in 
the related bachelor programme (Cedefop, 2014). Since 
2017, associate degrees no longer need to be linked to a 
bachelor programme.

443

Volume II: National and regional cases2012, some progress has been made in levelling 
non-regulated qualifications to the NLQF, with 
65 qualifications of this group included by  
February 2019662. 

A revision of existing legal texts underpinning 
Dutch education and training was initiated in 2014, 
aiming to ensure that the role of the NLQF is 
reflected in the relevant legislation. Evaluations 
of different aspects of the NLQF and the NCP 
were also conducted663. Results of the latest 
study (Ockham IPS, 2017) highlighted the need to 
strengthen the legal basis of the framework and to 
widen communication among stakeholders. A legal 
proposal taking into account the recommendations 
from the evaluation is currently under development, 
aiming to adopt formally the NLQF, its levels and 
level descriptors, and to regulate the indication 
of NQF and EQF levels on government-regulated 
qualification documents. The new law on the NLQF 
is foreseen to be adopted in 2020. 

NLQF referencing to the EQF was carried out in 
parallel to the development of the framework and 
was completed in January 2012 (van der Sanden 
et al., 2012). 

Policy objectives

Development of the NLQF was prompted by the 
2008 recommendation on a European qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning664. Its purpose 
is to support lifelong learning and national and 

662  Register of qualifications awarded outside government 

regulation and levelled to the NLQF: www.nlqf.nl/register
663  a.  Ockham IPS (2013). Implementatieonderzoek naar het 

NCP NLQF [Research on the implementation of the 
NLQF NCP]. Available in Dutch at: www.nlqf.nl/images/
Eindrapport_OCKHAM_IPS_definitief_29112013_NCP_
NLQF.pdf

b.  Profitwise (2014). De waarde van het NLQF – 

Onderzoek naar kenmerken, eigenschappen en 
voordelen [The value of the NLQF - Research into 
characteristics, properties and benefits]. Available in 
Dutch at: www.nlqf.nl/images/downloads/De_Waarde_
van_het_NLQF_-_Eindrapportseptember2014_-_
ProfitWise.pdf

c.  Ockham IPS (2017). Onderzoek NLQF [NLQF 

Research]. Available in Dutch at: www.rijksoverheid.nl/
documenten/rapporten/2017/11/20/onderzoek-nlqf 

664  European Parliament and Council; Council of the 
European Union (2008). Recommendation of 
23 April 2008 on the establishment of the European 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning. Official 
Journal of the European Union, C 111, 6.5.2008, 
pp. 1–7. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32008H0506%2801%29 

international mobility of students and employees, by 
(van der Sanden et al., 2012):

a.  enabling people of all ages and in different 

situations to identify their level of education and 
training, and to find an appropriate education and 
training programme where they can use their 
abilities efficiently;

b.  enabling employers and individuals to 

understand the levels of existing national and 
international qualifications (through the EQF) and 
how they relate to each other;

c.  showing how different qualifications contribute 
to improving workers’ skills in the labour market.

The main objectives of the NLQF are to (van der 
Sanden et al., 2012):

a.  increase transparency within Dutch education;
b.  increase understanding of qualifications within 

Europe;

c.  increase comparability of qualification levels;
d.  stimulate thinking in terms of learning outcomes 

as building blocks of qualifications;

e.  promote lifelong learning;
f. 
increase the transparency of learning routes;
g.  increase understanding of qualifications levels 

across the labour market;

h.  aid communication between stakeholders in 

education and employment.

The NLQF is thus primarily a communication 
framework and aims to achieve its goals by 
providing a systematic classification of all existing 
qualifications in the Netherlands, grouped in two 
pillars:

a.  formal qualifications, regulated by the Ministry 
of Education, Culture and Science; the Ministry 
of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy; and the 
Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport;

b.  non-regulated qualifications, awarded outside the 
formal education and training system, developed 
by stakeholders in the labour market (from 
private training providers, companies, sectors 
and examination bodies). 

The emphasis on the double character of the 
national qualifications system – where private and 
public providers interact and supplement each 
other – is an important feature in NLQF-related 
developments. The wide range of qualifications 
covered in the framework reflects the recognition 
that lifelong learning in the Netherlands involves 
different education sectors and providers, using 
different terms and processes to describe learning 
outcomes, curricula and examination requirements 

444

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
(van der Sanden et al., 2012). The second group of 
qualifications, notably those awarded by the private 
sector, often have a strong ‘qualifying’ power in 
the labour market and their inclusion in the NLQF 
is expected to increase their visibility and further 
strengthen their value. 

its placement at NLQF level 5. In the near future 
the levelling of some of the VET qualifications 
initially placed at level 4 may be brought under 
discussion and analysed to see if they may be more 
adequately covered by level 5 descriptors (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

It has been explicitly stated (ibid.) that the NLQF has 
no role in reforming Dutch education and training, 
in regulating transfer and access, or in entitlements 
to qualifications and degrees. In the formal system, 
bridging between sectors and education pathways is 
regulated by law. Whether the framework will move 
from being a purely descriptive mechanism to an 
instrument supporting system-level developments 
remains to be seen. So far, NLQF implementation 
has led to the development of procedures for quality 
assurance to support the classification of non-formal 
qualifications (Ockham IPS, 2017), reflecting an 
influence of the NLQF beyond its descriptive role. 

In a context characterised by the strong position 
of the learning outcomes approach and relatively 
widespread use of validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, the NLQF seeks to strengthen 
the role of validation and to turn it into an integrated 
part of the qualifications system. The framework 
is also expected to be instrumental in the possible 
development of a credit system covering all 
education sectors (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NLQF has one entry level (below EQF level 1), 
eight qualification levels equivalent to those in the 
EQF, and a sublevel at level 4 (4+). The entry level 
was created to support low-qualified individuals 
in getting a certificate/diploma and to increase 
their motivation to participate in further learning; 
however, so far this has been reserved for basic 
education for adults with a learning disability. 
Level 4+ was introduced, following prolonged 
discussions, to distinguish the pre-university 
studies (voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs, 
VWO) from the upper general secondary education 
(hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs, HAVO) 
which was classified at level 4. The possibility of 
inclusion of non-regulated qualifications at NLQF 5 
and above was debated and initially opposed 
by representatives of higher education. The 
introduction of the associated degree as a separate 
level of education in higher professional education 
(hogescholen)665 also generated debate concerning 

665  Please see Introduction and context section.

The following key principles are emphasised in  
the development of the NLQF (van der Sanden 
et al., 2012):

a.  NLQF levels do not refer to, and are not defined 

by, education sectors.

b.  NLQF levels are not referenced to degrees or 

titles (meaning, for example, that a qualification 
at level 6 does not automatically belong to 
higher education and the achievement of this 
qualification does not give automatic entitlement 
to a bachelor degree).

c.  All NLQF levels are open to all qualifications of 

all education sectors.

d.  The level of a qualification is determined based 
on a comparison of the learning outcomes of 
that qualification with the level descriptors  
in the NLQF and it is not tied to a particular  
study load666.

All nine NLQF levels are defined in terms of learning 
outcomes, using the descriptor elements presented 
in Table 54. Since their adoption, level descriptors 
of the NLQF have been tested and fine-tuned in the 
process of classifying non-regulated qualifications; 
guidelines were developed to avoid different 
interpretations of the descriptors when classifying 
qualifications. This fine-tuning work has not led to 
changes in the initial levelling of qualifications.

Table 54 demonstrates the influence of the EQF 
descriptors, and also some important differences 
resulting from an elaboration and partial 
reorientation of the NLQF descriptors (Cedefop, 
2018). As in several other countries, making 
context explicit has been seen as important. The 
subdomains introduced for skills can be seen as 
a way of specifying the descriptors and making 
them more relevant to the Dutch context. They 
can also be seen as reflecting Dutch experiences 
in applying learning outcomes, for example in VET 
(upper secondary vocational education (MBO)) in 
recent years. 

666  Initially, an application for classification and inclusion into 
the NLQF could be made only for qualifications requiring 
a substantial volume of learning, set at a minimum of 
400 hours of nominal study time. This requirement was 
withdrawn and replaced with the labour market relevance 
of qualifications. 

445

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 54. Level descriptor elements in the Dutch national qualifications framework (NLQF)

CONTEXT

Knowledge

Skills

THE CONTEXT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE LEVELS ARE USED ALONG WITH 
THE DESCRIBED KNOWLEDGE TO DETERMINE THE GRADE OF DIFFICULTY 
OF THE SKILLS.

Knowledge is the totality of facts, principles, theories and ways of working 
related to an occupation or a knowledge domain.

Cognitive abilities (logical, intuitive and creative thinking) and practical abilities 
(psychomotor skills in applying methods, materials, tools and instruments) 
applied within a given context:

Applying knowledge

• 

 reproduce, analyse, integrate, evaluate, combine and apply knowledge in an 
occupation or a knowledge domain;

Problem-solving skills

• 

 recognise or identify and solve problems;

Learning and 
development skills

• 

 personal development, autonomously or under supervision;

Information skills

• 

 obtain, collect, process, combine, analyse and assess information;

Communication skills

• 

 communicate based on conventions relevant to the context.

Responsibility and 
independence

Proven ability to collaborate with others and to take responsibility for own work 
or study results or of others.

Source: Adapted from van der Sanden et al., 2012.

The learning outcomes, competence-oriented 
approach was broadly accepted and implemented 
in Dutch education and training before the 
development of the NLQF. The Dutch referencing 
report to the EQF (van der Sanden et al., 2012) 
details a strong tradition of ‘objectives-led’ 
governance of education and training, which 
has proved conducive to a competence-based 
approach. Vocational education is probably most 
advanced in competence orientation; following 
extensive reform, a new VET competence-based 
qualifications structure has been developed and 
implemented; VET qualifications were revised using 
the NLQF level descriptors and their number was 
reduced. A learning-outcomes-based qualification 
framework for VET has been in place since 2016. 
The same tendencies can be observed in general 
and higher education, although less systematically. 
The introduction of the qualifications framework 
for higher education has contributed to the overall 
shift to learning outcomes, as has the involvement 
of single institutions in the ‘tuning project’667. 
The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science 
is supporting higher education providers to use 
learning outcomes related to the NLQF levels 

667  TUNING Educational Structures in Europe:  

www.unideusto.org/tuningeu/

in pilot projects aimed to develop flexible partial 
learning pathways668. This is thought to aid access to 
and participation in higher education. 

The strong position of the learning outcomes 
approach is reflected in widespread use of 
validation of non-formal and informal learning in the 
Netherlands. The NLQF is expected to strengthen 
the role of validation and turn it into an integrated 
part of the qualifications system. Discussions 
have recently started on the development of an 
integrated credit system for all education sectors 
using the NLQF level descriptors (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The development of the NLQF started in 2009 and 
has been coordinated by the Ministry of Education, 

668  The Accreditation Organisation for the Netherlands and 

Flanders (NVAO) has developed a dedicated accreditation 
framework for these pilots, focusing on learning 
outcomes instead of input requirements. Currently, 
700 programmes in 21 universities of applied sciences 
take part in the pilots. 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSCulture and Science, which is also the body 
responsible for implementing the framework. The 
initial structures for development and referencing 
of the NLQF to the EQF included: a project leader; 
a steering group669; an internal working group (for 
policy support); an expert group (for developing and 
testing the NLQF level descriptors); and an NLQF-
EQF committee – ‘the Leijnse Committee’ – for 
independent advice to the Minister of Education on 
the development of the NLQF, referencing to the 
EQF, and the tasks and structure of the NLQF NCP 
(van der Sanden et al., 2012).

The NLQF proposal was adopted in September 
2011 by the Dutch Government and the Parliament. 
The initial development of the framework included 
only limited stakeholder input beyond the three 
ministries directly involved (Ministry of Education, 
Culture and Science, Ministry of Economic Affairs 
and Climate Policy, and Ministry of Health, Welfare 
and Sport). However, two rounds of consultations 
on the proposals were carried out involving the 
main stakeholders, including social partners, policy 
makers and teachers and trainers from providers 
of both regulated and non-regulated qualifications. 
Given the openness of the NLQF to the private 
sector, systematic work has been carried out 
since 2012 informing potential stakeholders of the 
potential in the framework. 

The need to strengthen the legal basis has been 
noted by stakeholders and a new NLQF act should 
be adopted in 2020. The legislative proposal for 
this new act was subject to a public consultation in 
2015 and a follow-up consultation in 2016. A study 
was carried out (Ockham IPS, 2017) to inform the 
further development of the NLQF legal proposal 
and the implementation of the framework. It 
included a sounding board session, set up by the 
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science in 
2018, to discuss the study results. This comprised 
representatives from associations of the different 
education sectors, social partners, other ministries, 
the Inspectorate of Education, the Accreditation 
Organisation for the Netherlands and Flanders 
(NVAO) and the umbrella organisation of providers 
in private education. 

The day-to-day running of the framework has been 
delegated to a NLQF secretariat which also operates 

as EQF national coordination point (the NLQF/
EQF NCP)670. Initially, this was situated within the 
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science; since 
2012 it has been hosted by the CINOP foundation671, 
an independent organisation funded by, and 
reporting to, the ministry. The main tasks of the 
NCP are: levelling non-formal qualifications to the 
NLQF (levelling of formal qualifications is the direct 
responsibility of the Ministry of Education, Culture 
and Science); maintaining the NLQF register of non-
formal qualifications672; maintaining and evaluating 
the NLQF and its links to the EQF; monitoring 
implementation; communicating the NLQF and 
supporting its main stakeholder groups. 

The NCP accomplishes these tasks through its 
bureau673, has nine part-time employees, and 
is supported by several independent external 
structures. A Programme Council decides on the 
classification of non-formal qualifications, based 
on advice from two commissions: the Quality 
Commission (which assesses the validity of 
applicant organisations, and is supported by a pool 
of auditors) and the Classification Commission 
(which makes recommendations on levelling of 
proposed qualifications based on assessment by 
a team of independent experts). The Programme 
Council and the two commissions are each 
composed of one representative of the labour 
market, one representative of the regulated 
education sector and one representative of the 
non-regulated education and training sector. An 
Appeal Commission has also been set up. 

The NLQF builds on the qualifications framework 
for higher education developed (starting in 2005) 
in the context of the Bologna process. This 
culminated in the NQF for higher education in the 
Netherlands, which was verified by an independent 
external committee of peers in February 2009. The 
Accreditation Organisation for the Netherlands and 
Flanders (NVAO), guarantees implementation of 
the qualifications framework for higher education 
through the accreditation process, which is 
obligatory across formally recognised higher 
education. 

670  The website of the NLQF/EQF NCP is available at:  

www.nlqf.nl/english

671  The website of the CINOP foundation is available at: 

www.cinop.nl/1_3128_About_CINOP.aspx

672  The register of non-formal qualifications is available at: 

669  Comprising the directors responsible for the different 

www.nlqf.nl/register

education and training subsystems from the Ministry of 
Education, Culture and Science and the (then) Ministry of 
Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation.

673  The NLQF NCP Bureau comprises a programme director, 
three consultants, communication and project support 
staff.

447

Volume II: National and regional casesRecognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways674

skills and competences. Peer-reviewing has been 
introduced as a quality-assurance tool for providers 
of VPL for the labour market.

A national system for validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, called validation of prior learning 
(VPL)675, has been in place in the Netherlands since 
1998, driven by the need to bridge the gap between 
education supply and demand on the labour 
market. Initial efforts were directed at creating the 
circumstances for developing and implementing 
VPL and changing the learning culture, recognising 
that learning through practical experience can, in 
principle, deliver the same skills and qualifications 
as formal classroom-based learning. Quality 
assurance of the process came into focus in 2006, 
in an approach that included linkages to national 
qualifications, sector standards, function profiles, 
career paths and citizenship activities. A new 
national policy on validation was initiated in 2013, 
marked by an orientation towards a participative 
society where all stakeholders take ownership 
for their role in lifelong learning. The new policy, 
effective since 2016, aims to stimulate adult learning 
in combination with work, to broaden validation 
opportunities and to make VPL a successful tool for 
both learning and employment. For this, VPL is used 
as a dual instrument operating on two pathways (or 
routes): one linked to employability, career guidance 
and progression on the labour market, and the other 
linked to obtaining a qualification in the education 
system and shortening learning paths. 

In the labour market route, VPL is aimed at career 
guidance and development for adults, to support 
employability, and to achieve a better match 
between employee capacities and occupational 
profiles or on-the-job learning programmes. Prior 
learning outcomes are validated against sector/
industry standards. VPL tools used include the 
intake assessment, e-portfolio, the ‘experience 
profile’ (ervaringsprofiel), competence tests, and 
workplace observations/performance assessment. 
A formal VPL procedure carried out by an 
accredited VPL supplier results in the award of a 
‘certificate of experience’ (ervaringscertificaat), 
and/or a ‘certificate for vocational competence’ 
(vakbekwaamheidsbewijs) linked to professional 
standards and competences, or a ‘certificate 
for (generic and transferal) competences’ 
(competentiebewijs) linked to human resources 
systems. The latter two documents were introduced 
in 2017 to provide labour market value in terms of 

674  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
of the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al. 
(forthcoming).

675  In Dutch: erkenning van verworven competentie.

In the education route, the goal for the learner is to 
validate competences gained through non-formal 
or informal learning against national qualification 
standards, to support further learning. VPL is 
used to grant exemptions or to acquire partial/full 
formal qualifications in VET and higher education, 
and for entry to an education programme. Legal 
provisions on validation are embedded in the 
legislation governing these two subsystems676. 
In VET, the focus is on the introduction of partial 
qualifications and on validating prior knowledge 
and skills for exemptions in learning units. VET 
schools are supported to validate competences 
at NLQF levels 1–4. For higher education, VPL is 
mainly offered in higher vocational education (hoger 
beroepsonderwijs, HBO) but less in universities, 
which usually accredit only formally acquired 
learning outcomes. Initiatives based on the learning 
outcomes approach have been piloted in higher 
education since 2016 to make learning routes more 
flexible for students in part-time and work-based 
learning programmes. The VPL tools used include 
intake-assessment, e-portfolio, competence tests, 
and principles of the European credit system for 
vocational education and training (ECVET). One 
change with the introduction of the dual validation 
approach refers to the ‘certificate of experience’ 
(ervaringscertificaat) awarded by accredited VPL 
suppliers, used to assess and recognise the 
vocational and general competences of a candidate 
in relation to sectoral or formal education standards. 
The ‘certificate of experience’ can be used in 
the VPL process in the education route, but it is 
no longer essential for obtaining exemptions or 
a partial/full qualification. Awarding bodies for 
qualifications (generally exam committees of VET 
schools or universities) can also use criterion-based 
interviews, performance assessments and other 
learning-independent assessment techniques. 
With the legal, organisational and methodological 
aspects in place, the focus at this stage is on 
turning policy into practice, increasing the quality 
and effectiveness of VPL services, and integrating 
VPL provision with use of VPL. Among the actions 
agreed by all stakeholders are better linking of VPL in 

676 

In VET, the Law on adult and vocational education (Wet 
Educatie en Beroepsvorming, 1996) was the basis for 
developing the VPL policy in 1998. In higher education, 
the Law on higher education and scientific research (Wet 
of het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek) 
regulates the admission and exemption policy based 
on validation, with higher education institutions being 
free to translate and apply this regulation, depending 
on programme, in the rules on education and exams 
(Onderwijs en examenreglementen, OERs).

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthe two routes, the development of tailored learning 
options and a critical review of legal frameworks for 
VPL. The NLQF can aid implementation of the VPL 
policy in the Netherlands by making relationships 
between labour market qualifications and formal 
qualifications more transparent. NLQF levels and 
use of level descriptors also help to clarify the wider 
value of people’s skills and competences than solely 
their performance on an occupational level. It is also 
possible for (sectoral) organisations to have their 
standards validated against one of the NLQF levels. 
A sector standard used for learning or career advice 
in the labour market route can be registered on a 
specific NLQF level. The next step in this process 
(currently in progress) is creating links between 
national and sector standards through the NLQF 
(European Commission et al., 2019).

NQF implementation 

The NLQF has been operational since 2012. Initial 
implementation efforts were directed towards 
developing procedures for the classification of 
non-regulated qualifications, developing profiles 
for (and recruitment of) the necessary experts, 
testing procedures and criteria with stakeholders 
and providers of non-regulated qualifications, and 
developing information materials. All government-
regulated qualifications have been included in the 
framework en bloc (more than 4 500 qualifications 
from general education, VET and higher education), 
and inclusion of non-regulated qualifications from 
the labour market has started. The criteria and 
procedures for inclusion of non-formal qualifications 
into the NLQF are presented in Box 1.

Box 1. Inclusion of non-formal qualifications into the NLQF: criteria and procedures

Since 2012, the NLQF NCP has promoted the possibility to have a non-formal qualification included 
in, and levelled to, the NQF. This is presented as an opportunity for providers to achieve better overall 
visibility, to strengthen comparability with other qualifications at national and European level, to apply the 
learning outcomes approach, and to strengthen links to the labour market.

The basic conditions for inclusion of non-regulated qualifications into the NLQF are as follows:

•  The qualification must be written in learning outcomes.
•  The qualification must be concluded with an independent, summative assessment, independent of 
the learning path (courses or training concluded with just proof of participation are not accepted).

•  The qualification must be labour market relevant.
•  The qualification must be underpinned by quality assurance.

If a private training provider, company, sector or examination body wants to submit a qualification for 
classification and inclusion into the NLQF, it must undergo a two-stage procedure: 

1.  validity check of provider;
2.  classification of qualification to an NLQF level.

The validity check is a pre-condition for step 2 and aims to ensure the trustworthiness of the 
organisation. Issues such as legal status, property rights, the continuity of the organisation and the 
existence of quality assurance arrangements are checked. A list of approved quality assurance systems 
is included in the guidance material (e.g. accreditation by the Dutch/Flemish Accreditation Organisation 
(NVAO) or supervision by the Education Inspectorate). If the provider does not use externally validated 
systems, an on-site visit (organisational audit) is carried out. Validity is granted for five years, during 
which the applicant can submit qualifications for inclusion and levelling. Validity is assessed by the 
Quality Committee, and the final decision is made by the Programme Council of the NLQF NCP, which 
includes all major stakeholders involved in the NLQF, including ministries and social partners.

The organisation indicates the level it sees as most appropriate for the qualification, based on comparison 
of learning outcomes with NLQF level descriptors. In addition, the organisation must indicate the workload, 
the approach to assessment/examination, and the link to the relevant occupational profile. The application 
for classification is assessed by two independent experts and the Classification Committee, with the final 
decision made by the Programme Council of the NLQF NCP. Once approved, the classification is valid for six 
years and the qualification is included in the NQLF register: www.nlqf.nl/register.

Organisations must pay to use the system. Validity checks cost between EUR 1 000 and EUR 7 500, 
depending on whether an approved quality assurance system is in place. Submitting one qualification for 
inclusion is set at EUR 2 500.

449

Volume II: National and regional casesThere has been a growing number of applications 
from non-formal education providers, indicative  
of increasing NLQF visibility outside formal 
education and training. By February 2019,  
65 non-regulated qualifications were assigned 
to NLQF levels677. Applications for inclusion of 
international qualifications into the NLQF have 
also been made and the Netherlands is part of 
a working group set up by the EQF advisory 
group looking into the possibilities for inclusion 
of international qualifications into NQFs and their 
referencing to the EQF.

Several qualification registers have been developed 
for different types of qualification. The Ministry of 
Education, Culture and Science has in place three 
registers for accredited education institutions and 
their qualifications: the Central register of vocational 
training (CREBO) for recognised secondary 
vocational education courses678; the Central 
register of higher education study programmes 
(CROHO) for recognised universities of applied 
sciences and universities679; and the register of 
‘non-funded education’ for accredited private 
schools for secondary general adult education 
(voortgezet algemeen volwassenenonderwijs, 
VAVO)680. Non-regulated qualifications levelled to 
the NLQF are entered into the NLQF register of 
private qualifications operated by the NLQF NCP681. 
Work on a national register taking into account all 
the existing databases has started. EQF and NQF 
levels are currently indicated in the NLQF register 
of private qualifications, on Europass certificate 
supplements and diploma supplements for VET 
and higher education qualifications, and in VET 
qualification files (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

In 2014, the Ministry of Education initiated revision 
of existing legal texts underpinning Dutch education 
and training, and the need for a dedicated NLQF 
law was recognised as crucial for the further 
development of the framework. As a result, a 
first draft legislative proposal was prepared in 
2015, followed by two public consultations. Three 
evaluation studies on different aspects of the NLQF 
have also been conducted682. The most recent 
of these studies (Ockham IPS, 2017) included an 
inventory of the views of key stakeholders on the 

current functioning of the NLQF and the NLQF 
NCP, and on the new draft legislative proposal; 
an inventory and evaluation of objections to 
current practices; a risk analysis of objections to 
implementing the NLQF legislative proposal in its 
current form and its impact; and recommendations 
for possible adjustments to the current legislative 
proposal and to the implementation process, to 
address those objections that were well-founded683. 
The conclusions of this research regarding the 
NLQF legal basis have highlighted the need to 
demonstrate better the role of the NLQF for lifelong 
learning and mobility, to define better some of 
the concepts used (e.g. ‘qualification’, ‘learning 
outcomes’, ‘NLQF classification’) and to clarify the 
role of the Inspectorate of Education in quality 
assurance of non-formal qualifications. Regarding 
the implementation of the framework, the study 
concluded that a broad communication campaign 
is necessary to improve instructions on how the 
NLQF levels can be used, and suggested small 
improvement of the classifying procedure.

The new NLQF law, currently under development, 
is expected to be adopted in 2020684. The law aims 
to stipulate the obligation to indicate the NLQF and 
EQF levels on all qualification documents from the 
formal education system, raising the visibility of the 
framework among end-users. It will also formally 
acknowledge: the qualification levels and level 
descriptors of the NLQF; the generic classification 
of regulated qualifications; the legal status of the 
NLQF NCP as an independent organisation; and 
the possibility of classification of non-regulated 
qualifications and indication of NLQF and EQF level 
on qualification documents issued outside the 
formal system. It will also provide for sanctions in 
the event of improper use of NLQF/EQF levels and 
logo by providers. 

The NLQF NCP has been disseminating information 
about the framework, in line with its annual 
communication plan, through its dedicated 
website685, e-magazine, newsletter, leaflets, an 
animation film, field visits and participation in 
conferences and interviews. The target groups 
prioritised so far have been employers, sector 
organisations, education providers and social 
partners. The NLQF is known by nearly all education 
and training providers in the Netherlands (though 

677  Data from the register of qualifications awarded outside 
government regulation and levelled to the NLQF: www.
nlqf.nl/register [accessed 16.1.2019].

678  www.duo.nl/open_onderwijsdata/databestanden/mbo/

crebo/

679  www.duo.nl/zakelijk/hoger-onderwijs/
studentenadministratie/croho.jsp

680  https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0012642/2001-07-25
681  www.nlqf.nl/register
682  See footnote 664 above.

683  The research methods included a literature review, 

interviews with over 30 stakeholders, study of foreign 
practices, and a sounding-board session with those 
involved.

684  It is aimed to present the legislative proposal to the Dutch 
Parliament in the second half of 2019, with the law and 
the corresponding general administrative order entering 
into force in 2020.

685  www.nlqf.nl

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSit is not used by all), by recognition authorities 
and bodies and by labour market stakeholders at 
national level. It is less known among guidance 
and counselling practitioners, labour market actors 
at regional and local levels, and the general public. 
Recent research commissioned by the NLQF NCP 
on the use of the NLQF/EQF in vacancies on the 
labour market showed that there is minimal, yet 
increasing, use of NLQF/EQF levels, mainly in the 
south, in the healthcare sector. Similar research 
on the use of the NLQF/EQF for human resource 
management in companies will be conducted in 
the next three years (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Netherlands referenced its NQF to the EQF 
in parallel to the development of the framework. 
The referencing report was approved in the EQF 
advisory group in January 2012 (van der Sanden 
et al., 2012). One point of debate in the process 
was the proposal to reference the academically-
oriented secondary education (pre-university 
secondary education (VWO) to level 5 of the EQF. 
Following feedback from the EQF advisory group, 
the Netherlands accepted that this particular 
qualification should be referenced to level 4 of 
the EQF, but introduced a differentiation (and a 
sublevel) within the NQF, designating the VWO 
qualification as 4+. 

An updated referencing report is foreseen to be 
presented in 2019, addressing the development 
of the NLQF over the past years, the results 
and challenges in its implementation and how it 
responds to the 10 EQF referencing criteria, the 
current structure of the NLQF NCP, the development 
of the NLQF law, and the updated level descriptors.

Important lessons and future plans

The Dutch NQF has now reached an operational 
stage. Social partners recognise its added value, as 
well as the need to further develop and implement 
the NLQF, taking advantage of the momentum that 
has been created in the country through an overall 
policy context promoting lifelong learning and 
sustainable employability (Ockham IPS, 2017).

While not having a regulatory function, the 
NLQF has started to influence developments in 
education and training subsystems. In VET, the 
NLQF descriptors were used in the revision of 
qualifications and work is under way to develop 
partial qualifications linked to the NLQF. In higher 
education, the use and added value of the NLQF 

were found to be less clear initially (Ockham IPS, 
2017), mainly due to the use of different sets of 
level descriptors (Dublin, EQF, Bloom, NLQF). 
More recently, pilot projects were initiated aiming 
to develop flexible partial learning pathways using 
learning outcomes related to the NLQF levels to 
boost adult participation in higher education. 

Although the number of non-formal qualifications 
included in the NLQF so far is still relatively low, 
interest in the framework from labour market 
stakeholders has been growing. In the meantime, 
efforts have been devoted to optimising procedures, 
which are now perceived as robust (Ockham IPS, 
2017). The NLQF is seen as having contributed 
to raising the quality of non-formal qualifications. 
Given the importance of non-formal learning in the 
Netherlands and the wide range of labour market-
oriented qualifications686, inclusion of qualifications 
from this group remains an important part of NLQF 
implementation.

While permeability between the different education 
and training subsystems is regulated by law in the 
Netherlands, the NLQF is seen as reducing barriers 
between sectors and institutions by increasing 
transparency of both regulated and non-regulated 
qualifications and clarifying relationships between 
them. This is primarily achieved through the use 
of learning outcomes, in a Dutch context already 
marked by a strong competence-based orientation, 
especially in VET. The framework is also seen as an 
aid in implementing the policy on validation of non-
formal and informal learning, and it is expected to be 
instrumental in the future development of a credit 
system covering all education sectors (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

One of the key challenges and points on the current 
agenda is the adoption of a new NLQF law to 
strengthen the legal basis of the framework and 
its levels, highlight its policy relevance and boost 
further implementation actions. Taking into account 
findings from the latest evaluation study (Ockham 
IPS, 2017), the new law is expected to enter into 
force in 2020. Another challenge is communicating 
the framework to a wider audience and raising 
awareness about the benefits of having a NLQF 
level indicated on certificates and diplomas. The 
NLQF NCP has been dedicated to increasing 
familiarity with the framework among employers, 
employees, education providers and students, 
and stimulating the use of the NLQF to improve 
transparency of qualifications. However, it has been 
found that, since NLQF/EQF levels are not indicated 

686  In the Netherlands, 1.3 million participants take part in 

non-formal learning offered by more than 12 000 providers 
every year (NRTO: www.nrto.nl).

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Volume II: National and regional caseson formal qualification documents, the impact of 
these communication efforts has been low (Ockham 
IPS, 2017). The new NLQF law will specifically 
address the inclusion of NLQF/EQF levels on 
qualifications from the formal system, which is 
expected to raise the profile of the framework.  
A national communication strategy is foreseen by 
the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, 

to inform the public about the NLQF in the wider 
context of promoting lifelong learning. It has also 
been suggested that communication efforts should 
aim to clarify the different education pathways in 
the Netherlands and their characteristics, rights, 
duties, quality assurance instruments, to minimise 
confusion over different types of qualifications 
placed at the same level (Ockham IPS, 2017). 

Table 55. Dutch national qualifications framework (NLQF) 

NLQF 
LEVELS

FORMAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

OTHER QUALIFICATIONS*

EQF LEVELS

8

7

6

Doctorate (Doctoraat)
Designer (Ontwerper)
Medical specialist (Medisch 
specialist)

Master degree 

Social studies

Bachelor degree

8

7

6

5

4

4

Examples:
Anesthetist employee (Anesthesiemedewerker)
Certified leader excellent level (Gecertificeerd 
leider uitstekend niveau)
Dialysis nurse (Dialyseverpleegkundige)
Secondary defence formation (Middelbare 
defensie vorming)
Officer Royal Military police (Officier koninklijke 
marechaussee onderbouw)
Officer Navy force (Officier korps zeedienst)

Examples:
Consultant payroll services and benefits (CPB)
Hotel service management
Operational technician energy production 
technology (Operationeel technicus energie 
productietechniek)
Instructor 5 (Opleider 5)
Trainer-coach 5

Examples:
Instructor 4 (Opleider 4)
Airport service agent
Application training food technology (Applicatie 
opleiding levensmiddelentechnologie)
Industry diploma all-round beautician 
(Branchediploma allround schoonheidsspecialist)
Industry diploma medical pedicure 
(Branchediploma medisch pedicure)

5

Associate degree

4+

4

Pre-university education 
(VWO) 
Pre-university education for 
adults (VAVO-VWO)

VET level 4 (MBO 4)
Upper secondary general 
education for adults (VAVO-
HAVO)
Upper secondary general 
education (HAVO)

452

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 55. Dutch national qualifications framework (NLQF) (Continued)

OTHER QUALIFICATIONS*

EQF LEVELS

Examples:
Dog grooming (Hondentoiletteren)
General investigator (Algemeen 
Opsporingsambtenaar)
Swimming teacher (Zwemonderwijzer)
Trainer-coach 3
Industry diploma pedicure (Branchediploma 
pedicure) 

Military police security 
(Marechausseebeveiliger)
Assistant swimming teacher (Assistent 
zwemonderwijzer)
Sales employee (Verkoopmedewerker)

3

2

1

NLQF 
LEVELS

FORMAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

3

VET level 3 (MBO 3)

2

1

VET level 2 (MBO 2)
Basic education 3 for adults 
(VAVO)
Pre-vocational secondary 
education – theoretical 
pathway (VMBO TL)
Pre-vocational secondary 
education – combined 
theoretical pathway 
(VMBO GL)
Pre-vocational secondary 
education – advanced 
vocational pathway 
(VMBO KB)
Basic education 3 for adults 
(Basiseducatie 3)

VET level 1 (MBO 1)
Pre-vocational secondary 
education – basic vocational 
pathway (VMBO BB)
Basic education 2 for adults 
(Basiseducatie 2)

Entry 
level

Basic education 1 for adults 
(Basiseducatie 1)

(*)  Non-regulated qualifications awarded by organisations outside the formal education and training system and relevant for 
the labour market (e.g. from private training providers, companies, sectors and examination bodies), included in the NLQF 
following quality assurance procedures. The ‘size’ of these qualifications varies. NLQF register for non-formal qualifications: 
www.nlqf.nl/register

Source: Adapted from van der Sanden et al., 2012. Additional information: www.nlqf.nl/images/downloads/Artikelen/NLQF_
Brochure_Engels_2018_site.pdf and www.nlqf.nl/register 

453

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
EQF 
HAVO 

MBO 

NCP 
NLQF 

NQF 

European qualifications framework
hoger algemeen voortgezet onderwijs 
(upper secondary general education)
middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (upper 
secondary vocational education)
national coordination point
qualifications framework for the 
Netherlands
national qualifications framework

VAVO 

VET 
VMBO 

VPL 
VWO 

voortgezet algemeen 
volwassenenonderwijs (general 
secondary education for adults)
vocational education and training
voorbereidend middelbaar 
beroepsonderwijs (lower secondary 
general and pre-vocational education)
validation of prior learning
voorbereidend wetenschappelijk 
onderwijs (pre-university secondary 
education)

Main sources of information

EQF/NLQF NCP – hosted by the CINOP foundation: www.ncpnlqf.nl
NLQF register of non-formal qualifications: www.nlqf.nl/register
Central register of vocational training (CREBO): www.duo.nl/open_onderwijsdata/databestanden/mbo/

crebo/ 

Central register of higher education study programmes (CROHO): www.duo.nl/zakelijk/hoger-onderwijs/

studentenadministratie/croho.jsp 

van der Sanden, K.; Smit, W.; Dashorst, M. (2012). The referencing document of the Dutch national 

qualifications framework to the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/
sites/eac-eqf/files/EQF_Referencing_Netherlands_022012.pdf

References

Cedefop (2014). Qualifications at level 5: progressing in a career or to higher education. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. Cedefop working paper, No 23. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-
resources/publications/6123

Cedefop (2018). Analysis and overview of NQF level descriptors in European countries. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. Cedefop research paper, No 66. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/566217
Cedefop (2018b). Spotlight on VET: The Netherlands. Luxembourg: Publication Office. www.cedefop.europa.

eu/en/publications-and-resources/publications/8090

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Netherlands.
European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: country analysis: Netherlands.  

https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/volume-2-2018-education-
and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: the Netherlands. 

Ockham IPS (2017). Onderzoek NLQF [NLQF Research]. Available in Dutch at: www.rijksoverheid.nl/

documenten/rapporten/2017/11/20/onderzoek-nlqf 

van der Sanden, K.; Smit, W.; Dashorst, M. (2012). The referencing document of the Dutch national 

qualification framework to the European qualification framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/
eac-eqf/files/EQF_Referencing_Netherlands_022012.pdf 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

454

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNEW ZEALAND

Introduction 

The New Zealand qualifications framework (NZQF) 
is the definitive source for information on New 
Zealand’s quality-assured qualifications, covering 
senior secondary school and tertiary education. 
The NZQF is based on outcomes and sets out 
10 level descriptors based on knowledge, skills and 
application (of knowledge and skills). It provides 
information on the knowledge and experience that 
holders of qualifications can be expected to have, 
and the education and employment pathways 
related to a qualification.

The NZQF was established in 2010. It replaced the 
previous qualifications system that consisted of 
the national qualifications framework introduced 
in 1991, and the New Zealand register of quality 
assured qualifications, which commenced in 2001. 

The establishment of the NZQF followed a targeted 
review of the qualifications system during 2008/09. 
The review identified a need to make qualifications 
better understood by learners, reduce the number 
of qualifications, and ensure that they were 
designed to meet the needs of employers and 
industry.

Policy objectives 

The NZQF is designed to optimize the recognition 
of educational achievement and its contribution 
to New Zealand’s economic, social and cultural 
success. It plays a significant role in ensuring that 
New Zealand qualifications are valued as credible 
and robust, both nationally and internationally. The 
core functions of the NZQF are to:

•  convey the skills, knowledge and attributes of 
a graduate and provide high quality education 
pathways;

•  ensure qualifications meet the needs of learners, 

employers, industry and the community;

•  assure the quality and international comparability 

of New Zealand qualifications;

•  contribute to Maˉori success in education by 

recognizing and advancing maˉtauranga Maˉori 687.

The NZQF is fundamental to New Zealand’s tertiary 
education system688. Government funding for 
tertiary education providers is only available for 
qualifications that are quality assured and on the 
NZQF. This principle also applies to learners who 
wish to access student loans and allowances, and 
student visas in the case of international students. 

Qualifications on the NZQF are based on the 
principles of need and outcomes, with those at 
levels 1–6 also requiring flexibility and collaboration. 
This approach is intended to provide a simple 
structure for qualifications and programmes. 

Need – The usefulness, relevance and value of 
a qualification is based on its relationship to the 
workforce and the skill needs of individuals, groups 
of learners, employers, industry and communities. 
Where appropriate, a qualification explicitly 
acknowledges the cultural and social aspirations of 
Maˉori, Pasifika and/or other communities.

Outcomes – Clear outcomes make the purpose 
of a qualification transparent, enable comparisons 
with other qualifications (both nationally and 
internationally) and increase the portability of 
the qualification internationally. They also make 
explicit what graduates can ‘do, be and know’ 
on completion of a qualification, and indicate 
pathways to further education, employment and/or a 
contribution to their community.

Flexibility – Qualifications can be achieved in 
different settings including the workplace and 

687  Maˉori are the indigenous peoples of New Zealand. 

Maˉtauranga Maˉori refers to a distinct knowledge related 
to the Maˉori worldview and experience. 

688  New Zealand tertiary education refers to all education 
after secondary school, including higher education and 
vocational training. Skills and knowledge from previous 
formal and non-formal learning can be recognized for 
credit towards a tertiary education qualification (see 
Recognising and validating non-formal and informal 
learning and learning pathways section).   

455

Volume II: National and regional caseseducation institutions. Having programmes of study 
and industry training leading to a qualification allows 
learners to achieve it in ways most suited to their 
educational, work or cultural needs and aspirations. 
This may include credentialing learning obtained 
formally or informally towards the qualification.

Collaboration – Qualifications are developed 
collaboratively with a wide range of stakeholders in 
an environment of mutual trust and accountability. 
The relationships between these parties are based 
on effective communication and collaboration. 
Parties can rely on the integrity of the processes 
used and the information provided.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The 10 levels of the NZQF demonstrate an 
increasing complexity of learning outcomes  
(level 10 is the most complex) across the domains 
of knowledge, skills and application (of knowledge 
and skills).

•  Knowledge refers to what a graduate knows and 
understands. It is described as a progression 
from ‘basic general knowledge’ through to 
knowledge which is ‘factual’, ‘operational’, 
‘theoretical’, ‘technical’, ‘specialized’ and 
‘frontier’ knowledge. Complexity of knowledge 
is described together with breadth and/or depth 
in the field of study or work.

•  Skills refers to what a graduate can do. The 
dimension of integration, independence and 
creativity is important to describing skills 
progression and reflects the degree of familiarity 
of the task/problem. Skills are described in terms 
of the type, range and complexity of processes, 
problems and solutions.

•  Outcome descriptors under application (of 

knowledge and skills) are expressed in terms 
of self-management and leadership in a 
profession or responsibility for the performance 
of others, the context of which may range 
from highly structured to dynamic. The learner 
is progressively more autonomous and more 
accountable, more responsible for interacting 
and collaborating with, managing and leading 
others, within progressively less transparent, 
more dynamic contexts.

Qualifications and outcome statements. All 
qualifications listed on the NZQF contain an 
outcome statement that describes the knowledge, 
skills and attributes of a graduate. The outcome 
statement is used by prospective employers and 
other tertiary education providers, and for comparing 
qualifications. Different learners will achieve the 
outcomes in different ways, so the outcome 
statement indicates the minimum achievement 
expected by a graduate of a qualification. Each 
outcome statement includes:

•  a graduate profile which describes what a 

qualification holder must be able to do, be and 
know. In developing the graduate profile, the 
qualification developer should consider the full 
range of capabilities and competences required;

•  an education pathway identifying other 

qualifications that a graduate could enrol in 
after completing this qualification. Where 
qualifications are standalone and do not prepare 
graduates for further study, the outcome 
statement should make this clear;

•  an employment pathway determining the areas 
in which a graduate may be qualified to work or 
contribute to their community.

Table 56. Levels of the New Zealand qualifications framework (NZQF)

LEVEL

QUALIFICATION TYPES

Doctoral degree

Master's degree

Postgraduate diplomas and certificates,  
Bachelor honours degree

Bachelor's degree
Graduate diplomas and certificates

Diplomas

Certificates

10

9

8

7 

6
5

4
3
2
1

Source: NZQA, 2019. www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/publications/strategic-documents/soi-1617-1920/qualifications/ 

456

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The NZQF is established under section 248 of the 
Education Act 1989689 (‘the Act’). It was first brought 
in as a single unified framework on 1 July 2010 
under the former section 253 (1)(c) of the Act and 
was fully introduced into the Act in the August 2011 
legislative amendment (the new section 248). 

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) 
is responsible for the NZQF and the overarching 
statutory rules for the quality assurance 
of qualifications and the tertiary education 
organizations (TEOs) that provide them (section 253 
of the Act). 

There are two quality assurance agencies with 
responsibilities for separate parts of the tertiary 
education sector (section 159AD of the Act). The 
NZQA is responsible for the non-university tertiary 
education sector, while Universities New Zealand 
fulfils this function for the university sector. 

NZQA and the quality assurance of  
non-university TEOs
The NZQA operates an integrated quality assurance 
system in which all the components support each 
other. The quality assurance system includes the 
registration of private training establishments; 
approval of qualifications across the 10 levels of 
the NZQF, and training schemes. It also includes 
assuring the consistency of graduate outcomes of 
New Zealand qualifications at levels 1–6; moderation 
of assessment standards set by the NZQA; 
monitoring of programme delivery across all levels 
of the NZQF; conducting external evaluation and 
review, and risk management.

The NZQA’s external evaluation and review is 
used to make evidence-based judgements about 
the quality and performance of a TEO by focusing 
on achievement, outcomes and key contributing 
processes. The NZQA uses a range of information 
sources to reach its conclusions including TEO 
self-assessment reports and information from other 
parts of the quality assurance system. The NZQA 
evaluates the TEO’s educational performance and 
capability in self-assessment (which usually includes 
an on-site visit) and reports a level of confidence in 
both areas. The final external evaluation and review 
report is published on NZQA’s website.

TEOs are responsible for using self-assessment 
to maintain and improve their own quality 
and the outcomes they achieve for learners 

689  www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1989/0080/latest/

DLM185982.html

and employers. Self-assessment focuses on 
identifying, responding to and meeting learner and 
stakeholder needs, evaluating the effectiveness of 
organizational processes and practices, and using 
the understanding gained to make improvements to 
outcomes and learner achievement. 

Quality assurance of universities
The New Zealand Vice-Chancellor’s Committee – 
operating as Universities New Zealand (Te Poˉkai 
Tara) – is the statutory body with responsibility for 
quality assurance matters in the university sector 
under section 159AD of the Act. It has authority 
for university programme approval, accreditation, 
approving university qualifications for listing on 
the NZQF, training scheme approval, and ancillary 
powers under section 253A of the Act.

There are two bodies overseeing the quality 
assurance of universities: the Committee on 
University Academic Programmes and the Academic 
Quality Agency for New Zealand Universities.

•  The Committee on University Academic 

Programmes (CUAP)
CUAP is responsible for setting up and 
applying qualification and regulation approval, 
accreditation and programme moderation 
procedures across the university system. This 
includes running programme approval and 
moderation procedures, advice and comment 
on academic developments, and encouraging 
the universities to develop courses of study 
that will allow the transfer of learners between 
programmes and institutions.

•  The Academic Quality Agency for New Zealand 

Universities (AQA)
AQA operates independently from Universities 
New Zealand and the universities. It supports 
universities to achieve excellence in research and 
teaching through a regular audit of the institution 
and by promoting quality enhancement practices 
across the sector.
Quality assurance takes the form of academic 
audits on a cyclical basis against a framework 
of guideline statements. In the current cycle 
(Cycle 6), audits occur every seven to eight years 
with universities reporting on progress at the 
mid-cycle point and one year after an audit. Audit 
reports are public documents and university 
reports will also be public after the release of a 
university’s Cycle 6 audit report. AQA analyses 
trends from audits and consults stakeholders 
before finalizing the focus(es) of the next audit 
cycle framework. Enhancement themes are 
topics of national significance that all universities 
work towards in a common time period and about 
which they share progress and good practice. 

457

Volume II: National and regional casesRecognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Section 253(1)(k) of the Act states that the NZQA 
may prescribe the details for credits, cross credits, 
recognition of prior learning, and moderation. The 
NZQA currently performs this function through  
its NZQF programme approval and accreditation 
rules 2018. 

Education organizations in New Zealand are required 
to have their own administrative and practical 
arrangements in place for the recognition of prior 
learning (RPL) and credit recognition and transfer 
(CRT). To assist education providers in meeting this 
requirement, the NZQA has published guidelines690 
with the following key features for effective CRT and 
RPL policies – TEOs should:

• 

integrate CRT/RPL into their overall systems, 
regulations, policies and practice (i.e. programme 
development, assessment and organizational 
self-assessment;

•  approve appropriate quality assurance and 

academic regulations, policies and procedures 
for CRT/RPL that apply across all learning areas 
of the organization;

•  promote to learners, through all relevant means, 

information about CRT/RPL;

•  provide accessible academic advice and support 
to assist learners to apply for credit through  
CRT/RPL;

•  ensure decisions about CRT/RPL are timely, 
transparent, robust, consistent, and for the 
maximum benefit of learners.

NQF implementation

The NZQF qualification listing and operational rules 
2016 set out the general listing requirements for 
qualifications at levels 1–10 on the NZQF. Sections 
248(2) and 253 of the Act mandates the NZQA to 
make rules associated with listing requirements. 

Qualification developers must seek approval to 
develop and list qualifications on the NZQF. The 
NZQA is responsible for approving and listing 
all non-university qualifications and CUAP is 
responsible for approving qualifications developed 
by universities.

For new qualifications at levels 7–10 on the NZQF, 
the NZQA considers the qualification beside the 

690  www.nzqa.govt.nz/assets/qualifications-and-standards/

CRT-RPL-guidelines-Dec-17.pdf 

proposed programme; if approved, it then accredits 
a provider to deliver it. Universities must submit 
any proposals to offer new qualifications or to 
make substantial changes to existing qualifications 
to CUAP. University qualifications must meet the 
published criteria set by the NZQA. These criteria 
apply to all qualifications offered by TEOs and are 
set after consulting with Universities New Zealand 
and others in the tertiary sector.

Within the non-university sector, there are additional 
listing requirements for new qualifications at levels 
1–6, including a two-stage approval process to list 
a qualification – approval to develop and approval to 
list a qualification.

There are several approaches qualification 
developers use when deciding the level of a 
qualification on the NZQF. The first is to compare 
the descriptors of the qualification with the level 
descriptors on the NZQF. Another approach is to 
assess at what level the qualification needs to sit 
on the NZQF and develop the qualification based on 
the learning outcomes of that level. 

Industry, employers and the community are 
involved in the development of qualifications. This 
is to establish the need for the qualifications and 
to ensure the qualification is relevant and fit for 
purpose. 

The NZQA and the Ministry of Education are directly 
involved in developing some qualifications. The 
NZQA develops qualifications for Maˉori, Pasifika691, 
and for generic skills that are not the responsibility 
of an industry training organization. The Ministry 
of Education develops the national certificates 
of educational achievement for senior secondary 
school. Other government agencies may participate 
in or initiate the development of qualifications to 
meet particular government policy objectives.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The NZQA has completed several projects with 
other jurisdictions that compare the NZQF to 
another qualifications framework, including: the 
European qualifications framework (2015), the 
Australian qualifications framework (2015), the Irish 
national framework of qualifications (2010) and the 
Hong Kong qualifications framework (2018). The 
NZQA is currently working on a similar project with 

691  Pasifika are New Zealanders who identify with or feel they 
belong to one or more Pacific Island ethnicities. The seven 

largest ethnicities in New Zealand are Cook Island Maˉori, 

Fijian, Niuean, Samoan, Tokelauan, Tongan and Tuvaluan 
peoples. Refer to: www.nzqa.govt.nz/audience-pages/
pasifika/

458

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
AQA 

Academic Quality Agency for New 
Zealand Universities  
credit recognition and transfer 
Committee on University Academic 
Programmes 
New Zealand Qualifications Authority
New Zealand qualifications 
framework 
recognition of prior learning 
tertiary education organization 

CRT 
CUAP 

NZQA 
NZQF 

RPL 
TEO 

South Africa. In 2016, the NZQA and the Malaysian 
Qualifications Agency published a report on the 
comparability of New Zealand and Malaysia’s 
Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctoral Degrees.

Important lessons and future plans

The NZQA has learned that reviewing and 
developing a new qualification requires all parties 
including industry training organizations and 
education providers to work collaboratively to 
identify and understand industry, community and 
cultural needs. The NZQA provides a wide range of 
guidance and help to qualification developers and 
others to prevent the duplication of qualifications 
and ensure they are fit for purpose.

References

New Zealand Government. Education Act 1989. Accessed 22 February 2019 at: www.legislation.govt.nz/act/

public/1989/0080/latest/DLM175959.html

NZQA (New Zealand Qualifications Authority) (2016). The New Zealand Qualifications Framework. Accessed 

28 December 2016 at: www.nzqa.govt.nz/assets/Studying-in-NZ/New-Zealand-Qualification-
Framework/requirements-nzqf.pdf

NZQA (2016). NZQF Qualification Listing and Operational Rules 2016. Accessed 28 December 2016 at: 

www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/legislation/nzqa-rules/nzqf-related-rules/nzqf-qualification-listing-
and-operational-rules-2016/1/ 

NZQA (2018). NZQF Programme Approval and Accreditation Rules 2018. Accessed 28 December 2016 at: 

www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/legislation/nzqa-rules/nzqf-related-rules/programme-approval-
and-accreditation/1/

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

459

Volume II: National and regional casesNORTH MACEDONIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot  
The Law for the National Qualifications Framework 
(NQF) was adopted in October 2013 (Official Gazette 
of the Republic of Macedonia No 137/2013)692. 
The application of the Law effectively started from 
30 September 2015. The NQF consists of eight 
levels. In addition, sub-levels were introduced 
at levels V, VI and VII. The level descriptors are 
defined within three domains: knowledge and 
understanding, skills and competence. The NQF’s 
lead institution is the National Board for the NQF, 
which is supported by the Ministry of Education and 
Science, the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy, 
the Vocational Education and Training (VET) Centre, 
the Centre for Adult Education and the Bureau for 
Development of Education.

North Macedonia has been a full member of the 
Bologna Process or European higher education area 
since 2003 (initially as the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia). The country is a full member of  
the European qualifications framework (EQF)  
and successfully referenced the NQF to the  
EQF in 2016.

Validation of non-formal and informal learning 
(VNFIL) legislation has been adopted in accordance 
with the 2012 Council Recommendation. 

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
As of 1 January 2017, the overall population of North 
Macedonia was estimated at around 2 million693. 

692  Main NQF legal texts available at: http://mrk.mk/?page_

id=531&lang=en

693  Data are from Eurostat, at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/
data/database. There is much discussion in the country 
about the quality of the data on population as the last 
census of population was carried out in 2002. The 2012 
census was stopped after many problems on the field 
mainly related to the ethnicity of the citizens. In particular, 
the Ohrid Framework Agreement that the government 

There is still a positive population growth, but it has 
slowed down in recent years. The crude birth rate 
in 2016 (latest available data) was 11.1694, whereas 
the crude death rate was 9.9. In the last decade 
(2007–17), the share of young population (aged 
0–19) in total population declined from 26.8% to 
22.6%. In the same period the share of population 
aged 65+ increased from 11.2% to 13.3%. 
According to the UN population data, in 2017 the 
stock of Macedonians living abroad was 534,720 
individuals695. This number seems high relative to 
the size of the population; however, even in 1990 
there were 430,000 emigrated Macedonians. The 
number of immigrants in the country in 2017 was 
130,972, so the net migration stock in 2017 was 
403,748 individuals. 

Latest GDP data for Q1 2018 show marked 
slowdown of the economy. In particular, 2017 was 
a year of large political instability which has taken 
its toll on the economy. GDP growth in the first 
half of 2017 was negative, at -0.7%. After the new 
government came into power and political stability 
returned, growth picked up, although at a slow pace 
(+0.7% in the second half of 2017). The economic 
policies of the new government are quite different 
than those of the previous one and were expected 
to start showing their impact in 2018. However, the 
GDP growth in Q1 2018 was only +0.1%, with a 
very large decline of the construction activity  

signed after the 2001 civil conflict, prescribes special 
rights for the ethnic minorities based on their shares in 
the overall population, which has led to mis-reporting of 
the population living in the country (i.e. trying to count 
the emigrated individuals). Since then, the government 
has not managed to create better conditions for 
implementation of the census, which in many instances is 
used as a main critique for the official data. Moreover, the 
quality of the migration statistics is also quite low, which 
sometimes puts doubt on the labour force survey data.
694  Number of live births occurring among the population 

during a given year, per 1,000 mid-year total population 
during the same year.

695  www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/

data/estimates2/estimates17.shtml 

460

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS(-37% in real terms). This has led to a sizeable 
decline of the share of construction in value added 
from 13.8% in Q1 2017 to 8.6% in Q1 2018. Among 
the sectors with a large share in GDP, agriculture, 
manufacturing and trade recorded positive growth 
rates. Investments in Q1 2018 dropped by 9%  
on an annual level, as did the government 
consumption (-1.4%). 

The NQF was adopted in 2013. It aims to improve 
education and training systems through the 
implementation of the learning outcomes approach; 
to make easier the access to learning in every 
context and its results made explicit for every 
citizen; to raise the overall level of qualifications of 
the population; and to strengthen the links between 
qualifications and employment prospects.

Despite the poor economic development, the labour 
market shows further improvements in declining 
unemployment and increasing employment rates. 
The level of unemployment (21.9% in Q1 2018) is 
still very high, especially for vulnerable categories 
of citizens. The employment rate in Q1 2018 slightly 
increased to 50.9% compared to 50% in the 
previous year. 

The main factor supporting the decrease 
of unemployment has been the increase of 
foreign direct investment. The main tool for 
attracting foreign direct investment has been 
the establishment of 15 technological industrial 
development zones. These provide a number of 
incentives, which last up to 10 years, related to tax 
exemptions, grants for construction, aid for training 
employees and VAT exemption696. The impact of the 
technological industrial development zones over the 
overall export is more than 30%.

The level of stakeholders’ awareness on the 
principles and goals of the NQF has grown 
markedly since 2015, as concrete actions for the 
implementation of the NQF have gained pace and 
visibility, namely:

•  establishment and staffing of the NQF unit – 

under the Sector of General Affairs and Support 
to the Minister of Education and Science;
launch of the NQF website (http://mrk.
mk/?lang=en);  

• 

•  publication of the comprehensive inventory of all 

qualifications on the NQF website;

•  experimentation: analysis and levelling of 

existing qualifications of secondary VET, and 
their description in learning outcomes. Lessons 
from the experimentation will be used in the 
mainstream phase of this process of analysis 
and levelling; 

•  establishment of nine sectoral commissions;
•  establishment of the NQF Board in October 

Approximately 58% of upper secondary students 
are enrolled in VET pathways, and it is estimated 
that over 60% of graduates continue their studies in 
higher education.

• 

2015;
launch of the EU-supported twinning project 
in early 2016 dedicated to reinforcement of 
institutional capacities, the legal basis and the 
comprehensive roadmap for implementation of 
the NQF;

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The country was granted candidate status by the 
European Council in December 2005. The European 
Union began screening the readiness of the country 
in July 2018 to start negotiations by June 2019 on 
joining the EU. 

Performance on the Education and training 2020 
(ET 2020) benchmarks has been mixed, since the 
country progressed visibly in the two education-
related Europe 2020 headlines (early school leaving 
and higher education attainment), while effort will 
be required to catch up with the EU28 average 
figures in the remaining benchmarks. 

•  successful presentation of the EQF referencing 

• 

• 

report on 3 February 2016, at the 37th meeting of 
the EQF Advisory Group, and its publication on 
the NQF and EQF websites;
reforming three- and four-year VET, as well 
as adult education in line with the NQF in 
progress (EU-supported IPA project and a project 
coordinated by the World Bank);
roadmap for the VNFIL developed; the activities 
of the first phase are being implemented  
with support from the European Training 
Foundation (ETF);

•  development of post-secondary education 

• 

supported by an IPA project;
IPA project for strengthening the cooperation 
between the higher education institutions and 
the business sector.

696  OECD. Tracking economic zones in the Western Balkans.

461

Volume II: National and regional casesThe Economic Reform Programme (ERP) 2016 
report placed the NQF at the centre of Measure 18: 
Education and Qualifications for All. The measure 
is oriented towards the implementation of the 
NQF, seen as a trigger for a change of attitudes and 
values on education and qualifications, benefitting 
individuals, the society and the labour market. 
The findings of the inventory and analysis of 
qualifications carried out with ETF support as a 
starting point of the EQF referencing process are 
used as evidence for reforms in VET and in higher 
education qualifications.

International cooperation
The NQF development and implementation 
have been strongly influenced by the process of 
European integration and the country’s commitment 
to the Lisbon Strategy, the Bologna Process, the 
Copenhagen Process, ET 2010, the Europe 2020 
Strategy, and ET 2020.

Nationally, the reporting on the achievement of the 
Bruges Process short-term deliverables (2010, 2012, 
2013 and 2014) and the preparation of the Strategy 
for Vocational Education and Training in the Context 
of Lifelong Learning (2013–20) have advanced the 
work on the NQF and its implementation. The 
country participates in reporting under the Riga 
framework and Torino Process.

The country is a full member of Erasmus+. The IPA 
Indicative Strategy Paper 2014–20 was approved on 
19 August 2014.

North Macedonia’s Ministry of Education and 
Science acts as the country’s ENIC-NARIC focal 
point. Within the scope of the Regional Cooperation 
Council, two working groups have been established 
including representatives from all the six South 
Eastern European countries, respectively on 
recognition of academic qualifications and on  
mutual recognition of professional qualifications.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The Macedonian qualifications framework (MQF) 
is comprehensive (all levels of qualifications) and 
inclusive: it is open for qualifications acquired in 
formal education and training, as well as in  
non-formal and informal learning. It is based on:

a.  levels/sublevels of qualifications;
b.  descriptions of the levels and the learning 
outcomes for each level of qualification;

c.  types of qualifications and documents serving as 

evidence for the acquired qualification;

d.  volume of the qualification.

Currently the NQF includes:

a.  all qualifications from accredited higher 

education, described in learning outcomes;

b.  all qualifications from general education;
c.  the reformed VET-3 qualifications, which have 

been defined in learning outcomes, on the basis 
of occupational and qualification standards, 
notably those designed in 2012–13 within the 
IPA twinning project with Slovenia;

d.  on a temporary basis, conditional to their 

revision in line with Article 6 of the NQF Law 
(standard of qualifications): all qualifications from 
VET-4 programmes, as well as from VET-3 not yet 
reformed programmes;

e.  qualifications from verified non-formal adult 

education programmes: based on occupational 
standards and described in learning outcomes.

The alignment to NQF levels of qualifications from 
non-formal and informal learning is in development, 
as the country continues to clarify and strengthen 
quality assurance of such qualifications – notably 
the coherence with underlying standards of their 
learning outcomes (expected and achieved). 
Currently the Centre for Adult Education prepares 
measures to reinforce the quality assurance and 
reliability of assessment of learning outcomes 
of the verified non-formal adult education 
programmes.

Alignment to other classification systems
The classification of qualifications by sector is 
related with higher education: the international 
Frascati classification, which applies in scientific 
disciplines, fields and areas.

VET sectors (16) are as follows: 

1.  Geology, mining and metallurgy 
2.  Civil engineering and geodesy
3.  Graphic industry 
4.  Economics, law and trade 
5.  Electrical engineering 
6.  Healthcare and social protection 
7.  Agriculture, fishing and veterinary
8.  Personal services 
9.  Mechanical engineering
10. Traffic, transport and storage
11. Textile, leather and similar products
12. Food service industry and tourism
13. Chemistry and technology

462

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS14. Forestry and wood processing
15. Sport and recreation 
16. Arts.

NQF levels and level descriptors

The Law defines the NQF principles as below; these 
principles concern the level descriptors, the levels 
and sub-levels and the place and use of learning 
outcomes, amongst others:

1.  learning outcomes expressed through 

knowledge and understanding, skills and 
competence;

2.  classification of qualifications at levels and sub-

diploma for specialist education (diploma za 
specijalistichko obrazovanie) and a diploma for 
the craftsman exam (diploma za majstorski 
ispit);
level V, sublevel VA applies to short vocational 
study programmes in higher education – 
participants receive a credential (uverenie);

• 

f. 

level VI:
•  sublevel VIB applies to short vocational 

study programmes in higher education – 
participants receive a diploma (diploma), 
180 ECTS (European credit transfer and 
accumulation system) credits;

•  sublevel VIA applies to three- and four-year 

undergraduate studies – participants receive 
a diploma (diploma), 240 ECTS credits;

levels;

g.  level VII:

3.  transferability of credits;
4.  comparability with the EQF;
5.  quality assurance in the process of development 
of qualifications and acquisition of qualifications;

6.  providing conditions for equal access to 

education throughout the whole life for the 
acquisition and recognition of qualifications;

7.  strengthening the competitiveness of the 

Macedonian economy that is based on human 
potentials; and

8.  building a system for VNFIL.

•  sublevel VIIA applies to higher education 
master of science studies – participants 
receive a diploma (diploma), a total of 60 
to 120 ECTS credits are acquired at this 
sublevel;

•  sublevel VIIB applies to higher education 
specialist studies – participants receive a 
diploma (diploma), a total of 60 ECTS credits 
are acquired at this sublevel;
h.  level VIII applies to doctorate studies – 

participants receive a diploma (diploma).

The NQF consists of eight levels, with sublevels 
introduced at levels V, VI and VII. The sublevels 
reflect the specificities of the education system, 
the perceptions of the general public on the relative 
value of the qualifications and requirements of many 
employers. The levels cover:

The acquisition of qualifications from non-formal 
and informal learning is foreseen by the NQF Law, 
but only within the range from level I to level VB. 
Integrated studies of first and second cycle of studies 
refer to qualifications leading to titles for regulated 
professions. Currently they are not part of the NQF, 
as discussion on their inclusion is under way.

a.  level I: completed primary education – on 

completion, participants receive a certificate 
(svidetelstvo);

The level descriptors of the NQF are based on the 
combination of three domains:

b.  level II: vocational training lasting up to two  
years – on completion participants receive a 
certificate of vocational training (uverenie za 
struchno osposobuvanje);

c.  level III: VET for occupations lasting up to three 
years – on completion, participants receive a 
diploma (diploma);

d.  level IV applies to general secondary education 
(gimnazija), technical education or art education 
lasting four years – on completion, participants 
receive a diploma (diploma);

e.  level V:
• 

level V, sublevel VB applies to postsecondary 
education (specialist education and 
craftsman exam) – participants receive a 

a.  knowledge and understanding,
b.  skills,
c.  competence.

The level descriptors have been defined taking into 
account:

a.  the Dublin descriptors;
b.  the EQF level descriptors;
c.  national characteristics of levels of education and 

training;

d.  strategic orientations for the medium term, such 
as growing importance of a more entrepreneurial 
society, creativity and innovation.

463

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 57. NQF structure and level descriptors in North Macedonia

NQF 
LEVELS

KNOWLEDGE AND 
UNDERSTANDING

SKILLS

VIII

VII

Demonstrates a systematic 
understanding of the field 
of research and perfect 
knowledge of research 
methods and skills within 
this field in accordance with 
the highest international 
standards.

Possesses knowledge 
gained with their own 
research or work, thus 
significantly contributing 
to the professional and 
scientific field of research, 
but also in the related fields.

Displays knowledge and 
understanding of the 
scientific field of study 
(or learning) that is built 
upon the first cycle, by 
applying methodologies 
appropriate for resolving 
complex problems, both 
in a systematic and 
creative manner which 
provides the basis or the 
possibility for originality in 
the development and/or 
application of autonomous 
ideas in the context of the 
research.

Displays a high level of 
professional competence 
in one or more specific 
scientific fields.

Displays the ability to interpret, design, 
apply and adapt the essential subject of the 
research with scientific integrity. 

Uses their knowledge as a basis for original 
ideas and research that exceeds the current 
boundaries of knowledge, developing new 
knowledge, valued on the level of national 
and international peer-reviewed publications.

Ability for critical analysis, evaluation and 
synthesis of new and complex ideas, 
necessary for solving complex problems in 
the field of research.

Ability for independent initiation and 
participation in national and international 
research networks and events with scientific 
integrity.

Ability for independent initiation of research 
and development projects, through which 
new knowledge will be generated as well as 
skills for development in the field of research.

Expected to be capable of promoting 
themselves in academic and professional 
frameworks and in technological, social or 
cultural development in a knowledge-based 
society.

Capable of communicating with colleagues, 
wider academic community and with society 
as a whole within their field of expertise.

Capable of critical, independent and creative 
problem-solving with certain originality 
in new or unknown environments and in 
multidisciplinary contexts, connected with the 
field of study.

Capability to synthesise and integrate the 
knowledge and to handle complex issues, in 
a systematic and creative manner.

Capability to evaluate and select scientific 
theories, methodologies, tools and general 
skills from the subject areas, and to put 
forward new analyses and solutions on 
a scientific basis.

Capability to recognise the personal need 
for further knowledge and capability for 
Independent and autonomous actions when 
acquiring new knowledge and skills in general 
terms.

COMPETENCE

Takes maximum 
responsibility for 
the outcomes of 
own work, but also 
for the work of the 
others in the group.

Takes responsibility 
for managing 
complex 
processes, while 
simultaneously 
ensuring the 
professional 
development of the 
individual and the 
group as a whole.

Displays significant 
responsibility for 
own and shared 
results, for leading 
and initiating 
activities.

Capability for solid 
evaluation even 
of incomplete 
and limited 
information, which 
includes personal, 
social and ethical 
responsibilities 
in the application 
of the acquired 
knowledge and 
evaluation thereof.

464

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 57. NQF structure and level descriptors in North Macedonia (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

KNOWLEDGE AND 
UNDERSTANDING

SKILLS

VI

V

Possesses knowledge from 
one or more subject areas 
which, in the given scientific 
fields, are based on most 
renowned scientific research 
in that scientific field, as well 
as the capability to connect 
wider and deeper knowledge 
in related professions or 
fields of science.

Displays knowledge and 
understanding in the 
scientific field of study 
that is built upon previous 
education and training, 
including the domain 
of theoretical, practical, 
conceptual, comparative 
and critical perspectives 
in the scientific field 
according to the relevant 
methodology.

Understanding of a certain 
area and knowledge of 
current issues in relation to 
scientific research and new 
sources of knowledge.

Displays knowledge and 
understanding of different 
theories and methodologies 
necessary for the wider 
area of research.

Displays knowledge and 
understanding in the field 
of study or work that is built 
upon general secondary 
school education supported 
with professional literature.

Possesses specialist 
theoretical and professional 
knowledge and 
understanding of individual 
basic theories from the 
narrow scientific and 
expertise area.

Capability to exchange conclusions 
and proposals by arguing and rationally 
substantiating thereof, both with experts and 
non-experts clearly and unambiguously.

Is able to apply knowledge and understanding 
in a manner that reflects a professional 
approach to the work or profession.

Displays the ability to identify, analyse and 
solve problems.

Capability to find and support arguments 
within the profession or the field of study.

Capability to collect, analyse, evaluate and 
present information, ideas and concepts from 
the relevant data. 

Capability to assess theoretical and practical 
issues, provide explanations for the reasons 
and select an appropriate solution.

Takes initiative to identify the requirements 
for acquiring further knowledge and study 
with a high degree of independence.

Capability to communicate and discuss 
information, ideas, problems and solutions, 
when the decision criteria and the scope of 
the task have been clearly defined, both with 
experts and the non-expert public.

Applies skills that are based on understanding 
of theoretical principles and their application 
in solving problems and in the execution 
of complex and specific tasks in the field 
of work and study, with the selection and 
use of relevant data, methods, procedures, 
techniques, instruments, devices, tools and 
materials. 

Possesses the skills to study in order to 
become able to take over further research 
with a certain degree of independence.

Possesses the ability to communicate and 
discuss with target groups from the narrow 
profession or area of study, with colleagues, 
superiors and clients.

COMPETENCE

Capable of taking 
responsibility for 
further professional 
development and 
education, both 
for themselves 
and for the group 
with which they 
cooperate.

Takes responsibility 
for own results 
and shared 
responsibility for 
collective results.

Capability for 
independent 
participation, with 
a professional 
approach, in 
specific scientific 
and interdisciplinary 
discussions.

Makes the relevant 
judgement 
by taking into 
consideration the 
personal, social, 
scientific and 
ethical aspects.

Has a high degree 
of personal 
and business 
responsibility, and 
ability to evaluate 
own work and the 
work of the group 
based on criteria in 
the field of work.

Capability of 
transferring 
knowledge to 
others, organising, 
communicating 
and controlling own 
work and the work 
of others. 

(Continued)

465

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 57. NQF structure and level descriptors in North Macedonia (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

KNOWLEDGE AND 
UNDERSTANDING

SKILLS

IV

III

Possesses limited 
knowledge of contemporary 
developments in the area 
of work or study, which 
provides support to the 
field of work or profession, 
potential for personal 
development and basis for 
further studies to complete 
the first cycle.

Knows the concepts, 
principles and processes 
from the study subjects and 
areas.

Possesses systematic 
theoretical and professional 
knowledge within the 
specified area of work 
or study that includes 
analysing and connecting 
facts and theoretical 
principles when performing 
the work, while at the 
same time enabling further 
studying. 

Possesses various cognitive, practical 
and creative skills, based on theoretical 
knowledge and principles, necessary for 
studying, working and solving problems 
in changeable conditions in a certain field 
of work or study.

Trained to collect, analyse, select 
and use relevant information from 
various sources, tools, methodologies, 
techniques and materials in the area of 
study. 

Trained to perform complex procedures 
and use methods, instruments, tools, 
installations and materials in the 
operation.

Communicates and cooperates with the 
group in changeable conditions.

Possesses theoretical 
and systematic adopted 
professional knowledge, 
facts, principles, processes 
and general concepts for 
a certain area of work or 
study, while at the same 
time enabling further 
studying.

Possesses practical and creative 
skills that enable the solving of 
known (predictable) and less known 
(unpredictable) situations. 

Performs work and tasks of medium 
complexity, less standardised and 
relatively visible. 

Uses various devices, tools, equipment 
and materials in the process of 
production and in services.

Communicates and cooperates with the 
group.

COMPETENCE

Takes responsibility for 
own results, but also 
shares responsibility 
for the activities, 
results and work of 
others in the group.

Independently 
plans, organises and 
runs own work and 
conducts supervision 
of the mutual work.

Independently 
performs complex 
tasks and solves 
problems, adjusting 
behaviour in 
accordance with 
given instructions, in 
changeable conditions.

Responsible for own 
work and the work 
of the group, for the 
purpose of evaluating 
the results of the work 
and improving the 
quality, in accordance 
with predefined 
standards and criteria.

Plans, prepares, 
organises and values 
own work, based 
on predetermined 
instructions, within the 
scope of their work.

Performs work that 
is not always defined 
in advance, with 
a certain degree of 
independence and 
responsibility.

466

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 57. NQF structure and level descriptors in North Macedonia (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

KNOWLEDGE AND 
UNDERSTANDING

SKILLS

II

I

Possesses basic 
theoretical and professional 
knowledge, necessary for 
the requirements of the 
work, which can be applied 
when performing simple 
working tasks, while at the 
same time enabling further 
studying.

Possesses practical and creative skills 
for solving simple or less complex and 
predefined work in known conditions 
and predictable situations.

Uses simple methods, tools, 
instruments, devices and materials 
based on detailed instructions. 

Communicates and cooperates with 
specific persons.

Possesses basic knowledge 
of the function of certain 
objects and occurrences 
with the possibility to apply 
them in practice and other 
disciplines, while at the 
same time enabling further 
studying.

Possesses basic skills for performing 
simple operations.

Uses simple methods, tools and 
instruments with instructions and under 
supervision.

Possesses general rules of 
communication.

COMPETENCE

Works independently 
under known 
conditions and 
under intermittent 
supervision and with 
limited responsibility 
for performing working 
tasks.

Establishes simple 
communication and 
cooperation with some 
employees in known 
situations.

Performs simple 
tasks under direct 
supervision.

Takes responsibility for 
performing working 
tasks.

Source:   NQF Law, Article 7 (unofficial translation – for reference purposes only).

Use of learning outcomes

Use of learning outcomes in programmes and 
qualifications is more advanced in higher education, 
in certain segments of VET (qualifications at level 3), 
as well as in the newly verified programmes of 
adult learning leading to qualifications. Higher 
education has generalised the use of diploma 
supplements, unlike VET where the introduction 
of certificate supplements is planned but not yet 
piloted or prepared on even a small/project scale. 
General education has been gradually embracing 
the approach in defining learning outcomes in 
curricula, particularly in critical subject areas. VET-4 
programmes, designed over 2005–07, are based on 
learning objectives, which can be taken as proxies 
for learning outcomes by subject. However, the 
clear definition of key learning outcomes describing 
the important outcomes of these programmes is 
yet to be developed.

Definition of qualification

The NQF Law defines qualification as the formal 
result of the evaluation and confirmation process, 
when the responsible institution certifies that 

an individual has achieved learning outcomes in 
accordance with established standards. Article 6 
of the NQF Law stipulates that the qualification 
standard should include the following:

a.  title of the qualification;
b.  type of qualification;
c.  level or sublevel of the qualification;
d.  code of the qualification;
e.  credit value of the qualification;
f.  description of the qualification;
g.  content of the qualification (entry requirements, 
number of mandatory and optional subjects: 
modules, method of verification and criteria for 
verification of the learning outcomes).

The NQF defines the parameters for classification 
of qualifications according to levels, types, 
sectors and volume. They are registered in the 
national database of qualifications (register). The 
national register is under construction, and the 
inventory of qualifications (2014) is its starting 
point. There is grouping of qualifications according 
to the purpose, type of documents issued, type 
of programmes and volume. Article 11 of the 
NQF Law defines two types of qualifications: 
educational qualifications (education level) and 

467

Volume II: National and regional casesvocational (occupational) qualifications. These are 
reflected in the MQF.

specialised top quality services, organisation of 
work, first level managerial positions, instructorship 
and mentorship.

a.  Educational qualification is obtained by 

completing a publicly adopted educational 
programme within the formal education 
system, with necessary qualification volume, 
and documented with a diploma/certificate. It 
enables continuation of education, employment 
and personal development.

b.  Vocational qualification is obtained by 
completing part of a publicly adopted 
educational programme (modules, courses), 
a special programme for adult education, or 
through validation of non-formal learning. It 
is documented with a certificate and enables 
employment and personal development. 
It contains competences relevant for the 
labour market presented within one or more 
standards of occupations. By their nature, these 
qualifications do not provide access to vertical 
progression in the formal education system. 
Vocational qualifications can be acquired for all 
MQF levels and sublevels, except level VIII. This 
type of qualification corresponds to the concept 
of ‘partial qualification’.

Qualification standards 

Within level 5, the country has renewed attention on 
qualifications of the NQF level sublevel 5B. Post-
secondary education provides deeper knowledge 
and understanding, skills and competence for 
working with more complex technology,  

Two types of pathway currently lead to qualifications 
at level VB: specialised education and master exam 
(specialised education and master craft exams), 
as they are expected to respond to demand 
from the labour market, provide advantageous 
career alternatives for young people, and meet 
the requirements of companies in many sectors 
for higher-level professional skills. From 2016, 
the country is operating a specific project, with 
EU support. 

The standards and programmes for specialised 
education are proposed by the VET Centre and 
adopted by the Minister of Education and Science. 
Admission criteria are completed technical, 
vocational education for occupations, gymnasium or 
art education, with or without working experience. 
These programmes are provided by accredited 
public and private institutions: secondary schools, 
higher vocational schools, specialised institutions 
for post-secondary education and institutions for 
post-secondary education as part of chambers, 
employers’ organisations, work associations and 
companies. 

The standards and programmes for the master 
exam are prepared by the VET Centre and adopted 
by the Chamber of Crafts of the Republic of 
Macedonia, upon prior positive opinion by the 
Ministry of Education and Science.

Table 58. Diplomas and certificates awarded in North Macedonia’s secondary education

TYPE OF 
SECONDARY 
EDUCATION

TYPE OF 
SCHOOL

Gymnasium 
education

Secondary 
school 
Gymnasium

EXAM

TITLE OF PUBLIC 
DOCUMENT

INSTITUTION 
AWARDING THE 
QUALIFICATION

QUALIFICATION 
LEVEL ACCORDING 
TO NQF

State matura

School

School

Certificate for 
completed year 
Svidetelstvo za zavrsena 
godina

Diploma for State 
matura 
Diploma za drzavna 
matura

School matura Diploma for school 

School

matura 
Diploma za ucilisna 
matura

IV

IV

468

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 58. Diplomas and certificates awarded in North Macedonia’s secondary education (Continued)

EXAM

TITLE OF PUBLIC 
DOCUMENT

INSTITUTION 
AWARDING THE 
QUALIFICATION

QUALIFICATION 
LEVEL ACCORDING 
TO NQF

TYPE OF 
SECONDARY 
EDUCATION

TYPE OF 
SCHOOL

Vocational 
education

Secondary 
school
(Technical 
education)

Certificate for 
completed year
Svidetelstvo za zavrsena 
godina

Diploma for State 
matura
Diploma za drzavna 
matura

Diploma for final 
exam 
Diploma za zavrsen ispit

Certificate for 
completed year
Svidetelstvo za zavrsena 
godina

Diploma for final 
exam
Diploma za zavrsen ispit

Certificate for 
completed year
Svidetelstvo za zavrsena 
godina

State matura

Final exam 

Final exam

Secondary 
school
(Vocational 
education for 
occupations)

Secondary 
school
(Vocational 
training)

Art 
education

Secondary 
school

Vocational 
competence 
exam

Certificate for 
vocational training
Uverenie za strucna 
osposobenost

State matura

Certificate for 
completed year
Svidetelstvo za zavrsena 
godina

Diploma for State 
matura
Diploma za drzavna 
matura

School

School

School

School

School

School

School

School

School

School matura Diploma for school 
matura
Diploma za zavrsen ispit

School

Source:  EQF referencing report of the FYROM qualifications framework and self-certification to the QF-EHEA  

(December 2015), p. 27.

IV

IV

III

II

IV

IV

IV

469

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 59. Qualifications acquired through post-secondary education in North Macedonia

TYPE OF 
INSTITUTION

EXAM

TITLE OF THE PUBLIC 
DOCUMENT

INSTITUTION 
ISSUING THE 
QUALIFICATION

LEVEL OF 
QUALIFICATION 
ACCORDING TO 
NQF

Accredited 
institution for  
post-secondary 
education

Specialist 
exam

Diploma for specialised education
(Diploma za specijalisticko 
obrazovanie)

Accredited 
institution

Master 
exam

Diploma for completed master 
exam
(Diploma za polozen majstorski ispit)

Accredited 
institution

VB

VB

Table 60. Qualifications in North Macedonia’s higher education system 

CYCLE

TYPE OF 
STUDIES

ECTS 
CREDITS

TITLE OF 
PUBLIC 
DOCUMENT

TITLE

LEVEL OF THE 
QUALIFICATION 
IN THE NQF

First cycle studies

Short cycle 
studies

Academic 
studies

60-120

Certificate

180-240

Diploma in the 
specific area

baccalaureate

Professional 
studies

180-240

Diploma in the 
specific area

baccalaureate

Second cycle 
studies

Academic 
studies

60-120

Master degree 
diploma

master

Third cycle studies

Professional 
studies

Doctoral 
studies

60-120

Specialist diploma

specialist

At least 180

Diploma

Doctor of 
science/

Doctor of art

VA

VIA

VIB

VIIA

VIIB

VIII

Source:  EQF referencing report of the FYROM qualifications framework and self-certification to the QF-EHEA (December 2015), p. 34

Access, progression and credit

Education policies in the past decade have resulted 
in visible improvement in transition to higher levels 
of education and training. There has also been an 
associated increase in educational attainment of the 
younger generations, notably by making secondary 
education compulsory. The state has also improved 
the progression routes of graduates, boosting 
programme length from VET-3 (three years) to 
VET-4 (four years) (NQF level IV), thus allowing VET 
graduates to access higher education. 

Passing external exams – the state matura – is 
the main condition for eligibility to access higher 
education. Apart from vertical progression in 
formal education and training (and acquisition 
of) education level qualifications, citizens have 
the possibility to acquire other qualifications for 
employment and personal development purposes. 
These are vocational (occupational) qualifications. 
This type of qualification contributes to broadening 
the knowledge and skills of the holders and the 
acquisition of occupationally-relevant skills in  
new fields, but they are not designed to lead  
to higher levels. 

470

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe NQF Law defines three types of credit system.

•  The European credit transfer and accumulation 
system (ECTS) credits in higher education (one 
ECTS credit is defined as 30 working hours with 
duration of 60 minutes each). This definition 
differs from the ECTS principles (25 working 
hours with duration of 60 minutes each).
•  The European credit system for vocational 

education and training (ECVET) credits in VET 
(one ECVET credit is defined as 25 working 
hours of 45 minutes each). Preparatory 
activities have been started at a small scale, 
but more effort is necessary to create an 
agreed and feasible framework of concepts and 
methodology for implementation.

•  The Macedonian credit system for general 
education for credits in primary education  
and general secondary education (one  
credit is defined as 25 working hours of 
45 minutes each).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The NQF Law was adopted in October 2013 and 
entered into force in September 2015. Apart 
from the NQF Law, other important legal acts 
are the Decree on the national framework for 
higher education qualifications and laws on higher 
education, VET, secondary and adult education.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The NQF Law stipulates that the development, 
adoption, approval and classification of qualifications 
are under the responsibility of the National Board 
for the NQF, established in October 2015, and the 
sectoral qualifications councils, currently in the 
process of establishment.

The Ministry of Education and Science and the 
Ministry of Labour and Social Policy coordinate the 
NQF, leading its development and implementation. 
The Ministry of Education and Science is more 
directly concerned with the content and technical 
development of the framework, covering 
qualification standards and EQF referencing. It 
also acts as national contact point for the NQF. 
The Ministry of Labour and Social Policy develops 
information systems on labour market needs and 
forecasting; proposes development of standards 
of qualifications and standards of occupations, 
according to the needs of the labour market; 
adopts standards of occupations; participates in the 
preparation of strategic documents and analyses 

relevant for the development of the MQF and 
monitors the employment of persons with acquired 
qualifications.

Other competent institutions involved in the 
development of qualifications are the VET Centre, 
the Centre for Adult Education, and the Bureau for 
Development of Education for levels I to VB and 
higher education institutions for levels VA to VIII. 

The National Board for the NQF is composed of 
representatives from the Ministry of Education 
and Science, Ministry of Labour and Social Policy, 
VET Centre, Centre for Adult Education, Bureau 
for Development of Education, National Agency for 
European Educational Programmes and Mobility, 
higher education institutions, the chambers of 
commerce and trades unions. Its functions include 
policy evaluation in VET and recommendations 
to link training to labour market needs more 
effectively. It decides on allocation of qualifications 
to MQF levels and proposes development of 
new, or improvement of existing, qualifications to 
the competent institutions. It also deals with the 
sectoral qualifications councils, including authorising 
their establishment. 

The sectoral qualifications councils are composed 
of nominees from ministries, employers and trades 
unions, universities, the VET Centre, the Centre 
for Adult Education, the Bureau for Development 
of Education, and the competent bodies for 
regulated professions in the country. The councils 
are principally concerned with specific sector 
qualifications needs, identifying qualifications needs 
and proposing new qualifications for the relevant 
sector.

Resources and funding
Financial resources for the functioning and 
development of NQF-related bodies and projects are 
shared between national and international sources. 
The state budget assures the functioning of the 
NQF unit at the Ministry of Education and Science 
and the other relevant state bodies (Bureau for 
Development of Education, VET Centre, Centre for 
Adult Education). A number of IPA-funded projects 
started in 2016 have a direct contribution to the 
funding of activities related to NQF implementation 
and qualifications reforms. Other donors include the 
World Bank and the British Council.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality-assuring the NQF and qualifications 
addresses both the wider national education 
and training system and MQF procedures and 
processes. 

471

Volume II: National and regional casesThe Ministry of Education and Science runs 
accreditation procedures for primary and secondary 
schools and programmes for adult education. The 
verified institutions and providers are entered in the 
respective database of the ministry. Programmes for 
secondary education, including VET, are developed 
by the Bureau for Development of Education and/
or the VET Centre and approved by the Minister of 
Education and Science. 

The implementation of curricula for primary and 
secondary education is supported and monitored 
by advisors from the Bureau for Development of 
Education, the VET Centre and the State Educational 
Inspectorate. 

Teacher training or re-training is provided by advisors 
of the Bureau for Development of Education, the 
VET Centre and independent providers selected by 
the Bureau for Development of Education or the 
VET Centre. Continuing professional development 
of academic staff is inherent to the institutional 
strategies of the universities.

Educational institutions implement self-evaluation 
procedures in accordance with the legislation. The 
State Educational Inspectorate performs integral 
evaluation of primary and secondary schools on the 
basis of school self-evaluation reports. 

For assessment, annually external assessment of 
students’ achievements in primary and secondary 
education is carried out by the National Examination 
Centre and the schools. Secondary education is 
completed by passing state/school matura exam 
or final exam. The National Examination Centre is 
involved in the external part of the exams. 

Participants in adult education and training are 
assessed on a continuous basis and through final 
demonstration of learning outcomes. 

The (2013) reformed vocational programmes for 
occupations (three years) are based on learning 
outcomes, and are linked with qualifications 
standards and occupational standards. Assessments 
are continuous but with variations; this is the norm 
in adult education plus some final examination. At 
secondary level, students prepare for the matura, 
which includes both internal evaluations and some 
external assessment and examination by the 
National Examination Centre. 

external evaluation of higher education institutions 
and study programmes developed in accordance 
with the European standards and guidelines for 
quality assurance in higher education. The Board 
has been an affiliated member of the European 
Association of Quality Assurance in Higher 
education (ENQA) since October 2011.

Curricula are based on learning outcomes. The 
Board is responsible for external evaluation of 
higher education institutions. The quality of the 
implementation of the study programmes is 
assessed through institutional self-evaluations. The 
Board is independent in decision-making and the 
process is performed according to the rulebook 
adopted by the Board. The Ministry of Education 
and Science provides staff for administrative and 
technical support. They are not included in the 
decision-making process. A new law for quality 
assurance in higher education is under preparation. 
It will be based upon the European standards and 
guidelines for quality assurance in the European 
higher education area 2015. Technical and 
administrative support to the Board will be provided 
by a separate service. 

The legal basis of the quality assurance framework 
in the qualification system is drawn from other NQF-
related laws such as those on general, vocational, 
higher and adult education cited earlier. The main 
quality assurance issues and challenges for the NQF 
and qualifications involve practical application of the 
shift to the learning outcomes approach, particularly 
focusing more on the qualifications themselves.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Validation processes and criteria comply with the 
adopted standards for vocational qualifications 
included in the MQF. Higher education qualifications 
may be awarded via VNFIL, but a quality assurance 
regulation is still to be adopted to implement this 
provision. Arrangements in the third sector are 
not in place yet. Limited engagement so far of 
stakeholders, including social partners and some 
state institutions, and completion of necessary 
enabling legislation are the main obstacles to full 
implementation.

Higher education institutions and study programmes 
are accredited by the Board for Accreditation and 
Evaluation of Higher Education in accordance 
with the rulebook on criteria for accreditation and 

In its October 2015 concept paper, the government 
foresees the development and implementation 
of a system for VNFIL by 2018. Laws on VET and 
adult education also allow for VNFIL. The Centre 
for Adult Education, jointly with stakeholders, 

472

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSis currently developing a model for VNFIL and 
associated processes, inspired by the principles of 
the VNFIL EU Council Recommendation of 2012. 
This model is based on the four phases of validation 
and aims to improve the reliability and transparency 
of assessment, by introducing better instruments, 
particularly criteria allowing coherent assessment of 
the learning outcomes specified in the qualification 
standards. An information-methodology package to 
support practitioners (providers of VNFIL services) is 
at an early stage of design. 

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The inventory of qualifications, completed in 
March 2015, is the first version of a database 
of qualifications697. This inventory, carried out 
in cooperation with the ETF, is comprehensive 
and exhaustive, as it covers all existing formal 
qualifications (accredited higher education 
programmes, general education, and VET), as well 
as verified non-formal adult education programmes. 
The inventory includes 241 qualifications from 
general education, formal VET, non-formal verified 
programmes, qualifications that exist in the 
aviation sector, and others. A few higher education 
qualifications (43) were integrated in the inventory, 
to complement the 1,147 already listed in the higher 
education qualifications register (created with 
support of a Tempus project before the start of the 
inventory). 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
The roadmap for NQF implementation contains a 
specific work package on coordination, monitoring, 
and analysis of results from the roadmap, plus 
transfer to legislation. The NQF unit is currently 
in charge of coordination and reporting, but it is 
likely to face human resources constraints in the 
short run, due to upcoming retirement of the most 
experienced staff and limited public finance. 

Impact for end-users
Qualifications are in the framework. The NQF is 
technically operational – learning outcomes-based 
structure and descriptors, modular or unitised 
qualifications are available, levels and descriptors 
clearly defined, whereas the quality assurance 
framework and VNFIL/recognition of prior learning 
mechanisms are being developed further.

Referencing to regional frameworks

North Macedonia has been a full member of the 
Bologna Process, or European higher education 
area, since 2003. The country is a full member 
of the EQF and successfully referenced the NQF 
to the EQF on 3 February 2016. Simultaneously, 
the country presented its self-certification report, 
demonstrating compatibility with the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area. 
The EQF referencing report of the MQF and self-
certification to the qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area is available on the 
MQF and EQF websites.

Important lessons and future plans

Implementation of the NQF is a main priority 
integrated in the Comprehensive strategy of 
education 2016–20 and a central theme of the 
Economic reform programme report 2016. The 
NQF is high on the agenda, and this momentum 
is sustained by the launch in 2016 of several 
international projects focused on reform of VET 
qualifications, non-formal learning, higher education 
and NQF implementation. Such a multidimensional 
reform activity in the qualifications landscape is 
beneficial, but heightens demands on the ministry’s 
capacity to coordinate the projects’ approaches 
and outputs towards coherent outcomes. In 2016 
the national NQF team and key stakeholders, with 
support of the EU twinning project, developed 
the draft roadmap for further development and 
implementation of the NQF. New local, national 
and international partnerships were initiated and 
developed within these activities.

Implementation of the NQF roadmap is conditional 
on good coordination of all planned inputs, actions 
and projects, and to collaboration between key 
bodies and stakeholders, which concur with the 
overall roadmap. The NQF roadmap is structured 
in work packages covering concepts, governance, 
learning outcomes implementation, VNFIL, quality 
assurance, levelling methodologies, and legislation.

Key challenges are ensuring effectiveness of 
institutions engaged in NQF implementation, 
resource availability, revision of existing VET 
qualifications to an outcomes basis, strengthening 
of quality assurance and building capacities of 
professionals, experts and stakeholders. 

697  The new qualification database is available at: https://

registar.mrk.mk/registri-kvalifikacii/

473

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
ECTS 

EQF 
ET 2020  

ETF 

European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European qualifications framework
Education and training 2020 (EU’s 
framework for cooperation and action 
in education in the EU) 
European Training Foundation

IPA 

MQF 
NQF 
VET 
VNFIL 

Instrument for Pre-accession 
Assistance
Macedonian qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

474

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNORWAY

Introduction and context

Norwegian 15-year-olds have made clear 
improvements in the latest edition of the global 
PISA education ranking698. They performed better 
in science, maths and reading than they did three 
years ago, and are now above the OECD average 
in all three disciplines (OECD, 2015). Compared to 
the EU 2020 averages, Norwegian pupils are also 
well above in all three disciplines and have reached 
the EU 2020 benchmark target for reading. Norway 
has surpassed the other EU 2020 targets except 
the benchmark for early leavers from education and 
training for males. The proportion of early leavers 
from education is 12.8% for males and 7.9% for 
females, together totalling 10.4% early leavers 
from education and training in 2017 (EU average 
10.6%). Tertiary educational attainment is one of the 
highest in Europe (49% in 2017, compared to the 
EU average of 39.9%) and the employment rate of 
recent graduates is exceeded only by Austria, the 
Czech Republic, Germany, Iceland, Malta and the 
Netherlands (European Commission, 2018). 

The Norwegian national qualifications framework 
(NQF) developments were triggered both by the 
2005 qualifications framework of the European 
higher education area (QF-EHEA) and by the 2008 
recommendation on the European qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning (EQF) and its 
inclusion in the Agreement on the European 
Economic Area (EEA) in March 2009 (EEA Joint 
Committee, 2009). After extensive preparatory 
work involving main stakeholders, a comprehensive 
Norwegian national qualifications framework 
(Nasjonalt kvalifikasjonsrammeverk for livslang 
læring (NKR)) was adopted by the Ministry of 
Education and Research in December 2011699 and, 
following amendments of the relevant laws relating 

to education and training, further legally defined in a 
regulation in December 2017700. 

The NKR consists of seven levels and covers 
qualifications from general, vocational and higher 
education. The numbering of the seven levels starts 
at level 2701 to ensure a structure that better parallels 
the levels of the EQF. The question of opening up 
to qualifications from outside formal education and 
training (for example, awarded by the private sector) 
has been extensively discussed. The ministry 
appointed a committee in October 2013 with the 
mandate of exploring the possibility of placing 
qualifications acquired outside the formal education 
system into the NQF. The committee presented its 
report to the minister in April 2015. The committee 
was divided on several issues, such as the 
assessment of the need for placing non-formal 
qualifications into the NQF, and how placement 
should be done. The report, therefore, includes two 
different models, describing alternative approaches 
and solutions. 

The Ministry of Education and Research and the 
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries intend, 
in dialogue with the Master Craftsman Certificate 
Committee, to assess if the master craftsman 
qualification can be placed into the NQF702. 
However, the process seems to have stalled. 

The NKR was referenced to the EQF in June 2014. 
The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in 
Education (NOKUT) has been appointed as national 
coordination point for the EQF. 

The NKR has now reached operational status. 

698  Programme for international student assessment – PISA 

(2015).

699  The Norwegian qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning adopted by the Ministry of Education and 
Research on 15 December 2011 is available at: www.
nokut.no/siteassets/nkr/20140606_norwegian_
qualifications_framework.pdf

700  Regulation FOR-2017-11-08-1846 on the Norwegian 

qualifications framework and its referencing to the EQF: 
https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2017-11-08-1846

701  Level 1 is not part of the NQF; there are no qualifications 

at this level.

702  Report No 9 to the Storting, 2016–17, on skilled workers 
for the future. www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/
f34b56ba52454667a46049aa550b42bc/no/pdfs/
stm201620170009000dddpdfs.pdf

475

Volume II: National and regional casesPolicy objectives

The NKR aims at describing the existing national 
education and training system in a transparent 
way to make it more understandable, at national 
and international levels. Focusing on improving 
the transparency of qualifications, the NKR 
was originally seen as a communication and 
information tool rather than as a tool for reform. 
However, through its focus on learning outcomes, 
an important aim of the NKR – underlined in the 
2016 and 2017 white papers on vocational college 
education and higher education, respectively – is to 
support quality in education and training. The NQF 
is also a regulating tool for education and training 
through the requirement to use learning outcomes, 
quality assurance, and the development of curricula. 

More specific objectives include the following703: 

The level descriptors play a key role in clarifying the 
similarities and differences between qualifications 
and their relationships. They are a point of reference 
for developing and updating qualifications. In 
this way the framework (now supported by the 
regulation) acts as a tool for improving the quality 
and relevance of qualifications. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NKR adopted by the Ministry of Education 
and Research in December 2011, and further 
legally embedded in 2017 regulation, establishes a 
framework of seven levels, reflecting the structure 
of existing formal education and training in Norway. 
The levels are described through the concepts 
knowledge (kunnskap), skills (ferdighet) and general 
competence (generell kompetanse). 

a.  improve communication and mobility within the 
education sector and between the education 
sector and the labour market;

b.  offer a description of what a pupil/apprentice/

graduate is expected to know, understand and 
be able to do after successful completion of 
learning;

c.  describe the workings of the Norwegian system 
in a new manner, which will pave the way for 
improved education and career guidance;

d.  aid the comparison of qualifications from other 

countries, via the EQF and the QF-EHEA;
e.  open the way for the development of new 

instruments for validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. 

There is broad consensus in Norway on the 
relevance of the learning outcomes approach. 
Knowledge promotion (Kunnskapsløftet), a wide-
ranging reform of primary, lower and upper 
secondary education and training, started in 2004 
and implemented in 2006, has been of particular 
significance; it required comprehensive redefinition 
and rewriting of learning objectives at these levels. 
An important reason for using learning outcomes 
is to encourage curriculum consistency at national 
level. While adaptation is possible at local level, 
national consistency is important for reasons of 
quality and also to support validation of non-formal 
and informal learning. Today’s curricula are based 
on the Knowledge promotion reform and include 

Table 61. Main NQF level descriptor elements defining levels 2–8 in Norway

KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS

GENERAL COMPETENCE

LEVEL DESCRIPTOR ELEMENTS

Understanding of theories, 
facts, concepts, principles 
and procedures in a 
discipline, subject area and/
or profession.

The ability to apply knowledge 
to complete tasks and solve 
problems. There are different 
types of skill: cognitive, practical, 
creative and communicative.

The ability to use knowledge and skills 
in an independent manner in different 
situations in study and work contexts, by 
demonstrating the ability to cooperate, 
the ability to act responsibly, and a 
capacity for reflection and critical 
thinking.

Source: Cedefop (2018). Analyses and overview of NQF level descriptors in European countries.

703  Adapted from Ministry of Education and Research (2012).

476

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthe core curriculum704, quality framework705 and 
subject curricula. The core curriculum elaborates on 
the aims stated in the Education Act706, designates 
overarching goals for education and training, and 
sets forth the basis for primary and secondary 
education and training as a whole in terms of 
the values, culture and knowledge in which it is 
grounded. The quality framework, with the learning 
poster, elaborate on the Education Act and its 
statutes and set forth the principles that schools 
and training establishments are to follow in their 
teaching and training. It must be adapted to local 
and individual needs and conditions. Subject 
curricula designate the aim, main subject areas, 
fundamental skills, competence aims, and criteria 
for making assessments in a given subject.

The Norwegian Directorate for Education and 
Training has developed a framework for basic skills 
which is a tool for developing and revising national 
subject curricula. The five basic skills –oral skills, 
reading, writing, digital skills and numeracy – are 
defined as basic to learning in school, work and 
social life. These skills are fundamental to learning 
in all subjects as well as a prerequisite for the pupil 
to show his/her competence and qualifications. 
All subject-specific curricula describe how the five 
basic skills contribute to developing the pupils` 
competence and qualifications and how these skills 
are integrated into the subject. 

Renewal and improvement of subjects in primary 
and lower secondary education and in upper 
secondary education and training is now well 
under way. The renewal builds on the Knowledge 
promotion reform, ensuring continuity for teachers 
and pupils alike. The focus is on more in-depth 
learning and better understanding, measures 
set out in a 2016 white paper707. The white paper 
was adopted by the Parliament, with some 
amendments, in October 2016. The new curricula 
will be used incrementally from 2020.

704  Ministry of Education and Research (1994). Core 

curriculum for primary, secondary and adult education in 
Norway. www.udir.no/globalassets/filer/lareplan/generell-
del/core_curriculum_english.pdf

705  Directorate for Education and Training (2006). National 
curriculum for knowledge promotion in primary and 
secondary education and training: the quality framework. 
www.udir.no/globalassets/upload/larerplaner/fastsatte_
lareplaner_for_kunnskapsloeftet/5/prinsipper_lk06_eng.pdf

706  Law LOV-1998-07-17-61. The Education Act (act relating 
to primary and secondary education). https://lovdata.no/
dokument/NL/lov/1998-07-17-61

707  Report No 28 to the Storting, 2015–16, on in-depth 
learning and better understanding; a renewal of the 
Knowledge promotion reform. www.regjeringen.no/no/
dokumenter/meld.-st.-28-20152016/id2483955/

The learning outcomes approach is widely accepted 
in education and training, as well as among social 
partners. The NKR is also an important part of quality 
assurance mechanisms and intrinsically connected 
to the systematic work on quality in education. All 
higher education institutions were requested to 
adopt learning outcomes in line with the descriptors 
for levels 6–8 of the NKR in all study programmes 
by the end of 2012. Mapping by NOKUT, the quality 
assurance agency, in 2015, and continuing revision 
of all higher education programmes aimed at 
qualifications for the health and social sectors708, 
show that drafting learning outcomes in line with 
the NQF is still experienced as challenging. For 
vocational college education (fagskole), level 5, the 
deadline set for the implementation of learning 
outcomes was the end of 2014, as work at this level 
started later than in higher education. In 2014 and 
2015, NOKUT engaged an expert panel to assess 
the learning outcomes proposed in all applications 
for accreditation of new study programmes; this 
has helped the vocational colleges in developing 
and using learning outcomes in all programmes.  
Compliance with the NKR and the use of learning 
outcomes is included in the regulations on NOKUT’s 
supervision and control of the quality of college 
education and of higher education709. This means 
that learning outcomes are assessed as part of 
all accreditations and reaccreditations of study 
programmes.

The NQF is indirectly providing a basis for validation 
of prior learning and informal competences in 
the Norwegian system. Arrangements related to 
validation of non-formal and informal learning have 
a thorough legal basis and are referenced to the 
learning outcomes of qualifications in the formal 
system for education and training and NQF. This has 
had a considerable impact on validation of non-
formal and informal learning (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The regulation on the NQF and the referencing 
to EQF are linked to legislation in the education 
system. The regulation provides definitions, 

708  The RETHOS project 2017–20 is a joint project between 
the four following ministries: Education and Research 
(which has the project secretariat); Health and Care 
Services; Labour and Social Affairs; and Children and 
Equality. It follows a 2012 white paper on welfare 
education to draft revised guidelines – including learning 
outcomes – for all relevant study programmes.

709  Regulation FOR-2017-02-07-137 on the supervision of the 
quality of education in higher education: https://lovdata.no/
dokument/SF/forskrift/2017-02-07-137

477

Volume II: National and regional casesindicates roles and responsibilities, states indication 
of NQF and EQF levels on new certificates, 
diplomas and/or Europass supplements, and 
stipulates that curricula and study programmes for 
qualifications should be based on learning outcomes 
in accordance with the descriptors for the applicable 
level. 

The development and implementation of the NKR 
has been based on broad stakeholder involvement. 
All main education and training stakeholders, as 
well as representatives from the social partners, 
have been involved at all levels through the entire 
process. Stakeholders have generally been engaged 
in, and committed to, the process, although 
sometimes expressing different opinions on the 
role, profile and future direction of the NKR. 

The involvement of labour market stakeholders has 
been significant and is closely linked to their role 
in vocational training and discussion on opening 
up to qualifications awarded outside of formal 
education and training. Norwegian social partners 
generally see the NKR (and the EQF process) as 
important and as a way to strengthen dialogue 
between education and training and the labour 
market; it is also seen as a key tool in a broader 
national competence strategy where the interaction 
between education and training and the labour 
market is seen as a key issue.

While the Ministry of Education and Research 
is responsible for the overall development and 
implementation of the framework, NOKUT has the 
role of national coordination point for the EQF. It 
serves as information centre, coordinates activities 
related to the NQF and the EQF, and is responsible 
for the main NKR web presentation710.

NOKUT is a government agency established in 
2003. Its main responsibilities include:

a.  conducting evaluations and quality control, and 
stimulating quality development of education 
provision in Norwegian higher education and 
vocational college education (levels 5–8);

b.  recognising foreign higher education 

qualifications, vocational college education 
and vocational upper secondary qualifications, 
based on individual applications, and 
providing information about mechanisms for 
the recognition and authorisation of foreign 
qualifications;

c.  being Norwegian ENIC-NARIC, information 
centre and national contact point for the 
diploma supplement and for the professional 
qualifications directive.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways711

There are laws and regulations on validation of 
non-formal and informal learning for each level 
of education and training covered by the NKR. 
Validation arrangements are based on shared basic 
principles across all sectors. One of these is that 
the validation process should be voluntary and of 
benefit to the individual. Although participation 
in validation is voluntary, the legal framework 
guarantees the rights of individuals to undertake it.

Validation of non-formal and informal learning, 
known in Norway as realkompetansevurdering 
(validation of real competence, or recognition of 
prior learning) is clearly defined and used as a 
specific term in laws, regulations and guidelines. 
Real competence includes formal, non-formal and 
informal learning. Although formal learning is not 
assessed separately, it is included as part of the 
new total assessment. 

Responsibility for local provision in primary, lower 
and upper secondary education (levels 2–4) is 
decentralised to municipality and county education 
administrations respectively and based on the 
learning outcomes described in the curricula. 

In vocational college education and higher 
education (levels 5–8), validation of non-formal and 
informal learning is mainly used for admission, and 
exemption. At these levels, each institution provides 
validation procedures based on the learning 
outcomes of the relevant study programme. Each 
institution is autonomous, so there are no general 
procedures for validation of competence at NQF 
levels 5 and above. However, in 2013, as a follow-up 
of a 2009 white paper on the education strategy712, 
Skills Norway – formerly Vox – developed two 
guidelines on assessing prior learning together with 
representatives from the sectors: one related to 
admission to vocational college education, and one 

710  NOKUT: www.nokut.no/en/about-nokut/international-
cooperation/national-coordination-point-ncp-for-the-
european-qualifications-framework-for-lifelong-learning-
eqf/

711  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al. 
(forthcoming)).

712  Report No 44 to the Storting, 2008–09. The education 
strategy. www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/stmeld-
nr-44-2008-2009-/id565231/

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSto recognition of prior learning in (i.e. as part of) 
higher education.

In lower and upper secondary education, the 
outcome of validation of non-formal and informal 
learning can be a document showing that 
the individual has achieved a full qualification 
(certificate); if the individual has not achieved a full 
qualification, the document awarded is a ‘certificate 
of competence’. In vocational education and training 
(VET) programmes, it is not possible to obtain a full 
qualification based on validation of non-formal and 
informal learning alone. Applicants must pass the 
final trade examination to obtain the final VET (trade 
or journeyman’s) certificate.

In higher education, a student who achieves some 
courses through validation, and others via formal 
learning, will not receive a grade for the validated 
courses (only the indication ‘Pass’), whereas most 
other courses passed will be graded by the letters 
A to E. For validation students who wish to continue 
their studies, the lack of grades in certain courses 
might be a disadvantage when competing for a 
place at a master level. 

In the Erasmus KA3 project VISKA (visible skills for 
adults) 2017–20, the focus is on developing methods 
and processes to increase the access of migrants to 
validation of prior learning processes, education and 
work713. Skills Norway is coordinating this project.

There are also validation mechanisms in 
enterprises (such as the 2018–21 social partner 
agreement on documenting workers’ competence, 
Paragraphs18-4714.

In the Norwegian strategy for skills policy 2017–
21715, the strategy partners have agreed to make 
it easier to document skills acquired at work and 
to develop a method and model for evaluating 
skills acquired in the workplace. A working group 
appointed by the Ministry of Education and 
Research has developed a pilot on validation of 
non-formal and informal learning within the retail 
trade716. The pilot was coordinated by the Enterprise 
Federation of Norway (Virke) in cooperation with 
the Confederation of Norwegian Enterprise (NHO), 
the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO) 

713  VISKA project: www.viskaproject.eu
714  Basic agreement between the Norwegian Confederation 
of Trade Unions and the Confederation of Norwegian 
Enterprises, 2018–21: www.nho.no/siteassets/
publikasjoner/basic-agreement-lo-nho-2018-2021.pdf

715  Norwegian strategy for skills policy, 2017–21:  
www.kompetansenorge.no/contentassets/ 
06b4044721e849ed8116604f9af4faa5/norwegian_
strategy_for_skills.pdf 

716  See Enterprise Federation of Norway (2018).

and the Confederation of Vocational Unions (YS) in 
dialogue with the ministry. The pilot did not aim to 
compare or contrast skills acquired in the workplace 
with those acquired in formal education; it brought a 
broader understanding of the development of skills 
in the workplace. A follow-up evaluation by the Fafo 
Research Foundation recommends that the model 
should now be tested to ensure its applicability717.

Internal validation procedures at the workplace, 
linked to wage negotiations or competence 
development in companies, can also be found 
outside the formal system of validation. In these 
instances, validation references are based on local 
requirements defined by the company concerned.

A study was recently conducted by the Nordic 
Institute for Studies in Innovation, Research and 
Education (NIFU) on validation of non-formal and 
informal learning in Norway718. It concludes that 
there is a lot more to be done, both in education 
and working life, before a well-functioning national 
system for documentation and validation is 
established. Another conclusion is that a good 
system for data collection on the use of the different 
validation schemes and benefit for the individual is 
lacking.

NQF implementation

All qualifications in the Norwegian formal 
education system are included in the NKR; most 
formal qualifications are included en bloc. Quality 
assurance of qualifications in the formal education 
system is secured through the legislation on all 
education levels in the system. The NKR has been 
incorporated into these laws and regulations by 
explicitly referring curricula and study programmes 
to the relevant level descriptors. 

The NKR is being used indirectly for validation of 
non-formal and informal learning in that validation 
arrangements are measured against the learning 
outcomes of formal qualifications.

NOKUT uses the NKR to support recognition 
of qualifications and aims at taking NQFs into 
account more systematically in methodologies 
for recognition of foreign education and training 
when possible. In autumn 2018, NOKUT carried 
out public consultation on proposed changes in the 
criteria for general recognition of higher education 
to bring them more in line with developments in 
the field; this included the recommendation on 

717  See Jensen and Lidahl (2018).
718  See Sutherland-Olsen et al. (2018).

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Volume II: National and regional casesrevised criteria and procedures for the assessment 
of foreign qualifications, a subsidiary text of the 
Lisbon Recognition Convention719. According to 
NOKUT, the recognition of upper secondary and 
post-secondary VET qualifications is challenging 
because of the great variation in VET systems at 
these levels. NOKUT is therefore exploring ways in 
which this connection can be supported better and 
in which the EQF can help communicate foreign 
qualifications.

The framework as referenced to the EQF in 2014 
is generally referred to as a permanent and fully 
integrated part of the Norwegian education and 
training system, including in laws and regulations 
and relevant policy documents. 

Mapping of the implementation of NKR is planned 
for 2019. Current EQF relevant databases are 
Utdanning.no and Study in Norway720. The database 
Utdanning.no gives information about education 
and training possibilities and programmes in upper 
secondary education and training, vocational college 
education, higher education, folk high schools 
(boarding schools without exams and grades), and 
further and continuing education (flexible courses 
or education offers at all levels, often based on 
professional experience). This database also offers 
different tools for use in career guidance. Study in 
Norway contains study programmes in English in 
higher education extracted from Utdanning.no.

The national coordination point has a communication 
strategy to improve the digital access points and 
online information and to create written information. 
For the period 2018–20, the national coordination 
point aims to further develop its communication 
strategy, mainly through seminars and workshops 
with stakeholders from the labour market and social 
partners (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).  

Referencing to regional frameworks

Norway referenced its NQF to the EQF in June 
2014, along with the self-certification to the  
QF-EHEA.

While the EQF advisory group considered the link 
between the NKR and the EQF to be transparent, 

719  Revised recommendation on criteria and procedures 
for the assessment of foreign qualifications (adopted 
by the Lisbon Recognition Convention Committee at 
its 5th meeting, Sèvres, 23 June 2010): www.coe.int/t/
dg4/highereducation/recognition/Criteria%20and%20
procedures_En.asp

720  www.utdanning.no/ and www.studyinnorway.no/ (study 
programmes taught through English, extracted from 
utdanning.no).

some questions were raised regarding the levelling 
of qualifications at levels 5 and 6. 

The Norwegian NKR regulation provides the legal 
basis for the possible inclusion of NKR levels in new 
diplomas and certificates. Alternatively, EQF levels 
can be indicated on supporting documentation 
such as the Europass certificate supplement or the 
diploma supplement.

NKR levels are currently included on diplomas from 
vocational college education. In higher education, 
NKR levels are included on the diploma supplement, 
which is conferred automatically and free of charge 
to all graduates. NKR and EQF levels are included 
on certificate supplements in vocational upper 
secondary education and training.

Important lessons and challenges

The NKR is fully operational and included in relevant 
regulations on education and training. It is also 
established as a tool for quality enhancement and 
quality assurance.

The NKR is widely known and systematically 
used among recognition authorities and bodies. 
It is known among social partners, but to a 
lesser degree among employers. Guidance and 
counselling practitioners have some knowledge 
of the framework. The student unions claim 
high information value for the NKR and learning 
outcomes in education. Both the NKR and EQF are 
less known by the general public. 

The learning outcomes approach is widely accepted 
in education and training, as well as among social 
partners. The NKR is an important part of quality 
assurance mechanisms and intrinsically connected 
to the systematic work on quality in education. 
Different mobility tools, including the EQF, provide 
contact points between authorities and stakeholders 
in education and training. However, there is little 
evidence of particular cooperation between 
education and labour market stakeholders related to 
the NKR.

Despite all successful implementation of the 
different objectives, there is little reliable evidence 
today when it comes to the impact of EQF and NKR 
on mobility and transparency, or on quality.

No evaluation of the NKR has been carried out 
so far, but mapping is planned for 2019. Changes 
stemming from this evaluation might be relevant 
for updating the referencing report (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

480

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 62. Norwegian qualifications framework (NKR)

NKR 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

Doctoral degrees (ph.d, dr. philos., ph.d in artistic development work (from 2018))

Diploma for artistic development programme (Diplom, kunstnerisk 
utviklingsprogram)

Master degree (Mastergrad)

Master of arts

Master of business administration (MBA)

Master of international business (MIB)

Master of technology management

Master of laws

Candidata/candidatus medicinae 

Candidata/candidatus medicinae veterinariae 

Candidata/candidatus psychologiae 

Candidata/candidatus theologiae 

6.2

Bachelor degree (Bachelorgrad)

Diploma for general teacher education programme (Vitnemål fra 
allmennlærerutdanning, Vitnemål fra grunnskolelærerutdanning)

University college degree (Høgskolekandidatgrad)

Diploma for vocational college education (1.5 to 2 years, 90–120 credits) (Vitnemål 
fra fagskoleutdanning)

Diploma for vocational college education 0.5 to 1.5 years, 30–90 credits) (Vitnemål 
fra fagskoleutdanning)

A. Certificate for upper secondary 
vocational education and training 
(Vitnemål fra videregående 
opplæring, yrkesfaglige 
utdanningsprogram) 

Craft certificate (Fagbrev)

Journeyman certificate (Svennebrev)

B. Certificate for upper secondary general 
education (Vitnemål fra videregående 
opplæring, studieforberedende 
utdanningsprogram)

Document of competence for partially completed upper secondary education 
(Kompetansebevis)

Certificate for primary and lower secondary education (10 years) (Vitnemål fra  
10-årig grunnskole)

Not part of the NQF/no qualifications at this level

6.1

5.2

5.1

4

3

2

1

Source: Adapted from NOKUT (2018). The Norwegian qualifications framework for lifelong learning. www.nokut.no/en/
norwegian-education/the-norwegian-qualifications-framework-for-lifelong-learning/

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

481

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
EEA 
EQF 
EU 
NKR 

European economic area
European qualifications framework
European Union
Nasjonalt kvalifikasjonsrammeverk for 
livslang læring (national qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning)

NOKUT  

NQF 
QF-EHEA 

VET 

Nasjonalt kompetansesenter for 
utenlandsk utdanning (Norwegian 
Agency for Quality Assurance in 
Education)
national qualifications framework
qualifications framework in the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

NOKUT (Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education) – the national coordination point: www.

nokut.no/en/about-nokut/international-cooperation/national-coordination-point-ncp-for-the-european-
qualifications-framework-for-lifelong-learning-eqf/
The qualifications databases: utdanning.no and Study in Norway
Ministry of Education and Research – NKR: www.regjeringen.no/no/tema/utdanning/voksnes_laering_og_

kompetanse/artikler/nasjonalt-kvalifikasjonsrammeverk/id601327/ (not available in English)

Ministry of Education and Research (2012). Referencing the Norwegian qualifications framework for lifelong 

learning to the European qualifications framework (EQF) and self-certification to the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area (QF-EHEA): https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-
eqf/files/the_norwegian_referencing_report_0.pdf

References

Cedefop (2018). Analyses and overview of NQF level descriptors in European countries. Luxembourg: 

Publication Office. Cedefop research paper, No 66. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/566217
EEA Joint Committee (2009). Decision of the EEA Joint Committee No 91/2009 of 3 July 2009 amending 

Protocol 31 to the EEA agreement, on cooperation in specific fields outside the four freedoms. 
Official Journal of the European Union, L 277, 22.10.2009, p. 45. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX%3A22009D0091&amp;from=EN

Enterprise Federation of Norway (Virke) (2018). A balancing act: describing skills acquired in the workplace. 

www.virke.no/globalassets/var-politikk/andre-dokumenter/179147-a-balancing-act---long-version.pdf 
European Commission (2018). 2018 Education and training monitor leaflet. https://ec.europa.eu/education/

sites/education/files/document-library-docs/2018-et-monitor-leaflet_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Norway.

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and the use of  

NQF/EQF (unpublished).

Jensen, R.S; Lidahl, N.K (2018). Realkompetanse i varehandelen: en følgeevaluering [Non-formal and 

informal learning in the retail trade: a follow-up evaluation]. Oslo: Fafo Research Foundation.  
www.virke.no/globalassets/folgeevaluering2203.pdf

Ministry of Education and Research (2012). Referencing the Norwegian qualifications framework for lifelong 

learning to the European qualifications framework (EQF) and self-certification to the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area (QF-EHEA). https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-
eqf/files/the_norwegian_referencing_report_0.pdf

Ministry of Education and Research et al. (2017). Norwegian strategy for skills policy 2017–21.  

www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/3c84148f2f394539a3eefdfa27f7524d/strategi-kompetanse-eng.
pdf 

482

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSNorwegian Confederation of Trade Unions; Confederation of Norwegian Enterprises (2018). Basic 

Agreement 2018–21 LO-NHO. www.nho.no/siteassets/publikasjoner/basic-agreement-lo-
nho-2018-2021.pdf 

OECD (2015). PISA 2015: results in focus. www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf
Sutherland-Olsen, D. et al. (2018). Realkompetansevurdering: en studie av systemet for vurdering av 

realkompetanse i utdanning og arbeidsliv [Validation of non-formal and informal learning: a study of 
the system for validation of non-formal and informal learning in education and working life]. NIFU 
reports, No 2018/10. https://nifu.brage.unit.no/nifu-xmlui/handle/11250/2502219 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

483

Volume II: National and regional casesPAKISTAN

Introduction

The Pakistan national skills strategy 2009–13 
prioritised paradigm-shifting reforms in Pakistan’s 
technical vocational education and training (TVET) 
to ensure alignment with skills demand, increase 
access and improve quality. The development and 
implementation of a Pakistan national qualifications 
framework (NQF) form part of the national skills 
strategy reform. The NQF aims to bring together all 
national qualifications under one coherent system 
(NAVTEC, 2009). 

Developments, some supported by donor 
assistance, have occurred at national and provincial 
levels. The TVET reform support programme 
contributes to the reform of the national system 
and is currently being implemented in Pakistan by 
the German Agency for International Cooperation 
and Development (Deutsche Gesellschaft für 
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ GmbH)) 
(GIZ, 2013; 2016) in cooperation with the National 
Vocational and Technical Training Commission 
(NAVTTC, previously known as NAVTEC) and 
provincial technical education and vocational 
training authorities (TEVTAs). Other TVET providers, 
including the Punjab Vocational Training Council, 
Punjab Skill Development Fund, a large number of 
private institutes, trade testing boards and boards of 
technical education, are also involved. The project is 
jointly funded by the European Union, the Embassy 
of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Federal 
Republic of Germany and the Royal Norwegian 
Embassy. As the NQF is a part of the TVET reform 
support programme, it focuses on the TVET sector, 
and is called the national vocational qualifications 
framework (NVQF).

The first draft of the framework was prepared in 
December 2012. After a series of consultations 
with major stakeholders from the public and private 
sectors, the NVQF was approved for piloting in 
December 2014. The draft was further reviewed 
following feedback from major implementing 
partners including TEVTAs, trade testing boards, 
boards of technical education and the Punjab 
Vocational Training Council, as well as special 

contributions from private-sector representatives. 
In March 2015, the NVQF was launched by the 
Federal Minister for Education and Technical Training 
(NAVTTC, 2015).

Policy objectives 

The purposes of the NVQF are to: 

a.  improve the quality of TVET by establishing clear 
qualification levels and by creating transparency 
for employers concerning applicants’ 
qualifications; 

b.  improve the alignment between qualifications, 

training programmes and skills demand; 
c.  establish a structured national framework for 

vocational and technical learning achievements 
based on defined levels and characteristics; 

d.  standardise the system of defining the 

characteristics and value of qualifications and the 
relationships between qualifications; 
e.  promote population upskilling and aid 

horizontal and vertical movement within the 
skills development system through pathways 
for progression and credit accumulation and 
transfer; 

f.  aid recognition of prior learning to provide 

a mechanism that allows individuals to gain 
recognition for the skills already acquired; 

g.  contribute to international recognition of 
Pakistani qualifications by improving the 
credibility, portability and recognition of NVQF 
qualifications nationally and internationally; 

h.  establish validity and reliability through 

a comprehensive and coherent quality assurance 
system that assures the quality of qualifications, 
training and assessment programmes and 
certification; 

i.  support new ways of standardising technical and 

vocational training.

Level descriptors and learning 
outcomes 

The NVQF is intended to provide a distinct pathway 
for TVET within the overall national qualifications 

484

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSstructure. It contains eight levels, plus a ‘level 
zero’ (pre-vocational) designed to meet the needs 
of those with little or no schooling. Levels 1–4 are 
certificate levels and level 5 is a diploma level, 
whereas levels 6–8 fall under higher education. 
Each level is defined by a set of approved level 
descriptors. These describe the broad outcomes 
expected of achievers at that level. The level 
descriptors describe the level of complexity of 
skills and knowledge at that level. They are used 
as guidelines for qualification developers and for 
the design of competency standards, assessment 

and training programmes, course curricula and 
teaching and learning materials. The pathways 
and equivalences developed between TVET and 
general education will enable horizontal as well as 
vertical movement between these sectors. The 
NVQF integrates five interacting systems which, 
if properly coordinated, ensure the achievement 
of the NVQF purposes: the qualifications 
development system, the assessment delivery 
system, the training delivery system, the national 
skills certification system and the national quality 
assurance system.

Figure 17. Pakistani qualifications framework

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The National Vocational and Technical Training 
Commission (NAVTTC) is the main authority 
working with provincial technical education and 
vocational training authorities (TEVTAs) to develop 
and implement the NVQF. The NAVTTC was created 
following the Act XV of 2011 by the President of 
Pakistan on 25 June 2011. The Act empowers the 
NAVTTC to ‘provide for an autonomous organisation 
for regulation, coordination, and policy direction for 
vocational and technical training and for matters 
ancillary thereto or connected therewith’. Many 
functions of the NAVTTC involve labour market 
information, for example with regard to vocational 
career guidance and counselling, development 

or modification of occupational standards, and 
assessment of the quality and labour market 
relevance of TVET training, based on information on 
school-to-work transitions. 

The NQF/TVET is based on the European 
qualifications framework, and was developed in 
consultation with public and private stakeholders. 
It defines levels, level descriptors and rules for 
equivalences, and makes allowances for credit 
transfer, assessment, and recognition of prior learning. 

The GIZ-TVET reform support programme has 
contributed substantially to NVQF development. The 
NVQF forms the foundation for competency-based 
standards, curricula, teaching learning materials and 
assessment packages. Together with the NAVTTC, 

485

Volume II: National and regional casesthe GIZ-TVET programme has set out guidelines 
for the development of curricula, including 
a standardised national template. Most stakeholder 
groups were involved in the design phase; the major 
steps are listed below.

a.  Industry practitioners participate in developing 
a curriculum (DACUM) workshops; they define 
job tasks and duties, required equipment, and 
other features of a job.

b.  Private sector practitioners and TVET teachers 

are involved in subsequent standards 
development.

c.  Based on the defined tasks, duties and 

standards, national curricula are developed for 
different NVQF levels.

d.  Industry experts are tasked with endorsing the 

new curricula or suggesting revisions before they 
are forwarded to and approved by the National 
Curricula Review Committee – a standing 
committee consisting of representatives from 
the NAVTTC and the TEVTAs as well as selected 
TVET experts. Special validation workshops are 
performed for industrial endorsement. Final 
approval is given by the NAVTTC.

e.  Competency-based training (CBT) curricula have 
been developed in 156 trades, including beauty 
and personal care, hospitality, IT, agriculture, 
commerce, renewable energy and the service 
sectors.

f.  TVET institutes are currently being identified to 

introduce CBT programmes.

g.  To date, over 172 institutes have introduced CBT 
programmes across Pakistan and more than 
200 institutes have been accredited with the 
NAVTTC to offer competency-based training.
h.  The infrastructure for 105 TVET institutes has so 
far been developed by the TVET reform support 
programme.

The capacity of the following stakeholders has been 
developed: 

a.  631 CBT assessors have been certified. 
b.  There are now more than 350 qualified principals 

and managers of TVET institutes. 

c.  Over 1,000 TVET teachers have been trained 

across Pakistan. 

d.  The NAVTTC has accredited seven awarding 
bodies to conduct assessments of NVQF 
qualifications. 

e.  More than 1 000 TVET institutes have also been 

accredited by the NAVTTC 

The Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce 
and Industry participates in technical and vocational 
qualification development. In consultation with 
its affiliated chambers and trades associations, 
the Federation prepares recommendations for 

skills development according to current industry 
requirements.

In addition, the Inter-Provincial Qualification 
Awarding Bodies Council has been established. 
The main objectives of the Council are to enable 
the sharing of experiences among awarding bodies, 
coordinate in a more effective way for the purpose 
of harmonisation and standardization and the 
replication of best practices within and across the 
bodies’ respective provinces and regions/territories. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

CBT assessment against defined NVQF standards 
is done regardless of the pathway (formal, non-
formal or informal) an individual takes. NVQF 
assessment includes a diverse range of methods 
that clarify a candidate’s skills, knowledge and 
attitudes. These methods may be demonstrations, 
simulations, presentations, assignments, 
projects, creations, tests or examinations. It is the 
assessment of an individual’s performance against 
defined competency standards which is important: 
individuals are not compared against other 
individuals, nor do they receive scaled grades but 
are recognised as competent or not yet competent. 

Competency-based assessment is not limited to 
the formal pathway. There are several pathways that 
individuals may take to be assessed against the 
defined national NVQF competency standards: 

a.  participating in a training course at an accredited 

training institute; 

b.  participating in workplace training; 
c.  workplace assessment; 
d.  direct assessment through recognition of prior 

learning or recognition of current competences. 

Each pathway leads to the same end point 
of assessment against the defined national 
competency standards for NVQF qualifications. 

Registered apprenticeship training is conducted 
in around 610 establishments, including in many 
state-owned utilities such as railways and airlines. 
Registered apprenticeship training is highly 
competitive, the entry requirement effectively being 
the secondary school certificate (vocational) even 
though training is at trade level. Apprenticeship 
schemes are based on guidelines in the 
Apprenticeship Training Ordinance of 1962, which is 
now under review. The Germany-Pakistan training 
initiative (GPATI) has developed a workable approach 
to cooperative training in which theory is taught at 

486

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKStwo private training institutes and on-the-job training 
is provided by ten German and three Pakistani 
companies. 

There are several short-term (three months to one 
year) courses conducted by vocational institutes, 
for which entry requirement is a Class 8 pass. 
These lead to the grade of skilled worker, but are 
recognised only at provincial level (through TEVTAs), 
not at federal level. It is envisaged that these 
courses will be accommodated in the NVQF at 
entry level. Non-formal learning initiatives such as 
these (including the distance learning programmes 
offered at open universities and through the Islamic 
education system, or via competence testing in the 
workplace) currently run parallel to the mainstream 
system. To incorporate these diverse learning 
initiatives into the NVQF will be a challenge. 

CBT certification is done by the qualification 
awarding bodies accredited by the NAVTTC. They 
are mandated by the NAVTTC to award national 
certificates through CBT assessment. So far, 
seven qualification awarding bodies, including five 
provincial trade testing boards, the Punjab Board 
of Technical Education and the Punjab Vocational 
Training Council, have been accredited by the 
NAVTTC. Qualification awarding bodies issue two 
types of certificate: certificates of qualification are 
issued when an individual is declared as competent 
at a particular NVQF level and a certificate of 
achievement is issued when an individual partially 
completes a particular NVQF qualification as 
competent. The qualification awarding bodies are 
mandated to accredit the assessment centres 
across the country. 

NQF implementation

The government of Pakistan has developed 
version 2 of the NVQF and its operational manuals 
as guidelines to TVET stakeholders for the smooth 
implementation of the NVQF across Pakistan. These 
manuals are as follows:

1.  NVQF operational manual No 1: developing 

NVQF qualifications;

2.  NVQF operational manual No 2: assessment of 

NVQF qualifications;

3.  NVQF operational manual No 3: management of 

the NVQF.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The eight Member States of the South Asian 
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which 
includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, 
Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, finalised the 

SAARC framework for action (SFFA) for education 
2030, leading to its adoption at the third meeting of 
Ministers of Education/Higher Education held in Male, 
Maldives in 2016. Through regional collaboration 
and partnerships, the ministers agreed to develop 
a regional quality assurance framework for vocational/
skills education, and support mutual recognition of 
qualifications and student mobility (SAARC, 2016).

Important lessons and future plans

Some of the most recent developments in the 
implementation of the Pakistani NQF include:

•  establishment of NVQF support units in the 

provinces and regions have been established; 
these will become operational in the near future;

•  establishment of a TVET Committee at the 

Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce 
and Industry and Employers’ Federation of 
Pakistan and promotion of private sector agenda 
on TVET;

•  operationalization of shadow councils in the SSC;
•  agreements on joint functions and agreements 

between TEVTAs, BIAs and enterprises 
facilitated in provinces; 

•  annual meeting of the Punjab skills forum and 
identification of priority sectors in technical 
working group meetings; 

•  development of a manual on workplace-based 

training, including working templates;

•  development of a mobile application of the 

national skill information system/JPC;
•  skilled workforce demand survey of CPEC 

• 
• 

projects;
training of principals and managers of institutes; 
training of chief master trainers, master trainers 
and lead assessors;

•  activation of a quality assurance system with a 
digitized monitoring and evaluation system.

Abbreviations
CBT  
GIZ  

competency-based training
Deutsche Gesellschaft für 
Internationale Zusammenarbeit 
(German Agency for International 
Cooperation and Development)

NQF  
NVQF  

NAVTTC   National Vocational and Technical 
Training Commission
national qualifications framework
national vocational qualifications 
framework
technical education and vocational 
training authorities
technical and vocational education 
and training

TEVTAs  

TVET  

487

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) GmbH (2013). Supporting TVET reform in 
Pakistan: progress report, 1 April 2012 to 31 March 2013. Islamabad project office of the German 
Agency for International Cooperation and Development (GIZ).

GIZ (2016). TVET reform support programme for Pakistan: progress report. Islamabad project office of the 

German Agency for International Cooperation and Development (GIZ).

NAVTEC (National Vocational and Technical Education Commission) (2009). National Skills Strategy 2009–13. 

Islamabad: Prime Minister’s Secretariat.

NAVTTC (National Vocational and Technical Training Commission) (2015). Pakistan national vocational 
qualifications framework. Available at: http://tvetreform.org.pk/images/Reports/pdf/NVQF%20
Booklet.pdf

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) (2016). Education 2030: SAARC framework 
for action. Technical meeting of senior officials on education, New Delhi, 15–16 September 2016. 
SAARC/TC-SOE/06 (unpublished draft).

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

488

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSPALESTINE721

are available724. Youth unemployment is very high 
(43.8% in 2017 for people aged 15–24), reaching a 
dramatic figure of 70% among young women. Poor 
labour market outcomes for young people combined 
with high early school leaving lead to a large 
proportion of young people not in employment, 
education or training (NEETs), reaching 33.2% in 
2017. Given the limited possibilities offered by the 
labour market, the main destination for the new 
workforce has been the public sector, but the 
current severe fiscal crisis has pushed policy-makers 
to limit employment in this sector.

More than half of Palestinians live abroad. The 
need to look for job opportunities outside their own 
country is one of the reasons for the importance 
that students attach to attending and completing 
university.

The Palestinian economy is dominated by small 
and micro enterprises. According to the definition 
used by the Palestinian Central Bureau of 
Statistics, 90.5% of companies are micro (below 
four employees) and 8.38% are small (below 
20 employees). The structure of the Palestinian 
labour market, and the inability of the formal sector 
to absorb employees, have led to an expansion of 
the informal sector.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The main challenges that the NQF should address 
are the fragmentation of the education system 
governance, the lack of coordination among public 
and private providers, and the limited relevance of 
existing qualifications to the labour market.

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
No law has been adopted yet.

Palestine is developing an eight-level national 
qualifications framework (NQF), based on learning 
outcomes and covering all education and training 
sectors. The framework is still under development; 
no qualifications are placed in the NQF’s levels.

The Ministry of Education and Higher Education 
and the Ministry of Labour currently oversee the 
NQF’s development, cooperating with the TVET 
Development Centre, which is concerned with 
technical issues and operational implementation.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
The population of Palestine was 4.7 million in 
2017 (4.1 million in 2011)722. In addition, 1.4 million 
Palestinians live in Israel and 5.6 million in Arab 
countries723. Young people (15–24 age group) 
comprised 35.7% of the total population in 2017, 
making for one of the youngest populations not only 
in the region but also in the world. This in turn puts 
enormous pressure on social services (education, 
health and housing) and on the labour market. 
Considering that the absorption capacity of the 
Palestinian labour market has not increased in the 
last 10 years, this rapid population growth has led to 
high unemployment.

The unemployment rate rose from 26.9% in 2016 
to 27.4% in 2017. This is the highest level recorded 
in the past 15 years, and is also the highest 
unemployment rate among the 170 countries and 
territories in the world for which current estimates 

721   This designation shall not be construed as recognition 
of a State of Palestine and is without prejudice to the 
individual position of the Member States on this issue – 
hereinafter ‘Palestine’.

722   Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (KIESE updated 

data)

723   Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Palestine in 

724   www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/--relconf/

Figures 2017, March 2018

documents/meetingdocument/wcms_629263.pdf

489

Volume II: National and regional casesThe draft national consultation paper for the NQF 
development identifies the following problems and 
obstacles:

a.  no clear identification of educational outcomes 
for individuals and employers (no clear signals);
b.  fragmented qualifications systems in all sectors 
(general education, higher education, vocational 
education and training, and non-formal and 
informal learning);

c.  no unified governance of the various sub-

systems of education and training;
d.  imbalance of academic and vocational 

programmes (balance in enrolment rates 
between academic, vocational education and 
vocational training streams) regarding the needs 
of the labour market; 

e.  no valuation and encouragement for lifelong 
learning, adult education and continuing 
education; and no recognition of non-formal and 
informal learning;

f.  no comprehensive and efficient accreditation 

system;

of the relevance of educational outcomes to 
individuals and employers;

c.  organising and facilitating horizontal and 
vertical articulation across education and 
training by establishing credit transfer between 
qualifications;

d.  aiding access to education and training 

opportunities, and mobility and progression 
within education, training and career paths to 
improve learner, labour and career mobility; 
making progression routes easier and creating 
bridges within education systems;

e.  ensuring that qualifications are relevant to 

perceived social and economic needs by linking 
the education system with the labour market 
through the adapted Palestinian occupational 
classification, and by increasing the value and 
enrolment rates in vocational education streams;
f.  raising education and training quality by ensuring 
that all standards are defined by agreed learning 
outcomes and applied consistently; ensuring that 
education and training providers meet specified 
quality standards;

g.  no links between education systems and the 

g.  making it easier to match Palestinian NQF 

Arab occupational classification;

h.  no facilitation of labour mobility by existing 

education systems;

i.  no articulation between and within the different 

levels with those of other countries, securing 
not only local recognition but also regional 
and international recognition for national 
qualifications.

education subsystems.

The planned NQF should provide a strategic, 
comprehensive and integrated national framework 
for all learning achievement, based on lifelong 
learning principles. It should encompass all 
qualifications within the national education system, 
across every field of education, and should address 
the requirements of education systems/providers, 
individual learners and labour market systems/
employers.

The NQF aims at:

a.  supporting the formulation of learning 

outcomes in terms of qualifications according 
to Palestinian occupational classification 
standards, subsequent to adaptation from Arab 
occupational classification standards;

b.  improving understanding of qualifications and 

levels of qualifications and giving a clear picture 

International cooperation
The Palestinian ministries running the NQF have 
worked closely with the German development 
agency active in Palestine (GIZ) and with the Belgian 
agency for technical cooperation (BTC)725, as the 
two principal vocational education development 
agencies. GIZ has conducted much of the  
technical work.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The national consultation paper envisages an eight-
level NQF for Palestine. These levels are referenced 
to the Arab occupational classification, existing 
general education and higher education levels and 
technical and vocational education and training 
(TVET) levels. The NQF will describe each level 
through descriptors covering a range of technical 
and social competences. 

725   Belgian Technical Cooperation (active donor in Palestine)

490

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS)

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
NQF levels and level descriptors
Palestine plans an eight-level framework.

The draft descriptors, as well as incorporating the 
familiar knowledge, skills and competences trinity, 
cover a range of technical and social competences. 
Examples include range of work, maintenance of 
information, and flexibility. These were expected 
to be further refined and then agreed with 
stakeholders between 2016 and 2017.

Use of learning outcomes
Learning outcomes are the conceptual basis of the 
qualifications framework and future qualifications. 
The intention is that they act as a tool to match 
education provision to the framework and as a 
reference of relevance of learners to the labour 
market.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
No NQF law has been adopted yet on the NQF; 
authorities plan to include provision for the NQF in 
the planned TVET law.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The Ministry of Education and Higher Education 
and the Ministry of Labour currently oversee the 
NQF development, cooperating with the TVET 
Development Centre, which is concerned with 
technical and operational issues.

This development is the result of a series of reforms 
taking place in the TVET sector. It did not start as an 
individual project, but as part of the wider reforms 
to the institutional framework which binds together 
all the different processes (including Palestinian 
occupational classification, curriculum development 
process), developed in the framework of the TVET 
strategy.

Consultation with stakeholders on current reforms 
has been extensive. A wide range of actors –several 
ministries in charge of TVET provision, social 
partners, public and private education providers, 
learners/students and their parents, employment 
offices, awarding bodies and quality assurance 
agencies were engaged in the formulation of 
the first proposal for an NQF in Palestine. This 
consultation took place in 2012 through a series 
of workshops with the different sectors of the 
education system and with the social partners.

The institutional setting for the development and 
management of the NQF has changed over the 

years in relation to changes in the TVET governance 
model. Currently the NQF is not operational and 
no institution is formally tasked to oversee its 
functioning. The Higher Council for TVET has overall 
responsibility for defining policies in the TVET sector 
and will play a crucial role in the definition and 
approval of future NQF institutional settings.

A technical working group, which includes all key 
TVET stakeholders, has been created to follow up 
NQF developments.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
Representatives of the labour market and private 
sector participated in the preparation of the NQF. A 
participatory approach was also present in preparing 
the technical needs assessment and analysis 
of 40 professions under the Belgian Technical 
Cooperation project, with direct participation and 
involvement of experts from companies and the 
labour market. Labour market representatives 
participated actively in the verification process, 
through reviewing the curriculum and providing 
professional feedback.

They also participated directly in defining the 
work tasks and required competences for each 
profession, under the competence-based task 
approach for curricula development and learning 
situations methodologies. There is a consensus 
that employer representatives should be involved in 
implementing and participating in practical exams in 
TVET institutions.

Resources and funding
Limited. There is considerable reliance on EU and 
other donor support.

Quality assurance of qualifications
The Palestinian Cabinet has set up an Accreditation 
and Quality Assurance Commission to accredit 
the technical education institutions and their 
programmes. These apply to all community and 
technical (post-secondary) colleges. This mandate 
does not apply to other TVET institutions (vocational 
schools and training centres).

No procedures have yet been agreed to level or 
place qualifications in the framework.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Improving horizontal and vertical progression 
routes, and establishing effective mechanisms for 
recognition of prior learning, are two of the main 
objectives in developing the NQF. Appropriate 

493

Volume II: National and regional casesoperational mechanisms will be developed following 
the national consultation but priority is given to 
establishing the framework and mechanisms to 
reference qualifications to it. Validation of prior 
learning will be tackled at a later stage.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
There is no register or national database of 
qualifications yet.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
As the framework is still being developed, no review 
has taken place.

Impact for end-users
No impact yet, as the qualification framework is not 
in implementation.

Important lessons and future plans

Following the national consultation conducted 
in 2012, the Ministry of Labour and the Ministry 
of Education and Higher Education approved 
the NQF concept. The decision has not yet been 
brought to the Cabinet. In the meantime, TVET 
stakeholders are working on further technical 
documents necessary for the operationalisation 
of the framework. In 2016, a pilot exercise was 
conducted to reference existing qualifications in the 
fashion design sector to the framework. Based on 
this exercise, TVET actors are currently developing 
a methodology to reference qualifications to the 
framework.

One of the key priorities of the Development Centre 
for the coming years is to revise the TVET law, 
which will include the NQF concept.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Abbreviations
GIZ 

The readability of Palestinian qualifications among 
the neighbouring countries is one of the priorities 
identified in the national consultation paper. Specific 
attention will be given to the issue of regional and 
international recognition in the framework of the 
consultation process. 

NQF 
TVET 

Deutsche Gesellschaft für 
Internationale Zusammenarbeit 
(German development agency)
national qualifications framework 
technical and vocational education 
and training

The planned NQF is linked to the Arab occupations 
classification system, which includes the following 
skills’ arrangement:

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

a.  semi-skilled,
b.  skilled,
c.  craftsperson,
d.  technician,
e.  specialist.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSPHILIPPINES

Introduction

Designed in 2006 and adopted in 2012, the 
Philippine qualifications framework (PQF) evolved 
from the Philippine technical and vocational 
qualifications framework. It is a quality assured, 
national system for the development, recognition 
and award of qualifications based on the standards 
of knowledge, skills and values acquired in 
different ways by learners and workers in the 
country. The raison d’être for the establishment 
of the PQF is to describe the levels of educational 
qualifications and set standards for qualifications 
outcomes.

The establishment of the PQF came in the midst 
of far-reaching education reforms that include 
the country’s shift from a 10-year basic education 
system to 13 years of basic education, including 
compulsory early childhood education, and the 
shift throughout the education and training system 
towards learning outcomes within a lifelong 
learning paradigm. Entailing structural and curricular 
changes as well as a profound change in mindsets, 
pedagogies and assessments, these ongoing 
reforms, which are expected to be fully implemented 
by 2024, pose a major challenge to (1) government; 
(2) the Filipino public; and (3) training and education 
providers, i.e. 7,991 technical vocational education 
and training (TVET) institutions, 71% of which are 
private, and 1,906 higher education institutions of 
which 88% are private. 

The need to harmonize qualifications at different 
levels and address the mismatch between 
the jobs offered and the skills possessed by 
the workforce are among the motivations for 
implementing the PQF. This mismatch is said to 
have contributed significantly to unemployment 
and underemployment – which the Philippine 
Statistical Authority estimates as 3.8 million Filipinos 
(5.2% of the working population of 72,524,000) 

and 11.3 million Filipinos (15.6% of the working 
population) respectively in 2019. 

The PQF covers qualifications obtained from 
technical vocational training and higher education or 
their equivalents in an education and training system 
with basic education at its foundation. 

Policy objectives 

The PQF aims to benefit various sectors and 
stakeholders of education and training by encouraging 
lifelong learning; providing employers specific 
training standards and qualifications that are aligned 
to industry standards; ensuring that training and 
educational institutions adhere to specific standards 
and are accountable for achieving the same; and 
providing the government with common standards, 
a taxonomy and a typology of qualifications as bases 
for granting approvals to stakeholders.

Its specific objectives are to:

•  adopt national standards and levels of learning 

outcomes of education; 

•  support the development and maintenance of 

pathways and equivalencies that enable access to 
qualifications and assist individuals to move easily 
and readily between the different education and 
training sectors and between these sectors and 
the labour market; and 

•  align domestic qualification standards with the 

international frameworks and standards thereby 
enhancing the recognition and comparability 
of Philippine qualifications and supporting the 
mobility of Filipino students and workers.

Established as part of major education reforms, 
the 2018 legislation on the PQF now serves as a 
catalyst for hastening the implementation of  
these reforms.

495

Volume II: National and regional casesLevel descriptors and learning 
outcomes 

The PQF has eight levels defined by descriptors 
of expected learning outcomes along three 
domains, namely: (1) +knowledge, skills and values; 
(2) application; and (3) degree of independence 
(Figure 18). These levels are aligned to the levels of 
the ASEAN qualifications reference framework. 

The PQF is aligned with the subsystems of the 
education and training system. The Technical 
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) 
subsystem covers national certificates I through IV 
corresponding to the first four levels, while the 
Commission on Higher Education subsystem covers 
the baccalaureate, the post-baccalaureate diploma, 
Master’s, and doctoral degrees that correspond to 
levels 6 to 8. The two sub-systems interface in the 
provision of diplomas at level 5.

Figure 18. Structure of the Philippine qualifications framework (PQF)

Note: NC – national certificate

Table 64. PQF domains and level descriptors

Grade 12 
(as PQF 
foundation)

Knowledge, skills and values: Possess functional knowledge across a range of learning 
areas and technical skills in chosen career tracks with advanced competencies in 
communication; scientific, critical and creative thinking; and the use of technologies. Have an 
understanding of right and wrong; one’s history and cultural heritage; and deep respect for 
self, others and their culture, and the environment.

Application: Apply functional knowledge, technical skills and values in academic and real-
life situations through sound reasoning, informed decision-making, and the judicious use of 
resources.

Degree of independence: Apply skills in varied situations with minimal supervision. 

496

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFigure 18. Structure of the Philippine qualifications framework (PQF) (Continued)

Level 1

Knowledge, skills and values: Knowledge and skills that are manual or concrete of practical 
and/or operational in focus.

Application: Applied in activities that are set in a limited range of highly familiar and 
predictable contexts; involve straightforward, routine issues, which are addressed by 
following set rules, guidelines or procedures.

Degree of independence: In conditions where there is a very close support, guidance or 
supervision; minimum judgment or discretion is needed.

Qualification type: National certificate I. 

Level 2

Knowledge, skills and values: Knowledge and skills that are manual, practical and/or 
operational in focus with a variety of options.

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Application: Applied in activities that are set in a range of familiar and predictable contexts; 
involve routine issues, which are identified and addressed by selecting from and following a 
number of set rules, guidelines or procedures.

Degree of independence: In conditions where there is substantial support, guidance or 
supervision; limited judgment or discretion is needed.

Qualification type: National certificate II.

Knowledge, skills and values: Knowledge and skills that are a balance of theoretical and/
or technical and practical. Work involves understanding the work process, contributing to 
problem solving, and making decisions to determine the process, equipment and materials to 
be used. 

Application: Applied in activities that are set in contexts with some unfamiliar or 
unpredictable aspects; involve routine and non-routine issues, which are identified and 
addressed by interpreting and/or applying established guidelines or procedures with some 
variations. 

Degree of independence: Application at this level may involve individual responsibility or 
autonomy, and/or may involve some responsibility for others. Participation in teams including 
team or group coordination may be involved. 

Qualification type: National certificate III.

Knowledge, skills and values: Knowledge and skills that are mainly theoretical and/or 
abstract with significant depth in one or more areas; contributing to technical solutions of 
a non-routine or contingency nature; evaluation and analysis of current practices and the 
development of new criteria and procedures.

Application: Applied in activities that are set in a range of contexts, most of which involve a 
number of unfamiliar and/or unpredictable aspects; involve largely non-routine issues which 
are addressed using guidelines or procedures that require interpretation and/or adaptation. 

Degree of independence: Work involves some leadership and guidance when organizing 
activities of self and others.

Qualification type: National certificate IV.

Knowledge, skills and values: Knowledge and skills that are mainly theoretical and/
or abstract with significant depth in some areas together with wide-ranging, specialized 
technical, creative and conceptual skills. Perform work activities demonstrating breadth depth 
and complexity in the planning and initiation of alternative approaches to skills and knowledge 
applications across a broad range of technical and/or management requirements, evaluation 
and coordination.

Application: Applied in activities that are supervisory, complex and non-routine, which 
require an extensive interpretation and/or adaptation/innovation.

Degree of independence: In conditions where there is broad guidance and direction, 
where judgment is required in planning and selecting appropriate equipment, services and 
techniques for self and others. Undertake work involving participation in the development of 
strategic initiatives, as well as personal responsibility and autonomy in performing complex 
technical operations or organizing others.

Qualification type: Diploma.

(Continued)

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 64. PQF domains and level descriptors (Continued)

Level 6

Knowledge, skills and values: Demonstrated broad and coherent knowledge and skills in 
their field of study for professional work and lifelong learning.

Level 7

Application: Application in professional/creative work or research in a specialized field of 
discipline and/or further study. 

Degree of independence: Substantial degree of independence and or/in terms of related 
fields with minimal supervision.

Qualification type: Baccalaureate degree.

Knowledge, skills and values: Demonstrated advanced knowledge and skills in a specialized 
or multidisciplinary field of study for professional practice, self-directed research and/or 
lifelong learning.

Application: Applied in professional/creative work or research that requires self-direction and/
or leadership in a specialized or multi-disciplinary professional work/research.

Degree of independence: High substantial degree of independence that involves exercise of 
leadership and initiative individual work or in teams of multi-disciplinary field.

Qualification type: Post-baccalaureate programme.

Level 8

Knowledge, skills and values: Demonstrated highly advanced systematic knowledge and 
skills in highly specialized and/or complex multi-disciplinary field of learning for complex 
research and/or professional practice and/or for the advancement of learning.  

Application: Applied for professional leadership for innovation, research and/or development 
management in highly specialized or multi-disciplinary field.

Degree of independence: Full independence in individual work and/or in teams of multi-
disciplinary and more complex setting that demands leadership for research and creativity for 
strategic value added. Significant level of expertise-based autonomy and accountability.

Qualification type: Doctoral degree and post-doctoral programmes.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

National Coordinating Council’s powers and 
functions are to:

The legal basis of the PQF is the Republic Act 
10968, which was legislated in January 2018. This 
law institutionalized the executive order that created 
the PQF in 2012 (Executive Order No 83) and further 
reinforced the PQF-related sections of another law 
promulgated in 2014, which aimed to strengthen 
the ladderized interface between TVET and higher 
education (Republic Act 10647). 

The Republic Act 10968 established the PQF-
National Coordinating Council to implement the 
provisions of the law. Composed of the Secretary 
of Education as chairperson, the Secretary 
of Labour and Employment, the chairperson 
of the Commission on Higher Education, the 
director general of the Technical Education and 
Skills Development Authority, the chairperson 
of the Professional Regulation Commission, 
a representative of the employer sector and 
a representative of industry as members, the 

•  harmonize qualification levels across basic, 
technical-vocational and higher education;

•  align education standards and learning  

outcomes with the level descriptors contained  
in the PQF;

•  promote the PQF and its elements, including 
the principles, key features, definitions and 
terminologies, structures and governance 
arrangements, and provide information and 
guidelines in the implementation of the PQF;
rationalize the quality assurance mechanisms in 
Philippine education;

• 

•  develop and rationalize pathways and 

equivalencies;

•  maintain the national registry of qualifications;
•  ensure the international alignment of the PQF 
with the qualification framework of other 
countries or regions;

•  create technical working groups in support of the 
development and implementation of the PQF;

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS• 

represent the country in international fora 
or negotiations in line with qualifications 
agreements and arrangements;
review and update the PQF;

• 
•  submit to the Office of the President, the Senate 
and the House of Representatives an updated 
report of the progress and accomplishments in 
relation to the PQF; and

•  perform such other functions that may be related 

to the implementation of the PQF.

Five working groups and a technical secretariat 
have been established focusing on the national 
qualifications register, quality assurance, pathways 
and equivalencies, international alignment, 
information and guidelines. Two more working 
groups are being created on lifelong learning and on 
industry-academe linkages. 

With regard to the quality assurance of Philippine 
qualifications, the Department of Education, the 
Technical Education and Skills Development Agency 
(TESDA) and the Commission on Higher Education 
are involved in setting, monitoring, and evaluating 
minimum standards; supervising assessment 
systems leading to the award of qualifications that 
ensure the achievement of minimum standards; and 
voluntary assessments beyond compliance with 
minimum standards for their respective domains in 
the education system. The Professional Regulation 
Commission is involved in the quality assurance 
of 43 regulated professions that require licensure 
examinations, while the Maritime Industry Authority 
(MARINA) and the Civil Aviation Authority of the 
Philippines (CAAP) oversee the key processes in 
quality assuring qualifications in the maritime and 
aviation fields, respectively. Accreditation by national 
school-based and professional organization-based 
accreditation agencies as well as international 
accreditation bodies is voluntary. 

In TVET, recognition of prior learning is conferred 
through validation of competencies achieved in 
non-formal or informal modes of learning in the 
Philippine competency assessment and certification 
system. The validation system utilizes the same 
competency standards required in the training 
regulation and uses varied assessment methods 
applicable to those who achieved competencies 
through non-formal and informal means.

In higher education, the expanded tertiary education 
equivalency and accreditation programme grants 
post-secondary and higher education credits to 
individuals through a compendium of competency 
assessment processes that culminate in the 
assignment of academic credits equivalent to 
competencies obtained outside the formal school 
system and in the awarding of academic degrees. 

The formalization of the Philippine credit transfer 
system is still work in progress. Its framework and 
the mechanisms for determining equivalencies 
between learning outcomes through articulation, 
credit transfer and recognition of prior learning are 
currently being developed.

NQF implementation

PQF levels 1 to 6 are operational. However, levelling 
qualifications with the same nomenclature, i.e. 
Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Arts to ensure 
that their learning outcomes are at level 6 of the 
PQF is still work in progress and a major challenge 
considering the high number of mostly private 
higher education providers. 

The Philippine credit transfer system, which aims 
to provide pathways between TVET and higher 
education, is at the stage of public hearings before 
being implemented. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

Lifelong learning underpins the Ladderized 
Education Act of 2014 which not only strengthens 
the ladderized interface between TVET and higher 
education but also aims to support the development 
and maintenance of pathways and equivalencies 
that enable access to qualifications and to assist 
individuals to move easily and readily between 
the different education and training sectors and 
between these sectors and the labour market.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Philippines Qualifications Framework’s National 
Coordinating Council submitted to the ASEAN 
Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF) 
Committee on 9 April 2019 the final Philippine 
referencing report to the AQRF. The iterative peer-
review process adopted by the AQRF Committee 
in several meetings resulted in a series of revisions 
of the report, the 12th version of which was the 
document submitted to the AQRF Committee 
through the ASEAN Secretariat.

499

Volume II: National and regional casesImportant lessons and future plans

The ongoing implementation of major education 
and training reforms render apropos the description 
of the Philippine education and training system 
as ‘being in transition’. Against this backdrop, the 
implementation of the PQF must also be viewed 
as ‘being in a similar transition’ that is targeted to 

end in 2024 when the major reforms and related 
changes would have been fully implemented and 
iteratively revised.

Meanwhile, despite the challenges, significant 
progress has been made to advance the reforms 
underlying the full implementation of the PQF.

Abbreviations
AQRF 

ASEAN  

PQF  
TVET  

ASEAN qualifications reference 
framework
Association of Southeast Asian 
Nations
Philippine qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

References

PQF-NCC (Philippines Qualifications Framework’s National Coordinating Council) (2019). Philippine 
Referencing Report to the ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (unpublished report).

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSPOLAND

Introduction and context

The  Polish  education  and  training  system  has  been 
undergoing  reform  at  all  levels  and  the  country 
performs  well  or  is  developing  fast  according  to 
most  EU  benchmarks  for  2020.  Very  few  students 
leave  education  and  training  early  (5.0%  in  2017, 
compared  to  10.6%,  the  EU  average),  and  the  high 
rate  of  participation  in  school  is  paralleled  by  a  high 
rate of tertiary education attainment (45.7% in 2017, 
compared to the EU average of 39.9%). According to 
the 2015 OECD Programme for international student 
assessment  (PISA),  Polish  students  perform  very 
well in reading, mathematics and science, with fewer 
underachievers  in  all  three  fields  compared  to  EU 
averages. The  employment  rate  of  recent  graduates 
is  also  above  the  EU  average,  at  82.1%  in  2017. 
Among  the  areas  for  improvement  are  participation 
in  early  childhood  education  and  care  (93.1%  in 
2016,  compared  to  the  EU  average  of  95.3%),  and 
participation of adults in lifelong learning (at 4.0% in 
2017, it is far below the EU average of 10.9%) (European 
Commission,  2018).  While  participation  in  initial 
vocational education and training (IVET) is above the 
EU average, the sector has been faced with a number 
of  challenges,  including  lack  of  flexible  pathways, 
low quality of teaching and absence of a mechanism 
matching IVET supply with labour demand (European 
Commission,  2017).  Comprehensive  vocational 
education and training (VET) reform since December 
2016  has  introduced  changes  in  training  pathways, 
improving 
the  financing  system  and 
curricula, 
employer involvement in VET (European Commission, 
2018).  A  new  regulation  on  core  curricula  for  pre-
school  and  primary  schools  was  adopted  in  2017, 
aiming  to  improve  the  quality  of  teaching  in  general 
education  (European  Commission,  2017),  while  the 
core curriculum for post-primary schools is also being 
reformed, with changes expected to be implemented 
starting with the 2019/20 school year. Reform aiming 
to increase the relevance of higher education for the 
labour  market  has  also  started,  and  a  new  Act  on 
higher  education  and  science  was  adopted  in  July 
2018. Among other aspects, it foresees the division of 
universities into academic and professional schools and 
the creation of a new body for university governance, 
‘the university board’ (European Commission, 2018).

Poland started developing a comprehensive 
national qualifications framework (NQF) – the Polish 
qualifications framework (PQF) – in 2008, building 
on and integrating the work on the qualifications 
framework for higher education linked to the 
Bologna process. The PQF is part of the integrated 
qualifications system (IQS), which aims to promote 
lifelong learning and to support education, training 
and learning, responding to the needs of the labour 
market and society at large. The Act on the integrated 
qualifications system (IQS Act) was formally adopted 
by the Parliament on 22 December 2015726 and came 
into force in January 2016. It introduced a series of 
legislative changes through approximately 20 new 
or modified legal acts727. The IQS consists of a 
number of different elements, the most important 
being the qualifications framework, the qualifications 
register and arrangements for quality assurance and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. 

The PQF has now reached an operational stage 
and is embedded in other legislation that regulates 
formal learning. It has eight learning-outcomes-
based levels applicable to all Polish qualifications, 
from general education, VET, higher education, 
and those outside the formal system, as long as 
they meet agreed quality criteria. The IQS Act 
regulates all aspects of inclusion of non-formal 
qualifications, and work is in progress to define 
administrative procedures and bodies in cooperation 
with stakeholders. All qualifications included in the 
IQS have an assigned PQF level, most of which are 
currently qualifications from formal education.

Level descriptors at three different levels of 
generality are used, in an effort to connect different 
sub-systems of education and training. Universal 
descriptors expressed in terms of knowledge, 
skills and social competence are the basis for the 
comprehensive PQF and act as a reference point 
for more specific descriptors: for the different 

726   Parliament of Poland (2015). Subsequent amendments to 

the act were adopted in 2016, 2017 and 2018.

727   The relevant legislation can be found at: www.kwalifikacje.

gov.pl/prawo-o-zsk

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Volume II: National and regional casessubsystems, and for sectoral qualifications 
frameworks for economic sectors. 

The PQF was referenced to the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) in May 2013 
(Educational Research Institute, 2013). 

c.  to implement more effectively the policy for 

lifelong learning;

d.  to fulfil the Council recommendation on the EQF 

for lifelong learning;

e.  to fit into the wider context of developments in 

qualifications systems in Europe. 

Policy objectives

Work on the qualifications framework is an integral 
part of broad reform and modernisation of the Polish 
qualifications system, addressing all levels and all 
subsystems of education and training. An important 
part of this reform has been an overall shift to 
learning outcomes728. This required redesign of all 
programmes, standards and curricula in general, 
vocational and higher education and training. The 
framework, through its focus on learning outcomes, 
is seen as an important instrument for strengthening 
the transparency and overall consistency of 
education and training, which is considered by some 
to be fragmented and difficult to navigate. 

The further development and implementation of 
the IQS are part of the Strategy for human capital 
development, adopted in 2013, which is currently 
being updated (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018), and also among the priorities outlined in the 
Strategy for responsible development (Strategia na 
Rzecz Odpowiedzialnego Rozwoju, or Morawiecki 
Plan) adopted in February 2017 (European 
Commission, 2017). 

While some adjustments to the IQS Act are planned 
to improve the governance of the qualifications 
system, the original purpose of the PQF has not 
changed significantly since its creation (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018):

a.  to help integrate the various qualifications 

subsystems in Poland;

b.  to increase the accessibility to and quality of 

qualifications;

728   Resolution of the Minister of National Education of 

23 December 2008 on the core curriculum for pre-school 
education and general education in individual types of 
schools (Journal of Laws 2009, No 4, item 17), replaced 
by the resolution of the Minister of National Education 
of 27 August 2012 on the core curriculum for pre-school 
child development and general education in specific types 
of schools (Journal of Laws, item 977); Act of 19 August 
2011 on amendments to the law on the education 
system and certain other laws (Journal of Laws, No 205, 
item 1206); Act of 18 March 2011 on amendments to 
the Act – Law on higher education, the law on academic 
degrees and titles and on degrees and titles in the arts 
and on amendments to certain other laws (Journal 
of Laws, No 84, item 455 with later amendments) 
(Educational Research Institute, 2013).

The direction chosen for the PQF has relevance in 
a wider European setting. First, the framework is 
seen as a tool for reform and change, its role going 
beyond merely describing existing qualifications. 
At present, this is applicable to the adult education 
sector. Second, the qualifications framework 
does not operate alone but is used extensively 
in combination with several other elements in a 
wider policy strategy. The impact of qualifications 
frameworks depends on their integration with 
other policy initiatives. Third, while the framework 
introduces a coherent set of national levels and 
descriptors, it also identifies the need for additional 
learning outcomes descriptors to be used by 
subsystems and sectors, allowing for a more 
detailed fit-for-purpose approach.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The PQF has eight learning outcomes-based levels, 
covering all types of qualification available in the 
country provided they meet agreed quality criteria. 
Among other aspects, the IQS Act establishes the 
typology of qualifications, the principles of inclusion 
of qualifications in the qualifications register, 
and principles of quality assurance. Three types 
of qualification can be assigned a PQF level and 
included in the IQS, classified according to whether 
they refer to a level of formal education or not, 
and according to the legal basis that governs the 
process of awarding the qualification:

a.  type A: State-regulated qualifications within the 
formal education and training system (general 
education, VET and higher education);

b.  type B: State-regulated qualifications outside the 

formal education and training system; 

c.  type C: non-regulated qualifications from the 

private sector (market qualifications).

A distinction is also made between full and partial 
qualifications; full qualifications are awarded 
exclusively within the formal system729, where 
partial qualifications can also be awarded. All 
non-formal qualifications (both regulated and non-
regulated) are considered partial qualifications.

729   They give a level of education.

502

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSOriginally, the PQF was envisaged as a seven-
level framework, closely matching existing 
qualifications and degrees in the Polish system; it 
was later decided to introduce a new level 5 in the 
framework, to allow for a more appropriate placing 
of short-cycle academic qualifications as well as 
advanced vocational qualifications, for example the 
master craftsman (Meister). 

Levelling of some of the master craftsman 
qualifications was accompanied by vivid discussion 
on whether to place them at PQF level 4 or 5. 
The debate focused on how much weight should 
be given to learning outcomes associated with 
autonomy in running a business, leadership skills 
and tutoring skills required to become a master 
craftsman, in comparison to ‘typical’ vocational 
learning outcomes. The decision was taken to place 
each of the ten master craftsman qualifications at 
PQF level 5. Challenges in terms of levelling have 
also been encountered with regard to diplomas 
awarded after post-graduate studies: so far three of 
these qualifications have been included into the IQS, 
with others rejected as qualification descriptions 
were found to be insufficient to allow levelling. 
Expert support is currently being provided to higher 
education institutions to improve qualification 
descriptions for post-graduate study programmes 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

b.  descriptors for the education and training 

subsystems and sub-frameworks (second stage): 
general, vocational and higher education;

c.  descriptors for sectoral qualifications frameworks 
(third stage, not indicated in Figure 19); these are 
developed with second stage descriptors as a basis.

The basic principles behind the three sets of PQF 
level descriptors are illustrated in Figure 19.

The first stage (universal) learning outcomes 
descriptors developed for the PQF refer to the key 
learning domains in Table 65. These descriptors are 
based on an agreement between stakeholders in 
general, vocational and higher education and are the 
common reference point for developments at sector 
(second stage) and subsector (third stage) levels.

Progress has been made in defining the second 
stage level descriptors for the different education 

Table 65. First stage generic descriptors (universal)

Knowledge

Scope 

Skills

Depth of knowledge

Problem-solving and applying 
knowledge in practice

Three main sets of level descriptors are included in 
the PQF, with different degrees of generality and for 
different purposes:

Social 
competence

a.  universal descriptors (first stage); they are 

the most generic and form the basis for the 
comprehensive PQF;

Figure 19. Structure of PQF level descriptors

Learning

Communication

Identity

Cooperation

Responsibility

Source: Adapted from Educational Research Institute (2017).

Source: Educational Research Institute, 2017.

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 66. Level descriptors main descriptive categories – general education and VET

GENERAL EDUCATION (LEVELS 1 TO 4)

VET (LEVELS 1 TO 5)

Knowledge

a.  language and communication

a.  theories/principles

b.  mathematics and natural sciences

b.  phenomena and processes

c.  social functioning

Skills

a.  language and communication
b.  mathematics and natural sciences
c.  social functioning
d.  learning

Social competence

a.  language and communication
b.  health and the environment
c.  social functioning

c.  organising work

d.  tools and materials

a.  information
b.  organising work
c.  tools and materials
d.  learning and professional development

a.  following rules
b.  cooperation
c.  responsibility

and training subsystems (Educational Research 
Institute, 2017). The basic distinction between 
knowledge, skills and social competence is used, 
but the degree of specificity differs between 
subsystems. For example, the main descriptive 
categories of the level descriptors for general 
education and VET are specified in Table 66. 

While the coexistence of several qualifications sub-
frameworks is common in most European countries, 
the PQF takes a step further and attempts to make 
these explicit within an overarching conceptual 
approach based on learning outcomes. For 
instance, the IQS Act brings the requirements 
for non-formal qualifications in line with those for 
qualifications from the formal general, vocational 
and higher education systems by having them 
based on learning outcomes, setting a standard for 
the manner of describing qualifications, requiring 
a process of validation and certification, as well as 
internal and external quality assurance systems 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 
When, for example, the financial sector wanted 
to establish a specialised sectoral qualifications 
framework, it used learning outcomes descriptors 
clearly connected to the level descriptors operating 
at other levels of generality (including the EQF level 
descriptors). By moving beyond the general, national 
level descriptors, the PQF is better able to link to the 
reform of standards and curriculum development 
and eventually to learning and assessment.

Progress can be observed in the overall shift to 
learning outcomes in Polish education and training. 
Core curricula, formulated in terms of learning 

outcomes, were introduced for all the main parts 
of education and training. The core curriculum for 
general education was gradually implemented from 
the 2009/10 school year and a new core curriculum 
was introduced starting with the 2017/18 school 
year. The core curriculum for vocational education 
was used from the 2012/13 school year; a new 
version, taking into account not only detailed 
learning outcomes but also the criteria for verifying 
these outcomes, will apply starting with school year 
2019/20. In both general education and VET the core 
curriculum forms the basis for assessment criteria. 
Amendments to the Act on Higher Education in 
2011730 defined ‘learning outcomes’ and required 
all study programmes and resulting qualifications 
to be described in terms of learning outcomes as 
of the 2012/13 academic year, in compliance with 
the NQF for higher education. Learning outcomes 
were defined in eight broad areas of study. A 
2016 regulation of the Ministry of Science and 
Higher Education731 replaced the notion of learning 
outcomes in individual areas with the concept of 

730   Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher 
Education of 2 November 2011 on the national 
qualifications framework for higher education. 
http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.
xsp?id=WDU20112531520

731   Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher 

Education of 26 September 2016 on the characteristics 
of the second degree of the Polish qualifications 
framework typical for qualifications obtained in higher 
education after obtaining full qualification on level 4–
levels 6–8. http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.
xsp?id=WDU20160001594

504

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS‘qualification characteristics’ or ‘descriptions’732 in 
full accordance with the IQS. These developments 
were aimed at promoting lifelong learning and 
recognition of learning acquired outside the formal 
system (European Commission et al., forthcoming). 
To reduce bureaucratic burdens, a new regulation 
on the characteristics of levels 6 to 8 of the PQF 
was adopted in 2018733. This no longer defines 
specific learning outcomes for the eight broad areas 
of studies for two reasons: first, because the new 
Act on Higher Education and science introduced a 
new classification for the science and technology 
field, based largely on the OECD classification734; 
second, the qualification characteristics are more 
general and refer to the three levels of the PQF. 
The only exception is in the arts, where the field is 
considered specific enough as to have its own set 
of qualification characteristics.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

In 2010, an interministerial taskforce for lifelong 
learning was set up to provide overall coordination 
and monitoring of Polish lifelong learning policy 
implementation, including the national qualifications 
framework and register. Chaired by the Minister 
of National Education, it included the Ministers of 
Higher Education and Science, Economy, Labour 
and Social Policy, Regional Development, Foreign 
Affairs, and the Head of the Chancellery of the 
Prime Minister. To monitor the development and 
implementation of the PQF in this initial phase, an 
NQF steering committee was created as a sub-team 
of and reporting to the interministerial taskforce 
(the interministerial team for lifelong learning 
and the integrated qualification system). It was 
coordinated by the Ministry of Higher Education 
and Science, and included representatives from 
several ministries735. Other stakeholders, such 

732   A description of the PQF level typical for qualifications 
obtained in higher education should be understood as 
a set of general statements (components of PQF level 
description), characterising the knowledge, skills and 
social competences required for qualifications at a given 
level (European Commission et al., forthcoming).
733   Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher 

Education of 20 September 2018 on the disciplines 
of science and scientific disciplines and artistic 
disciplines. http://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.
xsp?id=WDU20180001818

734   OECD (2007). Revised field of science and technology 

(FOS) classification in the Frascati Manual. https://unstats.
un.org/unsd/EconStatKB/KnowledgebaseArticle10269.
aspx

735  The ministries represented in the NQF steering 

committee were (at that time): National Education, 
Economy, Labour and Social Policy, Regional 
Development, Foreign Affairs, Culture and National 

as representatives of education institutions, 
associations of territorial government, employer 
organisations and trade unions, could take part in an 
advisory capacity. The Educational Research Institute 
(IBE) was tasked to provide technical and conceptual 
support to the work of the steering committee and 
to prepare comprehensive proposals for developing 
the IQS and its components. At the same time, the 
Bureau for Academic Recognition and International 
Exchange (under the Ministry of Higher Education 
and Science) was appointed as EQF national 
coordination point (EQF NCP) and it maintained this 
function to 2016. Since October 2016, the Minister 
of National Education is the EQF NCP.

Unlike many other countries, the above bodies 
have not directly included representatives of 
social partners or civil society. Seen from the 
outside and compared to other countries, Polish 
developments can be described as a combination 
of top-down and research-driven. However, two 
broad consultations have been carried out since 
2011 and many meetings (more than 200) have been 
organised across the country addressing a wide 
range of stakeholders. In this way, representatives 
of education (both formal and non-formal) as well 
as worker and employer organisations were actively 
involved in and consulted on preparatory activities 
and solutions which came into force with the IQS 
Act in 2015736.

Formal adoption of the framework in 2015, with 
the IQS Act737 clarified how the coordination of the 
qualifications system (including the framework) was 
to be carried out in the further development and 
implementation stages. The Ministry of National 
Education is responsible for overall coordination. The 
IQS Stakeholder Council was set up in September 
2016 as an advisory and consultative body. The 
council consists of representatives of education 
and training providers, employers, trade unions, 
associations of higher education institutions, 
commercial training institutions, local governments, 
representatives of learners, and the central 
administration (Ministry of National Education 

Heritage, Health, National Defence, Internal Affairs, 
Transportation, Construction and Maritime Economy; and 
Sport and Tourism.

736   Preparatory activities conducted during the public debate 
(2011–13) included: a review of practices of awarding 
qualifications, identification of barriers for lifelong learning, 
and analysis of the use of the Polish qualifications 
framework for integration of qualifications (sub)systems 
in Poland. Representatives of stakeholders were actively 
involved in developing methods and tools for levelling 
qualifications, quality assurance of qualifications, methods 
for validation of learning outcomes, standards for 
describing market qualifications (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). 

737   Parliament of Poland (2015). 

505

Volume II: National and regional casesand the Central Examination Board). Its role is to 
advise on operation, to monitor implementation, 
and to determine the direction of IQS-related 
developments, ensuring coherence of the solutions 
chosen. Its responsibilities include (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018):

a.  monitoring the functioning of the IQS and 

proposing improvements;

b.  advising on draft regulations related to the IQS;
c.  giving expert opinions on the PQF level for 
regulated and market qualifications to be 
included into the IQS);

d.  advising on proposals to include sectoral 
qualifications frameworks in the IQS.

The interministerial team for lifelong learning and 
the integrated qualification system continue to 
operate, monitoring IQS implementation.

The Educational Research Institute (IBE) 
continues to play a key role in the qualifications 
system and framework, supporting the ministry 
with technical and organisational solutions and 
monitoring implementation. At present, the IBE 
has been nominated to support and coordinate 
the development and inclusion in the IQS of 
qualifications attained outside formal education. 
The IBE is also responsible for operating the 
integrated qualifications register and for entering the 
qualifications included in the IQS into the register. 

Sectoral skills councils consisting of representatives 
of employers, employees, and sectoral public 
institutions have also been established since 2016; 
to date these cover tourism, banking, construction, 
health, IT, fashion, and the automotive industry. 
They facilitate dialogue between education and the 
economy, acting as a forum to discuss sector needs 
and how skills acquired in schools, universities, and 
training courses respond to the needs of employers. 
One of the main goals of the sector skills councils 
is to develop sectoral qualifications frameworks, as 
an extension of the PQF for specific sectors. To date 
(December 2018), there are sectoral qualifications 
frameworks for tourism and sports, and draft 
frameworks have been proposed for banking, 
construction, IT, telecommunications, development 
services738, the fashion industry, public health 
and trade (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018). The decision to link a sectoral qualifications 
framework to the IQS is made by the minister of 
national education, at the request of the minister 
responsible for the sector.

738   Development services refer to training services for 

coaches and trainers for adults.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways739

A key element of the Polish IQS is the introduction 
of a more consistent and quality-assured approach 
to validation of non-formal and informal learning 
(VNFIL). Overarching measures were introduced to 
integrate existing validation arrangements, while 
specific validation procedures for each education 
level are adjusted individually. The aim is to increase 
the flexibility of the education and training system 
and make it possible to acquire qualifications in 
different settings and throughout life. The main driver, 
common for all sectors, is to improve the response 
of education to labour market needs, particularly in 
the context of ever-changing demand for skills. It 
also aims to empower adults by encouraging them 
to valorise learning obtained at work and throughout 
life, an aspect which is particularly important given 
the relatively low participation in adult learning in 
Poland. The learning-outcomes-based PQF provides 
a reference point for this approach, signalling that 
qualifications at all levels can be acquired not only 
through formal education and training but also 
through non-formal and informal learning. 

The IQS Act introduced a formal definition of 
validation, as ‘an assessment whether a person 
applying for the award of a specific qualification 
achieved a part or all of the learning outcomes 
required for the given qualification, regardless 
of how the learning was acquired’740 (Parliament 
of Poland, 2015). Validation in Poland covers 
all four stages outlined in the 2012 Council 
recommendation on the validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (identification, documentation, 
assessment and certification), though certification 
is treated as a distinct process since separate 
institutions can be responsible for validation and 
certification. The IQS Act and its implementing 
legislation specify the requirements for bodies 
carrying out validation and certification, the 
regulations for obtaining the permit to carry out 
certification, the principles for quality assurance in 
validation and certification, the scope of information 
collected in the national qualifications register, 
procedures for comparing learning outcomes for 
qualifications with PQF characteristics, and the rules 
for monitoring processes. 

In general education and VET the possibility of 
acquiring qualifications via validation of non-formal 

739   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).
 Translated from Polish.

740 

506

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand informal learning is guaranteed by law. Since 
2012, general education qualifications (confirming 
primary and upper secondary level, and basic and 
upper secondary vocational education levels for 
general education in vocational schools) can be 
attained on the basis of ‘extramural examinations’ 
that can be taken by adults without the obligation 
to return to school. Both initial and continuous 
vocational qualifications can be obtained by passing 
external examinations to validate professional 
knowledge and skills acquired in the workplace. In 
higher education there is a possibility of recognition 
of prior learning as an alternative path to gaining entry 
to a programme of study or to shorten the time spent 
studying a programme. Up to 50% of European credit 
transfer and accumulation system (ECTS) credits 
can be gained in this way, following verification 
of knowledge and skills developed through work 
experience; there is, however, a limit (20%) to the 
total number of students in a given programme, level 
and profile of study that can undergo VNFIL. In both 
VET and higher education, certain conditions have to 
be met with regard to the level of education attained 
and the number of years and the type of professional 
experience required. There are also conditions that 
higher education institutions have to meet to be 
able to carry out validation procedures (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

For non-formal qualifications included in the IQS, 
general arrangements for validation are a mandatory 
component of the description of each qualification, 
alongside learning outcomes and verification 
criteria. Each qualification may be awarded by 
multiple awarding bodies, which can cooperate 
with subcontractors organising the identification, 
documentation and verification stages of validation. 
The IQS does not impose a single model for 
carrying out validation to be used across the board: 
each qualification has its own requirements for 
validation and each awarding body has certain 
freedom in deciding on the exact course of the 
process and in creating its own validation tools 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Since the adoption of the IQS Act, stakeholders 
have been supported in developing arrangements 
for validation by the Ministry of National Education 
and the Educational Research Institute, mainly via 
knowledge dissemination and direct cooperation. 
Between 2015 and 2018 more than 40 institutions 
were directly supported either at the stage of 
developing new qualifications or in creating specific 
procedures for validation. A number of publications 
and digital tools supporting VNFIL were developed 
by the Educational Research Institute741.

741 

 These include the publication The validation of learning 
outcomes in Poland: new opportunities for attaining 

Some of the challenges encountered in 
implementing VNFIL in Poland include the relatively 
slow and complex process of including qualifications 
in the qualifications register and limited interest 
in validating skills acquired outside the regulated 
areas. These are linked to a learning culture in 
which formal learning was dominant, as well as the 
novelty of the IQS. As VNFIL arrangements have only 
recently started to be implemented, data on their 
effectiveness and impact are not yet available.

NQF implementation 

The comprehensive PQF has been established 
on a strong conceptual, legal and technical 
base and is now at an operational stage. Along 
with the adoption of the framework, the IQS 
Act742 established the integrated qualifications 
register743,coordination of the IQS and the role 
of stakeholders, a typology of qualifications and 
the related terminology, principles for quality 
assurance744 and principles for the inclusion of 
qualifications (including non-formal qualifications) 
in the IQS745. A revision of the IQS Act is planned 
for 2019, aimed at improving the governance of the 
qualifications system.

Different elements of the system were implemented 
gradually. Qualifications in the formal education system 
were assigned to PQF levels in a first phase, based 
on learning outcomes that had been already defined 
and adopted through legislation governing the formal 
education subsystems. For statutory and non-statutory 
(market) qualifications awarded outside the formal 
education system, inclusion in the register is decided 
by the competent minister for that qualification; in 
the latter case this follows a request made by the 
awarding body. To date, 9648 qualifications have been 

742 
743 

744 

745 

qualifications, and digital tools and solutions such as 
the catalogue of validation methods, a database of 
good practices in validation and quality assurance, and 
My Portfolio, a tool for creating digital portfolios.
 Parliament of Poland (2015). 
 The integrated qualifications register became available 
online in July 2016 at: https://rejestr.kwalifikacje.gov.pl/en/
 E.g. IBE (2015). The quality assurance of qualifications in 
the integrated qualifications system. http://biblioteka-krk.
ibe.edu.pl/opac_css/doc_num.php?explnum_id=961 
 The criteria and procedures for inclusion of qualifications 
in the IQS address relevant national and/or international 
awarding bodies and focus on: (a) why the qualification is 
needed and for whom; (b) how the qualification is linked 
to similar qualifications; (c) which are the target groups 
for the qualification; (d) conditions for validation; (e) typical 
use of the qualification; (f) entitlements following from 
the qualification; and (g) learning outcomes required 
for the qualification, including sets of individual learning 
outcomes.

507

Volume II: National and regional casesincluded in the register746, most of which are formal 
qualifications from general education, VET, and higher 
education. PQF levels are indicated in the qualifications 
register and on all formal qualifications included. Work 
is in progress to indicate EQF levels as well. Both PQF 
and EQF levels are indicated on Europass certificate 
and diploma supplements.

The focus in the current phase of implementation 
is on the development, levelling and inclusion 
of non-formal qualifications in the IQS. This is a 
lengthy process involving extensive consultation 
with stakeholders and requiring mechanisms and 
tools to increase efficiency of inclusion procedures 
without sacrificing quality. Between 2016 and 2018, 
the Educational Research Institute supported the 
development of 100 market qualifications in line 
with the principles that govern all qualifications 
included in the IQS (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018). A new two-year project that 
started in January 2018 aims to integrate innovative 
and socially needed qualifications into the IQS, 
and to reduce barriers to IQS development by 
supporting stakeholders at national and regional 
level (European Commission et al., forthcoming). 
The implementation schedule of the IQS project 
foresees the inclusion in the register of 200 market 
qualifications by 2023, with a mid-term target of 
40 qualifications by the end of 2018; at this point 
41 market qualifications had been included in the 
register, achieving the mid-term target, with many 
others at various stages of evaluation.

Two lines of research have been distinguished 
as relevant for the current stage of development 
and implementation of the PQF: studies on the 
functioning of particular structures in the system, 
the links between them and the assessment of 
processes in the IQS; and context research. The 
Educational Research Institute has conducted three 
studies that were completed in 2018 (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018):

a.  Evaluation of the process of including 

qualifications in IQS, assessing the efficiency 
and complexity of the process of including 
market qualifications in the IQS;

b.  Case studies of external quality assurance 

providers, aiming to gain knowledge about the 
potential of institutions that will play the role 
of external quality assurance institutions in the 
process of awarding qualifications included in 
the IQS;

c.  Research of the regional demand for support 

in the implementation and development of the 

IQS, looking to identify the needs of particular 
groups of stakeholders and users of the IQS at 
regional level and to define the scope and forms 
of support needed.

The results of these studies are currently being 
analysed and the conclusions will be taken into 
account in the revision of the IQS Act in 2019.

The PQF has been communicated and promoted 
in Poland as part of, and along with, the entire 
IQS. So far, the communication strategy has 
focused on disseminating knowledge and building 
awareness about the IQS, on communicating the 
benefits for both stakeholders and beneficiaries, 
and on encouraging potential stakeholders to join in 
activities to develop the system. Indirectly, it is also 
aimed at promoting the concept of lifelong learning 
in the context of the IQS and the PQF; to develop 
awareness in society of how career pathways 
can be perceived, of the approach to attaining 
qualifications, and of expectations about the 
education system; and to introduce a new language 
when speaking about qualifications. The main 
channels for communicating information about the 
PQF have been the IQS Portal, which was launched 
together with the integrated qualifications register in 
July 2016747, the website of the EQF NCP748, public 
relations activities, seminars, conferences, debates, 
participation in industry events, publications and 
media materials. At present, communication efforts 
are mainly directed at stakeholders who are or 
can be involved in the development of the IQS 
(industry organisations, employers, sector councils, 
education and training providers, and the public 
administration); the general public will be targeted 
at a later stage. Currently, awareness of the PQF 
is highest among education and training providers, 
pupils, students and parents involved in the formal 
education system, the public employment services 
and the vocational counsellors employed by these 
services. The framework is less known among job-
seekers and employers.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The PQF for lifelong learning was referenced to the 
EQF in 2013; the Referencing report is available 

747 

 The IQS portal (currently only in Polish): www.kwalifikacje.
gov.pl 

The integrated qualifications register: https://rejestr.
kwalifikacje.gov.pl/en/

Information on implementation projects conducted by the 
Educational Research Institute: http://kwalifikacje.edu.
pl/?lang=en
 The website of the EQF NCP: http://prk.men.gov.pl/en/
home-eng/

746 

 Data from https://rejestr.kwalifikacje.gov.pl/en/ [accessed 
14.1.2019].

748 

508

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
 
on the EQF portal749. A separate Self-certification 
report of the national qualifications framework for 
higher education750 to the qualifications framework 
for the European higher education area (QF-EHEA) 
was prepared at the same time. An update on PQF 
developments in the country was presented to the 
EQF advisory group in December 2016, focusing 
on important developments in preceding years: 
adoption of the IQS Act, establishment of the 
integrated qualifications register, fine-tuning the 
governance structure, the typology of qualifications, 
and development of methods for levelling, 
describing and validation of qualifications.

An updated referencing report is expected to 
be presented in 2020, to reflect recent changes 
in the Polish education system. It will cover the 
amendment to the IQS Act planned for the second 
half of 2019 and the results of the completed 
second stage of IQS implementation (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

Important lessons and future plans

The PQF has now reached an operational stage 
and is well placed – conceptually, legally and 
technically – to become a visible part of the Polish 
education and training system, fully integrated 
with related policies and instruments in the IQS. 
This requires the extensive work carried out since 
2010 to be followed up by sufficient political and 
stakeholder commitment and resources. 

PQF developments aim to combine the introduction 
of a comprehensive national framework with the 
parallel development of sector and subsector 
frameworks. While the coexistence of frameworks 
at different levels and for different purposes can be 
found in many countries, the Polish approach tries 
to introduce conceptual coherence, allowing for 
synergies between frameworks at different levels 
and in different sectors. Practical implementation 
of the PQF may provide a model for other countries 
struggling to find ways to bridge and connect 
education and training sectors and subsectors. 
Whether this complex model will work in practice, 
and how it can promote consistent use of learning 
outcomes across levels, subsystems and sectors, 
must be monitored in the coming period. 

Implementation of the PQF as part of the IQS 
has been the main mechanism integrating 
changes introduced in the general, vocational, 
and higher education sectors. Prior to this, the 
Polish qualifications system had been centred 

749 

 https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-
contacts

750   Educational Research Institute (2014). 

on standards and criteria addressing the formal 
education process, defined by content of education 
and years of formal learning (European Commission 
et al., 2019). The progress made in introducing 
the learning outcomes approach in the different 
subsectors of education and training provides a good 
basis for future developments. It also supports the 
development of qualifications obtained outside the 
formal system and their inclusion in the IQS, which 
is currently the main focus of implementation work. 
The implementation of the framework and the use 
of the common language of learning outcomes 
have also had a significant impact on cooperation 
between stakeholders, such as between employers 
and the VET sector – a key point of the VET reform – 
and cooperation in the context of the sectoral skills 
councils. PQF level 5 is considered to be the meeting 
area of qualifications providers from all education and 
training subsystems. Steps were taken to establish 
principles for quality assurance of qualifications and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning, and to 
support stakeholders involved with these process. 
The establishment of the IQS Stakeholders Council 
in 2016 has been an important measure aimed at 
ensuring coherence and direction for PQF-related 
developments, involving a wide range of stakeholders 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Some of the challenges encountered so far include 
initial scepticism about the PQF and the EQF among 
stakeholders and, more recently, the challenge of 
including non-formal qualifications in the IQS; this is a 
lengthy process involving extensive consultation with 
stakeholders and requiring adequate mechanisms 
and tools to increase efficiency of inclusion 
procedures without sacrificing quality (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018). Given the variety 
and inconsistency of legal and organisational 
solutions for non-formal qualifications, comparing 
the value of qualifications acquired in different areas 
and awarded by different institutions according to 
their own criteria and procedures has proved difficult 
(European Commission et al., forthcoming). 

Another challenge has been a lack of interest 
among non-formal learning providers, in particular 
international companies providing worldwide 
recognised training, in including their qualifications 
in the IQS. Qualifications in the IQS are open to 
bodies who want to become certifying institutions, 
and learning outcomes and validation processes 
become available in the public domain. As a 
result, any company may become a certifying 
institution after meeting specified standards and 
being approved by the relevant ministry; hence, 
the learning provider that applies for inclusion of 
its qualification into the IQS would no longer own 
the qualification once it is included (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

509

Volume II: National and regional casesIn addition to the development and inclusion 
of non-formal qualifications in the IQS, future 
steps in the implementation of the PQF include 
amendment of the IQS Act, planned for the 

second part of 2019 aiming to further fine-tune 
IQS governance, and the establishment of 
sectoral skills councils and sectoral qualifications 
frameworks for new sectors.

Table 67. Polish qualifications framework (PQF)

PQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATIONS FROM THE FORMAL 
EDUCATION SYSTEM

REGULATED AND NON-
STATUTORY QUALIFICATIONS*

EQF 
LEVELS 

8

7

6

5

PhD Diploma (Dyplom doktora)

Post-graduate qualification (S´ wiadectwo 
ukon´czenia studiów podyplomowych)

Second cycle of higher education diploma 
(Master) (Dyplom ukon´czenia studiów drugiego 
stopnia)

Integrated first and second cycle diploma (Dyplom 
ukon´czenia jednolitych studiów magisterskich)

Post-graduate qualification (S´ wiadectwo 
ukon´czenia studiów podyplomowych)

First cycle of higher education diploma (Bachelor) 
(Dyplom ukon´czenia studiów pierwszego stopnia)

Post-graduate qualification (S´wiadectwo 
ukon´czenia studiów podyplomowych) 

Certificate of professional competence in the 
profession (Dyplom potwierdzaja˛cy kwalifikacje 
zawodowe) 

Certificate of professional qualification in 
the profession (S´wiadectwo potwierdzaja˛ce 
kwalifikacje˛ w zawodzie)

Certified specialist diploma – short cycle** 
(S´wiadectwo dyplomowanego specjalisty/
specialisty technologa)

4

Upper secondary school leaving certificate 
(Matura) (S´wiadectwo dojrzałos´ci)

Certificate of professional competence in the 
profession (Dyplom potwierdzaja˛cy kwalifikacje 
zawodowe) 

Certificate of professional qualification in 
the profession (S´wiadectwo potwierdzaja˛ce 
kwalifikacje˛ w zawodzie)

e.g. 

Planning, creating and distributing 
content marketing (Tworzenie 
oferty, planowanie i prowadzenie 
sprzedaz˙y skierowanej do klientów 
biznesowych – handlowiec)

Carpenter – master craftsman 
diploma (Stolarz – dyplom 
mistrzowski)

Furniture carpenter – master 
craftsman diploma (Stolarz meblowy 
– dyplom mistrzowski)

Confectioner – master diploma 
(Cukiernik – dyplom mistrzowski)

e.g.

Designing computer graphics 
(Projektowanie grafiki komputerowej)

Designing websites (Tworzenie 
witryn internetowych)

8

7

6

5

4

510

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 67. Polish qualifications framework (PQF) (Continued)

PQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATIONS FROM THE FORMAL 
EDUCATION SYSTEM

REGULATED AND NON-
STATUTORY QUALIFICATIONS*

EQF 
LEVELS 

3

Certificate of professional competence in the 
profession (Dyplom potwierdzaja˛cy kwalifikacje 
zawodowe) 

Certificate of professional qualification in 
the profession (S´ wiadectwo potwierdzaja˛ce 
kwalifikacje˛ w zawodzie)

2

Lower secondary school leaving certificate*** 
(S´wiadectwo ukon´ czenia gimnazjum)

Certificate of professional competence in the 
profession (Dyplom potwierdzaja˛cy kwalifikacje 
zawodowe)

Certificate of professional qualification in 
the profession (S´wiadectwo potwierdzaja˛ce 
kwalifikacje˛ w zawodzie)

Primary school leaving certificate (8 years)*** 
(S´wiadectwo ukon´ czenia szkoły podstawowej 
(8-letniej))

1

Primary school leaving certificate (6 years)*** 
(S´wiadectwo ukon´czenia szkoły podstawowej 
(6-letniej))

e.g. 

Assembly of construction woodwork 
(Montowanie stolarki budowlanej)

Programming and servicing 
3D printing (Programowanie i 
obsługiwanie procesu druku 3D)

Preparing food in accordance with 
market trends and the principles of 
healthy nutrition (Przygotowywanie 
potraw zgodnie z trendami 
rynkowymi i zasadami zdrowego 
z˙ ywienia)

Furniture carpenter – journeyman 
certificate (Stolarz meblowy – 
s´wiadectwo czeladnicze)

Auto body painter – journeyman 
certificate (Lakiernik samochodowy – 
s´wiadectwo czeladnicze)

3

2

1

(*) 

 These are State-regulated qualifications awarded outside the formal education and training system and non-regulated 
qualifications from the private sector (market qualifications) that have a PQF level assigned and have been included in the 
integrated qualification system (IQS) and the integrated qualification register.
 Not yet available, but officially possible according to the 2018 Law on Higher Education.

(**) 
(***)   According to the 2017 reform, lower secondary schools are being phased out; the last group of pupils from these schools 

will graduate in June 2019; pupils graduating from grade 6 of primary school continue education in grade 7 of eight-year 
primary schools.

Sources: NQF update presentation to the EQF AG, December 2016. The integrated qualifications register: https://rejestr.
kwalifikacje.gov.pl/en/

Abbreviations
EQF 
EQF NCP   EQF national coordination point
IBE  

European qualifications framework

Instytut Badan´ Edukacyjnych 
(Educational Research Institute)
integrated qualifications system
initial vocational education and 
training

IQS  
IVET  

NQF  
OECD  

PQF  
VET  
VNFIL  

national qualifications framework
Organisation for Economic 
Cooperation and Development
Polish qualifications framework
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

511

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Unit of Strategy and Integrated Qualifications System (in the Department of Strategy, Qualifications and 

Vocational Education) of the Ministry of National Education – acts as EQF NCP: http://prk.men.gov.pl/
en/7en/

IQF portal: http://kwalifikacje.edu.pl/
Integrated qualifications register: https://rejestr.kwalifikacje.gov.pl/en/
Educational Research Institute (2013). Referencing the Polish qualifications framework for lifelong learning 

to the European qualifications framework. Warsaw: Educational Research Institute. https://ec.europa.
eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Polish%20Referencing%20Report.pdf

Educational Research Institute (2014). Self-certification report of the national qualifications framework for 
higher education. Warsaw: Educational Research Institute. http://biblioteka-krk.ibe.edu.pl/opac_css/
doc_num.php?explnum_id=702

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

Educational Research Institute (2013). Referencing the Polish qualifications framework for lifelong learning 

to the European qualifications framework. Warsaw: Educational Research Institute. https://ec.europa.
eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Polish%20Referencing%20Report.pdf

Educational Research Institute (2014). Self-certification report of the national qualifications framework for 
higher education. Warsaw: Educational Research Institute. http://biblioteka-krk.ibe.edu.pl/opac_css/
doc_num.php?explnum_id=702

Educational Research Institute (2016). How to describe market qualifications for the Polish qualifications 
system: a guidebook. Warsaw: Educational Research Institute. www.kwalifikacje.edu.pl/en/
publications/1148-how-to-describe-market-qualifications-for-the-polish-qualifications-system

Educational Research Institute (2017). The Polish qualifications framework: knowledge, skills, social 

competence. Warsaw: Educational Research Institute.

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Poland. 
European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Poland. https://ec.europa.eu/education/

sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-poland_en.pdf 

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report Poland. 

Parliament of Poland (2015). Ustawa z dnia 22 grudnia 2015 r o Zintegrowanym Systemie Kwalifikacji  

[Act of 22 December 2015 on the integrated qualifications system]. Journal of Laws, No 64/2016. 
www.infor.pl/akt-prawny/DZU.2016.008.0000064,ustawa-o-zintegrowanym-systemie-kwalifikacji.html

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSPORTUGAL

Introduction and context

Over recent years, the performance of the 
Portuguese education and training system has 
improved, as shown by a number of key indicators. 
The rate of early school leaving has decreased 
significantly from 28.3% in 2010 to 12.6% in 2017. 
Tertiary education attainment has followed a similar 
positive trend, up to 33.5% in 2017 (but below 
the EU average of 39.9%). The 2015 results of the 
Programme for international student assessment 
(PISA) indicate improvements in students’ basic 
skills in reading, mathematics and science. The 
government seeks to encourage school autonomy, 
to promote new quality assurance systems at 
school level, and student participation in policy 
making and school governance. The employment 
rate of recent graduates has increased to 80.7% 
in 2017, now above the EU average of 80.2%. 
Recent measures in higher education are aimed at 
increasing efficiency, attractiveness and completion 
rate. Cooperation between higher education and 
the business sector is not sufficiently incentivised. 
Government efforts are also focused on increasing 
transparency and attractiveness of the vocational 
education and training (VET) system and a national 
credit system in line with the European credit 
system for vocational education and training 
(ECVET) has been developed751. Adult participation 
in adult education and training is just below the EU 
average, at 9.8% in 2017, and is supported through 
implementation of the national skills strategy 
(European Commission, 2018). 

In the context of a need for curricular 
reorganisation, recent legislative developments 
include the endorsement of the Legislative Order 
on the students’ profile by the end of compulsory 
schooling752; a common matrix for all schools and 
education providers in compulsory education 

751   Order No 47/2017 regulates the national credit system of 
vocational education and training and defines the model 
for an instrument of orientation and individual registration 
of qualifications and competences, the Qualifica passport.

752   Legislative Order No 6478 of 26 July 2017.

for planning, implementation and evaluation of 
teaching and learning; and Decree-Law No 55 of 
6 July 2018 establishing the curriculum of basic and 
secondary education, the guiding principles of its 
conception, and operationalisation and evaluation 
of learning, to ensure that all students achieve the 
competences foreseen in the Students’ profile 
by the end of compulsory schooling. Legislative 
orders753 approving the Essential learning of 
basic education (1st, 2nd and 3rd cycles) and the 
Essential learning of secondary education were 
also adopted in 2018 (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

Major reforms in the country, starting in 2007 with 
the Agenda for the reform of vocational training754, 
led to the development of a national qualifications 
system whose main aim was to promote 
widespread attainment of secondary education as a 
minimum level of qualification. Development of the 
national qualifications system has been underpinned 
by several elements aiming to help achieve 
its objectives: a new institutional model, now 
consisting of the National Agency for Qualifications 
and VET (ANQEP) and the Agency for Assessment 
and Accreditation of higher education (A3ES); a 
network of adult learning centres755; the national 
qualifications catalogue (a strategic management 
instrument for non-higher national qualifications 

753   Legislative Order No 6944-A of 19 July 2018 and, 

respectively, Legislative Order No 8476-A of 31 August 
2018. 

754   Resolution of the Council of Ministers No 173/2007 

approved the reform of vocational training and the draft 
decree-law establishing the national qualifications system 
and creating the national qualifications framework, the 
national qualifications catalogue and the Individual skills 
handbook.

755   Initially developed as new opportunities centres, replaced 
in 2013 by the centres for qualification and vocational 
education (Centros para a Qualificação e o Ensino 
Profissional), and since 2016 replaced by the Qualifica 
centres. More information on the Qualifica programme, 
an integrated strategy to support the training and 
qualification of low qualified adults, unemployed people 
and NEETs (young people not in employment, education 
or training), is available at: www.qualifica.gov.pt/#/

513

Volume II: National and regional casesand a central reference tool for VET provision)756; 
and the national qualifications framework (NQF) 
(ANQ, 2011). The national system for recognising 
non-formal and informal learning was integrated into 
the NQF and reformed in 2012 to address better the 
validation, training and guidance of young people 
and adults.

The comprehensive national qualifications 
framework (Quadro nacional de qualificações, QNQ) 
is a single reference for classifying all qualifications 
awarded in the Portuguese education and training 
system, and acquired in formal, non-formal and 
informal learning. Introduced by Decree-Law 
No 396/2007757, which established the national 
qualifications system and the structures ensuring its 
operation, the framework was published in 2009 by 
ministerial order758 and came into force in October 
2010. It includes eight levels, with level descriptors 
defined in terms of learning outcomes in three 
categories: knowledge, skills (cognitive or practical) 
and attitudes. Higher education qualifications were 
included in the more detailed framework for higher 
education qualifications (FHEQ-Portugal), which is 
part of the comprehensive framework. The NQF was 
referenced to the European qualifications framework 
(EQF) and self-certified against the qualifications 
framework in the European higher education area 
(QF-EHEA) in 2011. 

Policy objectives

The NQF is seen as ‘both a central anchoring device 
and a mechanism that drives forward the process of 
reform’ (ANQ, 2011). Development of the national 
qualifications system and of the NQF forms part of 
a broader education and training reform programme 
initiated in 2007759, the New opportunities initiative 
and the Agenda for the reform of vocational training. 
These reforms aimed to raise low qualification levels 
of the whole population. 

The development of the NQF was seen as a 
response to the need to integrate and coordinate 
qualifications from the different education and 

756   The structure and organisation of the national 

qualifications catalogue and its model for skills-based 
qualifications were established by Order No 781 of 
23 July 2009.

757   Decree-Law No 396/2007 on the national qualification 
system is available in Portuguese at: https://dre.pt/
application/dir/pdf1s/2007/12/25100/0916509173.pdf; it 
was amended by Decree-Law No 14 of 26 January 2017, 
available at: https://dre.pt/home/-/dre/105808927/details/
maximized

758   Ministerial Order No 782/2009 on the NQF. 

www.catalogo.anqep.gov.pt/boDocumentos/
getDocumentos/163
759   Decree-Law No 396/2007.

training subsystems (general education, vocational 
training and higher education) into a single 
classification framework. It also aims to improve the 
quality, relevance, transparency and comparability 
of Portuguese qualifications, along with their 
understanding abroad, by linking them to the EQF, to 
promote access to lifelong learning, and recognition 
of knowledge and skills (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018). The NQF is also seen as a crucial 
element in creating the conditions for a focus on 
learning outcomes. 

Specific objectives to which the development of the 
national qualifications system and framework are 
expected to contribute include (ANQ, 2011):

a.  integration between general and vocational 
education and training offers, based on the 
principle of double certification, expected to lead 
to both secondary education attainment and 
increased employability; 

b.  developing mechanisms for the certification and 
recognition of informal and non-formal learning, 
allowing flexible training pathways aimed at 
increasing participation in lifelong learning; 
the mechanism for the recognition, validation 
and certification of competences (RVCC) was 
strengthened and more people have benefitted 
from the process;

c.  organising education and training pathways 

into short modular units that can be certified 
independently, aimed at increasing adult learner 
participation and qualification levels;

d.  developing an oversight framework and quality 
control mechanisms, aimed at integrating 
education and training subsystems; this took the 
form of the National Agency for Qualifications 
(now the National Agency for Qualifications 
and VET (ANQEP))760, which coordinates the 
implementation of education and vocational 
training policies for both young people and 
adults, and manages the system for the 
recognition, validation and certification of 
competences; 

e.  promoting the relevance, certification and 

recognition of the education and training offer 
in line with the needs of the labour market; the 
national qualifications catalogue and the sector 
qualification councils are among the solutions 
linked to this objective; 

f.  strengthening integration between academic 
and double certification pathways through 
permeability mechanisms and coordination.

In parallel to the NQF, a framework for higher 
education was established and used as a tool to 

760  Under the Ministry of Labour, Solidarity and Social 

Security and the Ministry of Education.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSsupport reforms and development. The main aims 
were to set up clear learning standards and identify 
progression routes through levels of learning 
(MCTES, 2011).

to level 4. The fact that similar qualifications in other 
countries have been referenced to EQF level 4 may 
reopen discussions on the characteristics of levels 
3 and 4 in Portugal.  

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The NQF is a comprehensive framework, including 
all qualifications from the different education and 
training subsystems, regardless of means of 
access: basic, secondary and higher education, 
vocational training and the processes of recognition, 
validation and certification of competences obtained 
through formal, non-formal or informal learning. An 
eight-level structure was adopted, following the 
principles and categories of the EQF.

Level descriptors are defined in terms of 
knowledge, skills (cognitive or practical) and 
attitudes. As the term ‘competence’ was already 
used as an overarching concept within the national 
qualifications system (defined as ‘recognised 
capacity to mobilise knowledge, skills and attitudes 
in contexts of work, professional development, 
education and personal development’), the choice 
was made to use ‘attitudes’ for the third category of 
descriptors in the NQF. This is defined as ‘the ability 
to carry out tasks and solve problems of lesser 
or greater degrees of complexity and involving 
various levels of autonomy and responsibility’, and 
is divided into the subdomains responsibility and 
autonomy761.

While currently there are no types of qualification 
that raise specific challenges in terms of levelling 
to the NQF, one of the areas for attention is level 5. 
A non-higher level qualification has already been 
placed at NQF level 5, the diploma in technological 
specialisation762, and there is a modality of short-
cycle higher education, specialised advanced 
technical courses (CTeSP)763, designed using the 
learning outcomes approach but, as yet, with no 
assigned level. In addition, the upper secondary 
general education school leaving certificate giving 
access to higher education has been assigned to 
NQF/EQF level 3, to distinguish it from secondary 
education qualifications obtained through double 
certificated pathways or secondary education 
qualifications plus a professional internship of at 
least six months aimed at further study, assigned 

The learning outcomes approach plays an important 
role in reforming Portuguese education and training 
and was an underlying principle in the development 
of the national qualifications catalogue764. It is seen 
as a more adequate response to competence needs 
in the labour market and of critical importance to 
recognition of qualifications and understanding their 
value. The NQF has been a driving force behind 
incorporation of the learning outcomes approach 
into the education and training system. 

However, although learning outcomes are 
formally present in the NQF, there is a diversity 
of approaches and concepts and the level of 
implementation varies across subsystems 
(Cedefop, 2016). Fine-tuning learning outcomes in 
qualifications design with the NQF level descriptors 
is a challenging task and is work in progress: it 
includes upgrading both the national qualifications 
catalogue and general education qualifications. 

VET has been the sector driving the introduction 
of learning outcomes in Portugal, with reforms 
aimed at developing qualifications standards and 
curriculum development. Qualifications obtained 
in VET are included in the national qualifications 
catalogue at levels 2, 4 and 5, and are organised 
in units. Each qualification at levels 2 and 4 
includes a training standard (that awards a 
double certification) and a recognition, validation 
and certification of competences standard. 
Level 5 qualifications (diploma in technological 
specialisation) include a training standard.  
A new methodological guidebook for the design 
of qualifications based on learning outcomes765 
has been developed to be used for design of 
new qualifications and revision of existing ones. 
It applies to VET qualifications at levels 2, 4 and 5 
of the NQF (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018). Adjusting qualifications standards to the 
level descriptors is work in progress, with about 
50% of qualifications having been updated.

The design of qualifications in terms of learning 
outcomes also enabled the creation of the 
national credit system for VET, aligned with ECVET 
principles and aimed at increasing permeability 

761 
762 
763 

 Ministerial Order No 782/2009.
 Obtained through technological specialisation courses.
 CTeSP are short-cycle higher technical courses launched 
during the 2014/15 academic year. Aiming to promote 
links between higher education and the business sector, 
they have a strong technical and vocational component, 
including on-the-job training.

764 

765 

 The national qualifications catalogue is available at: www.
catalogo.anqep.gov.pt/Qualificacoes
 ANQEP; DGCNQ (2015). New methodological 
guidebook: design of qualifications based on learning 
outcomes. www.catalogo.anqep.gov.pt/boDocumentos/
getDocumentos/561

515

Volume II: National and regional casesbetween VET pathways and higher education. This 
enables the allocation of credit points to level 2, 4 
and 5 NQF qualifications included in the national 
qualifications catalogue, and to certified training 
included in the integrated information system for 
the management of education and training provision 
(Sistema integrado de informação e gestaˉo da oferta 
educativa e formativa, SIGO), compliant with the 
quality criteria in place766 (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

In general education, revision of the curriculum 
structure for basic and secondary education 
over recent years led to the definition of new 
programmes and curriculum outcome targets 
(metas curriculares) for several subjects, introduced 
gradually starting with 2013/14. The curriculum 
outcome targets are focused on knowledge 
and essential skills students need to master in 
different school years and cycles. More recently, 
the ‘essential learning’767 of each school subject, 
the reference for delivering new curricula in general 
education, is expressed in terms of learning 
outcomes (knowledge, skills and attitudes) allowing 
for learner-centred and inclusive teaching and 
learning practices. The ‘essential learning’ is based 
on the goals delineated in the Students’ profile 
by the end of compulsory schooling, a guiding 
document that describes the principles, vision, 
values and competences that students should 
have on completion of compulsory schooling. A 
pilot project for autonomy and curricular flexibility, 
voluntarily undertaken by 235 Portuguese schools in 
the 2017/18 school year, represents a new paradigm 
for student-centred learning consistent with the 
learning outcomes approach in qualification design, 
and suggests that the approach is increasingly taken 
up in compulsory general education.

Higher education institutions are responsible for 
implementing the framework and learning outcomes 
within their study programmes, so the process 
differs from one institution to another. According to 
a Cedefop study (Cedefop, 2016), the accreditation 
agency A3ES for the higher education sector does 
not emphasise the importance of learning outcomes 
in the accreditation process.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

A new institutional model was developed in Portugal 
to support setting up the national qualifications 
system and framework. Initial work on the NQF was 
carried out by the former Ministry of Labour and 
Social Solidarity, with support from the Ministry of 
Education. In 2007, Decree-Law No 396/2007 was 
adopted, establishing the legal basis and defining 
the structures for implementation. An agreement 
was signed between the government and the social 
partners on key elements, tools and regulatory 
systems. The National Agency for Qualifications 
(ANQ) (now the National Agency for Qualifications 
and VET (ANQEP), under the Ministry of Labour, 
Solidarity and Social Security and the Ministry of 
Education) was established in 2007 to coordinate 
implementation of education and training policies 
for young people and adults, and to develop the 
system for recognition, validation and certification 
of competences (RVCC). The National Council for 
Vocational Training (no longer operational) was set 
up as a tripartite body responsible for approving 
profiles and the referential system for training. At 
the same time, the Agency for Assessment and 
Accreditation of Higher Education (A3ES) was 
set up with quality assurance functions in higher 
education. 

The process of referencing the NQF to the EQF 
brought about increased collaboration between 
stakeholders from the different education and 
training subsystems. Work during the process was 
coordinated by a steering committee chaired by the 
then ANQ and comprising bodies involved in the 
regulation of qualifications and quality assurance in 
education and training768. There was also a technical 
working group led by the ANQ and composed of 
staff drawn from the bodies represented in the 
steering committee. Other stakeholders were 
involved or consulted in the process769.

The NQF is currently under the responsibility of 
three ministries: the Ministry of Education, the 
Ministry of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security, 

766  The development of the national credit system for VET 
is based on three complementary dimensions: (a) the 
attribution of credit points to formally certified learning 
organised in units of qualifications in the national 
qualifications catalogue; (b) the accumulation of credit 
points related to that learning; and (c) the transfer of credit 
points obtained through training courses.
 Legislative Order No 6944-A/2018 approving the Essential 
learning of basic education (1st, 2nd and 3rd cycles) 
and the Legislative Order No 8476-A/2018 approving the 
Essential learning of secondary education.

767 

768  The General Directorate for Higher Education; the former 

769 

General Directorate for Curriculum Innovation and 
Development; the General Directorate for Employment 
and Labour Relations; and the Agency for the 
Accreditation and Assessment of Higher Education (A3ES) 
were also part of the steering committee.
 Other stakeholders involved in the referencing process 
were the central coordination unit of the Employment and 
Vocational Training Observatory; the oversight committee 
for the New opportunities initiative and the national 
qualifications system; and other public bodies, education 
and training providers, practitioners and experts (ANQ, 
2011).

516

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand the Ministry of Science, Technology and 
Higher Education. NQF coordination is now shared 
between ANQEP and the General Directorate for 
Higher Education, involved in qualifications at levels 
5 to 8770. ANQEP has been nominated to host the 
national coordination point for the EQF (EQF NCP), 
the leading structure for NQF implementation. 

The responsibilities of the EQF NCP include: 

a.  referencing the national qualification levels to the 
EQF and ensuring transparency in methodology 
used; 

b.  providing access to information and guidance on 
how national qualifications are referenced to the 
EQF; 

c.  encouraging participation of all interested parties 
(higher education and vocational training and 
education establishments, social partners, 
sectors and experts).

Depending on the issue, the EQF NCP collaborates 
horizontally with other relevant bodies (such as the 
Institute for Employment and Vocational Training 
and the General Directorate for Employment and 
Labour Relations), working flexibly and through 
consultation. The body consulted on the general 
education qualifications is the General Directorate 
for Education. The current governance structure 
does not foresee any human resources dedicated 
exclusively to the EQF NCP; the staff working 
on the NQF are also involved in other ANQEP 
technical departments and services and the General 
Directorate for Higher Education. This arrangement 
allows flexibility and for synergies to develop, 
though the disadvantage is that it may lead to  
less commitment from the relevant parties 
(Cedefop, 2015). 

ANQEP is also supported by 16 sector qualifications 
councils involved in defining qualifications and 
competences, as well as in including new 
qualifications in the national qualifications catalogue 
and updating existing ones. The councils are 
composed of social partners, training providers 
from the national qualifications system, bodies 
responsible for regulating professions; public 
structures that oversee business sectors; 
technology and innovation centres; and companies.

The authorities currently responsible for quality 
assurance of qualifications are ANQEP, the General 
Directorate for Higher Education, the General 
Directorate for Education, the General Directorate 
for Employment and Labour Relations, and the 

770   The General Directorate for Higher Education is under the 
Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education.

Agency for the Accreditation and Assessment of 
Higher Education (A3ES).

The legal basis of the national qualifications system 
and framework was updated in 2017 (Decree-Law 
No 14 of 26 January 2017). Amendments are related 
to the establishment of the national credit system 
for VET, the introduction of the Qualifica passport 
and the new Qualifica centres, and the updating of 
standards in the national qualifications catalogue. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways771

A comprehensive national system for validation 
of prior learning, called the national system 
for the recognition, validation and certification 
of competences (Reconhecimento, validação 
e certificação de competências, RVCC) was 
introduced in Portugal in 2001; it aimed to increase 
the levels of school education and of vocational 
qualification in the country. At the time, only 
competences equivalent to the ninth year of 
schooling could be validated and the system was 
intended for adults aged 18 or over (Cedefop, 
2018a). During 2012–13, major changes were 
introduced into the system, which is now seen as 
a process of identification of formal, non-formal 
and informal competences developed across the 
lifespan (Cedefop, 2018b). In early 2014, 450 new 
opportunities centres, in charge of validation and 
recognition of competences (for people over 18), 
were replaced by a new network of centres for 
qualification and vocational training (Centros para a 
Qualificação e o Ensino Profissional, CQEP). These, 
in turn, were replaced in 2016 by Qualifica centres772 
that reinforce RVCC as part of a public educational 
and professional offer that values learning acquired 
throughout life in a variety of contexts. There are 
currently around 300 such centres carrying out 
RVCC, with their activity managed by ANQEP. The 
new network assumes similar functions as the 
previous new opportunities centres, but also targets 
young people (age 15 or over), provides guidance, 
counselling and validation activities to low-skilled 
adults, and guides/orients young people completing 
nine years of basic education.

The RVCC system is incorporated in the national 
qualifications system and framework. It integrates 
two main processes.

771   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).
772   Order No 232/2016.

517

Volume II: National and regional casesa.  Education RVCC process, aimed at obtaining a 
school leaving qualification (levels 1, 2 and 3 of 
the NQF/EQF) and allowing learners to pursue 
further studies in the education and training 
system: this is based on key competences 
standards, which are different from those used 
in the formal education and training system – 
one specific to basic education established in 
2001 and updated in 2002 and 2004, and another 
specific to secondary education established  
in 2006.

b.  Professional RVCC process, aimed at obtaining 
a vocational qualification (offers school and 
professional certification at levels 2 and 4 of 
the NQF/EQF): the professional competences 
standards used for validation are part of the 
national qualifications catalogue and are 
updated as necessary. The national qualifications 
catalogue includes more than 300 qualifications 
from 41 education and training areas773 in 
accordance with the National classification of 
education and training areas.

The main strength of the validation approach in 
Portugal is its inclusion in a national policy/strategy 
that covers all sectors and levels of learning. Learners 
can acquire basic or upper secondary level education 
certificates and vocational qualifications from levels 
1 to 4 in the NQF that have the same value as those 
awarded in formal education and training. 

At higher education levels (levels 5 to 8 of the NQF/
EQF), validation is generally linked to the credit 
system and module-based structure of courses 
and degrees. It is up to each institution to set the 
specific validation procedures and these must be 
validated by the scientific boards of universities 
and polytechnics. Students can obtain European 
credit transfer and accumulation system (ECTS) 
credits through validation that can be used for 
granting exemptions from part of a course in the 
first, second or third cycles of Bologna degrees. 
These credits are valid only in the programme of 
studies in which a student is enrolled in. Legislation 
from 2013774 sets a limit for validation processes 
up to one third of the total number of ECTS credits 
relevant for a particular course775. General rules for 
validation apply to all higher education institutions, 
complemented by specific validation procedures 
established by each institution.

773   Data from October 2018: www.catalogo.anqep.gov.pt/ 
Qualificacoes?Page=1&CurrentPerPage=999999& 
Designacao=&AreasFormacaoId=&CodigoArea=&Nivel= 
&NivelQEQ=&RVCC=false&Parciais=false
 Decree-Law No 115/2013.

774 
775   According to Decree-Law No 65/2018, a limit for 

While validation of non-formal and informal learning 
is widely considered as an alternative route to 
qualifications, those obtained through RVCC are less 
likely to lead to an increase in salary or to finding a 
higher qualified job. The number of adult learners 
obtaining qualification through RVCC and applying 
for validation in higher education is relatively low 
compared to figures 10 years ago, but it has been 
increasing recently.

NQF implementation

Three main steps were taken to support the 
development and implementation of the 
national qualifications system and framework 
in Portugal. First, a new institutional model was 
developed, as described above. Second, a national 
qualifications catalogue was created in 2007 
as a strategic management tool for non-higher 
national qualifications and as a central reference 
tool for VET provision. Third, the national system 
for the recognition, validation and certification of 
competences (RVCC) that had been introduced 
in general and vocational education in 2001 was 
incorporated into the NQF from the beginning and 
was reformed starting in 2012.

The NQF has now reached an operational stage, 
and is considered a permanent feature of the 
national qualifications system (Cedefop, 2015). 
The legal framework is in place, qualifications have 
been assigned to levels, and quality assurance 
arrangements have been implemented. All VET is 
already organised around the NQF and access to 
financial support also takes the framework into 
consideration776.

While a comprehensive database including all 
qualifications within the NQF has not been set 
up, the national qualifications catalogue777 acts as 
a database for non-higher national qualifications. 
It includes more than 300 qualifications from 
41 education and training areas at NQF/EQF 
levels 2, 4 and 5. It also includes international 
qualifications, which are partial qualifications. The 
catalogue is continuously updated by ANQEP, in a 
process supported by the 16 sector qualifications 
councils. A database for higher education 
qualifications778 has also been created, containing 
information about the institution, type of education, 

776 

 For instance, in order to access certain professional 
traineeships, it is mandatory to have a certain NQF level.
777   The national qualifications catalogue is available at: www.

catalogo.anqep.gov.pt/Qualificacoes

validation processes up to one third of the total number 
of ECTS credits applies to the accreditation/validation of 
professional experience.

778   The database for higher education qualifications is 
available at: www.dges.gov.pt/pt/pesquisa_cursos_
instituicoes?plid=372

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSarea and course of study. NQF and EQF levels are 
indicated in the national qualifications catalogue, 
but they are not included in the database for higher 
education qualifications.

c.  changes in school culture and training practices 
through the introduction of learning outcomes-
based qualifications;

d.  improving access to formal qualifications and 

In VET and for qualifications acquired through 
validation of non-formal and informal learning, 
the NQF level is indicated in all certificates and 
diplomas, while EQF levels are indicated only on 
some qualifications779. In general education, diploma 
and certificate templates follow an identical layout 
for primary, lower and upper secondary education; 
NQF and EQF levels are not yet indicated. One of 
the priorities of the EQF NCP has been the inclusion 
of both NQF and EQF levels on all new qualification 
documents in both VET and general education. A 
draft legislative proposal has been prepared but, 
following the adoption of new legislation on basic 
and secondary education, this proposal requires 
updating. As higher education institutions can 
autonomously approve models for their diplomas, 
NQF levels are indicated on some qualification 
documents, but this is not usually the case. It 
is mandatory to indicate NQF and EQF levels 
on certificate and diploma supplements such as 
Europass, though whether EQF levels are indicated 
is not being monitored.

The framework has become increasingly visible to, 
and used by, education and training institutions and 
providers, regulatory authorities and bodies and 
by the Qualifica centres. The main channels used 
by the EQF NCP to disseminate the framework 
have been the ANQEP website, which contains 
a section devoted to the European instruments, 
the ANQEP newsletter, leaflets and flyers, and 
conferences and workshops. The website of the 
national qualifications catalogue is currently being 
renewed, and a dedicated website for the NQF/EQF 
is expected to be developed in 2019.

A first assessment study of the impact of the NQF 
on the national education and training system is 
planned to be conducted by the EQF NCP within 
the scope of the 2018–20 EQF grant. It aims to 
analyse to what extent the NQF and related policy 
instruments have contributed to:

a.  improving legibility, transparency and 

comparability of qualifications;

b.  enhancing dual certification qualifications;

779   EQF levels are indicated on qualification documents 
issued for professional courses, specialised artistic 
education, vocational courses, and certificates 
and diplomas issued on the basis of certificates of 
professional capacity (certificates of competence) from 
the previous certification system.

recognition of skills; 

e.  increase in the visibility and recognition of 

qualifications on the labour market and in society 
in general.

The key challenges for further NQF implementation 
include the integration of international qualifications 
in the framework, the continuing challenge to 
raise awareness of key concepts, such as learning 
outcomes, among different stakeholders, and the 
need to disseminate the NQF to a wider spectrum 
of stakeholders, especially on the labour market, 
where it is not yet well known. Revision of NQF 
level 5 is another issue that will require attention.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Portugal referenced its national qualifications levels 
to the EQF and self-certified to the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area 
(QF-EHEA) in 2011. The process started in 2009 
and the results were presented in two separate 
reports: the Report on the referencing of the 
national qualifications framework to the European 
qualifications framework (ANQ, 2011) addressed 
qualifications at levels 1 to 5 of the NQF, and the 
Report on the referencing of the framework for 
higher education qualifications in Portugal (FHEQ-
Portugal) (MCTES, 2011) addressed levels 5 to 8. 

There are currently no plans to present an updated 
referencing report to the EQF Advisory Group.

Important lessons and future plans 

Portugal took the decision to adopt the eight EQF 
levels and the EQF level descriptors in setting up 
the comprehensive NQF. Aiming to integrate and 
coordinate qualifications from all education and 
training subsystems into a single framework, to aid 
the recognition of non-formal and informal learning, 
to improve transparency and comparability of 
qualifications and to facilitate double certification, 
the NQF is believed to have reduced barriers 
between the different subsystems. The recognition, 
validation and certification of competences (RVCC) 
process has been linked to the NQF from the 
beginning, promoting equal value of qualifications 
placed at the same level, regardless of how 
competences are acquired.

The NQF has been a crucial element in reorienting 
focus in the education and training system on 

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Volume II: National and regional caseslearning outcomes. A new methodology for 
designing VET qualifications, based on learning 
outcomes, has been created and the country is 
in the process of reviewing and renewing VET 
qualifications in the national qualifications catalogue. 
Implementation of the learning outcomes approach 
could be further supported by providing adequate 
training to teachers and trainers780 to assist them 
in designing curricula and assessment methods 
based on learning outcomes, and by developing 
common understanding of learning outcomes 
among different education and training subsystems 
and stakeholders (Cedefop, 2016). In 2017, a national 
credit system for VET was created, aligned with 
ECVET principles. This enables allocation of credit 
points to qualifications at NQF levels 2, 4 and 5, 
included in the national qualifications catalogue, and 
to quality-assured and certified training.

There is a need to disseminate the framework to a 
wide spectrum of stakeholders, especially improving 
acceptance and use of the NQF by the labour 
market. In this context, the relationship between  

the higher education framework and other parts of 
the NQF (levels 1 to 5) needs to be made explicit, 
especially for level 5 programmes where different 
ministries are involved. One of the issues to be 
tackled in the near future may be the review of the 
NQF level 5, which currently includes a non-higher 
level qualification (the diploma in technological 
specialisation), while a modality of short-cycle 
higher education (specialised advanced technical 
courses, CTeSP) has not yet been assigned to 
a level. Another key challenge is integration of 
international qualifications in the framework.

A priority area of the EQF NCP’s work has been 
the inclusion of both NQF and EQF levels on all 
qualification documents from general education and 
VET. A draft proposal has been put forward, but the 
adoption of new legislation in general education has 
made it necessary for this proposal to be updated/
renewed. The inclusion of NQF/EQF levels on all 
certificates and diplomas at all levels of education 
and training could increase awareness of the 
framework among end-users.

Table 68. Portuguese qualifications framework (QNQ)

NQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctoral degree (Doutoramento) 

Master degree (Mestrado) 

Bachelor degree (Licenciatura) 

Diploma in technological specialisation (Diploma de Especialização Tecnológica) 

Upper secondary education and professional certification (Ensino secundário obtido por 
percursos de dupla certificação) 

Upper secondary education and professional internship – minimum six months (Ensino 
secundário vocacionado para prosseguimento de estudos de nível superior acrescido de 
estágio profissional – mínimo de seis meses) 

Upper secondary general education school leaving certificate (Ensino secundário 
vocacionado para prosseguimento de estudos de nível superior) 

Third cycle of basic education (3º ciclo do ensino básico obtido no ensino regular) 

Third cycle of basic education and professional certification (3º ciclo do ensino básico 
obtido por percursos de dupla certificação) 

Second cycle of basic education (2º ciclo do ensino básico) 

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Portuguese National Agency for Qualifications and VET, 2016.

780   Between 2016 and 2018, ANQEP organised 10 training 
courses for VET teachers and trainers from 66 VET 
schools, and two workshops with the schools that 
attended these training courses, discussing the successes 
and challenges in the implementation of learning 
outcomes.

520

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAbbreviations
A3ES  

ANQ  

ANQEP  

ECTS  
ECVET  

Agency for the Accreditation and 
Assessment of Higher Education
Agência Nacional para a Qualificação 
(National Agency for Qualifications)
Agência Nacional para a Qualificação e 
o Ensino Profissional (National Agency 
for Qualification and Vocational 
Education and Training) 
European credit transfer system
European credit system for vocational 
education and training

European qualifications framework
EQF 
EQF NCP   national coordination point for the 

EQF

MCTES   Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e 

Ensino Superior (Ministry of Science, 
Technology and Higher Education)
national qualifications framework
reconhecimento, validação e 
certificação de competências 
(recognition, validation and 
certification of competences)
vocational education and training

NQF 
RVCC 

VET  

Main sources of information

National Agency for Qualifications and Vocational Education and Training – the EQF NCP in Portugal:  

www.anqep.gov.pt/default.aspx

National qualifications catalogue: www.catalogo.anqep.gov.pt/Qualificacoes  
Qualification database for higher education: www.dges.gov.pt/pt/pesquisa_cursos_instituicoes?plid=372 
ANQ (2011). Report on the referencing of the national qualifications framework to the European 
qualifications framework: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/PT%20EQF%20
Referencing%20Report.pdf

References

ANQ (2011). Report on referencing the national qualifications framework to the European qualifications 

framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/PT%20EQF%20Referencing%20Report.
pdf

Cedefop (2015). Survey on the sustainability and visibility of NQFs (unpublished).
Cedefop (2016). Application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series, No 105. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/
publications-and-resources/publications/3074

Cedefop (2018a). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–17: Portugal. Cedefop 
monitoring and analysis of VET policies. www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/portugal_-_vet_policy_
developments.pdf

Cedefop (2018b). Spotlight on VET: Portugal. Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/

files/8119_en.pdf

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Country analysis. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/
volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf  

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory for validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Portugal.

MCTES (2011). The framework for higher education qualifications in Portugal: report of the international 
committee on the verification of compatibility with the qualifications framework of the European 
higher education area. https://wwwcdn.dges.gov.pt/sites/default/files/referencing_report_higher_
education_portugal_qf-ehea.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

521

Volume II: National and regional casesROMANIA

Introduction and context

The Romanian education and training system faces 
several challenges, according to key education 
and training indicators. The results of the 2015 
programme for international student assessment 
(PISA) showed that the proportion of 15 year-olds 
with underachievement in reading, mathematics 
and science is almost double EU average levels 
(38.7%, 39.9% and 38.5%, respectively). The low 
levels of performance are partly linked to students’ 
socioeconomic background and partly attributed 
to other educational factors, such as teaching 
and curricula. The percentage of pupils who leave 
education and training early is the third highest 
in the EU (18.5% in 2016), with large disparities 
between urban and rural areas. An early warning 
mechanism is being developed to tackle this issue. 
Integrating the Roma population in education and on 
the labour market has proved challenging, with 64% 
of the Roma young people being not in employment, 
education or training (NEETs). School reform has 
included the introduction of a competence-based 
curriculum in primary and secondary education, and 
training of teachers to use it. The rate of tertiary 
education attainment is the lowest in the EU (25.6% 
in 2016, compared to 39.1% EU average) and, 
coupled with a high rate of emigration, is expected 
to lead to skill shortages in several sectors. 
However, measures have been taken to improve the 
labour market relevance of higher education and the 
employment rate of recent graduates is improving. 
Participation in vocational education and training 
(VET) is above the EU average. Current reforms 
are focused on introducing dual VET programmes 
at levels 3, 4 and 5 of the national qualifications 
framework (NQF), for which a legal framework is 
being adopted. The proportion of adults participating 
in lifelong learning is very low (1.2% in 2016) despite 
a need for upskilling. While legislative measures to 
establish community lifelong learning centres were 
adopted in 2017, implementation is slow (European 
Commission, 2017).

Government Decision No 918/2013781. It closely 
follows the eight-level structure of the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and aims to bring 
together nationally recognised qualifications from 
initial and continuing vocational education and 
training (IVET and CVET), apprenticeship, general 
and higher education, and to help integrate the 
validation of non-formal learning into the national 
qualifications system. 

The framework builds on reforms in VET and 
development of competence-based qualifications 
since the 1990s, including a tripartite agreement 
between the Government, employers’ 
representatives and trade unions, signed in 2005, 
aiming to establish a coherent national system of 
qualifications. Parallel work was carried out in higher 
education, steered by the National Agency for 
Qualifications in Higher Education and Partnership 
with the Economic and Social Environment. 
A national qualifications framework for higher 
education, in line with the Bologna process and the 
EQF, has been implemented and is a constitutive 
part of the comprehensive ROQF. Self-certification 
was completed in 2011.

One of the main challenges has been to link 
the development processes, structures and 
stakeholders from VET and higher education, 
and to improve links with the labour market. An 
important step was taken in June 2011 when the 
National Council for Adult Vocational Training and 
the National Agency for Qualifications in Higher 
Education and Partnership with the Economic and 
Social Environment were merged into one single 
body – the National Qualifications Authority (NQA) – 
responsible for developing and implementing 
a comprehensive NQF. The NQA is the national 
coordination point for the EQF (EQF NCP); since 
2018 it has also been the National Europass Centre.

The ROQF was referenced to the EQF in  
April 2018.

In 2013, Romania adopted a learning-outcomes-
based NQF for lifelong learning – the Romanian 
national qualifications framework (ROQF) – by 

781   Government Decision No 918/2013 on the approval 

of the NQF, available at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/
DetaliiDocumentAfis/170238. 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSPolicy objectives

Levels and use of learning outcomes

Romania faces a challenge in raising the quality of 
education; skills shortage also remains a problem 
for the country. There is insufficient coherence in 
the qualification system and a lack of progression 
opportunities between IVET, CVET and higher 
education. Validation of non-formal and informal 
learning within formal education, needed to support 
education access and mobility, is not yet possible. 
Qualifications should respond better to labour 
market needs and there is a requirement for greater 
transparency of learning outcomes and labour 
force mobility. National qualifications also need to 
be understood abroad and linked to the EQF, to 
promote mobility of learners and workers between 
European countries.

The ROQF aims to improve the transparency, 
comparability and portability of people’s 
qualifications, to support mobility both in education 
and training and on the labour market. It is also 
seen as a tool to support national reforms and 
modernisation of education and training. It opens 
up the possibility to address several issues, such 
as coherence and progression in the education 
system, use of validation, adult participation in 
lifelong learning, and transitions between work 
and education. It is linked to a number of policy 
strategies in education, training and employment: 
the National strategy for lifelong learning 2015–20782; 
the Strategy for VET 2016–20783; the National 
strategy for tertiary education 2015–20784 and 
the National sustainable development strategy 
Horizons 2013–2020–2030785. Developing the ROQF 
and better coordination between stakeholders is 
highlighted as a cross-cutting action contributing to 
two of the strategic pillars of the National strategy 
for lifelong learning 2015–20: Pillar 2, increasing 
quality and relevance, and Pillar 3, partnerships.

According to the referencing report (Ministry 
of Education and NQA, 2018), the process of 
referencing the ROQF to the EQF has contributed to 
the development of a qualifications culture, built on 
the principles of quality, transparency, transferability 
and progression.

782   The National strategy for lifelong learning 2015–20 is 

available in Romanian at: www.edu.ro/sites/default/
files/_fi%C8%99iere/Minister/2016/strategii/Strategie%20
LLL%20(1).pdf

783   The Strategy for VET 2016–20 is available in Romanian at: 

http://oldsite.edu.ro/index.php/articles/24340 

784   The National strategy for tertiary education 2015–20 is 

available in Romanian at: www.edu.ro/sites/default/files/
fisiere%20articole/Strategie_inv_tertiar_2015_2020.pdf

785   The National sustainable development strategy is 

available in English at: www.mmediu.ro/beta/wp-content/
uploads/2012/06/2012-06-12_dezvoltare_durabila_
nsdsenglish12112008.pdf

The ROQF comprises eight qualification levels that 
can be acquired in education and training and by 
validation of learning outcomes from non-formal and 
informal learning contexts. National level descriptors 
are identical to EQF level descriptors. They are 
defined in terms of three categories of learning 
outcomes: knowledge (theoretical and/or factual); 
skills, divided into cognitive skills (use of logical, 
intuitive and creative thinking) and practical skills 
(manual dexterity and use of methods, materials, 
tools and instruments); and responsibility and 
autonomy786. 

There is commitment to, and visible preoccupation 
with, strengthening the learning outcomes 
approach as part of the national reform programme. 
Changes in national policies are mainly driven by 
the European legislative framework, also influenced 
in recent years by workforce migration and 
student mobility. Poor results in the programme 
for international student assessment (PISA) 
(OECD, 2014) resulted in pressure for more 
comprehensive understanding, among practitioners 
in general education and teacher training (initial 
and continuous), of learning outcomes and use of 
knowledge and skills in real-life situations. 

As reported for a Cedefop study on the subject 
(Cedefop, 2016), the learning outcomes concept 
is not widely shared. There are many different 
interpretations due to various linguistic and 
pedagogic concepts. For a successful shift to 
learning outcomes, an integrated approach to 
curriculum, assessment or examination, and teacher 
training would be required; these connections 
are not yet sufficiently coherent in the Romanian 
system. 

The VET sector is at the forefront of the use of the 
learning outcomes approach, responding directly 
to social and economic needs. Initial vocational and 
technical qualifications have been developed since 
2003, based on training standards with units of 
learning outcomes, in turn based on occupational 
standards787. Vocational training standards have 
been developed in collaboration with the social 

786   The third category of level descriptors, initially called 

‘competence’, was recently amended to ‘responsibility 
and autonomy’ in line with the Council recommendation 
of 22 May 2017 on the European qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning (Government Decision 132/2018 
modifying and supplementing Government Decision 
918/2013 on the adoption of the NQF).

787   The guidelines on the writing and application of learning 
outcomes in VET have been adopted through Order 
No 5293/2015 of the Minister of Education on the approval 
of the structure of training standards in VET. 

523

Volume II: National and regional casespartners, validated by sectoral committees, and 
approved by the Ministry of National Education. 
New curricula have been designed. Occupational 
standards are used in CVET and are based on 
elements of competence to be proved at the 
workplace. The standards are approved by the 
National Qualifications Authority, after validation 
by sectoral committees. The new occupational 
standards include a curriculum unique to each 
occupation listed in the classification of occupations. 

There are two factors which keep the 
implementation of the learning outcomes approach 
in adult education at an early stage: low participation 
of adults in lifelong learning (1.2% in 2016) and a 
diversified institutional landscape with different 
types of institutions, programmes and organisational 
arrangements.

Within higher education, qualifications are linked 
to the credit structure of the European credit 
transfer system (ECTS), which is compulsory for 
all higher education institutions in Romania. Use 
of a competence-based model is part of higher 
education reform. However, further efforts are 
needed to ensure better definition of certain 
competences for the study programmes to aid 
differentiation between bachelor and master 
degrees. There is a challenge in using competence-
based models in designing curricula, learning 
resources and assessment tools (Cedefop, 2016).

The implementation of learning outcomes in all 
education sectors is seen as an important challenge 
in the future implementation of the ROQF. It is 
yet to be clarified how – and how far – learning 
outcomes are to be implemented in the different 
sectors. The development of mechanisms for writing 
and implementing learning outcomes in education is 
envisaged through projects (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). For instance, within the project 
National coordinators for the implementation of the 
European agenda for adult learning788, the NQA has 
developed a guide for writing learning outcomes 
in cooperation with education and labour market 
stakeholders, and has carried out dissemination 
activities. The Ministry of National Education has 
a project including six pilot study programmes, 
for six key fields, based on the learning outcomes 
approach.

788   Project National coordinators for the implementation 

of the European agenda for adult learning; Agreement 
No 2015-2770/001-001; Project No 567464-EPP-2015-1-
RO-EPPKA3-AL-AGENDA. The methodological guide for 
the writing of learning outcomes developed as part of the 
project is available in Romanian at: http://site.anc.edu.ro/
wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Ghid_Metodologic_privind_
scrierea_rezultatelor_invatari.pdf

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The involvement of stakeholders in the development 
of the NQF is underpinned by the National Education 
Law No 1/2011789. The NQF itself was adopted 
through Government Decision No 918/2013790, 
subsequently amended by Government Decision 
No 567/2015791 and Government Decision 
No 132/2018792. The main body responsible for 
developing and implementing the comprehensive 
ROQF is the National Qualifications Authority, 
NQA (Autoritatea Nationala pentru Calificari, ANC). 
It is the national coordination point for the EQF 
and, since 2018, it has also been appointed as the 
National Europass Centre. The NQA was established 
in June 2011, under the coordination of the Ministry 
of Education and Scientific Research (currently, the 
Ministry of National Education), bringing together 
two institutions: the National Council for Adult 
Vocational Training, in charge of CVET qualifications, 
and the National Agency for Qualifications in Higher 
Education and Partnership with the Economic 
and Social Environment, responsible for higher 
education qualifications. The bodies responsible 
for general education and IVET are, respectively, 
the Ministry of National Education and the National 
Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and 
Training Development.

Quality assurance in education and training, 
for which the NQF is seen as a relevant tool, is 
coordinated through the Romanian Agency for 
Quality Assurance in Higher Education, and the 
Romanian Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher 
Pre-University Education. These are responsible 
for accreditation of education providers and 
programmes in higher education and, respectively, 
in general education and IVET. The NQA is 
responsible for quality assurance in non-formal and 
informal learning, through the National Accreditation 
Centre, which is currently authorising assessment 
centres for competences obtained by ways other 
than formal. The Ministry of Labour and Social 
Justice is expected to be responsible for quality 
assurance in adult learning in the future793.  

789   Article 340 of the National Education Law No 1/2011, 
available in Romanian at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/
DetaliiDocument/125150

790   Government Decision No 918/2013 on the approval of 

the NQF, available in Romanian at: http://legislatie.just.ro/
Public/DetaliiDocumentAfis/170238

791   Government Decision No 567/2015, available 
in Romanian at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/
DetaliiDocumentAfis/170190

792   Government Decision No 132/2018, available in Romanian 

at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/199134

793   According to Government Emergency Ordinance 

No 96/2016 (which is in force but still in Parliament debate 
and awaiting ratification). 

524

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe National Group for Quality Assurance is an 
additional informal inter-institutional structure that 
ensures the coordination of quality assurance in VET. 

Positive aspects in Romania are the clear 
governance structure for the development of the 
NQF, the strong role of the NQA as initiator of 
legislation, and good human resource capacity. 
However, the downside of the current governance 
arrangement is that approval and implementation of 
legislative proposals is slow.

The NQA has the following competences in relation 
to the development of the NQF:

a.  proposes elements of national policies and 

strategies, and drafts legislation on the NQF;
b.  develops, implements and updates the NQF;
c.  develops and updates methodologies for NQF 

implementation;

d.  develops instruments needed for monitoring, 

evaluation and control of the NQF;

e.  is responsible for the national qualifications 

registers;

f.  ensures compatibility of the national 

qualifications system with other existing 
qualifications systems at European and 
international levels.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways794

A legislative framework for the validation of non-
formal and informal learning in Romania dates 
back to 2004795 when the process of assessment 
and certification of professional competences 
obtained in ways other than formal was first defined 
and described. The National Law of Education 
No 1/2011796 reaffirms the role of validation in 
lifelong learning policies, and defines validation 
in line with previous legislation as ‘the process 
of assessment and certification of informal and 
non-formal learning’. The National strategy for 
lifelong learning (2015–20)797 provides a direction for 

794   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

795   Common Order of the Minister of Education and the 

Minister of Labour No 4543/468 of 23 August 2004 for 
approving the procedure on assessment and certification 
of competences acquired in a non-formal and informal 
context, based on Ordinance 129/2000 on adult learning.
796   National Education Law No 1/2011 available in Romanian 

at: www.edu.ro/sites/default/files/_fi%C8%99iere/
Minister/2017/legislatie%20MEN/Legea%20nr.%20
1_2011_actualizata2018.pdf

797   The National strategy for lifelong learning 2015–20, 
adopted by Government Decision No 418/2015, is 

developing validation mechanisms and addressing 
issues related to financial incentives, information, 
counselling and access to validation, especially 
for disadvantaged groups. The first action line of 
the Action plan 2015–20 for the implementation 
of the strategy includes measures related to 
the recognition of prior learning, including the 
recognition of competences acquired abroad. 

The establishment in 2014 of a dedicated structure 
for validation within the NQA, the National Centre 
for Accreditation, has contributed to improving 
validation system coordination. This structure 
is responsible for authorising professional 
competences assessment centres and practitioners 
in validation of non-formal and informal learning of 
adults; evaluation and certifying of assessors and 
evaluators; and monitoring the performance of 
assessment centres and of individual assessors. 
The developments initiated by the National Centre 
for Accreditation over recent years focused on 
increasing the quality of the validation process and 
regulating the selection of staff involved in validation 
services798. 

Current work on the national qualifications 
framework and register, including the recent 
adoption of legislation on the National register 
of professional qualifications in education, the 
National register of professional qualifications, 
and the National register of qualifications in higher 
education799 is also expected to impact favourably 
on the development of validation services. 
The legislative basis for the ROQF states that 
qualifications obtained through non-formal and 
informal education will be included in the framework 
using ROQF level descriptors. The current 
methodology allows competence certificates to 

available in Romanian at: www.edu.ro/sites/default/
files/_fi%C8%99iere/Minister/2016/strategii/Strategie%20
LLL%20(1).pdf

798   Decision No 1247/2017 on instructions for the 

authorisation of assessment and certification centres; 
Decision No 210/2018 for the approval of the procedure 
for evaluation and certification of assessment and 
certification experts and their registration in the evaluation 
and certification experts register; Order No 3629/2018 
on the approval of the methodology for establishing the 
criteria and procedures for evaluation and certification 
of professional competence of assessors, evaluators of 
evaluators and external evaluators.

799   Order No 3023/2018 on the control of professional training 
standards and their registration in the National register 
of professional qualifications in education; Government 
Decision No 917/2018 regarding the approval of the 
National register of professional qualifications and Order 
No 5686/2017 regarding the modification and completion 
of the Methodology for registration of higher education 
qualifications in the National register of qualifications in 
higher education (approved by the Order of the Minister 
of National Education No 3475/2017).

525

Volume II: National and regional casesbe obtained through validation of non-formal and 
informal learning up to ROQF level 3800.

However, the current non-formal system in Romania 
operates parallel to the formal system, and the 
bridge between the two is still under development. 
It is not possible to obtain formal qualifications 
(full or partial) through validation of non-formal and 
informal learning. The validation system is mainly 
for adults and those who do not tend to go back to 
the formal system. In the ROQF, validation is linked 
only with occupational standards that relate to 
CVET qualifications. These occupational standards 
are not the same as the training standards used for 
certification in formal education and training.

Vocational skills acquired in non-formal and informal 
learning can be evaluated following requests 
from individual beneficiaries made to the relevant 
professional competences assessment centres, 
authorised and monitored by the National Centre 
for Accreditation. An assessment commission is 
responsible for applying the validation methodology 
and for sending the requests for certificates to 
the NQA. Any legal entity in Romania can apply 
to become an assessment centre: this involves 
sending a request to the NQA and providing 
evidence of the assessment procedures, tools 
and expertise in the specific qualification or 
competence. Education and training providers may 
apply for authorisation to become assessment 
centres for specific qualifications, but so far only 
a few schools and universities have done so. 
According to data provided by the NQA, the number 
of accredited assessment centres and beneficiaries 
that gained certificates through validation has 
fallen in recent years, and the national coverage 
of assessment centres remains a challenge. 
However, the quality of services provided has 
been strengthened as a result of quality assurance 
mechanisms implemented recently. According 
to the NQA database, there are approximatively 
30 active assessment centres, mainly in services, 
construction and social protection (data from 2018). 
The higher concentration of assessment centres in 
these sectors is the result of the sectors’ interest 
and their specific agenda around validation.

The chapter on lifelong learning in the National 
Law of Education No 1/2011801 creates the legal 
basis for developing community lifelong learning 
centres. These have several aims: carry out 
analysis of education and training needs at a local 

level; increase access to non-formal and informal 
learning and to validation of learning outcomes from 
non-formal and informal learning through second 
chance programmes and certification of skills and 
competences; and promote partnerships with 
the labour market. The creation of these centres, 
however, is still under discussion. The methodology 
for their establishment has been proposed for public 
debate, but has not yet been approved, despite 
the view of many stakeholders that they may 
increase access to validation services of specific 
disadvantaged groups, especially in rural and 
isolated communities. 

NQF implementation

The ROQF is well embedded in national legislation 
and linked to policy strategies in education, training 
and employment802. It has been revised according to 
the 2017 Council recommendation on the European 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning803 
and is considered to have reached an operational 
stage (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 
It covers all education and training sectors and is 
open to qualifications acquired through formal, non-
formal and informal learning. Given its envisaged 
role in responding to changing labour market 
needs, in supporting national qualification system 
transparency and quality, and the recognition of 
qualifications needed to encourage mobility, the 
ROQF is expected to become a permanent feature 
of the national qualifications system804.

The ROQF for lifelong learning includes the 
framework for higher education adopted in 
2011. In 2014 a ministerial order805 entered into 
force regulating equivalence between the five 
qualification levels available prior to 2013 (four levels 
for secondary non-tertiary qualifications and one 
level for higher education) and the eight levels of 

802   The National strategy for lifelong learning 2015–20; the 

Strategy for VET 2016–20; the National strategy for tertiary 
education 2015–20; the National sustainable development 
strategy (for links to these documents, please see section 
Policy objectives above).

803   Council of the European Union (2017). Council 

recommendation of 22 May 2017 on the European 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning and repealing 
the recommendation of the European Parliament and 
of the Council of 23 April 2008 on the establishment 
of the European qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 
15.6.2017, pp. 15–27. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.C_.2017.189.01.0015.01.
ENG&toc=OJ:C:2017:189:TOC 

800   According to Government Decision No 918/2013 for 

804   Cedefop (2015). Survey on the sustainability and visibility 

the approval of the national qualifications framework, 
amended by Government Decision No 567/2015.
 National Education Law No 1/2011, available in Romanian 
at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/125150

801 

of NQFs (unpublished).

805   Order of the Ministry of Education No 3973/2014, 

available in Romanian at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/
DetaliiDocument/160559

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthe ROQF. An amendment to the 2013 government 
decision on approval of the NQF was published in 
July 2015806. Its aim is to clarify correspondence 
between the NQF/EQF levels, qualifications issued 
and the type of education and training programmes 
that lead to qualifications at each level, as well as 
access requirements for each NQF level. The legal 
base was further amended in 2018807, stipulating 
that, as of 1 January 2019, all qualifications and 
qualification supplements, as well as all qualification 
databases, are to contain a clear reference to the 
corresponding NQF level. Other existing regulations 
refer to the inclusion of NQF levels on qualification 
documents in the different sectors808, though 
information about the number of qualifications  
that already specify the NQF/EQF levels is not  
yet available (European Commission and  
Cedefop, 2018). 

The sectors that were given priority in implementing 
the NQF were general education, higher 
education and VET. The establishment of a national 
register of qualifications in higher education 
was decided in 2011809; this covers qualifications 
from higher education at ROQF levels 6, 7 and 8. 
The methodology for placing higher education 
qualifications in the register, amended in 2014 and 
2017, is based on a two-step procedure: validation 
and registration of qualifications. Starting in 2018, 
it is mandatory for registered qualifications to be 
described in terms of learning outcomes and to be 
related to at least one representative occupation 
from the Romanian classification of occupations. 
This aims to ensure the links between skills and 
learning outcomes acquired in education and 
competences on the labour market. The VET focus 
has been on developing training standards in line 
with occupational standards and labour market 
needs, and the procedure for their approval. The 
national register of professional qualifications in 
education, comprising qualifications from IVET, was 

806   Government Decision No 567/2015, available 
in Romanian at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/
DetaliiDocumentAfis/170190

807   Government Decision No 132/2018, available in Romanian 

at: http://legislatie.just.ro/Public/DetaliiDocument/199134

808   Order No 3844/2016 approving the regulations on the 
status of study diplomas for secondary education; 
methodological norm of 8.5.2003 for enforcing the 
provisions of Government Ordinance No 129/2000 
regarding adult learning, further amended and 
supplemented; Government Decision No 728/2016 
approving the content and format of the study documents 
to be issued for 2nd cycle graduates – masters, and 1st 
and 2nd cycle combined graduates; Order No 3742/2016 
on approving the template of the Europass supplements.
809   Order of the Minister of National Education No 5703/2011, 

replaced by Order No 5204/2014. The register in its 
current form is available at: http://site.anc.edu.ro/registrul-
national-al-calificarilor-din-invatamantul-superior-rncis/

approved by a ministerial order in January 2018810 
and subsequently incorporated into the national 
register of professional qualifications, approved by 
Government Decision No 917/2018. The register 
shall comprise all nationally recognised qualifications 
corresponding to the NQF levels 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, 
obtained in education and vocational training, in 
formal, non-formal and informal contexts, including 
adult education. 

The two main registers (national register of 
professional qualifications and national register 
of qualifications in higher education) are to be 
brought together under the umbrella of the national 
qualifications register811.

The framework is made visible to potential 
stakeholders through a variety of actions carried 
out by the NQA. Information campaigns using 
media channels (radio and TV) aim to improve 
awareness among the general public. The EU-
funded project National Europass Centre + EQF 
NCP 2018–20, implemented by the NQA, aims 
to raise awareness with respect to the EQF/NQF 
among representatives of social partners, public 
employment services, education providers, quality 
assurance bodies and other public authorities 
through meetings, conferences and workshops 
discussing the developments related to the NQF 
and the use of learning outcomes. Currently 
prioritised target groups are higher education and 
the low-skilled. 

As the referencing of the ROQF has been recently 
finalised, evaluation will be approached at a later 
stage. Currently, the framework is thought to have an 
increasing impact on promoting the use of learning 
outcomes; on the review and quality of qualifications 
through the use of learning outcomes in designing 
curricula and in qualification, occupational and training 
standards; and on facilitating contact between 
education sectors and increasing cooperation 
between sectors and between stakeholders 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Referencing to regional frameworks 

A draft referencing report (Romanian Ministry of 
Education and NQA, 2014) was presented in June 
2014. Following comments from the EQF advisory 
group and revision of the EQF recommendation 

810 

811 

 Order No 3023/2018 regarding the verification of training 
standards and their entry into the national register of 
professional qualifications in education.
 The Government Decision regarding the national 
qualifications register and all its components is currently 
pending approval.

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Volume II: National and regional casesin 2017812, a revised referencing report (Romanian 
Ministry of Education NQA, 2018) was presented and 
approved in the EQF advisory group in April 2018. 
One focus in the revised report was referencing 
criterion 4 on the procedures for inclusion of 
qualifications in the NQF. The next revision of the 
referencing report is foreseen for 2022.

Important lessons and future plans

Romania has focused in recent years on updating 
the legal base of the ROQF, developing qualification 
databases, clarifying procedures for inclusion 
of qualifications in the framework and updating 
methodologies. Efforts were mostly driven by the 
2017 Council recommendation on the European 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning, and the 
aim of finalising referencing the ROQF to the EQF. 

One key challenge to ROQF implementation so far 
has been the introduction of the learning outcomes 
approach in all sectors of education and training, 
which is now seen as imperative and a point of action 
for the future (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018). Increasing efforts have been made in this 
regard to raise awareness about and understanding 
of the use and writing of learning outcomes. 

A national register of qualifications in higher 
education has become operational. In November 
2018 the national register of professional 
qualifications was approved by Government 
Decision No 917/2018, intended to include all 
nationally recognised qualifications linked to NQF 
levels 1 to 5, regardless of how they are acquired. 

The approval and implementation of a national 
register of qualifications (RNC), aimed to bring 
together these two main registers, is currently 
pending.

It is essential to have good cooperation between 
different stakeholders and structures. Merging 
the National Council for Adult Training and the 
Agency for Qualifications in Higher Education 
into a single body, the National Qualifications 
Authority, responsible for the development and 
implementation of a comprehensive NQF, was 
an important step in supporting more coherent 
approaches. The NQA is also responsible for 
coordinating the system of validation of non-formal 
and informal learning; in 2018 it was appointed 
National Europass Centre. Increasing contact 
and enhanced cooperation between different 
stakeholders, supported by NQF-related projects, 
has also been observed.

Validation and recognition of non-formal and 
informal learning was an important driver of NQF 
development in Romania. Progress has been 
made over recent years, though it is limited to 
qualifications up to ROQF level 3. 

The need to respond to changing labour market 
demands, to tackle the mismatch between the 
education offer and the labour market demand, and 
to encourage mobility across Europe are seen as 
opportunities for the future implementation and 
promotion of the ROQF. However, more information 
on concrete future plans and strategies for 
implementation of the framework are needed.

Table 69. Romanian national qualifications framework (ROQF)

ROQF 
LEVELS 

QUALIFICATION TYPES

8

7

6

Doctoral degree (Diploma de doctor) (third cycle of higher education)

Certificate for postdoctoral studies (Atestat de studii postdoctorale) (postdoctoral studies)

Master degree (Diploma de master) and Diploma supplement (second cycle of higher education)

Bachelor degree/Architect diploma (Diploma de licenta/Diploma de architect) and Diploma 
supplement (first and second cycle combined higher education study programmes)

Bachelor degree/Engineering diploma/Urbanism diploma (Diploma de licenta/Diploma de inginer/
Diploma de urbanist) and Diploma supplement (first cycle of higher education)

Certificate of professional* competence (Certificat de atestare a competentelor profesionale) 
(postgraduate university studies)

Graduation certificate (Certificat de absolvire) (postgraduate university studies)

EQF 
LEVELS 

8

7

6

812   See Footnote 804. 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 69. Romanian national qualifications framework (ROQF) (Continued)

ROQF 
LEVELS 

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF 
LEVELS 

5

4

3

2

1

Short cycle higher education certificate (Diploma de absolvire/calificare) and Certificate 
supplement (short cycle higher education)

Post-secondary certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement (post-secondary 
non-higher tertiary education)

Upper secondary school leaving certificate (Diploma de Bacalaureat) (general, technological or 
vocational education, four years of study)

VET certificate level 4 (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement (technological/
vocational high-school)

VET certificate level 4/Qualification/Graduation certificate (Certificat de calificare/absolvire) and 
Descriptive supplement (authorised training provider/training programme)

VET certificate level 4/Qualification certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement 
(authorised training provider/apprenticeship programmes in the workplace)

VET certificate level 3/Qualification certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive 
Supplement (authorised training provider/apprenticeship programmes in the workplace)

VET certificate level 3/Qualification certificate/Certificate of professional* competence (Certificat 
de calificare/Certificat de competente profesionale) and Descriptive supplement (accredited 
training centre)

VET certificate level 3/Certificate of professional* competence (Certificat de competente 
profesionale) (authorised assessment centre)

VET certificate level 3/Qualification/Graduation certificate (Certificat de calificare/absolvire) and 
Descriptive supplement (authorised training provider/training programme)

VET certificate level 3/Qualification certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement 
(education unit/technological/vocational high school)

VET certificate level 3/Qualification certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement 
(education unit/vocational training programme organised in dual system)

VET certificate level 3/Qualification certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement 
(education unit/professional* education lasting at least three years)

VET certificate level 2/Qualification certificate (Certificat de calificare) and Descriptive supplement 
(authorised training provider/apprenticeship programmes in the workplace)

VET certificate level 2/Qualification certificate/Certificate of professional* competence (Certificat 
de calificare/Certificat de competente profesionale) and Descriptive supplement (accredited 
training centre)

VET certificate level 2/Certificate of professional* competence (Certificat de competente 
profesionale) (authorised assessment centre)

VET certificate level 2/Qualification/Graduation certificate (Certificat de calificare/absolvire) and 
Descriptive supplement (authorised training provider/training programme)

Certificate of professional* competence (Certificat de competente profesionale) (authorised 
assessment centre)

Graduation certificate (Certificat de absolvire) and Descriptive supplement (authorised training 
provider/training programme)

Graduation Diploma (Diploma de absolvire) (basic education unit), eight years

5

4

3

2

1

Notes: The term ‘VET’ generically includes both the vocational and technological education and training (TVET) routes available 
in the national education system, offering qualifications at EQF levels 2–5, and the education and training offered by training 
providers in contexts other than the formal education system, for adult learning, also for qualification at EQF levels 2–5, 
preparing learners for occupations and the labour market. (*) The term ‘professional’ denotes vocational and technological 
training aimed at the labour market. 

Source: Romanian Ministry of Education; NQA (2018). Order No 5039/2126/2018 of the Ministry of Education, regarding the 
approval of the correlation between the NQF levels, study/qualification documents issued, the type of education and vocational 
training programme in Romania through which qualification levels can be obtained, the EQF levels and the access requirements 
for each qualification level.

529

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
CVET 

continuing vocational education and 
training
EQF 
European qualifications framework
EQF NCP  national coordination point for the 

IVET 

EQF
initial vocational education and 
training

NQA  

NQF 
ROQF  

VET 

National Qualifications Authority 
(Autoritatea Nationala pentru Calificari 
– ANC)
national qualifications framework
Romanian national qualifications 
framework
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

National Qualifications Authority (Autoritatea Nationala pentru Calificari – ANC) – the EQF NCP:  

www.anc.edu.ro

National register of qualifications in higher education: http://site.anc.edu.ro/registru-national/
National register of professional qualifications: http://site.anc.edu.ro/rncpe/
Romanian Ministry of Education; NQA (2018). Referencing the Romanian qualifications framework to the 

European qualifications framework (unpublished).

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning-outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/
publications/3074

European Commission (2017). Education and training monitor 2017: Romania. 
European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).  

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report Romania. 

Romanian Ministry of Education; NQA (2014). Referencing the Romanian national qualifications framework 

to the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning (unpublished).

Romanian Ministry of Education; NQA (2018). Referencing the Romanian qualifications framework to the 

European qualifications framework (unpublished).

OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) (2014). PISA 2012 results in focus:  
what 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know. Paris: OECD Publishing.  
www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

530

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSRUSSIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
There is no separate law or decree on a national 
qualifications framework (NQF), but the Federal Law 
N236-Ф3 of 3 December 2012 set out definitions 
of qualifications and occupational standards in the 
labour code and in the Law on Technical Regulation. 
The NQF comprises nine levels. The lead institution 
is the National Qualifications Council.

Russia is a member of the Bologna Process in 
higher education, joining in 2003 and so bound to 
implement the qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
Russia has a population of circa 144 million. 
Population ageing is a major challenge for employers 
and society. In 2013, its working-age element was 
calculated at 68 million, or 60% of the total. This is 
predicted to fall as low as 56% by 2030. Motivated 
by these demographic pressures, the governments 
seek to intensify productivity through better training 
and maximising technology. Migration is also 
increasing.

In 2018, Russia’s unemployment level was 
estimated at 5.2%. The rate of youth unemployment 
is higher, as is the case in most European countries. 
Young graduates have problems finding jobs; the 
unemployment rate for 15–25 year-olds in 2018 was 
14.8%.

According to the new Law on Education in the 
Russian Federation, vocational education and 
training (VET) refers to the sector of secondary 
VET, which trains both skilled workers (initial 
VET programmes) and middle-level specialists 
(secondary VET programmes). Hence, secondary 
VET implements programmes leading to workers’ 
qualifications (level 3) and to qualifications of mid-
level specialists (equivalent to EQF levels 4 and 5).

In addition VET programmes are implemented 
in a number of public universities (around 474). 
Universities amount to over 818, of which 
502 are public and 316 private. About 87% 
of secondary school graduates opt for higher 
education. As in many countries, VET still suffers 
from negative stereotyping, as parents drive 
their children to compete for places in higher 
education, resulting in too many higher education 
graduates and a shortage of VET-qualified people. 
Key mismatches are observed in a number of 
rapidly-developing and innovation-based sectors. 
According to estimates, by 2020 Russia would 
need 25 million highly productive professionals to 
fill new jobs.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Given globalisation, rapid technological change and 
the country’s negative demographic trends, there 
is an urgent need to put in place a comprehensive 
system of continuing upskilling and recognition and 
validation of skills acquired outside formal education 
and training. The NQF is intended, with other 
measures, to address these challenges. 

In particular, it should:

a.  identify changing skills and qualifications 
requirements and respond to them;

b.  develop an up-to-date classification of labour 
market occupations (the respective register 
has been approved by the Labour Ministry) and 
of qualifications, that are based on learning 
outcomes/competences;

c.  ensure transparency of qualifications for all 
target groups: students, education policy-
makers, education establishments, the 
workforce and employers;

d.  ensure permeability between – or greater 

equality of – educational subsystems (such as 
vocational and academic education);
e.  serve as a basis for the validation of 

The public VET sector comprises around 
2 995 public and 283 private VET institutions. 

competences and qualifications, both of formal 
and non-formal education.

531

Volume II: National and regional casesInternational cooperation
The country’s NQF is influenced by the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and by the Bologna 
Process, of which it is a member. Russia’s office 
for recognition or ENIC (European Network of 
Information Centres in the European Region) is 
the Main State Centre for Education Evaluation. 
Recognition of foreign education awards/diplomas/
degrees and/or foreign qualifications in Russia is 
regulated by Federal law.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The regulation on an NQF has been approved by the 
Federal Labour Ministry under the title ‘The levels 
of qualifications to use in developing occupational 
standards’. The levels are also used to develop 
occupational qualifications (Order of the Ministry of 
Labour and Social Protection No 148n of 12 April 2013).

Alignment to other classification systems
Through Tempus projects and at the initiative of the 
sector qualifications councils, regional and sectoral 
qualifications frameworks have been developed in 
a range of industries, including food, environment, 
land management, IT and management. Examples 
include a regional qualifications system for the 
Chelyabinsk region and sectoral qualifications 
frameworks in the railroads sector and welding. 
More sectoral qualifications frameworks are in the 
making, including in the commerce, hospitality 
and tourism sectors, jointly developed by sector 
employers and VET colleges.

Opportunities for recognition of non-formal learning 
have acquired legitimisation in the form of a law.

NQF levels and level descriptors
There are nine levels in the NQF legal act (the 
ninth level covers postdoctoral qualifications) and 
its descriptors are largely in line with those of the 
EQF. The framework is based on the following 
descriptors: responsibility (which correlates with 
the autonomy and responsibility parameter of the 
EQF), skills and knowledge. While this system 
shares some characteristics of an NQF, it differs 
from prevailing conceptions of NQFs in a number 
of ways: it has been developed without strong 
stakeholder participation; it has not undergone open 
public review processes; and it is not supported 
by a typology of qualifications and by a register of 
qualifications for all sectors. 

Moreover, the newly formed register of 
qualifications refers only to occupational 
qualifications that are not related to education 
qualifications. Additionally, the descriptors 

include the parameters ‘ways of attaining the 
level of qualification’ and ‘duration of formal 
education programmes’, that limit attainment of 
qualifications to formal education pathways – which 
is contradictory to a lifelong learning philosophy. 
Hence, even when provision is made to recognise 
practical experience, it contradicts the other 
parameters in the descriptors.

Use of learning outcomes
New qualifications are generally outcomes-based as 
they are derived from competences. However, this 
is not an explicit legal requirement.

Definition of qualification
Definitions for qualifications appear in the following 
regulations:

a.  the labour code: ‘Qualification of worker is 

the level of his/her knowledge, skills and work 
experience.’ 

b.  the Federal Law N273-Ф3 on education in the 
Russian Federation (of 29 December 2012): 
‘The level of knowledge, skills and competency, 
characterising readiness to perform a certain 
type of occupational activity.’

Access, progression and credit
Access to qualifications is stipulated in the 
constitution and the Law on Education as access to 
education. Access to qualifications can be acquired 
via compulsory vocational education programmes 
of secondary education (qualifications of workers 
and qualifications of the middle-level specialists) and 
programmes of higher education. Progression from 
level to level is traditionally consecutive. Progression 
to a higher level is allowed only if the lower level 
qualification has been achieved and is confirmed 
by a respective document, such as an appropriate 
certificate or diploma.

Article 10 of Federal Law N273-Ф3 on education 
allows candidates who have acquired skills non-
formally, or who have completed a non-accredited 
study programme, to sit intermediate and final State 
exams at an education institution that has public 
accreditation, so that they can progress to higher 
levels of qualification.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
There is yet no NQF law or decree but the 
Federal Law N236-Ф3 of 3 December 2012 set 
out definitions of qualifications and occupational 
standards in the labour code and in the Law on 
Technical Regulation.

532

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLegislation on establishing the National Council 
for Qualifications (Presidential Decree No 249 
of 16 April 2014) and the Law on Independent 
Assessment of Qualifications are also relevant.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
Overall responsibility for coordinating Russia’s 
NQF development, including supervision of the 
development of occupational standards, lies with 
the National Qualifications Council, which was 
established as an autonomous agency in April 2014. 
Another actor in this area is the National Agency for 
Qualifications Development that currently acts on 
behalf of the National Qualifications Council.

Agencies, ministries and official bodies engaged in 
NQF development are the National Qualifications 
Council, sector qualifications councils, the Ministry 
of Labour and Social Protection, the two ministries 
responsible for education (the Ministry of Education, 
in charge of all sectors of education with the 
exception of higher education, and the Ministry of 
Education and Science), employer associations and 
professional bodies.

In 2012, the development of occupational standards 
was entrusted to the Ministry of Labour and 
Social Protection. The ministry approved the 
template for occupational standards development, 
a methodology for filling out the template, 
and a structure of qualifications (description of 
qualifications linked to educational attainment).

Under the Law on Independent Assessment of 
Qualifications, a system of assessment centres 
is being established, affiliated to the sector 
qualifications. Its activities are coordinated by the 
National Qualifications Council and supervised 
by the National Qualifications Development 
Agency. The latter runs a register of independent 
assessment of qualifications, as well as a database 
of results of independent assessment. The register 
of qualifications holds over 1 300 occupational 
qualifications for specialists with a higher education 
and secondary vocational education. Over 
200 examination centres have been opened in 
Russia’s regions.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The initial impetus to establish the NQF came 
from the Russian Union of Industrialists and 
Entrepreneurs, which established the National 
Qualifications Development Agency (NARK) in 2007.

The National Council for Occupational 
Qualifications was established by Presidential 
Decree. It is a consultative and coordinating body 
set up to support development of a system of 

occupational qualifications. The establishment 
of this umbrella high-level body is intended to 
contribute to overcoming the fragmentation of 
earlier efforts and will inject a systemic character 
to the development of up-to-date qualifications 
in Russia. The Council initially approved five 
working groups: on the development of sector 
qualifications (a prototype of sector skills councils), 
on occupational standards development, on 
application of occupational standards in the 
system of education and training, on independent 
assessment of qualifications, and on analysis 
of best practices. Later, the groups on the 
development of sector qualifications and on 
occupational standards development merged.

These developments have contributed to progress 
in occupational standards, new qualifications, 
and sectoral qualifications frameworks. This 
will ultimately result in the development of 
a fully fledged NQF and the national system 
of qualifications, embracing institutional 
(sector qualifications councils/sector bodies), 
methodological (occupational standards), quality 
and assurance (sector bodies that coordinate 
assessment, validation and recognition of 
occupational qualifications) mechanisms.

Parallel to the above, a methodology has been 
developed to aid linking occupational standards, 
qualifications standards and education and training 
standards.

Resources and funding
The National Qualifications Council and the sector 
qualifications councils are self-funded; the system 
of independent assessment of qualifications is 
supported by federal grants in its initial stage but is 
to be self-funded later.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality in education is defined by the Law on 
Education. Providers and other actors must comply 
with the Federal State education standards. 
Measures include licensing, accreditation and final 
assessment of learners. The Federal Service for 
Supervision in Education (affiliated with the Russian 
Federation government) monitors compliance with 
the established procedures.

In VET and higher education, industry and employers 
and sectoral associations accredit programmes 
in terms of their labour market relevance. The 
aim is to determine whether VET and higher 
education programmes are linked to occupational 
requirements, including occupational standards.

Russia is a member of the European Association for 
Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA). 

533

Volume II: National and regional casesRecognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Paragraph 7, Article 10 of Federal Law N273-Ф3 
on education in the Russian Federation, dated 
29 December 2012, states that those who complete 
a study programme in the format of self-education 
or family education, or who have completed a study 
programme that lacked State accreditation, have the 
right to sit intermediate and final State exams at an 
education institution that has public accreditation, 
and so to progress along the chosen learning path.

Since 2016, under the Law on Independent 
Assessment of Qualifications, validation has been 
available for candidates seeking certification for 
vocational qualifications. These qualifications are 
based on occupational standards. Sector councils, 
employer-led, manage these assessment processes.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The national register and database are being 
finalised.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of NQF 
implementation have not yet been defined.

Impact for end-users
Pre-requisites for the NQF are in place, the tools 
and instruments available allow recognition of non-
formal learning and validation of competences in the 
interests of learners, workers and employers.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Russia is a member of the Bologna Process in 
higher education, joining in 2003 and so bound to 

implement the qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area. The adopted  
three-cycle structure of qualifications is in line  
with the Dublin descriptors.

Important lessons and future plans

The NQF has been propelled forward by employers 
to a greater extent than most countries’ NQFs, 
which are usually State-directed. Development of 
occupational standards is prolific. Russia enjoys the 
advantage of advanced industry and big employers 
who can engage with education and training actors.

The National Qualifications Council has coordinated 
development of occupational standards in all 
major occupational areas (over 1 200 approved to 
date), which provide the basis for qualifications 
standards and occupational qualifications, activities 
of sector skills councils (31 to date), and of the 
independent system of assessing competences and 
qualifications.

Outcomes approaches to defining qualifications and 
curricula remain partial in implementation.

Abbreviations

EQF  European qualifications framework
NQF  national qualifications framework 
VET   vocational education and training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

534

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSAUDI ARABIA

Introduction 

The Saudi Arabia qualifications framework (SAQF) 
was developed to contribute to the reform of 
education and training in the Kingdom of Saudi 
Arabia (KSA) and to standardize the recognition of all 
national registered qualifications within the country. 

It is now in its last phase of official approvals from 
the Board of Directors of the Education and Training 
Evaluation Commission as per the resolution of the 
Council of Ministers. The Education and Training 
Evaluation Commission is part of a transformative 
executive mechanism that aims at raising the quality 
of education and training to competitive world-class 
levels. The two key objectives of the Commission 
are to: 

improve the quality and efficiency of education;

• 
•  support the national economy and its 

development by improving education outcomes.

The introduction of the SAQF into the education 
and training system began in 2018 as a single 
comprehensive and national system for registering 
qualifications in Saudi Arabia, which encompasses 
higher education, technical vocational education and 
training (TVET), and general education.

The development of the SAQF will contribute to the 
paradigm shift for the national education and training 
system and has been designed as an important 
instrument to contribute to the broader KSA’s socio-
economic needs aligned with the wider Vision 2030. 

The National Vision 2030 will drive the diversification 
of the economy to where it will not only rely on 
the oil industry. Achievement of such an economic 
transformation requires deliberate planning 
and careful implementation of a development 
programme with clearly defined objectives, which 
include: ‘We will also redouble efforts to ensure that 
the outcomes of our education system are in line 
with market needs’ (KSA, 2016).

condition for achieving sustainable development 
and progress. KSA’s human resource indicators 
already point to remarkable progress during the 
last two decades through expansion of education 
and training capacities in all regions. Nevertheless, 
reform is now required to make it more relevant 
to a more diversified economy and to increase the 
contribution of the national workforce. 

The SAQF is designed to promote confidence, value 
and validity in relation to all qualifications available 
throughout Saudi Arabia. It has been developed as 
a response to the needs of the different sectors 
of education, training, and employers (public and 
private). It is also part of the context of shaping 
the educational and training qualifications system 
encompassing all kinds of learning. The SAQF 
promotes mechanisms for the recognition of 
all types of learning and facilitates progression 
between the technical, vocational, academic, and 
training sectors. 

Policy objectives

The SAQF’s main objectives are to: 

1.  support raising the quality of Saudi qualifications 

for all citizens;

2.  standardize qualification design and the 

development process in the education and 
training sector;

3.  set national levels for qualifications to enable 
classification and placement, using level 
descriptors based upon learning outcomes 
defined by knowledge, skills, and competences;

4.  use national levels to classify similar 

qualifications through standardized regulations to 
facilitate practical application;

5.  build an integrated national framework for all 

education and training qualifications within the 
country;

6.  set unified standards for the registration of 

Saudi Awarding Bodies that ensures quality and 
comprehensiveness of the qualification design;

The availability of a qualified, highly efficient and 
productive national workforce is an essential 

7.  articulate a common language to ensure 

transparency and comprehension;

535

Volume II: National and regional cases  8. enable comparison of different types of 

education and training qualifications in the 
country, aligning them with each other to ensure 
consistency and accuracy;

  9. align the SAQF with other international frameworks;
10. develop flexible educational, training and 

the domains of knowledge, skill, and competence 
required to demonstrate achievement. The level 
of a qualification is informed by the SAQF level 
descriptors and, where appropriate, national 
occupational and skills standards or other sector and 
professional benchmarks.

employment progression routes by facilitating 
enrolment, progression, and transferability. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The SAQF level descriptors are designed to act as a 
generic guide and tool for:

•  writing learning outcomes and associated 

Table 70 illustrates how existing qualification types 
are aligned to the SAQF architecture.

performance criteria for qualifications and their 
components;

All qualifications within the SAQF have an 
achievement level assigned to them. There are 
10 levels of achievement, from level 1 (lowest) 
to level 10 (highest). The 10 SAQF levels provide 
an indication of the complexity of qualifications 
and their components. Each level has its own 
generic ‘level descriptor’. The level descriptors 
reflect the increase in learning demand through 

•  setting a qualification at an appropriate level 
on the SAQF, alongside purpose statements, 
learning outcomes and performance criteria;

•  making comparisons across qualifications.

The SAQF contributes, as a tool, to the needs of 
the labour market by encouraging the development 
of qualifications that validate relevant learning 
outcomes suitable for the qualification. 

Table 70. Alignment of qualifications to the Saudi Arabia qualifications framework (SAQF) architecture

LEVEL GENERAL 

EDUCATION

TECHNICAL, 
VOCATIONAL AND 
EDUCATIONAL 
TRAINING (INCLUDING 
OCCUPATIONAL 
LEARNING)

Technical Master’s 
degree

Technical Bachelor’s 
degree

Diploma

Associate diploma

HIGHER 
EDUCATION

PROFESSIONAL 
TRAINING

Professional 
development

PhD

Master’s degree

Higher diploma

Bachelor’s degree

Diploma / 
Associate degree

Associate 
diploma / Higher 
education 
certificate

General education 
certificate

Intermediate 
education certificate

Elementary 
education certificate

Certificate 4

Certificate 3

Certificate 2

Certificate 1

Post-
secondary 
levels

General 
education

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

536

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

NQF implementation813

The SAQF is a national project and is being 
developed with support and input from multiple 
stakeholders across the education and training 
landscape and engagement from employers. 

The SAQF will improve the extent to which all 
stakeholders are informed about national qualifications 
and their comparability. This transparency of 
qualifications improves the relationship between 
education, training, employers and the labour market, 
while supporting opportunities for individuals to move 
between SAQF levels and education and training 
sectors in support of lifelong learning. 

The SAQF was developed through engagement with 
91 different organizations from across the public and 
private sectors and with support from six ministries. 
The SAQF is in continuous development with the 
organization so far of more than 200 meetings, 
workshops, and seminars. In 2018, 31 capacity-
building workshops were given to 933 individuals 
representing 41 educational and training institutions 
in Saudi Arabia. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

The SAQF will unify all school, workplace, 
community, training providers, colleges and 
university qualifications into a single system. It is 
designed to clarify entry and exit points and routes 
for progression within and across all sectors. It is 
also designed to provide transparent opportunity for 
credit transfer between sectors.

The scope and range of the SAQF encompasses the 
three main public education sectors:

•  general education;
•  vocational education and training (including the 

training schemes of employers);

•  higher education.

Over time, the SAQF will extend recognition to 
different types of formal, non-formal and informal 
learning, which will underpin the notion of 
lifelong learning and support the development of 
recognition of prior learning from many different 
contexts.

The implementation of the SAQF has been 
undertaken in the following key project phases:

•  phase 1: capacity-building: encompassing 

extensive training for organizations and individuals;

•  phase 2: listing: invitation to all organizations in 
the education and training sector to record and 
list their qualifications for the purpose of data 
collection;

•  phase 3: governance: the operational guide in 

association with SAQF governance;

•  phase 4:official implementation: the use of tools, 
standards, systems and process required for 
new qualification design and existing developed 
qualifications.

IT solutions have been developed to facilitate the 
registration of Awarding Bodies and qualifications. 
The Saudi institutions will develop new qualifications 
which will be submitted for recognition on the Saudi 
Arabia national qualifications framework (NQF). The 
system allows organizations to formally log, assign 
and track these submissions from ‘application’ 
stage through to ‘approval’. This process is entirely 
internal. Additionally, there is a requirement for the 
information to be made publicly accessible when 
a qualification level has been approved and the 
qualifications are made available on the NQF. In 
2018, 20 entities applied for registration as Awarding 
Bodies, and 17 accredited universities were also 
registered with a total of 37 organizations recognized 
by the SAQF as Awarding Bodies in Saudi Arabia.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The SAQF has been designed in consideration with 
other regional frameworks within the region and 
internationally.

The priorities for referencing the SAQF will be based 
on regional recognition and the flux of migrant 
workers against the needs of the labour market to 
align with the creditability of foreign qualifications 
that will support KSA’s key socio-economic drivers.

Important lessons and future plans

The SAQF will become a significant tool of the 
education and training system that will support 

813   Key criteria and indicators for stages of NQF 
implementation to be further elaborated. 

537

Volume II: National and regional casesthe labour market and socio-economic needs of 
Saudi Arabia. Therefore, its successful integration 
cannot be achieved in a vacuum. As an educational 
reform mechanism, the SAQF will support and be 
aligned to other government policies, practices 
and projects, which requires full stakeholder 
involvement and engagement. 

References

Abbreviations
KSA  
NQF  
SAQF   Saudi Arabia qualifications framework

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
national qualifications framework

Education and Training Evaluation Commission. www.etec.gov.sa
KSA (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) (2016). Vision 2030. www.vision2030.gov.sa
Saudi Arabian Qualification Framework Guide (2018). Riyadh: ETEC.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

538

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSERBIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The Law on the National Qualifications Framework 
was adopted on 5 April 2018 and published in the 
Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia on 6 April 
2018. The national qualifications framework of Serbia 
(NQFS) has eight levels and four sublevels. The 
NQFS Law defines four qualification types:

1.  general – basic education and secondary 

education,

2.  vocational education and adult education,
3.  academic – higher education,
4.  vocational – higher education.

The Law on Adult Education provides opportunities 
to acquire parts of qualifications, but Serbia 
does not have partial qualifications (there are no 
qualifications called ‘partial qualifications’).

The NQFS Law establishes an NQF Council and a 
dedicated Qualifications Agency for the first time. 

employment. Overall, the unemployment rate 
continues to fall, to 11.8% in Q2-2017, down 
3.4 percentage points year-over-year and half the 
23.9% recorded in 2012. Reports of skills shortages 
on a sectoral basis mean that the support of the 
European Training Foundation (ETF) on qualifications, 
work-based learning and governance to better match 
education and training/skills supply with labour 
market demand is increasingly relevant and needed 
in the country. This is also reflected in the increased 
focus on the development of a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) and dual education in the country.

The proportion of young people aged 15–24 who 
are neither in employment nor in education or 
training (NEETs) has been dropping in recent years 
but remains relatively high (15.3% in Q2-2017), 
decreasing by 1.9% relative to the same period in 
2016. In 2016 employment increased exclusively 
among persons with primary and secondary 
education completed, while the number of 
employed people with tertiary education decreased, 
indicating skills mismatch problems.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
Serbia’s aging population continues to decrease, 
from 7.64 million in 2002 to 7.06 million in 2016, at 
which point the proportion of the population under 
the age of 15 was 14.4%, while the proportion 
aged 65 or older reached 19.2%, resulting in a high 
old-age dependency ratio.

The IPA II sectoral budget support will provide 
EUR 24 million to support education reform in 
Serbia from 2017 to 2020. The relevant targets for 
ETF support are related to the NQF development 
and teacher training and continuing professional 
development but the sectoral budget support may 
be provided to any reform, including, for example, 
the highly prioritised dual education reform.

The country’s GDP grew by 2.8% in 2016 and 
the policy focus is shifting to structural reforms 
to remove bottlenecks to economic growth, 
including stimulating private sector-led job creation 
and improving skills. The 2017 World Bank Doing 
Business report also recognises progress, with 
Serbia ranking 47th among 190 countries, up from 
54th in 2016 and 91st in 2015.

After losing 400 000 jobs between 2008 and 2014, 
the labour market built on very strong performance 
in 2016 with further improvements in 2017, with 
employment increasing by an additional 119 400 
from Q2-2016 to Q2-2017, 90% of which in formal 

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The Employment and Social Reform Programme in 
the Process of Accession to the European Union 
(ESRP Serbia, 2016)814 identifies main challenges 
in the areas of labour market and employment, 
human capital and skills, social inclusion and social 
protection. The Employment and Social Reform 

814   http://socijalnoukljucivanje.gov.rs/wp-content/

uploads/2016/06/SIPRU-ESRP-2016-English.pdf 

539

Volume II: National and regional casesProgramme builds on various strategic documents 
such as the National Employment Strategy  
2011–2020, the Strategy and Policy of the Industrial 
Development of the Republic of Serbia 2011–2020, 
and the Strategy for Education Development in 
Serbia 2012–2020. 

The main objectives set forth by the Strategy for 
Education Development are:

1.  increasing the quality of the process and 
outcomes of education to the maximum 
attainable level – arising from scientific 
knowledge on education and respectable 
educational practice;

2.  increasing the coverage of population of 

Serbia on all educational levels, from preschool 
education to lifelong learning;

3.  achieving and maintaining the relevance of 

education, particularly education that is fully or 
partially funded by public sources, by aligning the 
educational system structure with immediate 
and developmental needs of individuals and 
economic, social, cultural, media, research, 
educational, public, administrative and other 
systems;

4.  increasing the efficiency of the use of all the 

education resources, i.e. completion rate within 
the stipulated period, with minimum extended 
duration and reduced dropout rates.

The Action Plan815 for the Implementation of the 
Strategy for Education Development in Serbia 
was adopted in 2015. It describes individual 
activities (actions) defined by objectives and 
priorities of the strategy and the method of 
their implementation, deadlines, key actors and 
facilitators, including the monitoring tools and 
performance indicators.

A progress report816 (2018) of the Action Plan 
defines the adoption of the NQFS Law as one of 
the most important measures for improvement 
of the relevance of education in the country. The 
main goals of the NQFS are the development of 
qualification standards based on the needs of the 
labour market and the society as a whole as well 
as ensuring that the entire education is oriented 
on learning outcomes, building the competences 
which are defined by the standard of a given 
qualification, as well as the affirmation of the 
importance of key, general and inter-curricular 

815   www.mpn.gov.rs/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Akcioni_

plan.pdf 

816   www.mpn.gov.rs/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/AP-SROS-

IZVESTAJ-15jun-Eng.pdf 

competences for lifelong learning. The progress 
report describes the sectoral councils provided 
for in the NQFS Law, as an important tool for 
ensuring the relevance of qualifications on the 
labour market. The sectoral councils, expert and 
advisory bodies will be established in the form of 
partnerships. Their main function is to determine 
the demand for qualifications on the labour 
market in the country, through dialogue and 
direct cooperation between the representatives 
of the labour and education domains. This 
cooperation is facilitated by the composition of 
such councils.

Establishment of the NQFS Council and the 
Qualifications Agency were among the government 
priorities for 2018.

International cooperation
Serbia is an EU candidate country. It receives 
financial assistance from the EU via IPA (Instrument 
for Pre-accession Assistance). IPA II funds have 
provided sector budget support, following the 
sector reform contract, since 2017. The sector 
reform contract focus is on NQF development, 
teacher training, Roma and minority language 
education.

Serbia also adopted the Riga 2015 conclusions on 
a new set of medium-term deliverables (MTD) in 
VET for the period 2015–20 (Riga is a follow-up of 
the Bruges Process). MTD 3 is related to the NQF: 
‘Enhance access to VET and qualifications for all 
through more flexible and permeable systems, 
notably by offering efficient and integrated guidance 
services and making available validation of non- 
formal and informal learning.’

The arrangements for recognition of foreign 
qualifications are in transition due to new regulations 
in the NQFS Law, adopted in April 2018.

The ENIC-NARIC centre Serbia is currently a unit of 
the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological 
Development. ENIC-NARIC Serbia operates in the 
area of higher education recognition of foreign 
qualifications only (academic and professional 
recognition).

With the implementation of the NQFS Law, 
ENIC-NARIC will become a department of the 
new Qualifications Agency (to be established). 
The law distinguishes recognition of foreign 
school documents and professional recognition of 
foreign higher education; both procedures shall 
be conducted by the ENIC-NARIC centre, as a 
department of the Agency.

540

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSLevels and use of learning outcomes

The NQFS Law defines four qualification types:

NQF scope and structure
According to the NQFS website817:

•  The NQFS is an instrument for identifying, 
creating and classifying qualifications, 
in accordance with the demands of the labour 
market, continual learning, science and society 
in general.

•  The NQFS defines processes and institutions 

(bodies, organisations) responsible for defining 
qualifications and qualification standards, 
methods and conditions for acquiring, comparing 
and recognition of qualifications, along with 
other mechanisms for quality assurance.
•  The NQFS contributes to the improvement 

of the national educational system and to the 
overall reform processes. The main purpose 
of improving the educational system is the 
education of competent individuals who will be 
able to respond to the requirements of the labour 
market, society, economy, and to meet their own 
needs in an adequate and professional manner.

•  The NQFS is an integral part of the European 

integration process and Chapter 26 ‘Education 
and culture’, with the planned referencing to the 
European qualifications framework (EQF) and 
mobility of the workforce.

The NQFS Law defines the following NQF 
objectives:

1.  ensuring that qualifications are comprehensive 

and transparent and that they are 
interconnected;

2.  developing qualification standards that are based 
on the needs of the labour market and society as 
a whole;

3.  ensuring the orientation of the whole education 

system towards learning outcomes;

4.  improving access, flexibility of pathways and 

mobility in the formal and non-formal education 
system;

5.  ensuring the validation of non-formal and 

informal learning;

6.  affirming the importance of key, general and 
interdisciplinary competences for lifelong 
learning;
improving cooperation between relevant 
stakeholders or social partners;

7. 

8.  ensuring the quality of the processes of 
developing and acquiring qualifications;
9.  ensuring the comparability and recognition 
of qualifications acquired in Serbia with 
qualifications acquired in other countries.

1.  general – basic education and secondary 

education,

2.  vocational education and adult education,
3.  academic – higher education,
4.  vocational – higher education.

Alignment to other classification systems
The NQF law foresees the establishment of 
a system for classification of qualifications – 
KLASNOKS, which is in line with the International 
Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 13-F). 
By introducing KLASNOKS, a unique classification 
system of qualifications is established, regardless 
of the existing classification of educational profiles 
of pre-university and higher education. KLASNOKS 
shall be established by the minister in charge of 
education affairs.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The NQFS has eight levels and four sublevels; 
levels 6 and 7 are each divided in two sublevels. The 
need for sublevels comes from a communication 
purpose of the NQF – to clarify that qualifications of 
different volumes are at the same NQF level, e.g. 
level 6.1 180 ECTS (European credit transfer and 
accumulation system), level 6.2 240 ECTS.

NQFS level descriptors have been defined in 
terms of learning outcomes and use the following 
domains: knowledge, skills and abilities and attitude. 
These terms are not further defined in the NQFS 
Law. The NQFS level descriptors are included in an 
annex of the law.

Use of learning outcomes
The NQFS is based on qualification standards and 
learning outcomes. The description of learning 
outcomes is one of the elements of a qualification 
standard.

Definition of qualification
The definition of qualification in the NQFS Law is 
as follows: ‘A qualification is a formal recognition of 
acquired competences. An individual obtains the 
qualification when the authorised body determines 
that he has achieved the learning outcomes at a 
certain level and according to a given qualification 
standard, which is confirmed by a public document 
(diploma or certificate).’

Qualification standards
A qualification standard is a document containing:

•  a description of the objectives and learning 

outcomes of the qualification;

•  data of the qualification which determines the 

817  http://noks.mpn.gov.rs/en/ 

NQFS level;

541

Volume II: National and regional cases•  data on the connection of the qualification with 
the occupational standard(s), which enables the 
integration of data from the education system 
and data from the labour market;
•  a classification of the qualifications in 

KLASNOKS that is aligned with ISCED;

•  an evaluation.

The qualification standard is the basis for the 
development of education programmes for acquiring 
qualifications at all levels of education. The Ministry 
of Education, Science and Technology shall adopt a 
methodology for the development of qualification 
standards, on a proposal by the Qualifications 
Agency (to be established). Examples of current 
qualification standards can be found in the NQFS 
database on the NQFS website818. The database 
has 140 qualifications, of which 86 with the 
qualifications standard (August 2018). Entry of new 
qualification is ongoing.

Development process of qualifications
Currently the Institute for the Improvement of 
Education (IIE) develops qualification standards 
for secondary vocational education as well as 
the formal vocational education programmes for 
qualification levels 1–5, based on the qualification 
standard. The Council for Vocational and Adult 
Education and Training evaluates and adopts new or 
reformed vocational education programmes.

Once the new institutional framework is operational, 
the Qualifications Agency will develop the 
qualification standards for all NQFS levels on a 
proposal by the sector council and will send them 
to the NQFS Council for evaluation and adoption. 
The employees and experts of the Institute for the 
Improvement of Education will be taken over by the 
Qualifications Agency.

A higher education institution (the proponent) 
develops the formal education programme 
for qualification levels 6–8 and sends it to the 
Commission for Accreditation and Quality 
Assurance (the University Senate or the Council for 
Vocational Colleges) for evaluation and adoption.

Publicly recognised adult education providers 
(JPOA) develop the adult non-formal education 
programme for qualifications up to level 5. JPOA 
programmes are based on qualification standards. 
Currently the qualification standards are developed 
by the Institute for the Improvement of Education. 
With the formation of the Qualifications Agency the 
qualification standards for JPOA programmes will be 
developed by the Agency.

818  http://noks.mpn.gov.rs/en/ 

542

Access, progression and credit
The NQFS Law describes three ways of acquiring 
qualifications – through formal and non-formal 
education and through the process of recognition 
of prior learning. In non-formal education, vocational 
qualifications are acquired through different adult 
education activities of the JPOA, after which 
an appropriate public document or certificate is 
issued in accordance with the law governing adult 
education or other laws.

The Law on Adult Education defines recognition 
of prior learning (RPL) as one of the paths for 
acquisition of qualifications. The NQFS Law 
foresees RPL procedures, based on the standard of 
qualifications, for qualifications at NQF levels 1, 2, 3 
and 5, and exceptionally, at NQF level 4.

The NQFS Law describes the conditions for 
acquiring qualifications at specific NQFS levels as 
follows:

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

levels 2, 3 and 4: the condition for acquiring this 
level is to have previously achieved NQFS level 1;
level 5: the condition for gaining this level is to 
have previously achieved NQFS level 3 or 4, 
and for acquiring through non-formal education 
of adults, to have previously achieved NQFS 
level 4;
level 6.1: the condition for acquiring this level 
is to have previously achieved NQFS level 4 
and passed the general, professional or artistic 
matura, in accordance with the laws regulating 
secondary education and higher education;
level 6.2: the condition for acquiring this level 
is to have previously achieved NQFS level 4 
and passed the general, professional or artistic 
matura, in accordance with the laws regulating 
secondary education and higher education;
level 7.1: the condition for acquiring this level 
is to have previously achieved basic academic 
studies (OAS) volume of 240 ECTS, the master 
academic studies (MAS) volume of at least 
120 ECTS (with previously achieved OAS 
volumes of 180 ECTS), or master vocational 
studies of at least 120 ECTS credits (with 
previously achieved basic vocational studies 
(OSS) scores of 180 ECTS credits;
level 7.2: the condition for acquiring this level is 
to have previously achieved completed master 
academic studies (MAS);
level 8: the condition for acquiring this level is to 
have previously achieved completed integrated 
academic or master academic studies.

The NQFS Law describes progression as one of 
the principles of the NQFS: ‘Openness – different 
ways of acquiring qualifications and opportunities for 
horizontal and vertical progression in the qualifications 

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSsystem including academic mobility.’ Ways of 
progression are not further elaborated in the law.

The NQF Law mentions credits in terms of ECTS 
points for higher education programmes only. 
The descriptions of the qualifications in the NQFS 
database gives volume of qualifications in years for 
qualifications at levels 1–5 (in years or in hours) and 
in ECTS points for qualifications at levels 6–8. i.e. 
level 6.1 (180 ECTS).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Legal basis of NQF
The Law on the National Qualifications Framework 
(only in Serbian) was adopted by parliament in April 
2018. The Law on Foundations of the Education 
System, the Law on High Education and the Law 
on Adult Education are coherent with the NQFS. 
The NQFS Law stipulates termination of other 
regulations to ensure consistency with related legal 
acts and regulations.

Governance and institutional arrangements for 
the NQF
The NQFS Law foresees the establishment of:

•  an NQFS Council for strategic management of 
the NQFS development and implementation – 
the Council will be an advisory body that gives 
recommendations on planning and development 
of human capital in accordance with public 
policies in the field of lifelong learning, 
employment, career guidance and counselling;

3.  monitors the work of the sectoral councils and 
makes recommendations for the improvement 
of work based on regular reports on the work of 
the sectoral councils; 

4.  gives opinions to the minister responsible for 
education about the recommendations of the 
sectoral councils regarding the enrolment policy 
in secondary schools and higher education 
institutions; 

5.  makes recommendations on the process of 

planning and development of human resources 
in accordance with the strategic documents of 
Serbia; 

6.  makes recommendations on improving the 

relation between education and labour market 
needs; 

7.  gives opinions on standards for self-evaluation 
and external quality assurance of the JPOA; 
8.  performs other duties in accordance with the 

law.

Qualifications Agency
The government established the Qualifications 
Agency in order to perform quality assurance and 
professional support to the NQFS Council and 
other competent organisations in all aspects of 
the development and implementation of the NQF. 
The Agency has the status of a legal entity. The 
NQFS Law describes the main competences of the 
Agency as follows – the Agency:

  1.  considers initiatives for the introduction of new 

qualifications;

  2. provides expert support to the sector councils 
and prepares proposals for the qualification 
standard;

•  a Qualifications Agency that will perform 

  3. provides administrative and technical support to 

administrative and technical tasks and expert 
support for the Council;

•  sector councils whose main function is to define 
the need for qualifications in the labour market in 
the country.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
NQFS Council
The NQFS Council will be an advisory body that 
provides recommendations on the process of 
planning and development of human resources 
in accordance with public policies in the field of 
lifelong learning, employment, career guidance and 
counselling. The NQFS Law describes the main 
competences of the Council as follows – the Council: 

the work of the sectoral councils;

  4. keeps the registry and takes care of the entry of 

data into the appropriate sub-registries;

  5. classifies and encrypts qualifications according 

to KLASNOKS;

  6. performs recognition of foreign school 

documents;

  7.  performs the procedure for recognition of 
a foreign higher education document for 
the purpose of employment (professional 
recognition), in accordance with this law and the 
law regulating higher education;

  8. performs first validation of the foreign study 

programme in the procedure of point 7 of this 
paragraph, in accordance with this law and the 
law regulating higher education;

1.  proposes qualification standards for all levels of 

  9. grants approval to organisations for obtaining the 

the NQFS;

status of JPOA;

2.  proposes to the government the establishment 

of sectoral councils for particular sectors of work 
or activities; 

10. decides on the amount of the fee for the 
procedures of points 6, 7 and 9 of this 
paragraph;

543

Volume II: National and regional cases11.  keeps records of professional recognition in 

accordance with this law and the law regulating 
higher education;

12. exerts an external quality control of the JPOA, 
once during the five-year approval period;
13. at the request of the ministry responsible for 
education, issues a report on the fulfilment of 
requirements regarding the plan and programme 
of adult education activities, programme 
implementation and staffing;

14. prepares development projects, analysis 

• 

the Council for Vocational Education and Adult 
Education;

•  University Conference and Conference of 

• 
• 

Academies and Higher Schools;
the national employment services;
the ministries responsible for education, 
employment and work activities and activities for 
which the sector council is established;

•  communities of vocational schools;
• 

representative branch unions, the Institute for 
the Improvement of Education.

and research relevant to the development of 
qualifications;

15. monitors and measures the effects of the 
implementation of (new) qualifications on 
employment and lifelong learning;

16. proposes measures for the improvement of 
quality assurance in the entire system;

17.  performs other duties in accordance with this 

law.

Sector councils
The NQFS Law describes the competences of the 
sector councils as follows – sector councils:

Resources and funding
There are resources allocated in the national budget 
for NQF development but they are limited. However, 
as development of the NQF is one of the areas 
covered by the IPA II budget support programmes, 
relevant work should also get appropriate resources.

Quality assurance of qualifications
The NQFS document (section 3) describes quality 
assurance arrangements for:

a.  identification of need for qualifications;
b.  development of the qualification standard;
c.  development of the education programme for a 

  1.  analyse the existing qualifications and determine 

qualification;

the necessary qualifications in a particular 
sector;

d.  acquiring a qualification;
e.  monitoring and evaluation of the process of 

  2. identify the qualifications to be modernised;
  3. identify qualifications that no longer meet the 

needs of the sector;

  4. make a decision on the drafting of standards of 

qualifications within the sector;

  5. give an opinion on the expected outcomes of 

knowledge and skills within the sector;
  6. promote dialogue and direct cooperation 

between the world of work and education;

acquiring qualifications.

The NQFS Law describes quality assurance as 
‘managing the process of developing qualifications 
based on standards and learning outcomes, as well 
as the quality system in the process of acquiring 
and evaluating qualifications’. The law describes 
specific arrangements and procedures for:

  7.  promote opportunities for education, training and 

•  The qualification standard: a methodology 

employment within the sector;

  8. identify opportunities for training adults within 

the sector;

  9. consider the implications of the NQF on 

qualifications within the sector;

10. propose lists of qualifications by level and 

type that can be acquired by recognising prior 
learning;

11.  perform other duties in accordance with this law.

Sector councils are based on the principle of social 
partnership. The government, on the proposal of 
the NQFS Council, establishes sector councils. The 
NQFS Law stipulates that members of the sector 
councils represent:

• 

the Chamber of Commerce and representative 
associations of employers from the relevant 
sector;

•  professional chambers or associations;

for development of the qualification standard 
will be adopted by the Ministry of Education, 
Science and Technology on a proposal of the 
Qualifications Agency. In addition to the basic 
qualification data, the qualification standard 
will also contain data on the connection of the 
qualification with the occupational standard(s), 
which enables the integration of data from the 
education system and data from the labour 
market.

•  Submitting an initiative to develop and adopt 

a qualification standard: any legal entity can in 
principle submit a proposal to develop a new 
qualification standard. An application form 
will be developed. The proposal is submitted 
to the Qualifications Agency, which assesses 
whether the proposed qualification standard is 
covered by an existing qualification standard in 
the register (if so the applicant will be notified). 
If the proposed qualification standard is not 

544

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScovered by another qualification standard in the 
registry, the Agency will send the proposal to the 
relevant sector council for a recommendation. 
On a positive recommendation by the sector 
council, the Agency will develop the proposed 
qualification standard. The qualification standard 
is the basis for the development of education 
programmes for acquiring qualifications at all 
levels of education.

•  Drafting a new qualification standard: the sector 
council issues a decision to the Qualifications 
Agency to draft a new qualification standard 
(based on a documented proposal and 
recommendation). The Agency will draft the 
new qualification standard and submit it within 
60 days to the NQF Council. On positive 
advice of the Council the minister responsible 
for education will adopt the new qualification 
standard for inclusion in the register.

The NQFS register consists of a national 
qualifications sub-register, a qualification standard 
sub-register and a sub-register of JPOA with 
employers with whom JPOA realise practical 
work. The national qualifications sub-register 
is established in order to manage qualification 
data, classified according to the level and type, 
in accordance with KLASNOKS. The qualification 
standard sub-register is established in order to 
manage the data on qualification standards. The 
JPOA sub-register is established in order to manage 
the data on JPOA. The register shall be kept by 
the Agency in electronic form. The data from the 
register are open and accessible through the official 
website of the Agency, which is bilingual (Serbian 
and English).

The Qualifications Agency enters qualifications in 
the national qualifications subsector of the register.

•  General and vocational qualifications of NQFS 

levels 1 to 5, adopted by the minister responsible 
for education, are directly entered in the national 
qualifications subsector of the register.
•  Academic and vocational qualifications of 

NQFS levels 6.1 to 8, accredited in accordance 
with the law governing higher education, 
are registered in the national qualifications 
subsector of the register for receiving 
accreditation notifications from the National 
Body for Accreditation and Quality Assurance in 
Higher Education.

The Qualifications Agency is the body responsible 
for quality assurance of the NQF implementation.

Academic and vocational qualifications of NQFS 
levels 6.1 to 8 are accredited by the National Body 
for Accreditation and Quality Assurance in Higher 

Education, in accordance with the law governing 
higher education

The Ministry of Education, Science and 
Technological Development and the Council for 
Vocational and Adult Education are responsible for 
the quality assurance of vocational qualifications.

The Commission for Accreditation and Quality 
Assurance (CAQA) is a member of the European 
Association of Quality Assurance in Higher 
education (ENQA) since 2013.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Validation of informal and non-formal learning – 
including recognition of prior learning (RPL) – in the 
NQFS document is one of the paths for acquisition 
of qualifications. It is currently regulated by the 
Law on Adult Education. After completion of the 
RPL process, acquisition of the qualification is 
finalised by the award of a public certificate, which 
is equalised with the certificate of non-formal 
education that gives right to work (recognised on 
the labour market).

The NQFS Law foresees RPL procedures, based on 
the standard of qualifications, for qualifications at 
NQF levels 1, 2, 3 and 5, and exceptionally at NQF 
level 4. Operational details will be regulated in a 
bylaw.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 
maintains an electronic database of qualifications, 
accessible on the NQFS website. By August 
2018, 140 qualifications had been entered into 
this database, of which 86 with the qualifications 
standard. Entry of new qualification is ongoing. An 
NQFS register is planned.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
The NQFS Law stipulates:

•  The minister responsible for education is 

responsible for monitoring the implementation of 
the NQF law.

•  The NQFS Council monitors the work of the 

sectoral councils and makes recommendations 
for the improvement based on regular reports on 
the work of the sectoral councils.

•  The Qualifications Agency monitors and 

measures the effects of the implementation of 

545

Volume II: National and regional cases(new) qualifications on employment and lifelong 
learning.

Impact for end-users
The NQFS Law has been adopted and sets 
the conditions for establishing the institutional 
framework. The NQF Council and the Qualifications 
Agency have been founded by Government Decree 
and sector councils are in the process of formation. 
A qualifications database, accessible via the NQFS 
website, is under development. The database will 
form the basis of the NQFS register.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Serbia is an EU candidate country and participates in 
the EQF Advisory Group. Referencing the NQFS to 
the EQF is foreseen in 2019.

Important lessons and future plans

The adoption of the Law on the National 
Qualifications Framework in April 2018 was a long 
expected and important step towards a more relevant 
qualification and education system. The law provides 
conditions for a coherent system of quality-assured 
qualifications with establishment of sector councils to 
ensure the relevance of qualifications for the labour 
market. An online NQFS register will give access 
to useful data about qualifications, the qualification 
standards and about the JPOA and employers with 
whom the JPOA realise practical work.

The IPA II sector budget support programme 
provides the necessary funding for implementation 
of the NQF Law.

Coordination of tasks and competences between 
new and existing institutions will be a main 
challenge and a condition for a successful 
implementation of the law. Another challenge will 
be to find a right balance between processes and 
procedures to ensure the quality of qualifications 
(such as the development of new qualification 
standards) and the flexibility required to respond 
quickly to changing labour market needs. This cannot 
be the sole task of sector councils that operate at 
national level. Structural arrangements to involve 
stakeholders at national, regional and local levels 
can provide a continuous insight in obstacles and 
opportunities on the labour market and a solid basis 
for the sector councils, the Qualifications Agency 
and the NQF Council to act upon.

Abbreviations
ECTS 

EQF 

IPA 

JPOA  

European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European qualifications 
framework
Instrument for Pre-accession 
Assistance (EU support 
programme)
publicly recognised adult 
education providers

KLASNOKS   classification of qualifications 

system (in line with the 
International Standard 
Classification of Education)
national qualifications framework 
national qualifications framework 
of Serbia
recognition of prior learning

NQF 
NQFS 

RPL 

Implementing the NQF Law requires new 
institutional arrangements, an NQF Council, 
a Qualifications Agency and sector councils. 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

546

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSEYCHELLES

Introduction 

It has been government policy in the Seychelles 
since 2000 to develop a national qualifications 
framework (NQF), along with a national qualification 
authority to administer and develop it. The idea 
surfaced in the late 1990s in the Ministry of Social 
Affairs and Manpower Development and a study 
was commissioned to explore the feasibility of 
setting it up (Seychelles Ministry of Social Affairs 
and Manpower Development, 1999). 

The qualifications framework and quality assurance 
of qualifications are governed by the Seychelles 
Qualifications Authority Act, which was enacted 
in 2005. This led to the establishment of the 
Seychelles Qualifications Authority (SQA) at the start 
of 2006. The Authority is mandated to develop and 
implement the NQF. The regulations of the NQF that 
provide its legal basis were signed into law by the 
Minister of Education in December 2008, becoming 
operative in January 2009.

The Act setting up the SQA defines the NQF as 
a ‘framework for the development, recognition 
and award of qualifications based on standards of 
knowledge, skills and competences to be acquired 
by learners’ (Republic of Seychelles, 2005).

To develop the human resources required to meet 
its ambitious development goals, the government 
is taking steps to improve training in vocational, 
managerial and service skills. Training is to be 
restructured in alignment with internationally-
recognized standards and certification processes. 
This will be made possible through partnerships 
with international institutions of higher learning, 
which will offer a variety of training courses to 
Seychelles students, from skills programmes 
and short courses through to full qualification 
programmes. 

The active involvement of sectors of the economy 
such as tourism, fisheries and financial services 
will help strengthen links between training 
and the world of work, making the Seychelles 
education system more responsive to both local 

and international labour market needs (Republic 
of Seychelles, 2008). Particular emphasis is 
being placed on improving the information 
and communications technology skills of the 
workforce so as to render it more competitive in 
today’s technologically driven business environment. 

The SQA had completed the first institutional 
accreditation exercise in seven post-secondary 
institutions (there are nine institutions now) by 
the end of September 2012. The outcome was 
provisional accreditation for all seven institutions. 
The institutional accreditation exercise for the 
University of Seychelles (UniSey), an institution 
registered under the Education Act of 2004, 
occurred in September 2013 and again led to 
provisional accreditation. 

There was a second institutional audit of the 
University of Seychelles in July 2015 by the SQA 
under the Seychelles Qualifications Authority Act of 
2005 (Republic of Seychelles, 2005), which led to its 
being granted accreditation for five years (14 August 
2015 to 13 August 2020). 

Accreditation is now an integral activity of the SQA, 
and there is at least one institutional audit each year. 
Two were scheduled for 2016. 

Policy objectives 

The NQF formalises the requirement for both 
public and private education and training 
providers in the country to deliver quality-assured, 
nationally recognized and consistent standards 
and qualifications. It establishes the regulations 
and principles that guide the development of 
qualifications and states the criteria to be met for 
qualifications to be recognised nationally.

Specifically, the Seychelles qualifications framework 
(SQF) is designed to provide: 

a.  high-quality training and qualifications; 
b.  recognition and credit for prior learning and skills; 

547

Volume II: National and regional casesc.  parity between academic and vocational 

qualifications; 

d.  qualifications based on unit standards linked to 
the requirements of industry and society; 
e.  a more integrated approach to education and 

SQF qualification is 1,200, amounting to 120 credits 
(SQA n.d.). The input-based national curriculum, 
rather than learning-outcomes-based qualifications, 
continues to be the framework for general 
education up to and including secondary level. 

training; 

f.  a coherent learning system offering potential for 
mobility between different courses and levels; 

g.  qualifications that are nationally and 

internationally comparable and portable (SQA). 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

Development of the SQA and the SQF needs to 
be understood in the context of the major political 
and social changes that were taking place at 
the time as the Seychelles moved from a State-
controlled to a market-oriented economy. This 
shift profoundly affected the management of key 
sectors of the economy and provided the impetus 
for the government’s public sector investment 
programme, a branch of the broader human 
resource development programme instigated by the 
Agency for National Human Resource Development, 
established by the National Human Resource Act in 
2006 (Republic of Seychelles, 2008). 

The SQA uses fixed standards to evaluate existing 
training courses and position them at SQF levels 
3 to 6. Although the SQA was created in 2005, 
this work did not begin until 2008; subsequently 
all providers of education and training programmes 
leading to the achievement of unit standards and/
or full qualifications were required to become 
accredited by the SQA. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The SQF has 10 levels ranging from primary 
to doctoral and postdoctoral qualifications. The 
hierarchy of levels is developed on the basis of 
increased cognitive challenge, practical skills 
development and degree of autonomy. These are 
captured in level descriptors based on learning 
outcomes for each level. 

Post-secondary level qualifications are categorised 
into types such as diplomas, associate degrees 
and certificates and carry a fixed minimum number 
of credits and notional hours in order to provide 
flexibility in programme design. The smallest 
number of notional hours for the achievement of an 

Core skills are an essential part of all SQF 
qualifications. These include communication 
skills (including the use of the English language, 
considered essential for promoting international 
mobility), numeracy and information and 
communications technology skills, and life skills, 
which include social behaviour and ethics. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

The SQF offers a number of progression pathways 
by which candidates can move from basic to more 
advanced certificates. Mechanisms for recognition 
of prior learning (RPL) also give individuals who have 
gained significant experience in a particular field the 
opportunity to become formally qualified at a level 
commensurate with their abilities. Candidates may 
achieve partial or even whole qualifications through 
RPL or may qualify for credit at a higher level than 
that of the qualification applied for. At degree level, 
up to 50% of a qualification can be obtained through 
RPL. Once implementation of the SQF is complete, 
learners are able to register for a number of courses 
over an extended period and accumulate credits 
towards a recognized qualification. 

RPL is not a new concept in the Seychelles: 
trade tests in various vocational disciplines have 
been conducted for more than three decades. 
The Employment Department sensitises its own 
employees to RPL so that they are able to spread 
the message and encourage workers in other fields 
to undergo assessment. The SQA has campaigned, 
for example, for the formation of a hairdressers’ 
association to develop standards for the profession 
and encourage hairdressers to undergo RPL 
assessment. 

The SQF recognizes all forms of adult learning: 
formal, non-formal and informal. A special division 
of the Ministry of Education, the Secretariat for 
Professional Centres, is responsible for linking youth 
and adult education to the SQF. The Seychelles 
Institute of Open and Distance Learning, one of the 
training centres of the Secretariat, offers distance 
programmes in collaboration with international 

548

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSuniversities such as the University of South Africa 
and the Indira Gandhi National Open University. 

and conclusions, are presented and discussed  
(SQA, 2018).

Achieving parity between academic and vocational 
qualifications is considered vital for the creation of 
a pool of skilled labour to meet the needs of the 
economy and promote development (Republic of 
Seychelles, 2008, pp. 17–19). It is important that 
young people and adults studying for vocational 
and technical qualifications do not feel that their 
chosen path is inferior to that of their academic 
counterparts. Articulation between technical 
and vocational education and training and higher 
academic education is increasingly becoming 
a reality in the Seychelles, largely due to SQF-led 
reforms. Students of some vocational training 
institutions, such as the National Institute of Health 
and Social Studies (NIHSS), are being admitted to 
higher education courses based on assessment of 
their skills and experience (Republic of Seychelles, 
2008, p. 35). 

NQF implementation

Implementation of the NQF is ongoing (see below 
‘Important lessons and future plans’).

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Seychelles is a member of the Southern African 
Development Community (SADC) and plays a part in 
the continuing development of the SADC qualifications 
framework (SADQQF). It is one of the eight SADC 
Member States that volunteered to pilot the alignment 
of their NQFs and quality assurance mechanisms to 
that of the SADCQF. In January 2018, the Seychelles 
National Alignment Committee (NAC) was appointed 
by the Minister for Education and Human Resource 
Development. The NAC consisted of representatives 
from a number of stakeholders including the 
SQA Board, the Tertiary Education Commission, 
professional centres, the Ministry for Education and 
Human Resource Development, the Ministry of 
Employment, Immigration and Civil Status, and the 
University of the Seychelles. A preliminary report on its 
alignment work was published by the NAC in August 
2018 where the process of alignment to the SADCQF, 
as well as evidence of alignment based on ten criteria 

Further source of information 

Important lessons and future plans 

A first national policy on technical and vocational 
education and training is currently in the 
development stage. In addition, a new national 
policy on RPL is in preparation. This will replace the 
existing policy guidelines for RPL of 2009 (SQA, 
2009). The new policy was developed following two 
pilot projects implemented in 2014–15. 

The SQA is implementing the following areas of 
its NQF regulations: validation of programmes, 
standards development (for qualifications 
from levels 3–6), evaluation and certification of 
qualifications/certificates, institutional accreditation, 
and RPL. Several policy guidelines in relation to 
these areas have been developed or reviewed, 
including a quality assurance manual (which 
covers validation and institutional accreditation), 
a programme validation guide for providers, an 
internal quality assurance manual, and an internal 
quality assurance handbook for tertiary education 
institutions. 

One important challenge concerns the area of 
quality assurance particularly as it relates to 
capacities at the level of providers. The SQA 
provides some support and training to providers 
to equip them to develop their internal quality 
assurance processes, however more support is 
needed to develop the capacities of providers for 
quality assurance of qualifications (UNESCO, 2017).

Abbreviations 
NAC 
NQF 
RPL  
SADC 

SADCQF 

SQA 
SQF 

National Alignment Committee
national qualifications framework 
recognition of prior learning 
Southern African Development 
Community
Southern African Development 
Community qualifications framework
Seychelles Qualifications Authority 
Seychelles qualifications framework

Seychelles Qualifications Authority. The national qualifications framework: an introduction.  

www.sqa.sc/pages/NQF/Nqf.aspx 

549

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

Republic of Seychelles (2005). Seychelles Qualifications Authority Act. Act No 12 of 2005. Adopted on 

30 November 2005. Published in the supplement to the Official Gazette, 12 December 2005, 
pp. 147–156. www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=72747 

Republic of Seychelles (2008). National Qualifications Framework Regulations. S.I. No 102 of 2008. Adopted 
on 18 December 2008. Published in the supplement to the Official Gazette, 29 December 2008, 
pp. 367–378. www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=81303 

Seychelles Ministry of Education (2008). National report on the development and state of the art of adult 

learning and education (ALE), submitted for the 6 th International conference on adult education 
(CONFINTEA VI), Belém do Pará, Brazil, 1–4 December 2009. Victoria: Ministry of Education.  
www.uil.unesco.org/fileadmin/multimedia/uil/confintea/pdf/National_Reports/Africa/Africa/ 
Seychelles.pdf 

Seychelles Ministry of Social Affairs and Manpower Development (1999). Towards a national qualifications 

framework for the Seychelles.

SQA (Seychelles Qualifications Authority) (2009). Manual and policy guidelines for the recognition of prior 

learning (unpublished).

SQA (Seychelles Qualifications Authority) (2014). Draft guidelines for the implementation of RPL 

(unpublished).

SQA (Seychelles Qualifications Authority) (2014). Draft policy on RPL (unpublished).
SQA (Seychelles Qualifications Authority) (2018). Draft Report on the Alignment of the Seychelles National 
Qualifications Framework (SNQF) to the Southern African Development Community Qualifications 
Framework (SADCQF). Accessed 19 March 2019 at: www.sqa.sc/Resources/DocsForComment/
DraftReportAlignmentSeychellesNQFSADCQF.pdf

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

550

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSLOVAKIA

Introduction and context

Slovakia has a high rate of employment of recent 
graduates and a relatively low rate of early 
leavers from education and training (81.5% and, 
respectively, 9.3% in 2017) although the latter has 
been increasing. According to several other key 
indicators, the Slovakian education and training 
system performs less well compared to EU 
averages. A current challenge is the need to improve 
educational outcomes, to increase the quality 
and equity of education, particularly for the Roma 
population. Achievement of 15-year-olds in reading, 
mathematics and science basic skills has worsened 
over the past years, especially among pupils from 
disadvantaged backgrounds, with a high proportion 
of low achievers in all three fields. Improving the 
attractiveness of the teaching profession and the 
education of teachers, as well as strengthening 
early childhood education and care, are seen as key 
aspects in tackling this challenge. While still below 
the EU average, the tertiary education attainment 
rate has increased in recent years (34.3% in 2017, 
compared to the EU average of 39.9%). The new 
10-year education strategy, the National programme 
for the development of education and training 
2018–27 819, was adopted in June 2018. It offers 
an agenda for comprehensive long-term reform at 
all levels of the education and training system. In 
higher education, the aim is to increase flexibility, 
strengthen quality assurance and align the system 
to European guidelines for accreditation. An 
amendment to the Higher Education Act and a new 
law on quality assurance in higher education were 
approved in 2018820. The introduction of short-cycle 
professionally-oriented degrees and professional 
bachelor programmes is advocated by labour market 
representatives. Figures for the participation of 

819   Available in Slovak at: www.minedu.sk/17786-sk/narodny-

program-rozvoja-vychovy-a-vzdelavania/

adults in lifelong learning vary depending on the 
survey used821. There is evidence of a shortage 
of skilled workers. Participation in vocational 
education and training (VET) is significantly above 
the EU average. The Act on VET adopted in 2015822 
introduced elements of ‘dual education’ inspired 
by the German system, but adapted to the Slovak 
context, with involvement of employers in VET 
provision and in teacher training. Amendments to 
this Act, in force since September 2018, further 
support school-company cooperation (European 
Commission, 2018).

Work on the Slovak qualifications framework 
(SKKR) started with a 2009 government decision 
on the European qualifications framework (EQF) 
implementation823. The 2009 Act on lifelong learning 
and its amendment in 2012824, stipulated the 
legal background for development of a national 
qualifications system and framework. In 2011, 
level descriptors for a comprehensive national 
qualifications framework (NQF) for lifelong learning 
were approved by the Ministry of Education, 
Science, Research and Sports, encompassing 
qualifications from all subsystems of formal 
education and training (VET, general education and 
higher education). This initial NQF proposal was 
deemed to be too much shaped around the formal 
education system and requiring revision.

Post-crisis labour market transformation highlighted 
the gap between labour market requirements and 
the knowledge and skills of graduates  
(State Vocational Education Institute, 2017). The 

821   3.4% in 2017, and below the EU average, according to the 
Labour Force Survey, while the Adult Education Survey 
indicates that 46.1% of adults participated in education 
and training against the EU average of 45.1% in 2016.
822   Act No 61/2015 Coll. on vocational education and training.
823   Government Decision No 105/2009, available in Slovak at: 

820   Law No 269/2018 on the quality assurance of higher 

https://rokovania.gov.sk/RVL/Resolution/14796/1

education and on amendments to Act No 343/2015 Coll. 
on public procurement and on amendments to certain 
laws and Law No 270/2018, amending Act No 131/2002 
Coll. on higher education institutions and on amendments 
to certain acts. The text of the laws is available in Slovak 
at: www.minedu.sk/12284-sk/zakony/

824   Act No 568/2009 on lifelong learning and modifying and 
supplementing certain laws is available in Slovak at:  
http://isdv.iedu.sk/Documents/Zakon_568_2009.pdf  
Act No 315/2012 Coll. amending and supplementing Act 
No 568/2009 on lifelong learning and amendments to 
certain laws, in force since 1 January 2013.

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Volume II: National and regional casestasks related to the development of the SKKR 
became a part of the national reform programme 
between 2012 and 2015, a crucial phase in the 
development of the framework and the national 
qualification system. In 2013 strategies for 
revision were proposed, along with involvement 
of employers, employers’ associations grouped in 
sector councils, and other social partners. Part of a 
national project under the auspices of the Ministry 
of Education, Science, Research and Sport, the 
State Vocational Education Institute (Štátny inštitút 
odborného vzdelávania, ŠIOV) started to develop the 
national qualifications register (NQR) and revised the 
SKKR grid of level descriptors; this work, together 
with the methodology for linking qualifications to 
the SKKR levels, was completed by the end of 2014 
and piloted in 2015 on the first set of qualifications 
described and included in the register. 

The Slovak system of qualifications now consists 
of two closely related pillars: the NQR, where 
qualifications are described in terms of qualifications 
standards, with related assessment standards; 
and the SKKR, where qualifications are assigned 
to levels. The SKKR has eight learning- outcomes-
based levels and consists of four sub-frameworks: 
for general education, VET, higher education, and 
occupational qualifications (awarded outside the 
formal system, as a result of courses and work 
experience). 

The SKKR was referenced to the EQF in  
October 2017. 

Policy objectives

Development of the NQF in Slovakia has been part 
of a broader process of reform in VET and lifelong 
learning825. The framework is linked to the National 
programme for the development of education 
and training 2018–27, a substantial part of which 
addresses qualifications and validation of non-formal 
and informal learning. A link between the national 
qualifications system in the context of lifelong 
learning and the national system of occupations is 
stipulated in Act No 5/2004 on employment services 
and on amending and supplementing certain other 
laws (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

Apart from its main function of classifying 
qualifications, resulting from the hierarchical division 
of the qualifications system into levels, the SKKR is 
seen as having a threefold role:

a.  communication: to provide transparent 

information on national qualifications, their 
characteristics and relationships;

b.  transformation: gradually revising the system 

for recognition and validation of non-formal and 
informal learning, acting as a tool for quality 
assurance and leading to better coordination of 
lifelong learning;

c.  regulation: to monitor and regulate the 
description of qualifications in terms of 
standards and their levelling, as well as 
the system of recognition and validation of 
qualifications.

There is general consensus in the country about the 
role of the framework in promoting lifelong learning, 
improving the quality of education at all levels, and 
promoting student and workforce mobility. Further 
discussion at national level on the use and function 
of the SKKR is, however, considered necessary 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

The specific objectives of SKKR implementation are 
(State Vocational Education Institute, 2017):

a.  increased education system transparency, both 
for individuals and employers, as well as for 
international comparison;

b.  increased transparency of qualifications, through 
their description in terms of learning outcomes 
rather than inputs;

c.  better match between education and training and 
the needs of the labour market through a more 
demand-oriented education system;
d.  strengthened relationships between all 
stakeholders involved in education, and 
developing general principles for validation and 
recognition of qualifications;

e.  modernisation of education through the 

application of quality principles in the process of 
acquiring qualifications;
increased quality in the processes of verification 
and recognition of qualifications.

f. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The revised SKKR826 is a comprehensive framework 
that includes qualifications from all subsystems 
of education and training: general education, 
VET, higher education, and further education. The 
SKKR served as a tool to develop a typology of 
qualifications in the national context. As a result, 

825   This concerns the implementation of dual education, as 

well as reform of the national qualifications system in the 
context of lifelong learning, development of the national 
occupation and qualifications registers.  

including the SKKR, is available at: www.kvalifikacie.sk  
Information on the SKKR and the national qualifications 
register is also available at: www.minedu.sk/slovensky-
kvalifikacny-ramec-a-narodna-sustava-kvalifikacii/.

826   The website of the national qualifications system, 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSit consists of four different sub-frameworks, each 
characterised by a common type of qualification, 
reflecting the education and qualifications 
subsystems and pathways: 

a.  general education qualifications, governed by the 
Act No 245/2008 Coll. on education and training 
(the School Act), assigned to SKKR levels 1, 2 
and 4;

b.  vocational qualifications, also governed by 

the Act No 245/2008 Coll. on education and 
training (the School Act), awarded in formal VET 
(secondary and post-secondary), assigned to 
SKKR levels 2, 3, 4 and 5; 

c.  higher education qualifications, governed by the 

Higher Education Act, assigned to SKKR levels 6, 
7 and 8; 

d.  occupational qualifications, governed by Act 

No 568/2009 Coll. on lifelong learning, awarded 
outside the formal system, as a result of further 
education, adult education and validation of non-
formal learning, assigned to SKKR levels 2 to 7.

Qualifications in the first three sub-frameworks 
(general, VET and higher education) reflect both 
a level of qualification and a level of achieved 
education at the end of an education programme. 
Occupational qualifications are usually in response 
to the needs of the labour market and are 
not connected to an education level. So far, a 
distinction has been made between full and partial 
occupational qualifications, as reflected in the NQR: 
a full qualification entitling the holder to perform all 
tasks within an occupation, and a partial qualification 
allowing performance of one or a limited set of 
tasks within that occupation. The new Act on 
lifelong learning, expected to be adopted in July 
2019, will no longer make this distinction, and a new 
approach based on fragmentation of qualifications 
into smaller units will be adopted (State Vocational 
Education Institute, 2017).

The SKKR is an eight-level framework, with 
level descriptors defined in learning outcomes, 
covering knowledge (general and vocational), 
skills (cognitive and practical) and competences 
(responsibility, autonomy and social competences). 
Qualifications were assigned to SKKR levels 
following analysis of the learning outcomes set in 
the qualification standards, and their comparison 
with the national descriptors. Qualifications issued 
by conservatories posed a challenge in terms 
of levelling. Conservatories provide both upper 
secondary vocational education (ISCED 2011: 354) 
and higher professional education (ISCED 2011: 554) 
in integrated programmes focused on music and 
drama (six-year programme) or dance (eight-year 
programme). The programmes of conservatories 

lead to vocational qualifications at SKKR levels 4 
(maturita) and 5 (absolutorium).

All qualifications are included in the NQR, which 
has qualification cards: each consists of general 
information on the qualification (learning pathway, 
relation to an occupation, evidence of certification, 
SKKR level), a qualification standard expressed in 
learning outcomes, related assessment standard 
(assessment criteria, methods and tools), and 
methodological guidance for validation and 
certification of learning outcomes. The basic 
framework for the development of the NQR was the 
national occupations register; synchronising the two 
tools is a key element in the implementation of the 
SKKR. The NQR also has a role in quality assurance 
at all levels of lifelong learning.

The learning outcomes approach has been 
recognised as part of the reform agenda and taken 
up in national discourse. A major development in the 
shift to learning outcomes was marked by the 2008 
School Act. This strengthened quality assurance 
measures, introduced performance standards 
defined in knowledge, skills and competences, 
and introduced a two-level model of curriculum for 
both general education and VET: State curricula and 
school curricula. The revised Bloom taxonomy of 
educational objectives is recommended for defining 
performance standards (State Vocational Education 
Institute, 2017).

General education (primary and secondary) 
programmes have been revised to strengthen 
performance standards. However, substantial 
changes in programming and curriculum 
development will need more time and deeper 
discourse about the learning outcomes approach, 
and engagement at the level of education providers 
and teachers (Cedefop, 2016). The learning 
outcomes approach has been reinforced in VET 
through the VET Act of 2009827 and the new 2015 
Act on VET. Between 2013 and 2015, qualifications 
standards were elaborated in the frame of the 
European Social Fund (ESF) project Development 
of the national qualifications system by sector 
councils, with involvement of different stakeholders 
from education and the labour market (educators, 
employers, chambers). 

In 2013, the Ministry of Education adopted the 
Criteria for the accreditation of higher education 

827   Act of 23 April 2009 on VET and amendments to 

certain acts (Ministry of Education, Science, Research 
and Sport of the Slovak Republic). www.tnuni.sk/
fileadmin/dokumenty/univerzita/dolezite_dokumenty/
Zakon_184_2009_o_odbornom_vzdelavani.pdf

553

Volume II: National and regional casesstudy programmes 828 and other documents 
related to the performance of higher education 
institutions; the learning outcomes approach is 
now part of the criteria for assessing the quality 
of higher education institutions and for obtaining 
study programme accreditation. In 2014, the 
Higher Education Act defined a field of study 
based on the extent of knowledge, skills and 
competences forming the graduate’s profile. 
Learning outcomes in higher education are linked 
to the use of the European credit transfer and 
accumulation system (ECTS). Important points 
of current and future discussion are around the 
use of terminology (which may be clarified with 
the adoption of the new Act on lifelong learning), 
the typology of learning outcomes originating in 
different sources, the formulation of performance 
standards in education programmes, and the 
formulation of learning outcomes in qualification 
standards. The importance of finding a balance 
between stability, complexity, fundamentality and 
objectivity in how learning outcomes are defined 
in qualification standards, curricula and study 
programmes has been recognised and reflected 
in the methodologies developed (State Vocational 
Education Institute, 2017).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Work on the initial NQF was started following 
Government Decision No 105/2009 on a proposal 
for implementation of the EQF; it was coordinated 
by the Ministry of Education, Science, Research 
and Sports of the Slovak Republic. The national 
coordination point for the EQF (EQF NCP) was 
created at that time and, until 2011, was under the 
direct responsibility of the Ministry of Education. 
An inter-ministerial group for the implementation 
of the EQF was set up to develop the NQF grid, 
and cooperation with the national team of Bologna 
experts was established to ensure coordination 
between the NQF and Bologna implementation.

The legal basis was reinforced by Act No 568/2009 
on lifelong learning, and its 2012 amendment (Act 
No 315/2012 Coll., in force since 1 January 2013)829, 
which introduced the SKKR and its definition as a 
framework. Revision of the initial NQF was closely 
linked to development of the national qualifications 
system. Stakeholder involvement from the world 
of work was vital, including employers’ chambers, 
unions, confederations and other professional 
associations. While the Ministry of Education 

828   Available in Slovak at: www.minedu.sk/kriteria-pouzivane-

pri-vyjadrovani-sa-akreditacnej-komisie/ 

829   See footnote 825.

maintains overall competence and responsibility 
for SKKR development and implementation, a 
Memorandum of cooperation was signed in 2014 
with the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and 
Family, aiming for better alignment between labour 
market needs and the education system (State 
Vocational Education Institute, 2017). Between 
2011 and 2014, the EQF NCP moved to the National 
Institute for Lifelong Learning; since February 2014 
it has been within the State Vocational Education 
Institute, which is also the contact point for other 
EU initiatives (EQAVET, ECVET). The functions of 
the EQF NCP include (State Vocational Education 
Institute, 2017):

a.  promoting the SKKR, EQF and Slovak 

qualifications;

b.  managing the process of referencing the SKKR 

to the EQF;

c.  coordinating the work of key stakeholders in 

developing the NQR;

d.  maintaining the NQR and its links to European 

portals;

e.  technical advice for developing new 

qualifications;

f.  European and international cooperation on NQF-

related issues.

Besides the State Vocational Education Institute, 
which was the coordinating body of the national 
project for the development of the national 
qualifications system, several other structures were 
involved in the development of the SKKR, and in the 
definition and approval of qualifications between 
2013 and 2015:

a.  the National Board for Education and 

Qualifications (NBEQ), a supra-sectoral national 
authority composed of representatives of all 
sectoral ministries, professional and employers’ 
organisations, State and regional administration, 
and associations of schools;

b.  a national group of experts, comprising 

representatives of the Ministry of Education, 
other institutions involved in education 
policies830, social partners831 and sector councils; 
it carried out its activity in several working 
groups, including one for the development of the 
NQF, comprising representatives of educational 
institutions and employers, who revised the 

830   The National Institute of Lifelong Learning, the State 
School Inspection, the National Institute of Education 
and the National Institute of Certified Measurement of 
Education.

831   The Federation of Employers’ Associations, the National 
Union of Employers and the Confederation of Trade 
Unions.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSKKR and the national descriptors, and worked 
on the levelling methodology832;

c.  sector councils, composed of representatives of 
all stakeholders (national and regional authorities, 
employers, representatives of trade unions, and 
educators).

Since 2016, the governance structure of the SKKR 
has been simplified and now consists of:

a.  the State Vocational Education Institute, 

hosting the EQF NCP and providing technical 
and methodological support in the further 
development of the qualification system;

b.  the Ministry of Education, the highest approval 

body for qualifications and the NQR;
c.  sector councils833; there are currently 

24 sector councils in Slovakia, with a key 
role in developing, monitoring and updating 
national occupation and qualification 
standards and proposing their allocation to 
SKKR levels, developing and monitoring the 
national occupations register and the national 
qualifications register, communication between 
the labour market and the world of education834, 
and establishing partnerships for validating and 
recognising non-formal and informal learning.

The main strength of the current governance 
structure of the Slovak NQF is the active 
participation of stakeholders, though this requires 
effective communication strategies yet to be 
developed. Activities related to the introduction and 
implementation of the SKKR were mainly project-
based but, in 2016, the State Vocational Education 
Institute was provided with a budget from the 
Ministry of Education, ensuring sustainability and 
continuity of work on issues related to the further 
development of SKKR and the qualifications system.

832   Other working groups were formed within the national 
group of experts: a working group for the analysis of 
school curricula and higher education study programmes; 
a working group for the analysis of the completion of 
education; and a working group of expert guarantors 
whose opinions were the main basis for approval of 
qualifications by the National Board for Education and 
Qualifications.

833   The role of the sector councils is defined by Act 

No 5/2004 on employment services and on amendment 
of certain laws: www.slov-lex.sk/pravne-predpisy/SK/
ZZ/2004/5.

834   In VET, cooperation between education and training and 

the labour market has been recently stipulated in the Act 
on vocational education and training No 209/2018 Coll. 
Employers and employers’ associations participate in the 
development of graduate profiles, assessment of teaching 
materials, participate in or give their opinions on final 
exams, create lists of study and training branches with 
insufficient numbers of graduates. (European Commission 
and Cedefop, 2018). 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways835

There is currently no systemic approach to validation 
of non-formal and informal learning (VNFIL) in 
Slovakia. However, certain elements of a national 
model for validation have been introduced through 
the 2009 Act on lifelong learning, creating some 
of the conditions for gradual development of a 
validation system. These include the introduction 
of the national qualifications system, with a new 
approach to the description of qualifications based 
on learning outcomes, and the development 
of the Slovak qualifications framework (SKKR) 
itself. Although no direct SKKR impact on VNFIL 
is expected in the short term, the completion of 
the referencing process in 2017, the description of 
1 000 qualifications aligned to the SKKR, with their 
related qualification standards defined in learning 
outcomes, and their inclusion in the NQR, are 
completed preconditions for the development of a 
VNFIL system. Qualifications required on the labour 
market and contained in the NQR are expected to 
be gradually placed into the information system 
of further education (ISDV) and made eligible for 
validation.

Current validation practices within the frame of the 
Act on lifelong learning (2009)836 refer to:

a.  recognition of results of further education 
based on assessment of knowledge, skills 
and competences acquired through accredited 
programmes leading to a full or partial 
qualification, corresponding to all requirements 
of a profession or to only some of the 
requirements; however, individuals with five 
years of practice, but without prior completion 
of the accredited programme, can apply for the 
examination in the accredited institution and 
receive a certificate confirming compliance with 
qualification standards; 

b.  verification of professional competence 

necessary for running a business regulated by 
the Trade Licensing Act No 455/1991 Coll. based 
on assessing compliance with standards, for 
which a formal certificate of apprenticeship is 
required. 

The first of these mainly refers to examinations 
of learning outcomes achieved in accredited 

835   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

836   Article 17 on the verification and assessment of 

professional competence.

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Volume II: National and regional casesprogrammes and is only partly linked to non-
formal learning: individuals with five years of 
workplace practice can apply to have their non-
formal learning validated, assessed and certified 
without prior competition of a programme. In the 
second case, this certificate is not equivalent to 
the qualification certificate obtained through formal 
education; it aids access to the labour market, 
though not to continuing formal education. Some 
439 qualifications from the NQR (the occupational 
qualifications pillar) are labelled as belonging 
to non-formal education; this is partly due to 
inclusion of full and partial qualifications obtained 
through further learning accredited programmes 
being included under the umbrella of ‘non-formal 
education’.

Four sets of standards that have been developed 
independently are currently used in Slovakia; those 
used for validation are qualification standards 
(and assessment standards) introduced for 
further education by the Act on lifelong learning 
(Act No 568/2009 Coll.); they are registered 
and maintained in the Ministry of Education’s 
information system of further education837 and will 
be replaced by NQR standards in the future.

A new lifelong learning strategy, to be presented 
by the end of 2019838, and the ESF-funded project 
System of verifying qualifications (SOK), initiated in 
2018, which contains a VNFIL-related component, 
are expected to support the development and 
implementation of validation in Slovakia. The SOK 
project follows the recommendation of the Learning 
Slovakia strategy paper to develop assessment 
manuals to complement existing qualification (and 
assessment) standards. The National programme 
for the development of education and training 
2018–27, based on the strategy, includes an 
explicit commitment to implement VNFIL. New 
legislation introducing a clear conceptual framework 
is expected in 2020 and a new deadline for 
implementing VNFIL has been set for 2022.

A background study conducted in 2016839 explored 
the conditions for implementation of VNFIL in 
Slovakia and offers a solid basis for understanding 
the necessary systemic changes. Areas that require 

837   http://isdv.iedu.sk/Default.aspx
838   The lifelong learning agenda has been transferred 

from the National Lifelong Learning Institute to other 
institutions and the Slovak Academy of Sciences has been 
appointed to prepare a first draft of a new lifelong learning 
strategy for public discussion. 

839   Detko et al. (2016). Validácia výsledkov neformálneho 

vzdelávania a informálneho ucˇenia sa v SR [Validation of 
non-formal and informal learning in the Slovak Republic]. 
Bratislava: ŠIOV. Available in Slovak at: www.erasmusplus.
sk/index.php?sw=31

attention include the establishment of robust 
quality assurance procedures, to avoid the risk of 
overreliance on self-testing using online tools, as 
well as the development of substantial provision of 
guidance and counselling to individuals interested 
in validation of their learning. Progress has been 
visible in the labour sector, where methodology 
based on the concept of bilan de compétences 
has been implemented by public employment 
services, and labour office counsellors serving 
the unemployed have received training in the 
first two stages of validation (identification and 
documentation). Extending this methodology to 
the education sector is under discussion. Vocational 
qualifications in Slovakia are currently not based 
on units and a credit system is not used. However, 
a unit-based approach to designing qualifications, 
also introducing modularised provision of VET, has 
been advocated in ESF-funded analytical studies840 
and is expected to materialise within the next 
phases of development of the national qualifications 
system; this is also supported by the SOK project. 
The development of the VNFIL system is expected 
to increase parity of esteem between the different 
education and training subsystems and different 
types of qualification.

NQF implementation

NQF development in Slovakia has been a 
lengthy process that involved a range of different 
stakeholders and was carried out within wider 
reforms aimed at the creation of a national system 
of qualifications. This system consists of two 
pillars, the SKKR and the NQR841; development of 
the two was closely related. In addition, a national 
occupations register842 has been under development 
in parallel. The framework has been designed to be 
comprehensive, with clearly defined objectives. It 
has now reached an early operational stage. 

Development of the SKKR grid of level descriptors 
was completed by the end of 2014, and a 
methodology for linking qualifications to SKKR 
levels843 was tested on a first set of qualifications, 
then revised and approved by the National 
Council for Education and Qualifications in 2015. 
Qualifications were levelled to SKKR based on the 
‘best fit’ principle, following analysis of learning 

840   For example: Vantuch et al. (2014). Analýza Európskeho 
kvalifikacˇného rámca a Národných kvalifikacˇných rámcov 
vo vybraných krajinách EÚ [Analysis of EQF and NQFs in 
selected EU countries]. 

841   The national qualifications system can be found at: www.

kvalifikacie.sk

842   Available at: http://sustavapovolani.sk/o_portali
843   Available at: www.kvalifikacie.sk/na-stiahnutie

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSoutcomes defined in qualification standards and 
their comparison with national descriptors. This 
methodology was also used by the sector council 
members and their sectoral working groups as 
a tool for defining learning outcomes and better 
understanding of the whole process. By November 
2015, one thousand qualifications aligned to the SKKR 
were described and included in the NQR844. Further 
work on expansion of the register and refinement 
of the standards in place is expected to be achieved 
through the new ESF-funded SOK project. 

As the SKKR consists of four different sub-
frameworks (for general education, vocational, 
higher education, and occupational qualifications), 
the key challenge so far in implementing the 
NQF has been in setting adequate links and 
communication between these sub-frameworks. 
A national database of qualifications has been set 
up845, organised following the logic of the four 
sub-frameworks. So far, it contains qualifications 
from general education, VET and higher education. 
The system for the occupational qualifications 
sub-framework has been prepared and will include 
international, non-formal and private qualifications. 
Inclusion in the SKKR of qualifications from non-
formal education is the current priority. 

With the referencing of the SKKR to the EQF now 
completed, all qualification documents that have 
been assigned to SKKR levels, from all education 
and training subsystems, as well as the Europass 
certificate and diploma supplements, are expected 
to indicate the corresponding NQF and EQF 
level by 2019. NQF and EQF levels are stated on 
secondary school leaving certificates beginning with 
the 2018/19 school year. The lengthy process of 
changing the national legislation that relates to this 
(the School Act, the Higher Education Act, and the 
Act on lifelong learning) has been a challenge. 

Other key future challenges include a strengthening 
of the learning outcomes approach across all 
levels of the education and training system, further 
discussion among experts and end-users on the use 
of the SKKR, and specification of its functions and 
promotion of the SKKR to the main target groups: 
learners, teachers/trainers and employers (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Evaluation of the functionality of the SKKR, the 
national qualifications database, and of the levelling 

process started at the end of 2015, conducted by an 
EQF NCP working group. A comprehensive analysis 
of the methodology for levelling qualifications 
(horizontal and vertical check) was elaborated846. 
This analysed 586 qualifications from the SKKR 
and compared the Slovak system of levelling with 
the systems in Denmark, Estonia, the Netherlands, 
Norway, Slovenia and UK-Scotland. Results were 
presented by the NCP working group in November 
2016. They included various recommendations: to 
redefine terminology; to abandon the distinction 
between ‘partial’ and ‘full qualification’; to set clear 
rules for levelling qualifications in the SKKR and 
differentiating in levelling occupational qualifications 
and those from formal education; to apply 
international standards strictly in tertiary education, 
mainly for consistent use of learning outcomes; and 
to fulfil consistently the communication function of 
SKKR. An analysis of existing measures in validation 
of prior learning and an overview of existing sectoral 
and international sectoral qualifications in Slovakia 
were also carried out. These recommendations, 
along with national level expert discussions, have 
been taken into account in the preparation of new 
legislation on lifelong learning and validation.

The EQF NCP has been disseminating information 
about the framework to increase its visibility. 
The main communication channels include 
sector councils, seminars and conferences for 
stakeholders, training courses for teachers, other 
national and international events, information 
materials, the SKKR webpage847 and social media. 
Employers and education staff are the main target 
groups. The NCP has established cooperation with 
the Euroguidance centre, mainly in relation to the 
SOK project. Education and training institutions, and 
providers and recognition authorities and bodies, are 
already fully aware of the framework; so are labour 
market stakeholders related to sector councils, 
professional associations, and other organisations 
that have been engaged in its development. The 
SKKR is only partly known to other labour market 
stakeholders and to guidance and counselling 
practitioners. The next step to make the framework 
better known among students, parents, and other 
target groups will be the indication of NQF and EQF 
levels on certificates and diplomas.

Referencing to regional frameworks

A draft referencing report of the Slovak qualifications 
framework to the European qualifications framework 

844   The number of qualifications distributed by SKKR levels is: 

SKKR level 2, 34 qualifications; level 3, 310 qualifications; 
level 4, 262 qualifications; level 5, 72 qualifications; 
level 6, 139 qualifications; level 7, 181 qualifications; and 
level 8, 2 qualifications. 

846   State Vocational Education Institute (2016). Comparative 
analysis of levelling qualifications to SKKR levels and 
national qualifications frameworks in selected EU 
countries (unpublished).

845   Available at: www.kvalifikacie.sk

847   www.kvalifikacie.sk

557

Volume II: National and regional caseswas presented in December 2015. Following 
recommendations from the EQF advisory group, 
the final referencing report was presented and 
approved in October 2017, covering developments 
between 2009 and 2017. It was approved by the 
Slovak government in November 2017. The report 
on the fulfilment of self-certification criteria against 
the qualifications framework in the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA) will be presented at a 
later stage. 

Important lessons and future plans

Important progress has been achieved in developing 
the SKKR in recent years. A comprehensive 
framework with a clear structure and ambitious 
objectives has been put in place and reached 
an early operational stage. A national register 
of qualifications has also been developed. One 
thousand qualifications, ranging from level 2 to 8, 
have been described, assigned to NQF levels and 
included in the register. The inclusion of the first 
stage of primary education at SKKR level 1 has also 
been decided. The referencing of the SKKR to the 
EQF has also been completed. 

However, a clearer conceptual framework is 
necessary, as well as better clarification of the links 
between different tools and systems used in the 
country (SKKR, NQR, national occupations register, 
different standards, full and partial qualifications). 
More time is needed to implement quality assurance 
procedures appropriately and better address higher 
education qualifications, with stronger involvement of 
higher education stakeholders. In 2018, the Ministry 
of Education, Science, Research and Sport and 
the State Vocational Education Institute have taken 
steps that will lead to improved methodologies for 
developing new qualifications and reviewing the 
existing database, simplifying the processes. They 
are based on existing methodologies and take into 
account the quality assurance principles laid down in 
the referencing criteria (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018). 

One of the key challenges in developing and 
implementing the SKKR is its fragmentation into 
four sub-frameworks (for general education, VET, 
higher education and occupational qualifications). 
Establishing adequate relationships between 
them would help minimise any barriers that might 
occur between the different parts of education and 
training (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

The further development and implementation of 
the SKKR is seen not only as an opportunity to 
unify terminology and find a common language 
between the different subsystems, but also to 

systematise the classification of qualifications, 
and to achieve separation between recognition 
and validation processes, on the one hand, and 
education attainment, on the other. Some of the 
challenges lying ahead are to establish effective links 
between formal, non-formal and informal pathways 
to qualifications, and to develop a trustworthy system 
for validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
This is supported by recent developments related to 
the SKKR, the inclusion of qualifications and related 
standards in the register, and by the new ESF-funded 
SOK project. A conceptual framework is expected in 
2020 and the VNFIL system should be implemented 
by 2022 (European Commission et al., forthcoming).

Since the SKKR has become operational only 
recently, no studies on the impact and use of the 
framework have yet been conducted. Verification 
of the levelling of qualifications to the SKKR and 
revision of the functionality of the framework were 
carried out. Further discussions with experts and 
stakeholders on the functions and use of the SKKR 
are considered necessary. An updated Act on 
lifelong learning is expected to be adopted in 2019, 
taking into account the results of this evaluation and 
wider discussions at national level. It will address 
terminological and conceptual issues, replace the 
distinction between full and partial occupational 
qualifications with a new approach based on 
fragmentation of qualifications into smaller units, and 
help set up the procedures for the VNFIL system.

Conditions in Slovakia are favourable for the 
implementation of the learning outcomes approach, 
and the philosophy is widely accepted. The main 
barriers are related to identification of learning 
outcomes and translation into practice. Deeper 
understanding is needed of the impact of learning 
outcomes on learner performance, as well as 
establishing correct assessment procedures. 
Adequate expertise, teaching materials and 
professional assistance are required. There is a 
lack of experts from the world of work able to 
translate workplace requirements into the language 
of education, and capacity-building for employers 
is crucial to securing relevance of learning 
outcomes for the labour market (Cedefop, 2016). 
Strengthening the learning outcomes approach 
across all levels of the education system is a key 
challenge in the implementation of the SKKR. 
The EQF NCP has been preparing a translation of 
the European handbook on defining, writing and 
applying learning outcomes848 and is supporting 
accredited courses for teachers (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

848   Cedefop (2017). Defining, writing and applying learning 

outcomes: a European handbook. Luxembourg: 
Publications Office. http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/566770 

558

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 71. Slovak qualifications framework (SKKR)

SKKR LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Diploma (Vysokoškolský diplom)  
Certificate of State exam (Vysvedcˇ enie o štátnej skúške)  
Diploma supplement (Dodatok k diplomu)

Diploma (Vysokoškolský diplom)  
Certificate of State exam (Vysvedcˇ enie o štátnej skúške)  
Diploma supplement (Dodatok k diplomu)

Certificate of qualification (Osvedcˇ enie o kvalifikácii)

Diploma (Vysokoškolský diplom)  
Certificate of State exam (Vysvedcˇ enie o štátnej skúške)  
Diploma supplement (Dodatok k diplomu)

Certificate of qualification (Osvedcˇ enie o kvalifikácii)

Maturita certificate (Vysvedcˇ enie o maturitnej skúške)  
Certificate of apprenticeship (Výucˇ ný list)

Maturita certificate (Vysvedcˇ enie o maturitnej skúške)

Certificate of final post-secondary exam (Vysvecˇ enie o 
absolventskej skúške)  
Absolutorium diploma (Absolventský diplom)

Certificate of qualification (Osvedcˇ enie o kvalifikácii)

Maturita certificate (Vysvedcˇ enie o maturitnej skúške)  
Certificate of apprenticeship (Výucˇ ný list)

Maturita certificate (Vysvedcˇ enie o maturitnej skúške)

Certificate of qualification (Osvedcˇ enie o kvalifikácii)

Certificate of final exam (Vysvedcˇ enie o záverecˇ nej skúške)  
Certificate of apprenticeship (Výucˇ ný list)

Certificate of qualification (Osvedcˇ enie o kvalifikácii)

Lower secondary education certificate with supplement 
(Vysvedcˇ enie s doložkou)

Certificate of final exam (Vysvedcˇ enie o záverecˇ nej skúške)  
Certificate of apprenticeship (Výucˇ ný list)

Certificate of qualification (Osvedcˇ enie o kvalifikácii)

Primary education certificate with supplement (Vysvedcˇ enie s 
doložkou)

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Adapted from Annex 2 of the Referencing report of the Slovak qualifications framework towards the European 
qualifications framework (State Vocational Education Institute, 2017).

559

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
EQF 
European qualifications framework
EQF NCP  national coordination point for the 

ESF  
NQF 
NQR 
ŠIOV 

EQF
European Social Fund
national qualifications framework
national qualifications register
Štátny inštitút odborného vzdelávania 
(State Vocational Education Institute)

SKKR  

SOK  

VET 
VNFIL 

Slovenský kvalifikacˇný rámec (Slovak 
qualifications framework)
Systém overovania kvalifikácií (the 
ESF-funded project System of 
verifying qualifications)
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

Main sources of information

State Vocational Education Institute (ŠIOV) – the EQF NCP: www.siov.sk/ 
Website of the national qualifications system: www.kvalifikacie.sk/ 
National qualifications register (NQR): www.kvalifikacie.sk/kartoteka-kariet-kvalifikacii#/ 
State Vocational Education Institute (2017). Referencing report of the Slovak qualifications framework 

towards the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-
and-contacts 

References

Cedefop (2016). Application of learning-outcomes approaches across Europe: a comparative study. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series, No 105. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/
publications-and-resources/publications/3074

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018 – Country analysis. https://ec.europa.eu/
education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-
country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Slovakia. 

State Vocational Education Institute (2017). Referencing report of the Slovak qualifications framework to the 
European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSLOVENIA

Introduction and context

Slovenia is well situated in relation to most 
European benchmarks for education and training. 
The country has exceeded EU targets for tertiary 
education attainment: at 46.4% in 2017, it is above 
the national and Europe target of 40% and the 2017 
EU average of 39.9%. However there is a wide 
gap between men and women. It has one of the 
lowest rates of early leavers from education and 
training (4.3% in 2017, compared to the EU average 
of 10.6%). Student achievements in reading, 
mathematics and science are among the best in 
Europe and have followed a strong positive trend 
over recent years, according to several international 
comparative assessments. Improvements in equity 
in education have also been recorded, though 
disparities in performance linked to socioeconomic 
status and migrant background persist and the 
socioeconomic impact in primary school is growing. 
Slovenia has significantly improved the employment 
rate of recent graduates from upper secondary 
vocational education and training (VET) and from 
tertiary education; in 2017 these were 80.8% 
and 82.45% respectively, above the EU average. 
Participation of children in early education and care 
has increased and reached 90.9%, though it is still 
below the EU average of 95.3%. One important 
development in school education is the introduction 
of mandatory foreign language teaching starting 
from the second grade of primary education; this 
was fully implemented starting with the 2016/17 
school year. Reforms are under way in higher 
education, with changes in accreditation procedures 
and quality assurance; reform of tertiary education 
financing has been successfully implemented. 
The proportion of students in VET is high and 
has increased from 65.9% in 2013 to 70.4% in 
2016 (EU average is 49%). The (re)introduction of 
apprenticeship schemes, piloted from the 2017/18 
school year, is expected to expand the sector 
further and create opportunities for the unemployed. 
Population aging is accentuating the need to 
increase participation in adult learning, in particular 
for the low-skilled. A total of 12% of Slovenian 
adults participated in adult education in 2017, slightly 
above the EU average of 10.9%, but at only 2.9% 

it is still low among the low-skilled. A national skills 
strategy has been prepared in cooperation with 
the OECD and has entered the second phase of 
implementation, including an action plan (European 
Commission, 2018).

Following a broad national debate, Slovenia started 
the development of a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) in 2005. This development builds 
on a series of education and training reforms since 
the mid-1990s (in VET, higher education, general 
education and adult education), including the 
introduction of certification and validation of non-
formal learning in 2000.

The 10-level comprehensive Slovenian 
qualifications framework (SQF) was developed by 
an interdepartmental working group, discussed 
with stakeholders, and finalised in May 2011 
(Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET, 2014). 
Agreement was reached on assigning major national 
qualifications to SQF levels, including qualifications 
from formal education and training (VET, higher 
education, general education, adult learning) and the 
system of national vocational qualifications (NVQs) 
under the remit of the Ministry of Labour. The 
Slovenian qualifications framework Act849 came into 
force in July 2016, serving as the legal basis for SQF 
implementation and full operationalisation.

The SQF was linked to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) and self-referenced to the 
qualifications framework for the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA) in May 2013.

Policy objectives

All subsystems of education and training in Slovenia 
have been reformed since the mid-1990s. There is 
a general view that the system functions well in 
terms of permeability; there are almost no dead-
ends at upper secondary level and individuals can 

849   The SQF Act is available at: www.uradni-list.si/glasilo-

uradni-list-rs/vsebina/2015-01-4129?sop=2015-01-4129 (in 
Slovenian).

561

Volume II: National and regional casesmove vertically and horizontally without major 
obstacles. However, there is a need to strengthen 
cooperation and coordination between different 
education and training subsystems and increase 
participation in lifelong learning. It is necessary to 
improve the link between education and certification 
and the responsiveness of qualifications to the 
labour market and individual needs, and to have 
a reliable tool for assessing and recognising non-
formal and informal knowledge and skills. 

The SQF is primarily a communication framework 
whose purpose is to achieve transparency and 
recognisability of qualifications in Slovenia and 
the EU. Its fundamental objectives are to support 
lifelong learning; to connect and coordinate the 
Slovenian qualifications subsystems; and to improve 
the transparency, accessibility and quality of 
qualifications with regard to the labour market and 
civil society. 

The framework brings added value at several levels. 
Along with the register of SQF qualifications, it 
ensures increased transparency in the qualifications 
system, benefitting end-users: learners, employees, 
employers, education providers, and career 
advisers. Although the SQF is not a tool for major 
reform, level descriptors are used in accreditation 
procedures for new education programmes or in 
their reaccreditation. The inclusion of supplementary 
qualifications in the SQF brings added value to 
employees and employers, making it easier to 
choose qualifications and to select candidates 
(Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET, 2014).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The SQF is a comprehensive framework with 
10 qualification levels. The descriptor for each 
level has three categories of learning outcome: 
knowledge, skills and competences. Each 
qualification in the framework includes all three 
categories, although it is not necessarily the case 
that each category has equal weight within the 
qualification. Such a selection of categories allows 
capturing the full diversity of learning outcomes 
and qualifications that, though acquired in different 
settings and for different purposes, are broadly 
comparable in terms of learning outcomes.

The starting points for classification of qualifications 
in the SQF are the relevant sectoral legislation and 
the education and training classification system 
(KLASIUS). The SQF aims to establish a flexible 
connection between education and qualification 
structures. It links two concepts: educational 
activities/programmes and learning outcomes.

The SQF includes three categories of qualification 
covering all subsystems of formal education and 
training, as well as further learning:

a.  educational qualifications awarded after 

completion of formal education programmes at 
all levels (general, vocational and higher);
b.  national vocational qualifications awarded by 

an NVQ certificate, issued in accordance with 
the regulations governing NVQs, or another 
document certifying completion of training or 
continuing education, issued in accordance with 
the regulations governing technical and higher 
education; 

c.  supplementary qualifications acquired in 

further and supplementary training on the 
labour market (linked to supplementing abilities 
and competences) and not issued by national 
authorities. 

Input criteria are used in addition to learning 
outcomes for educational qualifications acquired 
after completion of nationally accredited 
programmes: these include access requirements, 
typical programme length, and input in terms of 
volume of learning activities in VET and higher 
education (defined also in credit points). For NVQs, 
only standards of learning outcomes are defined, 
not the programmes or pathways that lead to  
the NVQ. 

The learning outcomes approach is already 
embedded in the Slovene education system and 
well accepted, following reforms carried out since 
the 1990s. 

Education programmes have moved from content-
based to an objective-based approach in the 
1990s. Reforms have supported and broadened 
assessment of learning outcomes. A balance is 
sought in emphasising the role played by general 
knowledge and acquired key competences, 
sufficiently broad technical knowledge and certain 
pedagogical processes in defining educational 
outcomes.

The learning outcomes approach is seen in VET as 
a useful way of bringing vocational programmes 
and schools closer to ‘real life’ and labour market 
needs. The basis for all VET qualifications is a 
system of occupational profiles and standards, 
identifying knowledge and skills required in the 
labour market. National VET framework curricula 
define expected knowledge, skills and attitudes 
to be acquired by students. The school curriculum 
developed at provider level was also introduced 
and is an important innovation in Slovenia. It gives 
schools increased autonomy in curriculum planning, 
especially in taking the local environment and 

562

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSemployers’ needs into account when developing the 
curriculum.

Assessment in VET (at NQF levels 4 and 5) is in 
the form of project work, testing practical skills and 
underpinning knowledge; written tests are also used 
at level 5 to test theoretical professional knowledge 
and knowledge of general subjects (Slovenian 
language, foreign languages, mathematics), which 
are tested externally. An accumulation and transfer 
credit system, compatible with the European 
credit system for VET (ECVET) is used in vocational 
education to describe the volume and weight of 
programmes and units/modules.

New programmes in general education (compulsory 
and upper secondary) include learning outcomes to 
be achieved either at the end of the three stages 
in compulsory education or at the end of upper 
secondary education, are tested in the external 
matura examination.

Reform and introduction of study programmes 
according to the Bologna declaration guidelines 
has taken place gradually in higher education. 
Starting with 2009/10, only new study programmes 
were made available for all three cycles. Students 
entering higher education in 2009/10 pursued their 
education in courses of the first, second and third 
cycles in line with the Bologna guidelines. Learning 
outcomes in higher education are described in 
terms of general and professional competences. The 
European credit transfer and accumulation system 
(ECTS) has been obligatory in higher education 
since 2002.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF supports cooperation between stakeholders 
across subsystems and institutions with the use of 
NQF levels and the learning outcomes approach as 
a common language for describing qualifications. 

Work on establishing an NQF was initiated in 2005 
through the EQF consultation process by the (then) 
Ministry of Education and Sport in cooperation 
with the Ministry of Higher Education, Science 
and Technology850 and the Ministry of Labour, 
Family and Social Affairs. In 2009, the Institute of 
the Republic of Slovenia for Vocational Education 
and Training (CPI) was appointed to manage the 

Slovenian qualifications framework project851, under 
the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour, Family, 
Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities. The CPI 
was also appointed as national coordination point 
(NCP) for the EQF, providing technical assistance 
and coordinating the work of stakeholders involved 
in developing the SQF and during the referencing. 
The institute continues to be in charge of 
coordinating the implementation of the framework: 
its roles and responsibilities have been stipulated 
in the Slovenian qualifications framework Act. 
They include information and communication on 
matters related to the SQF and EQF, managing the 
process of placing qualifications in the framework, 
coordinating the work of other stakeholders involved 
in linking qualifications to the EQF via the SQF, and 
maintaining the register of SQF qualifications.

In its role as NCP for the EQF, the CPI collaborates 
with the Slovenian Quality Assurance Agency 
for Higher Education (NAKVIS) – the institution 
responsible for quality in higher education 
qualifications – on all issues relating to higher 
education. This cooperation is based on a written 
agreement signed by the two agencies in 2012.

The 2016 SQF Act establishes the NCP SQF-EQF 
expert committee, under the coordination of the 
NCP, which is appointed on a term of four years. 
This comprises seven members, appointed by the 
Minister for Labour for four years: three members 
proposed by the Ministry of Labour, one proposed 
by the Ministry of Education, one proposed by the 
Ministry of Economy, and two proposed by the 
Economic and Social Council (one representing 
employers and the other representing trade unions). 
Its responsibilities are to set out the criteria and to 
prepare proposals for inclusion of supplementary 
qualifications in the SQF, to monitor developments 
related to the SQF, EQF and QF-EHEA, and to carry 
out other tasks necessary for placing qualifications 
in the framework.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways852

Validation of non-formal and informal learning has 
been an important issue on the Slovenian education 
policy agenda in the past decade. Since 2006 it has 
covered all education subsystems, regulated by 

850   The Ministry of Education and Sport and the Ministry of 
Higher Education, Science and Technology have been 
merged into one body, the Ministry of Education, Science 
and Sport.

852   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

851   The SQF project (2009–14) was jointly financed by the 

European Social Fund.

563

Volume II: National and regional casessector-specific acts and regulations. The legal basis 
for validation of non-formal and informal learning 
in the system of national vocational qualifications 
(NVQs) has been in place since 2000. 

As yet there is no overall strategy with focus on 
common processes and quality assurance across 
all levels of education. In 2017, the Institute of the 
Republic of Slovenia for VET and the Slovenian 
Institute for Adult Education published the Report 
on strategic and legal foundations for validation of 
non-formal and informal learning 853. The publication 
presents a comprehensive overview and a detailed 
description of developments at national level. 
It provides an analysis of validation at all levels 
of education and qualifications, and outlines 
further conceptual challenges and proposals for 
developments. The full implementation of the 
SQF, including all formal qualifications, the system 
of NVQs and supplementary qualifications, will 
strengthen validation. Validation arrangements 
are measured against the learning outcomes of 
education programmes in VET, higher education and 
general education. NVQs can be entirely acquired 
through recognition of non-formal and informal 
learning outcomes. 

Validation of non-formal and informal learning 
is most advanced in VET, higher VET and adult 
education, but other subsystems allow certain 
validation possibilities. For example, people over 21 
can take the matura exam without being enrolled 
in formal education. There are two types of VET 
qualification in Slovenia. First, educational VET 
qualifications are awarded after completion of formal 
vocational programmes; non-formally acquired 
knowledge and skills are taken into account to 
shorten the length of studies. Second, NVQs can 
be entirely acquired through recognition of non-
formal and informal learning outcomes. The National 
Professional Qualifications Act (amended 2009)854 
connects the two systems: occupational standards 
are the basis for qualification and assessment 
standards and national VET programmes. The 
‘master craftsman’ qualification can also be 
acquired through validation, though participation in 
preparatory programmes is possible and common. 

853   CPI; Slovenian Institute for Adult Education (2017). 

Report on strategic and legal foundations for validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. www.cpi.si/files/cpi/
userfiles/Publikacije/CPI_vrednotenje-ucenja_3korektura.
pdf

854   The National Professional Qualifications Act, 
amended in 2009: www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/
pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO1626

564

In higher education, the Higher Education Act 
(2012)855 obliges institutions to prepare validation 
measures and form a committee for validating 
non-formal and informal learning. Universities are 
autonomous and can decide their own procedures 
for this; they normally use professional assessors 
or committees. There is evidence of universities 
creating frameworks to support validation measures. 
The result of validation in higher education can be 
the award of ECTS credit points for a single course 
or a module within a study programme. 

NQF implementation

The SQF has reached full operational stage with 
the entry into force of the SQF Act, in July 2016. 
This law summarises the main responsibilities 
of stakeholders in designing and awarding 
qualifications at different levels, and defines the 
tasks of the national coordination point (NCP) 
for EQF-SQF and the NCP expert committee. It 
refers to procedures and methods of allocation of 
qualifications from formal education and training 
and national vocational qualifications as defined in 
sectoral legislation. One important development 
brought by the SQF Act is the definition of 
procedures and quality criteria for inclusion of 
supplementary qualifications in the SQF.  

According to the SQF Act, applications to place 
supplementary qualification into the SQF may be 
submitted by an employer/group of employers or by 
the Employment Service of Slovenia. An application 
shall contain at least the following details:

a.  needs in the labour market;
b.  the standard of the qualification and learning 

outcomes;

c.  the training programme leading to the 

supplementary qualification;

d.  a description of the procedure of assuring quality 

through self-evaluation;

e.  references in a relevant field of work;
f.  the contracted provider of the training 

programme, if this is not the proposer itself.

The Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET 
assesses the completed application placing the 
supplementary qualification in the SQF and prepares 
opinion on the suitability of the application and 
training programme. 

If the assessment is positive, the expert panel, 
nominated by ministry responsible for labour makes 

855   The Higher Education Act, 2012: www.uradni-list.si/1/

content?id=108446

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSa decision on the application and drafts a proposal 
for the placing of the supplementary qualification 
into SQF.

The supplementary qualification proposal is adopted 
by an expert panel and the minister responsible 
for labour decides on placing the supplementary 
qualification in the SQF. The supplementary 
qualification is placed in the SQF for five years; 
three months before this period expires, the 
proposer may submit an application to extend the 
validity of the placement.

The criteria for including supplementary 
qualifications into the SQF include the suitability 
of the applicant, relations to existing qualifications, 
description of the learning outcomes, consistency 
and feasibility of the training programme, quality 
assurance of the training programme, and labour 
market needs. 

Other aspects covered by the SQF Act are the 
referencing of NQF levels to the EQF and the QF-
EHEA, funding provisions, and the maintenance of 
the SQF register. 

The register856 describes qualifications in 
accordance with SQF and EQF parameters: title, 
type and category of a qualification, credit points, 
access requirements, SQF/EQF level, ISCED level, 
learning outcomes, awarding body and transition 
possibilities. It is linked to the EQF portal857, as 
Slovenia contributed to testing compatibility of 
a national register with the EQF portal. The SQF 
register already contains around 1 570 qualifications 
(1 248 educational qualifications, 311 national 
vocational qualifications and six supplementary 
qualifications).

The SQF is an integral part of the national 
qualifications system and is well integrated into 
national legislation in the area of education and 
training that defines SQF and EQF levels on public 
documents, according to the SQF law858. An NQF/
EQF communication strategy has been developed 
for different target groups to raise awareness about 
NQF and EQF among students, education and 
training institutions, employees, career counsellors, 
professional and recognition bodies.

Increasingly, the framework is visible and used by 
education and training institutions and learners with 
NQF/EQF levels indicated on certificates, diplomas 
and supplements and when preparing and renewing 

education programmes. There is some evidence 
that employers use NQF/EQF levels in recruitment, 
procedures and vacancies notices; interest among 
the general public is spreading. The SQF and EQF 
levels are indicated on certificates, diplomas, and 
Europass certificate and diploma supplements 
for general education, VET, higher education, 
supplementary qualifications and in the online SQF 
register.

SQF has not yet been systematically evaluated; 
only an evaluation of the SQF database has been 
carried out859. Using a number of different research 
tools (focus groups and semi-structured interviews 
with key national stakeholders) the results of the 
evaluation have already been integrated into the 
establishment of the new NQF portal860. A more 
comprehensive evaluation of the understanding, 
awareness and use of the framework among 
main national stakeholders is under way and to be 
completed in 2020. The results will feed into the 
updated referencing report.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Slovenia has completed referencing of SQF levels 
to the European qualifications framework (EQF) 
and self-certification to QF-EHEA. A joint report was 
presented and endorsed by the EQF advisory group 
in May 2013. Referencing to the two European 
frameworks was legislated through the 2016  
SQF Act.

Important lessons and future plans

Developments in Slovenia are using an incremental 
approach, with reform under way since the mid-
1990s, and a good situation in education, training 
and qualification developments compared to EU 
benchmarks. However, drawbacks have been 
identified at system level. For example, there 
is a need for better linking/bridging between 
formal education and training governed by the 
Ministry of Education and the certification system 
(NVQ), steered by the Ministry of Labour, to help 
individuals to combine learning outcomes from 
different settings. A further point to be improved 
is communication between education and the 
labour market. Quality assurance is regarded as 
essential in this respect, and is increasingly focused 
on outputs, as in testing quality indicators such 

856   SQF register: www.nok.si
857   EQF portal: http://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/search/

site?f[0]=im_field_entity_type%3A97
858   European Commission; Cedefop (2018). 

859   Prepared by Dr Borut Mikulec. Unedited text available at: 
www.nok.si/sites/www.nok.si/files/dokumenti/evalvacija_
registra_kvalifikacij_sok_z_vidika_strokovne_javnosti.pdf 
(in Slovenian).

860   www.nok.si

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Volume II: National and regional casesas graduate destinations. The SQF is expected 
to strengthen the quality assurance of learning 
outcomes.

Adopting and putting into force the SQF Act in 
July 2016, setting out the practical aspects of 
framework implementation, has been an important 
milestone. It opens up the qualification system to 
supplementary qualifications awarded on the labour 
market, establishing accreditation procedures and 
the criteria for placement into the SQF. The first six 
qualifications have been already included. It also 
stipulates the inclusion of SQF and EQF levels on 
certificates, diplomas and Europass documents, 
enabling the country to reach the second milestone 
of EQF implementation. The SQF register is fully 
operational. 

One remaining question is the decision to place 
the ‘master craftsman’ qualification at SQF level 5/
EQF level 4. In most other European countries, 
this qualification is placed at a higher level (EQF 
level 5 or 6), and the EQF advisory group raised 
the question of whether Slovenia is considering an 
upgrade of this qualification to bring it more in line 
with similar qualifications in Europe. Activities in 
connection with reform of the ‘master craftsman’ 
qualification were undertaken by the Chamber of 
Crafts and Small Business of Slovenia in conjunction 
with the Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for 

Table 72. Slovenian qualifications framework (SQF)

VET, the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport, 
and other social partners. As part of this reform, 
changes to the first occupational standards for the 
‘master craftsman’ qualification were prepared in 
2016, though the decision was to keep the same 
qualification level (SQF level 5/EQF level 4). More is 
being done on this.

Entering a full operational stage, the SQF is facing 
new challenges. The question has been raised of 
the contribution and added value of the SQF for 
different groups of stakeholders. An evaluation 
study – in process – will collect views and evidence 
on the understanding, awareness and use among 
main groups of stakeholders to support further 
implementation. 

Another challenge is further development of 
meaningful links between the SQF and related 
European and national tools, such as the 
classification system of education and training, 
KLASIUS. The development of an overarching 
national validation strategy for non-formal and 
informal learning is also on the agenda.

Further planned developments will focus on 
strengthening cooperation between different 
stakeholders in developing and implementing 
effective lifelong learning policies and practices.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

VOCATIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

SUPPLEMENTARY 
QUALIFICATIONS*

EQF 
LEVELS

8

8

7

NQF 
LEVELS

10

9

Doctoral degree  
(Diploma o doktoratu znanosti)

** Post-graduate research 
Master of science degree  
(Diploma o magisteriju znanosti)

** Specialisation diploma following 
academic higher education  
(Diploma o specializaciji)

8

Master degree  
(Diploma o strokovnem magisteriju)

** Specialisation diploma following pre-
Bologna professional higher education  
(Diploma o specializaciji)

** Pre-Bologna diploma of academic 
higher education  
(Diploma o univerzitetnem izobraževanju)

** Higher education diploma  
(Diploma o visoki izobrazbi)

566

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 72. Slovenian qualifications framework (SQF) (Continued)

NQF 
LEVELS

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

VOCATIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

SUPPLEMENTARY 
QUALIFICATIONS*

EQF 
LEVELS

Academic bachelor diploma  
(Diploma o izobraževanju prve stopnje – 
univerzitetna, UN)

Professional bachelor diploma  
(Diploma o izobrazevanju visokem 
strokovnem, VS)

** Pre-Bologna professional higher 
education diploma (Diploma o visokem 
strokovnem izobraževanju)

** Specialisation diploma following old 
short cycle higher education  
(Diploma o specializaciji)

Short-cycle higher vocational diploma  
(Diploma o višji strokovni izobrazbi)

NVQ certificate 
(level 6)

NVQ certificate 
(level 5) 

Certificate of 
supplementary 
qualification  
(SQF level 7)

Certificate of 
supplementary 
qualification  
(SQF level 6)

Certificate of 
supplementary 
qualification  
(SQF level 5)

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

** Old short-cycle higher vocational 
diploma (Diploma o višješolski izobrazbi)

Vocational matura certificate (secondary 
technical education, four years) 
(Spricˇ evalo o poklicni mature)

General matura certificate  
(Spricˇ evalo o splošni mature)

Master craftsman’s examination 
certificate (Spricˇ evalo o opravljenem 
mojstrskem izpitu)

Foreman’s examination certificate  
(Spricˇ evalo o opravljenem delovodskem 
izpitu)

Managerial examination certificate  
(Spricˇ evalo o opravljenem poslovodskem 
izpitu)

Final examination certificate 
(secondary vocational education, three 
years) (Spricˇ evalo o zakljucˇ nem izpitu, 
Srednja poklicna izobrazba)

Final examination certificate 
(lower vocational education, two years) 
(Spricˇ evalo o zakljucˇ nem izpitu)

Elementary school leaving certificate 
(nine years) (Zakljucˇ no spricˇ evalo osnovne 
šole)

Certificate of completing grades 7 or 8 
of elementary education (Potrdilo o 
izpolnjeni osnovnošolski obveznosti)

Elementary school leaving certificate  
(Zakljucˇ no spricˇ evalo osnovne šole)

Certificate of 
supplementary 
qualification  
(SQF level 4)

NVQ (level 4)

NVQ (level 3)

NVQ (level 2)

6

5

4

4

3

2

1

(*)   The inclusion of supplementary qualifications in the framework was legislated in 2016.
(**)  Pre-Bologna diplomas.

Source: Adapted from Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET, 2014; EQF NCP, 2018. 

567

Volume II: National and regional casesAbbreviations
CPI 

ECTS 

EQF 
NCP 

Institute of the Republic of Slovenia 
for Vocational Education and Training
European credit transfer and 
accumulation system
European qualifications framework
national coordination point

NQF 
NVQ 
QF-EHEA 

SQF 
VET 

national qualifications framework
national vocational qualification
qualifications framework in the 
European higher education area
Slovenian qualifications framework
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET – the EQF NCP: www.cpi.si/en/ 
SQF portal: www.nok.si/en
SQF register: www.nok.si
Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET (2014). Referencing the Slovenian qualifications framework 

to the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning and the qualifications framework for 
the European higher education area: final report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
Final%20Report%20SI_2014.pdf

References

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Country analysis. Slovenia.  

https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/volume-2-2018-education-
and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of  

non-formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Slovenia.

Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for VET (2014). Referencing the Slovenian qualifications framework 

to the European qualifications framework for lifelong learning and the qualifications framework for 
the European higher education area: final report. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/
Final%20Report%20SI_2014.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSOUTH AFRICA

Introduction and context

South Africa has in recent years achieved a high 
level of macroeconomic and political stability. At 
the same time, the legacy of apartheid remains a 
significant challenge even today, with various formal 
and informal initiatives under way to improve the 
level of education of historically disadvantaged 
people. Society is profoundly unequal. While 
this has historical causes, the current economic 
environment has not been able to eliminate the 
large levels of social and economic inequality. 
Although levels of inequality remain high (Gini 
coefficient = 0.63)861, they are no longer based 
solely on racial divisions. There are high levels of 
unemployment, particularly in the under-30 age 
group, and this is higher among women than men 
(Samuels, 2013).

Quality provision is the focus in the entire schooling 
sector which currently has only pockets of high-
quality provision. International comparative studies 
rate this sector as one which needs strengthening, 
predominantly in maths and science subjects. 
Several initiatives to address this problem are 
underway, including annual national assessments 
through which problem areas are identified, tracked 
and addressed. Despite these efforts, the legacy of 
apartheid is starkly evident in the schooling sector, 
and much more needs to be done. Approximately 
4% of the population are citizens of other countries, 
mostly from other Southern African Development 
Community (SADC) countries. Qualifications 
obtained outside South Africa are evaluated by 
the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), 
with the majority of applications falling into the 
highly skilled grouping. Most of these highly skilled 
migrants originate from SADC countries; the 
majority, for the 2017–18 financial year, (23.5%) 
come from Zimbabwe.

Statistics South Africa’s (2017) Quarterly Labour 
Force Survey reveals that there are more than 
3.3 million South Africans aged between 15 and 24 

who are not in employment, education and training. 
Furthermore, there are 10 million South Africans 
between the ages of 15 and 24; and over 54% of 
them are unemployed (ibid.).

The vocational sector, comprising 50 technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET) colleges 
originally known as further education and training 
colleges, has doubled over the past years from 
about 360,000 enrolments to over 706,000 in 2016. 
Despite significant government investment, there are 
still problems as TVET colleges are often viewed as a 
second or third choice and for those with less ability. 
In an attempt to strengthen this sector, some TVET 
colleges have been transformed into community 
colleges. While enrolment rates have improved 
in recent years, much still needs to be done to 
convince the broader public that the vocational route 
can be a first choice for many students.

The South African national qualifications framework 
was established in 1998 after the South African 
Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Act in 1995. The 
NQF has been designed as an integrated system 
with a strong transformational agenda to promote 
lifelong learning for all South Africans in a non-racial, 
non-sexist democracy. Preceding the SAQA Act, a 
broad and extensive consultation process took place 
which had, as one of its roots in the late 1980s, the 
labour movement’s desire to recognize the tradable 
skills of black workers in the bargaining forums for 
better conditions of service. The NQF was viewed 
by  many, particularly  the Trade Union movement, 
as a way  to legitimately and quickly eradicate unfair 
labour practices through such mechanisms as 
recognition of prior learning (RPL), which could be 
used to award qualifications to persons who had 
been denied access to education and permanent 
employment yet who did the work in jobs that were 
formally and legislatively denied them prior to 1994. 
RPL was also seen as a  way  to  open  access  to 
higher  education  and  workplace  programmes 
for  formerly disadvantaged citizens who did not 
possess the qualifications for admission.

861   Information accessed 25 February 2019 at:  

https://data.worldbank.org

The overarching purpose of the NQF is to facilitate 
articulation, recognition, access and redress 

569

Volume II: National and regional casesacross education, training, development and 
workplace learning for all South Africans. The NQF 
is the principal instrument through which national 
education and training qualifications are recognized 
and quality assured in South Africa. The NQF Act 
was promulgated in 2008 and came into effect from 
1 June 2009, replacing the SAQA Act of 1995. Some 
of the main reasons for the review and subsequent 
change to the NQF environment have been debates 
over the integration of education and training, the 
different needs of the sectors in education and 
training, the relative importance of stakeholder 
and expert opinions, and strengthening relations 
between bodies within the NQF structure. The 
most important change was the establishment of 
three sub-frameworks as part of the comprehensive 
NQF: General and Further Education and Training 

Qualifications Sub-Framework, Higher Education 
Qualifications Sub-Framework, and Occupational 
Qualifications Sub-Framework. Within the NQF 
landscape, professional bodies apply to SAQA to 
be recognized within the education and training 
system, while professional designations are also 
included through an agreed process between SAQA 
and professional bodies (SAQA, 2018).

At present the main focus is on streamlining and 
simplifying the implementation of the NQF and 
making it more responsive to South Africa’s needs. 
SAQA and its quality partners, the three Quality 
Councils: Council on Higher Education, Quality 
Council for Trades and Occupations and Umalusi are 
working together to achieve the objectives of  
the NQF.

Figure 20. South African national qualifications framework

Policy objectives

improve education and training quality; and

• 
•  accelerate the redress of past unfair 

The specific objectives of the NQF, as outlined in the 
NQF Act No 67 of 2008, are to:

discrimination in education, training and 
employment opportunities.

•  create a single integrated national framework for 

learning achievements;

•  support access to, and mobility and progression 
within, education, training and career paths;

The objectives of the NQF are designed to contribute 
to the full personal development of each learner and 
the social and economic development of the nation 
at large. SAQA and the Quality Councils must:

570

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS•  develop, foster and maintain an integrated 
transparent national framework for the 
recognition of learning achievements; and
•  ensure South African qualifications are of 
an acceptable quality and internationally 
comparable.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The South African NQF is a single, comprehensive 
integrated system for the classification, registration, 
publication and articulation of quality-assured 
national qualifications. It is a 10-level system that 
comprises three co-ordinated qualifications sub-
frameworks. 

The  NQF  includes all South African qualifications. 
The  learning  outcome  approach  is  enabled  by 
relevant  legislation. The level descriptors (SAQA, 
2012) provide the generic outcomes and the 
qualification descriptors describe the specific 
outcomes. A nested learning outcome methodology 
is applied in South Africa. 

There is one set of level descriptors that applies 
to all three sub-frameworks. The level descriptors 
give  an  indication  of  the  general  cognitive 
competences  that  should  be  developed  by  all 
qualifications at all levels and, therefore, give 
broad guidance for the development of exit level 
outcomes, associated assessment  criteria, 
curriculum content, learning outcomes  and 
assessment for qualifications at each level. The 
positioning of two or more qualifications on the 
same NQF level indicates that the qualifications are 
broadly comparable in terms of the cognitive  level 
of the exit level outcomes, of  the  qualification,  and 
the  generic  cognitive competences developed. 
The qualification descriptors provide more detailed 
information on the purpose and nature of the 
qualification.

The  learning outcomes  of  qualifications  take 
account  of  societal  and  labour  market  needs. 
A  variety  of stakeholders  are  involved  in  the 
development  of  qualifications  and they must  use 
the level descriptors.  Qualifications, as a complete 
entity, are developed to meet labour market and 
societal needs, and the learning outcomes are 
directed at realising the aim and purpose of each 
qualification.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

In addition to changes in the NQF legislation 
in 2008, the government also reformed the political 

and administrative structures of the education 
and training landscape to improve the quality 
of education and training. The previously single 
Department of Education was divided into two 
departments: the Department of Higher Education 
and Training and the Department of Basic Education. 
The training component was transferred from the 
Department of Labour to the Department of Higher 
Education and Training, responsible for universities, 
universities of technology, community colleges 
and TVET colleges, adult basic education and the 
entire training sector. Individual training colleges 
(for nursing, agricultural and similar specialist 
occupations) are still functioning under different 
departments. The Department of Basic Education 
is responsible for the formal schooling sector 
from primary to secondary school, as well as for 
the national adult literacy campaign, known as 
Kha Ri Gude. 

The NQF continues to be led by a central statutory 
body, SAQA, with extensive input by other 
stakeholders. Three sector-specific Quality Councils 
have executive responsibility for quality assurance 
and standards development within their respective 
sectors, while SAQA registers qualifications on the 
NQF once they meet the stipulated criteria. The 
Quality Councils, namely the Council on Higher 
Education, the Quality Council for Trades and 
Occupations and Umalusi, are responsible for the 
Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework, 
the Occupational Qualifications Sub-Framework 
and the General and Further Education and Training 
Qualifications Sub-Framework respectively. Each 
Quality Council is responsible for developing 
qualifications in accordance with the overall criteria 
determined by SAQA. In turn, SAQA is responsible 
for the overall maintenance of the NQF and the 
co-ordination of the sub-frameworks. The three 
Quality Councils and SAQA report to the Minister 
of Higher Education and Training, while Umalusi, on 
certain aspects, also reports to the Minister of Basic 
Education.

Representatives from trade unions, provider 
bodies (including higher education, further 
education and general education), professional 
bodies, employers and experts serve on the 
Boards and Councils of SAQA and the Quality 
Councils. Within the NQF landscape, SAQA has 
the responsibility to recognise professional bodies 
and register professional designations in line 
with developed policy and criteria. By 31 March 
2018, 106 professional bodies had already met 
these requirements with over 385 professional 
designations registered and over 350 000 people 
with professional designations.

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Volume II: National and regional casesRecognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The term recognition of prior learning (RPL) is used 
in South Africa for recognition of non-formal and 
informal learning and is defined as comparison of 
the previous learning and experience of a learner, 
however obtained, against the learning outcomes 
required for a specified qualification. Learning is 
measured in terms of specific learning outcomes for 
a specific qualification and may lead to achievement 
of credits towards the qualification. Two types of 
RPL have emerged in South Africa: RPL for credit, 
usually associated with the occupational and trades 
sector, and RPL for access, usually associated with 
higher education.

Since the implementation of the RPL policies, it has 
become a reality for over 63,700 people who have 
achieved full qualifications through RPL. Most RPL 
achievements, however, have been against part-
qualifications where more than 96 million learner 
achievements have been recorded. From ‘islands 
of excellent practice’, the country continues to 
move towards a national RPL system. There are 
three main target groups for RPL. The access group 
comprises under-qualified adult learners wishing 
to upskill and improve their qualifications, and 
candidates lacking minimum requirements for entry 
into a formal learning programme. The redress group 
consists of workers who may be semi-skilled and 
even unemployed, who may have worked for many 
years but were prevented from gaining qualifications 
due to restrictive past policies. Finally, there are 
candidates who left formal education prematurely 
and who have, over a number of years, built up 
learning through short programmes. Most RPL 
candidates fall between NQF levels 2 and 4, and 
generally do not possess a school-leaving certificate 
(Samuels, 2013).

Recognising foreign qualifications

The criteria for evaluating foreign qualifications 
are clearly spelt out in the Policy and Criteria for 
Evaluating Foreign Qualifications within the South 
African NQF as amended in 2017 (SAQA, 2017). 
Foreign qualifications, whether held by South 
Africans or foreign nationals, are evaluated for  
the purpose of informing further study,  
employment, registration and professional  
licensing in South Africa. 

The evaluation and advisory service provided by 
SAQA forms part of a value chain for the recognition 
of foreign qualifications. SAQA partners with 
other bodies and entities to recognize foreign 

qualifications so that recognition roles and 
responsibilities are clear. SAQA also approved an 
Addendum on the recognition of qualifications 
and part-qualifications for refugees and asylum 
seekers for public comment. The addendum will be 
considered for approval for implementation in the 
first half of 2019.

South Africa takes the combatting of fraud very 
seriously with the Department of Higher Education 
and Training ushering in an NQF Amendment Bill 
through Parliament which makes it a criminal office 
to forge qualifications. The Bill makes provision for 
the development of a register of misrepresented 
qualifications and a register for fraudulent 
qualifications. SAQA takes seriously its counter-
fraud role to verify national and foreign qualifications 
and protect the public against misrepresented 
qualifications. There are a number of counter-fraud 
initiatives currently underway, one of which is the 
development of a national policy on misrepresented 
qualifications. In the 2017–18 financial year a total 
of 25,589 foreign qualifications were evaluated. Of 
these, 373 were confirmed to be misrepresented 
foreign qualifications which is 1.4% of the total 
qualifications evaluated.

NQF implementation

Considerable progress has been made in 
implementing the NQF since 2009. Policies on level 
descriptors (SAQA, 2012), RPL (SAQA, 2013a), the 
registration of qualifications and part-qualifications 
(SAQA, 2013b), the recognition of professional 
bodies (SAQA, 2018), credit accumulation and 
transfer (SAQA, 2014b), assessment (SAQA, 2014a) 
and the evaluation of foreign qualifications  
(SAQA, 2017) have been completed. These policies 
have been agreed between SAQA and the Quality 
Councils. Currently, a policy on misrepresented 
qualifications is being developed. 

To strengthen collaboration among the key 
agencies, SAQA has overseen the development 
of a system of collaboration and an NQF 
implementation framework which is the roadmap 
for NQF implementation. An NQF advisory service 
project has been developed to assist users to 
navigate the education and training system. The 
National Learners’ Records Database, which is the 
national NQF repository for information on learner 
achievements and related matters, continues to 
provide important insights into the status of the 
education and training system in the country. By 
31 March 2018 a total of 14.9 million qualifications 
were awarded in South Africa and the achievements 
recorded on the Database. Credential evaluation  
of both national and foreign qualifications and  

572

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSfraud-combatting also remains closely integrated 
with the NQF. In the 2017–18 financial year, SAQA 
verified 79,931 national qualification records and 
confirmed 230 misrepresentations of national 
qualifications. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

South Africa, as one of the 16 Member States of 
SADC, has played an active role in the development 
of the SADC qualifications framework (SADCQF). 
The SADCQF, a comprehensive framework 
for schooling, TVET and higher education, was 
established in 2011 by the SADC Ministers of 
Education (SADC, 2017). Its purpose is to enable 
easier movement of learners and workers across 
the SADC region and internationally. It is a 10-level 
regional qualifications framework underpinned 
by learning outcomes and quality assurance 
principles that will provide a regional reference for 
qualifications and quality assurance mechanisms 
in SADC. The main purpose of the SADCQF is to 
promote mobility and, as such, it plays a key role 
in being the regional reference point for comparing 
qualifications obtained in the SADC. 

Currently the SADCQF is a reference framework. 
Eight SADC countries are piloting the alignment of 
their NQFs or national qualifications systems with the 
SADCQF. The pilot countries are Botswana, Eswatini, 
Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia, Seychelles, South 
Africa and Zambia. An alignment plan, roadmap 
and timelines were developed to assist the eight 
pilot countries. Support was provided via alignment 
capacity-building workshops hosted by SAQA. 

Important lessons and future plans

across all sectors. SAQA and the three Quality 
Councils have become mature organizations with 
clearly defined mandates and who work together to 
implement the NQF.

Simplification of the NQF and articulation between 
the sub-frameworks of the NQF remains an area 
that needs to be improved. A national policy and a 
set of articulation criteria have been developed to 
address some of these challenges. The intention 
is to expand RPL through a national co-ordinated 
strategy (DHET, 2016). The White Paper for Post-
School Education and Training (DHET, 2013) is 
currently being implemented to ensure that the 
post-school sector receives attention.

SAQA has shifted its focus from policy 
development, which had been required by the 
NQF Act of 2008 and had been largely completed 
by 2014, towards overseeing policy implementation. 
This will include greater emphasis on monitoring 
and evaluation, as well as an increased role for 
SAQA in cases where unfair and discriminatory 
exclusionary practices occur, preventing learners’ 
mobility.

International benchmarking between the South 
African NQF and other countries is consistently 
undertaken. 

Abbreviations
NQF  
RPL  
SADC  

national qualifications framework
recognition of prior learning
Southern African Development 
Community

SADCQF   SADC qualifications framework
SAQA  

South African Qualifications 
Authority
technical and vocational education 
and training

The South African NQF has become an integral 
feature of the national education and training 
landscape. Learning outcomes are widely used 

TVET 

References

DHET (Department of Higher Education and Training) (2013). White Paper for Post-School Education and 

Training. Pretoria: DHET. 

DHET (Department of Higher Education and Training) (2016). Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) 

Coordination Policy. Pretoria: DHET. 

SADC (Southern African Development Community) (2017). The Southern African Development Community 

Qualifications Framework (SADCQF). As revised in April 2017. Botswana, Gaborone: SADC 
Secretariat.

Samuels, J. (2013). Contextual and institutional arrangements for lifelong learning. In: Singh, M.; Duvekot, 
R. (eds). Linking recognition practices and national qualifications frameworks. International 
benchmarking of experiences and strategies on the recognition, validation and accreditation (RVA) of 
non-formal and informal learning. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL).

573

Volume II: National and regional casesSAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2012). Level descriptors for the South African national 

qualifications framework. Pretoria: SAQA.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2013a). Policy and criteria for the registration of qualifications 

and part-qualifications on the national qualifications framework. Pretoria: SAQA.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2013b). National policy for the implementation of the 

recognition of prior learning. Pretoria: SAQA.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2014a). Policy for credit accumulation and transfer within the 

national qualifications framework. Pretoria: SAQA.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2014b). National policy and criteria for designing and 

implementing assessment for NQF qualifications and part-qualifications and professional 
designations in South Africa. Pretoria: SAQA.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2017). Policy and criteria for evaluating foreign qualifications 

within the South African NQF (as amended in 2017). Pretoria: SAQA.

SAQA (South African Qualifications Authority) (2018). Policy and Criteria for Recognising a Professional 
Body and Registering a Professional Designation for the Purposes of the National Qualifications 
Framework Act, Act 67 of 2008 (as amended in 2018). Pretoria: SAQA.

Statistics South Africa. (2017). Quarterly Labour Force Survey, 3rd Quarter. Accessed at: www.statssa.gov.

za/?p=10658

World Bank data. Accessed 25 February 2019 at: https://data.worldbank.org/

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

574

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSOUTH KOREA

Introduction and context

The purpose of the Korean qualifications framework 
(KQF), to be introduced in 2019 as a regulation of 
the Ministry of Education (MoE) in cooperation 
with the Ministry of Employment and Labour 
(MoEL), is to set out an integrated system of levels 
common to academic and vocational qualifications. 
Since 2016 the MoEL (2010a; 2010b) and the 
MoE have made a full-scale effort to establish 
the KQF through the development of national 
competency standards (NCS) and the introduction 
of qualifications grounded in learning outcomes. 
These new measures are designed to strengthen 
links between industry, technical and vocational 
education and training (TVET) and the qualifications 
system and help raise the status and significance of 
TVET (Seung II Na, 2012). 

One of the challenges the KQF seeks to address is 
the significant imbalance between vocational and 
academic qualifications in terms of student numbers. 
The primary reason for this imbalance is that Korean 
society places a very high value on academic 
qualifications, which the Korean education system 
separates from vocational qualifications (Jeong-Yoon 
et al., 2000). Vocational education is considered a 
second-class option (Seung II Na, 2012). 

Meanwhile, despite such a highly educated youth 
population, the country is facing several challenges. 

a.  It has one of the highest youth unemployment 

rates among OECD Member States (Park, 2011); 
in addition, unemployment rates for college 
graduates reached 12.5% in 2016 (Statistics 
Korea, 2016). 

b.  The schism between the labour market and 
higher education creates societal instability. 

c.  The links between industry and the higher 

education sector are weak in terms of the level 
of workforce training (Woo, 2010). 

d.  The skills mismatch ironically forces young 

people to seek more education, while employers 
have to invest more in on-the-job training for new 
recruits.

e.  Academic degrees are currently not linked to the 

national qualifications standards.

f.  The academic learning culture of higher 

education does not promote the full appreciation 
and value of recognizing non-formal and informal 
outcomes through the assessment of prior 
learning.

A further challenge relates to the nature of the TVET 
system in the country. Since TVET has traditionally 
focused on the high school level, post-secondary 
TVET and lifelong learning have been neglected in 
TVET policies. As the country enters a knowledge-
based economy and skills requirements continue to 
rise, TVET in schools as well as in post-secondary 
and higher education institutions need to properly 
respond to this change.

The government is taking a number of measures 
to dispel the negative perception of TVET and 
to improve its quality. Firstly, it is trying to open 
pathways to higher education for vocational 
education graduates. Vocational high school 
students are being given the option of taking 
academic subjects so that they can later apply 
for admission to universities. In some schools, 
academic and vocational students share as much 
as 75% of a common curriculum. Secondly, a new 
type of high school, modelled on the German dual 
education system and known as a Young Meister 
High School is a new type of elite vocational 
high school in Korea, launched in 2008 to provide 
education geared towards industrial and business 
demands (Seung II Na, 2012).

A further concern is the variety of the vocational 
qualifications in terms of types, awarding 
authorities, and certification procedures (KRIVET, 
2001). There are three major types of qualifications 
in South Korea: 

a.  national technical qualifications focusing on 

manufacturing, services and the business field; 
b.  national qualifications of non-technical categories 

such as those for lawyers, accountants and 
patent experts; and 

575

Volume II: National and regional casesc.  private qualifications including areas such as 

computers, language skills, sports and health, 
leisure and recreation activities, social welfare, 
counselling and civil engineering (Framework Act 
on Qualifications, 2011).

according to the criteria and standards in the 
KQF and NCS.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The lack of coherence among vocational 
qualifications continues since they are issued by 
various government authorities. Furthermore, 
the criteria for vocational qualifications are too 
complicated and disconnected to allow comparisons 
with each other. Additionally, it is difficult to grasp 
exactly how qualifications respond to certain 
demands from an industry. Finally, there is a lack of 
incentive to increase competence through acquiring 
a qualification.

As a consequence of this lack of coherence, the 
quality, relevance and credibility of qualifications 
became an issue. In 2002, the country began 
to introduce a competency-based approach in 
its curricula and methods of teaching as well as 
developing competency standards. This was also 
in response to the criticism levelled at TVET in the 
1990s, which claimed that it was not reflecting the 
skill requirements of a new economy.

Policy objectives

The aims of the KQF and NCS are to:

a.  improve coordination among ministries 

responsible for TVET policy;

b.  align TVET qualifications obtained in high schools 

and junior colleges with national technical 
qualifications and underlying standards (OECD, 
2009, p. 1);

c.  strengthen TVET beyond its present theoretical 
orientation and make it more practical and 
outcomes-based, so that it delivers the kind of 
human resources employers say they need;
d.  build ladders and pathways for occupational and 
educational progression, so that, for example, 
dental mechanics can become dentists and legal 
and accounting clerks can become lawyers and 
accountants (Jeong-Yoon, 2013);

e.  make learning and assessment activities more 

like real work and less like school;

f.  strengthen the competitiveness of companies 

and the nation by recognizing informal 
learning;

g.  link the identification, assessment and 

recognition of non-formal and informal learning 
to technical and vocational qualifications (ibid.);

h.  raise the perceived value of informal and 

non-formal learning by improving their quality 

The KQF comprises the NCS which identify 
and standardize the competences required 
for job performance. It is a comprehensive 
concept including abilities such as knowledge, 
skills and attitudes necessary to perform a job, 
and assessment of ability. The NCS have been 
developed using the following procedures:

a.  development of comprehensive plan,
b.  analysis of vocational structure and job,
c.  designing competence units,
d.  standardisation of competences and levels,
e.  evaluation of basic competences,
f.  allocation of codes,
g.  verification of vocational standards.

The NCS serve as a channel for responding to 
the demands of industries and for reforming the 
curriculum of secondary schools, colleges and the 
educational delivery system. This competence-
based system focuses in particular on problem-
solving, communicating, relationship management 
and teamwork.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The KQF was initiated by the MoE and the MoEL 
in consultation with other ministries, such as the 
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and 
the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy. 

South Korea has been developing an articulation 
system between its traditional higher education 
system and vocational education and training and 
qualifications systems according to the Korean skills 
standards and the national occupation standards. 
The national occupation standards have been 
developed and operated by the MoEL and the 
Korean skills standards by the MoE.

The Korean skills standards and the national 
occupation standards were integrated into the NCS 
in December 2010 by the Prime Minister’s Office. 
These efforts are designed to link various TVET 
systems and vocational qualifications systems and 
to enhance the development of the competence-
based TVET system. Furthermore, the purpose of 
the merger was to reinforce an overall coordinating 
function and to conduct effective qualifications-
related policy.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSRecognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

Korea’s mechanisms for the recognition and 
accreditation of prior and/or non-formal learning 
have developed in tandem with the KQF and 
NCS. Efforts are being made to reorganize the 
national qualifications system in such a way as to 
allow learners to accumulate credits towards a 
qualification and a college degree via the academic 
credit bank system (ACBS) and to establish links 
between the ACBS, the NCS and the NQF. 

The MoE develops the basic accreditation plan 
and issues final approval by sending a certificate of 
accreditation to each institution, while the National 
Institute for Lifelong Education (NILE) implements 
the plan, screens the documents and develops a 
final evaluation report for the MoE (Baik, 2013). The 
ACBS documents and recognizes outcomes from 
various non-formal learning activities by granting 
credits and conferring degrees when certain 
numbers of credits are accumulated. At present, six 
sources of credits are recognized by the ACBS:

a.  credits transferred from formal higher education 

institutions;

b.  credits obtained by taking part-time courses at 

formal higher education institutions;

c.  credits transferred from non-formal education 

and training courses accredited by NILE;
d.  credits recognized for ‘important intangible 

cultural properties’ (the ACBS accredits master 
and apprenticeship programmes in the context 
of artistic activities regarded as traditional and 
cultural heritage);

e.  credits recognized for national vocational 
qualifications (above the level of industrial 
technician);

f.  credits transferred from the bachelor’s degree 
examination for self-education (BDES) – this 
system makes it possible to obtain an academic 
degree without attending a regular college or 
university by passing an examination conducted 
by NILE.

The first two of these six recognized sources 
of credits relate to universities and are mostly 
accepted for an academic degree regardless of 
when they were awarded. Most ACBS accreditation, 
however, concerns non-formal education and 
training institutions. The number of credits obtained 
by acquiring national technical qualifications or 
by passing examinations depends on the level of 
difficulty of the exam.

validate all types of learning by promoting the 
recognition and certification of both academic 
and vocational qualifications. The system allows 
individuals to accumulate lifelong learning 
experiences and to ‘invest’ these experiences in 
moving up the career ladder.

NQF implementation

The MoEL and its affiliates are responsible for 
operating the NCS (KRIVET, 2009). The MoEL is 
responsible for refining vocational qualifications, 
improving the practicability of vocational certificates 
and upgrading the system for producing  
work-oriented tests. The MoEL also oversees  
the application of NCS in the labour market  
(KRIVET, 2009).

However, work to develop the NCS is implemented 
mainly by the Human Resource Development 
Service of Korea (HRD Korea), which must then 
be approved by the government, with research 
being conducted by the Korean Research Institute 
for Vocational Education and Training (KRIVET) as 
well as other national research institutes, including 
universities. Nine government ministries are 
responsible for developing NCS in 24 industry 
categories, including agriculture and forestry, 
textiles, chemicals, machinery, electronics, 
environment, financial services, healthcare, culture, 
tourism, food processing and human services. 
Industry sector councils help improve connections 
between education and training and industry, while 
the MoE harmonizes qualifications across the 
different sectors in consultation with the various 
stakeholders. The MoE has supported KRIVET in 
the development of learning modules based on 
the NCS since 2014. As of 2018, 947 NCS had 
been developed (HRD Korea, 2018). Since 2015, 
the MoEL and HRD Korea have supported industry 
sector councils in developing about 50 new NCS 
based on industry demands every year.

The distinction between ‘fields’ and ‘jobs’ is 
important to understand. For example, the medical 
field has four subdivisions (here, ‘jobs’) in the 
Korean NCS: clinical medicine, nursing, basic 
medicine and medical specialisms that support 
clinical medicine, such as clinical pathology and 
image medical sciences. It is expected that these 
standards will be widely used to structure TVET 
curriculum development.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The work of the ACBS is supplemented by the 
lifelong learning account system, designed to 

South Korea seeks to align its own qualifications 
framework with those under development in other 

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Volume II: National and regional casescountries of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 
(APEC) forum and the ASEAN qualifications 
reference framework in order to allow for mutual 
recognition of qualifications across the region, thus 
enhancing educational and labour mobility.

Important lessons and future plans

The KQF and the NCS still need to be better 
understood across the full range of agencies and 
sector authorities involved in education, training and 
employment. Universities in particular tend to guard 
their autonomy and only accept frameworks that 
reflect their existing practices. This attitude needs 
to change if the KQF and NCS are to bring about 
their full intended benefits. The current government 
and other stakeholders are fully supporting these 
developments and are undertaking efforts in this 
respect.

In the near future, links to the KQF and NCS will 
make the ACBS and the lifelong learning account 
system more reliable and convenient, not only for 
learners but also for employers and educators (Baik, 
2013). The ACBS could play a role in facilitating an 
NCS-based curriculum across the education and 
training institutions it accredits. Credits from NCS-
based education and training programmes might 
be a new way to link ACBS and TVET; in doing so, 
the ACBS might gain more leverage concerning the 
traditional higher education and other systems.

References

At present, the MoEL is carrying out the 
development and application of the sectoral 
qualifications framework (SQF) policy. SQFs 
have already been developed for the software, 
hairdressing, hotel management and electric 
railways sectors. The SQF development council 
to be established under HRD Korea will facilitate 
SQF policy and KQF implementation in the near 
future. Both the NQF and the SQF are designed 
with special emphasis on the alignment between 
education, training, qualifications and recognition of 
prior learning, with an expectation that they would 
assure the quality of NQF and SQF registered 
qualifications.

KQF  
KRIVET  

academic credit bank system

Abbreviations
ACBS 
HRD Korea  Human Resource Development 
Service of Korea
Korean qualifications framework 
Korean Research Institute for 
Vocational Education and Training 
Ministry of Education 
Ministry of Employment and 
Labour 
national competency standards 
National Institute for Lifelong 
Education
sectoral qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training

MoE  
MoEL  

SQF 
TVET  

NCS  
NILE 

APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) (2009). Mapping qualifications frameworks across APEC 

economies. Singapore: Human Resources Development Working Group. Asia and Pacific Council.

Baik, E.S. (2010). Company needs analysis for the network between the Lifelong Learning Account System 

and the job market. Seoul: National Institute for Lifelong Education (NILE).

Baik, E.S. (2013). Republic of Korea: the Academic Credit Bank and the Lifelong Learning Account System. 

In: Singh, M.; Duvekot, R. (eds). Linking recognition practices and national qualifications frameworks: 
international benchmarking of experiences and strategies in the recognition, validation and 
accreditation of non-formal and informal learning. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.
Choi, S.D. (2007). Country background report: Republic of Korea. OECD Thematic review on recognition of 

non-formal and informal learning. Paris: OECD.

Goodman, R.; Hatakenaka, S.; Kim, T. (2009). The changing status of vocational higher education in 

contemporary Japan and the Republic of Korea. UNESCO-UNEVOC Discussion Paper Series. Bonn: 
UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training.

Halasz, G.; Sweet, R.; Taguma, M. (2009). Recognition of non-formal and informal learning: country note for 

South Korea. OECD.

HRD Korea (2018). Current situation of NCS and its mid- and long-term development measure. Ulsan: HRD 

Korea.

Jeong-Yoon, C. et al. (2000). Basic study of national competency standards system in Korea. Seoul: KRIVET.
Jeong-Yoon, C. (2013). Vocational qualifications system in Korea. Accessed 12 February 2013 at:  

http://de.slideshare.net/Shelly38/vocational-qualifications-system-in-korea

KEDI (2004). Statistical yearbook of education. Seoul: Korean National Statistical Office, Ministry of 

Education.

578

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSKEDI (2013). Statistical yearbook of education. Seoul: Korean National Statistical Office, Ministry of 

Education.

Korea Times. Online edition. What’s wrong with youth employment?, 14 October 2012. Accessed 7 May 

2013.

KRIVET (Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training) (2001). Qualification system in 

Korea. Seoul: KRIVET.

KRIVET (Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training) (2009). NCS development 

promotion project. Seoul: Ministry of Education.

KRIVET (Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training) (2010). KRIVET. The leading national 

think tank in HRD and TVET. Seoul: KRIVET.

Lee, H.Y.; Ko, Y.S. (2014). RPL/VPL practices in the Academic Credit Bank System of South Korea. In: 

Duvekot, R. et al. (eds). Validation of prior learning as a multi-targeted approach for access to learning 
opportunities for all.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2007). Second national lifelong learning promotion plan 

(2008–2012). Seoul: Ministry of Education.

MoEL (Ministry of Employment and Labour) (2010a). The current state of skills development business. 

Seoul: Ministry of Employment and Labour.

MoEL (Ministry of Employment and Labour) (2010b). Long-term basic plan for national competency 

standards. Seoul: Ministry of Employment and Labour.

National Institute for Lifelong Education (NILE) (2011). Lifelong Learning Account System. Seoul: NILE.
National Institute for Lifelong Education (NILE) (2013). Manual for the Academic Credit Bank System.  

Seoul: NILE.

OECD (2009). Vocational education and training in Korea: strengths, challenges and recommendations. 

Paris: OECD Directorate for Education, Education and Training Policy Division. Accessed 11 August 
2011 at: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/44/45166922.pdf 

Park, D.Y. (2011). South Korean policies on secondary vocational education: efforts to overcome skills 

mismatch and labor force shortage. Berufsbildung in Wissenschaft und Praxis (BWP). Bonn: Federal 
Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB). Accessed 6 April 2014 at: www.bibb.de/
veroeffentlichungen/en/bwp/show/6663 

Seung II Na (2012). Trends and challenges of vocational education and training in Korea. In: Pilz M. (ed.). 

The future of vocational education and training in a changing world. Weisbaden: VS Verlag für 
Sozialwissenschaften/Springer Fachmedien.

Statistics Korea (2016).
Woo, C.S. (2010). Post-secondary vocational education and training in South Korea: What is new and 

unique? Accessed 6 April 2014 at: www.ghrforum.org/abstract/down/pdf/C2_PPTCheon-sik%20
WOO.pdf 

World Bank (2013). Korea country overview. Accessed 12 February 2013 at: http://data.worldbank.org/

country/korea-republic 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

579

Volume II: National and regional casesSPAIN

Introduction and context862

In recent years, Spain has taken a number of 
measures to reform and improve the quality and 
relevance of education and training. Important 
progress has been made in reducing early school 
leaving, which has fallen progressively (23.6% in 
2013, 20% in 2015 and 18.3% in 2017); however, 
rates still vary between regions and measures 
have been taken to reduce early leaving further 
as part of a national plan, including an alternative 
vocational education path at lower secondary level 
adopted in 2013. Overall participation in vocational 
education and training (VET) and the employment 
rate of recent VET graduates are below the EU 
averages. Measures to increase the attractiveness 
of VET have been taken as part of a reform in 2014 
that is still under way; there are new initiatives on 
dual VET schemes, with harmonised criteria in all 
regional education administrations for the entrance 
exams for the three VET levels (basic, intermediate 
and higher VET). One persisting challenge in the 
country is the large disparity between regions, both 
in terms of skills and of participation in education 
and training. Grade repetition rates are still high 
and are not improving. National debate has been 
launched around a comprehensive reform and long-
term legislative framework, the Social and political 
national pact on education. The 11 benchmarks 
proposed include updating the curricula and teaching 
methods, reforming the teaching profession, 
increasing school autonomy, and promoting digital 
skills and multilingualism. While the rate of tertiary 
education attainment is relatively high and above 
the EU average, the employment rate of recent 
tertiary graduates (ISCED levels 5–8), at 76.6% in 
2017, has improved but is still lower than the EU 
average of 84.9%. The qualifications mismatch in 
Spain remains high and there are significant skills 
imbalances (European Commission, 2018).

In 2018, the Spanish Ministry of Education and VET, 
in cooperation with other stakeholders, concluded 

technical work on the design of the Spanish 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning (Marco 
Español de Cualificaciones (MECU))863. A royal decree 
is being drafted and is expected to be adopted in 2019. 

The qualifications framework for higher education 
(Marco Español de Cualificaciones para la 
Educación Superior (MECES)) has been put in 
place separately864. This framework has been self-
certified against the framework for qualifications 
of the European higher education area (QF-EHEA) 
as part of Spain’s continuing commitment to the 
Bologna process (Ministry of Education, Culture 
and Sport, 2014)865. The self-certification followed 
the procedures and criteria set down for such 
work within the Bologna process, and involved 
a committee of senior Spanish and international 
experts and stakeholders.

Policy objectives

One of the main objectives in developing a 
national framework compatible with the European 
qualifications framework (EQF) and those in the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA) is to 
make Spanish qualifications easier to understand by 
describing them in terms of learning outcomes; it 
should also clarify relations between qualifications 
awarded by different authorities in a lifelong learning 
perspective. It is expected that this will improve the 
extent to which stakeholders are informed about 
national qualifications, raising trust and making 
mobility easier. Through MECU it should be easier to 

863   MECU: Spanish national qualifications framework for 

lifelong learning. www.mecd.gob.es/educacion-mecd/mc/
mecu/presentacion.html

864   Established under royal decree: Ministry of Education 
(2011). Real Decreto 1027/2011, de 15 julio, por el que 
se establece el Marco Español de Cualificaciones para la 
Educación Superior [Royal Decree 2027/2011 of 15 July 
2011, for the establishment of the Spanish qualifications 
framework for higher education]. Boletín oficial del estado, 
No 185.  

862   The Spanish qualifications framework fiche will be further 
elaborated when the referencing to the EQF has been 
completed. 

865   www.aneca.es/Sala-de-prensa/Noticias/2014/Informe-
sobre-la-Autocertificacion-del-Marco-Espanol-para-las-
Cualificaciones-de-la-Educacion-Superior-MECES

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSidentify, validate and recognise all kinds of learning 
outcomes (including non-formal and informal 
learning), regardless of the way they were acquired. 
This will support better use of qualifications at 
national and European level. Another important aim 
is to support transition and progression possibilities 
within the various subsystems of education and 
vocational training; examples include progression 
from short cycle to university programmes and 
opening up higher education for non-traditional 
learners, who might have no school leaving 
certificate. MECU should also have an important 
communication role for diverse stakeholders.

The purpose of the Spanish qualifications 
framework for higher education (MECES) is to allow 
the classification, comparability and transparency of 
higher education qualifications within the Spanish 
education system. The levels within MECES are 
labelled 1 to 4 and correspond to the four levels 
of the QF-EHEA: técnico superior (advanced VET), 
grado (bachelor), master (master) and doctor 
(doctorate). Of these, the first is a non-university 
higher education level included to support and 
promote lifelong learning. Some advanced VET 
is considered higher education but is undertaken 
outside the university system; such advanced VET 
studies may be recognised not only for admission to 
university but also as ECTS credits where subjects/
learning outcomes are properly aligned.

MECU aims to include, in a first stage, all nationally 
recognised diplomas and certificates from the 
education and labour ministries, while remaining 
open for inclusion of official qualifications issued by 
other administrative sectors. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

An eight-level framework has been proposed to 
cover all main types of Spanish qualification. The 
four highest levels are compatible with the Spanish 
qualifications framework for higher education, based 
on the Dublin descriptors. 

Level descriptors are defined in terms of knowledge, 
skills and competence866. They have been inspired 
by EQF level descriptors, but adopted to suit the 
national context. This is particularly the case for 
skills, where the ability to communicate in different 
languages and analytical skills are emphasised. 
Competence is defined as autonomy and 
responsibility, including learning skills and attitudes.

It is expected that the development of both MECU 
and MECES will further support the strengthening 

866   Based on draft MECU level descriptors (unpublished).

of learning outcomes at all education and 
qualification levels, to make qualifications more 
readable and easier to compare. The Spanish 
Ministry of Education and VET drafted a new 
education organic law in 2018867, that will be 
submitted to Parliament in spring 2019. The law aims 
to improve the quality of teaching and learning, and 
increase school autonomy and the coherence of the 
national system in line with international standards. 

The learning outcomes approach is seen as an 
essential part of MECU and MECES development 
and implementation. However, as reported for the 
Cedefop study on learning outcomes (Cedefop, 
2016), the notion of learning outcomes is a new 
concept in the Spanish context and not widely 
shared. Competences and capacities are often 
referred to in policy documents, with many different 
interpretations due to various linguistic and 
pedagogic concepts.

The level of implementation also varies across 
subsystems; the one most developed and 
elaborated is in VET. The VET qualification system 
is defined by the Law on qualifications and 
vocational training868 that establishes the national 
catalogue of professional qualifications869; this lists 
680 occupational standards defined in competences 
and is permanently updated. Professional 
modules for each qualification gather the learning 
outcomes and the corresponding assessment 
criteria that show that the qualification holder 
knows, understands and is able to do as expected 
on completion of the programme. Learning 
outcomes are closely related to work activities and 
required professional competences. Occupational 
standards inform development of initial VET (IVET) 
programmes that lead to vocational diplomas as 
well as CVET programmes leading to professional 
certificates (certificados de profesionalidad). Since 
2014, dual VET – strengthening links to the labour 
market – has been implemented in all autonomous 
communities. Revising VET curricula and 
strengthening key competences has been initiated 
though the 2015 Ministerial Decree (EDC/65/2015). 
The Ministry of Education and VET is drafting a Royal 
decree to regulate the organisation of VET, including 
the admission criteria for the three levels of VET 
(basic, intermediate and higher) and other aspects.

The Ministry of Education and VET has established 
in legislation national core curricula for the various 
levels of education: pre-primary, primary, lower 
secondary, upper secondary and vocational training. 

867   Updating and improving the previous law – see 

Government of Spain (2013).
868   See Government of Spain (2002).
869   http://incual.mecd.es/bdc

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Volume II: National and regional casesThese are determined by central government, 
though regional administrations, and the schools 
take responsibility for developing part of the 
curriculum870. The core curricula determine the 
general objectives for each stage of education as 
well as specific objectives for each area or subject. 
They also establish the content and evaluation 
criteria for each area and the basic skills for each 
stage of compulsory education. 

the Spanish constitution, lies with central 
government. The State has exclusive competence 
on all regulation of qualifications, an aspect 
correspondingly developed and revised by the 2006 
and the 2013 Organic Acts871.

Cooperation with the Ministry of Labour, Migrations 
and Social Security has been reinforced to address 
still high unemployment in the country.

New higher education study programmes have to 
include expected outcomes and achievement of 
learning objectives set for the student. All study 
programmes have to be accredited according 
to national guidelines. MECES refers directly to 
learning outcomes (resultados de aprendizaje and 
competencias). Linked to MECES levels, learning 
outcomes are a specific requirement in, for 
example, the ex-post external evaluation of study 
programmes required for the formal accreditation/
renewal of accreditation of all official degrees. 
Consideration of the use of learning outcomes is 
also a specific requirement in the external evaluation 
of a higher education institution’s or unit’s internal 
quality assurance systems during audit procedures. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Education and VET, Directorate 
General for Vocational Training, is coordinating 
MECU development in cooperation with other 
ministries (Labour, Migrations and Social Security, 
Industry, Trade and Tourism, Health, Consumption 
and Social Welfare, Economy and Business). 
Development work includes a wide range of other 
stakeholders such as social partners (unions, 
Spanish Confederation of Employers’ Organisations, 
Spanish Confederation of Small and Medium 
Enterprises), institutional coordination bodies (such 
as Sectoral Conference of Education, General 
Conference for University Policy), consultative 
bodies (State School Council, Vocational Training 
Council, Arts Education Council, University Council), 
agencies for evaluation and others (professional 
corporations and associations). Regional councils 
for education have been involved. Spain is seeking 
to create a simple and practical system that is 
robust, but also flexible enough to respond to the 
requirements of regional autonomy. However, 
overall responsibility for the development and 
implementation of MECU, in accordance with 

Cooperation with the Bologna process is ensured, 
with members represented in both the committee 
for MECU and in the group for MECES to achieve 
methodological and structural coherence, making 
possible the alignment of the two frameworks. 
MECES was formulated by a formal committee 
established under Royal Decree 900/2007872.

External quality assurance in higher education is 
undertaken by the national agency (ANECA) and a 
number of agencies within some of the autonomous 
regions. The competences of the quality assurance 
agencies vary depending on the procedures being 
undertaken and whether or not the agency is a 
member of the European Association for Quality 
Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA)873 and the 
European Quality Assurance Register (EQAR)874.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways875

In recent years, the Spanish Government and 
regional governments have consolidated national 
procedures for the validation of non-formal and 
informal learning; different laws and regulations 
frame validation, targeting different education 
sectors. The Organic Law of Education and the 
Organic Law of Universities incorporate actions to 
validate non-formal and informal learning, such as 
access exams to VET and university studies aimed 
at those who do not have the required qualifications. 
Royal Decree 1224/2009876 established recognition 
of skills acquired through work experience.  

871   Organic Acts 2006 and 2013 – see Government of Spain 

(2006 and 2013).

872   See Government of Spain (2007). 
873   ENQA: www.enqa.eu
874 

 In addition to ANECA, six of the regional agencies (AQU in 
Catalonia, ACPUA in Aragon, ACSUG in Galicia, ACSUCYL 
in Castilla y León, AAC-DEVA in Andalucía, and UNIBASQ 
for the Basque Country) are members of EQAR:  
www.eqar.eu/register/agencies/

870   Central government is responsible for designing 65% of 
the curriculum (55% in those autonomous communities 
which have their own language); the additional 
curriculum at regional level differs between autonomous 
communities.

875   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).
 See Government of Spain (2009).

876 

582

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThis decree provides the possibility of evaluating 
professional competences through non-traditional 
assessment methods; this is common to gaining 
qualifications from the employment administration 
(certificados de profesionalidad) and the education 
administration (initial VET programmes) through 
specific calls for validation. The procedure only 
validates professional competences acquired 
through work experience or non-formal learning 
pertaining to specific units of competences 
registered in the national catalogue of professional 
qualifications. Validation procedures lead either to 
full or partial qualifications, and/or give access to 
education and training programmes. Progress has 
been achieved in higher education; universities have 
developed procedures to validate and recognise 
working experience to access a study programme 
(for people over 40 years of age) or gain credits 
toward a degree. 

Awareness of validation has increased in all sectors 
of society in Spain and stakeholders have become 
more sensitive to validation as a way of recognising 
learning outcomes acquired in non-formal and 
informal contexts, and through work experience. 
Validation is now covered by the Spanish Strategy 
for employment activation 2017–20 and a project 
Reconoce is in process to cover validation in the 
entire youth sector.

The Spanish national qualifications framework 
(MECU) is under construction. Once it is in place, 
the current procedures for validation of learning 
acquired through non-formal and informal learning 
can be used to acquire a qualification or gain access 
to programmes and qualifications which will be 
linked to the framework. 

NQF implementation

MECU is not yet operational. The royal decree on 
the introduction of MECU – in preparation but yet 
to come into force – will establish the legal basis 
for its implementation. The draft Royal Decree on 
MECU planned to be adopted in 2019 recommends 
establishing a MECU committee, including 
stakeholders such as ministries, representatives of 
professional associations, trade union and business 
representatives, and qualifications framework 
experts from different sectors. The committee 
will be mandated to decide on assignment of 
framework levels to the Spanish qualifications and 
to submit proposals to the government for approval. 
The national qualifications will be assigned to MECU 
levels based on three criteria:

a.  comparability of qualification type descriptors 
defined in learning outcomes and MECU level 
descriptors;

b.  implementation of the common quality 

assurance criteria for qualification in line with 
annex IV of the 2017 EQF recommendation877;
c.  public consultation with bodies involved in the 
design, award and use of qualifications in a 
respective field.

Qualifications from formal education and training and 
from the employment administration (certificados de 
profesionalidad ) will be assigned first. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

The qualifications framework for higher education 
(Marco Español de Cualificaciones de Educación 
Superior (MECES)) has been self-certified against 
the QF-EHEA (Ministry of Education, Culture and 
Sport, 2014). MECU is planned to be referenced to 
the EQF in 2019. 

Important lessons and future plans

Development of the Spanish national qualifications 
framework for lifelong learning (MECU) aims 
to strengthen the links between education and 
employment but there are various challenges 
at different levels. Dialogue and interaction 
with different stakeholders from education 
and employment needs to continue; involving 
administrations that provide and award 
qualifications in different sectors will be part of the 
implementation process of MECU. Government is 
taking initiatives to support cooperation between 
universities, businesses and research centres.

Putting the framework into the lifelong learning 
perspective, and including non-formal and informal 
aspects of learning in the framework, is regarded 
as complex. Including qualifications resulting from 
non-formal or informal learning uses recognition and 
validation processes more broadly implemented 
only in recent years.

Further application of MECES is an integral part of both 
external and internal quality assurance mechanisms 
undertaken within Spanish higher education, nationally 
and within the autonomous regions.

NQF development in Spain also shows the importance 
of political processes and cycle on the implementation 
of European tools, such as the EQF. Adoption of the 
royal decree on MECU will be an important step 
paving the way towards implementation.

877   https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/
publication/ceead970-518f-11e7-a5ca-01aa75ed71a1/
language-en

583

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 73. Spanish qualifications framework for higher education (MECES) and draft Spanish 
qualifications framework for lifelong learning (MECU) levels

DRAFT MECU 
LEVELS

MECES LEVELS

HIGHER EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS

QF-EHEA

4

3

2

1

Doctoral degree (Doctorado)

Master degree (Master)

Bachelor degree (Grado)

Advanced technician (Técnico superior)

Third cycle

Second cycle

First cycle

First cycle

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Source: Adapted from the Royal Decree 1027/2011 of 15 July 2011 establishing the Spanish qualifications framework of higher 
education. www.boe.es/boe/dias/2011/08/03/pdfs/BOE-A-2011-13317.pdf

Abbreviations
EQF 
European qualifications framework
MECES  Marco Español de Cualificaciones 

para la Educación Superior (Spanish 
qualifications framework for higher 
education)

MECU 

NQF 
QF-EHEA 

VET 

Marco Español de Cualificaciones 
(Spanish qualifications framework)
national qualifications framework
qualifications framework in the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training

Main sources of information

Directorate General for Vocational Training (Ministry of Education and VET) – the designated EQF NCP: 

www.educacionyfp.gob.es/ministerio.html

MECU website: www.mecd.gob.es/mecu
Qualifications in the education system – on the website of the Ministry of Education and VET: www.mecd.

gob.es/educacion-mecd/

Catálogo Nacional de Cualificaciones Profesionales (CNCP): http://incual.mecd.es/bdc 
Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (2014). Verification of compatibility of MECES (the Spanish 

qualifications framework for higher education) with the framework for qualifications of the European 
higher education area (FQ-EHEA). www.aneca.es/Sala-de-prensa/Noticias/2014/Informe-sobre-la-
Autocertificacion-del-Marco-Espanol-para-las-Cualificaciones-de-la-Educacion-Superior-MECES

References

Cedefop (2016). The application of learning outcomes approaches across Europe. www.cedefop.europa.eu/

files/3074_en.pdf

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: Spain. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-
2018-spain_en.pdf

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory for validation of non-

formal and informal learning: country report: Spain.

Government of Spain (2002). Ley orgánica 5/2002, de 19 de junio, de las Cualificaciones y de la Formación 
Profesional [Organic Law 5/2002 on qualifications and vocational training]. Boletín oficial del estado, 
No 147. www.boe.es/boe/dias/2002/06/20/pdfs/A22437-22442.pdf

584

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSGovernment of Spain (2006). Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación [Organic Law 2/2006 of 

3 May 2006, on education]. Boletín Oficial del Estado, No 106 of 4 May 2006. www.boe.es/boe/
dias/2006/05/04/pdfs/A17158-17207.pdf

Government of Spain (2007). Real Decreto 900/2007, de 6 de julio, por el que se crea el Comité para la 

definición del Marco Español de Cualificaciones para la Educación Superior [Royal Decree 900/2007 
of 6 July, on the establishment of the Committee for the definition or the Spanish qualifications 
framework in higher education]. Boletín oficial del estado, No 172. www.boe.es/boe/dias/2007/07/19/
pdfs/A31371-31372.pdf

Government of Spain (2009). Real Decreto 1224/2009, de 17 de julio, de reconocimiento de las 

competencias profesionales adquiridas por experiencia laboral [Royal Decree 1224/2009 of 17 July, 
on the recognition of professional competences acquired through working experience]. Boletín oficial 
del estado, No 205. www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2009/BOE-A-2009-13781-consolidado.pdf

Government of Spain (2013). Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la mejora de la calidad educativa 
[Organic Law 8/2013 of 9 December, for the improvement on the quality of education]. Boletín oficial 
del estado, No 295. www.boe.es/boe/dias/2013/12/10/pdfs/BOE-A-2013-12886.pdf

Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (2014). Verification of compatibility of MECES (the Spanish 

qualifications framework for higher education) with the framework for qualifications of the European 
higher education area (FQ-EHEA). www.aneca.es/Sala-de-prensa/Noticias/2014/Informe-sobre-la-
Autocertificacion-del-Marco-Espanol-para-las-Cualificaciones-de-la-Educacion-Superior-MECES

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

585

Volume II: National and regional casesSRI LANKA 

Introduction and context 

The Sri Lankan qualifications framework (SLQF) was 
established in 2012 to provide a nationally consistent 
framework for all higher education qualifications 
offered in Sri Lanka. SLQF also integrates the 
national vocational qualifications framework (NVQF) 
developed by the Tertiary and Vocational Education 
Commission (TVEC) in 2005. An updated third 
version of the SLQF, published by the Ministry of 
Higher Education in September 2015, supersedes all 
previous versions (UGC, 2015). 

In line with the 2009 national policy on tertiary 
education, which covers all areas of higher 
education including universities and the technical 
and vocational education and training (TVET) 
sectors, recommendations by the TVEC focused 
primarily on providing education and training 
opportunities  to young people through multiple 
modes of delivery, including non-state accredited 
institutions, as well as public sector accredited 
courses and centres. Importance was also placed 
on developing links from higher education and TVET 
to industry, services and other sectors. 

The Commission also recommended that 
measures be taken to make TVET a more attractive 
alternative to University education and to combat 
the widespread perception that TVET is an inferior 
option, as well as to encourage private sector 
training providers to take a more active role in both 
training and employing TVET graduates. 

b.  support access to higher learning and so 
contribute to full personal development 
of learners and to social and economic 
development of the country; 

c.  improve equity in higher education, training and 

employment opportunities; 

d.  assist employers to identify the levels of 
knowledge, skills and competences of 
qualification holders; 

e.  develop positive attitudes in qualification holders; 
f.  aid lateral and vertical mobility, and progression 
within higher education and career pathways;
g.  provide guidance in comparing qualifications 

offered by different institutions; 

h.  help in developing higher education and 

vocational training programmes at appropriate 
levels;
i. 
recognise prior learning; 
j.  promote lifelong learning. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The SLQF consists of 12 levels, with the demands 
and complexity of learning outcomes increasing 
with each level. Levels 1 and 2 are senior secondary 
level education qualifications; levels 3 to 6 are 
undergraduate qualifications. The other six levels 
(7 to 12) are postgraduate qualifications. The levels 
are not directly related to the years of study; 
they are summarised, along with the relevant 
qualifications awarded, in Table 74, and the minimum 
credit requirements for each level are summarised 
in Table 75. The comparable levels of the NVQF are 
also identified in the SLQF. 

Policy objectives

The aim of the SLQF is to create an integral national 
framework for learning achievements by recognising 
and accrediting qualifications offered by different 
institutions engaged in higher education and 
vocational training in Sri Lanka. 

The SLQF comprises several qualification types: 
certificate and advanced certificate at senior 
secondary level; diploma, higher diploma, bachelor 
and bachelor honours at undergraduate level; and 
postgraduate certificate, postgraduate diploma, 
master and doctorate at postgraduate level. 

The objectives of the SLQF are to: 

a.  increase the quality of higher education and 

training at all levels; 

The volume of learning at each level is illustrated 
in terms of credits. In the SLQF credit system, 
the student workload of a study programme is 
defined as 1,500 ‘notional learning hours’ per 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 74. Sri Lankan qualifications framework (SLQF) and national vocational qualifications (NVQ) levels

SLQF LEVELS

QUALIFICATION AWARDED

COMPARABLE NVQ LEVELS

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Doctor of philosophy/MD with board

certification/Doctor of letters/Doctor of science

Master of philosophy

Master by course work and a research 
component

Master by course work

Postgraduate diploma

Postgraduate certificate

Honours bachelor

Bachelor

Higher diploma

Diploma

Advanced certificate GCE A/L or equivalent

Certificate (GCE O/L or equivalent

7

6

5

4

3

2

Source:  University Grants Commission, 2015.

academic year, which may include direct contact 
hours with teachers and trainers, time spent on 
distance learning, preparation for and carrying out 
assignments and assessments (UGC, 2015).

The comparable NVQ and SLQF levels have 
been recognised by a panel of experts based on 
significant similarities in the learning outcomes 
stated under respective level descriptors in the 
two frameworks. The degree level qualification 
(NVQ 7) is benchmarked to internationally 
accepted standards for a bachelor’s degree (SLQF 
level 5). However, the proportion of cognitive 
and psychomotor outcomes may differ in the 
two qualifications, especially in qualifications 
below SLQF 2 (NVQ 4). Further, the attributes of 
two qualification holders below degree level at 
comparable SLQF and NVQ levels may differ. 

statements of the wider abilities that the typical 
student is expected to have developed by the 
end of the course or study programme. These 
attributes could be seen as precursors to the study 
programme learning outcomes rather than the 
actual learning outcomes. The second part, called 
the ‘level descriptor’, is a set of specific outcomes 
that are assessed and which a student should be 
able to demonstrate to meet the requirements of 
the qualification (the specific broad abilities that the 
graduate should be capable of). This is significant for 
higher education institutions as it enables them to 
design and review courses or study programmes. 
The curriculum and assessments must provide 
all students with the opportunity to achieve and 
to demonstrate achievement of the intended 
outcomes stated under respective level descriptors. 

Learning outcomes are statements that describe 
what learners should know, understand and can 
demonstrate on completion of a course or study 
programme. Learning outcomes in the SLQF occur 
in two parts. The first part, called the ‘attributes’ 
of the qualification holder, is a set of general 

The SLQF descriptors for each level provide the 
specifications; these include the: 

a.  SLQF exit level; 
b.  qualification type with designators and the 

qualifiers;

c.  number of credits required at each level; 

587

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 75. Minimum volume of learning required for each Sri Lanka qualifications framework level

SLQF 
LEVELS

12

QUALIFICATION AWARDED

MINIMUM VOLUME OF LEARNING FOR 
THE AWARD

Doctor of philosophy/MD with board 
certification/Doctor of letters/Doctor of 
science

Minimum 3 years of full-time or equivalent 
time of original research after SLQF level 6 
or above

11

Master of philosophy

10

Master by course work and a research 
component

Minimum 2 years of full-time or equivalent 
time of original research after SLQF level 6 
or above

60 credit after SLQF level 5 or SLQF level 6 
including a research component of minimum 
15 credits

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Master by course work 

30 credits after SLQF level 5 or SLQF level 6

Postgraduate diploma

25 credits after SLQF level 5 or SLQF level 6

Postgraduate certificate

20 credits after SLQF level 5 or SLQF level 6

Honours Bachelor

120 credits after SLQF level 2

of which 90 credits after SLQF level 3

of which 60 credits after SLQF level 4

of which 30 credits after SLQF level 5

Bachelor

90 credits after SLQF level 2

Higher diploma

of which 60 credits after SLQF level 3

of which 30 credits after SLQF level 4

60 credits after SLQF level 2 of which 30 
credits after SLQF level 3

Diploma

30 credits after SLQF level 2

Advanced certificate (GCE A/L or equivalent)

Certificate (GCE O/L or equivalent

Source: University Grants Commission, 2015.

d.  purpose, scope and generic outcomes and 
attributes expected for the award of each 
qualification; 

e.  minimum admission requirements; 
f.  possible progression opportunities.

The generic outcomes and attributes for each 
qualification reflect the capabilities expected 
from qualification holders defined in terms of four 
‘domains’ of learning: knowledge, skills, attitudes, 
and mindset and paradigm, known as the ‘K-SAM 
model’. ‘Knowledge’ is what the qualification 
holders know, ‘skills’ define what the qualification 
holders can do; ‘attitudes, values, professionalism 

and vision for life’ reflects how the qualification 
holders think and behave; and ‘mindset and 
paradigm’ signify how the qualification holders 
perceive the world. K-SAM is considered an 
integrated model, which is a blend of more than one 
domain (in most cases all the domains). 

Having been identified by the Ministry of Higher 
Education in Sri Lanka as of national importance, 
the 12 learning outcomes have been customised as 
level descriptors to suit each level of qualification. 
Categorisation of the learning outcomes according 
to the principal K-SAM components is given in 
Table 76.

588

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 76. Categorisation of the learning outcomes according to the K-SAM model in Sri Lanka

CATEGORIES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

CORE AREA

Subject/theoretical knowledge

Knowledge

Practical knowledge and application

Communication

Skills

Teamwork and leadership

Creativity and problem solving

Managerial and entrepreneurship

Information usage and management

Networking and social skills

Adaptability and flexibility

Attitudes, values and professionalism

Vision of life

Attitudes, values, professionalism and vision 
for life

Updating self/lifelong learning

Mind-set and paradigm

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Source:  University Grants Commission, 2015.

The degree of intellectual abilities, cognitive skills 
and soft skills are considered in describing each 
level. The purpose of the level descriptors for 
levels 1 to 12 is to guarantee consistency across 
learning in achieving the expected attributes of 
qualifications through part-qualification levels, and 
to help a higher education institution evaluate the 
comparability of qualifications and part-qualifications 
issued by another higher education institution. The 
level descriptors may also be used as a guideline 
to develop course materials of a particular study 
programme, having several course units or modules 
to ensure learners are able to meet the expected 
attributes of the relevant qualification type at the 
end of the course. 

The learner is expected to meet or demonstrate 
that certain learning outcomes have been achieved; 
assessment of the outcomes of learning by effective 
and appropriate assessment methods is essential to 
the qualifications framework (UGC, 2015).

Improving relevance and quality of undergraduate 
education (IRQUE) in Sri Lanka and continued with 
funding from the Higher education for the twenty-
first century project (HETC). Preparatory work for 
the development of the SLQF was undertaken by 
a national committee comprising: 

a.  a representative of the Ministry of Higher 

Education, nominated by the Minister for Higher 
Education; 

b.  a representative of the University Grants 
Commission, nominated by its chair; 

c.  the Director General of Sri Lanka Institute of 

Advanced Technological Education (SLIATE) or 
his nominee; 

d.  the Director General of the Tertiary and 

Vocational Education Commission of Sri Lanka;
e.  a representative of the Quality Assurance and 

Accreditation Council; 

f.  a representative of the Committee of Vice 

Chancellors and Directors.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Development of the SLQF was initiated in 2009 
with assistance from the World Bank-funded project 

The NVQF initiative, which was subsumed 
within the SLQF in 2012, was implemented in 
2005 through two skills development projects 
supported by the Asian Development Bank (ILO, 
2010b). The main goal of the first project, the 
Skills development project which ran from 2001 

589

Volume II: National and regional casesto 2007, was ‘developing NVQF infrastructure and 
capacity’. Its other aims included ‘the development 
of an accreditation system, assessor training and 
certification, the expansion of the National Trade 
Testing Programme and the establishment of 
a quality management system’ (ILO, 2010a, p. 25). 
The second project, called the Technical education 
development project (2006–10), aimed to ‘set up 
review systems for the skill standards developed in 
the earlier project’ (ibid.). 

While no new bodies were established for the 
purpose of implementing the NVQF, the mandates 
of existing bodies have been modified slightly. The 
bodies concerned are: 

a.  the Tertiary and Vocational Education 

Commission (TVEC), a statutory organisation 
responsible for managing the NVQF, determining 
occupations for skills standards development, 
developing national skills standards, awarding 
certificates to trainees, and registering assessors 
for competence assessments for NVQ 
certifications;

b.  the Registration Division of the TVEC, which 
oversees registration of public and private 
training providers, accreditation of courses, 
quality assurance systems, and monitoring 
and auditing of quality assurance systems, 
holds regular audits to review NVQF quality 
assurance mechanisms, registration and 
accreditation. It is certified under the 
International Organisation for Standardisation 
(ISO) 9001:2008 certification; 

c.  the Quality Assurance and Assessment 

Regulation division, which mainly focuses on 
maintaining consistency of assessments and 
other parameters related to the issuance of NVQ 
certificates; 

d.  the National NVQ Steering and Coordination 

Committee of the TVEC, which is responsible 
for the implementation of the NVQF. All issues 
connected with the administration of the NVQF 
are discussed and decided on by the steering 
committee. 

Other organisations involved in the development 
of standards, training of assessors and testing 
of applicants are the National Apprentice and 
Industrial Training Authority (NAITA) and the 
Department of Technical Education and Training 
(technical colleges division). NAITA assists the 
TVEC with regard to competence standards 
and assessment resource development. The 
University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC) 
assists the TVEC with regard to curriculum and 
learning resource development and assessor 
training. 

While there is a strong emphasis on public 
education and training providers, private and non-
governmental organisations and training centres 
have also been registered and accredited to provide 
NVQF courses (ILO, 2010b). Training institutions 
acknowledge the benefits of the NVQF; it allows 
them to award their trainees nationally valid 
certificates, enhancing their own reputation and 
image at the national level. 

Trade unions have been involved in the development 
and implementation of the NVQF in the past but this 
involvement has diminished, with more focus being 
given to union members’ ‘bread and butter’ issues 
such as salaries and working conditions (ILO, 2010a, 
p. 27).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

One of the objectives of the SLQF is to establish 
pathways for obtaining different qualifications. 
Vertical progression between qualifications is 
straightforward provided that minimum stipulated 
requirements are met. Lateral progression is also 
possible at certain levels if the candidate meets the 
minimum requirements for admission to the target 
qualification.

Access to qualifications at levels 1 to 4 is possible, 
both directly and progressively through an 
accredited course or through the recognition of 
prior learning (RPL); this is defined as the process 
whereby competences acquired through industry 
practice or previous training are recognised 
towards a certificate or credits. RPL is an important 
instrument for promoting NVQF-aligned certification, 
particularly in occupations for which demand is 
high. So far, most certificates issued through RPL 
have been awarded to beauticians, hairdressers and 
bakers. RPL is also especially important for people 
who want to work or study in other countries. 
There is no difference between certifications 
resulting from accredited courses and those 
achieved through RPL; however, the award of a full 
qualification through RPL is limited to NVQF level 4. 
Accredited courses are expected to issue a separate 
certificate of participation as proof of attendance. 
Two institutions are authorised to conduct RPL: 
NAITA and the Vocational Training Authority (VTA). 
Established under Sri Lanka Act No 12 in 1995, the 
Authority consists of six national vocational training 
institutes, 22 district vocational training centres 
and 232 vocational training centres. It operates 
under the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills 
Development and provides rural youth with skills 

590

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKStraining combined with workshops on information 
technology and entrepreneurship.

To avoid corruption in RPL (attempting assessment 
without the necessary preparation, exerting 
influence over the assessors), the government 
has stipulated one to five years of experience as 
a requirement for NVQF levels 2 and 3 and a further 
two years for NVQF level 4. However, craftspersons 
with a minimum five years’ experience may be 
considered for assessment at level 4 directly. 

The prerequisite for access to level 5 diploma 
courses is NVQF level 3 plus academic ability 
equivalent to general certificate of education 
(GCE) ordinary level. The entry qualification for 
level 7, the degree programme, is NVQF level 5. To 
maintain links between the lower and higher levels, 
occupations at levels 1 to 4 and fields of study at 
levels 5 to 7 are clustered to provide the necessary 
upgrading of qualifications and competences. 
Industry-linked courses have been created at NVQF 
levels 5 to 7 to enable progression. 

Integration of the NVQF into the SLQF has 
strengthened lateral mobility pathways between 
vocational education and higher education sectors. 
UNIVOTEC was established to provide pathways to 
higher education for TVET students who are unable 
to enter conventional universities. Students who 
have achieved the relevant qualifications at levels 5 
and 6 can proceed from national diploma to degree 
programmes. Those with level 6 qualifications 
are eligible to receive appropriate credit transfers 
towards a degree programme determined by 
UNIVOTEC.

NQF implementation 

The Sri Lanka qualifications framework helps 
qualification holders to know the level of their 
qualification. It also helps potential employers to know 
the level of learning and the attributes of a particular 
qualification holder. SLQF is useful to higher 
education institutions (both State and non-State) in 
designing their courses in terms of the minimum 
level of learning effort and the number of credits that 
should be earned by a qualification holder. In this way, 
it contributes to strengthening the quality of higher 
education qualifications offered in universities and 
higher education institutions in Sri Lanka. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

the globalisation of higher education, national 
qualifications frameworks developed in several 
other countries have helped to evaluate the higher 
educational qualifications obtained in different 
countries. 

Sri Lanka is part of the South Asian Association 
for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which 
cooperates in the areas of education, training 
and human resource development. SAARC has 
established a South Asian University with a Centre 
of Excellence to provide world-class facilities and 
professional faculty to students and researchers 
drawn from every country of the region. The 
eight member states of SAARC – Afghanistan, 
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, 
Pakistan and Sri Lanka – unanimously adopted the 
SAARC framework for action (SFFA) for education 
2030 at the third meeting of Ministers of Education/
Higher Education held in Male, Maldives, in 2016. 
Under regional collaboration and partnerships, the 
ministers agreed objectives of this action plan: 
share the national skills qualifications framework 
(NSQF) and develop a regional quality assurance 
framework for vocational/skills education; and 
support the mutual recognition of qualifications and 
students’ mobility (SAARC 2016). 

Important lessons and future plans 

The SLQF will be beneficial to all higher education 
stakeholders, including students, parents and 
employers, as well as education and training 
providers.

For learners, the SLQF enables recognition and 
evaluation of prior learning and identifies the 
pathways for acquiring higher qualifications. This 
will help them develop their full potential and 
contribute to the social and economic development 
of the country at large. The level descriptors given 
in the SLQF allow employers to identify the levels 
of competences of qualification holders. This helps 
in comparing qualifications so that the supply and 
demand for knowledge, skills and competences 
can be properly matched. The SLQF also enables 
comparison of the qualifications offered by different 
institutions; this, in turn, helps employers find 
appropriate qualification holders for their business 
needs. The SLQF outlines the credit requirements 
for each qualification level as well as the intended 
learning outcomes; for higher education providers, 
both in the State and private sectors, this helps to 
design academic programmes. 

The SLQF provides a clear system to develop links 
with higher education institutions abroad. With 

The SLQF enables all post-secondary education 
stakeholders to identify the full range of 

591

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications offered in the higher education system 
in Sri Lanka and comparable levels of vocational 
education and training. This helps to clarify which 
qualifications are related to each other and how 
they contribute to the enhancement of knowledge 
and understanding and improve intellectual 
abilities including analytical skills, evaluation skills, 
problem solving skills and soft skills. The SLQF also 
encourages the general public to have access to 
appropriate lifelong education and training, which 
helps them fulfil their personal, social and economic 
potential. The SLQF will be useful to programme-
approving agencies in their quest to identify the 
appropriate levels of qualifications offered by 
different higher education institutions. It will also 
help in evaluating different qualifications offered by 
higher education institutions, both local and foreign, 
which in turn affects decisions on recruitment 
and promotion in the academic, technical and 
professional sectors. 

Abbreviations
K-SAM 

NAITA  

NVQ  
NVQF  

RPL  
SAARC  

SLQF  

TVEC  

TVET  

knowledge, skills, attitudes, and 
mindset and paradigm
National Apprentice and Industrial 
Training Authority
national vocational qualifications
national vocational qualifications 
framework
recognition of prior learning
South Asian Association for 
Regional Cooperation
Sri Lankan qualifications 
framework
Tertiary and Vocational Education 
Commission
technical and vocational education 
and training

UNIVOTEC   University of Vocational Technology

References

ADB (Asian Development Bank) (2011). The national qualifications framework for skills training reform in 
Sri Lanka. Mandaluyong City: ADB. www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28291/framework-
training-reform-sri.pdf

ILO (International Labour Organisation) (2010a). Qualifications frameworks: implementation and impact: 

background case study on Sri Lanka. Geneva: ILO.

ILO (2010b). The implementation and impact of national qualification frameworks: report of a study in 

16 countries. Geneva: ILO.

ILO (2010c). Qualifications frameworks: implementation and impact: background case study on Sri Lanka. 
Geneva: ILO Skills and Employability Department. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---
ifp_skills/documents/genericdocument/wcms_126596.pdf

Ministry of Higher Education (2012). Sri Lanka qualifications framework. Colombo: Higher education for 

the twenty-first century project/Ministry of Higher Education. http://ugc.ac.lk/attachments/1156_Sri_
Lanka_Qualifications_Framework.pdf

National Education Commission Sri Lanka (2009). National policy framework on higher education and 
technical and vocational education. Nugegoda: Sri Lanka National Education Commission.
SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) (2016). Education 2030: SAARC framework 
for action. Technical meeting of senior officials on education. New Delhi, 15–16 September 2016. 
SAARC/TC-SOE/06 (unpublished draft).

UGC (University Grants Commission) (2015). Sri Lanka qualifications framework. Colombo: Ministry of 

Higher Education.

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

592

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSWEDEN

Introduction and context

Sweden invests substantially in education and 
training, exceeding EU targets for several key 
indicators. Relatively few students leave education 
and training early (7.7% in 2017), the rate of tertiary 
education attainment is one of the highest in the 
EU (51.3% in 2017, compared to the EU average 
of 39.1%) and the rate of employment of recent 
graduates is also high at all qualification levels. 
According to the 2015 Programme for International 
Skills Assessment (PISA), student performance in 
basic skills has been improving, and the proportion 
of underachievers in reading, mathematics 
and science is close to EU averages. However, 
student performance is increasingly linked to 
socioeconomic background and disparities also 
exist between native and foreign-born students. 
Early intervention to improve basic skills, the 
integration of the growing number of newly arrived 
students and support for the training of teachers 
are among the government’s priorities. In higher 
education, a new quality assurance system was 
introduced in 2017 and the current focus of the 
government is on widening participation and on 
strengthening the links between the academia and 
society. In vocational education and training (VET) 
apprenticeships were introduced in 2011. However, 
participation in upper secondary VET is decreasing, 
despite a very high rate of employment of VET 
graduates (87.8% in 2017). One of the concerns 
of the government in recent years has been to 
examine ways to increase permeability between 
VET programmes and tertiary education. Some 
30.4% of Swedish adults participate in lifelong 
learning, approximately three times the EU average, 
but this percentage is significantly lower among  
low-educated adults, a trend observed in many EU 
countries (European Commission, 2018). 

Since 2017, adults have had the right to study 
courses within adult education at upper secondary 
level to meet the eligibility requirements for 
university studies and higher vocational education. 

The legal basis supporting the Swedish national 
qualifications framework (SeQF) came into force 

on 1 October 2015878. Appendix 2 of Decree 
SFS 2015:545 provides the SeQF levels for all 
qualifications in the Swedish formal education 
system. The government further decided that 
it would be possible to include qualifications 
from outside the formal education system in the 
framework. The added value of the SeQF, it is argued, 
depends on its ability to address explicitly, and 
include certificates and qualifications awarded by, 
private companies and branch/sector organisations 
and bodies. While the SeQF is mainly seen as a 
tool to increase transparency of qualifications, 
the framework is also seen as supporting better 
cooperation between the education and training 
system and the labour market. In this sense, the 
framework is not only about describing existing 
qualifications but also about improving education 
and training policies and practices. The SeQF was 
referenced to the European qualifications framework 
(EQF) in June 2016. Following legal adoption of the 
framework in autumn 2015, criteria and procedures 
for inclusion of non-formal qualifications have been 
put in place and made public. The SeQF has reached 
operational status.

Policy objectives

Unlike other European frameworks, the SeQF has, 
from its inception in 2009, been seen as a tool 
for opening up to qualifications awarded outside 
the formal education system, particularly in the 
adult/popular education sector and in the labour 
market. This focus on the inclusive character of the 
framework responds to specific features of Swedish 
education and training. 

First, the role of adult and popular education 
is generally very strong, largely explaining 
why Sweden consistently scores highly in all 

878   Swedish Government (2015). SFS 2015:545. Förordning 

om referensram för kvalifikationer för livslångt lärande 
[Decree with regulations on a national qualification 
framework for lifelong learning]. www.riksdagen.se/sv/
dokument-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/
forordning-2015545-om-referensram-for_sfs-2015-545

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Volume II: National and regional casesinternational comparisons on adult and lifelong 
learning. Other providers supply courses alongside 
formal education. An inclusive framework is 
expected to increase the overall transparency 
of Swedish qualifications and clarify options for 
progress and transfer. 

Second, an important part of VET is carried out by 
enterprises and sectors. While upper secondary 
education (Gymnasieskolan) offers a full range 
of (three-year) vocational courses, acquiring a 
full qualification (enabling someone to practise a 
vocation) will sometimes require additional training 
and certification at work. This extensive system 
of labour market-based education and training is 
diverse and, in some cases, difficult to summarise. 

Linking this non-formal sector to the national 
qualifications framework (NQF) is seen as crucial for 
increasing the overall transparency of qualifications 
in Sweden. The 2015 SeQF Decree with regulations 
authorises the National Agency for Higher Vocational 
Education to act as ‘gatekeeper’ (supported by an 
advisory council) and put in place the necessary 
procedures and criteria to allow this to happen in 
practice. These procedures and criteria have been 
publicly available since March 2016879.

The National Agency for Higher Vocational 
Education, as the national coordination point (NCP) 
for the EQF, is in dialogue with the Swedish public 
employment service, which would like to use SeQF 
levels and descriptors to guarantee the quality of 
job applicants’ skills. This is also the goal of the 
organisations that have successfully applied to have 
their qualifications placed in SeQF.

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The SeQF is based on an eight-level structure 
where each level is described through knowledge 
(kunskap), skills (färdigheter) and competence 
(kompetens). It is a comprehensive framework 
including all qualifications in the formal education 
system and open to qualifications outside the formal 
education system by application from providers, 
such as sectors, labour market trainers, sports 
associations or liberal adult education. The explicit 
objective has been to develop a set of descriptors 
as closely aligned with the EQF as possible. While 
the influence of the original EQF descriptors is 
apparent, the level of detail has been increased. In 
the definition of competence, for example, the EQF 
emphasis on autonomy and responsibility is also 

879   The guidelines for applying for levelling of non-formal 
qualifications are available through the SeQF portal:  
www.seqf.se/sv/Sa-funkar-det/Ansokan/

extended to address decision-making ability and 
cooperation/teamwork. 

The learning outcomes perspective (Resultat av 
lärandet) is an important, and largely incorporated, 
feature of Swedish education and training. While 
the term ‘learning outcomes’ is only gradually 
coming into general use, the underpinning principles 
are well known and broadly accepted. The core 
curricula for compulsory education have recently 
been revised, further strengthening and refining the 
learning-outcomes-based approach.

Universities follow national regulations on 
examinations, requiring the use of learning 
outcomes, though how these learning outcomes 
are interpreted by individual institutions varies. The 
Bologna process has been influential in this respect, 
as have local initiatives.

The setting up of the SeQF has contributed to the 
overall shift to learning outcomes and clarified the 
importance of the concept to stakeholders outside 
traditional, formal education and training. In the 
longer term, this may prove of particular importance, 
potentially supporting dialogue between education 
and the labour market. 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Education and Research has overall 
responsibility for work on the SeQF and referencing 
to the EQF. Supported by the National Agency 
for Higher Vocational Education (Myndigheten 
for Yrkeshögskolan – MYH) the SeQF has full 
operational status.

A broad group of stakeholders, from education 
and training as well as the labour market, has been 
involved in developing the SeQF. 

Several stakeholders have signalled their interest in 
using it as a reference for their work. The Property 
Promotion Branch Association formulates standards 
for qualifications within its sphere of influence 
to develop validation procedures that will assist 
in recruitment and improve competence training 
programmes for staff. The NQF is an instrument 
that will ensure a high level of quality in the content 
of existing education and training programmes. 
Another example is provided by the 26 institutions 
responsible for the qualifications of teachers 
and trainers in VET, which have used the NQF 
as an instrument to identify available pathways 
into teacher training and to indicate minimum 
requirements in prior learning and qualifications. 

594

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSA third example is the construction sector, where 
the framework is being used to indicate alternative 
progression routes for those wanting to qualify as 
construction site managers. This approach shows 
that the traditional higher education pathway (civil 
engineer) is not the only possible alternative; 
several combinations of work experience and 
formal education (both upper secondary and post-
secondary VET) are possible. A fourth example is 
the financial sector, where the framework is seen 
as an opportunity to highlight the training activities 
taking place within the sector, in most cases, 
independent of public education and training. 

A set of procedures and criteria have been 
developed for the inclusion/levelling of non-formal 
qualifications to the SeQF. An advisory council 
(Rådet for den nationella referensramen för 
kvalifikationer) supports the National Agency; this 
council consists of 14 stakeholder representatives 
from education and the labour market. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways880

Sweden has made significant progress between 
2016 and 2018 towards fulfilling the objectives of 
the 2012 recommendation on validation of non-
formal and informal learning881, particularly related 
to assessing and recognising immigrants’ prior 
learning. 

The National Delegation for Validation was set 
up by the government in 2015882 to develop and 
promote a national policy for validation, ensuring 
transparency, coordination, quality, efficiency and 
delegation of responsibility at national and regional 
level. The delegation published a report in May 
2018 cataloguing progress and identifying where 
provision was still lacking883. The main conclusions 
of the report are as follows: 

880   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

881   Council of the European Union (2012). Council 
recommendation of 20 December 2012 on the 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. Official 
Journal of the European Union, C 398, 22.12.2012, 
pp. 1–5. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=celex%3A32012H1222%2801%29

882   www.valideringsdelegation.se/in-english/national-strategy-

validation/

883   National Delegation for Validation (2018). 

Valideringsdelegasjonens årliga redovisning, 
Maj 2018 [Pathways to work and education. The 
Validation Delegation’s annual report 2018]. www.

a.  While examples of validation have generally 

increased, some areas (e.g. in municipal adult 
education) are still not providing adequate 
coverage.

b.  The validation system in Sweden is highly 
decentralised, with many actors, and even 
though some progress has been made 
in coordinating the work and assigning 
responsibilities, this aspect needs to be further 
developed.

c.  The feasibility of transferring learning outcomes 
between different qualifications is limited, as the 
learning outcomes approach has not yet been 
applied to all qualifications.

d.  The SeQF was introduced in 2016, and is 

perceived as an important tool in the context of 
validation, though it is still underused.

e.  Validation standards and guidelines have been 

developed for many areas, but have not yet been 
implemented everywhere.

f.  The financing of validation is still patchy, and 
is often characterised by short-term, ad hoc 
measures.

g.  Validation is now increasingly used as a strategic 
tool for tackling skills shortages in the labour 
market, with the active involvement of  social 
partners.

h.  More immigrants and refugees are now having 
prior learning validated as a way of supporting 
their integration into the labour market, but there 
is still a need to reinforce efforts here.

i.  Validation statistics in Sweden are incomplete 

and, for some areas, non-existent.

The National Agency for Higher Vocational 
Education previously had the task of coordinating 
and supporting the national structure for validating 
prior learning. The Agency is now required to 
support the economic sectors with developing, 
and quality assuring, models for validation. Given 
that this national agency is also responsible for 
implementing the SeQF, a close link between the 
NQF and validation is seen as critical. Cooperation 
with education and training providers, sector 
organisations, social partners, universities and 
regional representatives has been an essential 
part of this work. The criteria and guidelines on 
validation, presented by the agency in 2012, are 
regularly updated884.

valideringsdelegation.se/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/
valideringsdelegationens-rliga-redovisning-maj-2018.pdf
884   National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (2014). 
Kriterier och riktlinjer för validering av reell kompetens. 
[Criteria and guidelines for validation of non-formal and 
informal learning]. www.myh.se/Documents/Publikationer/
Informationsmaterial/Kriterier_riktlinjer_validering_reel_
kompetens.pdf

595

Volume II: National and regional casesTransferability between qualifications has been 
highlighted by the National Delegation for Validation 
as one of five priority areas. SeQF is seen as 
the common starting point for ensuring that 
skills profiles and criteria and learning objectives 
are formulated uniformly and to the highest 
standards885.

The National Agency for Higher Vocational Education 
has been assigned the task of developing a national 
standard and guidelines for sectoral validation of 
vocational competence886. The assignment is being 
carried out in collaboration with industries that 
have knowledge of, and experience in, constructing 
validation models, and has the NQF as its starting 
point. The purpose of this validation is to increase 
recruitment to industry and to support individuals’ 
employability. A national standard will further 
support industry in developing quality assurance 
and stable validation models. The standard has 
been anchored in the Agency’s validation network 
for industry. The network includes representatives 
of both industry and national authorities. Currently, 
models have been developed in 21 sectors 
extending over approximately 150 occupations. Only 
a limited part of the labour market is covered at this 
stage, but new developments are under way.

NQF implementation 

The National Agency for Higher Vocational Education 
plays a key role in implementing the SeQF. The 
agency was set up in 2009 with responsibility 
for administering what is a new and vocationally 
oriented strand of Swedish higher education 
and training. Yrkeshögskolan – higher vocational 
education – has attracted a lot of interest both 
among individuals and employers, offering an 
alternative to the traditional university sector, for 
example by combining theoretically and practically 
oriented learning. The main aim of higher vocational 
education is to meet the needs of the labour market 
for post-secondary vocational skills. 

This means that coordination of framework 
developments is carried out by an institution 

885  National Delegation for Validation (2017). En 

nationell startegi för validering. Delbetänkande av 
Valideringsdelegasjonen 2015–19. [A national strategy for 
validation: interim report from the National Delegation for 
Validation 2015–19]. www.valideringsdelegation.se/wp-
content/uploads/2017/05/summary-sou-2017-18.pdf

886  National Agency for Higher Vocational Education 

(2017). Standard och riktlinjer för branschvalidering 
avyrkeskompetens [Standards and guidelines for sectoral 
validation of vocational competence]. www.myh.se/
Documents/Publikationer/Informationsmaterial/standard_
branschvalidering.pdf

with a clear position on the role of non-academic 
qualifications at levels 5 and 6. 

Since January 2016, awarding bodies outside the 
formal education system have been able to have 
their qualifications assessed and given an SeQF 
level by submitting an application to the National 
Agency for Higher Vocational Education. An advisory 
body assists the Agency in deciding the relevant 
level for a qualification based on particular criteria, 
mainly the legitimacy/acceptance of the qualification 
in the relevant occupational area, learning 
outcomes and quality assurance. An application 
fee of EUR 1 000 is required in advance to cover 
administration costs. Decisions can be appealed to 
the Higher Education Appeals Board. A decision on 
a level is valid for 10 years, after which a renewed 
application is required. The Agency will carry out at 
least one follow-up check during the 10-year period 
to reaffirm that the qualification corresponds to 
the level allocated and that it is meeting learning 
outcomes, and that the provider is fulfilling the 
requirement to guarantee systematic quality work.

Six qualifications had been included in the SeQF by 
November 2018887: cleaners (level 4), key account 
managers (level 5), authorised payroll consultants 
(level 5), performing artists (level 6), business 
administrators (level 6) and Montessori educators 
(level 6). 

Realising that it is a key challenge to communicate 
the SeQF’s purpose and possibilities, and to get 
past the first threshold of applying for non-formal 
qualifications to be included in the framework, 
the Agency is developing a common language 
for the NQF, and, especially, for the description of 
learning outcomes. This is required for transparency 
between different stakeholders and to provide good 
examples of the value of including qualifications 
awarded outside formal education and training. 
The Agency has published a manual for the design 
of qualifications and there are also instructions on 
how to write learning outcomes. However, there is 
a need for more detailed instructions and it is the 
Agency’s intention to develop new guidelines on 
writing learning outcomes. 

Sweden has developed a separate qualifications 
framework for higher education and separate self-
certification to the qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA) has 
been carried out. SeQF levels 6 to 8 also include the 
three levels from the qualifications framework for 
higher education. While the relationship between 
the NQF for higher education and the SeQF was 

887   22 applications are under assessment.

596

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSextensively discussed during initial development 
stages, levels 6 to 8 of the SeQF are now open both 
to academic and non-academic qualifications.

A communication plan has been developed, an 
important part of which is the inclusion of an 
ambassador network consisting of a range of SeQF 
stakeholders. However, it has been found that 
several of the ambassadors themselves have too 
little knowledge about the NQF and how it works 
to be able to assist. The communication plan will, 
therefore, be revised. The SeQF is well known 
to authorities and bodies, and to labour market 
stakeholders but awareness is more variable among 
education and training institutions and providers and 
guidance and counselling practitioners. The general 
public has more limited knowledge of the SeQF.

The National Agency for Higher Vocational Education 
has received European Social Fund (ESF) funding 
for a project, which aims to raise legitimacy and 
transferability of validated learning outcomes, and 
thereby increase the use and usefulness of sectoral 
validation. The project is being conducted with 
around 20 economic sectors. The starting point 
for the project is the SeQF and the standards and 
guidelines for sectoral validation of professional 
competencies.

Sweden does not have a database for all 
qualifications, but an embryo structure can be found 
in the database associated with the EQF NCP888. 
Non-formal qualifications included in the SeQF will 
be published here.

Most universities provide information about their 
education offer: authorities and businesses can 
download and present them in their own web 
services. The portal Utbildningsinfo (information 
about education) includes search tools for education 
paths and providers throughout the formal education 
system889. (European Commission; Cedefop, 2018).

Referencing to regional frameworks 

Referencing to the EQF took place in June 2016 and 
a finalised referencing report will be published in 
January 2019.

Ensuring that level placements are included in new 
certificates, diplomas and/or Europass supplements 
is continuing. They are included in certificates for 
diploma/advanced diploma in higher vocational 
education at levels 5 and 6; in certificates from the 

888   www.seqf.se/sv/Sa-funkar-det/Kvalifikationer/
889   Utbildningsinfo: www.utbildningsinfo.se

general course at compulsory school level/at upper 
secondary level from folk high school at levels 2 
and 4; and in all certificates for qualifications by 
application, provided by the National Agency for 
Higher Vocational Education.

Important lessons and future plans

The SeQF has influenced the use of learning 
outcomes, especially for qualifications outside the 
formal education system. It has proved useful for 
validating non-formal and informal learning and for 
recognising foreign qualifications. 

Compared to other countries, Sweden has, from 
the start, emphasised the need to open up to non-
formal education and training and make it possible 
to establish links to the diverse and extensive field 
of continuing and popular education and training 
run by the private sector and non-governmental 
organisations. The overall success of the framework 
will partly depend on the extent to which the 
framework is seen as relevant to stakeholders 
outside formal, initial education and training. For this 
reason it is particularly important to make practical 
progress and move from intention to concrete 
results. In this respect, the Agency will: support 
different stakeholders in describing and applying to 
place qualifications in the SeQF; develop a system 
to ensure the quality of non-formal qualifications; 
and look at the possibility of modularisation of 
qualifications to promote individuals’ lifelong learning.

Work is still required to develop a common 
language for learning outcomes that makes the 
system transparent. What further development 
remains is mainly related to higher education 
and to how employers and different sectors in 
the labour market describe the skills they need. 
Another clear requirement is to continue to inform 
and communicate the purpose and benefit of the 
NQF and the EQF to different stakeholders. To 
support the placement of qualifications awarded 
outside formal education and training, the Agency 
will support stakeholders: in describing their 
qualifications and applying for placement in SeQF; 
in developing ways of ensuring the quality of non-
formal qualifications; and in looking at the possibility 
of modularisation of qualifications to promote 
individuals’ lifelong learning.

For the SeQF to be able to operate as a 
comprehensive NQF, the relationship between 
higher education and other education sectors 
requires further clarification and continuous 
dialogue. Transfer and accumulation of learning 
outcomes across education sectors is not available 
as a general opportunity in Sweden. Discussions 

597

Volume II: National and regional casesare continuing between the National Agency for 
Higher Vocational Education and higher education 
institutions about the transfer of credits from higher 

vocational education to academic higher education. 
However, credits from the two education sectors 
are different and not automatically transferrable.

Table 77. Swedish national qualifications framework (SeQF)

NQF 
LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES (FORMAL EDUCATION)

AWARDED OUTSIDE 
FORMAL EDUCATION*

EQF 
LEVELS

8

7

6

Performing artist 

Business administration 
(Marknadsekonom)

Montessori educator 
(Montessoripedagog)

Key account manager (Säljare)

5

Authorised payroll consultant 
(Auktoriserad lönekonsult)

Cleaner (Städare)

4

8

7

6

5

4

Degrees, third cycle, Annex 2 to Higher Education 
Ordinance 1993:100 (Examina på forskarnivå enligt 
bilaga 2 till högskoleförordningen 1993:100)

Degrees, third cycle, Annex to Regulation 1993:221 
(Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet Examina på forskarnivå 
enligt bilagan till förordningen (1993:221) för Sveriges 
lantbruksuniversitet Förordning (2017:276))

Degrees, second cycle, Annex 2 to Higher Education 
Ordinance 1993:100 (Examina på avancerad nivå enligt 
bilaga 2 till högskoleförordningen 1993:100)

Degrees, second cycle, Annex to Regulation 
1993:221 (Examina på avancerad nivå enligt 
bilagan till förordningen (1993:221) för Sveriges 
lantbruksuniversitet)

Degrees, second cycle, Annex to Regulation 
2007:1164 (Examina på avancerad nivå enligt bilagan till 
förordningen (2007:1164) för Försvarshögskolan)

Degrees, first cycle, Annex 2 to Higher Education 
Ordinance 1993:100 (Examina på grundnivå enligt 
bilaga 2 till högskoleförordningen 1993:100)

Degrees, first cycle, Annex to Regulation 2007:1164 
(Examina på grundnivå enligt bilagan till förordningen 
(2007:1164) för Försvarshögskolan)

Degrees, first cycle, Annex to Regulation 1993:221 
(Examina på grundnivå enligt bilagan till förordningen 
(1993:221) för Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet)

Advanced diploma in higher vocational education 
(Kvalificerad yrkeshögskoleexamen från yrkeshögskolan)

Qualified graduate from upper secondary 
engineering course (Gymnasieingenjörsexamen från 
gymnasieskolan)

Diploma in higher vocational education 
(Yrkeshögskoleexamen från yrkeshögskolan)

Degree from a national programme in upper secondary 
education – qualification title for students starting 2011 
onwards (Gymnasieexamen från gymnasieskolan)

Final grades from a complete national or specially 
designed programme (Slutbetyg från ett fullständigt 
nationellt eller specialutformat program i 
gymnasieskolan)

Degree from municipal adult education and training 
at upper secondary level – qualification title for 
students starting 2011 onwards (Gymnasieexamen från 
kommunal vuxenutbildning)

598

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 77. Swedish national qualifications framework (SeQF) (Continued)

3

2

Final grades from municipal adult education and training 
at upper secondary level (Slutbetyg från gymnasial 
vuxenutbildning)

Certificate from the general course at upper secondary 
level from folk high school (Intyg om godkänt resultat 
från allmän kurs på gymnasial nivå från folkhögskola)

Final grades from compulsory school (Slutbetyg från 
grundskolan)

Final grades from special school at compulsory level 
(Slutbetyg från specialskolan)

Final grades from municipal adult education and 
training at compulsory level (Slutbetyg från kommunal 
vuxenutbildning på grundläggande nivå)

Certificate from upper secondary education 
for individuals with learning disabilities 
(Gymnasiesärskolebevis från gymnasiesärskolan)

Certificate from special education for adults at upper 
secondary level (Gymnasiesärskolebevis från särskild 
utbildning för vuxna på gymnasial nivå)

Grade from Swedish for immigrants course D, or 
equivalent awarded by a folk high school (Betyg 
från utbildning i svenska för invandrare kurs D, eller 
motsvarande utbildning som bedrivs vid folkhögskola)

Grade from municipal adult education in Swedish for 
Immigrants course D, or equivalent awarded by a folk 
high school (Betyg från kommunal vuxenutbildning 
i svenska för invandrare kurs D, eller motsvarande 
utbildning som bedrivs vid folkhögskola)

Certificate from the general course at compulsory 
school level from folk high school (Intyg om godkänt 
resultat från allmän kurs på grundskolenivå från 
folkhögskola)

1

Final grades from compulsory school for pupils with 
learning disabilities (Slutbetyg från grundsärskolan)

Final grades from special education for adults at 
compulsory level (Slutbetyg från särskild utbildning för 
vuxna på grundläggande nivå)

Note: (*) These qualifications are added to the table for comparability. They will be published on the EQF NCP website.

Source: Adapted from the SeQF website (2017): www.seqf.se/

Abbreviations
EQF 
NCP  

European qualifications framework
national coordination point

NQF 
SeQF  
VET 

national qualifications framework
Swedish qualifications framework
vocational education and training

3

2

1

599

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (MYH) – the designated EQF NCP: www.myh.se/

In-English/Swedish-National-Agency-for-Higher-Vocational-Education-/

Information about the SeQF (in English): www.myh.se/In-English/EQF/
SeQF portal (in Swedish): www.seqf.se/ 
Register of qualifications via the SeQF portal (under development): www.seqf.se/sv/Sa-funkar-det/

Kvalifikationer

Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (2016). Referencing report of the Swedish 

qualifications framework to the European qualifications framework (unpublished).

References

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: country analysis. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/
volume-2-2018-education-and-training-monitor-country-analysis.pdf 

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Sweden. 

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

600

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSWITZERLAND

Introduction and context

Switzerland is situated well above EU averages 
with regard to several key indicators in education 
and training and has exceeded EU 2020 targets in 
a number of areas. Tertiary education attainment 
is one of the highest (52.8% in 2017, compared to 
the EU average of 39.9%); employment of recent 
graduates at 86.2% in 2017 exceeds the EU average 
of 80.2%; adult participation in learning was 31.2% 
in 2017, the highest in Europe; and early leaving 
from education is among the lowest (4.5% in 2017), 
well below the EU average of 10.6% (European 
Commission, 2018).

Swiss vocational and professional education (VPET) 
enjoys considerable prestige and labour market 
relevance. Around two-thirds of all young people 
coming out of compulsory school opt for vocational 
education and training (VET) (SERI, 2018). However, 
many of its qualifications are relatively unknown in 
other countries, potentially hindering Swiss citizens 
seeking employment abroad. Switzerland sees the 
link to European qualifications frameworks – both 
the European qualifications framework (EQF) and 
the qualifications framework in the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA) – as an opportunity to 
strengthen the transparency and comparability of 
its national qualifications in a European and wider 
international context. In 2009 Switzerland adopted 
a national qualifications framework (NQF) for higher 
education (Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen für den 
schweizerischen Hochschulbereich (NQR-CH-HS/
NQF-HE))890 in line with the Bologna process. The 
NQF for vocational and professional education 
and training (Nationaler Qualifikationsrahmen für 
Abschlüsse der Berufsbildung (NQR-CH-BB/NQF-
VPET)) was adopted on 27 August 2014891 and put in 

890   Information on the NQF for higher education can be found 
at: www.swissuniversities.ch/en/higher-education-area/
qualifications-framework-nqfch-hs/

891   Government of Switzerland (2014). Verordnung überden 
nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen für Abschlüsse der 
Berufsbildung V-NQR-BB [Regulation on the NQF for 
VET qualifications]. www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-
compilation/20140910/index.html

force from 1 October 2014892. This latter framework 
is explicitly oriented to the EQF and introduces an 
eight-level structure defined through knowledge, 
skills and competences. 

The framework was referenced to the EQF in May 
2015 (SERI, 2015). The NQF-VPET can be considered 
to have reached operational stage, given that a 
significant proportion of existing vocational and 
professional qualifications, have been included.

Policy objectives

The NQF-VPET aims to improve transparency and 
comparability of Swiss vocational and professional 
qualifications. More specific objectives (SERI, 2015, 
p. 33) are to: 

a.  map the Swiss VPET system adequately and 
thus improve the transparency, clarity and 
comparability of Swiss vocational and professional 
qualifications in relation to European ones;

b.  promote equal recognition and valuing of vocational 
and professional education and training in society 
in comparison with academic qualifications;

c.  aid employer understanding of the competences 
of graduates of Swiss vocational and professional 
courses and of graduates from other countries, 
to meet the needs of the labour market;  
d.  strengthen, as part of an overall strategy, the 
recognition of Swiss higher vocational and 
professional education and training;

e.  improve the opportunities for Swiss-educated 

professionals to get jobs abroad and so increase 
overall mobility.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The level descriptors of the NQF-VPET reflect the 
competence approach893 already in use in Swiss 
vocational and professional education and training. 

892   Information on the adoption of the framework: www.sbfi.
admin.ch/sbfi/de/home/themen/berufsbildung/nqr.html

893   Two models are commonly used in Switzerland to 

structure competence-oriented documents: competence-

601

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 78. Main elements of the descriptors in the 
Swiss NQF

Knowledge

Knowledge 

Understanding

Skills

Procedural skills

Sensorimotor skills

Social 
competences

Professional competences

Personal competences:

Professional competences are described in 
reference documents: ordinances, training plans for 
VET, the examination ordinances and guidelines for 
federal examinations, and framework curricula for 
colleges of higher education. Almost all documents 
are already described in competences, or are 
planned for revision. If a VPET qualification is not 
described in competences it must have undergone 
revision before it can be assigned an NQF-VPET 
level (SERI, 2015). 

• autonomy

• social competences

• leadership competences

In VET each ordinance is based on a qualification 
profile, which is a basis for a training plan, defining 
competences as minimum standards for training. 

Source: SERI, 2015; Swiss Government, 2014.

The main elements of the descriptors are presented 
in Table 78.

It is emphasised that the descriptors are defined 
specifically in relation to Swiss vocational and 
professional education and training (SERI, 2015). 
‘Knowledge’ relates to factual knowledge in a 
field of work or study and is subdivided into the 
categories of ‘knowledge’ and ‘understanding’. 
‘Skills’ relate to the ability to apply knowledge to 
perform tasks and solve problems. A distinction is 
drawn here between procedural and sensorimotor 
skills. ‘Competences’ denotes the regular and 
routine application of knowledge and skills in the 
context of work; it is divided into ‘professional’ 
and ‘personal’ competences. The formulation of 
this descriptor gives due weight to the importance 
of practical experience and indicates that other 
competences beyond technical ones can be 
acquired, contributing to the development of the 
individual both within and outside work situations. 

While it is not envisaged that any VET qualifications 
will be aligned to level 1, levels 2 to 5 are open 
to the various VET qualifications. With respect to 
levels 5 to 8, the NQF-VPET is compatible with the 
level descriptors for the qualifications framework 
for the European higher education area (QF-EHEA). 
However, only professional qualifications are aligned 
to the NQF-VPET; university qualifications are 
assigned to the NQF-HE894.

oriented model and the competence-and-resources 
model. They determine how professional competences 
are described and structured in training plans. For more 
information consult appendix 6.6 of the referencing report 
(SERI, 2015).

894   It includes diplomas from cantonal universities, federal 

institutes of technology, universities of applied sciences, 
universities of teacher education and other specialised 
institutions.

The federal government approves the examination 
regulations for federal diplomas of higher education 
and advanced federal diplomas of higher education; 
these include regulating admission to examinations, 
legally protected title, the professional competences 
and the occupational profile. A qualification profile 
is the basis for examination ordinances and 
guidelines, drawn up by professional organisations 
in cooperation with practitioners in the profession. 
It includes professional competences, occupational 
profile and performance criteria.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Swiss NQF-VPET is legally embedded in the 
Ordinance on the NQF-VPET qualifications, in 
force from 1 October 2014. The responsibilities of 
bodies involved in referencing and implementing 
the framework are clearly defined in the Annex 6.3 
of that ordinance and explanatory note to the 
ordinance895.

The Swiss State Secretariat for Education, 
Research and Innovation (SERI)896 is in charge of 
framework implementation. SERI plays a key role 
in coordinating and quality assuring the entire 
levelling/assignment process from proposal until 
publication of the level in line with the Article 2 
of the Ordinance. SERI also takes on the role of 
national contact point for the EQF in its capacity 
as the expert body for the NQF-VPET. It provides 
all necessary information to awarding bodies and 
other stakeholders and assists in the assignment of 
qualifications. Guidelines897 on the NQF-VPET (SERI, 
2015, Annex 4) have been developed, that describe 

895   Erläuterungsbericht: www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home/

bildung/mobilitaet/nqf-vpet.html

896   SERI: www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home.html
897   Available in German, Italian and French:  

www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home/education/mobility/nqf-
vpet/das-vorgehen-zur-einstufung.html

602

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSin detail individual steps and the responsibilities in 
relation to assignment of qualifications to the  
NQF-VPET. 

The Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education 
and Training (SFIVET) supports implementation with 
consistency checks and review of the coherence 
of proposed levels of qualifications in line with the 
methodology and guidelines.

Before the final decision on levelling is made, twice 
a year SERI consults the Federal Commission 
for Vocational and Professional Education and 
Training (FCVPET), in existence since 1970. This 
is a tripartite body involving cantons, professional 
organisations and colleges of higher education in 
the implementation of the NQF-VPET. 

Quality assurance of VPET and qualifications is 
legally embedded in the Federal Act on Vocational 
and Professional Education and Training and 
corresponding ordinances at all levels.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways898

A number of key national factors should be 
taken into account when considering the Swiss 
perspective on validation: the federalism, the 
quadrilingualism and the complex articulation of 
responsibilities in the Swiss education area. SERI is 
the Swiss federal government’s specialised agency 
for national and international matters in education 
and training. SERI coordinates validation projects 
throughout Switzerland, supporting or checking 
pilot projects cooperating with specific services and 
stakeholders. It is also the organisation in charge of 
implementing the NQF-VPET.

A slow, but steady increase in validation of non-
formal and informal learning can be seen in 
Switzerland. Increasingly, validation has been 
an integral part of education policies and legal 
frameworks (e.g. Vocational and Professional 
Education and Training Act, the 2017 Federal Act on 
Continuing Education and Training, the vision 2030 
of vocational training, research and education for 
2017–20 guidelines) but less so of employment 
and youth policies and those in the third sector. 
Validation is not a systematic measure to fight 
unemployment. 

898   This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

Validation procedures are integrated within 
each education and training sector; procedures, 
regulation, practices are more widespread in VET 
and further professional training. In other sectors 
there are no binding rules; instead, various official 
documents include indications for development 
and diffusion of validation procedures. Access to 
validation is considered an individual right, and 
practices are optional.

Validation is formally referred to as one of several 
possible ways of obtaining a qualification in upper 
secondary VET899. Full qualifications, as well as 
exemptions and provision of access, can be 
also obtained in tertiary professional education 
and training. The Federal Office for Professional 
Education and Technology (OPET, now integrated 
with SERI) developed national validation guidelines 
in 2010 specifying five different validation 
phases: information and advising, self-evaluation, 
assessment, accreditation (or partial certification) 
and certification. These phases, although referring 
specifically to the VET upper secondary level, also 
act as a general indicator of other Swiss validation 
practices. In December 2018, a new guide for 
the recognition and accreditation of prior learning 
(including validation) in initial VET (IVET) was 
published900.

In higher education, regulation is normally 
decentralised to the institutional level; depending 
on the type of university (cantonal universities, 
universities of applied science, and university 
colleges for teacher education) procedures 
and regulations might differ. There are options 
for admission into a programme without a 
baccalaureate and the possibility to validate, partially 
or completely, a higher education degree.

Validation procedures, both in VET and higher 
education, use the standards of formal qualification/
programmes as reference.

The Labour Market and Unemployment Insurance, 
part of the State Secretariat of Economic Affairs, 
has set up skills assessment centres that carry 
out personal bilans (skills audits) to identify skills 

899   The other ways are: structured curriculum of study 

(classical formal way); admission of adults to professional 
exams without having participated in a formal curriculum 
of study; shortened initial vocational training if the adult 
is able to demonstrate his or her knowledge within the 
desired professional domain.

900   Available in German, French and Italian:  

www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/de/home/bildung/
berufsbildungssteuerung-und--politik/projekte-und-
initiativen/berufsabschluss-und-berufswechsel-fuer-
erwachsene/leitfaden-anrechnung-von-bildungsleistungen-
in-der-beruflichen-g.html

603

Volume II: National and regional casesand know-how acquired in formal, non-formal 
and informal contexts, and aid development of a 
personal or professional portfolio. There are other 
initiatives of this nature in Switzerland, normally 
integrated into career guidance practices, though 
it is not clear how these are connected to formal 
qualification standards. 

NQF implementation

Switzerland has established two sectoral 
qualifications frameworks: one encompassing 
vocational and professional education (NQF-VPET) 
and a separate one for qualifications in Swiss higher 
education (NQF-HE). The NQF-VPET became formally 
operational on 1 October 2014. At the start of NQF-
VPET implementation, single qualifications were 
assigned NQF-VPET levels. However, experience 
has shown that most qualifications of a given type 
are assigned to the same level. Since summer 
2016, professional organisations have two options: 
applying for simplified referencing of qualifications 
or seek individualised referencing of qualifications901. 
For simplified assignment of levels, qualifications 
are assigned according to a standard level for a 
type of qualification, proposed by SERI902. This 
reduces workload for the professional organisation 
submitting the application. A professional 
organisation can request an individual levelling of 
a qualification if it feels that a specific qualification 
might be assigned higher levels within the NQF-
VPET. In this case levelling is based on learning 
outcomes of each qualification description and 
takes into account the specifics of each profession. 
Close cooperation with all stakeholders is required 
to reach a consensus on a level for a specific 
qualification. 

901 

 www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home/bildung/mobilitaet/nqf-
vpet/das-vorgehen-zur-einstufung.html

902   SERI proposes a standard reference level for each type 

of qualification: Federal certificate of vocational education 
and training (two-year VET programmes): level 3; Federal 
diploma of vocational education and training (three- and 
four-year VET programmes): level 4; Federal diploma 
of higher education (federal professional examination): 
level 5; Advanced federal diploma of higher education 
(federal professional examination): level 6; Advanced 
federal diploma of higher education (formal study 
programme): level 6.

SERI maintains a list of qualifications that have been 
referenced to the NQF-VPET. It updates this list 
twice each year, in January and July. The assigned 
NQF-VPET reference level of a given qualification 
becomes official as soon as it has been added 
to this list. By January 2019903 a total of 474 of 
roughly 700 formal vocational and professional 
qualifications had been attributed levels; 207 IVET 
qualifications mostly distributed to levels 3 and 4; 
264 of professional qualifications, mostly at levels 
5 to 7; and three at level 8. The process is expected 
to continue. Continuing VET (CVET) is not integrated 
into the NQF-VPET (European Commission; 
Cedefop; ICF International, 2019).

The NQF-VPET plays an important transparency role. 
The classification of qualifications did not imply any 
change in Swiss VET. In the same vein, validation of 
non-formal and informal learning and the links to the 
NQF-VPET did not change.

A database of all State-recognised occupations 
and professions and programmes is available in 
German, French and Italian, but does not include 
NQF and EQF levels904. NQF and EQF levels are 
indicated on Europass supplements for VET and 
tertiary professional qualifications905. With a detailed 
profile of skills and competence to be achieved by 
a qualification holder, together with an NQF-VPET 
level, the Europass supplements are intended to 
make it easier to understand and compare Swiss 
qualifications with others elsewhere. There are no 
plans to include levels on certificates and diplomas 
(European Commission; Cedefop, 2018).

The NQF-VPET has been promoted mostly though 
professional organisations and sectors906.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The NQF-VPET was referenced to the EQF in May 
2015. Figure 21 shows the approximate alignment 
of EQF and NQF-VPET levels and how different 
categories of qualifications fit into the framework.

903   www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20151046/

index.html

904   www.becc.admin.ch/becc/public/bvz 
905   www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home/education/mobility/nqf-

vpet.html

906   Ibid.

604

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFigure 21. Indication of qualification types included in the NQF-VPET and approximate levels

Qualification type

NQF 
VPET 
levels

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Federal VET 
diploma

Federal VET 

certificate 

Advanced 
federal 
diploma 
of higher 
education

Federal diploma 

College of higher 

of higher 

education

education diploma

EQF 
levels

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Notes:

•  Federal certificate of vocational education and training – two-year VET programmes; 

•  Federal diploma of vocational education and training – three- and four-year VET programmes;

•  Federal diploma of higher education – part-time tertiary level professional education and training (federal professional 

examination); 

•  Advanced federal diploma of higher education issued by a college of higher education (federal professional examination); 

•  Advanced federal diploma of higher education – formal study programme.

Source: SERI, 2018.

Abbreviations
EQF 
NQF 
NQF-HE  

European qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
national qualifications framework 
for higher education (Nationaler 
Qualifikationsrahmen für den 
schweizerischen Hochschulbereich 
(NQR-CH-HS)

NQF-VPET   national qualifications framework 

for vocational and professional 

SERI 

VET 
VPET 

education and training (Nationaler 
Qualifikationsrahmen für Abschlüsse 
der Berufsbildung (NQR-CH-BB)
State Secretariat for Education, 
Research and Innovation 
(Staatssekretariat für Bildung, 
Forschung und Innovation)
vocational education and training
vocational and professional education 
and training

Main sources of information

State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) – acts as the EQF NCP: www.sbfi.admin.

ch/sbfi/en/home.html

NQF VPET website: www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home/education/mobility/nqf-vpet.html
List of assigned vocational and professional qualifications: www.sbfi.admin.ch/sbfi/en/home/bildung/

mobilitaet/nqf-vpet/das-verzeichnis-der-eingestuften-abschluesse.html

A database of all State-recognised occupations and professions (available in German, French and Italian): 

www.becc.admin.ch/becc/public/bvz

SERI (State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation) (2015). Swiss EQF referencing report. 

https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/e_referencing_report_final_ch.pdf 

605

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor leaflet. http://ec.europa.eu/education/
resources-and-tools/document-library/2018-education-and-training-monitor-leaflet_en 

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: Switzerland. 

Government of Switzerland (2014). Verordnung überden nationalen Qualifikationsrahmen für Abschlüsse 

der Berufsbildung V-NQR-BB [Regulation on the NQF for VET qualifications]. www.admin.ch/opc/de/
classified-compilation/20140910/index.html

SERI (State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation) (2015). Swiss EQF referencing report. 

https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/e_referencing_report_final_ch.pdf 

SERI (State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation) (2018). Vocational and professional 

education and training in Switzerland: facts and figures 2018. www.berufsbildungplus.ch/
berufsbildungplus/fachportal/service/shop_neu.html

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

606

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTAJIKISTAN

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The Tajik national qualifications framework (NQF) has 
not been adopted yet. It is still in an ad hoc stage, 
where no major decisions, such as on the number 
of levels or descriptors, have been taken.

in the form of remittances. It is estimated by the 
Economist magazine that approximately 47% of 
the country’s GDP comes from remittances. The 
reliance on access to the Russian labour market 
and remittances makes the country’s economy 
particularly vulnerable to changes in Russia’s 
economic fortunes. 

Educational, social, economic and political context
The population of Tajikistan has been growing 
steadily in the past years, reaching circa 8.7 million 
in 2016, from 6.25 million in 2000. The population 
is predominantly rural, with 73.7% living in 
the countryside. The country has a very young 
population with 60.5% under the age of 25; 32.4% 
between 25 and 54; and 7.2% over 55.

These data show that there is a challenge in 
accommodating this large share of young people 
within the education system as well as in the local 
labour market. Youth unemployment (age 15 to 29) 
has been increasing in recent years: in 2009, the 
latest year for which figures are available, 15.4% of 
young people were out of work.

Unemployment is the result of a lack of jobs in 
the domestic labour market and limited economic 
development and business growth, especially 
in rural and remote areas. Migration is officially 
recognised as a tool to maintain social equilibrium 
and to support skills development not provided by 
the vocational education and training (VET) system.

The primary sources of income in the country 
are aluminium production, cotton growing and 
remittances from migrant workers. Cotton accounts 
for 60% of agricultural output, supporting 75% of 
the rural population, and using 45% of irrigated 
arable land. The aluminium industry is represented 
by the State-owned Tajik Aluminium Company – the 
biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of 
the biggest in the world.

In addition to migration, the increase in the working 
age population has particularly affected the informal 
sector, which is mainly made up of household-based 
enterprises or corporate enterprises owned by 
households producing goods and services. In 2009 
informal employment accounted for 51% of the 
employed people, excluding the agricultural sector.

The Tajik labour market lacks qualified people in 
most branches of industry; it is not sufficiently 
structured and 70% of the employment is rural. 
The labour market is characterised by high 
unemployment and low salaries. Young people with 
traditional vocational qualifications, such as those 
provided by initial VET, experience considerable 
difficulties in finding employment in the country, and 
most become migrants. Estimates of the number 
of migrants vary from one eighth to one third of 
the workforce. At the same time, every year many 
vacancies remain unfilled due to lack of relevant 
competences. There is a strong need to revitalise 
skills development and to improve transparency 
and efficiency through streamlining numerous 
specialisations into a manageable number of 
broad occupations or career paths. The quality 
and relevance of programmes of study need to be 
improved to target gaps in the labour market, and to 
make vocational, professional and higher education 
institutions more accountable for quality results. Key 
elements of this process are the strengthening of 
quality assurance mechanisms and recognition of 
qualifications at national level.

Around 1.3 million Tajik citizens live abroad, notably 
men aged 20 to 39, of whom one third live and work 
abroad, especially in Russia. Their labour provides an 
important economic support to the home country 

Education and training reforms
In 2012 Tajikistan adopted the National Education 
Development Strategy 2020; this assumes a 

Policy objectives

607

Volume II: National and regional casestransition to competence-based training in VET, 
modularisation of programmes and adoption of an 
NQF. An NQF would contribute to transparency of 
qualifications, and their quality and relevance to the 
labour market.

International cooperation
Tajikistan aspires to cooperation with the Bologna 
process area. Links with Kazakhstan and Russia are 
important and should form part of NQF planning 
considerations. The country currently participates 
in the Central Asia Education Platform (CAEP) 
initiative907.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
No decision has been made yet on the scope of any 
NQF.

Alignment to other classification systems
The national classification of occupations (NCO) 
adopted in 2013, links occupations to qualifications. 
Four levels of qualifications are allocated in the 
NCO: the initial level corresponds to primary and 
secondary general education; the second level to 
lower secondary VET; the third to upper secondary 
VET; and the fourth to higher education.

Various projects have produced occupational 
standards and higher education has developed 
qualification standards. Higher education providers 
propose a standard which is ultimately approved by 
the Ministry of Education. In VET, similar processes 
apply. In essence, the old Soviet standards are 
still in operation and there is little or no employer 
involvement.

NQF levels and level descriptors
There is no decision on the number of levels, but 
eight is likely, as it is the international norm and 
considering the country’s aspiration to be linked to 
the Bologna process, most of whose members have 
eight-level qualifications frameworks.

None developed yet at national level.

Use of learning outcomes
The National Education Development Strategy 2020 
implies an outcomes-based NQF.

Definition of qualification
No definition available yet.

907  An EU initiative in education for the region.

608

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
No law authorising an NQF has yet been adopted. 
Instead, an NQF concept was adopted under a 
Tempus project; other tools that might support an 
eventual NQF, were developed: an NQF manual and 
other supporting documents.

Governance and institutional arrangements for 
the NQF
The Ministry of Education is responsible for 
qualifications; it currently approves State education 
standards.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
While previous donor projects included employers 
and other stakeholders, awareness of NQFs as 
instruments of change is otherwise very limited, so 
stakeholder representation in qualifications issues is 
limited.

Resources and funding
These are limited. An NQF will need much donor 
support.

Quality assurance of qualifications
No system for quality-assuring qualifications is in 
place. References to quality assurance broadly 
appear across various laws and regulations governing 
education, but there is nowhere a clear definition of 
quality assurance or allocation of quality assurance 
functions. There is provision in law to accredit 
providers, plus the State education standards, but 
no quality assuring of assessment or criteria to 
validate qualifications. The State has, to date, been 
concerned with control, not with improvement.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

There is no framework to authorise validation of 
non-formal learning yet. However, the Ministry 
of Labour, Migration and Employment of the 
Population is developing adult learning and plans to 
establish a mechanism to recognise skills acquired 
outside formal education. Similarly, the National 
Adult Training Centre issues some qualifications 
to adults whose work experience illustrates skills 
equivalent to specified qualifications.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
There is no national register or database yet.

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMonitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Given the limited progress of NQF plans, there are 
no mechanisms to monitor development.

Impact for end-users
None yet.

a need to conceptualise and define qualifications 
in terms of outcomes achieved; stakeholder 
awareness is largely absent. Occupational standards 
need to be developed with employers to provide the 
basis of qualifications. An NQF concept needs to be 
developed fully by the ministries in cooperation with 
stakeholders as the basis of a law.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Tajikistan is not involved in any regional framework.

Important lessons and future plans

Abbreviations
NCO 
NQF  
VET  

national classification of occupations 
national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

The NQF has not gone beyond an aim set in the 
National Education Development Strategy 2020. 
Capacities to develop an NQF are lacking. There is 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

609

Volume II: National and regional casesTHAILAND

Introduction and context

The establishment of a Thai national qualifications 
framework (NQF) was proposed by the Office 
of the Education Council (OEC) of the Ministry 
of Education as part of the National manpower 
production and development initiative during the 
second decade of education reform 2009–18. The 
Thai NQF builds on the existing Thai qualifications 
framework for higher education (TQF) and the Thai 
qualifications framework for vocational education 
(TVQF) (OEC, 2013). The Thai NQF has eight levels; 
the revision of the number of levels was approved 
by the Cabinet on 18 April 2017. 

Thailand’s economy has attained high levels of 
growth in recent years. However, a study by the 
Thailand Development Research Institute (TDRI) on 
the qualifications of workers in the manufacturing 
and services sectors revealed that between 7 
and 10 million workers in these sectors had no 
qualifications, 21.66 million had only primary 
education, and 5.94 million only lower secondary 
education (TDRI, 2010). Many workers had acquired 
competences on the job yet remained without 
qualifications. 

The Thai NQF is intended to address this 
situation. The government sees the NQF as a 
tool for increasing manpower capabilities and 
competitiveness in order to meet the demands of 
production and services in today’s rapidly changing 
economic climate. The NQF is thus designed to 
benefit both individuals and industry. By setting 
out unified standards for qualifications and clear 
learning outcomes, it will enable individuals to 
clearly visualize their own learning trajectories. 
Workers already in the labour market will be able to 
access learning pathways previously barred to them, 
and to have their previous experiences and learning 
validated, whether formal, non-formal or informal. 
This will, in turn, benefit industries by providing 
them with a better qualified workforce. 

A number of measures are envisaged to improve 
the quality of education and training in Thailand. 
These include improving the quality of content, 

inputs and standards, introducing assessment 
based on learning outcomes, and ensuring internal 
and external assessment of educational institutions 
at every qualification level (Choomnoom, 2011). The 
capacities of educational institutions and of public 
and private sector training providers to implement 
the NQF will be strengthened, making them better 
able to meet the needs of production and services. 
Training will also be introduced to raise the calibre of 
educational personnel. 

The Thai NQF is designed to facilitate regional 
worker and student mobility, which is expected to 
increase in the imminent future, particularly in the 
context of the recent ASEAN Economic Community 
(AEC) established in 2015. Making Thai and foreign 
qualifications mutually recognizable, although 
crucial, will not be an easy task, and will entail 
harmonization at all levels. 

Policy objectives 

The Thai NQF is intended to: 

a.  make educational qualifications more relevant 
to industry needs, thus raising the quality of 
manpower in the manufacturing and services 
sectors; 

b.  raise the standard of Thai qualifications to 

international level; 

c.  make qualifications transparent and comparable 

across national borders; 

d.  enhance the competitiveness of both domestic 

and regional labour markets. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The Thai NQF currently has eight levels. Each level 
is described by a level descriptor based on learning 
outcomes. The level descriptors were arrived at by 
linking educational qualification levels (secondary, 
vocational and higher) with the competence levels 
required by various industry clusters, thus ensuring 
the closest possible fit between educational content 
and industry demands. 

610

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 79. Thailand’s national qualifications framework

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS

BASIC 

VOCATIONAL 

HIGHER 

EDUCATION

EDUCATION

EDUCATION

OCCUPATIONAL STANDARDS/

NQF 

LEVELS

QUALIFICATIONS

PROFESSIONAL 
QUALIFICATION 
(PQ) LEVELS

NATIONAL SKILL 
STANDARDS (NSS) / 
OCCUPATIONAL 
STANDARDS (OS)

Doctoral degree

Level 8

Master degree

Level 7

Bachelor degree 

Bachelor degree

Level 6

Technical 

education diploma

Associate degree

Upper 
secondary + 
occupational

Vocational 
education 
certificate

Upper secondary

Lower secondary

Level 5

Level 4

Level 3

Level 2

Level 1

PQ 8

PQ 7

PQ 6

PQ 5

PQ 4

PQ 3

PQ 2

PQ 1

NSS 6

NSS 5

NSS 4

NSS 3

NSS 2

NSS 1

OS 2

OS 1

Mechanisms linking, filling up, validating, and recognizing education qualifications  
and occupational standards

–  Testing, assessing, and evaluating 
–  Learning through formal, informal and non-formal education 
–  Validating working experiences, training, and operating in the workplace
–  Accumulating learning credits (Credit Bank System) 

Continuing and lifelong education

Source: Office of the Education Council, 2017.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Office of the Education Council has been 
responsible for various NQF-related activities, 
including: 

a.  working closely with the Thailand Professional 
Qualifications Institute (TPQI) to communicate 
information about the skills required by 
industries to educational institutions; 
b.  appointing a working team comprising 

representatives from various education and 
training sectors and relevant agencies to 
develop the NQF based on the already existing 
design of the Thai qualifications framework for 
higher education and the Thai qualifications 
framework for vocational education. Bodies 
represented include the National Education 
Quality Assessment and Assurance Office and 
the National Testing Office;

c.  undertaking research studies. One study, 

undertaken in collaboration with King Mongkut 
University of Technology during 2010–11 (OEC 
and King Mongkut University of Technology, 
2012), aimed to develop linkages between the 
skills standards required by key industry clusters 
and the learning outcomes of educational 
qualifications at secondary, vocational and 
higher levels. Employers, employees, educators 
and teachers were involved in the consultation 
process, providing in-depth analysis and 
synthesis. Key stakeholders from six industrial 
clusters908 first identified core competences at 
each qualification level. A further nine industrial 
clusters were then identified to review the 
reliability of the comparisons made between 
occupational standards and educational 
qualifications; 

908  Food processing, petrochemicals, fisheries, tourism and 

hospitality, logistics, and jewellery making.

611

Volume II: National and regional casesd.  appointing the NQF and ASEAN qualifications 

framework development working group to study 
criteria for referencing the Thai NQF to the ASEAN 
regional qualifications framework and propose 
NQF development guidelines accordingly; 

e.  organizing four public hearings on NQF 

development, attended by representatives of the 
Federation of Thai Industries, the Thai Chamber 
of Commerce and Board of Trade of Thailand, and 
Commissions of Higher and Vocational Education. 

Overall responsibility for implementing the NQF is 
in the hands of the ministries of education, labour 
and industries, together with the Federation of Thai 
Industries and the Thai Chamber of Commerce and 
Board of Trade of Thailand. A national committee 
composed of qualified experts from educational 
institutions, workplaces and professional 
associations will be in charge of implementing 
the NQF in accordance with the principles and 
guidelines approved by the Cabinet.Tthe Office 
for National Educational Standards and Quality 
Assessment, the Ministry of Education, and the 
National Institute of Education Testing Service are 
also involved. 

institutions to work together to design curricula 
integrating formal, non-formal and informal 
education systems, and to determine learning 
outcomes and performance standards at 
each qualification level. A system will also be 
established for monitoring, evaluating and 
accrediting educational institutions in accordance 
with NQF levels. 

c.  Strategy three involves developing systems 

for the assessment and evaluation of learning 
achievement, incorporating mechanisms for 
the recognition of prior learning and for credit 
accumulation and transfer. 

d.  Strategy four involves strengthening educational 
institutions in their efforts to link education to 
the manpower demanded by the labour market. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The Office of the Education Council plans to link the 
NQF with those of other ASEAN countries as well 
as the regional ASEAN framework. This is a priority 
particularly in the technical and vocational education 
and training (TVET) sector (SHARE, 2015). The 
NQF has been revised, with the number of levels 
reduced to eight to facilitate these links. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

One of the key aims of the Thai NQF is to give Thai 
citizens greater understanding of and control over 
their own education by enabling them to match 
formal educational provision with the learning 
outcomes and competences described in the 
NQF. Special attention will be paid to developing 
mechanisms of assessment which will allow 
workers to put their existing learning towards a full 
qualification in combination with other measures 
such as additional education and training or 
workplace-based learning. 

NQF implementation

Four implementation strategies are planned.

a.  Strategy one involves the development of 

systematic cooperation between workplaces, 
professional associations, professional and/or 
occupational groups and educational institutions 
in order to produce manpower equipped with 
the requisite skills, knowledge and attitudes 
according to NQF guidelines. 

b.  Strategy two concerns curriculum development 
in line with NQF level descriptors. Advocacy 
campaigns will be held to encourage workplaces, 
professional associations and educational 

612

Important lessons and future plans 

Since the latest revision of the NQF was completed, 
the following activities have been carried out:

a.  Curriculum development – the revised NQF 

has been sent to all educational authorities to 
inform how curriculum development should be 
organized.

b.  Adjustment of occupational standards or 

professional qualification levels and descriptors 
corresponding to the NQF – two organizations 
are working on this: the Ministry of Labour and 
the Thailand Professional Qualification Institute 
(public organization).

c.  Development of a model for enhancing NQF 

implementation – this concerns primarily seven 
key areas of human resources development 
for Thailand: infrastructure; logistics and supply 
chain management; robotics and automation; 
information and communication technology 
and digital content; food and agriculture; 
petrochemicals, energy and alternative energy; 
and mould and die making.

Abbreviations
ASEAN  

NQF  

Association of Southeast Asian 
Nations
national qualifications framework

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

Choomnoom, S. (2011). Establishment of national qualifications framework and planning for manpower 
production and development according to NQF. Presentation at the International conference on 
implementation of national qualifications framework, 27–28 April 2011. Bangkok: Office of the 
Education Council, Ministry of Education. 

OEC (Office of the Education Council) (2013). National qualifications framework: Thailand NQF. Bangkok: 

OEC, Ministry of Education.

OEC (Office of the Education Council) (2017). National qualifications framework (revised edition). Bangkok: 

OEC, Ministry of Education. 

OEC (Office of the Education Council); King Mongkut University of Technology (2012). Establishment of 

NQF and planning for manpower production and development 2010–2011. Bangkok: OEC and King 
Mongkut University of Technology. 

SHARE (2015). ASEAN qualifications reference framework and national qualifications framework: state of 
play report. http://share-asean.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/AQRF-NQF-State-of-Play-Report.pdf 

TDRI (Thailand Development Research Institute) (2010). A study on requirements for manpower production 

and development planning of the Nation. A study for the Office of the Education Council. Bangkok: 
Prigwan Graphic Printing. 

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

613

Volume II: National and regional casesTHE GAMBIA

Introduction and context

The Gambia has finalized a national qualifications 
framework (NQF) for all education levels in 
the country. In doing so, it will build on the 
Gambian skills qualifications framework (GSQF) 
established in 2006 and designed to extend into 
a full qualifications framework (GSQF, 2006, p. 4). 
However, as yet, the NQF implementation has not 
taken off.

Although the GSQF of 2006 made significant 
contributions to the regulation of technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET) institutions, 
the absence of a national regulatory body to control, 
monitor and evaluate the progress and performance 
of tertiary and higher education institutions has 
limited their progression. In recent years, there 
has been a proliferation of international and private 
universities in the country. This complicates the 
management and governance of tertiary and higher 
education further. To address this issue and improve 
TVET standards, the government, through the 
Ministry of Higher Education, Research, Science 
and Technology (MoHERST) and its partners and 
stakeholders, developed the Quality Assurance 
Bill, and the subsequent enactment to the Quality 
Assurance Act (NAQAA Act 2015) which led to the 
establishment of the National Accreditation and 
Quality Assurance Authority (NAQAA). NAQAA 
oversees all qualifications offered by tertiary (TVET) 
and higher education institutions, as well as the 
accreditation of all qualifications delivered in the 
institutions. 

In addition to the establishment of NAQAA, a 
number of national priorities were identified.

• 

• 

In the short term, basic and secondary education 
sectors should be linked with other sectors 
to provide a continuum of high-quality lifelong 
learning opportunities. Relevant structures and 
systems to instigate essential legislative and 
regulatory frameworks should be established to 
help with this.
In the medium term, efforts should be made to 
increase the number of graduates in science, 

• 

technology and engineering to provide students 
with the relevant knowledge, skills and 
understanding to facilitate full participation in 
socio-economic development.
In the long-term, the government intends to 
raise the quality of education across all levels by 
ensuring sector skills plans and qualifications are 
fully integrated into the NQF, thereby significantly 
reducing the skills gaps and shortages in the 
labour market.

Challenges faced by The Gambia’s education sector 
that are relevant to the development and successful 
operationalization of a unified NQF were listed in 
the Tertiary and Higher Education Policy 2013–2022 
(MoHERST, 2013). They can be summarized as 
follows: there is an increasing demographic trend 
in the post-secondary population and the country 
has seen an increase in the educational aspirations 
of young Gambians. This has resulted in significant 
growth in the tertiary and higher education sector. 
While some young people have been afforded a 
relatively straightforward pathway into and through 
tertiary and higher education, many have not. It is 
important that students can pursue not only their 
occupational careers, but also advanced educational 
goals. 

There are several challenges, however: 

a.  Access to and equity in education between TVET 
institutions and higher education institutions is 
insufficient. 

b.  Training at most TVET institutions does not 

adequately respond to labour market needs for 
the socio-economic development of the country 
in terms of relevance and quality. Vocational 
education is therefore not considered a viable 
option by many students. The low number of 
TVET graduates does not meet the demands 
for skilled manpower, and the absence of a 
standardized quality assurance framework has 
led to institutions self-regulating by means of 
internal quality assurance mechanisms. Lack 
of coordination among training programmes 
makes it difficult to transfer relevant academic or 
professional credits. 

614

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSc.  In terms of sector management, there is minimal 

coordination among educational institutions 
in harmonizing courses and programmes and 
introducing administrative arrangements that 
would optimize resources and credit transfers. 

a.  to support human resource development across 
all economic sectors by defining skills standards 
clearly to support vocational training; and
b.  to support learners whose literacy levels are 

functional but low.

Policy objectives

Taking the abovementioned challenges and 
governmental priorities into account, the aims of the 
unified NQF for tertiary and higher education will be to:

a.  provide a framework for improved communication 
between education, training and employment 
stakeholders by enabling schools, parents, 
prospective students, employers and others to 
understand the achievements and attributes 
represented by the main qualification titles, and 
how qualifications relate to one another; 
b.  create a nationally relevant, coherent and 

responsive qualification system, and assist 
higher education institutions, learners and others 
in doing so;

c.  clarify potential routes for progression and credit 

transfer, particularly in the context of wider 
participation in lifelong learning;  

d.  support the alignment of qualifications in The 
Gambia with international standards, thus 
ensuring international competitiveness and 
facilitating student and graduate mobility; 
e.  provide a point of reference for setting and 

assessing standards, thereby assisting higher 
education institutions and their external 
examiners; 

f.  facilitate a smooth transition into employment 
by aligning education with current and future 
labour market needs through the use of an 
‘outcome-based’ metric for knowledge, skills and 
competences.

The NQF also comprises the following GSQF 
objectives:

Table 80. Level descriptors in the former GSQF

QULAIFICATIONS

LEVEL DESCRIPTOR

Levels and use of learning outcomes 

The former NQF comprises four levels, which are 
differentiated in terms of the difficulty of the tasks 
demanded and the degree of responsibility required. 
A summary of the former NQF level descriptors is 
shown in Table 80.

The proposed NQF for tertiary and higher education, 
as shown in Table 81, has nine levels. The learning 
outcome domains include:

•  knowledge and understanding;
•  applied knowledge and understanding;
•  generic cognitive skills communication, ICT and 

use of data.

In the new NQF, qualifications will consist of 
standalone units of work, with each unit and 
qualification being assigned a credit value; each 
credit point awarded to a unit or qualification will 
represent approximately 10 hours of notional 
learning. It is important to note that a credit point 
does not indicate the level of difficulty of a unit or 
qualification: this is determined by the assigned 
‘level’ of the qualification, as detailed in the generic 
level descriptor. A credit point is determined by 
the size or amount of time or amount of learning 
that has to take place to complete the unit and/or 
qualification. The size, amount of time or amount 
of learning will be defined as any formal or non-
formal learning along with the amount of time 
spent completing practical work and any form of 
assessment.

Level 4

Level 3
Practical

Level 2
Practical

Level 1
Practical

Foundation
level

Competent to perform managerial, analytical and/or specialist tasks associated 
with jobs that are non-routione, e.g. middle manager/professional worker 

Level 3 Competent to perform tasks associated with skilled jobs of a routine yet 
complex nature, sometimes with supervisory functions, e.g. team leader

Level 2 Competent to perform routine and sometimes non-routine tasks under 

minimum guidance and supervision, e.g. skilled worker

Level 1 Competent to perform a limited range of work activities under supervision, e.g. 

trained worker

Basic skills in English communication, life skills, 49 numeracy and work skills, 
with literacy in mother tongue as an option

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 81. Proposed NQF for tertiary and higher education in The Gambia 

MAIN STAGES OF EDUCATION  
(EMPLOYMENT STATUS) 

LEVEL

Professional or postgraduate education or research  
(senior manager) 

Higher education advanced skills training  
(senior manager/middle manager or professional worker) 

Entry to professional graduate employment  
(middle manager/professional worker/supervisor or team 
leader) 

Entry to professional graduate employment  
(middle manager/professional worker/supervisor or team 
leader)

Entry to higher education/specialized education and 
training  
(management training/skilled worker) 

Specialized education and training  
(management training/skilled worker)

Continuation of secondary education  
(progression to skilled employment, semi-skilled worker, 
trainee/apprentice; GABECE equivalent level) 

Basic skills required to function in the workplace 

Advanced literacy, numeracy and vocational skills training 
required to enter the workplace 

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

TERTIARY AND HIGHER 
EDUCATION 

Doctoral degree

Master’s degree/Master of 
Philosophy (M. Phil)

Postgraduate diploma/certificate

Bachelor’s degree

Higher national diploma

National diploma

Certificate 3 (advanced)

WASSCE (grade 12)/intermediate 
certificate

GABECE (grade 9)/elementary 
certificate

Basic literacy and numeracy skills required to enter the 
workplace and undertake vocational training  

Foundation

Note: WASSCE – West African senior school certificate examination; GABECE – Gambia basic education certificate 
examinations

Source: MoHERST/NAQAA, 2017

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NAQAA, as enshrined in the NAQAA Act 2015, 
has the responsibility for the regulation of tertiary 
(including TVET) and higher education institutions 
in The Gambia. Prior to the establishment of 
NAQAA, the defunct National Training Authority 
was mandated to regulate only tertiary (TVET) 
institutions; however, this did not include quality 
assurance, delivery, accreditation or awarding of 
any of the qualifications at the higher education 
(university) levels. The MoHERST provides the policy 
framework within which NAQAA operates.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The Gambia has also made efforts to identify 
learning pathways at different levels of the NQF. 
These learning pathways are indicated in the 

entry requirements for each level of tertiary and 
higher education. The entry level could be defined 
as a duration of study and its associated credits, 
but it could also be credits obtained through the 
recognition of prior learning through non-formal and 
informal learning outcomes. 

Having standards and quality assurance processes 
in place will make it easier for a credit transfer 
system to be implemented successfully across 
TVET, tertiary and higher education institutions. 
The ‘notional hours of learning’ include formal and 
non-formal learning, all forms of assessment and 
practical work. 

When applying to transfer credits from one course 
to another, whether in the same institution or from 
one institution to another, the number of transfer 
credits awarded will be determined by the relevant 
individual institution within the framework of the 
NQF. Agreement between different education 
providers facilitates successful credit transfer 
across education systems. Credit accumulation and 

616

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKStransfer systems not only allow for recognition of a 
student’s prior learning but also encourage lifelong 
learning and student mobility within and between 
institutions without interruption of their studies or 
the need to repeat examinations/courses. 

In addition to the transfer of credits mentioned above, 
accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL) also 
opens up access to tertiary and higher education 
to those who would not otherwise be able to 
access such education through normal institutional 
admission procedures. APEL is a procedure whereby 
previous relevant high quality professional or non-
standardized learning qualifications that do not meet 
the normal admission requirements may be taken 
into account for admission to some courses of study 
in some education institutions. In some international 
educational institutions, candidates wishing to take 
advantage of APEL must sit an examination at the 
relevant institution prior to being considered for 
admission. 

Having the opportunity to make use of both credit 
transfers and APEL helps to promote lifelong 
learning for Gambians wishing to progress in 
their careers and/or expand their knowledge of a 
particular specialist area. 

NQF implementation

There are three phases of implementation of the 
NQF for tertiary and higher education. 

Phase one involves a consultation with the key 
stakeholders from the tertiary and higher education 
institutions and employer representatives. It 
is crucial for stakeholders to ‘buy in’. They will 
therefore be asked to review the level descriptors 
and to discuss whether these are an accurate 
indication of the knowledge, skills and competences 
that employers are seeking from employees holding 
related qualifications. 

Phase two will consist of standardizing qualification 
levels and finalizing credit values. In collaboration 
with the MoHERST, tertiary and higher education 
institutions will be required to:

a.  identify and map the level of difficulty for each 
qualification currently on offer at each of the 
tertiary and higher education institutions using 
NQF level descriptors; 

b.  standardize the type and title of each 

qualification; that is, 
•  certificate (for WASSCE or GABECE) 
•  advanced certificate
•  advanced diploma 
•  degree, etc.;

c.  determine the duration of the course of study 
necessary to achieve each of the qualifications;

d.  determine the standalone ‘units of learning’ 
(learning outcomes) that make up each 
qualification; in other words: 
• 

 allocate credit points to the ‘units of learning’ 
(based on duration, i.e. one credit point is 
equivalent to approximately ten hours of 
learning); 

•  allocate a credit value to each qualification.

It is important to note that the quality of the 
qualification content and its subsequent delivery 
in institutions is crucial to the successful 
implementation of NQF. This will be a key focus at 
NAQAA. 

Phase three will consist of capacity-building and 
awareness sessions. The MoHERST and NAQAA 
will facilitate a series of awareness sessions prior 
to the implementation of the NQF. Attendees at the 
sessions will include, among others: 

a.  staff from TVET, tertiary and higher education 

institutions; 

b.  school representatives; 
c.  employers;
d.  students and parents;
e.  relevant government agencies, including those 
responsible for employment and economic 
development; 
‘employee’ representative bodies; 

f. 
g.  professional bodies; 
h.  career guidance professionals.  

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Gambia is one of the member states in the 
Economic Community of West African States 
(ECOWAS). For qualifications listed in the 
GSQF, the descriptions provided and the quality 
assurance process during assessment allow 
for acknowledgement by another country in the 
ECOWAS sub-region. The Gambian approach 
permits the recognition of learning outcomes, which 
will facilitate individual mobility. 

Important lessons and future plans

The Gambian Government has risen to the challenge 
and acknowledged the importance of taking a 
unified approach to the development of an NQF 
encompassing TVET, tertiary and higher education 
institutions, and schools.  

The process of developing the NQF has 
demonstrated the importance of tailoring a 
qualifications framework to the specific realities 

617

Volume II: National and regional cases 
 
 
 
 
 
in the country. The NQF is designed with a view 
to ensuring that the fourth level of the existing 
GSQF represents entry level to tertiary and higher 
education, in particular for entry into an advanced 
diploma/higher national diploma. The design is to 
ensure that there are sufficient levels in the GSQF 
to cater for all possible education levels of students/
adults returning to or entering into vocational 
education in the country. If necessary, an additional 
level will be added, one that falls between levels 
three and four of the current GSQF. If the entry 
requirements into vocational education in the GSQF 
are too demanding to be accessible by school-age 
students and/or adults returning to or entering into 
vocational education, the existing foundation (basic 
skills) level could be split into two or three levels, 
thus making the requirements easier to fulfil and 
giving students a sense of achievement. 

The GSQF review has been completed and its 
alignment to the new NQF for tertiary and higher 
education has been undertaken in a unified, 
coherent and consistent manner. The framework 
will promote lifelong learning access, mobility 
and progression into and between education 
and training sectors in The Gambia. This will 

be achieved by integrating existing vocational 
education and training, general education, and 
higher education into a national framework with 
levels accommodating all learners from various 
educational backgrounds.

Abbreviations
APEL  

accreditation of prior experiential 
learning 

ECOWAS   Economic Community of West 

African States 

GABECE  Gambia basic education certificate 

GSQF  

examinations
Gambian skills qualifications 
framework 

MoHERST  Ministry of Higher Education, 

NAQAA  

NQF 
TVET  

Research, Science and Technology
National Accreditation and Quality 
Assurance Authority 
national qualifications framework
technical and vocational education 
and training 

WASSCE  West African senior school 

certificate examination

References

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) (2017). Global Inventory of Regional 

and National Qualifications Frameworks 2017. Vol II.

Gambia National Training Authority (2006). Gambia Skills Qualification Framework. Policy document. Banjul: 

Gambia National Training Authority.

Lahire, N.; Johanson, R.; Wilcox, R.T. (2011). Youth Employment and Skills Development in The Gambia. 

Washington, D.C.: the World Bank. 

Ministries of Basic and Secondary Education and Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology 

(2016). Education Sector Policy 2016–2030. Available at: http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/sites/
planipolis/files/ressources/gambia_education_policy_2016-2030.pdf

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Introduction and context

Trinidad and Tobago has a seven-level qualifications 
framework for its tertiary and vocational education 
sectors. This represents the country’s first step 
towards formalizing its hitherto disparate education 
system. The aim is to create a unified structure in 
which learners can use credit transfers to move 
seamlessly from one programme or institution 
to another. The qualifications framework in the 
vocational sector is the Trinidad and Tobago national 
vocational qualification (TTNVQ) system; the tertiary 
framework is currently being revised to include all 
levels of education in the country, including general, 
higher and technical vocational education and training 
(TVET). The revised framework will have ten levels 
and will be closely aligned to the CARICOM 
qualifications framework. National education 
and training at all levels is in need of expansion, 
upgrading and integration if the country is to equip its 
citizens with the entrepreneurial, ethical and critical-
thinking skills demanded by today’s labour market.

The Government of Trinidad and Tobago recognizes 
that a number of challenges must be overcome 
to expand its education system. These include: 
reforming the education and training landscape 
while maintaining a focus on curricula about the 
country’s history and geography; increasing cultural 
diversification; improving STEM subjects education 
(science, technology, engineering and mathematics); 
and ensuring that post-secondary and tertiary 
education remains relevant (MoE, 2015).

The Ministry of Education aims to develop policies 
to address its ageing school infrastructure, as well as 
deficiencies in the education system and in research 
capacities. It understands that human capital 
development is a major contributor to economic 
growth and sustainable wealth creation. Its strategies 
are enshrined in the Ministerial Priorities published 
on 9 October 2015, which are available to view on the 
government’s website (MoE, 2015).

The government hopes to strengthen connections 
between TVET and academic higher education 
to facilitate the transfer of learning and skills 
between the two. This will ultimately create a more 

competent workforce, thus supporting industrial 
development.

Policy objectives

The government is committed to:

a.  preserving, maintaining and expanding, where 
necessary, the system of free education and 
training at all levels;

b.  ensuring the 2004 Government assistance for 
tuition expenses (GATE) programme remains 
relevant, easily accessible and available to all 
citizens who need it;

c.  supporting its two public universities, the 

University of the West Indies and the University 
of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT), to achieve 
maximum efficiency and high standards;

d.  developing a culture of discipline, productivity 
and tolerance in all schools and emphasizing 
these core values in the curriculum;

e.  implementing a comprehensive, efficient and 

sustainable school maintenance programme to 
cope with an ageing school infrastructure;

f.  replacing dilapidated schools with new modern 
facilities and building new schools in areas 
where they are most needed;

g.  emphasizing the richness of cultural diversity and 
eliminating any dissonance that may arise from 
ethnic, cultural, religious or class differences;
h.  supporting the teaching of the country’s history 

and geography in schools;

i.  mobilizing the artistic community to take a 

leading role in cultural diversification and cultural 
education;

j.  ensuring primary, secondary and tertiary 
curricula comprise STEM education;

k.  fostering, developing and encouraging best 

practices in the administration of the educational 
system;

l.  providing clear prospects for advancement for 

all teachers in their careers and professions, and 
ensuring their education comprises modern-day 
training on world cultures, technology and social 
media;

m. ensuring students have free and easy access to 

broadband internet in all schools;

619

Volume II: National and regional casesn.  developing and encouraging a culture of research 
and development in all tertiary-level institutions, 
both public and private;

c.  degree of specialization;
d.  transferability of competences;
e.  ability to innovate and to cope with non-routine 

o.  maintaining high standards in enrolment and 
participation in post-secondary and tertiary 
education;

p.  providing opportunities for school leavers to re-

enter the education system;

q.  ensuring universal early childhood education;
r.  promoting and encouraging continuing education 

and adult education;

s.  developing sports- and humanities-based 

curricula;

t.  harmonizing, rationalizing and modernizing the 
legislation governing the education sector. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The qualifications framework for the tertiary sector 
is divided into seven levels, from the certificate 
at level 1 to the doctorate at level 7. The levels 
are differentiated according to the following 
parameters:

a.  complexity of subject matter;
b.  breadth of competences required;

activities;

f.  ability to plan and organize work and to 

supervise others.

As a result, similar jobs are supported by similar 
qualifications.

Vocational qualification programmes are 
designed to impart the practical skills required in 
specific job roles or sectors. Courses tend to be 
classroom-based with assessment by written and 
practical examinations. There is tension between 
performance-based assessment and assessment by 
written and practical examinations.

The TTNVQs are based on national occupational 
standards. Industry experts come together to 
define the standards for top performance in their 
industries. These standards are then translated 
to the curriculum and assessment procedures 
developed to encompass them. All TTNVQs are 
represented on the five-level TTNVQ framework, 
which ranges from level 1 (semi-skilled) to level 5 
(chartered and advanced professional level).

Table 82. Trinidad and Tobago national vocational qualifications (TTNVQ) framework

LEVEL

TTNVQ FRAMEWORK

5

4

3

2

1

Chartered and advanced professional

Professional

Technician

Craft

Pre-craft (semi-skilled)

Source: ACTT, 2007

Table 83. Qualifications framework for the tertiary and vocational sectors in Trinidad and Tobago

LEVEL

1

2

TYPE OF 
CERTIFICATE

Certificate

SKILLS ACHIEVED

Candidate demonstrates knowledge of the tasks required to accomplish a routine 
job and the practical skills to perform those tasks effectively. 

Can apply learned responses to straightforward problems.

Certificate

Candidate demonstrates knowledge of the main problems in his/her field of study 
and the practical skills necessary for employment in that field

Can solve some practical problems in the area by applying learned principles.

3

Diploma

Candidate demonstrates knowledge of the underlying principles in his/her field of 
study and the practical skills necessary to interpret and evaluate these principles in 
a related field of employment.

Candidate is able to present, interpret and evaluate qualitative and quantitative 
data, to develop lines of argument, and to make sound judgements in accordance 
with the basic principles of the field.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 83. Qualifications framework for the tertiary and vocational sectors in  
Trinidad and Tobago (Continued)

LEVEL

4

5

6

TYPE OF 
CERTIFICATE

Associate 
degree or 
higher diploma

Baccalaureate, 
bachelor’s 
degree, 
honours 
degree, 
graduate 
diploma

Master’s 
degree, 
postgraduate 
diploma, 
professional 
qualification

7

Doctoral 
degree

SKILLS ACHIEVED

Candidate demonstrates knowledge and critical understanding of the established 
principles in his/her field of study, and of the way in which those principles have 
developed. Applies principles outside the context in which they were studied and 
in an employment context.

Demonstrates knowledge of the main methods of enquiry in the field and is able 
to critically evaluate different approaches to solving problems in related fields of 
employment. 

Understands the limits of his/her knowledge and how these impacts on analyses 
and interpretations based on that knowledge.

Candidate demonstrates a systematic understanding of the key principles of his/
her field of study. Shows coherent and detailed knowledge, at least some of which 
is at, or informed by, the cutting edge of research in the field.

Can devise and defend arguments and/or solve problems by accurately deploying 
ideas and techniques, some of which are at the forefront of the field. Understands 
how these techniques can be used in employment.

Can describe and comment on aspects of current research or equivalent advanced 
scholarship in the field.

Shows an appreciation of the uncertainty, ambiguity and limits of knowledge. 
Candidate can manage his/her own learning and make use of scholarly reviews and 
primary sources.

Candidate demonstrates a systematic understanding and critical awareness of 
current problems and/or new insights, much of which is at, or informed by, the 
cutting edge of his/her field of study or professional practice.

Shows a comprehensive knowledge of techniques applicable to his/her own 
research or professional practice and applies this knowledge in original ways.

Demonstrates a practical understanding of how established research techniques 
are used to create and interpret knowledge in the field.

Can critically evaluate current research and advanced scholarship in the field.

Can evaluate and critique methodologies and, where appropriate, propose new 
hypotheses.

Candidate demonstrates a systematic acquisition and understanding of a 
substantial body of knowledge and advanced research techniques at the cutting 
edge of an academic discipline or area of professional practice.

Through original research or other advanced scholarship, candidate creates and 
interprets new knowledge of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront 
of the discipline and merit publication.

Demonstrates an ability to conceptualize, design and implement a project for the 
generation of new knowledge and to adjust the design in the light of unforeseen 
problems.

Source: ACTT, 2007

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The Accreditation Council of Trinidad and Tobago 
(ACTT) is the regulatory body for quality assurance 

in post-secondary and tertiary education. It provides 
the following services: institutional accreditation, 
registration, recognition, conferment of institutional 
titles, programme approval, and equivalence 
assessment.

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Volume II: National and regional casesLearning standards are also set by the ACTT, 
which encourages institutions to shift to 
curricula based on learning outcomes expressed 
in terms of competences gained. Quality 
assurance measures have been introduced 
to standardize learning outcomes and allow 
for accountability.

The National Training Agency of Trinidad and Tobago 
(NTATT) is the body responsible for overseeing 
TVET. Its mission is to establish a national system 
to coordinate, harmonize and evaluate all TVET 
provision in the country. The NTATT laid the 
foundations for the five-level TTNVQ framework. 
Cabinet Minute 736 of 27 March 2008 mandated 
the NTATT to develop a world-class labour force that 
is competent, innovative and entrepreneurial. In 
order to enable institutions to deliver the quality of 
training required to produce such a labour force, the 
NTATT has developed standardized curricula which 
provide all training institutions with regional and 
international recognition.

The TTNVQ system follows a national curriculum 
with an internationally approved design which 
incorporates the latest theories on teaching and 
learning associated with competency-based 
education and training. Assessment is performance-
based and is conducted according to rigorous 
criteria designed to reveal a candidate’s knowledge, 
skills and attitudes.

The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) is the 
official certifying body, which ensures the quality 
of awards level 1 and level 2 Caribbean vocational 
qualification (CVQ) units to students who have met 
the requirements stipulated in regional occupational 
standards. The Council is authorized by heads of 
State in the region to carry out regional certification 
at secondary level. The existence of an external 
awarding body at this level makes assessment 
more objective and thus encourages stakeholders’ 
acceptance of outcomes-based learning.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

At present, there is no national policy on the 
recognition of prior learning (RPL) in Trinidad 
and Tobago, although there has been some 
development in this area with the establishment 
of workforce assessment centres, designed 
to increase access to and participation in post-
secondary education and training. In recent years, 
some tertiary education providers have begun to 
award credit for prior learning. These providers also 
evaluate the impact of informal and non-formal 

learning on the progress of adult learners, whose 
enrolment in these institutions has substantially 
increased. So far, however, few institutions have 
formalized their policies for RPL.

This slow progress is largely attributable to the 
difficulty educational providers face in convincing 
employers of the value of non-formal and 
informal learning. The concept of RPL is new to 
the Caribbean and a traditionalist approach to 
education has been paramount for many years. 
Many therefore resist what they see as a radical 
departure from cherished ideals. Even within tertiary 
education institutions there is substantial resistance 
to the RPL initiative. This makes it difficult for 
the government to achieve its aim of integrating 
graduates into a permeable lifelong learning system.

In the institutions that do practise RPL to some 
degree, learners’ competences are measured via 
portfolios and interviews. Candidates are accepted 
for RPL assessment following an initial interview 
during the admissions process. Various documents 
may be submitted as evidence of competences, 
including letters from employers, samples of 
work, and critical reflective statements. Mentors 
assist candidates in developing their portfolio and 
presenting the information contained therein to 
the assessor, who then examines the evidence 
in order to ascertain whether the candidate has 
achieved 70% or more of the competences required 
for completion of a course. If this is judged to be 
the case, exemption is granted, which means that 
the candidate is exempted from parts of the study 
programme or is required to do a shorter training 
period in preparation for an examination for a full 
qualification. The introduction of effective quality 
assurance and accreditation systems ensures that 
the quality of learning outcomes from RPL meets or 
exceeds internationally accepted standards.

In the TVET sector, the situation with regard to 
RPL is somewhat more promising. Trinidad and 
Tobago’s TVET qualifications framework gives all 
candidates the opportunity to attain progressively 
higher qualifications in their selected occupation. 
Candidates are able to transfer credits between 
programmes from one level to another. Moreover, 
the prior learning assessment and recognition 
(PLAR) system allows TVET learners to have their 
skills and knowledge validated, no matter how, 
when or where they were acquired. In PLAR, 
assessment of an individual’s skills and knowledge 
against approved occupational standards may 
lead to the award of a full or partial occupational 
or professional qualification (TTNVQ or CVQ). 
Where necessary, further training in specific areas 
is recommended. Trinidad and Tobago is currently 
experiencing heightened demand for trained, 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScompetent and certified workers; increased use 
of the PLAR system will help to fulfil this need by 
providing industries with a pool of certified workers 
who meet required occupational standards.

d.  issued 16,286 statements on recognition 
e.  issued 292 equivalence assessments
f.  recognized 18 foreign awarding bodies and 

institutions; 

Recognising foreign qualifications

The ACTT provides advice on the recognition status 
of post-secondary and tertiary programmes and 
institutions operating internationally and locally. 
Persons who wish to pursue a course of study, 
or who have completed a programme at a post-
secondary or tertiary institution, may apply to the 
ACTT for a statement on recognition. This statement 
will provide information on the accredited/recognition 
status of both the institution and the programme. 

The ACTT is also responsible for quality assuring 
programmes that are delivered in Trinidad and 
Tobago, but which originate in other territories. 
These are referred to as transnational programmes 
and must undergo the process of transnational 
recognition prior to delivery in Trinidad and Tobago.

Recognition of transnational 
programmes

Chapter 39:06 mandates that the ACTT recognizes 
programmes and awards of foreign institutions 
operating in Trinidad and Tobago. The aim of 
recognition is to certify that minimum requirements 
are met for the delivery of foreign post-secondary 
and tertiary education and training programmes 
through partnership arrangements with local 
institutions that have been registered by the ACTT. 
While local institutions may apply for recognition 
of individual transnational programmes, a foreign 
awarding body/institution may alternatively seek 
recognition by the ACTT.

NQF implementation 

The ACTT, the organization responsible for the 
design of the national qualifications framework, has 
been a key player in the development of a quality 
tertiary education sector in the country. Since its 
board appointment in 2004 and launch in November 
2005, the ACTT has:

a.  established 49 institutions with ‘registered’ 
status, i.e. offering programmes that lead to 
post-secondary and tertiary-level qualifications; 

b.  secured 14 institutions with institutional 

accreditation; 

c.  offered 408 recognized transnational 

programmes; 

g.  approved more than 258 locally-developed higher 

education programmes.

Referencing to regional frameworks

In 1972, Commonwealth Caribbean leaders at the 
seventh Heads of government conference decided 
to transform the Caribbean Free Trade Association 
(CARIFTA) into a common market and establish the 
Caribbean Community (CARICOM), of which the 
common market would be an integral part.

The CVQ levels are consistent with the levels 
in the regional qualifications framework (ACTT, 
2007) and are recognized and portable within 
CARICOM and the wider world. The CVQ provides 
a broad preparation base for employment that 
aims to produce workers able to meet the varied 
demands of the modern workplace. The award 
of a CVQ represents the achievement of a set 
of competences that define the core work of an 
occupational area. CVQs have parallel standing with 
academic qualifications at the same level and can 
provide access to higher education.

Over the past two decades, the post-secondary and 
tertiary education sectors in Trinidad and Tobago 
have become a great deal more international. At 
first, only indigenous programmes were provided 
at local public institutions, but recent arrangements 
such as franchises have enabled foreign universities 
and professional bodies to provide courses in 
the country. This applies in particular to tertiary 
education. TVET, on the other hand, remains almost 
totally regional.

The level descriptors in the national qualifications 
frameworks are derived from those in other 
countries’ NQFs and represent internationally 
recognized standards. Levels 1 to 3 of the ACTT 
framework for tertiary education equate broadly 
to the first three levels of the five-level general 
framework for occupational levels proposed by the 
Caribbean Association of National Training Agencies 
(CANTA). The ACTT framework has more levels than 
CANTA, however, because it covers academic as 
well as occupational qualifications. 

The Ministry of Foreign and CARICOM Affairs is 
responsible for the free movement of skills within 
the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME). 
The ACTT is a member of the Free Movement 
Committee established to process applications 
for certificates of recognition of CARICOM skills 

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Volume II: National and regional casesqualification through the recognition of foreign and 
local qualifications.

Important lessons and future plans

The Ministry of Education envisages a number 
of innovative policies to reduce the burden on 
the economy while ensuring value for money in 

expenditure on education. These include rationalizing 
the expenditure in the post-secondary and tertiary 
education sectors to improve efficiency and 
accountability and to avoid duplication. In the long 
run, the ministry aims to develop an overarching 
system to guide the management and operation of 
all levels of education in Trinidad and Tobago, while 
providing the infrastructure necessary to catapult 
the output of this sector into the next century.

Abbreviations
ACTT 

CANTA  

Accreditation Council of Trinidad and 
Tobago 
Caribbean Association of National 
Training Agencies 

CARICOM  Caribbean Community
CVQ 
NTATT  

Caribbean vocational qualification
National Training Agency of Trinidad 
and Tobago 

References

PLAR 

RPL 
STEM 

TTNVQ  

TVET 

prior learning assessment and 
recognition 
recognition of prior learning
science, technology, engineering and 
mathematics
Trinidad and Tobago national vocational 
qualifications 
technical vocational education and 
training

ACTT (Accreditation Council of Trinidad and Tobago) (2007). Draft document of tertiary qualifications 

framework. Port of Spain: Accreditation Council of Trinidad and Tobago.

Commonwealth Ministers (2011). Implementing the regional qualifications framework: challenges, 

strategies, successes. Chaguanas: Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Accessed 
12 January 2017 at: www.oitcinterfor.org/sites/default/files/file_evento/rqf_tt.pdf

Ministry of Science, Technology and Tertiary Education (2010). Policy on tertiary education, technical 

vocational education and training, and lifelong learning in Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain: Ministry 
of Science, Technology and Tertiary Education. Accessed 12 January 2017 at: http://test.gov.tt/
portals/0/Documents/Publications/TEWhitePaper.pdf 

MoE (Ministry of Education) (2015). Ministerial priorities. Accessed 10 January 2017 at: www.moe.edu.tt/

governance

National Training Agency (n.d.). Trinidad and Tobago national report on technical and vocational education 

and training (TVET): a contribution to the regional discussion on reforming TVET institutions and 
accreditation systems for improved skills and enhanced employability in Caribbean labour markets. 
St Claire: National Training Agency.

NIHERST (National Institute of Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology) (2004). Design of 
a seamless system of education and training in Trinidad and Tobago. St Clair: National Institute of 
Higher Education, Research, Science and Technology. Accessed 10 January 2017 at: www.niherst.
gov.tt/publications/report-of-seamless-system-committee.pdf

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts. 

624

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTUNISIA

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The national qualifications framework (NQF) was 
established by presidential decree No 2009–2139 
of 8 July 2009, which put into force the national 
classification of qualifications. The NQF was 
jointly developed by the Ministry of Education, the 
Ministry of Vocational Training and Employment 
and the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific 
Research, following consultation with the Ministry 
of Defence, the Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic 
Resources, the Ministry of Tourism, the Ministry 
of Public Health, the Ministry of Employment and 
the Administrative Court. The Ministry of Vocational 
Training and Employment, the Ministry of Higher 
Education and Scientific Research and the Ministry 
of Education share responsibility in their respective 
sub-sectors. The Ministry of Vocational Training 
and Employment has been active in dialogue and 
cooperation with international partners to advance 
the agenda of the NQF and develop further its 
instruments.

The NQF is structured in seven levels. Each level 
is defined by six categories of level descriptors: 
complexity, autonomy, responsibility, adaptability, 
knowledge, skills and behaviour.

Educational, social, economic and political context
In the seven years following the 2011 Revolution, 
Tunisia has been undertaking a reform of its 
institutions and economy. The European Union 
has been Tunisia’s key partner in this process. 
Cooperation in a wide range of domains has 
been reinforced through a privileged partnership 
established in 2012. The EU’s commitment to help 
Tunisia achieve its ambitions was underlined again 
in the 2016 Joint Communication ‘Strengthening 
EU support for Tunisia’ and the launch, by High 
Representative/Vice-President Mogherini and 
President Essebsi, of the EU-Tunisia Youth 
Partnership.

declined from 3.5% annually in the period 1980–95 
to 1% in the decade 2005–15. Young people aged 
15–29 account for approximately 33% of the total 
population (2017).

Agriculture contributes 8.8% of GDP, and is 
relatively in decline; industry constitutes 29.3%, 
also in decline relatively, while services are 
increasing in relative value, now at 61.9%.

Job creation, and in particular in the private 
sector is relatively low. In 2014 two-thirds of total 
employment is concentrated in four sectors: 
agriculture (18.4%), manufacturing (16.1%), 
construction (16.8%) and commerce in all forms 
(11.3%). In manufacturing 10% of employees have 
higher education qualifications, but the rest are 
low qualified. However there is a shift to increased 
higher-skills employment in private companies in 
sectors such as IT, health, scientific and engineering 
services. The public sector is the larger employer 
of higher qualifications for public administration, 
education, health and public enterprises. Recent 
prospective studies, conducted by IACE in 2018, 
show that a number of occupations face severe 
shortages, e.g. IT engineers and technicians, 
medical doctors, heavy truck drivers, construction 
workers and some elementary occupations. Some 
shortages might be related to intense emigration 
of specialists; this concerns particularly medical 
doctors and IT engineers and technicians.

The activity rate has stayed stable since 2010, 
floating around 47%, but this figure encompasses 
a very large gender gap. Despite some gradual 
improvement since 2010, women still have a very 
low activity rate (26.5% in 2017). Men have an 
activity rate floating between 70.3% and 68.3% 
(2017). It is important to note that younger women 
have much better labour market participation than 
the total female population: 60.4% for the age 
group 25–29, 51.1% for the age group 30–34, but 
much lower for all other age groups.

Tunisia’s population was 11,435,000 people in July 
2017. The demographic transition has reached an 
advanced stage, as the population growth rate 

This contextual clarification is important, to better 
understand the meaning of the unemployment rate, 
which has been over 15% in the last years (15.5% 

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Volume II: National and regional casesin quarter 3 2018). A major challenge for Tunisia 
is the high unemployment rate of the population 
with higher education, which has been growing 
since the mid-1990s; it became a real concern 
in the early 2000s and it surpassed the average 
unemployment rate for the first time in 2006, with 
a figure of 17%. In 2011 it peaked to 33.1% and in 
2017 it was 29.1% (twice the average rate). Not 
surprisingly the unemployment rate of women 
with higher education qualifications is much higher 
(39% in 2017), but had been in decline. Men with 
higher education qualifications have a much lower 
unemployment rate (18.2% in 2017).

The educational attainment of the active population 
has visibly increased over the last decades. In 2001, 
60% of the active population had no education or 
only primary education, but this figure decreased 
to 40.4% in 2017. In parallel, the share of the active 
Tunisians with higher education doubled in this time 
span, to reach 22.1% in 2017, while a much smaller 
increase occurred with the proportion of secondary 
education (37.5% in 2017).

The Strategic Reform Plan of 2025 reflects a 
national strategy, which seeks to enhance the 
vocational education and training (VET) and higher 
education sectors. The vision and measures for 
transformation of the VET sector are outlined in the 
reform strategy (2016–20). The Strategic Plan for the 
Reform of Higher Education and Scientific Research 
has five objectives:

a.  to improve the quality of university education 

and graduate employability;

b.  to stimulate research and innovation;
c.  to promote good governance and optimize 

resource management;

d.  to revise the university map for better anchoring 

and regional balance;

e.  to improve teachers’ education.

The preparation of the Strategic Plan for the Reform 
of Higher Education and Scientific Research was 
launched in October 2011 with the establishment 
of the National Tripartite Committee, which includes 
representatives of the Ministry of Higher Education 
and Scientific Research, university representatives 
and union representatives. The task started with the 
development of a scoping note in December 2011 
and the organisation of a national reflection seminar 
in July 2014. The Strategic Plan was developed and 
approved by the Universities Council in January 
2015. After its validation by the Council of Ministers, 
a participatory process of societal dialogue was 
launched, involving all stakeholders in the system: 
teachers, students, civil society, professionals, 
private sector, regional officials and representatives 
of other ministries. The plan also includes 

consultations in different regions of the country 
to emphasise concerns and specificities, thus to 
prepare a plan which reflects all Tunisians’ needs 
and expectations. During the final stage, a draft law 
will be submitted for approval to the Chamber of 
Deputies.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The Tunisian NQF has several objectives:

a.  to contribute to better readability of 

competences;

b.  to bridge the gap between the economy’s skills 
needs and education and training provision;
c.  to provide common references to promote 

geographic, sectoral and professional mobility;
d.  to take into account all modes of learning in a 

lifelong learning perspective;

e.  to reduce dead ends in learning pathways, in 
particular between VET and higher education.

International cooperation
In view of its privileged status of cooperation with 
the EU, Tunisia cooperates with the Erasmus+ 
programme and in 2016, the country became the 
first of Arab and African countries associated with 
the EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation 
Programme, which provides new opportunities 
to Tunisian researchers and academics under the 
same conditions as their peers in EU Member 
States. Thanks to EU support, hundreds of Tunisian 
students and staff of higher education institutions 
benefit from Erasmus scholarships in Europe  
(1,143 in 2017 alone).

The General Directorate of International Cooperation 
at the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific 
Research establishes and manages all bilateral 
agreements with partner countries and foreign 
organisations. Currently, there are 44 bilateral 
agreements as reported by the official statistics of 
the Directorate on 3 December 2015. According 
to these statistics, the bilateral agreements are 
categorised as follows: 17 with Arab countries, 
15 with European countries, 8 with Asian countries 
and 4 with American countries. The main elements 
of these agreements refer to cooperation in the 
area of higher education, research, innovation and 
technology, foreign students’ exchange and other 
activities of the Ministry. In addition to higher 
education, some of these agreements also relate 
to culture, languages, secondary and primary 
education.

Regionally, Tunisia has a solid cooperation with 
neighbouring Maghreb countries in higher education 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand scientific research, such as the intensive 
programme for students exchange with Morocco 
that has been in place for many years. In addition, 
Tunisia is a partner of Algeria in Tempus/Erasmus+ 
programmes (joint degrees, mobility for academic, 
research and administrative staff, credit transfers). 
A new specific programme for student mobility 
between Tunisia and Algeria is being developed.

Tunisia is also building new cooperation 
opportunities with Southern African countries.

Furthermore, Tunisia is involved in a number 
of international programmes, such as Tunisian- 
American programmes offering degree and non-
degree scholarships for master and doctorate 
students, researchers and academic staff – including 
‘Partnership for the enhanced engagement in 
research’ (PEER), ‘Fulbright’, ‘Fulbright Tech+’, 
and ‘Thomas Jefferson’ programmes. Tunisia also 
participates in a number of bilateral programmes 
with Canada and Japan.

Apart from European cooperation programmes, the 
General Directorate of International Cooperation 
disseminates a number of scholarship offers 
granted by international and regional organisations, 
such as the Islamic Educational, Scientific and 
Cultural Organization (ISESCO), the Organisation 
of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the World Bank (joint 
Japan-World Bank scholarships and Robert S. 
McNamara Fellowship Programme), UNESCO, the 
Agence universitaire de la francophonie (AUF), the 
Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD), 
and the African Bank. Generally, these calls concern 
scholarships for teachers and PhD or Master 
students and are limited to research.

Tunisia is a member of the Meric Network909, which 
cooperates with ENIC-NARIC.

The General Direction of Higher Education of 
the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific 
Research coordinates recognition of foreign 
qualifications. The term used in the legal base is 
‘equivalence’. Equivalence is the assimilation of 
diplomas and titles issued by an educational system 
of a foreign country with diplomas and titles issued 
by the Tunisian education system on the basis of 
a set of conditions such as those relating to the 
registration, the number of years of study, the 
content of the programmes and the procedures 
for assessing knowledge. In Tunisia the system of 
equivalences is organised by regulatory texts whose 
purpose is, in particular, to determine the structures 

authorised to issue equivalence and the criteria 
according to which the equivalence of diplomas 
and titles is awarded. It should be noted that the 
various texts which organise higher education either 
from the point of view of aims and structures, or 
from the point of view of the system of studies 
and examinations, provide for the necessity of the 
equivalence of foreign diplomas. This requirement is 
the legal basis for the application for equivalence.

The national legal base of recognition of foreign 
qualifications is composed of the following texts:

•  Décret n°96-519 du 25 mars 1996, portant 
refonte de la réglementation relative à 
l’équivalence des diplômes et des titres;

•  Arrêté de 15 août 1996, fixant les critères sur la 
base desquels l’équivalence est accordée aux 
diplômes et titres;

•  Arrêté du ministre de l’enseignement supérieur 
du 28 mars 2002, modifiant et complétant 
l’arrêté du 15 août 1996, fixant les critères sur 
la base desquels l’équivalence est accordée aux 
diplômes et titres.

The legal framework for recognition in the 
Mediterranean Unesco region is the Mediterranean 
international convention on recognition: 
International Convention on the Recognition of 
Studies, Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in 
Higher Education in the Arab and European States 
bordering on the Mediterranean, 1976.

The reference Tunisian institutions are the Ministry 
of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education 
and Scientific Research, the Tunisian Agency 
for Vocational Training (Agence tunisienne de la 
formation professionnelle, ATFP) and the Portail 
éducatif tunisien910.

Together with Morocco, Algeria and Lebanon, 
Tunisia participates in the EU-funded technical 
assistance project supporting the Meric Network in 
strengthening institutional capacities, instruments 
and converging approaches.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The NQF covers qualifications from general, VET and 
higher education systems.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The Tunisian NQF is designed as a classification of 
qualifications (hence the name CNQ, ‘classification 

909   Mediterranean network of national information centres on 

the recognition of qualifications.

910 

 www.edunet.tn

627

Volume II: National and regional casesnationale des qualifications’), based on previous 
classifications of occupations, public services labour 
regulation and sectoral collective agreements. 
The CNQ has seven levels and six categories of 
descriptors: four cover the levels of occupations 
targeted – complexity, autonomy, responsibility 
and adaptability; and two describe the resources 
needed to ensure qualifications are at that level – 
knowledge, know-how and behaviour.

Use of learning outcomes
New qualifications are outcomes-based. Article 1 
of the NQF decree specifies that: ‘the qualifications 
corresponding to each of the seven levels of the 
NQF are defined by the six descriptors formulated in 
terms of learning outcomes.’

Definition of qualification
There is no explicit definition in the NQF decree; the 
descriptors provide information on the purpose and 
meaning of qualifications.

Several sectors have elaborated occupational 
standards for all their key occupations (REM/REC –  
‘référentiel de métiers-compétences’). These 
standards are organised as sector collections 
and are used by employers, as well as by training 
providers. The actual use of REM/REC is not without 
difficulties, particularly if the sector strategic 
leadership and the cooperation with state bodies 
and education institution is not effective.

The new classification of occupations, which 
has been validated in 2018, was elaborated with 
reference to the classification ROME (‘répertoire 
opérationnel des métiers et des emplois’, France). 
The occupational descriptions in the Tunisian ROME 
provide information equivalent to occupational 
standards.

Development process of qualifications
In VET the competence-based approach (APC – 
‘approche par compétences’) has taken root as 
the main system for development of programmes 
and qualifications aligned with labour market 
requirements. Although the full implantation of APC 
programmes is still underway, the approach is well 
established. The APC is constructed as a chain, going 
from the sector study to the analysis of the work 
situation to the definition of competence standards. 
The training and pedagogic components and the 
assessment standards are created with reference 
to the competence standards. The qualification is 
awarded once the candidate’s assessment of the 
intended competences is verified.

on successful completion of secondary education 
(‘al-bakaluria’). Holders of the bakaluria are 
directed in the choice of university and course by 
a computerised system, which takes into account 
pupils’ merits, their wishes and the number of 
places available in each course.

As a result of the reform which has introduced the 
three-cycle system (‘licence, master, doctorat’), all 
the courses administered by Tunisian universities, 
with the exception of medical, architecture and 
engineering courses, are based on the structure 
of Bachelor degrees, awarded on accumulation 
of 180 credits, Master degrees, awarded after a 
further accumulation of 120 credits and Doctorates 
(180 credits).

Higher education is divided into three levels.

a.  The first level of studies includes Academic 

(fundamental) Bachelor – lasting for three years 
and carrying 180 ECTS (European credit transfer 
and accumulation system) credits; and Applied 
Bachelor – lasting for three years and carrying 
180 ECTS.

b.  The second level of studies includes Academic 
Master – lasting for two years and carrying 
120 ECTS for students having previously 
achieved 180 ECTS; and Professional Master – 
lasting for two years and carrying 120 ECTS for 
students having previously achieved 180 ECTS.

c.  The third level of studies includes doctoral 

academic studies (PhD), including a minimum of 
three years of research and courses and carrying 
180 ECTS (150 ECTS for the thesis and 30 ECTS 
for doctoral courses).

The studies of engineering, architecture, 
medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and veterinary 
medicine are organised in accordance with the 
specific characteristics of these disciplines and 
in accordance with international standards. 
Engineering students attend two years of 
preparatory classes, culminating in a national 
competitive examination and are then assigned 
to engineering schools (‘écoles d’ingénieurs’) on 
the basis of their grades and wishes. Specialised 
training in the engineer school takes three years, 
bringing the total length of the engineering training 
to five years. In medical subjects the number of 
places is limited to about 200 first-year students 
in each institution and studies last for five years, 
followed by one year of clinical training. Courses 
in paramedical subjects, i.e. health science and 
technology and nursing, have switched to the 
bachelor, master and doctorate system.

Access, progression and credit
The public higher education in Tunisia remains 
accessible to anyone holding the certificate awarded 

There are no longer university courses in Tunisia 
shorter than the three-year bachelor course. The 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSprocess for teaching in universities (‘ataahil-el-
jamii’) involves the preparation of a research dossier 
by a lecturer seeking promotion to the grade of 
senior lecturer. The procedure is similar to that of 
a doctoral thesis defence. The lecturer defends the 
research dossier in front of a panel; if it is accepted, 
the candidate is eligible to enter the national 
competitive examination for the recruitment of 
senior lecturers.

The key ministries – Education, Higher Education 
and Scientific Research, and Vocational Training and 
Employment – exercise functions of policy shaping 
and decision-making in their respective sectors.  
An NQF technical group is currently active in 
the VET sector, but focuses only on non-tertiary 
education and VET qualifications.

In VET, other important players are:

The Tunisian education and training system is 
hampered by a lack of pathways between vocational 
training, general education and higher education. In 
2008 a law set out plans to link these qualifications 
but has not been applied since. A commission 
involving the three departments concerned was 
created in 2015 to coordinate strategies and reforms 
between the three sub-sectors of education, 
along with pathways and progression. The national 
strategy for vocational training in Tunisia for 
2016–20 plans to transform this commission into a 
permanent national authority.

• 

• 

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The NQF legal act911 (presidential decree) was 
adopted in 2009.

Governance and institutional arrangements for 
the NQF
There is no single institution in charge of NQF 
coordination and operational functions. The 
governance of the qualifications system involves 
numerous institutions with mandates of different 
nature related to key functions, such as quality 
assurance, development of standards and learning 
programmes, recognition of qualifications and 
management of different reforms with international 
assistance in key domains of the NQF.

The NQF decree stipulates the establishment of a 
commission entrusted with the steering and follow-
up of the NQF. This commission, to be created 
under the High Council for Human Resources 
Development, has not been validated by the social 
partners and has not become operational. The High 
Council has been deactivated. A new proposal for a 
national instance for human resources development 
was validated in 2018 by the Government 
Presidency, under certain conditions.

the National Centre of Teacher Training and 
Curriculum Development912 (Centre national de 
formation des formateurs et d’ingénierie de 
formation, CENAFFIF), which operates under 
the umbrella of the Ministry of Vocational 
Training and Employment. CENAFFIF has a key 
role in developing competence standards and 
programmes for VET, and other qualifications 
norms;
the Tunisian Agency for Vocational Training 
(ATFP), the main public provider of VET courses 
(initial and continuing) through its network of 
130 VET centres. The ATFP coordinates public 
VET provision and delivers the qualifications 
in the name of the state. It also evaluates the 
training provision in the VET centres.

In higher education, other key institutions are:

• 

• 

the National Evaluation, Quality Assurance and 
Accreditation Authority (NEQAAA), in charge 
of quality assurance procedures and decisions, 
as described below. The aim of NEQAAA is to 
contribute to the maintenance and improvement 
of quality in higher education as well as to 
the compliance of the education system with 
internationally recognised standards;
the Universities Council, in charge of ensuring 
that the strategic guidelines of the sector are 
applied;

•  higher education institutions. 

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
Besides the above indicated state bodies, the social 
partners (UTICA and UGTT), sector orgnisations 
and companies play a role in developing standards 
of qualification and in the APC (competence-based 
approach in VET).

Resources and funding
The state budget is used for the functioning of 
public institutions involved in NQF activities and is 
complemented by resources of different donors 
channelled to various system development and 
reform actions.

911 

 www.emploi.gov.tn/uploads/tx_elyjort/Fr-Decret2009_ 
2139.pdf 

912   www.cenaffif.nat.tn/39/

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Volume II: National and regional casesQuality assurance of qualifications
Article 4 of the NQF states that all public and private 
education institutions (higher, general and VET) shall 
take the necessary measures to assure quality of 
the developed qualifications and their coherence 
with the descriptors defined in the NQF for the 
targeted level. This is a fundamental principle, 
establishing a link between quality assurance of 
qualifications and the NQF (level and descriptor).

The legal framework for quality assurance in higher 
education is based on two essential notions: the 
quality assurance in the higher education institutions 
(law No 2008-19 of 25 February 2008), and the 
national frame of qualification – CNQ (decree 
No 2139 of 8 July 2009).

of accreditation of the higher education and 
research institutions;

f.  to implement a follow-up system of the 

procedures adopted by the universities and 
higher education and research institutions in 
view of appraisal reports and accreditation;

g.  to define self-evaluation standards;
h.  to formulate external quality assurance 

i. 

j. 

standards and procedures;
to define standards for accreditation of academic 
programmes and higher education institutions to 
guarantee the quality and the recognition of the 
national diplomas;
to formulate an international policy of 
cooperation in coordination with the regulatory 
authority.

In VET, the Permanent Commission for VET 
Coordination is in charge of quality assurance, 
and plans to step up collaboration with the social 
partners and the sector commissions, which 
are to be established with an upgraded role in 
qualifications development.

According to the law on higher education,  
NEQAAA – the National Evaluation, Quality 
Assurance and Accreditation Authority – is the body 
responsible for quality assurance and improvement 
in higher education. It consists of 13 members 
(decree No 2012-1719 of 14 September 2012 on 
higher education). Eight higher education professors 
in the various scientific specialties are selected, 
after a call for candidacy, on the basis of their 
skills, their scientific and academic position as 
well as their knowledge of the field of quality in 
higher education. In addition, NEQAAA includes 
four representatives of the economic and social 
environment, among whom a representative of the 
private higher education sector, and a specialist in 
administrative and financial management. The aim 
of NEQAAA is to contribute to the maintenance and 
to the improvement of quality in higher education as 
well as to the compliance of the education system 
with internationally recognised standards. 

NEQAAA’s main missions are:

a.  to institute a quality system and a guide of 

procedures appropriate to NEQAAA;

b.  to approve the methodology and procedures of 

quality assurance;

c.  to elaborate and adopt a code of ethics;
d.  to accredit the expert assessors on proposal of 
the technical departments of NEQAAA on the 
basis of calls to candidacy;

e.  to implement a programme of evaluation and 
accreditation in compliance with the priorities 
fixed by the Ministry of Higher Education and 
Scientific Research and with the requests 

NEQAAA submits an annual report on the 
evaluation activities to the head of the 
government.
The Universities Council (‘Majlis al-Jamiat’), 
which comprises the presidents of the country’ 
universities, contributes substantially to provide the 
background and analysis supporting accreditation 
decisions of the Ministry. The Universities Council 
is in charge of ensuring that the broad strategic 
guidelines of the sector are applied, and of 
validating the decisions of the sectoral committees 
and of the national committee on the reform of the 
course structure. This enables higher education 
institutions to award bachelor, master and doctorate 
degrees and to habilitate teaching staff.

NEQAAA cooperates bilaterally with quality 
assurance agencies of other countries, notably the 
EU Member States.

The ongoing reforms foresee the implantation of 
accreditation mechanisms addressing programmes 
and qualifications.

NEQAAA is in charge of the external evaluation 
and focuses on the external quality assurance 
procedures on teaching, internal quality assurance 
and management systems, research, support 
services to students, library and IT resources, space 
and equipment, non-teaching staff, management 
and transparency, lifelong learning provisions and 
employability of graduates. In order to fulfill these 
tasks, experts in curricula, education, and higher 
education assessment are trained. More than 
120 experts (2011–15) benefited from training in 
quality review through the organisation of training 
courses, visits to quality assurance agencies 
within the framework of the EU educational 
programmes and workshops dedicated to the 
exchange of experiences and best practices in the 
fields of quality assessment with Arab, American 
and British partners. The panel of experts gathers 

630

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSrepresentatives of all the scientific disciplines and 
other stakeholders.

The accreditation at the institutional level includes 
a review of the programmes proposed, the 
educational and scientific methods applied and 
their compliance with the quality of the delivered 
diplomas, as well as the skills and capacities 
expected from the graduates. The accreditation is 
granted for a maximal period of four years, for either 
the institution, the programmes or the courses. In 
case of negligence in terms of quality standards 
during the aforementioned period, NEQAAA is 
legally able to withdraw the granted accreditation. 
Once obtained, the accreditation allows the 
concerned institution to benefit from additional 
credits, permitting to face the requirements implying 
its commitment to respect the quality standards.

The internal quality assurance of academic 
programmes, teaching and learning, research, 
student’s services, general managements and 
work conditions is carried out by the higher 
education institutes under the supervision of the 
committee responsible for quality as defined by 
the law No 2008-19 of 25 February 2008 on higher 
education. In each higher education institution, this 
committee is responsible for elaborating internal 
assessment reports, monitoring the established 
programmes, in particular those related to quality, 
and formulating proposals regarding quality 
enhancement.

Previous pilot initiatives, such as the project 
supported by the French association for adult 
vocational training AFPA (Association pour la 
formation professionnelle des adultes)), were 
carried out in the ready-made garment and 
automotive sectors. These pilots will be applied to 
support further reform of the national VET system, 
particularly the development of a system for 
validation of informal and non-formal learning.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The VET system has a structured ‘nomenclature 
of sectors and specialities of training’ – 
a database of existing programmes, structured 
in 20 sectors, 59 sub-sectors and more than 
533 specialities, of which 326 are operational. This 
database is managed by the General Direction of 
Services to Training Users. VET programmes are 
conceived and elaborated according to a defined 
procedure, which includes preliminary sector 
studies. The programmes validated by sector 
enterprises/professionals can be incorporated in 
the database.

This database is not open for end-users or the 
wider public. The Ministry plans to launch an online 
platform for the end-users/citizens, providing 
relevant information on VET programmes and 
qualifications and career information and guidance.

Self-evaluation takes place each year. Students’ 
assessment of the academic programmes quality is 
part of the quality assurance procedure.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of the 
NQF’s implementation have not yet been defined. 

Universities and higher education institutes submit 
annual reports of internal evaluation to the Ministry 
for Higher Education and to NEQAAA.

Impact for end-users
The NQF is an important driver of the learning 
outcomes approach for all sub-sectors of education 
and training.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The EU-funded PEFESE programme aimed 
at supporting education, vocational training, 
higher education and employability of graduates 
(programme d’appui à l’éducation, à la formation 
professionelle, à l’enseignement supérieur et à 
l’employabilité des diplômés) concluded in 2015; 
it aimed to reinforce links between education 
and industry and employment. One specific aim 
was to pilot a system of validation of informal 
and non-formal learning using a standards-based 
qualifications system in three sectors – agriculture, 
tourism and construction.

Referencing to regional frameworks

The NQF’s structure and descriptors differ from the 
European qualifications framework, but the upper 
levels (5, 6 and 7) are aligned with the qualifications 
framework of the European higher education area. 

Important lessons and future plans

In 2017–18, the Tunisian NQF regained some vigour 
as an important pillar for a more transparent and 
interlinked qualifications system for lifelong learning, 
better connected with the economic context and 
attuned with international developments.

631

Volume II: National and regional casesBoth in VET and in higher education ongoing 
reforms, aided by international technical assistance, 
support this new dynamism. The EU supports the 
VET qualifications system in developing transparent 
qualifications, based on renewed quality assurance 
mechanisms. In higher education a renewed 
attention is being directed to improving the quality 
assurance framework, accreditation mechanisms 
and institutions, towards better learning outputs and 
comparability of qualifications.

These developments will necessitate consistent 
leadership from the relevant ministries and 
respective technical agencies, but also better and 
systematic collaboration with the socio-economic 
partners – sector commissions and social partners. 
Mutual trust needs to be reinforced on matters of 
qualifications and their classification.

Plans of the VET system aimed at further deepening 
the impact of the NQF include: 

trade agreement (ALECA – accord de libre-échange 
complet et approfondi) – are an additional testimony 
of the importance of a performing qualifications 
framework and system. The NQF has a new window 
of opportunity to fully meet its promise of a policy 
instrument to facilitate mobility, recognition of 
qualifications and lifelong learning.

The NQF component of the EU-funded 
project IRADA (Initiative régionale d’appui au 
développement économique durable (regional 
initiative to support sustainable economic 
development)), signed in December 2015, started 
activities late 2018. Recognising the insufficient 
participation or adhesion of social partners and other 
stakeholders in the early design of the NQF, it seeks 
to revive the framework and aims to:

•  engage social partners and other actors;
•  support the curricula and training agencies in 
developing qualifications described in learning 
outcomes;

a.  to conceive and launch the new open and 

•  define a levelling procedure to place 

interactive online qualifications register, which is 
expected to be an additional incentive to improve 
qualifications and their readability for end-users; 

b.  to revamp the governance mechanisms of the 
NQF functions, with inclusion of new sector 
commissions in the chain of qualifications 
development and review.

qualifications in the NQF;

•  establish necessary quality assurance systems 

and procedures;

•  develop information tools, e.g. databases and 
manuals on functions of the NQF and to guide 
users.

Abbreviations
APC 

ATFP 

CNQ 

ECTS  

approche par compétences 
(competence-based approach)
Agence tunisienne de la formation 
professionnelle (Tunisian Agency for 
Vocational Training)
classification nationale des 
qualifications (national classification 
of qualifications)
European credit transfer and 
accumulation system

NEQAAA  National Evaluation, Quality 

Assurance and Accreditation 
Authority 
national qualifications framework 
vocational education and training

NQF 
VET 

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

Moreover, VET and higher education need to restore 
dialogue and cooperation, and to carve a necessary 
joint vision and roadmap for human capital, 
employability, citizenship and lifelong learning. Such 
a dialogue of partners has been largely insufficient. 
Permeability and recognition of learning outcomes 
between education sub-sectors are long-standing 
issues in discussion. The NQF as an instrument can 
inspire this debate towards renewed arguments 
and solutions based on outcomes, rather than on 
counterproductive separation within the lifelong 
learning continuum.

Tunisia has expressed interest to cooperate with 
the European qualifications framework once the 
ongoing reforms reach results in the form of 
improved qualifications transparency mechanisms. 
The country has an open economy and society, 
and its privileged status in the relations with the 
EU – demonstrated by strategic initiatives such 
as the ongoing negotiations for a visa facilitation 
agreement and the deep and comprehensive free 

632

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTURKEY

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The Regulation on the procedures and principles 
concerning the implementation of the Turkish 
qualifications framework (TQF Regulation) was 
adopted by a Ministerial Decision of the Council 
of Ministers and published in the Official Journal 
in November 2015. The Description of the Turkish 
qualifications framework (TQF Document) was 
adopted by a Ministerial Decision of the Ministry 
of Labour and Social Security and published in the 
Official Journal in January 2016. The Regulation on 
the quality assurance of qualifications to be included 
into the TQF was adopted by a decision of the TQF 
Coordination Council and published in the Official 
Journal in March 2018.

The Turkish qualifications framework (TQF) has 
eight levels and includes all types and levels of 
qualifications and certification. Besides levels and 
level descriptors, the TQF defines qualification types 
and qualification categories.

The three-member TQF Coordination Council is the 
decision-making body of the TQF. Its members are 
high-level representatives of the three main bodies 
responsible for the TQF: the Ministry of National 
Education (MoNE), the Council of Higher Education 
(CoHE) and the Vocational Qualifications Authority 
(VQA).

Turkey is an EU candidate country and participates 
in the European qualifications framework (EQF) 
advisory group. It referenced to the EQF at the 
March 2017 EQF advisory group meeting.

Educational, social, economic and political context
Turkey is an upper middle-income country of 
80.3 million inhabitants, with a gross domestic 
product (GDP) of USD 850.7 billion, a GDP per 
capita of USD 10,592, and a life expectancy at birth 
of 75.4 years (2017). 

Turkey is a European Union (EU) accession 
candidate country. The EU accession process 
has been a significant anchor for socio-economic 

reforms in the country. The EU is Turkey’s largest 
economic partner, accounting for around 40% 
of Turkish trade, and 70–80% of foreign direct 
investment into the country is coming from the EU. 
Turkey has benefited significantly from deepening 
integration with the EU through the growing 
sophistication of both exports and imports and 
access to financing. It is a member of the OECD 
and the G20, and an increasingly important donor to 
bilateral official development assistance.

Although growth prospects have been reasonably 
robust, in recent years Turkey’s economy has 
been fighting double-digit inflation and a falling 
currency, which all pose challenges to moving into 
high-income status. The influx of over 3 million 
Syrian refugees (2015–16) has created new social, 
economic and political demands, placing a strain to 
education and training reform efforts.

Economic growth has stimulated job creation, 
but unemployment remains at 10.9%. Turkey has 
witnessed positive developments against the 
EU 2020 targets. Considerable progress has been 
made especially on the EU 2020 twofold target 
on education (i.e. reducing the early leavers and 
increasing tertiary attainment) and adult participation 
in lifelong learning (albeit from relatively low levels). 
However, the country continues to experience low 
rates of labour market participation and employment, 
high informality and precarious and vulnerable 
employment, which disproportionately affect 
young people. Despite the increasing activity and 
employment rates in the 20–64 age group, Turkey 
continues to lag behind EU averages. Graduates from 
secondary vocational education and training (VET) 
show better employment prospects as compared 
to those of general secondary education streams. 
VET is a viable education option for a large number 
of young people; VET enrolments, as a proportion of 
upper secondary education, is high by almost 55.8%.

According to the OECD Education Policy Turkey 
report913, Turkey has made substantial progress in 

913   OECD (2018). Education policy outlook 2018: putting 

student learning at the centre.

633

Volume II: National and regional casesthe area of education and human capital focusing 
on increasing equal access to primary, secondary, 
upper secondary (general and VET) and tertiary 
education. The education system includes key 
policies to support students from disadvantaged 
groups, immigrant backgrounds and population 
subgroups, as well as students with special 
educational needs and those living in different 
regions within the country. However, gaps vis-
à-vis OECD benchmarks remain very large. This 
is partly due to the quality of education lagging 
behind quantitative changes in school years. Equity 
and quality in education continue to be seen as a 
challenge and Turkey has set several key priorities, 
such as improving access and completion of upper 
secondary education, addressing the needs of 
disadvantaged students and improving equity 
between regions (especially between urban and 
rural areas). Providing education facilities and 
services to Syrians with temporary protection in 
Turkey is another key target.

Improving access to both VET and tertiary education 
is a key policy target for the country. Key education 
policies have been implemented (starting in 2015), 
which address the establishment of better links 
between education levels and the labour market 
by allocating funding to support projects related 
to both professional teaching skills and students 
transitioning into the labour market. Other policies 
focus on updating qualifications to provide education 
orientation or transitions from lower to upper 
secondary education.

Turkey tracks the performance of its vocational 
graduates in the labour market through the 
E-graduate system. The country has invested efforts 
in developing new processes of data collection, 
analysis and interpretation, and has strived to 
improve inter-institutional cooperation to match 
supply and demand, assess effectiveness of 
education or employment policies etc. However, 
the mismatch between labour market demand 
and supply remains a constraint to growth and 
employability. There is need to address the 
high levels of skills mismatch, and many small 
entrepreneurs and workers need basic upskilling, 
as low skills inhibit the growth of productivity and 
incomes. Timely and relevant policy responses to 
the needs of young people are constrained by a lack 
of, or insufficiently exploited, data and information 
on transitions from school to work, on quality 
aspects of such transitions, and on vulnerable 
groups of young people. The mechanisms of skills 
needs identification and matching need to be 
consolidated and used for policy making.

Looking at the present delivery of the VET system 
in Turkey, it might be beneficial to look at some 

forward-looking policy areas in the country’s 
context. A more strategic approach – including 
sharing of information among educators and digitally 
streamlined consultation with employers – is 
required. Turkey skills panorama is being assessed 
through EU and OECD multi-country analysis. 
Turkey can learn from the way some countries 
are addressing these emerging challenges. Digital 
technology is evolving and will significantly change 
the way education and training are delivered. 
Perhaps it is time to re-imagine education and 
training in view of the emergence of the Fourth 
Industrial Revolution and the growing demand for 
‘soft’ or ‘enterprise’ skills. One suggestion is to 
move away from narrowly defined qualifications 
built around specific roles or tasks towards broader 
qualifications, structured around the concept of 
vocational streams. Vocational streams are clusters 
of occupations that share similar requirements for 
knowledge, skills and attributes. By focusing on 
the broader capabilities underpinning vocational 
streams, it is expected that youth job mobility, 
adaptive capacity and career development will be 
promoted.

For the Turkish economy to be competitive and 
inclusive, there is an increasing demand for a 
remodelling of VET delivery in the formal system. 
The skills profile of the current workforce and the 
growing demand for more highly skilled workers 
has become imperative. STEM skill set, which 
includes science, technology design, engineering, 
mathematics, programming, systems analysis, 
critical thinking and computer use, should be part 
of the VET system. Courses and their associated 
qualifications will need to become more modular 
to allow them to be completed progressively and 
flexibly alongside work. Furthermore, modular 
course offerings should serve as the building 
blocks for more long-term and continuous 
engagement between students, employers and 
VET providers. Maintaining currency with industry 
requirements is central to VET but is becoming 
increasingly challenging with the pace of change. 
Entrepreneurship should be added to the core skills 
and lifelong learning should become accessible 
to all. In view of the combination of technological 
change and longer working lives – during which 
people may change careers a number of times and 
work for numerous employers – lifelong learning 
will be fundamental to future work environments. 
Education and training have never been more 
important.

Currently there is no published evidence of skills 
forecast and skills matching policies in Turkey. 
However, changes are planned that need to be 
confirmed. Harmonising demand for the workforce 
in the labour market and supply offered by the 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSeducation system fell within the scope of the 
65th Government programme. This included higher 
education with the Transformation programme 
of high priority on development of basic and 
professional skills prepared within the framework 
of strengthening the education and employment 
relationship (MoNE 2018 Performance programme).

Harmonisation of the education system and the 
labour market also falls within the scope of the 
11th Development plan 2019–23: making individuals 
acquire skills and qualifications that are required 
by the business sector by taking a lifelong learning 
perspective as the starting point, by adopting an 
entrepreneurship culture and strengthening school-
business relations in vocational and technical 
education, taking medium- and long-term sector 
projections into account (MoNE 2018 Performance 
programme).

The Fourth Industrial Revolution brings far-reaching 
and accelerating disruptive change to business 
models and traditional education practices. For 
the government, it will entail innovations within 
education and labour-related policy making. For the 
education and training sector, it will mean vast new 
business opportunities as it provides new services 
to individuals, entrepreneurs, organisations and the 
public sector. Is the system ready to face what the 
future brings?

Workers in Turkey use information-processing 
skills at work and in their daily lives, however 
much less than do workers in other OECD 
countries914. National and international studies 
and surveys confirm that acquiring the right skills 
remains a challenge in the country. This is strongly 
corroborated by employers’ organisations. In Turkey 
adults are considerably less likely to read, write, 
work with mathematics, solve problems and use 
computers in their jobs and in everyday life than is 
the case across other participating OECD countries. 
The employment rate remains well below the OECD 
average, despite a rise from its pre-crisis level, while 
the unemployment rate remains well above the 
OECD average.

According to the ‘Automation Readiness Index: Who 
is ready for the coming wave of automation?’ of the 
Economist Intelligence Unit report commissioned by 
the ABB (June 2018)915, unfortunately, there is not 

914   OECD (2016). Survey of adult skills technical report 

(second edition).

915   The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited (2018). See 

the Automation Readiness Index, which compares 
countries on their preparedness for the age of intelligent 
automation. The purpose of the index is to determine 
which countries are better positioned to take up the 

yet much evidence in Turkey of either policy making 
or multi-stakeholder dialogue on this topic. There is 
not even evidence of any coordinated policy action, 
which analyses and/or plans for the challenges of 
automation, its impact on the future of work and 
skills needed not only to match needs but also to 
contribute to innovation, and inclusive economic 
and social growth in the country. In assessing the 
existence of policies and strategies in the areas of 
research, innovation, education and training, and 
labour market, the study highlights that little/no 
policy is in place in Turkey today which specifically 
addresses the challenges of AI- and robotics-based 
automation. No policies, apart from some initiatives 
(e.g. by Tubitak), are in place in areas such as 
curriculum reform, lifelong learning, occupational 
training and workplace flexibility.

Whatever the impact of intelligent automation on 
work and employment, it is clear that the Turkish 
government must be prepared. There is no thorough 
evidence and no robust policy on the skills for the 
future of jobs in the country. It confirms a lack of 
dialogue between government and industry, as 
well as between different industries, on the skills 
forecast and skills matching including the challenges 
of automation. There is an urgent need for structural 
engagement between government, industry, 
educational specialists and other stakeholders if 
policy making is to keep pace with skills for the 
future and innovation in automation.

Turkey submitted its fourth annual Economic Reform 
Programme covering the 2018–20 period916. Turkey’s 
Economic Reform Programme and other related 
national, EU and international strategic documents 
all recognise the need for structural and governance 
reform in the human resources development sector. 
National and international studies and surveys 
confirm that acquiring the right skills remains a 

policy challenges that automation poses. Its attention 
is focused on three areas: innovation policies that 
directly or indirectly support research into and business 
adoption of artificial intelligence, robotics and other 
advanced technologies; education policies that aim to 
develop the human capital needed to take advantage 
of these technologies; and labour market policies 
needed to manage the workforce transition to a highly 
automated economy (for more detail, see the chart ‘Index 
categories’).

916   These were assessed by the European Commission and 

the European Central Bank. Based on these assessments, 
joint conclusions with country-specific policy guidance 
were agreed on and adopted by all seven enlargement 
partners and the EU in the annual Economic and Financial 
Dialogue held on 25 May 2018. See the latest joint 
conclusions on the Economic Reform Programmes:  
www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2018/ 
05/25/western-balkans-and-turkey-joint-conclusions-of- 
the-economic-and-financial-dialogue/ 

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Volume II: National and regional caseschallenge in Turkey. This is strongly corroborated by 
employers’ organisations. To realise its underlying 
growth potential, Turkey needs to accelerate 
structural reforms in education and training, and 
employment and improve trust in its institutions. 
In particular, the country’s economic growth would 
benefit from upgrading and making better use of its 
human capital through the pursuit of the education 
agenda and the deepening and widening of labour 
market reforms. Specifically, the qualifications of 
low-skilled workers should be improved through 
training, and female labour force participation should 
be stimulated through flexible working conditions. 
To address these challenges Turkey is encouraged to 
implement strategies to align education and training 
policies with labour market needs.

One major theme in the 11th Strategic Development 
Plan is digitalisation (Industry 4.0). However, 
according to PISA917 2016 results, Turkey ranked 52nd 
in science, 49th in mathematics, and 50th in reading 
skills among 70 countries. Given the coming digital 
transformation of the workplace and occupations, 
some questions need to be addressed urgently: 
Which sectors will be growing? What will be 
their skill needs (Industry 2.0, 3.0, or 4.0)? How 
will Turkey education system respond for future 
employability of the youth? Youth employment is 
a remaining challenge. Aging is another concern. 
Can Turkey design employment incentives for 
young people, while also keeping older workers 
employed? Turkey skills institutions cannot avoid 
some of the key questions: Which sectors to invest 
for productivity growth – by enhancing technologies 
(Industry 4.0), one can produce with fewer workers 
(aging)? What happens to youth unemployment? 
Who gets or keeps the job? Who will be better able 
to adapt to digitalisation of the workplace, the young 
or the old? In which occupations?

The large-scale technology or market changes 
occurring through technological advances such as 
automation, advanced robotics and virtualisation are 
already influencing the demand for both technical 
and soft skills in many occupations, with some 
skills in decline and others in higher demand. 
Turkey’s socio-economic development require policy 
discussions about the impact that technological 
developments or disruption will have on Turkey’s 
present workforce and skilling for tomorrow. The 
various ways by which the growth in technological 
advance is reshaping the labour market, workforce 
and jobs need to be examined and shared with all. 
These discussions cannot occur in isolation among 
educational platforms. The private sector is a key 

partner for the intelligence on the skills required. The 
focus of discussions should be on the anticipated 
necessary skills from the perspective of both the 
innovators (technology producers) and industry 
(technology users).

Skills foresight enhances such thinking by gathering 
anticipatory intelligence from a wide range of 
knowledge sources in a systematic way and 
linking it to today’s decision-making on how to deal 
with demographic change, health, social welfare, 
transport, energy, environment and climate change, 
community development, culture, human resources, 
and skills anticipation and education.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
Improving access to both VET and tertiary education 
is a key policy target for Turkey. Many education 
policies have been implemented, based on 
strategies such as the Lifelong Learning Strategy 
(2014–18), the Vocational Education and Training (VET) 
Strategy (2014–18), the Higher Education Strategy 
(2007–25) and the Employment Strategy (2014–23). 

Turkey’s Lifelong Learning Strategy and action 
plan pays particular attention to improving access 
to lifelong learning beyond the formal education 
system and promotes validation of non-formal and 
informal learning (VNFIL). The Employment Strategy 
and action plan attributes a core role to the TQF 
aimed at strengthening the link between education 
and employment and the quality of the VET system. 
The VET Strategy focuses on broadening access 
to VET, with improved system capacity and better 
employment outcomes for graduates. The latter is 
also the goal of the Higher Education Strategy. The 
Employment Strategy and action plan focuses on 
the national framework for qualifications to cover the 
university and non-formal education qualifications 
and entrepreneurship. A whole chapter on the 
role of the TQF in strengthening the link between 
education and employment focuses on the quality 
of the VET system. Its objectives include delivering 
qualifications as part of the TQF, implementing 
curricula in compliance with occupational standards, 
developing information, guidance and counselling 
and accrediting VET institutions.

Turkey’s new lifelong learning strategy pays 
particular attention to improving access to lifelong 
learning beyond the formal education system and 
promotes the VNFIL918. 

917  OECD’s Programme for International Student 

918   Lifelong learning Action Plan 2014–18: http://hbogm.meb.

Assessment.

gov.tr/str/files/LLL_ACTION_PLAN.pdf

636

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSIn higher education, the implementation of the 
learning outcome approach is an essential part 
of the implementation of the NQF for higher 
education. However, current arrangements inhibit 
the VNFIL in higher education.

According to the OECD Education Policy Turkey 
report, Turkey has made substantial progress in 
the education and human capital area focusing 
on increasing equal access to primary, secondary, 
upper secondary (general and VET) and tertiary 
education. The education system includes key 
policies to support students from disadvantaged 
groups, immigrant backgrounds and population 
subgroups, as well as students with special 
educational needs and those living in different 
regions within the country. However, gaps vis-
à-vis OECD benchmarks remain very large. This 
is partly due to the quality of education lagging 
behind quantitative changes in school years. Equity 
and quality in education continue to be seen as a 
challenge and Turkey has set several key priorities, 
such as improving access and completion of upper 
secondary education, addressing the needs of 
disadvantaged students and improving equity 
between regions (especially between urban and 
rural areas). Providing education facilities and 
services to Syrians with temporary protection in 
Turkey is another key target.

International cooperation
The Turkish National Action Plan for EU Accession 
was presented to the European Commission 
in March 2016919 and lists the actions that Turkish 
authorities are planning to take up to 2019 in order 
to align with EU legislation and continue the reform 
agenda in education and training, and the skills 
agenda.

The EU Education and Training 2020 priorities, 
the Bruges and Riga medium-term deliverables 
and the new EU Skills Agenda are informing the 
Turkey skills agenda. Turkey has benefited from the 
Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA II) 
funds beside national contribution to implement 
the policy options under each Riga medium-
term deliverable. Applications for the Erasmus+ 
programme has increased in quantity focusing on 
implementing the Riga medium-term deliverables. 
There is a good level of exchange, implementation 
and learning from other countries, which is shared 
in the country. However, Turkey’s central structures 
need to be more strategic in terms of building on 
these developments and learning from peers in EU 
Member States and beyond, and mainstreaming 
them in the national education and training system.

Turkey has a functioning system for the assessment 
and recognition of foreign academic qualifications in 
Associate’s, Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees that is 
supported by legislation and in line with the Lisbon 
Convention. The Equivalence Office of the Council of 
Higher Education (CoHE/YÖK) deals with recognition 
and equivalence requests for these degrees. The 
CoHE is part of the ENIC-NARIC networks.

Many professions in Turkey are regulated. 
Requirements to execute a regulated profession are 
defined in different laws. The CoHE has adopted a 
Regulation on the harmonisation of the minimum 
training requirements for the seven regulated 
professions, stipulated by EU Directive 2005/363. 
This should bring the minimum requirements for 
these professions in compliance with the Directive.

The VQA is responsible for the validation of the 
vocational qualifications held by foreigners who are 
seeking to work in Turkey. The VQA Law speaks of 
validation, not of recognition920. 

To execute a craft profession in Turkey one needs 
to have a mastership certificate. Foreigners can 
establish a business or work as employees if the 
equivalence of their certificate is recognised by 
the Ministry of Education (in addition they need a 
residence permit and a work permit). Legislation 
involved is Law No 3308 on vocational training (as 
amended by Law No 4702).

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The TQF is designed as an inclusive, comprehensive 
framework for classification of all quality-assured 
qualifications. The TQF primarily includes:

a.  qualifications awarded under the mandate of 

MoNE;

b.  qualifications awarded under the mandate of the 

VQA;

c.  higher education qualifications awarded under 
the coordination and supervision of the CoHE.

In time, the TQF will include other qualifications 
awarded under the mandate of certain responsible 
institutions.

Alignment to other classification systems
The TQF is the national instrument for classification 
of qualifications in Turkey. The higher education 

919   www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/uepkitapcik2016-2019-EN.pdf

920   Principles and procedures (in Turkish): www.myk.

gov.tr/images/articles/editor/140613/MYK_yab_sert_
dogrulanmasi_usul_esaslari_revize_web2.pdf

637

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications framework, which is a sub-framework 
within the TQF, is already functioning921.

The qualifications database includes qualifications 
awarded in Turkey regardless of their quality. This 
means that the database currently functions as a 
qualifications inventory rather than a register of the 
qualifications included in the TQF. In the database 
it is emphasized that the official levelling/inclusion 
of qualifications into the TQF has not started yet. 
The database includes all qualifications provided by 
the VQA and a high proportion of the qualifications 
provided by the Ministry of Education. There is only 
one higher education institute whose qualifications 
are included. As of August 2018, 1 633 qualifications 
were included in the database. The database is 
accessible in Turkish and English922.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The TQF has eight levels. In addition to levels, 
the TQF uses qualification types and qualification 
categories.

a.  Qualification types distinguish among 

qualifications that are at the same level but differ 
significantly in terms of their functions, learning 
outcomes, volume and/or orientations. Examples 
of qualification types are associate degree and 
level 5 vocational qualification certificate, at level 
5; vocational upper secondary education diploma 
and skilled worker certificate, at level 4.

b.  Qualification categories classify qualifications 

according to their purposes.
•  Principal qualifications reflect comprehensive 
sets of learning outcomes achieved as a 
result of assessment after completion of 
a learning process, training programme or 
vocational training, e.g. the vocational and 
technical high school diploma marking the 
end of vocational and technical secondary 
education.

•  Supplemental qualifications are awarded 
for learning achievements additional to a 
previous principal qualification. They relate 
to updating and refreshing of knowledge 
or skills, or to continuing professional 
development and they can only be achieved 
on condition that a principal qualification is 
previously achieved, e.g. level 6 vocational 
qualification certificate in job and occupational 
counselling, achieved in addition to any 
bachelor degree.

•  Unit qualifications provide recognition 

for the achievement of a coherent set of 
learning outcomes that form part of the 

921   See the higher education qualifications framework 

website: http://tyyc.yok.gov.tr/ 

922   http://portal.tyc.gov.tr/ 

combination of the overall requirement for 
a principal qualification. Unit qualifications 
are usually associated with modular learning 
programmes.

•  Special purpose qualifications are awarded 
for sets of learning outcomes that form 
a distinct, coherent achievement that 
may be used alone (such as license to 
work, and license to start up business). 
These qualifications involve fewer learning 
outcomes compared to a principal 
qualification but they can be used as a 
license to operate, e.g. level 3 vocational 
qualification certificate for roller operation in 
the construction sector or level 5 vocational 
qualification certificate for computer 
hardware in the IT sector.

The TQF level descriptors are described in terms of 
learning outcomes and use the following domains: 
knowledge, skills, and competence.

a.  Knowledge is defined as theoretical and/or 

factual knowledge requiring comprehension of 
facts, principles, theories and practices related to 
an area of work or learning.

b.  Skill is defined as utilisation of knowledge and 
problem solving, which requires the ability 
to use logical, intuitive and creative thinking 
and dexterity, method, material, tools and 
instruments acquired in an area of work or 
learning.

c.  Competence is defined as use of knowledge 
and skills in an area of work or learning by 
taking responsibility and/or displaying autonomy, 
determination and satisfaction of learning 
requirements.

Use of learning outcomes
Learning outcomes are the backbone of the TQF. 
According to the Regulation, the TQF is to ensure 
that qualifications are based on learning outcomes. 
However, the shift to learning outcomes takes time.

The national qualifications developed by the VQA 
are based on learning outcomes. By mid-2018, the 
VQA had published 451 national qualifications in 
21 sectors.

For all of the VQA qualifications, modules used 
in the VET training programmes of MoNE are 
defined by learning outcomes. However, MoNE 
VET programmes have no separate qualification 
specifications defined by learning outcomes. This 
situation created a challenge while populating the 
qualifications database. MoNE general education 
qualifications also are not readily identified as 
defined by learning outcomes. In higher education, 
some universities have identified the qualifications 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 84. Turkish qualifications framework level descriptors

LEVEL KNOWLEDGE

SKILL

COMPETENCE

1

2

3

4

5

6

Have a general 
knowledge of self and 
environment

Have basic skills 
required to carry out 
simple tasks

Carry out simple tasks under guidance and 
supervision

Have an elementary 
factual knowledge in a 
field of work or study

Have an elementary 
theoretical knowledge 
and moderate factual 
knowledge in a field of 
work or study

Have basic skills 
required to use 
necessary information in 
order to carry out tasks 
and to solve potential 
simple problems

Have skills required 
to select and apply 
data, methods, tools 
and materials in order 
to carry out tasks and 
solve problems

Have a moderate 
theoretical and 
operational knowledge 
and good factual 
knowledge in a field of 
work or study

Have cognitive and 
practical skills required 
to perform procedures 
and generate solutions 
to problems specific for 
a field of work or study

Have comprehensive, 
theoretical and factual 
knowledge in a field of 
work or study including 
awareness of the 
boundaries of that field

Have comprehensive, 
cognitive and practical 
skills required to 
develop creative 
solutions to abstract 
problems whose 
limits are defined, and 
concrete problems

Have an advanced 
theoretical, 
methodological and 
factual knowledge in a 
field of work or study, 
including inquiring 
thinking

Have advanced skills, 
including the quality 
of mastery and 
innovation, required 
to solve complex and 
unpredictable problems 
in a specialised field of 
work or study

Carry out simple tasks under supervision with 
limited autonomy

Have awareness of own learning needs within the 
scope of a lifelong learning approach

Take responsibility in carrying out tasks

Complete tasks in consideration of changing 
situations

Identify and meet own learning needs under guidance 
within the scope of a lifelong learning approach

Take full responsibility in completing tasks within 
predictable, but changeable contexts

Supervise the ordinary tasks of others, and take 
limited responsibility in evaluating and improving 
such tasks

Meet own learning needs, and define proactive 
learning goals under guidance within the scope of 
a lifelong learning approach

Have awareness of the relationship of knowledge, 
skills, behaviours and attitudes in a field of work or 
study with moral issues and responsibilities

Carry out management and supervision tasks in 
contexts with unpredictable changes

Evaluate and improve own and others’ 
performance level

Be in interaction for operations in contexts of work 
or study including the management of projects

Have general awareness of the scope of a lifelong 
learning approach for a field of work or study as 
well as the relationship of this scope with formal, 
non-formal and informal ways of learning

Have awareness of the relationship of knowledge, 
skills, behaviours and attitudes in a field of work or 
study with moral issues and responsibilities

Make decisions by taking responsibility in 
unpredictable work or study contexts, and manage 
complex technical or professional activities or projects

Take responsibility in managing the professional 
development of individuals and groups

Have experience in the concepts, policies, tools and 
practices of a lifelong learning approach for a field 
of work or study as well as their relationship with 
formal, non-formal and informal ways of learning

Have awareness of social and moral issues in 
assessing work or study

(Continued)

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 84. Turkish qualifications framework level descriptors (Continued)

LEVEL KNOWLEDGE

SKILL

COMPETENCE

Manage and transform unpredictable and complex 
work or study contexts that require new strategic 
approaches

Have experience in managing changes within a 
complex context

Take responsibility in contributing to professional 
knowledge and practice and/or evaluating the 
strategic performance level of teams

Show leadership in the concept, policy, tools 
and practices of a lifelong learning approach for 
knowledge in a field of work or study and the 
interface between different fields as well as their 
relationship with formal, non-formal and informal 
ways of learning

Integrate knowledge and make judgements in a 
field of work or study in consideration of social 
and moral issues and responsibilities

Demonstrate competence in the development of 
new ideas and processes at the forefront of work 
or study contexts, including strong competence, 
innovation, autonomy, scientific and professional 
consistency and research

Show leadership in developing new and original 
approaches to redefine or extend existing 
knowledge or professional practice in a field of 
work or study

Develop original policies and practices for the 
promotion of a lifelong learning approach for 
knowledge in a field of work or study as well 
as the interface between different fields in 
unpredictable and complex contexts that require 
innovation, and for the promotion of this approach 
through formal, non-formal and informal ways of 
learning

Create new knowledge in a field of work or study 
in consideration of social and moral issues and 
responsibilities

7

8

Have advanced 
specialised knowledge, 
some of which is at 
the forefront in a field 
of work or study, as 
the basis for original 
ideas and/or research

Have an inquiring 
approach for 
knowledge issues in 
his/her field and at 
the interface between 
different fields related 
to his/her field

Have advanced problem-
solving skills required 
in research and/or 
innovation activities 
that are carried out to 
develop new knowledge 
and methods in a field 
of work or study and 
to integrate knowledge 
from different fields

Have skills required to 
understand, design, 
apply and adapt 
advanced research 
operations as a team 
member or partially 
autonomously

Have the most 
advanced systematic 
knowledge and 
inquiry analysis 
capacity in the theory, 
practice, method and 
techniques of a field of 
work or study

Have the most 
advanced interface 
knowledge in different 
fields of work or study 
related to a particular 
field of work or study

Have the most advanced 
and specialised skills, 
including synthesis and 
evaluation, that require 
the use of knowledge, 
methods and 
techniques, required to 
solve critical problems 
in the most advanced 
research and/or 
innovation within a field 
of work or study and 
to extend and redefine 
existing knowledge or 
professional practice

Have skills required 
to understand, 
design, apply and 
adapt advanced 
research processes 
autonomously

Have problem-solving 
skills, including the 
use of methods and 
approaches from 
different fields, required 
to solve new and 
complex problems in 
his/her field

Source: Vocational Qualifications Authority.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSthey offer by learning outcomes but it is not easy to 
give an exact number. The process of transformation 
continues and the plan was to have all qualifications 
of MoNe and higher education institutions defined 
by learning outcomes until the end of 2018, at least 
on the qualifications database.

is to use these specifications while developing 
qualifications in specific types, so that the 
qualification bachelor in BA should be consistent 
with the qualification type specification of bachelor 
diploma.

Definition of qualification
The VQA Law No 5544 defines a qualification as 
the formal certification of knowledge, skill and 
competence possessed by an individual and 
recognised by the competent authority (VQA Law, 
Article 2-(1) h).

The TQF Regulation defines a qualification as the 
official document obtained when a competent 
body, at the end of a process of assessment 
and validation, recognises that an individual has 
accomplished the learning outcomes according to 
certain criteria (TQF Regulation, Article 3-(1) r).

Turkey does not use the term qualification 
standard923 but the TQF Regulation and the 
TQF Document use the term ‘qualification 
type specification’ to describe the features of a 
qualification type. A qualification type specification 
includes:

a.  qualification type title,
b.  awarding body,
c.  orientation,
d.  level,
e.  category,
f.  credit range and typical duration programme,
g.  programme profile,
h.  learning environment,
i. 
learning outcomes,
j.  key competences,
k.  assessment and evaluation methods,
l.  quality assurance,
m. entry requirements,
n.  requirements for obtaining the qualification,
o.  progression paths,
p.  legal basis of the qualification.

Qualification type specifications have been drafted 
for all types such as bachelor diploma and level 3 
vocational qualification certificate and submitted 
for consultation by the responsible bodies. The plan 

923   The document which corresponds to qualification 

standard is the national qualification in the VQA context. 
Unfortunately this is causing a misunderstanding since 
the term ‘qualification’ alone stands for the formal 
outcome of an assessment process. Eventually, there is 
an invisible ‘standard’ or ‘specification’ word in the term 
national qualification. National qualification (specification) 
provides the information about the learning outcomes, 
performance criteria, assessment procedure, assessor 
competences, etc.

Development process of qualifications
MoNE is responsible for developing qualifications 
under its mandate. It has launched secondary 
education curriculum reform for both general and 
vocational and technical schools. Vocational curricula 
are modularised and MoNE has a database of more 
than 4 000 modules that are also used for the 
licensing and certification of adult learning. There 
are also plans to establish a national credit system 
for VET. Although curricula are advanced, most 
initial vocational qualifications are not yet utilised 
and fully learning outcomes-based. Modules based 
on learning outcomes are used for learning, but 
they are not assessed separately and often lack an 
assessment component.

The VQA is responsible for developing qualifications 
under the national vocational qualifications system. 
Qualifications under the VQA’s mandate are based 
on occupational standards and learning outcomes. 
Assessment, evaluation and certification for 
these qualifications are carried out by certification 
bodies (called Voc-Test centres), authorised by the 
VQA. These qualifications are classified under the 
qualification types vocational qualification certificate.

The CoHE coordinates and supervises the 
development of higher education qualifications 
awarded by higher education institutes. The 
higher education qualifications framework is a 
sub-framework within the TQF that is already 
functioning. National working groups for different 
fields of learning define common outcomes as a 
guideline for qualification and curriculum developers. 
A common register on the website of the higher 
education NQF924 provides links to specific 
programmes (website in Turkish and English).

Access, progression and credit
According to its Regulation, facilitating access to 
qualifications and progress between qualifications 
are the main principles of the TQF. The TQF 
Council has drafted a concept paper about credit 
transfer and accumulation. The preparation of the 
principles and procedures for horizontal and vertical 
progression between qualifications in the TQF, credit 
transfer and accumulation is about to start.

The TQF proposes an evaluation and credit system 
associated with the workload that will allow credit 

924   http://tyyc.yok.gov.tr/ 

641

Volume II: National and regional casesaccumulation and transfer. The proposed metric 
for the qualifications to be included in the TQF is 
60 credits as the value ascribed to a learning period 
of 1 500 to 1 800 hours. This approach is compliant 
with both of the transnational credit systems in use 
in Europe – ECTS and ECVET. The regulating bodies 
will determine the credit range of the qualification 
types and the credit values of the qualifications. 
The principles and procedures for the credit transfer 
systems are planned to be developed by mid-2019.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The Regulation on the procedures and principles 
concerning the implementation of the Turkish 
qualifications framework (TQF Regulation) entered 
into force via Decision 2015/8213 of the Council of 
Ministers and publication in the Official Journal of 
19 November 2015 (numbered 29537). According 
to the Regulation, a three-year action plan for the 
implementation of the TQF has been developed 
by the TQF Secretariat and approved by the TQF 
Council.

The Regulation on the quality assurance of 
qualifications to be included into the TQF was 
adopted and published in the Official Journal in 
March 2018925. 

Governance and institutional arrangements for 
the NQF
The three-member TQF Coordination Council is 
the decision-making body of the TQF. Its members 
are the Deputy Minister of National Education, the 
President of the CoHE and the President of the 
VQA. The TQF Coordination Council is assisted 
by the 22-member TQF Council, representing 
MoNE, the CoHE, the VQA and social partners’ 
organisations. The TQF Council addresses technical 
issues.

The VQA is the body responsible for the 
implementation and execution of the TQF. The 
TQF Department of the VQA executes secretariat 
services for the TQF Council and Coordination 
Council.

The TQF Coordination Council, the TQF Council 
and the TQF Department of the VQA have been 
established and are operational. Their main duties 
and responsibilities are described below.

925  https://myk.gov.tr/images/articles/TYC/TQF_QA_

Regulation.pdf 

The TQF Coordination Council:

a.  evaluates and approves procedures, principles, 
decisions, suggestions and opinions submitted 
by the TQF Council;

b.  collaborates with responsible bodies and 

institutions, international organisations, and the 
bodies and institutions of other countries.

Members of the Coordination Council are 
responsible for ensuring collaboration and 
coordination in the implementation of Coordination 
Council decisions within their bodies.

The TQF Council: 

a.  prepares a three-year action plan for the 

implementation of the TQF and a communication 
strategy to raise national and international 
awareness of it;

b.  prepares principles, procedures and criteria for a 
wide range of issues, such as quality assurance 
of the qualifications to be included in the TQF, 
qualifications database, progress routes, credit 
accumulation and transfer, recognition of prior 
learning (RPL), and updating, modification and 
cancellation of qualifications.

Secretariat services in relation to the TQF are carried 
out by the TQF Department of the VQA.

The TQF Secretariat:

a.  provides assistance to all the technical and 

administrative works of the Coordination Council 
and Turkish Qualifications Framework Council;

b.  drafts an action plan, annual work plan and 

activity report under the management of the TQF 
Council;

c.  ensures the implementation of the TQF 

communication strategy;

d.  establishes the qualifications database and 

ensures its update;

e.  prepares all kinds of research and analysis 

reports requested by the Chairman of the TQF 
Council, or conducts work and procedures for 
their preparation;

f.  performs other duties assigned by the Chairman 

of the TQF Council.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
The TQF Regulation foresees the establishment of 
a consultation committee, with broad stakeholder 
participation, to evaluate issues and submit opinions 
regarding the framework. The committee will meet 
at least once a year. The VQA and the TQF Council 
have identified which stakeholders should sit on 
the consultation committee and the consultation 
committee has been established. The list of the 

642

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSinstitutions to be represented in the committee 
was approved by the TQF Coordination Council at a 
meeting held on 25 January 2018.

Turkey has a system of sector committees, which is 
one of the cornerstones of the sustainability of the 
national vocational qualification system under the 
VQA. Sector committees are tripartite structures 
with State, employer and employee representatives; 
their establishment, duties and operations are 
regulated by law. Some 26 sector committees926 
are operational; sectors have been defined by the 
VQA. These committees perform tasks related to 
the development and maintenance of occupational 
standards and qualifications for their sector.

Resources and funding
The TQF Regulation stipulates that all expenditures 
arising from drafting, updating and roll out of the 
framework shall be covered by the VQA. MoNE, 
the CoHE and the VQA shall designate personnel 
to work permanently at the TQF Department 
of the VQA (Secretariat), which consists of one 
administrative staff, three assistant experts, one 
expert and one manager.

Erasmus+ funds are also being used and IPA II 
funding for TQF implementation is expected in 2019.

f.  self-assessment and external evaluation,
g.  regular review,
h.  allocation of resources,
i.  stakeholder involvement,
j. 
feedback mechanisms,
k.  accessibility to the outcomes of the activities 
(through electronic information technologies).

The criteria for quality assurance are identified 
in accordance with Annex 4 of the EQF 
Recommendation 2017, the Standards and 
Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European 
Higher Education Area, and the European Quality 
Assurance Reference Framework for Vocational 
Education and Training, as well as national quality 
frameworks for education that are in compliance 
with them.

The TQF has three regulating bodies: MoNE, the 
CoHE and the VQA. Each body is responsible for 
the quality assurance of the qualifications under 
its authority. For higher education, the Higher 
Education Quality Board was established in 2015. 
Quality assurance for the qualifications outside the 
scope of MoNE, CoHE, higher education institutions 
and VQA responsibility will be ensured by the 
institutions and organisations specified in related 
legislation.

Per diem allowances for TQF Coordination Council 
and Council members attending meetings shall be 
covered by the responsible bodies.

The TQF Coordination Council shall monitor 
continuous improvement of all quality assurance 
processes.

Quality assurance of qualifications
The TQF Document states that: ‘All quality-
assured qualifications shall be included in the 
TQF.’ The Regulation on the quality assurance of 
qualifications to be included into the TQF – adopted 
and published in the Official Journal in March 2018 –  
regulates the quality assurance procedures and 
principles to which qualifications must comply to 
be included in the TQF. This Regulation is applicable 
to all the qualifications offered in Turkey, whether 
achieved through formal education, non-formal 
education or an RPL/VNFIL procedure.

The Regulation stipulates the duties, authorities and 
responsibilities regarding the quality assurance and 
the components of the quality assurance system, 
namely:

a.  quality assurance criteria,
b.  quality assurance paper and guidelines,
c  qualification form,
d.  assessment and evaluation,
e.  certification,

926  www.myk.gov.tr/index.php/tr/sektor-komiteleri 

The qualifications under the responsibility of MoNE 
and CoHE mostly focus on academic and key 
competences, while the qualifications under the 
responsibility of the VQA focus on employment and 
skills. Thus, the quality assurance systems of the 
institutions responsible for qualifications in Turkey 
have different procedures by nature.

The CoHE is an affiliated member of the European 
Association for Quality Assurance in Higher 
Education (ENQA).

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The VQA and MoNE’s lifelong learning department 
are actively working to widen the VNFIL in Turkey.

The 2014–18 Lifelong Learning Strategy promotes 
extensive use of the VNFIL. MoNE has conducted 
two EU IPA lifelong learning projects with VNFIL 
components. The Lifelong Learning 2 project, 
completed in 2017, lays the foundation for the VNFIL 
system under MoNE’s remit and provides organising 

643

Volume II: National and regional casesprinciples and mechanisms for the identification, 
assessment and certification in relation to the 
qualifications under MoNE’s authority.

Turkey has implemented a system to assess, 
evaluate and certify skills of adults against national 
vocational qualifications. Assessment, evaluation 
and certification are carried out by certification 
bodies (called Voc-Test centres) authorised by the 
VQA. In recent years, the number of authorised 
certification bodies increased substantially, from 45 
in 2016 to 170 by August 2018.

The TQF Regulation and TQF Document include 
provisions for the recognition of prior learning, 
stipulating that all qualifications included in the TQF 
can be attained via RPL/VNFIL.

Learners will have the following possibilities through 
the recognition of prior learning:

a.  access to programmes,
b.  access to exams,
c.  exemptions,
d.  certification of units,
e.  credit accumulation and transfer,
f.  recognition of qualifications.

The TQF Coordination Council will prepare 
guidelines for RPL/VNFIL principles and procedures. 
This will be a general VNFIL framework like the 
EU Recommendation 2012. The responsible bodies 
shall manage the application of these principles 
and procedures for the qualifications under their 
authority. The principles and procedures were 
planned to be prepared at the end of 2018.

The VNFIL was legally introduced in the Turkish 
higher education system in 2011 but is still in a 
starting phase. The country has an operational 
system to assess, evaluate and certify adult 
skills against national vocational qualifications. 
Assessment, evaluation and certification are carried 
out by certification bodies authorised by the VQA 
(called Voc-Test centres). By August 2018 the 
country had 170 authorised centres and numbers 
are increasing. The VQA certification has become 
compulsory for 81 hazardous occupations, which 
puts a strain on the capacity of the system.

For the qualifications under MoNE’s authority, 
comprehensive updates have been made in the 
VNFIL legal framework. Amendments of the VET 
Law (No 3308 of 2 December 2016, adopted by 
the Parliament) stipulate that: ‘The vocational 
qualifications related to prior learning are defined 
based on the occupational standards and their 
levels and assessed by testing. The VNFIL and 
accreditation principles will be defined by a 

regulation issued by MoNE.’ On 2 October 2017, 
MoNE issued the Regulation on the principles and 
implementation of VNFIL, regarding accreditation, 
measurement and evaluation. On 26 March 
2018, revisions were made to the Regulation 
on secondary education to include VNFIL in the 
system. The VNFIL was established in the higher 
education system in 2011 but is still in its early 
stages.

Turkey has a highly developed system of distance 
learning. Most stages in formal and non-formal 
education can be reached by distance learning and 
open education options.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
The TQF does not yet include qualifications since 
realisation of the quality assurance is a priority for 
qualifications to be included into the TQF. Therefore, 
the quality assurance Regulation has been adopted; 
it envisages the establishment and implementation 
of quality assurance systems by April 2020. The 
principles and procedures for the inclusion of 
the qualifications into the TQF are being drafted. 
Following the adoption of these principles and 
procedures, the quality assured qualifications can be 
included into the TQF, expected in 2019. 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Monitoring the effectiveness of the TQF 
implementation will be the joint task of the 
TQF Coordination Council and TQF Consultation 
Committee established in 2018. 

Impact for end-users
Legal arrangements for the TQF are in place and 
its implementation is in process. A qualifications 
database is operational. The TQF does not yet 
include qualifications since the realisation of 
quality assurance is a priority for qualifications to 
be included into the TQF. Therefore, the quality 
assurance Regulation has been adopted; it 
envisages the establishment and implementation 
of quality assurance systems by April 2020. The 
principles and procedures for the inclusion of 
the qualifications into the TQF are being drafted. 
Following the adoption of these principles and 
procedures, the quality assured qualifications can be 
included into the TQF, expected in 2019.  

The authorised certification bodies/VOC-Test 
centres, which assess, evaluate and certify skills of 
adults have an impact on end-users. By August 2018 
these centres had issued over 387 000 certificates 
to individuals that now hold a recognised national 
vocational qualification.

644

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferencing to regional frameworks

Turkey is an EU candidate country and participates 
in the EQF advisory group. The EQF referencing of 
the TQF was completed in the spring of 2017.

Important lessons and future plans

The institutional arrangements for the TQF have 
been very much focused on and around the 
VQA. Coordination of the TQF will be shared 
between stakeholders, in a similar way that the 
VQA executive board has been functioning. The 
VQA experience has greatly contributed to the 
developments so far. MoNE and the CoHE will play 
a more prominent role in the implementation of 
the TQF. The VQA is supporting the implementation 
of the TQF, but is also one of the three regulating 
bodies and it will establish a system for quality 
assurance of provision. The accumulation of these 
different tasks within a single institution is not easy 
to manage, particularly if the system is starting 
to grow more rapidly. The numbers of authorised 
certification bodies, providers and qualifications 
is increasing, as VQA certification is becoming 
compulsory for certain qualifications.

Development of the TQF as an integrated structure 
is a huge step forward from the previous position 
where the national vocational qualifications system 
operated as a parallel structure, focusing on the 
certification of adults. The responsibilities of the 
VQA, MoNE and the CoHE are becoming clearer 
but the new quality assurance regulation defines 
the division of responsibilities based on a common 
set of quality assurance criteria. Implementation 
of the quality assurance regulation will be decisive 
in determining the ultimate division. Sectors 
have been actively involved in developing national 
occupational standards and qualifications and are 
volunteering to become authorised certification 
bodies, but there is a need to support the 
establishment of these bodies, to allow the system 

to grow fast enough to meet the expectations. 
Training that can lead to qualifications is the next 
challenge. The role of the sectors in initial and 
post-secondary VET (MYOs927) and possibly higher 
education has to be clarified. There is interest 
from the private sector in using the TQF to make 
qualifications more relevant. Many training providers 
provide adult learning courses. The Istanbul 
municipality, as an example, is offering hundreds 
of courses, free of charge, for more than 1 million 
participants. These courses are based on MoNE’s 
programmes, with a MoNE course completion 
certificate awarded. The municipality is doing this 
through a protocol with MoNE. Bringing such 
courses into the TQF by mapping them against the 
outcomes of units of VQA or MoNE qualifications 
is a process currently being considered to quality 
assure and certificate them within the TQF.

Abbreviations
CoHE 
EQF 
IPA 

MoNE 
RPL 
TQF 
VET 
VNFIL  

VQA 

Council of Higher Education
European qualifications framework
Instrument for Pre-Accession 
Assistance (the EU’s support 
programme for candidate and 
potential candidate countries)
Ministry of National Education
recognition of prior learning
Turkish qualifications framework 
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning
Vocational Qualifications Authority

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

927   Post-secondary colleges, offering VET and general 
education; offer higher education short-cycle 
qualifications; administered by CoHE.

645

Volume II: National and regional casesUGANDA

Introduction and context

The Ugandan vocational qualifications framework 
(UVQF) was officially introduced through the 
Business, Technical and Vocational Education 
and Training (BTVET) Act of 2008 as a part of 
the BTVET’s overarching 10-year strategic plan, 
Skilling Uganda (Ministry of Education and  
Sports, 2011). 

The most important sub-sectors of the Ugandan 
labour market are the informal economy and the 
agricultural sector. Some 70% of the Ugandan 
workforce continues to work in agriculture. 
Employment in the non-agricultural informal sector 
(comprising mainly microenterprises, own account 
workers and unpaid family workers) accounts for 
18% of total employment and 58% of  
non-agricultural employment.

Technical and vocational education and training 
(TVET) in Uganda is beset with problems. Chief 
among these is the perceived insignificance of 
TVET programmes, which mars the productivity 
and employment chances of an estimated 800,000 
school leavers annually (Heitmann, 2012). Less than 
40% of large and medium firms regard the course 
content and methodologies of BTVET institutions 
as relevant. At the level of advanced technical 
qualifications, the limited coverage of practical 
skills as well as soft skills (such as communication, 
computer literacy, customer care, problem solving, 
work attitudes and ethics) in training programmes 
makes for low performance in modern work 
environments (Ministry of Education and  
Sports, 2011).

Furthermore, only a narrow range of occupations 
are covered in BTVET programmes and they do 
not address the skills requirements of modern 
and emerging sectors such as hospitality, ICT, 
business management and finance, mining and 
engineering, oil and gas, and environmental 
technologies. Employers are rarely represented in 
the rigidly supply-oriented BTVET system. The lack 
of a systematic labour market information system 

further decreases the system’s responsiveness  
to demand. 

Policy objectives

The UVQF’s objectives are to:

a.  align BTVET programmes and qualifications with 
the needs of the labour market, so as to produce 
graduates with employable skills; 

b.  allow employers and industry experts to play a 

significant role in defining occupational standards 
and training content;

c.  safeguard against the institutionalization of 
supply-driven, academically-focused formal 
training programmes, which in the past failed to 
equip graduates with skills relevant to the needs 
of the labour market; 

d.  develop formal and (where possible and 

appropriate) non-formal programmes based on 
UVQF standards in order to facilitate progression 
within the BTVET system (Ministry of Education 
and Sports, 2011).

Section 3 (5) of the 2008 BTVET Act highlights the 
following aims: 

a.  improve the relevance, accessibility, quality 

and affordability of BTVET for the purposes of 
progression and employment;

b.  enhance workers’ capabilities for employment 

and self-employment;

c.  monitor gaps between supply of and demand for 

skills;

d.  establish financial sustainability and funding 

mechanisms. 

Section 3 (3) of the BTVET Act defines the following 
aims of the UVQF:

a.  determine the scope and levels of BTVET 
programmes and the roles of the different 
stakeholders in designing programme content;

b.  separate training and delivery from quality 

assurance functions;

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSc.  establish an institutional framework for the 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

coordination of BTVET;

d.  establish an authority to regulate qualifications 
(standards, assessment and certification) and 
training delivery in formal and non-formal institutions. 

The UVQF has five levels. The level descriptors 
form a continuum in which the preceding levels are 
subsumed within those that follow. 

Table 85. Ugandan vocational qualifications framework (UVQF) summary of generic level descriptors 

LEVEL 

LEVEL DESCRIPTOR

5

4

3

2

1

Candidate can apply a broad range of specialised knowledge and skills 
to interpret technical information, modify concepts, practices and 
procedures, and perform complex technical operations in unpredictable 
contexts. Can undertake activities with a high degree of autonomy when 
results are checked on by superiors. Shows a high degree of control of 
resources and managerial performance.

Candidate can apply a substantial range of specialised knowledge 
and skills to interpret technical information and perform and modify 
complex operations in a variety of contexts. Can undertake activities 
with a substantial degree of autonomy when results are checked on 
by superiors. Shows a substantial degree of control of resources and 
managerial performance.

Candidate can apply a broad range of knowledge and skills to perform 
complex work in varied contexts. Can undertake activities as a ‘working 
supervisor’ with a substantial degree of autonomy when results are 
checked on by superiors. Can find technical solutions and make proposals 
to modify technical operations. Shows a moderate degree of control of 
resources and managerial performance.

Candidate can apply a moderate range of knowledge and skills to perform 
less complex work in non-routine and occasionally varied contexts. 
Can undertake directed activities with some degree of autonomy while 
working in a team, and can find simple technical solutions unaided. 
Shows a limited degree of control of resources.

Candidate can apply a basic range of knowledge and skills to perform 
simple work in routine contexts. Can work with others under direct 
supervision. If self-employed, shows a limited ability to find technical 
solutions.

COMPARABLE 
QUALIFICATIONS

Higher diploma 
(HD)

Ordinary diploma 
(OD)

Certificate III

Certificate II

Certificate I

Elementary/ 
entry level 
(partial 
qualification)

Candidate can apply a limited range of knowledge and skills to perform 
specific and simple tasks in routine contexts. Can work with others 
under direct supervision. If self-employed, shows a limited ability to find 
technical solutions.

Worker’s PAS 
transcript

Note: elementary/entry level abilities will be awarded a partial 
qualification based on modular assessment and certification.

Note: PAS – practically acquired skills 

Source: Ministry of Education and Sports, 2011

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

A task force set up by the BTVET department of 
the Ministry of Education and Sports began work 
on a comprehensive qualifications framework for 

Uganda in 2000; however, the government-approved 
Promotion of employment-oriented vocational and 
technical education and training (PEVOT) programme 
later shifted focus to the development of a sub-
sector framework for vocational qualifications 
only. The original idea to establish an autonomous 

647

Volume II: National and regional casesvocational qualifications authority was abandoned 
due to resistance from parliament and the ministry 
(Heitmann, 2012). Nevertheless, the development 
of occupational profiles, item banks and modular 
curricula started in 2003 in a number of pilot projects.

The DIT is supervised by the Industrial Training 
Council, which develops policies for technical and 
vocational skills development with representation 
from industry. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The BTVET Act of 2008 makes provision for the 
assessment of prior learning (APL). Regulations to 
facilitate APL are supported by both stakeholders 
and TVET graduates who have expressed an interest 
in higher education via APL. This is catered for by 
Section 20 (5) of the UVQF, under which graduates 
of community polytechnics, vocational schools 
and training centres are offered the opportunity to 
progress to the next level of learning. Individuals 
are encouraged to undergo evidence-based 
assessments to determine the appropriate level 
for them. In this way, learners who have acquired 
skills in the informal economy will have the chance 
to rejoin the formal system. In order to meet the 
needs of APL learners, occupational qualifications 
programmes on the UVQF are characterized by 
competence-based education and training and 
flexible learning modules delivered in the form of 
assessment and training packages. 

In 2009, the Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT) 
assessed roughly 2,000 applicants on the basis 
of the old trade testing regulations using an item 
bank developed under the UVQF. However, these 
numbers must be seen in relation to the much 
larger numbers of students (around 18,000 annually) 
who appear for examinations in formal TVET schools 
(Heitmann, 2012, p. 22).

NQF implementation

The BTVET Act revitalized the DIT, which was made 
obsolete in 1998 when all education and training 
functions were transferred from line ministries to 
the Ministry of Education and Sports. The DIT is 
now in charge of quality assurance and assessment. 
Learners with employable skills are encouraged 
to apply to the DIT for assessment irrespective 
of the duration and type of learning (i.e. formal, 
informal or non-formal) and of their gender and 
social background. The DIT started issuing UVQF 
qualification certificates in 2009, phasing out the 
award of trade test certificates. It assures employers 
that every UVQF-certified individual is able to 
perform the relevant occupational tasks to the 
level of competence indicated on the qualification 
certificate.

The qualifications standards department is 
responsible for developing occupational standards, 
training modules, and compiling and distributing 
assessment and training packages that are 
occupation-based.

The department currently has an estimated 
70 occupational profiles, training modules for 
80 occupations, assessment instrument banks 
for 83 occupations, and assessment and training 
packages for 80 occupations (Ministry of Education 
and Sports, 2016).

Referencing to regional frameworks 

A technical paper on Harmonization of Education 
Systems and Training Curricula in the East African 
Community (EAC Secretariat, April 2012) made 
several recommendations on the proposed 
overarching qualifications framework for the East 
African region. The most important of these as 
regards the UVQF are:

a.  A regional qualifications framework for TVET 

should be developed. It should feature guidelines 
and regulations for instruction, curriculum 
management and examination and assessment 
in the regional TVET sub-sector.

b.  A regulatory body should be established to 
accredit institutions and programmes, set 
and control standards, standardize awards, 
and ensure the quality and relevance of TVET 
programmes and assessment centres in the 
region. 

c.  An inter-governmental body should be created 
to deal with TVET-related issues in the region. 
The East African Community Secretariat should 
schedule regular meetings of TVET experts to 
develop guidelines for harmonization of the 
regional TVET sub-sector. 

Important lessons and future plans

The Ugandan Government’s vision for the future is 
to give all learners the opportunity to further their 
education up to tertiary level via an overarching 
national qualifications framework covering general 
and higher education as well as TVET. The UVQF 
is seen as a forerunner to this framework, which 
will make education and training in Uganda truly 
democratic.

648

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe first step towards this goal in the immediate 
future will be to expand the UVQF up to diploma 
level. This responds to the urgent request of 
employers to produce more diploma-level BTVET 
graduates with relevant practical skills. Curriculum 
development will be accelerated based on UVQF 
standards (Ministry of Education and Sports, 2016), 
and the quality and profile of vocational training will 
be improved by strengthening links between TVET 
and the private sector.

Abbreviations
APL  
BTVET  

DIT  
NQF 
TVET 

UVQF 

assessment of prior learning 
business, technical and vocational 
education and training
Directorate of Industrial Training 
national qualifications framework 
technical and vocational education 
and training 
Ugandan vocational qualifications 
framework 

References

BTVET (Business, Technical and Vocational Education and Training) (n.d.). Website. Accessed 3 January 2017 

at: www.btvet-uganda.org/legal-framework/btvet

BTVET (n.d.). Promotion of employment-oriented vocational and technical education and training (PEVOT). 

Accessed 3 January 2017 at: www.btvet-uganda.org/partners/pevot/

Directorate of Industrial Training (2016). Promote employable skills. Kampala: Ministry of Education and 

Sports. Accessed 3 January 2017 at: http://dituganda.org/qualifications-standards

East African Community (2011). East African Community portal. Accessed 12 January 2017 at: www.eac.int/

about-eac.html

Heitmann, W. (2012). Lessons learned from selected national qualifications frameworks in sub-Saharan 
Africa. Triennale on Education and Training in Africa, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 12–17 February 
2012. Tunis: Association for the Development of Education in Africa.

Ministry of Education and Sports (2008). Revised education sector strategic plan 2007–2015. Kampala: 

Ministry of Education and Sports. Accessed 12 January 2017 at: www.education.go.ug/files/
downloads/Revised%20Education%20Sector%20strategic%20plan%202007-2015(1).pdf 

Ministry of Education and Sports (2011). Skilling Uganda: BTVET strategic plan 2011–2020. Kampala: 

Ministry of Education and Sports. Accessed 12 January 2017 at: www.skillsforemployment.org/KSP/
en/Details/?dn=WCMSTEST4_033226 

Prepared by:
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in collaboration with national experts.

649

Volume II: National and regional casesUKRAINE

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
The national qualifications framework (NQF) is 
described in an annex of Resolution No 1341 of the 
Cabinet of Ministers from 23 November 2011 on 
the confirmation of the NQF. The Higher Education 
Law (Law 1556-VII of 1 July 2014), made a direct 
link between higher education qualifications and 
the NQF by allocating qualifications to NQF levels. 
The Law on Education (Law 2145-VIII adopted 
5 September 2017) gave a central role to the 
NQF and lifelong learning and competence-based 
education. 

The Law has a chapter on the qualification system 
and describes the tasks of the National Agency 
for Qualifications (NAK). NAK is a collegial body 
supported by government and social partners. 
It coordinates the development of occupational 
standards and qualifications, manages the registers 
of standards and qualifications, supports the 
widening of validation of non-formal and informal 
learning (VNFIL), and accredits qualification centres. 
NAK’s statute was adopted on 5 December 2018 
with Resolution No 1029.

The draft Law on Vocational Education builds on 
the Law on Education and defines the approach to 
educational standards (based on learning outcomes 
derived from occupational standards), decentralised 
educational programmes (modular and competence-
based), more active learning methods and different 
forms of learning. A national methodology for 
developing occupational standards (Ministerial 
Order No 74 of 22 January 2018 on Approval of the 
Professional Standards Development Methodology, 
Ministry of Social Policy) was adopted, giving 
occupational standards a clear legal status.

The NQF originally had 10 levels, from 0 to 9. Each 
level has a general outcome descriptor as well as 
four outcome statements for knowledge, skills, 
communication, and autonomy and responsibility.

The Ministry of Education is the main policy 
body. It collaborates closely with the Ministry 

of Social Policy. The Interdepartmental Working 
Group including ministries, research centres, 
employer representatives, trade unions, and NGOs 
meets every four–five months to discuss NQF 
implementation. 

Educational, social, economic and political  
context
Ukraine faces major socio-economic challenges. 
The population has dropped to 42 million and is 
predominantly (close to 70%) urban. The country is 
aging, and the population in decline. Labour force 
aging is worse in the rural areas. Big enterprises 
still play an important role in the economy and in 
employment, which has a very sizeable industrial 
and mining sector, next to a large number of small 
and medium enterprises. There are significant 
economic, social and cultural regional differences in 
the country.

The occupation of the regions in the East of Ukraine 
where a major part of the country’s industrial 
potential was concentrated and annexation of the 
Crimea have aggravated the situation. An area 
where 6 million people lived was cut off from 
the rest of Ukraine and affected by destruction. 
Operations of thousands of enterprises were 
suspended. The GDP plummeted and recovery is 
slow. The number of internally displaced persons 
grew significantly. There are close to 2 million 
internally displaced persons while an estimated 
2–5 million Ukrainians left the country, mainly for 
the EU and some to Russia. Since the start of 
military actions, there has been an increase in the 
number of people with disabilities; a sharp decline 
in industrial production; contraction of foreign direct 
investment inflows; termination of business ties 
with enterprises in the occupied territories; declining 
rates of economic activity; an increase in forced 
part-time work; a decline in disposable incomes due 
to growing wage arrears; and increased migration of 
employable population.

The number of employed people fell from 18.07 
million in 2014 to 16.03 million in 2018. With a 
reducing labour force, unemployment has not seen 
a big increase: in 2018, the unemployment rate  

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSwas 9.7% while the youth unemployment rate  
was 19.7%. 

Ukrainians are well educated. The gross enrolment 
rate in tertiary education is close to 80% and 
attainment levels of the working population is 
high. In 2017, 52.9 % of the adult population have 
completed or are engaged in tertiary education. 

More education did not translate in better labour 
market outcomes. Over-education has become 
a widespread phenomenon. Most higher 
education graduates cannot find employment at 
the appropriate level, and many have to accept 
skilled worker jobs. Ukraine has the lowest labour 
productivity in the entire Europe and Central Asia 
region (IMF, 2015). Skill gaps significantly constrain 
firms’ performance. In a 2014 survey928, four firms 
out of ten reported a significant gap between the 
type of skills their employees have and those they 
need to achieve business objectives. Skill gaps limit 
the companies’ efficiency, service quality, and ability 
to retain and grow their client base. It also impedes 
firms from finding the right candidate for the job 
when hiring. Despite dissatisfaction with learning 
results, businesses mainly rely on formal education 
to train the workforce, as formal workplace training 
is scarce.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
The objectives of the NQF have been evolving 
over time. Initially the focus was on the need for 
more relevant qualifications and quality assurance 
through European standards, showing as well the 
desire for European integration and, especially, the 
link to the Bologna process. With the articulation 
of the education reforms, the NQF is becoming an 
instrument to support reform. The NQF facilitates 
reform of higher education and of general and 
vocational education, lifelong learning, and a better 
coordination between education and labour market 
policies. The NQF supports competence-based 
education, through reform of education standards 
and curricula, and can ensure safeguards for equity, 
access and progression, and quality assurance in a 
decentralised education system in which providers 
are more autonomous. 

On the labour market side, the development of 
occupational standards and the introduction of 
validation of non-formal learning and independent 
assessment of candidates are seen as the most 
important tools in ensuring that the workforce 

928   Ukraine STEP employer survey 2014; World Bank (2015). 

Skills for modern Ukraine: overview.

acquires and keeps up to date with identified 
skill needs. This is important as there is a huge 
mismatch between supply and demand. The desire 
to link qualifications with European frameworks, and 
to ensure more transparent qualifications that will 
be recognised abroad, is important but not the top 
priority at this stage. Self-certification against the 
qualifications framework for the European higher 
education area (QF-EHEA) and alignment with the 
European qualifications framework (EQF) will gain 
importance when we move closer to 2020.

Higher education reforms have been shaped by the 
Bologna process, breaking the linkage between 
higher education and the tariff qualification system, 
and abolishing qualification types inherited from the 
Soviet system. 

Current education reforms are addressing the 
contents of education, preparing young people 
better for the 21st century by the introduction of 
decentralised competence-based general education, 
starting from pre-school education and giving more 
emphasis to developing key competences and 
transversal skills, while also aligning the duration 
of secondary education to European practices. 
These changes (which are part of the New Ukrainian 
School concept) are also affecting secondary 
vocational education and training (VET), that will 
span levels 3–5 of the NQF. 

A concept for a modernised VET has been 
developed. Modernised VET will be provided 
in a decentralised system that is competence-
based and much more closely linked with the 
needs of local companies and individual learners. 
Educational programmes will be modularised and 
developed from the learning outcomes defined in 
the educational standards by training providers. 
Educational standards are based on occupational 
standards, which have received a national status 
through changes in legislation issued by the Ministry 
of Social Policy. Instead of a centralised system 
based on state order, qualification characteristics 
and educational standards and subject-based 
training programmes. The new approach should be 
more demand-driven, based on regional priorities, 
occupational standards, educational standards, 
decentralised educational programmes and modular 
training programmes. Teacher competence and 
qualifications need to be reinforced. Assessment 
standards will define the requirements for 
(independent) summative assessment.  

In the field of adult learning there are important 
reforms, linked with the legislation of professional 
qualifications, the VNFIL, independent assessment 
by qualification centres and the development 
of sector qualifications frameworks. Partial 

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Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications have been regulated in addition to full 
educational and professional qualifications. 

New institutional settings have been created 
through the establishment of the Quality Assurance 
Agency for Higher Education (Nazyavo), the National 
Agency for Qualifications (NAK), qualification 
centres, independent assessment bodies and sector 
committees. 

International cooperation
The Bologna process is one of the main drivers 
for NQF development. It should ensure an NQF 
that is in line with the QF-EHEA. The Law on 
Higher Education has started implementation. The 
establishment of the Quality Assurance Agency 
has faced many challenges and four years after the 
Law on Higher Education, the agency is not yet fully 
functional. New processes for accreditation, new 
higher education standards and new curricula have 
been developed and introduced. All the programmes 
and their components are now expressed in learning 
outcomes. But the whole system is still very much 
focused on teaching and no steering is in place to 
ensure that assessment is also based on learning 
outcomes (see the European Higher Education 
Area 2018 Bologna Process implementation report). 
The role of students is also limited in comparison 
to other countries, as is the role of employers. 
Most students are encouraged to continue from a 
bachelor’s to a master’s degree. 

The Association Agreement between Ukraine and 
the EU includes a number of elements that are 
relevant for implementing the qualifications reform. 
The agreement promotes convergence in higher 
education deriving from the Bologna process; 
establishing a national framework to improve the 
transparency and recognition of qualifications and 
skills, drawing, where possible, on EU experience; 
and helping young people acquire knowledge, skills 
and competences outside education systems, 
including through volunteering, and recognising the 
value of such experiences. It also mentions joint 
work to bring Ukraine’s vocational training system 
more closely in line with the modernisation of EU 
VET structures via instruments such as the EQF, the 
European credit system for VET (ECVET) and the 
European quality assurance reference framework for 
vocational education and training (EQARF). This has 
helped to give the NQF a central place in reforms.

A number of education projects have been 
implemented during the past seven years after 
the adoption of the NQF, but many of them have 
been very small in size and scope. The Tempus and 
Erasmus+ programme for higher education have 
been a continuous source for cooperation in higher 
education and the British Council has also given 

some support in this area. In general education 
the Polish and Finnish governments have been 
providing bilateral support to implement the New 
Ukrainian School. In vocational education, there has 
been a twinning project and some smaller bilateral 
initiatives, including cooperation to develop dual 
education. Estonia has started to implement a 
project for the region of Volyn which provided school 
partnerships and curriculum development support. 
The EU ULEAD project has been providing some 
support for the decentralisation of VET. 

Since major educational reforms have been 
launched without substantial donor support, the 
ETF has started to develop bridging support for the 
implementation of the NQF Action Plan 2016–20, 
to support legislative and institutional changes and 
the clarification of processes and approaches for the 
development of standards and curricula. 

Currently preparations are advanced for a combined 
EU and Member States EUR 53 million initiative to 
support the modernisation of vocational education, 
which foresees policy and legislative support, 
support to raise the quality of vocational education 
and investment in infrastructure. This project will 
include support to the development of the National 
Agency for Qualifications, the elaboration and 
implementation of standards and VET curricula for 
100 profiles and widening the offer of the VNFIL. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
The NQF is a framework for lifelong learning with 
a focus on education, but also on employment and 
social labour relations and individuals. With the 
Law on Education the NQF has clearly become 
an instrument for lifelong learning. The features 
for adult learning, however, will need to be further 
developed before they can be implemented. 
Especially in the area of assessment there is a 
need to develop applications to move towards 
assessment based on learning outcomes. 

The NQF is described in the annex of Resolution 
No 1341 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 23 November 
2011. The NQF Decree is relatively short and asks 
for the implementation of the NQF by different 
stakeholders and institutions, the development of 
rules for its implementation, an action plan and the 
establishment of an interdepartmental committee. The 
annex explains what the NQF is, its purpose and key 
concepts, and it is followed by a table with the NQF 
descriptors. The NQF has 10 levels from 0 to 9 that 
have a general outcome descriptor for each level as 
well as four outcome statements for knowledge, skills, 
communication, and autonomy and responsibility.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe NQF levels are not aligned with the tariff 
qualification system, and in particular, the wage 
levels (розряди), but are a genuine break with 
the past. This poses a number of problems. Wage 
levels have been abolished for higher education 
qualifications but still play a role in vocational 
qualifications and in the definition of educational 
standards. They are not reflected in modern 
occupational standards. However, decoupling 
qualifications from wage levels has consequences 
on the way wages are defined. 

With the introduction of learning outcomes in 
ISCED 2011 and the adoption of eight ISCED levels, 
including level 0 for pre-school education, there 
has been an attempt to align ISCED with the EQF. 
This has found resonance in Ukraine, but has also 
created a unique set of level descriptors. 

There is progressive use of NQF levels, in particular 
in education. The Law on Education mentions which 
educational qualifications will be issued for which 
levels. Following Article 36 of the Law, an additional 
level was introduced. 

NQF levels and level descriptors
The 10-level framework is seen as a mechanism 
for recognising lifelong learning from pre-school 
education level up to Doctor of Sciences. It has 
attempted to unify the approaches introduced by 
ISCED 2011 in the year that the NQF was adopted, 
and the EQF to create a truly lifelong learning 
framework from the cradle to the grave. The idea 
was promoted by the Ukrainian National Academy 
of Pedagogy. Levels 0 and 9 were preserved in spite 
of critical comments by the Council of Europe and 
the ETF. Level 9 is seen as essential for enhancing 
the scientific and research leadership in the country, 
building on a strong academic tradition that goes 
back to the Soviet period; it is seen as important 
to innovation and scientific discovery. Level 0 is 
the first stage in the lifelong learning system and 
should ensure basic values on which the education 
system is built. The descriptors for knowledge, skills, 
communication, and autonomy and responsibility 
are complemented by integrating professional 
competences, bringing the essence of the different 
categories together. Among the other essential social 
dimensions of the NQF are the need to enhance 
democratisation and social partnership in education. 

The Law on Education (Article 36) introduced an 
additional level to accommodate the Junior Bachelor 
and distinguish it from the Junior Specialist, 
described in the future as a pre-higher professional 
qualification. In 2019, the last generation of junior 
specialists is going to enter higher education; from 
then onwards this qualification will be falling outside 
the higher education field. The Ministry of Education 

proposed an adapted set of level descriptors in 2018 
that has not yet been adopted to accommodate 
these changes. Public consultation of the new levels 
has not produced any response, while the whole 
issue of integrating the Junior Specialist into VET is 
very much contested by colleges.

Use of learning outcomes
Under the New Ukrainian School concept, a 12-year 
education system has been introduced. It comprises 
a basic nine-year secondary education, followed 
by a profiled three-year specialisation, bringing 
Ukrainian education closer to common practices in 
other industrialised countries. The reform focuses 
on renewing the contents of education. Students 
should be trained to become responsible citizens, 
patriots, innovators, and critical thinkers. The 
education system has been too much disconnected 
from society and the country’s economy. Education 
needs to be more strongly embedded in society, 
and schools will need to work closer with parents 
and communities.  

All secondary school graduates need to develop 
10 key competences: communication in the state 
language and in foreign languages; mathematical 
literacy, sciences and technology, and digital 
competences; the ability to learn and adapt; social 
and civic competences for effective and constructive 
participation in society; entrepreneurship; general 
cultural literacy to understand works of art, 
express ideas artistically, and help to understand 
cultural diversity; and environmental and health 
competences. Moreover, the following skills 
are seen as indispensable to developing key 
competences: reading abilities, oral and written 
expression, critical thinking, the ability to give one’s 
opinion logically, the ability to constructively manage 
one’s emotions, initiative, creativity, problem-solving 
skills, evaluating risks and decision-making, and the 
ability to work in teams. 

The first phase of general education will be focused 
on developing basic skills, which should normally 
last six years depending on the learning outcomes 
obtained. During the next phase, the focus should 
be much more on developing the key competences, 
hence the extensive work under way to redevelop 
the secondary education curriculum. The last three 
years of secondary education is proposed to take 
place in academic lyceums for specialisation in 
arts and humanities, maths and sciences or other 
academic fields, and professional lyceums, or in 
professional colleges or technicums that can provide 
a qualified worker or junior specialist diploma.

The new educational standards and curricula 
needed to reshape the contents of secondary 
education will be part of the NQF register and 

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 86. Types of qualifications in the national qualifications framework of Ukraine

NQF 
LEVEL

FORMAL EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS

GENERAL EDUCATION PRIMARY VOCATIONAL 

EDUCATION

HIGHER 
EDUCATION

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Specialised secondary 
school certificate

Basic general secondary 
education certificate

Skilled labour certificate

Skilled labour certificate

High school diploma

Skilled labour diploma

ENA certificate

Junior specialist diploma

Junior Bachelor

Bachelor

Master

PhD

OTHER 
QUALIFICATIONS

PROFESSIONAL 
QUALIFICATIONS

Professional qualification 
level 1

Professional qualification 
level 2

Professional qualification 
level 3

Professional qualification 
level 4

Professional qualification 
level 5

Professional qualification 
level 6

Professional qualification 
level 7

Professional qualification 
level 8
Professional qualification 
level 9

Doctor of Science Professional qualification 

level 10

developed in line with the learning outcomes 
descriptors. The key competences development 
will need to continue to play an important role 
across vocational education, higher education and 
adult learning. The new approach has been clarified 
progressively over the past two years. In higher 
education, learning outcomes are already used in 
all educational standards and related curricula, but 
assessment has not been systematically addressed. 
In VET, experience with learning outcomes-based 
curricula on an experimental basis goes back to 
2006. Since then 330 new standards have been 
introduced with aspects of a learning outcomes-
based approach, although only a small number of 
them has a direct link to occupational standards. 
During 2016–18 the ETF worked closely with the 
ministries of Education and Social Policy and the 
Institute for the Modernisation of the Contents of 
Education (IMZO) to review current approaches 
and build a common competence-based approach 
for occupational standards, educational standards, 
assessment standards and decentralised curricula. 

Learning and assessment practices need to 
change. It is therefore proposed that separate 
assessment standards be developed to facilitate 
independent assessment. These will be used by 
qualification centres (Law on Education) for the 
assessment of professional qualifications and by 
independent assessment bodies (draft Law on 
Vocational Education) overseeing the assessment 
of educational qualifications for VET. The VNFIL 
based on occupational standards has already started 
for cooks. This practice implemented by the State 
Employment Service is expected to be widened 
in the coming years. The New Ukrainian School 
is entering its second year of implementation 
and the number of teachers involved in delivering 
competence-based education programmes 
is growing substantially through a cascading 
model. In vocational education the EU project 
supporting the modernisation of VET will support 
the implementation of many new standards and 
curricula.

The development of standards and curricula 
needs to be followed up by implementation. 

Definition of qualification
According to the Law on Education, qualification 
is a standardised set of competences (learning 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSoutcomes) achieved by a person, recognised by 
an authorised body and confirmed by a respective 
document.

The use of the term qualifications standard is 
changing as stakeholders have now started 
preparations to develop assessment standards. For 
educational qualifications issued in the education 
system the standards that regulate the award of the 
qualification (the so-called documents of education) 
are educational standards, but these are changing in 
nature. For professional qualifications, occupational 
standards or assessment standards should be 
the basis. Partial qualifications can be based on a 
module or unit of a standard.

Traditionally the state educational standards for 
vocational education and higher education started 
from a description of the qualification characteristics 
that were derived from one of the 92 sectoral 
handbooks on qualification characteristics. This 
system of qualification characteristics contains more 
than 6 000 entries for different occupations, but is 
only very partially maintained and many descriptions 
of the labour market needs are, therefore, out of 
date. 

A new model is emerging with qualifications 
focused on demand rather than the state order. 
The ETF has been supporting this development. 
Occupational standards define competences for 
occupations that are in demand on the labour 
market and are developed with stakeholders 
(sectoral and professional councils). This work 
started voluntarily in 2010 with employers 
developing more than 80 occupational standards 
and it was legislated last year, making occupational 
standards formally part of the new system. 
The Ministry of Social Policy now approves 
occupational standards and will develop a repository 
of occupational standards until the National 
Qualifications Authority is established. Occupational 
standards should be used to develop assessment 
standards that will be the basis for independent 
assessment of VET graduates, the certification 
of unqualified workers and the VNFIL. Education 
standards have been simplified and provide the 
minimal information needed to support curriculum 
development by VET providers. 

Since 2012 VET providers can develop their own 
curricula, which need to be approved by the Ministry 
of Education. This system of national standards and 
independent assessment will ensure the quality 
and comparability of the outcomes of vocational 
education, while giving providers and local 
employers more autonomy to develop and deliver 
curricula that meet local needs.

In the new model education standards for VET are 
describing modules and learning outcomes that 
have been derived from the labour functions in 
the occupational standards. Common education 
requirements and key competences are integrated 
in a basic block that provides the learning outcomes 
common to all VET qualifications. In accordance 
with the draft Law on Vocational Education, students 
should all be trained to complete secondary 
education and obtain the key competences and 
occupational competences they need for successful 
integration in the labour market. The latter need to 
be successfully completed by all students. Some 
students, however, will complete their education 
and training without completing secondary 
education, indicating that the priority for VET is 
to obtain relevant competences for the labour 
market. Moreover, after successful completion of 
each module, students will be able to get a partial 
qualification. These partial qualifications will also 
form a bridge with professional qualifications. 

Access, progression and credit
Access to educational qualifications is guaranteed 
by the Law on Education. Special measures will 
need to be developed for learners with special 
needs. Gender discrimination is prohibited. The 
new flexible and modularised structure should 
make VET more accessible and facilitate as well 
the integration of different groups of learners 
in one group. Individual development plans and 
programmes are specifically mentioned in the Law. 
There are already a number of partial qualifications 
in operation for integrating different target groups 
into learning and the labour market. These include 
for example Ukrainian language proficiency tests. 
The modularised approach is opening opportunities 
for a credit-based approach but this is not yet on 
the agenda. The draft Law on Vocational Education 
uses workload more in a traditional context of a 
fixed number of contact hours. In higher education, 
the ECTS is in use but is not very much defined by 
outcomes.  

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
The NQF is described in the annex of Resolution 
No 1341 of the Cabinet of Ministers of 
23 November 2011 on the confirmation of the 
NQF. The Resolution was not sufficient to ensure 
implementation. 

The Higher Education Law (Law 1556-VII of 
1 July 2014) made a direct link between higher 
education qualifications and the NQF by allocating 
qualifications to NQF levels. 

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Volume II: National and regional casesThe Law on Education (Law No 2145-VIII adopted 
on 5 September 2017), gave a central role to the 
NQF and lifelong learning and competence-based 
education. The Law supports principles for lifelong 
learning, giving a central place to learning outcomes 
and key competences at the basis of standards 
and curricula, more autonomy to providers, and 
more attention to independent assessment. The 
Law establishes a competence-based approach for 
general education and secondary VET through the 
New Ukrainian School. VET standards will be based 
on occupational standards. The Law distinguishes 
between education qualifications delivered through 
formal education, and professional qualifications 
focused on use in the labour market. It introduces 
sector qualifications frameworks and partial 
qualifications. 

and Agriculture who all participate regularly in 
meetings on the NQF. Other stakeholders involved 
are: the Verkhovna Rada, the National Academy of 
Pedagogical Sciences, the Academy of Sciences, 
the Institute for the Modernisation of Education, 
the State Employment Service, the VET Research 
Institute, regional training and methodological 
centres, the Federation of Employers, the 
Confederation of Employers and the Institute 
for Professional Qualifications, the Chamber of 
Industry, professional bodies, economic clusters, 
the Federation of Metallurgists, sector committees, 
lead entreprises, the State Railways, trade unions, 
universities, NGOs and other training providers. In 
the coming five years, the number of institutions 
and people involved in NQF implementation will 
grow. 

The Law has a chapter on the qualification system 
and describes the tasks of the National Agency 
for Qualifications (NAK). NAK is a collegial body 
supported by the government and social partners. 
It coordinates the development of occupational 
standards and qualifications, manages the registers 
of standards and qualifications, supports VNFIL 
widening, and accredits qualification centres. NAK’s 
statute is close to adoption. 

The VNFIL was regulated by the Law on 
Professional Development of Employees (Law 
No 4312) stipulating that the State Employment 
Service established recognition centres for the 
VNFIL. The Law on Employment (Law No 5067-VI 
of 5 July 2012) confirmed the right of unemployed 
people to validate their skills obtained through 
informal learning. Order No 256 of 2016 of the 
Ministry of Social Policy initiated the implementation 
of the VNFIL of guards, cooks and welders. The 
draft Law on Vocational Education builds on the 
Law on Education and defines the approach to 
educational standards (based on learning outcomes 
derived from occupational standards), decentralised 
educational programmes (modular and competence-
based), more active learning methods and different 
forms of learning.

A national methodology for developing occupational 
standards (Ministerial Order No 74 of 22 January 
2018 on Approval of the Professional Standards 
Development Methodology) was adopted, giving 
occupational standards a clear legal status.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
Many stakeholders have been involved in the 
development and implementation of the NQF and 
the qualification system. Current developments 
include the Cabinet of Ministers, the ministries of 
Education, Economic Development and Trade, Social 
Policy, Regional Development, Finance, Culture, 

The Ministry of Education is the main policy 
body. It collaborates closely with the Ministry 
of Social Policy in charge of the VNFIL, 
occupational standards, guidance and counselling. 
The Interdepartmental Working Group that 
includes ministries, research centres, employer 
representatives, trade unions and NGOs 
meets every four–five months to discuss NQF 
implementation. The group was re-established 
in 2017 and widened its composition in 2018. 
The Minister of Education chairs the group. The 
Ministry of Education is responsible for reporting 
on the NQF Action Plan 2016–20. The Federation of 
Employers has been a continuous active promotor 
of the NQF. It prepared several law initiatives that 
failed. In June 2017, the Federation proposed to 
establish the National Agency of Qualifications in 
a joint decision of social partners and government. 
Article 38 of the Law on Education legislates the 
Agency (abbreviated as NAK in Ukrainian). NAK will 
be a collegial body, co-founded by the government 
and social partners to strengthen coordination. 
It will have 17 tasks, including coordination and 
information of stakeholders, supporting legislative 
developments, developing and maintaining 
the registry of qualifications, coordinating the 
development of occupational standards, supporting 
the development of educational standards, 
accrediting qualification centres, overseeing the 
recognition and validation of non-formal and informal 
learning, and establishing the criteria for the 
recognition of foreign qualifications.

Quality assurance of qualifications
Quality assurance has been a main objective of 
the NQF. All qualifications should define minimal 
requirements in terms of learning outcomes. 
The systematic use of occupational standards 
is a guarantee to make qualifications relevant 
for the labour market. Educational qualifications 
should promote competence-based education 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand include key competences. New education 
standards and curricula for general education, 
vocational education and higher education are being 
prepared. Minimal requirements facilitate autonomy 
of providers for learning and set safeguards for 
assessment. Independent assessment should 
ensure that individuals meet the learning outcomes 
in the standards. Quality assurance principles are 
legislated in the Law on Higher Education (2014), 
VNFIL regulations (2016), the Law on Education 
(2017) and the Draft VET Law (approval expected 
in 2019). New approaches are being developed to 
elaborate occupational and educational standards, 
curricula (educational programmes) and assessment 
standards. The New Ukrainian School and the 
project supporting the modernisation of VET will put 
these in practice in 2019–24, with EU and Member 
States support.

According to the NQF Decree, the NQF is 
intended to introduce the European standards 
and principles of quality assurance of labour 
market requirements in respect of specialist 
competences. Quality assurance has, therefore, 
been one of the main objectives of the NQF in 
order to strengthen confidence in qualifications. 
The focus has been on bringing standards more 
in line with European practices, moving from a 
curriculum-focused subject-oriented approach to 
an outcome-based approach, strengthening the 
relevance of standards, assessment processes 
and programme accreditation of providers. There 
is consensus that qualifications or educational 
standards should become part of a single national 
register of qualifications. The establishment of 
such a register is foreseen in the NQF Action 
Plan 2016–20. Another register is also foreseen 
for occupational standards. Both registers would 
have a filtering function as repositories of validated 
relevant qualifications and standards. Under 
the responsibility of the National Agency for 
Qualifications it is proposed that both registers and 
other databases be linked. International experiences 
have already been studied and a national 
qualification system’s website has been designed. 
These sources are also important to mobilise the 
implementers of the new standards and explain the 
benefits to final beneficiaries (learners, employers). 
Dissemination of practices beyond a small group of 
experts is needed.   

Decisions have been made to move to independent 
assessment. The Law on Education regulates the 
establishment of qualification centres that will be 
accredited by NAK. An experiment in independent 
assessment in vocational education is scheduled 
for five profiles next year. The VNFIL is already 
being implemented for three occupations in three 
locations, organised by the State Employment 

Service. Existing training providers are expected 
to play a role in these processes. Assessment 
has been the weak link in the existing system of 
educational standards, with limited indications of 
how competences should be demonstrated. There 
is a need to experiment with new assessment 
approaches, with the increased involvement of 
stakeholders from the world of work in assessment, 
and to train assessors and verifiers to ensure 
that candidates can demonstrate that they have 
reached the learning outcomes in the standards. 
This becomes increasingly important within 
a decentralised education system with more 
autonomy for providers to adapt provision to local 
and learner needs.

Programme accreditation is foreseen for higher 
education and vocational education, verifying that 
programmes are in line with the state educational 
standards. But this does not mean that summative 
assessment can be left completely to providers, 
without any external validation. It has been mainly 
the lack of trust in qualifications and the poor 
performance of the education system in terms of 
labour market outcomes that has promoted the 
introduction of the NQF. 

The roles of the new agencies for quality assurance 
are critical in promoting new quality assurance 
practices. The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher 
Education has become operational. For vocational 
education different bodies at regional, national 
or sectoral level are foreseen in the draft Law on 
Vocational Education that deal with the quality 
assurance of qualifications. It is important that there 
is coordination among these different bodies.  

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The Law on Professional Development of 
Employees (Law No 4312 of January 2012) 
introduced the establishment of recognition centres 
by the State Employment Service. In order to verify 
an employee’s professional qualification, recognition 
centres should work with State Employment 
Service training centres, VET institutions, 
enterprises, and other providers licensed to carry 
out educational activities for certain occupations. 
The certificate to be awarded could be for 
specific professional skills or for improvement. 
The procedure for evaluation is determined by the 
Ministry of Social Policy in consultation with the 
Ministry of Education.

In 2012 a new Law on Employment was adopted 
that stated that the unemployed are entitled to have 

657

Volume II: National and regional casestheir skills assessed. This legislation was followed 
by other regulations providing further guidance 
for implementation. In May 2013, the Cabinet 
of Ministers adopted Resolution No 340 on the 
procedure for validation of blue-collar occupations’ 
non-formal and informal learning outcomes. This 
was followed in December 2013 by Ministry of 
Social Policy Order 875/1776, which sets criteria for 
(private) assessment centres and the Ministerial 
Order 886 which sets a list of occupations for 
assessment. In 2013/14 a first pilot in VNFIL for 
cooks was undertaken with support of the ETF. 

In spite of the rapidly advancing legislation, the pilot 
showed that legislation alone is not enough to kick 
start a validation system and there are still many 
aspects related to the preparation of candidates, 
assessors, availability of standards and appropriate 
certification processes that need additional work. 
Through Order No 695 of 26 September 2014, the 
Ministry of Social Policy established the Interagency 
Working Group to determine how enterprises, 
institutions, organisations could become compliant 
with the needs to validate non-formal and informal 
learning in blue-collar occupations.

The system became operational through Order 
No 256 of 2016 of the Ministry of Social Policy, 
starting assessment of guards, cooks and welders. 
The Odessa and Rivne training centres of the State 
Employment Service and the Higher Commercial 
College of the National Trade and Economic 
University in Kiev acquired the status of assessment 
centres. The work with cooks is progressing slowly. 
Progress is limited: approximately 129 persons 
have been certified since July 2016. There is a need 
for more assessment centres, trained assessors, 
verifiers and standards that can support assessment 
to extend these first pilots to a truly national 
system.

The introduction of VNFIL in higher education has 
made no progress. Ukraine did not report on it for 
the 2015 implementation report on the European 
higher education area. The Law on Higher Education 
does not mention the possibility of VNFIL.

The NQF does not refer directly to the VNFIL, 
but it explicitly mentions the use of qualifications 
for employment, social-labour relations and for 
individuals. Also Resolution 340 of 15 May 2013 on 
the validation of blue-collar workers does not refer 
to the NQF. However, stakeholders do see the VNFIL 
and the NQF as part of a common system. The Law 
on Education has created more direct links between 
them. The establishment of qualification centres, 
the development of professional qualifications, the 
regulation of assessment standards, the training 

of assessors and the role of NAK to coordinate the 
system is expected to provide a further boost.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
In 2017, the Ministry of Social Policy became 
responsible for the repository of occupational 
standards until the establishment of NAK929, which 
will also manage the NQF register, including 
assessment/qualification standards. Educational 
standards remain the responsibility of the Ministry 
of Education. Preparatory work on scoping and 
developing the register will start in 2019.

In 2012 a first implementation plan for the NQF 
was adopted and an interdepartmental committee 
established to oversee implementation. There has 
been progress in various areas during these first 
years: testing new approaches and developing 
methodologies for standards, and developing a 
concept for the national qualification system (which 
was not approved); development of occupational 
standards by employers in cooperation with other 
stakeholders and developing legislation for the 
VNFIL; and preparation of a new Law on Higher 
Education. 

In 2014/15, discussions in the parliamentary 
committee on the Law on Education and the Law on 
Vocational Education brought the NQF back as a tool 
to support lifelong learning, with a stronger focus on 
competences, and on more relevant qualifications. 
The Association Agreement also mentioned 
the need to develop a functioning NQF. But the 
NQF was not mentioned as a priority in the new 
government coalition agreement. Higher education 
had become the priority for the Ministry of 
Education in 2014/15 after the adoption of the new 
Law on Higher Education and the NQF vanished 
from the radar.

A self-evaluation of the first NQF implementation 
plan 2012–15, presented by the ETF in early 2016, 
showed that most planned activities had not, or 
only partially, been implemented. There was least 
progress in legislative developments (in spite of 
higher education and VNFIL), the communication 
on the NQF to stakeholders and the public at large, 
capacity building, and the allocation of resources 
and international support. These were all essential 
for operationalising the NQF, which was doomed to 
fail without stronger commitment and a new plan 
for implementation.

929  www.msp.gov.ua/timeline/Profesiyni-standarti.html

658

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSIn 2016, under the responsibility of a new 
government the situation changed. A new plan 
was developed with ETF support by a team of 
experts coming from different stakeholders and 
the Ministry of Education; it included consultations 
with almost 200 stakeholders and all ministries. 
A thorough stakeholder analysis took place and 
feedback was received from more than 160 different 
organisations, including many private sector and 
NGO stakeholders as well as the already active 
employers, professional associations (17 out of an 
estimated 115 associations contributed to the plan) 
and student representatives. On 14 December 
2016 the Cabinet of Ministers (Governmental Order 
No 1077) adopted the NQF implementation plan 
for 2016–20. The plan is the result of constructive 
cooperation between stakeholders from the world 
of work, and from vocational and higher education, 
under the leadership of the Ministry of Education 
and with active participation by the Federation of 
Employers.

The plan foresees work in seven areas:

a.  coordinate activities and provide legislative 

and regulatory support for the formation and 
development of the national qualifications 
system;

b.  modernise the system for skills needs 

anticipation and occupational standards 
development; 

c.  develop qualifications of different types 

(educational standards and curricula based on 
learning outcomes) in line with the NQF; 
d.  develop a system for the validation of VET 
learning outcomes (awarding professional 
qualifications);

e.  improve processes for qualifications quality 

f. 

assurance; 
improve communication on NQF 
implementation; 

g.  ensure international recognition of the NQF and 

national qualifications.

For each strand there are defined actions, tasks, 
responsible bodies, deadlines and measurable 
results. In 2017 a new interdepartmental 
working group was established to monitor 
NQF implementation. The Law on Education 
provided a much stronger legal framework 
for the NQF as a pillar for wider education 
and training reform, followed in 2018 by a 
methodology regulating occupational standards 
and by guidelines for occupational standards 
development. New educational standards formats 
and methodologies have been developed and 
are being implemented in higher, general, and 
vocational education. Decentralised curricula are 
also planned. In 2019 a large EU and Member 

States project will start to support the further 
implementation and development of the National 
Agency for Qualifications. No evaluation has yet 
been conducted, given the NQF early stage of 
development. 

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Ukraine is still at an early structured stage, so no 
evaluation of the NQF has been conducted. 

Impact for end-users
The end-users benefiting from the new systems 
are still limited, but the group is growing among 
candidates for VNFIL, pupils in primary education, 
participants in adult learning courses, and some 
employers who are using occupational standards. 
Over the coming five years the people involved in 
implementation are expected to grow substantially.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Self-certification to the QF-EHEA has not yet 
started. The National Agency for Qualifications 
should support the alignment of the NQF with 
the QF-EHEA and the EQF (enabled by the new 
EQF Recommendation). The Association Agenda 
foresees a functioning NQF by 2020.

Important lessons and future plans

The first five years after the adoption of the NQF 
Decree have shown that successful implementation 
needs commitment and concerted action. The 
new Action Plan for the implementation of the 
NQF 2016–20 provides a clearly staged path 
towards implementation that can support ongoing 
education reforms, bringing provision more in line 
with the needs of the labour market, focus on the 
development of learning outcomes and change 
learning and assessment practices. This has 
already paid off as we have recently seen with the 
nomination of the Interdepartmental Working Group, 
the new Law on Education, the draft Law on VET, 
and new approaches to standards and curricula. 

The establishment of a National Agency for 
Qualifications as foreseen in the Law on Education 
will particularly strengthen coordination of all these 
processes. The Law on Vocational Education is 
also needed to regulate many aspects of the new 
competence-based education system and bring it 
in line with the NQF. The new qualification system 
needs to be populated with new standards and 
curricula. New approaches for these are being 
developed, starting with occupational standards 
replacing outdated qualification characteristics. 
That is now regulated. The use of occupational 

659

Volume II: National and regional casesof minimal learning outcomes throughout the 
education and training system.

Summative assessment cannot be left completely 
to providers. There is a need to experiment with 
new assessment approaches, with the increased 
involvement of stakeholders from the world of 
work in assessment, and to train assessors and 
verifiers to ensure that candidates can demonstrate 
that they have reached the learning outcomes in 
the standards in independent external assessment 
settings. Current VNFIL pilots should be extended. 

The development of standards and curricula and 
the establishment of effective quality assurance 
procedures have priority in higher education, taking 
into account institutional autonomy. Ukraine is not 
ready yet for self-certification against the QF-EHEA, 
but preparations will have to start sooner or later. 

An open issue that has no solution yet is the use of 
NQF levels for vocational and adult qualifications in 
parallel with wage levels (розряди), as NQF levels 
are not aligned with the tariff qualification system.

The NQF implementation plan 2016–20 offers a 
good basis for developments over the coming two 
years and it is hoped that political changes during 
2019 will not weaken the government commitment 
to implement the changes.

Abbreviations
EQF 
ISCED 

NAK 
NQF 
QF-EHEA 

VET  
VNFIL 

European qualifications framework
international standard classification 
of education (statistical framework 
for organising information on 
education maintained by UNESCO)
National Agency for Qualifications
national qualifications framework
qualifications framework for the 
European higher education area
vocational education and training
validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

standards for developing educational standards 
and assessment standards for vocational education 
is integrated in a new approach to educational 
standards. Assessment standards are also 
planned but their use in higher education needs 
to be clarified. Professional qualifications and the 
functioning of qualification centres to independently 
assess them are included in the new Law on 
Education. This will have an impact on adult learning. 

There need to be more occupational standards 
developed than those produced so far, voluntarily, 
by employers, requiring shared responsibilities 
and co-funding for their development. The EU 
project EU4Skills: Better Skills for Modern Ukraine 
is offering unique opportunities to advance these 
developments, but more than donor support is 
needed. The development of standards for general, 
vocational and higher education, and adult learning 
needs to be aligned. Some integration and overlap 
between sector standards is imperative if the NQF 
is to create a smooth, seamless, logical progression, 
consistent with its level descriptors and stated 
purposes. One common issue that needs to be 
addressed is the use of key competences. It 
is important that the registers for occupational 
standards and qualifications are established as soon 
as possible. 

The National Agency for Qualifications plays a key 
role in these developments and needs to start its 
functions as soon as possible. The development 
processes involve many different actors and there 
is a need for continuous review of new initiatives, 
and consolidation and coordination of approaches. 
In order to mobilise the implementers of the 
new standards and explain the benefits to final 
beneficiaries (learners, employers), more guidance 
materials and dissemination of practices going 
beyond selected groups of experts is needed. The 
draft national qualification system’s website needs 
to be launched.

New standards should be used to change learning 
and assessment practices. A critical implementation 
issue is teacher training and retraining. Providers 
will have more autonomy to adapt provision to the 
needs of local companies and learners. The NQF 
has an important role in balancing the increased 
autonomy of providers and ensuring achievement 

660

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSUNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Introduction and context

On 23 August 2010, President His Highness 
Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan issued Federal 
Decree No 1 ‘Establish and Maintain the National 
Qualifications Authority’. The Decree sets out 
16 aims and objectives, among which ‘Establish and 
maintain systems, processes, and procedures to 
ensure that the national qualifications framework is 
the national frame of reference for qualifications in 
the country’.

The national qualifications framework for the United 
Arab Emirates (UAE), called the QFEmirates, 
was developed by the National Qualifications 
Authority (NQA) and approved by the NQA Board 
on 20 February 2012. The framework is presented 
in the Qualifications Framework for the Emirates 
Handbook. In 2013, the UAE Cabinet approved the 
framework’s level descriptors. The QFEmirates 
consists of 10 levels and covers school (general) 
education, vocational education and training, higher 
education, work-based training, and professional 
education and training. 

The NQA supports the national agenda, UAE 
Vision 2021, to build a strong education and 
training system that helps to equip citizens with 
the qualifications, skills, knowledge, and attributes 
necessary to succeed in the world of work. In 
order to overcome the structural division in the 
labour market, the UAE government launched 
the Emiratisation campaign, which mandates the 
inclusion of Emiratis in the workforce, particularly 
in the private sector. In 2017, the share of UAE 
nationals in the workforce was 7.19%, while the 
Emiratisation rate in the private sector was 3.38%. 
The NQA aims at addressing skills gaps and skills 
shortages in order to increase labour market 
opportunities and assist Emiratis to secure jobs.

Policy objectives

The QFEmirates is designed to be the single structure 
and reference point through which all qualifications 
in the UAE can be compared nationally and 

internationally. The framework sets out to recognize 
all forms of learning: formal, non-formal, and informal. 

The framework aims to:

a.  provide a frame of reference, enabling all 

qualifications to be described and compared;
b.  accommodate qualifications in all education 
sectors – general education, technical and 
vocational education and training (TVET), and 
higher education – to recognize the achievement 
in learning from the most elementary task to the 
most complex;

c.  assist in the recognition of non-formal and 

informal activities;

d.  develop and maintain a qualifications system to 

promote the concept of lifelong learning;
e.  facilitate international mobility of learners.

The QFEmirates ensures that academic programmes 
offered by higher education institutions in the 
UAE recognized by the Commission for Academic 
Accreditation (CAA) at the Ministry of Education are 
appropriate to the level of the qualification. 

The 2011 Standards for Licensure and Accreditation 
developed by the Commission state that 
programme learning outcomes need to be 
appropriate to the level of qualifications awarded as 
defined in the QFEmirates. The framework gives 
‘more transparency to the possible pathways for 
students to progress from one award to the next 
across the spectrum of qualifications in post-
secondary education and vocational training’. It is 
mandatory for each institution to follow descriptive 
criteria set by the QFEmirates associated with 
each level of the qualifications framework 
while designing, delivering, and reviewing their 
programmes of study.

The 10 levels of the QFEmirates readily relate to 
the European qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning (EQF), the framework for qualifications of 
the European higher education area (QF-EHEA), as 
well as other national frameworks. Table 87 shows 
how the QFEmirates aligns to the EQF and QF-
EHEA. 

661

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 87. Alignment of the QFEmirates with the 
EQF and QF-EHEA

QFEMIRATES 
LEVEL

EQF LEVEL

QF-EHEA

Third cycle

Second cycle

First cycle

Short cycle

10

9

7, 8

6

5

4

3

1, 2

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Since its foundation, the NQA has established 
ties of cooperation with different countries for the 
purpose of measuring and benchmarking the quality 
of education in the UAE. The 10-level QFEmirates 
allows for alignment with national qualifications 
frameworks in other countries. 

The NQA signed bilateral referencing agreements 
aligning the QFEmirates with the Qualifications 
and Credit Framework (UK: England and Northern 
Ireland), the Framework for Higher Education 
Qualifications (UK: England, Wales, and Northern 
Ireland), and the New Zealand Qualifications 
Framework. The NQA and Australian Qualifications 
Authority completed a joint technical report mapping 
the level descriptors of the two countries’ national 
qualifications frameworks. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The key features of the QFEmirates are as follows:

a.  The QFEmirates is composed of 10 levels, from 
Certificate 1 to Doctorate (see Table 88) covering 
all education sectors. Each level represents a 
hierarchy of relative difficulty, complexity, and 
depth. The higher the qualifications framework 
level, the greater the challenge and the 
demands made on the learner in order to be 
awarded a qualification. The QFEmirates allows 
comparisons between all UAE and international 
qualifications. 

b.  The QFEmirates is based on what a learner has 
learned (learning outcomes), not what they have 
been taught.

c.  Learning outcomes in the QFEmirates are 
expressed in terms of strands of learning 
outcomes that reflect the knowledge, skills, and 

competence a learner is expected to achieve at 
the respective level, for each qualification.
d.  A set of learning outcomes for each level is 

referred to as a ‘level descriptor’.

e.  The QFEmirates requires the common titling of 
qualifications and adding credit value to awards 
to ensure that employers, learners, and the 
public understand the nature of the qualification 
and that they can be readily aligned and 
compared.

f.  A notional value of 15 hours (with additional 

study time hours) per credit has been adopted in 
the QFEmirates.

g.  Key competences required for effective 

participation and performance in the workplace, 
learning, and everyday life are referred to as 
CoreLife Skills in the QFEmirates. There are eight 
CoreLife Skills in the QFEmirates.

The NQA participated in the Global Study on Level 
Descriptors initiated by UNESCO following the Third 
International Congress on TVET held in Shanghai 
in 2012. The UAE was among seven countries 
across the world to be included into the study to 
represent a cross-cutting sample of first, second, 
and third generation frameworks. A study entitled 
Level-setting and recognition of learning outcomes. 
The use of level descriptors in the twenty-first 
century provides a comprehensive overview of 
the different ways in which learning is recognized 
in contemporary education and training systems 
with a special focus on the use of qualifications 
frameworks to facilitate the recognition of learning 
outcomes within a broader lifelong learning 
perspective. The study will inform the development 
of international guidelines on quality assurance for 
the recognition of qualifications based on learning 
outcomes.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The National Qualifications Authority (NQA) was 
established in 2010. It has independent legal 
status and full legal capacity to act in accordance 
with the establishment decree of August 2010. 
It is represented by the Board of Directors. The 
NQA works across all emirates to implement the 
QFEmirates and quality assure the qualifications 
system in the country. 

The NQA works closely with various ministries, 
authorities, awarding bodies, education 
providers, and other related entities to establish 
and implement an internationally recognized 
qualifications system for the UAE, which includes a 
national qualifications framework, to determine the 

662

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 88. National qualifications framework for the UAE (QFEmirates)

LEVEL

PRINCIPAL QUALIFICATION TITLES USED IN THE QFEMIRATES 
(EACH WITH ITS OWN PROFILE)

GENERAL 
NOMENCLATURE

VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION AND 
TRAINING (VET)

HIGHER 
EDUCATION (HE)

GENERAL EDUCATION 
(G12 – GE)

10

Doctoral Degree

–

Doctoral

Master Degree

Applied Master

Master

Graduate Diploma

Applied Graduate Diploma Postgraduate 

Diploma

Bachelor Degree

Applied Bachelor

Bachelor

Diploma*

Advanced Doploma

Higher Doploma

Diploma* / Associate 
Degree

Diploma

Associate Degree

–

–

–

–

–

–

Certificate*

Certificate 4

Certificate*

Certificate 3

Certificate*

Certificate 2

Certificate*

Certificate 1

–

–

–

–

Secondary School 
Certificate (G 12)

TBA

–

–

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

quality standards, and identify current and future 
labour market needs. 

c.  assessing the candidate against those standards;
d.  crediting the candidate for skills, knowledge, and 

The NQA collaborates with industry whose role is to 
take the lead in shaping the future direction of TVET 
in the country. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The NQA conducted a recognition of prior learning 
(RPL) pilot project to process up to 100 cases to 
gain insight and deep understanding of the specific 
needs of the workforce and UAE citizens. The NQA 
worked in close cooperation with the leading UAE 
universities and enterprises and welcomed all RPL 
applicants. 

The RPL pilot project included the following stages:

a 
identifying what the candidate knows and can do;
b.  matching the candidate’s skills, knowledge, and 

experience to specific standards;

experience gained in all learning situations.

As an outcome of the project, the NQA developed 
national policy for RPL within the national 
qualifications framework. The RPL national policy 
caters for both the future needs of an individual and 
the UAE labour market needs.

The NQA’s RPL project was presented at a planning 
meeting of the Expert Group on Recognition, 
Validation and Accreditation (RVA) of basic 
education for youth and adults as a foundation for 
lifelong learning that took place in Paris (UNESCO 
headquarters) on 18–19 February 2016. The NQA is 
a member of UNESCO Expert Group on RVA. The 
approach, findings, and research conducted by the 
NQA while working on the RPL pilot project and 
national policy along with corresponding evidence 
gathered by other members of UNESCO Expert 
Group on RVA, serve as a basis of the Recognition, 
validation and accreditation of youth and adult basic 
education as a foundation for lifelong learning study.

663

Volume II: National and regional casesRecognising foreign qualifications

Recognizing foreign qualifications is one of the 
services the NQA offers to individuals as well as 
education and training providers. It falls in line 
with the country’s strategy to achieve the quality 
of education and training. The objectives of the 
recognizing foreign qualifications policy are as 
follows:

a.  provide learners with a broader range of formally 
recognized and quality assured qualifications in 
the UAE;

b.  meet qualifications demands in the market from 
UAE employers that are not currently available in 
the UAE;

c.  enable Emiratis and expatriates with highly 

respected international qualifications to have 
them immediately recognized in the UAE;

d.  avoid individuals having to repeat learning when 

they are already qualified. 

Recognizing foreign qualifications service enables 
education and training providers operating in the 
UAE to have their existing foreign qualifications 
aligned to the QFEmirates. 

NQF implementation

The relevance and currency of the QFEmirates is 
continuously monitored and maintained so that 
it reflects the ongoing needs of the respective 
stakeholders. The NQA conducts reviews and 
benchmarking of the QFEmirates against other 
mature qualifications systems.

The implementation of QFEmirates is phased  
as follows:

Phase 1 ran to the end of 2012 and involved 
testing aspects of the implementation. It focused 
particularly on ensuring that qualifications accredited 
by the Vocational Education and Training Awards 
Council met the quality standards required to 
ensure that they complied with international 
recognition requirements and had parity of esteem 
with academic qualifications. This phase enabled 
minor modifications to be made to the design and 
operation of the QFEmirates before full roll-out. 

As part of Phase 1, other aspects of national 
qualification policy were developed and tested. 
Among them are RPL, recognition and equivalency 
of international qualifications found commonly in the 
UAE, and the alignment of the QFEmirates to other 
mature international qualifications systems and 
frameworks. 

Phase 2 has been running from January 2013 
to date. 

Both phases of the implementation of the 
QFEmirates were evaluated in the first instance 
internally. At the end of Phase 1 and at regular 
intervals thereafter, it is reviewed externally by 
peers. 

The NQA has undertaken a two-year review of the 
QFEmirates. Over the past five years, there have 
been changes in UAE’s regulatory framework for 
education and training as well as an increasing 
commitment by leaders to long-term foresight and 
ambitions for the country. A first-rate education 
system for the UAE is one of the pillars in UAE 
Vision 2021. The leaders of the country have also set 
UAE Centennial 2071 priorities, which include the 
UAE offering the best education system in the world 
in order to empower future generations.

The overarching goal of the QFEmirates remains 
the same. The framework is to drive a world-
class, flexible, responsive, and demand-led 
education and training system through a single 
integrated framework covering general education, 
TVET, and higher education. In turn, the system 
generates nationally and internationally recognized 
qualifications that meet the needs of industry, 
government, community, and learners. 

Referencing to regional frameworks

The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of 
the Gulf, known as the Gulf Cooperation Council 
(GCC), aims at increasing mobility of workforce to 
ensure that the most qualified people can support 
the collaborative development of the GCC region. 
Therefore, the context for a metaframework 
of qualifications for the region was considered 
appropriate. The framework will achieve consistency 
among Gulf education and training systems, 
compare and align qualifications within member 
states, and allow mutual recognition of qualifications 
and workforce transfer within the GCC region. 

On behalf of the GCC, the NQA leads the 
development of the metaframework for the Gulf 
region, known as the Gulf qualifications framework 
(GQF). The member countries are working to 
develop the vision, objectives, and terms of 
participation for the GQF.

On 22 May 2014, the Technical Committee chaired 
by the NQA approved the level descriptors for the 
GQF.

664

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSImportant lessons and future plans

Full implementation of the QFEmirates will take 
some time and will vary between respective 
education sectors. In higher education, it is 
mandatory for institutions recognized by the 
Commission for Academic Accreditation to use and 
refer to the QFEmirates in their courses/programme 
development and promotional arrangements and 
activities. Institutions are required to increasingly 
implement the use of learning outcomes consistent 
with those detailed in the QFEmirates for respective 
qualifications. 

The Ministry of Education is committed to the 
transition to the international trend and use of 
learning outcomes in provision of school education. 
The ministry aims at achieving congruence between 
the respective learning outcomes of the QFEmirates 
and the level associated with the Secondary School 
Certificate.

Further awareness of the QFEmirates is required. 
The NQA aims at raising levels of interest among 
organizations, employers, providers, etc. with 
existing non-accredited qualifications to revise them 
in line with the requirements of the QFEmirates 
and to be nationally recognized. In the first 
instance, it is expected that the majority of these 

References

qualifications will be vocational and based on 
previous training courses. The areas where revisions 
are likely to be required will be in the definition of 
learning outcomes, based on the QFEmirates level 
descriptors. Although not obliged to undertake 
revisions, this will enable them to receive greater 
currency internationally and align to, for example, 
the EQF, the QF-EHEA, and other international 
frameworks.

Abbreviations
EQF 

European qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning
Gulf Cooperation Council
Gulf qualifications framework
National Qualifications Authority

GCC  
GQF  
NQA  
QFEmirates  national qualifications framework for 
the United Arab Emirates
qualifications framework of the 
European higher education area
recognition, validation and 
accreditation
recognition of prior learning
technical and vocational education 
and training
United Arab Emirates

RPL 
TVET  

QF-EHEA 

UAE  

RVA 

[URLs accessed 17.2.2019]
Ministry of Education, UAE, Commission for Academic Accreditation. 2011 Standards for licensure and 

accreditation. www.caa.ae/caa/images/Standards2011.pdf

National Qualifications Authority, UAE. Qualifications framework for the Emirates handbook. www.nqa.gov.

ae/EN/Pages/MediaCentre/Publications/All.aspx 

National Qualifications Authority, UAE, Vocational Education and Training Awards Council. www.nqa.gov.ae/

EN/Pages/VET/VETAC/AboutVETAC.aspx

UAE Cabinet. UAE Centennial 2071. https://uaecabinet.ae/en/details/news/mohammed-bin-rashid-launches-

five-decade-government-plan-uae-centennial-2071

UAE Government. UAE Vision 2021. www.vision2021.ae/en 
UNESCO. Level-setting and recognition of learning outcomes. The use of level descriptors in the twenty-

first century. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000242887 

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. Recognition, validation and accreditation of youth and adult basic 

education as a foundation for lifelong learning. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263619 

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. Global inventory of regional and national qualifications 

frameworks. Volume II: National and regional cases. http://uil.unesco.org/fileadmin/keydocuments/
LifelongLearning/en/Global%20Inventory%20of%20Regional%20and%20National%20
Qualifications_v2.pdf

Prepared by: 
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts. 

665

Volume II: National and regional casesUNITED KINGDOM

The UK education and training system performs 
relatively well according to most EU 2020 
benchmarks. Participation of children aged four and 
above in early childhood education and care has 
reached 100% and student basic skills are at a high 
and stable level. The percentage of 15-year-olds 
with underachievement in reading, mathematics 
and science is below the EU average (17.9%, 21.9% 
and, respectively, 17.4% in 2015). The percentage 
of students who leave school early has been 
decreasing and has reached the EU average (10.6% 
in 2017); unlike in most EU countries, it is higher 
among native students than among those born 
outside the UK. The employment rates of recent 
graduates are above EU averages for all levels of 
qualification. One of the main challenges in the 
school system is the availability and retention of 
teachers; the government has increased support 
for training, recruiting and retaining teachers in all 
parts of the UK. The tertiary educational attainment 
rate is among the highest in the EU (48.3% in 
2017), despite concerns around the high levels of 
student debt. Two-year ‘accelerated’ undergraduate 
degrees have been proposed as a solution to 
reduce the time required to obtain a degree and 
thus reduce university costs. Participation in study 
mobility programmes abroad is relatively low at 
3.2% of total graduates in 2016 (compared to 9% 
the EU average); 50% of it has been as part of 
EU programmes. Initiatives to develop vocational 
education and training (VET) are being implemented 
in all parts of the UK. Efforts are focused on 
developing apprenticeship programmes, improving 
the quality of provision, the attractiveness of VET 
and engagement with STEM subjects. Participation 
in upper secondary VET has increased over recent 
years across the UK. Mismatches in terms of 
qualification level and field of study, on the one 
hand, and job profile on the other hand are higher 
compared to the EU average. Adult participation in 
lifelong learning is above the EU average, at 14.3% 
in 2017, but it has been declining. Various policy 
measures and initiatives in all parts of the UK aim 
to support retraining and upskilling of individuals 
across the lifespan (European Commission, 2018). 

Starting in the 1980s, several qualifications 
frameworks were developed in the UK, partly 
reflecting the fact that education and qualifications 
policy has been devolved to the four UK nations, and 
partly reflecting the different needs and interests 
of subsectors of education and training. Between 
2008 and 2015, five qualifications frameworks were 
operational in parallel: the framework for higher 
education qualifications (FHEQ) in England, Wales 
and Northern Ireland; the national qualifications 
framework (NQF); the qualifications and credit 
framework (QCF); the framework for qualifications 
of higher education institutions in Scotland 
(FQHEIS), the Scottish credit and qualifications 
framework (SCQF), of which the FQHEIS is a 
constituent part; and the credit and qualifications 
framework for Wales (CQFW), of which the FHEQ 
is a constituent part. The Scottish qualifications 
framework and the credit and qualifications 
framework of Wales are comprehensive frameworks 
covering all levels and types of qualification. 

In October 2015 a new regulated qualifications 
framework (RQF) was introduced for England 
and Northern Ireland, replacing the QCF and 
the NQF930. The RQF covers all general and 
vocational qualifications regulated by the Office 
of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation 
(Ofqual)931 and by the Council for Curriculum, 
Examinations and Assessment Regulation (CCEA 
Regulation)932. The most significant change 
introduced by the RQF is the lifting of standardised 
requirements for the design of qualifications. RQF 
is a descriptive framework and uses the same 
eight levels (plus three entry levels) as the QCF but 
introduces some changes in the way qualification 
size is calculated. 

930  Relevant documents: www.gov.uk/government/

consultations/after-the-qcf-a-new-qualifications-framework

931  Ofqual: www.gov.uk/government/organisations/ofqual/

about 

932  CCEA: http://ccea.org.uk/about_us/what_we_do

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSWhile these developments show that frameworks 
develop and change continuously, they also show 
that the visibility and overall impact of frameworks 
depends on the political context they operate within. 
This is particularly visible in England and Northern 
Ireland, where the existence of parallel frameworks 
may have partly contradicted their ability to 
support transparency and learning progression. The 
introduction of the RQF addressed this problem. 

The Scottish and Welsh frameworks contrast 
developments in England and Northern Ireland, 
operating as comprehensive frameworks and setting 
themselves ambitious targets for lifelong learning. 
Evaluation of the Welsh framework, published in 

2014, pointed to the importance of better integrating 
it into mainstream education and training policies. 
While the CQFW is considered a useful tool, it 
tends to operate on the margins of the education 
and training system, not as a central entry and 
focal point. The abolition of the QCF has influenced 
the CQFW: starting from 2015, all regulated 
qualifications in Wales refer to the new RQF level 
descriptors, while non-regulated qualifications 
(the lifelong learning pillar) continue to refer to the 
original CQFW descriptors. The Scottish framework, 
in contrast, is considered a key tool for stakeholders 
and is increasingly emerging as the most visible and 
consistent of the UK frameworks.

667

Volume II: National and regional casesEngland and  
Northern Ireland

Introduction and context

In October 2015 a new regulated qualifications 
framework (RQF) was introduced for England 
and Northern Ireland, replacing the qualifications 
and credit framework (QCF) and the national 
qualifications framework (NQF). The RQF covers 
all vocational and general education qualifications 
regulated by the Office of Qualifications and 
Examinations Regulation (Ofqual) in England and 
the Council for Curriculum, Examinations and 
Assessment Regulation (CCEA) in Northern Ireland. 
It also allows for the inclusion of qualifications 
developed for the third sector (community and 
voluntary sector). The framework for higher 
education qualifications (FHEQ) covers higher 
education qualifications awarded by organisations 
with degree awarding powers, at levels 4 to 8.

The RQF uses the same eight levels (plus three 
entry levels) as the former QCF. Levels 4 to 8 of 
the RQF are comparable to those in the FHEQ. The 
RQF builds on the descriptors used by the QCF, 
partly adjusted by using European qualifications 
framework (EQF) descriptors. 

The main difference between the QCF and the 
RQF lies in their respective regulatory roles 
and functions. The QCF was intended to be a 
transformational framework, with a clear regulatory 
role in the design and accreditation of qualifications; 
however, it did not always contribute to the 
development of fit-for-purpose qualifications. 
The role of the RQF is to provide a transparent 
description of existing qualifications, not to  
regulate them. 

The QCF was referenced to the EQF in February 
2010, as a part of the overall UK referencing 
process. The RQF levels have now been mapped to 
the EQF levels and the outcomes were the same as 
those in the 2010 referencing exercise. The FHEQ 
was self-certified to the QF-EHEA in 2008, and it 
will be formally referenced to the EQF in 2019. An 
updated referencing report covering both the RQF 
and the FHEQ is planned for 2019.

Policy objectives

The (now abolished) QCF had been formally 
introduced in England, Wales and Northern Ireland 
in 2008 as part of the UK vocational qualifications 

reform programme with four official aims (Ofqual, 
2008):

a.  ensure a wider range of achievements can be 

recognised within a more inclusive framework; 
b.  establish a framework that is more responsive to 

individual and employer needs; 

c.  establish a simpler qualifications framework that 

is easier for all users to understand; 
d.  reduce the burden of bureaucracy in the 

accreditation and assessment of qualifications.

An Ofqual review in 2013–14 of how the QCF 
rules were working found that they did not, in all 
cases, support the design of good qualifications. It 
concluded that (Ofqual, 2014): 

a.  The QCF provided a structure within which the 
relative size and value of qualifications could be 
expressed using consistent terminology.
b.  The level structure worked well and the eight 

levels and three entry levels were suggested to 
be kept.

c.  The qualifications framework made it possible to 
explain to learners how qualifications related to 
each other. 

While the transparency functions of the QCF were 
seen as positive, its regulatory role was criticised 
(Ofqual, 2014). 

a.  Though the structure of the QCF was designed 
to support credit transfer, in practice there were 
very low levels of take-up for credit transfer and 
the projected benefits of a credit system were 
not realised.

b.  Unit sharing933 did not contribute to reducing the 
number of qualifications; after the introduction of 
the QCF, the number of qualifications increased.

c.  There was a feeling that the requirements for 
awarding organisations to unit share damaged 
innovation and development.

d.  The regulatory arrangements imposed an 
approach to assessment which required 
students to satisfy all assessment criteria; this 
led to over-assessment.

e.  The overall validity of qualifications was not 
sufficiently addressed; the focus on unit 
assessment drew attention away from overall 
validity.

933  To reduce the overall number of qualifications, the 

QCF introduced the principle of ‘unit sharing’, requiring 
awarding organisations to  share units adding up to 
qualifications. Shared units were intended to be available 
in a ‘unit bank’ to be used as building blocks by awarding 
organisations. Ofqual reported that organisations were 
reluctant to engage in the development of these shared 
units and that this lack of commitment had a negative 
impact on development and innovation. 

668

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSAs a result, and as part of a policy to devolve 
responsibility to awarding organisations and learning 
providers, the new RQF was introduced (after public 
consultation) as a simple, descriptive framework 
aiming to help individuals understand better how 
qualifications relate to each other. It aims to achieve 
transparency of qualifications by setting consistent 
measures of size (how long, typically, a learner 
takes to study and be assessed for a qualification) 
and level of difficulty.

The new framework replaces the QCF and the 
NQF and includes all qualifications regulated by 
Ofqual in England and CCEA Regulation in Northern 
Ireland. The existing Ofqual handbook General 
conditions of recognition (Ofqual, 2017) sets a range 
of requirements and principles for qualifications 
and replaces the regulatory functions previously 
forming part of the QCF. As stated by Ofqual, 
‘lifting the rules means that high quality vocational 
qualifications can be designed around the needs 
of employers, rather than fitting to the prescriptive 
QCF rules’934.

The introduction of the RQF reflects experiences 
gained with the QCF: it retains key transparency 
functions but plays a limited role in regulation of 
qualifications. The framework is now an integrated 
part of the regulated qualification system in England 
and Northern Ireland, aiming to ensure access, 
transfer and progression, validation of prior learning 
and quality assurance. Its design aims to allow 
learners of all abilities to access qualifications, 
from entry level to level 8. The general conditions 
of recognition require awarding organisations to 
offer qualifications that have progression routes 
and include a condition on the recognition of prior 
learning, providing a mechanism for the validation of 
non-formal and informal learning. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The RQF is based on the following principles 
(Ofqual, 2015): 

a.  The levelling approach introduced by the QCF 
is continued: all qualifications should have a 
level; this level should be under review; and this 
revision should take place through a managed 
process.

b.  The level descriptors of the QCF are simplified, 
not including a separate section on autonomy 
and accountability.

c.  All qualifications registered in the framework 
are assigned a measure of size, expressed in 
total qualification time (TQT) and guided learning 
hours (GLH).

d.  If recognition of prior learning (RPL) is allowed, 

awarding organisations are required to have and 
publish a policy on it.

e.  Allocation of credits to qualifications is no longer 

compulsory. 

The RQF includes an entry level (subdivided into 
entry 1 to 3) and levels 1 to 8. A level can be 
assigned to a qualification and to a component 
of a qualification using level descriptors. It is 
also possible to assign more than one level to a 
qualification, provided that there is a clear rationale 
and ‘the range of achievement recognised by the 
qualification is sufficient to span more than one 
level’ (Ofqual, 2017)935. Levels 4 to 8 are consistent 
with the levels of the FHEQ in England, Wales and 
Northern Ireland.

The level descriptors936 are expressed in terms of 
learning outcomes and provide a general, shared 
understanding of learning and achievement at each 
of the eight levels and three entry levels. They are 
designed to be used across a wide range of learning 
contexts, and many have an ‘and/or’ construction 
indicating knowledge and skills associated with the 
study of a subject or in preparation for a job. The 
RQF level descriptors build on, but simplify, the 
descriptors used by the former QCF and the EQF. 
While the QCF operated with three categories – 
knowledge and understanding; application 
and action; autonomy and accountability – the 
RQF operates with only two: knowledge and 
understanding; and skills. The category for 
‘autonomy and accountability’ was not included 
in the RQF due to the difficulty associated with 
aligning knowledge and/or skills with autonomy and 
accountability in some job roles. This is illustrated in 
Table 89.

934  UK Government web page of the consultation on After the 
QCF: a new qualifications framework (go to Consultation 
description): www.gov.uk/government/consultations/after-
the-qcf-a-new-qualifications-framework

935  See Section E of Ofqual handbook: Design and 

development of qualifications: www.gov.uk/guidance/
ofqual-handbook/section-e-design-and-development-of-
qualifications 

936  The level descriptors are available in the Ofqual handbook: 

www.gov.uk/guidance/ofqual-handbook/section-e-design-
and-development-of-qualifications#level-descriptors 

669

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 89. Descriptors for level 1 of the RQF

LEVEL

KNOWLEDGE DESCRIPTOR  
(THE HOLDER…)

Level 1

•  Has basic factual knowledge of a subject 

and/or knowledge of facts, procedures and 
ideas to complete well-defined routine tasks 
and address simple problems 

• 

Is aware of aspects of information relevant 
to the area of work

SKILLS DESCRIPTOR (THE HOLDER CAN…)

•  Use basic cognitive and practical skills to 
complete well-defined routine tasks and 
procedures 

•  Select and use relevant information 

• 

Identify whether actions have been effective 

Source: OFQUAL, 2017.

‘Size’ in the RQF refers to the estimated total 
amount of time it could typically take to study 
and be assessed for a qualification. Awarding 
organisations must indicate the total qualification 
time (TQT) and guided learning hours (GLH) for all 
qualifications937. The concept of ‘guided learning 
hours’ (GLH)938 refers to all activities completed 
by the learner under the direct instruction or 
supervision of a lecturer, supervisor or tutor, 
whether through physical presence or electronic 
means. Total qualification time (TQT) is made up of 
the guided learning hours plus all other time taken in 
preparation, study or any other form of participation 
in education or training but not under the direct 
supervision of a lecturer, supervisor or tutor. 

The RQF downplays the role of credits. 
Awarding organisations can attribute credits to 
qualifications, but are not obliged to do so. The 
credit value of a qualification is calculated by 
dividing total qualification time (TQT) by 10. If 
credits are calculated these should be included 
in the qualification specification. Any qualification 
component to which credit is assigned should also 
be levelled. 

England and Northern Ireland have had a long 
history of using the learning outcomes approach 
even before the introduction of the QCF and 
RQF. Under the QCF, awarding organisations for 
vocational qualifications were required to design 
qualifications based on units of learning outcomes, 
credits and assessment criteria, and to share 
qualification units by submitting them to a ‘unit 

937  Currently, this condition does not apply to GCSEs, GCE 
AS and A levels; Ofqual-regulated apprenticeship end-
point assessments; and certain qualifications undergoing 
withdrawal (Ofqual, 2017).

938  In the RQF, total qualification time (TQT) replaced the 

notional learning time that was used in the QCF, while the 
concept of guided learning hours (GLH) from the QCF was 
maintained.

bank’. A major staff development programme 
trained key stakeholders in the writing of learning 
outcomes and assessment criteria. While the 
regulatory design rules for qualifications were lifted 
with the introduction of the RQF, and the ‘unit bank’ 
was dissolved, awarding organisations continue 
to develop qualifications using units, learning 
outcomes and assessment criteria, and to build 
larger qualifications from smaller ones. This enables 
the accumulation of units of learning outcomes 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The QCF had been jointly developed, tested and 
implemented by the Qualifications and Curriculum 
Authority (QCA) in England; the Council for 
Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) 
in Northern Ireland; and the Welsh Assembly 
Government in Wales. These regulatory bodies 
were responsible for regulating qualifications 
within the QCF and NQF. When the QCA was 
disbanded following the change of government in 
2011, the Office of Qualifications and Examinations 
Regulation (Ofqual) took over the main responsibility 
for qualifications and framework developments in 
England; since 2015 it has been responsible for 
the implementation of the RQF. Set up in April 
2010 under the Apprenticeships, Skills, Children 
and Learning Act 2009939 as a non-ministerial 
government department reporting directly to the 
Parliament, Ofqual is the regulator of qualifications, 
examinations and assessments in England and, 
until 2016, it was also the regulator of vocational 
qualifications in Northern Ireland. In May 2016, 
CCEA Regulation took over the regulation of all 
qualifications awarded in Northern Ireland. Ofqual 

939  The Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 
2009: www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2009/22/contents

670

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand CCEA Regulation host the EQF respective 
national coordination points (EQF NCPs) in England 
and Northern Ireland. 

The introduction of the RQF took into account 
opinions from key stakeholders responding to two 
public consultations on the QCF and its withdrawal 
in 2014940 and in 2015941. A total of 119 responses 
were registered in the latter: 104 from awarding 
organisations and 15 from individuals, with each 
response carrying equal weight. The transition from 
the QCF to the RQF has also involved a high degree 
of consultation, collaboration and communication 
between a range of stakeholders (European 
Commission and Cedefop, 2018):

a.  the qualifications regulators and the recognised 

awarding organisations;

b.  the recognised awarding organisations and 

approved centres/providers (schools, further 
education colleges, training organisations);
c.  the awarding organisations and employer and 

sector organisations involved in the development 
of national occupational standards and 
qualifications;

d.  awarding organisations and the third sector.

Awarding organisations who want to offer regulated 
qualifications in England and Northern Ireland must 
be recognised by Ofqual and CCEA Regulation 
(respectively) and meet the regulators’ general 
criteria for recognition. Once recognised, awarding 
organisations can submit qualifications that comply 
with the general conditions for recognition to the 
Ofqual Register of regulated qualifications942. 

Responsibility for the framework for higher 
education qualifications (FHEQ) lies with the Quality 
Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA), a 
registered charity. QAA is included in the European 
quality assurance register for higher education 
(EQAR) and in a 2018 assessment by the Board of 
the European Association for Quality Assurance 
in Higher Education (ENQA), it was found to be in 
full compliance with all European Standards and 
Guidelines (2015) criteria.

Prior to 2017, sector skills councils (SSCs)943 were 
involved in the development of qualifications in the 

940  Relevant documents at: www.gov.uk/government/

consultations/withdrawing-qcf-regulatory-arrangements

941  Relevant documents, including an analysis of the 

responses, are available at: www.gov.uk/government/
consultations/after-the-qcf-a-new-qualifications-framework. 

942  Ofqual’s Register of regulated qualifications:  

https://register.ofqual.gov.uk/

943  SSCs are independent, employer-led organisations in 

specific economic sectors; currently there are 15 SSCs in 
the UK. 

UK through their work on national occupational 
standards (NOS) underpinning national vocational 
qualifications (NVQs) and Scottish vocational 
qualifications (SVQs). From 2016–17, skills policy 
in England has shifted away from national 
occupational standards944. Consequently, the SSCs 
and sector bodies no longer have a role in English 
apprenticeship development and the capacity of 
these organisations has dramatically reduced. The 
UK Commission for Employment and Skills, which 
managed and maintained the UK NOS database and 
commissioned SSCs and sector bodies to develop 
and update UK NOS, closed in March 2017. The 
new Institute for Apprenticeships was established 
in England to ensure high-quality apprenticeship 
standards. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways945

While there is no specific national strategy devoted 
to the validation of non-formal and informal learning 
(VNFIL) in England and Northern Ireland, and no 
system to coordinate validation activities taking 
place in the different sectors, there are a number 
of routes through which learners can have their 
non-formal and informal learning recognised and 
validated. 

The General conditions for recognition of both 
Ofqual and CCEA regulation refer to recognition of 
prior learning (RPL) in relation to formal, regulated 
qualifications included in the RQF. RPL is mainly 
used for initial assessment of a learner to tailor the 
learning offer; this is a generally accepted practice 
leading to an amendment to the requirements 
that a learner must satisfy before assessment 
or before award, and to a reduction of funding 
so that only the activities that are delivered are 
paid for. Awarding organisations offering RPL in 
this context are required to set out and publish 
their RPL policy following the guidance to the 
General conditions for recognition (Ofqual, 2017). 

944  Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, however, have 

retained NOS as the basis for work-based and vocational 
qualifications and apprenticeships. Skills Development 
Scotland has taken over the management of NOS and 
related activity on an interim basis, on behalf of the 
devolved administrations. The contents of the NOS 
database remain publicly available and employers 
throughout the UK can continue to use NOS if they so 
choose, although they are not a mandatory requirement in 
England for either qualifications or apprenticeships.

945  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

671

Volume II: National and regional casesThere is also a long tradition of recognising prior 
learning in higher education. RPL is referred to 
in the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) Quality 
Code for higher education946, and it can be used 
for access to university programmes, exemption 
and award. It is often linked to the award of credits 
and varies both across and within higher education 
institutions. The Quality code brought together RPL 
and assessment of formal learning in one chapter, 
aiming to demonstrate that both share common 
quality assurance principles. However, data is not 
collected to show the extent to which RPL takes 
place. In England, progress and achievement in 
non-regulated learning (mainly adult and community 
learning) can be recognised through a five-stage 
process, complementary to RPL, known as 
RARPA (recognising and recording progress and 
achievement in non-accredited learning). Using 
RARPA standards is mandatory for non-regulated 
training provision funded by the Education and Skills 
Funding Agency (ESFA), but the system is now 
also used by some providers offering accredited/
regulated learning. Though this does not lead to 
any form of certification, it is a method of quality 
assurance of non-regulated learning provision and 
supports the transition from non-formal to formal 
learning. RPL and RARPA are referred to in the 
ESFA’s funding rules which apply in England to 
providers from across the private and third sectors.

On the labour market, national vocational 
qualifications (NVQs) are work-related, outcomes-
based, competence-oriented qualifications based 
on national occupational standards. They can offer 
people in work or in apprenticeship an opportunity 
to validate workplace learning. Assessment is 
through evidence of performance against work-
related tasks, rather than formal examinations, and 
there are no time limits for completion of NVQs, 
no age limits and no special entry requirements. 
However, it has been noted that the NVQ system 
has promoted VNFIL only to a limited extent, partly 
because RPL is perceived as costly and NVQ 
learning outcomes are too narrowly defined. There 
are also separate validation initiatives in the third 
sector947. 

One strength of the current RPL arrangements in 
England and Northern Ireland is the link to the RQF, 
allowing non-formal and informal learning to be 
converted into a recognised qualification with real 
currency. In addition, the qualifications regulator 
has oversight of (and provides quality assurance 
of) qualifications acquired via RPL. Qualifications 
awarded through RPL (and the standards used) are 
the same as those earned through formal learning 
opportunities, although it may not be possible 
to achieve the same graded outcomes; instead, 
the outcomes of RPL are either ‘pass’ or ‘fail’. 
Consequently, ‘there is no question of whether the 
outcomes of validation are ‘trusted’ by stakeholders 
and in society, since they are the same outcomes’ 
(European Commission et al, forthcoming).

However, there is no single centralised policy on 
RPL or VNFIL provision; responsibility for deciding 
on and implementing validation arrangements has 
been devolved to the awarding organisations948 and 
learning providers. The process is designed to be 
self-governing and allow for RPL validation where it 
is relevant, but not to impose an overly rigid model 
on those who deliver qualifications. The advantage 
is that each validation process, and even each 
individual procedure of validation, can be tailored 
to the learner(s) in question. Some argue that this 
way of validation can better respond to changes 
in the labour market. The potential disadvantage is 
that, without a greater drive at national level, and 
without a centralised system for identifying where 
RPL is available or if a particular qualification can 
be obtained via RPL, it is likely that the number of 
people actually benefiting from RPL opportunities 
will remain low. There is no data to show the extent 
to which RPL takes place in England and Northern 
Ireland, but it is thought that, in practice, it is 
relatively small-scale.

For the use of RPL to increase, further support and 
awareness-raising amongst providers and other 
practitioners involved in working with learners 
would be needed. This includes resources in terms 
of staff numbers and staff development, as well as 
a funding methodology which supports the process 
and makes it a viable option for providers to offer.

946  The QAA Quality Code for higher education was 

introduced in the academic year 2012/13 and applies to 
England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. After 
extensive revision, a new Quality Code was published in 
March 2018: www.qaa.ac.uk/quality-code.

947  An example is the Soft outcomes universal learning 

(SOUL) record® (https://soulrecord.org), a toolkit using 
questionnaires and worksheets to collate data on soft 
outcome progression. It is used by organisations in the 
third sector for quality reviews and to support funding 
applications (European Commission et al., forthcoming).

NQF implementation

The RQF was introduced in October 2015 after 
extensive consultation with key stakeholders. It 
replaced the NQF and the QCF and it covers all 
regulated qualifications from general and vocational 

948  Ofqual and CCEA Regulation recognise 155 and, 

respectively, 99 awarding organisations which can award 
credits and qualifications in England and Northern Ireland.

672

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSeducation in England and Northern Ireland949. 
The RQF has now reached an operational stage 
and forms an integrated part of the regulated 
qualifications system. 

coordinating and managing communications with 
awarding organisations; and managing the technical 
aspects of transition, particularly IT changes 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

RQF implementation is supported by the General 
conditions of recognition and statutory guidance 
(Ofqual, 2017), which ensure the quality assurance 
of all qualifications entering the RQF from a 
development, delivery and awarding/certification 
perspective. Awarding organisations that want 
to offer regulated qualifications in England and 
Northern Ireland must meet the general criteria for 
recognition and be recognised by the qualifications 
regulators (Ofqual and CCEA Regulation). Once 
recognised, awarding organisations can submit 
qualifications compliant with the General conditions 
of recognition to the Ofqual Register of regulated 
qualifications950. All qualifications entered into 
the register become part of the RQF. The General 
conditions of recognition require awarding 
organisations to take a consistent approach to 
determining the level and describing the size of 
regulated qualifications. All qualifications registered 
in the framework were required to have total 
qualification time assigned by the end of 2017.

Several operational activities were closely 
associated with RQF implementation: accreditation 
of certain types of qualifications; auditing of 
awarding organisations against regulatory 
requirements, including their use of framework 
level descriptors and the way they describe the 
size of their qualifications; recognition of awarding 
organisations to offer certain types of qualification; 
and policy development951.

The transition from the QCF to the RQF was found 
to be less challenging than the implementation 
of the QCF. It did not require radical overhaul of 
all qualifications, as with the introduction of the 
QCF, and the QCF regulatory requirements were 
not replaced with another set of prescriptive 
rules. The General conditions of recognition were 
updated, and criteria and guidance, and a transition 
timetable, were developed by Ofqual and published 
widely for awarding organisations to ensure 
compliance with the new RQF conditions. There 
have been key challenges in implementing the 
RQF: managing changes smoothly in a planned and 
phased transition process with realistic timescales; 

The Ofqual Register of regulated qualifications952 
has been set up and now includes qualifications 
from general education up to RQF level 3 (EQF 
level 4) and VET qualifications (vocational and 
occupational) ranging from entry level to level 8. 
The EQF level is displayed along with the RQF 
level for each qualification in the register. The RQF 
level is indicated on qualification documents953 
and Europass certificate supplements for all 
qualifications included in the framework; the 
indication of the EQF level is optional, at the 
decision of awarding organisations. A number 
of surveys were conducted among awarding 
organisations and employers to gauge interest in 
the inclusion of EQF levels on learner qualification 
documents but this was found not to be necessary 
(European Commission and Cedefop, 2018).

Ofqual and CCEA Regulation work on qualifications 
and on the RQF is promoted through their websites, 
publications, web-based leaflets954, consultations 
and presentations. The regulators also communicate 
regularly with awarding organisations through email 
circulars, the Federation of Awarding Bodies, the 
regulators’ annual conference, and attendance at the 
awarding organisations’ forums and conferences. 
The prioritised target groups are recognised 
awarding organisations, fellow regulators in Wales 
and Scotland, and relevant government departments 
and funding agencies. When the QCF was 
withdrawn in 2015, a significant communications 
campaign took place to ensure the general public 
had access to clear information as required955. With 

952  Ofqual Register of regulated qualifications:  

https://register.ofqual.gov.uk/

953  In the General conditions of recognition there is a 
condition on ‘Requirements on qualification titling’ 
which specifies that RQF levels must be included in 
the qualification title in the qualifications register, in all 
awarding organisation documentation and on learner 
qualification certificates.

954  Such as:
  Ofqual ‘postcards’ outlining Ofqual’s work, with an 

emphasis on current reforms to qualifications in England: 
www.gov.uk/government/publications/your-qualification-
our-regulation-gcse-as-and-a-level-reforms

  Ofqual’s publication describing the new RQF: www.gov.
uk/government/publications/regulated-qualifications-
framework-a-postcard

949  There are 17 783 and 11 759 regulated qualifications 

  Ofqual handbook: General conditions of recognition: 

available in England and Northern Ireland, respectively 
(January 2019).

950  The Ofqual Register of regulated qualifications:  

https://register.ofqual.gov.uk/

951  Cedefop (2015). Survey on the sustainability and visibility 

of NQFs (unpublished).

www.gov.uk/guidance/ofqual-handbook
CCEA’s website: http://ccea.org.uk/qualifications
955  This took place mainly via the recognised awarding 
organisations. For example, Ofqual held a public 
consultation about the rules and guidance that should be 
in place following the removal of the QCF; there were 

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Volume II: National and regional cases 
the RQF in operation, Ofqual ensures information 
availability to stakeholders. It is the responsibility of 
awarding organisations to communicate with their 
approved centres/providers and with employers, 
and it is the centres’/providers’ responsibility to 
communicate with learners, employers and parents. 

Evaluation of the RQF has not yet been undertaken. 
It is estimated that there is a good level of 
awareness and use of the framework among 
education and training institutions and providers, 
and recognition authorities and bodies. Knowledge 
and use of the RQF is more limited among labour 
market stakeholders and guidance and counselling 
practitioners. While the framework itself is little 
known by the general public, there are pockets 
of good awareness and understanding of RQF 
levels and what they refer to. For example, GCSEs 
and A levels are widely understood in their own 
right and they are not widely referred to as L1/2/3 
qualifications, but their vocational and technical 
alternatives are generally referred to by learners 
and employers using the RQF level. Levels are 
widely used in school and college prospectuses, 
often in job advertisements and job descriptions, 
and qualification level requirements are sometimes 
included in licences to practise and professional 
requirements (European Commission and Cedefop, 
2018).

The influence of the RQF (and its predecessor 
QCF) has been noted in several areas. The QCF 
played a major role in the redesign of vocational 
qualifications using units of learning outcomes and 
assessment criteria and being assigned a QCF 
level and credit value. Despite the withdrawal of 
the QCF rules, awarding organisations continue to 
design qualifications using units, learning outcomes 
and assessment criteria. The RQF has also helped 
increase permeability of the education and training 
system, strengthening dialogue and cooperation 
between sectors and institutions. In Northern 
Ireland, regulated VET qualifications (referred 
to as professional and technical qualifications), 
which become part of the RQF, are required to 
have support from qualification users (providers, 
employers and sector bodies). These bodies and the 
awarding organisations must work cooperatively 
on the review and renewal of national occupational 
standards for work-based RQF qualifications and 
Northern Ireland apprenticeship programmes. 
Levels 4 to 8 of the RQF are comparable to levels 
4 to 8 of the FHEQ, which reduces barriers between 
education and training sectors, allowing learners to 
move between pathways at these levels. The RQF 

119 responses – 104 from awarding organisations, and 
15 from individuals – with each response carrying equal 
weight.

and the General conditions of recognition play an 
important role in parity of esteem between VET 
and academic qualifications, as both types appear 
at all levels of the framework and they can only 
enter the RQF if they are regulated and subject to 
rigorous quality assurance measures. The RQF level 
descriptors can also be used to provide a broad 
comparison of foreign qualifications; UK-Naric takes 
account of the RQF levels in their recognition work. 
The UK and Irish EQF NCP, regulators and quality 
assurance bodies produce a broad comparison 
leaflet956, which shows level-to-level comparisons in 
the UK and Ireland, and indicates how UK and Irish 
qualifications frameworks relate to qualifications 
frameworks in Europe. 

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The QCF had been referenced to the EQF in 
February 2010 as a part of the overall UK referencing 
process (Qualifications and Curriculum Development 
Agency et al., 2010). An update on developments 
in England and Northern Ireland was presented in 
the EQF advisory group in February 2019, and an 
updated referencing report to reference the RQF 
and FHEQ957 to the EQF is planned to be presented 
in June 2019. It will cover the transition from the 
QCF to the RQF, changes in the design, content 
and assessment of apprenticeships, along with the 
introduction of degree apprenticeships in England 
and the introduction of higher apprenticeships in 
Northern Ireland.

Important lessons and future plans

The changes introduced in England and Northern 
Ireland in recent years aimed to increase the validity, 
flexibility and value of regulated qualifications. 
The review of the QCF identified a number of 
problems with the Regulatory arrangements for the 
qualifications and credit framework (Ofqual, 2008) 
and the way in which they affected qualification 
design, specifically (Ofqual, 2014): 

a.  The structure of the QCF had been designed to 
support credit transfer; in practice, there were 
very low levels of take-up of credit transfer and 
the projected benefits of a credit-based system 
were not realised.

956  Ofqual et al. (2017). This leaflet is updated regularly and 
can be accessed at: http://ccea.org.uk/sites/default/files/
docs/accreditation/guidance/Qualifications_can_cross_
Boundaries.pdf

957  The FHEQ was self-certified to the QF-EHEA in 2008, but 

it was not referenced to the EQF. 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSb.  Unit sharing did not have the desired effect of 

reducing the number of vocational qualifications; 
there were over 10,000 more qualifications than 
in 2008 when the QCF regulatory arrangements 
were launched.

c.  There was a strong feeling that the requirement 

to unit share had significantly damaged 
qualification innovation and development.
d.  The Regulatory arrangements for the QCF 

the newly introduced RQF. The updated General 
conditions of recognition (Ofqual, 2017) focus on 
what the awarding bodies and their qualifications 
should achieve, and not on how they should achieve 
it. They are considered as a best practice quality 
assurance manual for qualification development, 
delivery and review. The key requirements of the 
RQF are that the size and the level of all regulated 
qualifications are described in a consistent way.

imposed a mastery approach to assessment, 
which required students to satisfy all of the 
assessment criteria as evidence that they met 
all of the learning outcomes; this worked against 
the use of compensation and could lead to over-
assessment at the unit level.

e.  The unit-level focus on assessment was not 

easily compatible with synoptic and end-point 
assessment which could be effective forms of 
assessment of some vocational qualifications.

f.  There was confusion about vocational 

qualifications which were not developed to 
meet the Regulatory arrangements for the QCF 
and about what this meant for qualifications 
frameworks.

This, together with the related public consultations 
in 2014 and 2015, brought agreement that the rules 
governing the design of qualifications should be 
abandoned, devolving responsibility for qualification 
design to awarding organisations and learning 
providers. At the same time, the transparency 
function of the framework was maintained in 

The introduction of the RQF could be interpreted 
as a change in approach in line with the trends in 
NQF development in other European countries: a 
move towards comprehensive frameworks, less 
prescriptive in nature, and with a strong role of 
communication, as opposed to regulation.

Qualifications frameworks have existed for several 
years in England and Northern Ireland, and it is 
expected that the RQF will remain a permanent 
feature of the skills and education system. There 
is a diverse qualifications market with a range of 
qualifications for users to choose from, and the 
RQF provides a good basis for understanding the 
relationships between them958. While there is 
continued commitment to international portability 
of qualifications following the UK’s exit from the 
EU959, the uncertainty around it is seen (October 
2018) as the most evident challenge for future 
RQF implementation (European Commission and 
Cedefop, 2018).

Table 90. Regulated qualifications framework (RQF) for England and Northern Ireland 

RQF LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS*

8

7

6

5

4

3

Technical/vocational qualifications level 8

Technical/vocational qualifications level 7

Technical/vocational qualifications level 6

Technical/vocational qualifications level 5
Higher national diplomas (HND)

Technical/vocational qualifications level 4 
Higher national certificates (HNC)

Technical/vocational qualifications level 3
GCE AS and A levels

8

7

6

5

5

4

(Continued)

958  Cedefop (2015). Survey on the sustainability and visibility 

of NQFs (unpublished).

959  Ofqual and CCEA regulation (2019). Referencing the RQF 
and the FHEQ to the EQF. Update to the EQF advisory 
group, January 2019.

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Volume II: National and regional casesTable 90. Regulated qualifications framework (RQF) for England and Northern Ireland (Continued)

RQF LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS*

2

1

Technical/vocational qualifications level 2
GCSEs at grade A*–C and from 2017 grade 4–9 (England)
Functional skills level 2 (England)
Essential skills qualifications (Northern Ireland)

Technical/vocational qualifications level 1
GCSEs at grade D–G and from 2017 grade 1–3 (England)
Functional skills level 1 (England)
Essential skills qualifications (Northern Ireland)

Entry level 3

Entry level certificates (sublevel 3)
Functional skills entry level (England) (English, mathematics and ICT)
Essential skills qualifications (Northern Ireland)

Entry levels 1–2

Entry level certificates (sublevels 1 and 2) 

3

2

1

–

(*)  The EQF levels are indicative, as the 2010 referencing report referred to the QCF, not the RQF. An updated referencing 
report will be available in 2019.

Source: Adapted from Ofqual; QAA; SCQF; CCEA Regulation; Welsh government & QQI (2017). Qualifications can cross 
boundaries: a guide to comparing qualifications in the UK and Ireland. 

Abbreviations

CCEA 

CQFW  

EQF  
FHEQ  

FQHEIS  

GCE A level  

 Council for Curriculum, 
Examinations and Assessment
 credit and qualifications framework 
of Wales
European qualifications framework
 framework for higher education 
qualifications
 framework for qualifications of 
higher education institutions 
in Scotland
 general certificate of education at 
advanced level

GCE AS level    general certificate of education at 

GCSE  

NCP 
NOS  
NQF 

advanced subsidiary level
 general certificate of secondary 
education 
national coordination point
national occupational standards
national qualifications framework

NVQ  
Ofqual  

QAA  

QCA  

QCF  
RARPA  

RPL  
RQF  
SCQF  

SSCs  
STEM  

VET  
VNFIL  

national vocational qualifications
 Office of Qualifications and 
Examinations Regulation
 Quality Assurance Agency for 
Higher Education
 Qualifications and Curriculum 
Authority
 qualifications and credit framework
 recording progress and 
achievement in non-accredited 
learning
recognition of prior learning
regulated qualifications framework
 Scottish credit and qualifications 
framework
sector skills councils
 science, technology, engineering 
and mathematics
vocational education and training
 validation of non-formal and 
informal learning

676

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSMain sources of information

Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation (Ofqual) – acts as the EQF NCP for England: www.gov.

uk/government/organisations/ofqual/about

Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment Northern Ireland – acts as EQF NCP for Northern 

Ireland: http://ccea.org.uk/about_us/what_we_do

Register of regulated qualifications: https://register.ofqual.gov.uk/ 
QCA et al. (2010). Referencing the qualifications frameworks of the United Kingdom to the European 

qualifications framework: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/2011-05-16-uk-eqf-
referencing-report.pdf

References

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: United Kingdom. https://ec.europa.eu/
education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-monitor-report-2018-united-kingdom_en.pdf
European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory for validation of non-
formal and informal learning 2018: country report: UK England and Northern Ireland. www.cedefop.
europa.eu/en/events-and-projects/projects/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning/european-
inventory#country

Ofqual (2008). Regulatory arrangements for the qualifications and credit framework. https://assets.

publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/371294/2008-
08-15-regulatory-arrangements-qcf-august08.pdf

Ofqual (2014). Consultation on withdrawing the regulatory arrangements for the qualifications and credit 

framework (Ofqual/14/5490). http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140813095715/http://www.
ofqual.gov.uk/ofdoc_categories/consultation-docs/withdrawing-the-regulatory-arrangements-for-the-
qualifications-and-credit-framework-july-2014/

Ofqual (2015). After the QCF: a new qualifications framework: decisions on conditions and guidance for 

the regulated qualifications framework (RQF). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/461401/after-the-qcf-a-new-qualifications-framework-
decisions-on-conditions-and-guidance-for-the-rqf.pdf 

Ofqual (2017). General conditions of recognition. Ofqual handbook. www.gov.uk/guidance/ofqual-handbook
Ofqual et al. (2017). Qualifications can cross boundaries: a guide to comparing qualifications in the UK and 

Ireland. http://ccea.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/accreditation/guidance/Qualifications_can_cross_
Boundaries.pdf

Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency et al. (2010). Report: referencing the qualifications 

frameworks of the United Kingdom to the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/
ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/2011-05-16-uk-eqf-referencing-report.pdf

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Volume II: National and regional casesSCOTLAND

Introduction and context

The Scottish credit and qualifications framework 
(SCQF) was originally introduced in 2001 and has 
since been gradually revised and refined. It is 
maintained by the Scottish Credit and Qualifications 
Framework Partnership (SCQFP), a company (and 
charity) set up in 2006, formally independent of 
national education and training authorities. The 
12-level framework covers all types of qualification 
and seeks to provide people of all ages and 
circumstances with better understanding of Scottish 
qualifications and the role they play in lifelong 
learning and workforce development. Scotland rarely 
uses legislation for matters related to education and 
the SCQF is not a regulatory framework; it currently 
underpins all Government policies and is fully 
integrated in the Scottish education, training and 
qualification landscape. Apart from providing a set 
of levels and level descriptors, the SCQF is defined 
through its qualification database960, the SCQF 
credit system961, arrangements for recognition of 
prior learning962 and extensive guidance and support 
material for different stakeholders (employers, 
educators, learners, and parents)963. The framework 
was referenced to the European qualifications 
framework (EQF) in 2010, as a part of the overall 
UK referencing process. An updated report for 
referencing the Scottish credit and qualifications 
framework (SCQF) to the EQF was presented in 
December 2018. The SCQF is fully operational and 
a number of studies looking at its impact across 
different sectors have been conducted. SCQF levels 
are indicated in all qualification documents awarded. 
While playing an important role in promoting 
transparency of national (and international) 
qualifications, the SCQF is increasingly focusing on 
level descriptors as a product in their own right and 

960  SCQF qualification database: http://scqf.org.uk/the-

framework/search-database/

961  SCQF credit system: http://scqf.org.uk/media/1118/credit-

point-explained-march-2017-web.pdf 

962  Arrangements for the recognition of prior learning: http://

scqf.org.uk/more/rpl/

963  Guidance and support material for employers: http://scqf.

org.uk/employers/

as a tool for development, for example supporting 
recruitment and workforce developments.

Policy objectives

The SCQF is seen as ‘an absolutely dependable 
single reference point for everyone, no matter 
where they are from’964. It aims to support lifelong 
learning by:

a.  helping people of all ages and circumstances to 
understand how to progress through appropriate 
education and training over their lifetime, to fulfil 
their personal, social and economic potential;
b.  clarifying entry and exit points for qualifications 

and programmes of learning at all levels;

c.  making transparent the level and credit (size) of 

different types of qualification;

d.  enabling credit transfer between qualifications or 
learning programmes to assist learners to build 
on previous successes.

It also aims to enable employers, learners and the 
public in general to understand:

a.  the full range of Scottish qualifications;
b.  how qualifications relate to each other and to 

other forms of assessed learning; 
c.  how different types of qualification can 

contribute to improving the development and 
utilisation of workforce skills;

d.  how Scottish qualifications relate to those in 

other countries;

e.  how using SCQF level descriptors can 

assist with qualifications development and 
benchmarking skills and experience in all 
sectors.

The SCQF addresses these objectives by making 
the overall system of qualifications and relevant 
programmes of learning easier to understand, 

964  Quote from the Deputy First Minister at the SCQF 
conference Linking the learning journey, Glasgow, 
22 February 2018. http://scqf.org.uk/news-blog/news/
successful-scqf-conference-linking-the-learning-journey/

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSand by providing a national vocabulary for 
describing learning opportunities. As one of the 
oldest comprehensive national qualifications 
frameworks (NQF) in Europe (and the world), the 
SCQF illustrates the potential of frameworks as 
instruments for development and, to some extent, 
reform. The SCQF has gradually moved beyond a 
simple ‘communication’ role (Raffe, 2009 and 2011) 
and established itself as a reference for revision 
and renewal of education and training (curricula and 
standards) and for human resource development. 

The SCQF is an ‘open framework’ in that it explicitly 
addresses the private sector and employers, and 
encourages these to have their training provisions 
recognised under the framework, through third-
party credit rating. The benefits for employers and 
employees include (SCQF, no date):

a.  national and EU-level recognition of in-house 
training and comparability with nationally 
recognised qualifications;

One SCQF credit point corresponds to a notional 
10 hours of learning, based on the time judged to 
be required for an ‘average’ learner to achieve the 
learning outcomes.

The framework has 12 levels ranging from entry at 
SCQF level 1, up to doctorate at level 12. The first 
three levels are seen as important in addressing 
individuals with particular learning needs and as an 
important part of an overall lifelong learning strategy. 
For some, these levels can function as a way back 
to formal education and training. The different 
levels indicate the level of difficulty of a particular 
qualification; increases in levels relate to factors 
such as:

a.  the complexity and depth of knowledge and 

understanding;

b.  links to associated academic, vocational or 

professional practice;

c.  the degree of integration, independence and 

creativity required;

b.  recognition of staff learning, linked to increased 

d.  the range and sophistication of application/

morale and retention;

practice; 

c.  increased credibility of the organisation, 

e.  the role(s) taken in relation to other learners/

attraction of new recruits of high calibre, and 
competitive advantage.

workers in carrying out tasks.

In addition to its original objectives, more recent 
aims were set to promote fair work and social 
justice, reflecting policies in these areas965. The 
SCQF provides tools and resources to recognise 
prior learning, support progression and improve 
social inclusion. 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The SCQF is a comprehensive framework covering 
all types of qualification including general education, 
higher education, and vocational education. It also 
covers a range of non-formal programmes from all 
sectors and providers, including community learning 
and development, social partners, employers, 
professional bodies and public services. Some 
international qualifications, such as those from 
Microsoft, are also included. The framework for 
qualifications of higher education institutions in 
Scotland (FQHEIS) is a constitutive part of the SCQF. 
As is also the case in the other UK countries, the 
Scottish approach is unit-based, supported by credit 
points, and allows for the inclusion and levelling of 
qualifications of differing character and size. This 
also explains the high number of qualifications 
included in the SCQF database (around 11 500). 

965  An example of such policies is the Fair work convention 

(website currently under reconstruction).

Learning outcomes have been used in Scotland 
since the 1980s, even before the adoption of the 
SCQF. However, the introduction of the SCQF 
has promoted the use of learning outcomes in 
learning programmes in different sectors. To 
be included in the framework and in the SCQF 
database, all qualifications, programmes and units 
of qualifications have to be described in terms of 
learning outcomes and to be credit rated: they 
must have a level and credit value allocated. The 
Scottish level descriptors were revised in 2012 
though not as a radical departure from the past; 
revision can be seen as part of continuous evolution 
of the framework based on experiences gained. 
The level descriptors are defined in terms of 
knowledge and understanding; practice (applied 
knowledge and understanding); generic cognitive 
skills; communication, ICT and numeric skills; and 
autonomy, accountability and working with others.

The SCQF has also been instrumental in the 
creation of recognised pathways, allowing learners 
to move more flexibly from one sector to another. 
The Scottish Government has recognised that 
repeating levels and duplication of SCQF credit is 
not efficient for the learner, nor for the system. 
Maximising the multiple entry points of the four-
year Honours Degree at SCQF level 10, both from 
school and from college, is seen as one way to 
ensure smoother transitions across sectors and a 
priority for improvement in the short to medium 
term (Scottish Government, 2018). The credit 

679

Volume II: National and regional casesrating of programmes, and the use of one set of 
level descriptors and one credit system across all 
sectors, has already helped to increase trust and 
reduce barriers between sectors. For example, 
someone completing a higher national certificate 
at SCQF level 7 in a vocational college would 
anticipate entering the second year of a related 
university degree; similarly, someone completing a 
higher national diploma at level 8 would enter the 
third year. Although important progress has been 
achieved over the last five years, there are still some 
sectors and institutions which are less proactive. 

According to the SCQF Partnership966, the SCQF 
level descriptors are also used to provide a 
broad comparison of foreign qualifications, and 
UK-Naric take note of the SCQF levels in their 
recognition work. The UK and Ireland national 
contact points also produce a document967 showing 
the level-to-level broad comparisons of UK and 
Irish qualifications, as well as how UK and Irish 
qualifications frameworks relate to qualifications 
frameworks in Europe. SCQFP has also used level 
comparison to complete formal referencing reports 
to both the Hong Kong and Bahrain frameworks968.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The Scottish framework was first proposed in 
the 1998 Government green paper Opportunity 
Scotland: a paper on lifelong learning969 and was 
introduced in 2001 via stakeholder agreement. 
The Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework 
Partnership (SCQFP), responsible for the 
development, quality assurance and promotion 
of the framework, was set up as a company (and 
charity) in 2006, aiming to do the following970:

a.  ensure that, where appropriate, all assessed 
learning and qualifications in Scotland are 
included on the SCQF;

b.  extend recognition of informal and non-formal 

learning;

c.  develop and promote the SCQF as a lifelong 

learning tool;

966  European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on 

implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 
(unpublished).

967  QAA Scotland et al. (2017).
968  More information is available at: http://scqf.org.uk/

services-partnerships/bespoke-workshops-and-study-
visits/examples-of-bespoke-services/

969  Scottish Government (1998). Opportunity Scotland: 
a paper on lifelong learning. https://web.archive.org/
web/20100309211722/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library/
documents-w1/lllgp-00.htm 

970  http://scqf.org.uk/about-us/the-scqf-partnership/

d.  develop relationships with other frameworks 

internationally.

Being formally independent of national education 
and training authorities, the SCQFP has ensured 
active engagement with the framework of a broad 
group of stakeholders, including qualification 
authorities, quality assurance bodies, universities 
and colleges, as well as employers. The partnership 
has a board of directors representing the Scottish 
Qualifications Authority, Universities Scotland, the 
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, and 
the College Development Network. There is also a 
director representing employers. 

A degree of ownership can be observed with the 
SCQF in all sectors of education and training as 
well as among labour market stakeholders. This 
reflects the broad coverage within the framework of 
different types and levels of qualification. Between 
2001 and 2006 the priority was to level and include 
in the SCQF the main general, vocational and higher 
education qualifications. Since 2007 the SCQFP 
has been working with both the government and 
social partners to widen coverage and to include 
non-formal and international qualifications. Around 
11 500 qualifications are currently included in 
the SCQF database and around 1 000 of these 
belong to social partners, trade unions, employers 
and professional bodies. The SCQFP runs regular 
workshops aiming to help social partners, 
professional bodies and employers to understand 
the requirements for developing qualifications and 
learning programmes that can be levelled and can 
have credit attached (credit rated). 

The framework is thought to have supported 
some difficult discussions around access and 
progression between sectors, offering a common 
language, and helping to promote trust and reduce 
barriers. In addition, the Quality Committee, which 
oversees the integrity and quality of the SCQF, has 
representatives from all sectors of education in 
Scotland as does the SCQF Forum, which meets 
regularly to discuss developments in the use of the 
SCQF. However, keeping all sectors and institutions 
in the loop is seen as a key challenge, especially 
given limitations in staff and budget within the 
SCQFP. The SCQFP consists of a core team of 12 
staff, of which almost half are employed part-time. 
Budget is provided by the Scottish Government 
and the Scottish Funding Council and amounted 
to GBP 650 000 in 2017. Additional income was 
generated through consultancy work and through 
EQF subsidies. 

Engagement of employers and general education 
schools is considered to require more attention. 
To help, the SCQFP has introduced the School 

680

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSambassador programme, which trains teachers 
and senior pupils to pass on information about 
the benefits of using the SCQF to other teachers, 
pupils, parents and carers. It has also developed and 
revised an employer engagement strategy, focusing 
efforts where they could add most value.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways971

Scotland’s approach to validation (referred to as 
recognition of prior learning or RPL) covers prior 
formal, non-formal and informal learning in all 
sectors. The principle of RPL is well embedded 
in the policies and guidelines of a number of 
organisations, including the Scottish Credit and 
Qualifications Framework Partnership (SCQFP), the 
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in 
Scotland (QAA Scotland), the Scottish Qualifications 
Authority (SQA), and the Scottish Funding Council 
(SFC). While there is no single policy or strategy 
on RPL in Scotland, and no single governmental 
body responsible for it, there are guidelines, tools 
and resources on the benefits, opportunities and 
procedures for RPL, mainly delivered through 
the SCQFP. They include: the SCQF Partnership’s 
Guide to RPL and RPL tool972, the Facilitating the 
recognition of prior learning toolkit973, the SCQF 
handbook974 and the publication Recognition of prior 
learning: national framework for Scottish higher 
education975.

RPL is closely linked to the implementation of 
the Scottish credit and qualifications framework 
(SCQF), which is intended to support both formative 
and summative recognition. The SCQF handbook 
recommends that the design and development 
of qualifications and learning programmes for 
the SCQF should support, promote and make as 
straightforward as possible the recognition of prior 
informal and non-formal learning and credit transfer, 

971  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

972  SCQFP (2018). RPL tool is available at: http://scqf.org.uk/

guide-to-rpl/rpl-tool/

973  SCQFP (2010). Facilitating the recognition of prior learning 
toolkit. Glasgow: SCQPF. www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/files_ccc/
RPLToolkitUpdatedDecember2010.pdf

974  SCQFP (2015). SCQF handbook is available at: www.scqf.
org.uk/media/1125/scqf_handbook_web_final_2015.pdf

975  QAA Scotland (2014). Recognition of prior learning: 

national framework for Scottish higher education. 
Glasgow: QAA Scotland. www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/
qaas/enhancement-and-development/recognition-
of-prior-learning---framework-for-scottish-he.
pdf?sfvrsn=ae7cf581_10

to minimise any duplication of learning. One way to 
achieve this is by writing clear learning outcomes 
and assessment procedures for qualifications. The 
SCQF level descriptors are common reference 
points for recognising all learning that is outcome-
based and quality-assured, irrespective of whether 
it is academic, vocational, non-formal or informal. 
The SCQF credit points support both flexibility 
and progression, and are the building blocks for 
credit transfer. Three types of RPL are described, 
and the four stages of validation – identification, 
documentation, assessment and certification – are 
likely to be used to varying extents, depending on 
the type of recognition taking place: 

a.  RPL for personal/career development (formative 

recognition);

b.  RPL to gain entry to a learning programme 

(summative recognition); 

c.  RPL for the award of SCQF credit points to 

gain entry with credit or advanced standing in a 
programme/qualification (summative recognition).

Among the strengths of the Scottish approach 
to RPL are its compliance with agreed standards 
equivalent to those for qualifications obtained 
through formal education, and the transparent 
quality assurance measures in line with existing 
quality assurance frameworks. The standard used 
involves comparison of the individual’s learning 
against the aims and/or learning outcomes of the 
qualification or learning programme for which credit 
is being sought. The award of credit points can be 
carried out by SCQF credit rating bodies, within 
the context of clearly defined quality assurance 
mechanisms, and must involve a formal assessment 
or acceptance of evidence of learning which is 
quality assured. SCQF credit points can be awarded 
to recognise prior learning that has not already been 
assessed or credit rated, regardless of the context 
in which that learning was achieved, and they are 
of the same value as credit gained through other 
formal learning. 

Most RPL activity so far has been related to higher 
education and vocational education. The national 
RPL framework for higher education attempts 
to locate RPL within broader developments in 
establishing more flexible and efficient learner 
journeys, a more flexible and accessible curriculum, 
and enabling greater participation and fair access to 
higher education by learners from a wide range of 
backgrounds. Graduate apprenticeships976 are a new 
development set to begin from September 2018, 

976  Graduate apprenticeships are work-based learning 
programmes at SCQF levels 9, 10 or 11 that lead 
to degree-level qualifications. These are nationally 
recognised, accredited and certificated by a national 

681

Volume II: National and regional casesexpected to focus the attention of universities on 
RPL and to reinvigorate the agenda. In this context, 
RPL could be used for access to the programme 
or to award credit for competences developed in 
the workplace. In vocational education, RPL can 
be used to assess complete or partial units977 of 
qualifications accredited by the SQA, including the 
Scottish vocational qualifications (SVQs). Over the 
past two years employers have become increasingly 
interested in using RPL; the SCQFP promotes it for 
recruitment, induction, supervision, performance 
interviewing and gaining qualifications for learning 
in the workplace. The SCQFP is also currently 
supporting two Government initiatives in relation 
to RPL: one aiming to provide better recognition of 
qualifications gained by those in the armed forces 
once they exit into civilian life; and the other looking 
at an RPL sustainable model for refugees and 
asylum seekers without credentials seeking to enter 
the labour market.

One of the challenges to implementation of RPL 
in Scotland is a perception among providers that 
RPL is expensive and time-consuming: it can seem 
easier and cheaper to include a person in a course 
rather than to carry out a one-to-one RPL process. 
Lack of explicit resourcing is another barrier, 
particularly in the college sector. For instance, if 
a learner uses RPL to reduce the learning he/she 
needs to undertake for a qualification, this can 
affect their status and the funding they are entitled 
to. Another issue is that there is no ‘centre’ for 
validation; instead validation is the responsibility of 
providers with support and guidance from SCQFP, 
QAA Scotland and SQA. This means that trust in 
RPL procedures and achievements will depend on 
the provider in question. The lack of a national policy 
or strategy on RPL means that providers have a 
wide variety of practices and procedures, which can 
be confusing to learners. A national strategy would 
be needed to improve the current arrangements, 
setting out the responsibilities of the different 
stakeholders involved. At the same time, SCQFP 
has limited capacity to promote RPL and to offer 
advice and guidance.

However, the speed and flexibility with which RPL 
procedures can be implemented is an advantage. 
Different sectors and employers are able to 

awarding body. www.skillsdevelopmentscotland.co.uk/
what-we-do/apprenticeships/graduate-apprenticeships/

977  RPL may be used to assess complete or partial SQA 
units. Where evidence of prior learning only partially 
meets the evidence requirements of a unit, other 
methods of assessment should be used to complete the 
outstanding requirements. The minimum level of awarding 
and certification will be a complete SQA unit. More 
information is available at: www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/67029.
html 

participate if they wish. Increased use of RPL 
can be further enabled by its links to other policy 
agendas: 

a.  developing the young workforce (Scotland’s 

youth employment strategy); 

b.  outcome agreements (setting out what colleges 
and universities plan to deliver in return for their 
funding from the Scottish Funding Council); 
c.  the Blueprint for fairness (Scottish Government, 
2016), concerned with widening access to 
universities to those from the most deprived 
communities.

NQF implementation

One of the oldest comprehensive NQFs in Europe, 
the SCQF has reached an advanced operational 
stage. In its initial stages, between 2001 and 
2006, SCQF implementation focused on levelling 
the main general, vocational and higher education 
qualifications. From 2007 onwards efforts were 
made to include non-formal and international 
qualifications. The SCQF database978 contains all 
qualifications and learning programmes that are 
levelled and credit rated; there are around 11 500 
qualifications in total so far, of which around 1 000 
belong to social partners, trade unions, employers 
and professional bodies. Both SCQF and EQF 
levels are included in the public view of the SCQF 
database, and SCQF levels can be included on 
certificates, diplomas, and Europass certificate 
and diploma supplements once the qualification/
programme has been formally credit rated. Surveys 
of employers and awarding bodies have been 
carried out to gauge interest in the inclusion of the 
EQF level on certificates. However, this is not felt 
necessary, though awarding bodies can do so if they 
wish. 

Further efforts to promote the visibility of the 
framework are made through the overall SCQF 
communication strategy, through presentations, 
social media, and leaflets, addressing various target 
groups. The SCQF is thought to be extensively 
known and used by education and training providers, 
partly due to the SCQF School ambassador 
programme developed by the SCQFP, which trains 
teachers and senior pupils to pass on information 
about the framework to other teachers, pupils and 
parents. It is also well known and regularly used 
by guidance and counselling practitioners and 
recognition authorities and bodies; labour market 

978  The SCQF database is available at: http://scqf.org.uk/the-

framework/search-database/

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSstakeholders have limited but growing awareness of 
it (European Commission and Cedefop, 2018). 

of adult achievement awards (allowing for the 
recognition of non-formal skills).

The SCQFP has systematically used evaluations 
to inform framework developments. Six studies 
investigating the impact of the SCQF across 
different sectors have been conducted by various 
consultants using a range of different methods. All 
suggested that the SCQF Partnership was moving in 
the right direction in terms of raising awareness of 
the framework, while it lacks resources to achieve 
this on a large scale. 

A 2013 evaluation looking at the level of awareness, 
perception and understanding of the SCQF 
(Ashbrook Research & Consultancy, 2013) showed 
that the framework is widely recognised by 
learners, parents and education professionals in 
Scotland. A 2015 evaluation of the use of the SCQF 
among higher education institutions and colleges 
(Kerson Associates Ltd, 2015), suggested that 
the framework is well embedded in curriculum 
decision-making processes, aiding the development 
of progression pathways and highlighting gaps 
in provision; it is also used in quality assurance 
processes. 

An assessment was undertaken in 2016–17 
(University of Glasgow, 2017) of the impact that the 
SCQF and the SCQF Partnership had made across 
key stakeholders and their policies and practices. 
It showed that the SCQF and SCQFP are both 
well-established features of Scotland’s education 
and qualifications landscape, having cross-cutting 
impacts such as:

a.  providing a common point of reference and 
vocabulary across different user groups;
b.  emphasising the value and equality of all 

qualifications due to the comprehensive nature 
of the SCQF;

c.  supporting the progress of all learners by 

providing a single, quality assured benchmark 
that all can refer to and which can help plan, 
articulate and transport their learning;

d.  providing a model of international best practice 
and promoting the Scottish education and skills 
system internationally.

The SCQFP was found to be instrumental in a 
number of key developments expected to have 
a long-term impact on Scotland’s education and 
skills landscape: embedding of SCQF levels in the 
school curriculum and in Scotland’s national training 
programmes; replacement of SVQ levels with SCQF 
levels; inclusion of more than 850 non-mainstream 
qualifications and programmes; establishment of six 
new credit rating bodies (CRBs); and development 

The study also showed that reach and use of the 
SCQF increased across all target groups between 
2010/11 and 2015/16, evidenced by:

a.  an increase from 400 to 11 270 in the number 
of qualifications credit rated onto the SCQF 
database;

b.  the increasing prominence of the SCQF in the 

college sector, including 4 008 college students 
who benefitted from articulation routes between 
Higher National Qualifications (HNQs) and 
degree level courses in 2015/16;

c.  increased use of the SCQF by employers in job 

adverts (153 in 2015/16);

d.  continued yearly growth in the SCQF’s social 

media and website reach.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The SCQF was referenced to the EQF in February 
2010 as a part of the overall UK referencing 
process979. 

In the meantime, there have been major changes 
in the general education system in Scotland, 
including the renaming of qualifications to indicate 
their SCQF level (National 1 to National 5). The 
offer of apprenticeships from level 6 upwards has 
been expanded, with some plans to introduce 
apprenticeships at levels 4 and 5. As a result of 
these changes, an updated referencing report 
has been prepared by the SCQF Partnership and 
presented to the EQF advisory group in December 
2018980.

Important lessons and future plans

The SCQF is one of the oldest comprehensive 
NQFs in Europe. It has gradually evolved from an 
instrument for transparency and communication 
of qualifications to a reference tool for revision of 
education and training and for human resource 
development. Given the government’s focus on 
articulation of progression pathways, the interest 
in promoting, valuing and recognising all types of 
learning, and the full buy-in of stakeholders, the 

979  It was prepared by the Qualifications and Curriculum 

Authority, the Council for the Curriculum, Examinations 
and Assessment, the Scottish credit and qualifications 
framework Partnership and the Welsh Assembly 
Government. See Qualifications and Curriculum Agency 
et al. (2010). 

980  See SCQF Partnership (forthcoming). 

683

Volume II: National and regional casesSCQF has a secure position as a permanent feature 
of the national qualifications system, underpinning 
all education and training policies. The 15–24 
learner journey review undertaken by the Scottish 
Government in 2018 features both the SCQF and 
the SCQF Partnership as instrumental in achieving 
success in its recommendations aimed at achieving 
shorter and more coherent learner journeys. The 
SCQF is seen as central to policies on access, 
transfer and progression, validation of non-formal 
and informal learning, and quality assurance.

Success factors include regular evaluations helping 
to ensure its relevance, and its governance, based 
on a partnership model with collaboration and 
good links to the government and other networks. 
The SCQFP is seen as a completely neutral 
organisation, allowing engagement of a wide 
range of stakeholders. However, due to its small 
size and limited funding, keeping every sector and 
every institution in the loop and upscaling projects 
have been key challenges in implementing the 
framework. The evaluation of SCQF and SCQFP 
impact undertaken in 2016–17 (University of 
Glasgow, 2017) has revealed that, while mainstream 
institutions such as colleges and universities have 

been impacted extensively by the SCQF, employers 
and general education schools require more 
attention. Current and future efforts are focused on 
implementing the School ambassador programme 
and an employer engagement strategy to extend 
the use of the framework by these groups. 
The recommendations of the 2016–17 impact 
assessment include:

a.  continued resourcing of the SCQF Partnership 
for the coordination, promotion and quality 
assurance of the framework in order to maintain 
its increasing scale, reach, use and impact; 
b.  taking a more targeted approach to promoting 
the SCQF to those involved in planning young 
people’s learner journeys (teachers, parents 
and pupils) and employers (tying in with the 
Developing the young workforce agenda); 

c.  striking a balance between simplicity and quality 
assurance: simplicity encourages increased use 
and understanding of the SCQF, while quality 
assurance ensures its credibility. 

The two last points have been taken forward by the 
SCQF Partnerships in their latest communications 
strategy. 

Table 91. Scottish credit and qualifications framework (SCQF)

SCQF 
LEVEL

SQA QUALIFICATIONS

12

11

10

9

684

APPRENTICESHIPS 
AND SVQs

EQF 
LEVEL

Professional 
development 
award

Professional 
development 
award

QUALIFICATIONS 
OF HIGHER 
EDUCATION 
INSTITUTIONS

Doctoral degree

Master degree

Integrated master 
degree

Postgraduate 
diploma

Postgraduate 
certificate

Professional 
apprenticeship

Graduate 
apprenticeship

Professional 
apprenticeship

SVQ

Professional 
development 
award

Professional 
development 
award

Honours degree

Graduate diploma

Graduate 
certificate

Graduate 
apprenticeship

Professional 
apprenticeship

Bachelor/ordinary 
degree

Graduate 
apprenticeship

Graduate diploma

Graduate 
certificate

Technical 
apprenticeship

SVQ

8

7

6

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 91. Scottish credit and qualifications framework (SCQF) (Continued)

SCQF 
LEVEL

SQA QUALIFICATIONS

QUALIFICATIONS 
OF HIGHER 
EDUCATION 
INSTITUTIONS

APPRENTICESHIPS 
AND SVQs

EQF 
LEVEL

Diploma of higher 
education

Higher 
apprenticeship

Technical 
apprenticeship

SVQ

Certificate of 
higher education

Modern 
apprenticeship

SVQ

Modern 
apprenticeship

Foundation 
apprenticeship

SVQ

Modern 
apprenticeship

SVQ

SVQ

5

4

3

2

1

8

7

Higher 
national 
diploma

Professional 
development 
award

Advanced higher 
awards

Scottish 
baccalaureate

Higher 
national 
certificate

Professional 
development 
award

6

Higher awards

Skills for work 
higher

National 
certificate

Professional 
development 
award

National 
progression 
award

National 
progression 
award

National 
progression 
award

National 
progression 
award

National 
progression 
award

5

4

3

2

1

National 5 
awards

National 
certificate

Skills for work 
national 5

National 4 
awards

National 
certificate

Skills for work 
national 4

National 3 
awards

National 
certificate

Skills for work 
national 3

National 2 
awards

National 
certificate

National 1 
awards

Source: adapted from the SCQF website, 2018: https://scqf.org.uk/interactive-framework/

Abbreviations
EQF  
NQF  
QAA  

RPL  

European qualifications framework
national qualifications framework
Scotland Quality Assurance Agency 
for Higher Education in Scotland
recognition of prior learning

SCQF  

SCQFP  

SQA  
SVQs  

Scottish credit and qualifications 
framework
Scottish Credit and Qualifications 
Framework Partnership
Scottish qualifications authority 
Scottish vocational qualifications

685

Volume II: National and regional casesMain sources of information

Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework Partnership (SCQFP) – acts as the EQF national coordination 

point for Scotland: www.scqf.org.uk/

SCQF database: http://scqf.org.uk/the-framework/search-database/ 
QCA et al. (2010). Referencing the qualifications frameworks of the United Kingdom to the European 

qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/referencing-reports-and-contacts

SCQF Partnership (forthcoming). Referencing the Scottish credit and qualifications framework to the 

European qualifications framework – Update 2018. 

References

Ashbrook Research & Consultancy (2013). Evaluations of the awareness, perceptions and understanding of 

the SCQF amongst learners and the understanding, awareness and perceptions of the framework 
amongst management and teaching staff in schools.

European Commission; Cedefop (2018). Survey on implementation, communication and use of NQF/EQF 

(unpublished).

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF Internationals (forthcoming). European inventory for validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report: UK Scotland.

Kerson Associates Ltd (2015). The use and impact of the SCQF in the HEI and college sectors: follow-up 

study 2014–15: final report for the SCQF Partnership.

QAA Scotland et al. (2019). Qualifications can cross boundaries: a guide to comparing qualifications in 

the UK and Ireland. Gloucester: Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.  
www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaas/news-and-events/qualifications-can-cross-boundaries-guide-to-comparing-
qualifications-in-the-uk-and-ireland.pdf?sfvrsn=3715c981_4

Qualifications and Curriculum Agency (QCA) et al. (2010). Referencing the qualifications frameworks of 

the United Kingdom to the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/
referencing-reports-and-contacts

Raffe, D. (2009). National qualifications frameworks in Ireland and Scotland: a comparative analysis. Paper 
presented at the European conference on educational research, Vienna, 28 to 30 September 2009. 
www.ces.ed.ac.uk/PDF%20Files/NQF_ECER_2009.pdf

Raffe, D. (2011). The role of learning outcomes in national qualifications frameworks. In: Bohlinger, S.; 
Münchhausen, G. (eds). Validierung von Lernergebnisse [Recognition and validation of learning 
outcomes]. Bonn: BIBB, pp. 87–104.

Scottish Government (2016). A blueprint for fairness: final report of the commission on widening access. 

Edinburgh: Scottish Government. https://beta.gov.scot/publications/blueprint-fairness-final-report-
commission-widening-access/  

Scottish Government (2018). The 15–24 learner journey review. Edinburgh: Scottish Government. www.gov.

scot/Resource/0053/00535273.pdf

SCQF (no date). Maximise workforce potential: an employer’s guide to the SCQF: assisting employers with 
recruitment and selection, learning and development, and recognising in-house training. https://scqf.
org.uk/media/1115/scqf-employer-guide-mar-2017-web.pdf

SCQF Partnership (forthcoming). Referencing the Scottish credit and qualifications framework to the 

European qualifications framework – Update 2018.

University of Glasgow – Training and Employment Research Unit (2017). Review of the impact of the SCQF 

and SCQF Partnership on policies, strategies and stakeholders. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. 
http://scqf.org.uk/media/1367/scqf-impact-final-report-22-feb-2017.pdf 

686

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSWALES

Introduction and context

Policy objectives

The credit and qualifications framework for Wales 
(CQFW) was adopted in 2002 and launched in 
2003. Its purpose is to act as an overarching 
structure to provide clarity for the existing education 
sub-systems. The CQFW is an all-inclusive meta-
framework that encompasses a wide range of 
learning under three ‘pillars’: the higher education 
pillar (levels 4 to 8), the regulated qualifications pillar 
(entry 1 to level 8) and the lifelong learning pillar 
(entry 1 to level 8) (Welsh Government, 2018a).The 
framework has no regulatory functions, but helps 
to bring together the main stakeholders involved in 
regulating Welsh qualifications. 

The CQFW is operational and can be seen as a 
second generation framework, departing from 
sector frameworks established from the 1990s 
onwards. Following evaluation of the CQFW in 2014 
(Welsh Government, 2014)981 a number of changes 
have been introduced, partly reflecting the setting 
up of Qualifications Wales982, a new government 
body responsible for regulated qualifications 
(outside higher education). Changes were 
introduced to the quality-assured lifelong learning 
pillar of the framework, seeking to clarify the way 
non-formal and informal learning is recognised.

Abolition of the qualifications and credit framework 
in England and Northern Ireland has also 
influenced the CQFW. From 2015 onwards all 
regulated qualifications refer to the new Ofqual 
level descriptors introduced for the regulated 
qualifications framework (RQF) in England and 
Northern Ireland983. Non-regulated qualifications 
continue to refer to the 2009 CQFW level 
descriptors.

The CQFW has been designed to provide greater 
clarity on the qualifications system in Wales. It is 
seen as an ‘enabling tool’ in relation to the Welsh 
Government’s economic and skills policies and 
goals. It should therefore: 

a.  offer a national qualifications framework (NQF) 
for learners in Wales of all ages and abilities;

b.  provide a common currency for learning 

achievement;

c.  support the recognition of credit and 

qualifications across all levels, enabling learners 
to progress;

d.  support providers in articulating pathways of 

progression that are easily understood and are 
transferable and consistent within Europe and 
the wider international community.

The CQFW embraces three common principles:

a.  expression of achievement as learning 

outcomes;

b.  the demands made by that learning on the 

learner (level);

d.  credit can be applied.

Together, these principles underpin all types of 
learning in all sections of education and training. The 
CQFW is positioned as a key part of Wales’ lifelong 
learning policy and strategy. 

For formal education and training, the framework 
supports all recognised, credit-based learning 
within:

a.  higher education;
b.  regulated general and vocational qualifications.

981  See the relevant web page of the Welsh Government: 

http://wales.gov.uk/statistics-and-research/evaluation-
impact-credit-qualifications-framework-wales/?lang=en 
[accessed 19.3.2019].

982  Qualifications Wales webpage: www.qualificationswales.

org/english/ [accessed19.3.2019].

983  See the chapter on UK England and Northern Ireland of 

the European NQF inventory 2018. 

The lifelong learning pillar forms a third and 
integrated pillar of the CQFW. It takes as its starting 
point that all learning, wherever and whenever it 
takes place, should be valued and recognised. 

The CQFW can be considered an ‘open framework’ 
in the sense that its unit-based approach at the 

687

Volume II: National and regional casesoutset is oriented towards a multitude of awarding 
bodies and education and training formats. This 
aids inclusion of units developed (for example) by 
the private sector and as part of continuing and 
enterprise-based education and training. The CQFW 
is also a communications framework that aims ‘to 
provide a language and route map to make it easier 
for learners, parents, education professionals and 
employers to understand progression routes’ (Welsh 
Government, 2014). 

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The CQFW encompasses a wide range of 
qualifications and other credit-based accredited 
training (that can be awarded to learners 
undertaking a wide range of learning, covering 
general and vocational training) and non-accredited 
delivery (Welsh Government, 2018a). There are 
eight levels plus entry levels in the CQFW. The 
higher education pillar includes higher education 
certificates, diplomas and degrees at levels 4 
and above. The regulated qualifications pillar 
includes school leaving qualifications (GCSEs, 
GCE A levels) and all-age vocational qualifications 
(national vocational qualifications, certificates, 
diplomas, awards). Qualifications Wales regulates 
the awarding bodies for this pillar. The lifelong 
learning pillar includes units of accredited learning984 
and professional learning985.The providers in this 
pillar are required to meet the CQFW high level 

principles: the credit, learning time, recognised 
standards, levels/level descriptors, title, purpose, 
learning outcomes and assessment criteria. 

The CQFW level descriptors were revised in 
2009 and are structured in three categories: 
knowledge and understanding; application and 
action; and autonomy and accountability986. With 
the introduction of RQF in England and Northern 
Ireland in 2015, the revised RQF level descriptors 
– defined in terms of knowledge and skills – have 
been adopted for the regulated qualifications pillar 
of the CQFW and apply for vocational and general 
education qualifications, as can be seen in Table 92.

Higher education qualifications are assigned 
to levels in accordance with the framework for 
higher education qualifications in England, Wales 
and Northern Ireland987. The lifelong learning pillar 
continues to use the 2009 CQFW level descriptors. 

All qualifications and learning programmes within 
the CQFW are based on learning outcomes and 
must have quality-assured assessment of these 
outcomes. The CQFW uses two measures to 
describe qualifications:

a.  the level of the outcomes of learning;
b.  the volume of outcomes, described by the 

number of CQFW credit points.

Table 92. Changes to level descriptors

LEVEL

KNOWLEDGE DESCRIPTOR  
(THE HOLDER…)

SKILLS DESCRIPTOR (THE HOLDER CAN…)

Level 1

•  Has basic factual knowledge of a subject 

and/or knowledge of facts, procedures and 
ideas to complete well-defined routine tasks 
and address simple problems

• 

Is aware of aspects of information relevant 
to the area of study or work

•  Use basic cognitive and practical skills to 
complete well-defined routine tasks and 
procedures

•  Select and use relevant information

• 

Identify whether actions have been effective

Source: www.gov.uk/guidance/ofqual-handbook/section-e-design-and-development-of-qualifications#level-descriptors

984  This is called ‘unitised accredited learning’ (UAL) which is 

986  Detailed graph on level descriptors: https://beta.gov.wales/
sites/default/files/publications/2018-02/level-descriptors.
pdf [accessed 19.3.2019]. 

unit-based provision and has a credit value.

987  Quality Assurance Agency (2014). UK Quality code 

985  This is called ‘vendor/industry/professional’ (VIP) learning 
that tends to be sector/industry specific training and/or 
workforce development programmes (Welsh Government, 
2018a).

for higher education. Part A: setting and maintaining 
academic standards. The frameworks for higher education 
qualifications of UK degree-awarding bodies. www.qaa.
ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/qualifications-frameworks.pdf 

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSStakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The credit and qualifications framework for Wales 
(CQFW) is managed by a strategic operational 
partnership comprising the Welsh Government, 
Higher Education Funding Council for Wales, and 
Qualifications Wales. Other external agencies, 
awarding bodies, higher education and training 
providers are invited to join the advisory group as 
appropriate. All partners support the CQFW in aiding 
transparency and assisting learners in planning their 
progression pathways (Welsh Government, 2018a). 
The Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ)988 is a 
membership organisation representing the seven 
largest awarding bodies offering qualifications in the 
UK, including GCSEs, GSE A levels and vocational 
qualifications. 

The 2014 evaluation noted that the CQFW was 
particularly well established in certain sectors: 
higher education and adult and community learning. 
For other sectors, however, engagement was lower. 
Stakeholders generally perceived engagement with 
the framework to be low among employers and 
most learners, and that there is a need to increase 

awareness of – and buy-in to – the framework 
across education and training sectors. This 
mixed assessment was balanced by the fact that 
stakeholders are generally aware of the CQFW and 
its roles and it is considered a useful information 
tool, providing coherent understanding of the Welsh 
qualifications system. Since 2014, this has been 
addressed by a targeted programme of awareness-
raising, including the production of brochures 
and web materials, as well as engagement with 
learning providers and employers through the 
CQFW advisory group. The CQFW has also been 
embedded in Welsh Government targets in, for 
example, apprenticeship provision and learner 
attainment.

A number of changes were introduced in 2015, 
including the CQFW governance structure, by 
setting up of Qualifications Wales989; this is a new 
government-sponsored but independent body 
responsible for non-higher education qualifications. 
Qualifications Wales has a range of regulatory 
powers to support the system and take action 
if there is non-compliance. Its main purpose is 
to promote the interests of learners and public 
confidence in the qualification system. In order to 

Figure 22. CQFW governance structure

PARTNERSHIP / ARRANGEMENTS – ANNUAL MEETING

WELSH GOVERNMENT
Management of overarching  
CQFW Policy

QUALIFICATIONS WALES
Oversight of the  
Regulated Qualifications Pillar

HIGHER EDUCATION FUNDING 
COUNCIL FOR WALES
Oversight of the Higher  
Education Pillar

CQFW ADVISORY GROUP 

Annual review of the CQFW and its objectives

Membership: Welsh Government, Qualifications Wales, Higher Education Funding Council for Wales,  
Careers Wales, ColegauCymru, Federation of Awarding Bodies, Natinal Union of Students Wales,  
Social Care Wales, National Training Federation for Wales, Welsh Local Government Association,  
NHS Wales, Adult Community Leaning Network and other potential partners to be agreed.

Source: Welsh Government (2018a). https://beta.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-01/cqfw-brochure.pdf

988  More information at JCQ website: www.jcq.org.uk/

qualificationswales.org

989  For further information see Qualifications Wales at: www.

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Volume II: National and regional casesoffer regulated qualifications in Wales an awarding 
body must be recognised by Qualifications Wales 
(Welsh Government, 2018). 

Changes were also introduced to the lifelong 
learning pillar of the framework, seeking to clarify 
the way non-formal and informal learning is 
recognised. The units of accredited learning in this 
pillar are designed primarily by awarding bodies and, 
in some cases, employers, professional bodies, 
colleges or voluntary sector bodies. 

The framework for higher education qualifications 
(FHEQ) in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is 
a constituent part of the CQFW. Higher education 
is a devolved area, which means that most 
decisions about higher education policy in Wales 
are taken by the Welsh Government. Higher 
education institutions are private bodies/charities 
which are independent of government and are 
quality regulated by the Higher Education Funding 
Council for Wales. This body ensures the FHEQ in 
England, Wales and Northern Ireland is in place for 
assessing the quality of higher education; it also 
scrutinises the performance of universities and 
other designated providers (Welsh Government, 
2018). In Taking Wales forward 2016–21990 a 
commitment was made to update governance 
arrangements for further and higher education. In 
June 2017, proposals to create a new commission to 
oversee the higher and further education sector in 
Wales were published by the Education Secretary 
as a Welsh Government white paper titled Public 
good and a prosperous Wales: building a reformed 
PCET system991. It set out how the new body 
(referred to as the Tertiary Education and Research 
Commission), would succeed the Higher Education 
Funding Council for Wales, will regulate the post-
compulsory education and training sector, as well 
as have responsibility for research and innovation 
(Cedefop, forthcoming).

Quality assurance of lifelong learning is not 
overseen centrally; it is assumed that sectors will 
utilise their own internal existing quality assurance 
practices and processes to comply with the CQFW’s 
high-level principles. There is no regulatory process 
for unitised accredited learning (UAL)992, nor is there 

990  Welsh Government (2016). Taking Wales forward: 

2016–21. https://gov.wales/docs/strategies/160920-taking-
wales-forward-en.pdf

991  Welsh Government (2017). Public good and prosperous 

Wales: building a reformed PCET system. https://beta.gov.
wales/sites/default/files/consultations/2018-02/170620_
consultation-en.pdf

992  Lifelong learning units are not regulated qualifications. 
For more details regarding the process for recognition 
of unitised accredited learning within the CQFW, see 
the Welsh brochure on CQFW (p. 27) at: https://beta.

a regulatory process for approval of vendor/industry/
professional (VIP) learning. Quality Assurance 
Agency (QAA) guidance993 has been developed for 
the implementation of the FHEQ, a constituent part 
of the CQFW. This guidance applies to degrees, 
diplomas, certificates and other awards granted by a 
higher education provider. 

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways994

Only formal and non-formal learning is recognised 
by the CQFW; the framework does not recognise 
informal learning because it does not comply with 
the CFQW high-level principles995 and it has no set 
objectives in terms of learning outcomes. Non-
formal learning can be recognised in a number 
of ways in Wales. The terms recognition of prior 
learning (RPL), accreditation of prior learning and 
accreditation of prior experiential learning are used 
interchangeably.

Recognition of prior learning (RPL) is possible for 
individuals using their previously acquired learning 
to obtain or access formal qualifications on the 
CQFW, including higher education and vocational 
qualifications996. Access to higher education 
courses includes opportunities for recognition of 
prior learning. While the CQFW recognises the 
importance and benefits of RPL, there is currently 
no formal RPL policy in Wales and, use of RPL 
remains at the discretion of individual providers. 
Data are not collected at national level, except in 
the higher education sector, where they are only 
collected in relation to RPL provision (accreditation 
of prior experiential learning modules) and not in 
relation to access aided via RPL. However, one 
recent development is that the Welsh Government 
published a brochure997 on the CQFW (Welsh 
Government, 2018a) that includes an outline of 

gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2019-01/cqfw-
brochure.pdf

993  More information on Quality Assurance Agency at:  

www.qaa.ac.uk/

994  This section draws mainly on input from the 2018 update 
to the European inventory on validation of non-formal 
and informal learning (European Commission et al., 
forthcoming).

995  The high level pillars refer to the credit, learning time, 
recognised standards, levels/level descriptors, title, 
purpose, learning outcomes and assessment criteria 
(Welsh Government, 2018a).

996  RPL is a learner-centred voluntary process. The learner 
should be offered advice on the nature and range of 
evidence considered appropriate to support credit through 
RPL (Welsh Government, 2018b). 

997  Welsh Government (2018a). This brochure is not a 

regulatory document.

690

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSprinciples related to RPL. Its content is aimed at 
those working within the education/training and 
advice and guidance sectors. Opportunities for 
RPL are developed from a sectoral perspective, 
with different approaches for vocational education 
and training, higher education and adult learning. 
A bottom-up approach is taken, with awarding 
organisations and learning providers developing their 
own policies (and practices in the case of providers) 
for RPL. In 2017, the publicly funded National Health 
Service of Wales (NHS Wales)998 developed a 
Recognition of prior learning framework and toolkit, 
which is designed to support progression and 
staff development through lifelong learning, non-
accredited in-house learning or work-based learning 
qualifications which are no longer available (Welsh 
Government, 2018b).

The lifelong learning pillar of the CQFW is also 
intended to recognise non-formal learning provision 
on the CQFW. The focus of the lifelong learning 
pillar is to accredit learning provision from outside 
higher education and regulated qualifications 
pillars of the CQFW. Gaining CQFW credit value is 
dependent on the learner completing assessment 
based on learning outcomes999. National vocational 
qualifications offer a third opportunity to validate 
workplace learning. They are aimed mainly at people 
in employment, proving the ability to perform an 
occupation to a nationally recognised occupational 
standard. 

While RPL arrangements are in place, there is no 
evidence to suggest that RPL is well utilised. There 
are also no systems to coordinate validation across 
the different sectors of learning in Wales and no 
sectors are given priority. The question of trust in 
the outcomes of RPL is not really an issue, since 
outcomes (access, award of credits/qualifications) 
are based on evidence gathered by assessors 
and are not usually different to those acquired 
by learners who have pursued a formal route. 
The lifelong learning pillar of the CQFW serves to 
increase trust in, and recognition of, non-formal 
learning provision, which is acknowledged and 
accredited through this pillar. 

According to stakeholders interviewed in 2014 and 
2016, potential obstacles to further development 
include the lack of strategic drive to promote RPL 
at national level, lack of awareness among learners 

998  www.wales.nhs.uk/nhswalesaboutus
999  Credit can be awarded for the achievement of learning 

outcomes that have been verified through the appropriate 
rules, regulations and assessment for each of the pillars. 
This is done through the achievement of units certificated 
through a regulated recognised body (Welsh Government, 
2018a).

of RPL opportunities, lack of expertise among 
providers, or lack of confidence to carry out RPL 
or trust in RPL processes (in the higher education 
sector). It is also possible that the lack of dedicated 
funding for RPL (except in the higher education 
sector) is a disincentive to what can be perceived 
as a process that is difficult to administer and 
time-consuming (for both individual applicants and 
providers). 

While RPL is possible ‘on paper’, it is not clear how 
much it is actually offered and taken up in practice; 
it appears that implementation is low. In the higher 
education sector, for instance, the RPL Wales 
project found that, although there is good practice in 
some (departments of) universities, this is limited. 
A more uniform approach, which can be applied 
across all qualifications and situations, is called for 
in the progress report for the RPL Wales project, 
to help to ensure that the Welsh workforce is able 
to face the changes taking place in the country’s 
labour market. The CQFW is a potential enabler 
for validation in Wales. One of the main impacts 
identified by stakeholders is greater recognition 
of prior learning through the lifelong learning pillar, 
with particular benefits for disadvantaged learner 
groups, helping to raise aspirations and promote 
progression opportunities. Stakeholders identified 
the flexibility created by the CQFW as a benefit and, 
through RPL, the framework is said to have helped 
employers and employees to avoid duplication of 
training. 

NQF implementation

The CQFW was formally adopted in 2002 and was 
launched in 2003. The ten-year implementation 
plan ran from 2003 to 2014. This reflected the view 
that framework implementation takes time and 
requires a long-term development perspective. 
The framework is an overarching meta-framework, 
including all levels and types of qualification and is 
considered to be an integral part of the qualification 
system. It consists of three pillars: regulated 
qualifications, higher education qualifications and 
lifelong learning pillar. The CQFW has reached an 
advanced operational stage and can be seen as a 
second generation framework. From 2015 onwards 
all regulated qualifications refer to the new RQF 
level descriptors. Higher education qualifications 
refer to the qualifications framework for higher 
education and the lifelong learning pillar continues 
to use the 2009 CQFW level descriptors.

691

Volume II: National and regional casesWales has a qualification database, QiW database1000 
which is owned and managed by Qualifications 
Wales, the regulator of regulated qualifications pillar 
qualifications and the qualifications system in Wales. 
This database contains details of all qualifications 
that are approved or designated for teaching in 
Wales for learners aged below 19, excluding higher 
education. Any qualifications that are approved 
or designated1001 by Qualifications Wales are 
eligible for funding by a local authority or by Welsh 
Government. This is related to education providers 
and not the learners. The database contains 
information on qualification titles, numbers, the 
awarding body that awards each qualification as well 
as links to further qualification information. There are 
102 383 current and archived1002 qualifications in the 
database.

NQF levels are indicated on Europass certificates1003 
and diplomas as well as in the qualification 
database. However, European qualifications 
framework (EQF) levels have not been included 
on certificates/diplomas or supplements, but are 
included in the database. No plans have been made 
to insist on EQF levels appearing on certificates 
but the NQF managers in the UK maintain ongoing 
consultations on this with the organisations that 
award certificates.

Evaluation of the framework was undertaken in 
2014. The CQFW was seen as playing a generally 
positive and constructive role in the Welsh 
qualification landscape and there is support among 
all stakeholders to continue the work started a 
decade ago. The main strengths of the CQFW were 
related to its role in allowing for greater validation 
of non-formal and informal learning (recognition of 
prior and informal learning). The framework was 
generally seen to have raised learner aspirations 
and contributed to promoting progression. The 
opportunity to add new units to the lifelong learning 
pillar of the framework was seen as beneficial to 
the flexibility of the framework and as a condition 
for addressing the needs of special-needs groups. 
Further, the CQFW was seen as supporting a 
‘common currency’ of credit that has made it easier 
to articulate and communicate achievements across 
sectors, levels and geographic areas. A broad range 

1000  More information on the qualification database: www.qiw.

wales/

1001  QiW is an independent system. All qualifications in QiW 
will be allocated a unique identification code known as a 
Qualifications Wales Approval/Designation Number.
1002  Archived refers to qualifications that have passed their 

operational end date within the last two years.

1003  More information on Europass certificate supplements: 

UK Naric homepage

of stakeholders1004 appreciated the flexibility offered 
by the unit-based approach.

The evaluation offered a good insight into the 
challenges involved in setting up NQFs. Most 
stakeholders consider that the potential of the 
CQFW has not been used in practice as much as 
originally hoped. Despite having been used in some 
sectors, the ‘concept has not taken off on a great 
scale’. Some stakeholders pointed out that credit 
accumulation and transfer has not played the role 
originally expected; learners and employers seem to 
be more focused on full qualifications than credits in 
the current situation. Although the most important 
criticism of implementation of the framework was 
directed to the Welsh Government and the lack 
of ‘strategic investment’ in it, its governance is 
managed by a strategic operational partnership.

In terms of use of the NQF by different 
stakeholders, credit size and levels are used by 
universities in setting entry requirements and 
selecting students. The levels of qualifications are 
included in job advertisements, while accessible 
publicity materials (leaflets, videos1005) are 
continually evolving and widely distributed in the 
country. The Welsh Government has provided 
information sessions to Careers Wales staff 
regarding updates to the curriculum, which included 
the CQFW. An employer1006 and a learner guide1007 
were developed in 2018 to aid comprehension of 
the framework by these target groups.

Wales is currently in the process of updating the 
referencing report due to the changes in the level 
descriptors, the creation of Qualification Wales 
and the changes to quality assurance in higher 
education. This report will be presented to the 
EQF advisory group in June 2019. The approach to 
referencing will be based on a thorough mapping of 
level descriptors of CQFW as well as on desk-based 
review of evidence including policy documents, 
regulatory requirements and quality assurance 
processes (Welsh Government, 2018a). A CQFW 

1004  These stakeholders, including awarding bodies, sector 
skills councils, training providers and third sector 
organisations, noted this approach as a major benefit, 
allowing for rapid renewal of provisions and for meeting 
the needs of diverse groups of learners. The framework, 
by providing an overview, also made it possible to avoid 
duplication of units and qualifications, delivering economic 
benefit (Welsh Government, 2014).

1005  https://beta.gov.wales/credit-and-qualifications-framework-

cqfw-overview [accessed 19.3.2019].
1006  https://beta.gov.wales/sites/default/files/

publications/2018-11/credit-and-qualifications-framework-
for-wales-employer-guide.pdf [accessed 19.3.2019].

1007  https://beta.gov.wales/credit-and-qualifications-framework-
cqfw-learner-guide [accessed 19.3.2019]. Learners can be 
helped to plan their progression pathways with this guide.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSadvisory group, with membership drawn from 
wider key stakeholders, such as representatives 
from government, regulators, learning providers, 
employers and learners, will be created.

between the Welsh and the English education and 
training systems offer an opportunity for the CQFW 
to present the Welsh qualification landscape and to 
inspire its further development and reform.

Referencing to regional frameworks 

The CQFW was referenced to the EQF as a part 
of the overall UK referencing process in February 
2010 (Qualifications and Curriculum Development 
Agency et al., 2010). An updated referencing report 
is currently being drafted and is planned to be 
submitted to the EQF advisory group in mid-2019. 
A framework for higher education qualifications in 
England, Wales and Northern Ireland (FHEQ) was 
linked to the Bologna process and was self-certified 
to the qualifications framework of the European 
higher education area (QF-EHEA) in 2009 (QQA, 
2009), and will also be incorporated in the updated 
referencing to the EQF.

Important lessons and future plans

The framework has matured over time and has 
become an integral part of the qualifications system 
in Wales. Evaluation of the CQFW was carried 
out in 2014 (Welsh Government, 2014) focusing 
on strengths and weaknesses of the framework. 
Overall, stakeholders responding to the evaluation 
recognised the role played by the CQFW as an 
overarching framework; there was general support 
for its further development and implementation. 
They pointed out that the increasing divergences 

The changes introduced in Wales in recent years 
aimed to increase the awareness of the framework 
and simplify the levels of understanding and profile 
of the framework. The lifelong learning pillar was 
considered to have had an impact on disadvantaged 
learners and contributed to overall lifelong learning 
strategies. It helped to introduce learners with low 
educational attainment to more formal learning 
in ‘achievable, bite-size pieces’, providing an 
understanding of learning outcomes, assessment 
criteria and evidence (European Commission et al., 
(forthcoming). One of the ten recommendations, 
based on the findings of the 2014 evaluation1008 
was to ‘revise the aims and objectives so that it 
evolves to become a ‘functional’ NQF which acts as 
a vehicle for describing the qualifications system in 
Wales’. To this end, the CQFW advisory group will 
review the CQFW and its objectives annually.

Future plans involve review of the CQFW planned 
referencing report by the steering group and 
approval by CQFW advisory group members, as 
well as promoting and distributing that report. 
Maintaining relationships with other UK nations to 
ensure alignment of frameworks across the UK and 
Europe is still needed. Revising existing publicity 
materials and using them to further promote and 
raise the profile of the CQFW would support the 
commitment to the framework.

Table 93. Credit and qualifications framework for Wales (CQFW)

CQFW LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS

8

7

6

Doctoral degree

Industry qualifications (e.g. chartered accountant) 

Master degree

Vocational qualifications

Postgraduate certificate in education

Apprenticeships

Bachelor honours degrees

Vocational qualifications

Professional certificate in education

Apprenticeships

1008  See Welsh Government (2014).

8

7

6

(Continued)

693

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 93. Credit and qualifications framework for Wales (CQFW) (Continued)

CQFW LEVELS

QUALIFICATION TYPES

EQF LEVELS

5

4

3

2

1

Foundation degree

Vocational qualifications

Higher national diploma

Apprenticeships

Certificates of higher education

Vocational qualifications

Higher national certificate

Apprenticeships

Welsh baccalaureate advanced

Vocational qualifications

AS/A level

Access to higher education

Apprenticeships

Welsh baccalaureate national

Vocational qualifications 

Essential skills

General certificate of secondary education (GCSE) (grades A–C)

Apprenticeships

Welsh baccalaureate foundation

Vocational qualifications 

Essential skills

General certificate of secondary education (GCSE) (grades D–G)

Entry 1–3

Entry level qualifications

Source: Welsh Government, 2017. See CQFW diagram

5

4

3

2

1

Abbreviations
CQFW  

EQF  
FHEQ 

credit and qualifications framework for 
Wales
European qualifications framework
framework for higher education 
qualifications in England, Wales and 
Northern Ireland

GCE A level  general certificate of education 

GCSE  

NHS  
NQF 
RPL 
RQF  

advanced level
general certificate of secondary 
education
National Health Service of Wales
national qualifications framework
recognition of prior learning
regulated qualifications framework

Main sources of information

CollegesWales (ColegauCymru) – acts as the EQF NCP: www.collegeswales.ac.uk/
Welsh Government CQFW website: https://beta.gov.wales/qualifications
Qualification database in Wales (QiW): www.qiw.wales/
QCA et al. (2010). Referencing the qualifications frameworks of the United Kingdom to the European 

qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/2011-05-16-uk-eqf-
referencing-report.pdf

694

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSQQA (2009). Verification of the compatibility of the framework for higher education qualifications 
in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (FHEQ) with the framework for qualifications of the 
European higher education area (FQ-EHEA). www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/Qualifications_
frameworks/81/2/FHEQSelfCert_596812.pdf

References

Agored Cymru (2017). Recognition of prior learning (RPL) policy. www.agored.cymru/File/3683
Cedefop (forthcoming). Developments in vocational education and training policy in 2015–19: Wales. 

Cedefop monitoring and analysis of VET policies.

Cedefop (2018). Analysis and overview of NQF level descriptors in European countries. Cedefop research 
paper No 66. Luxembourg: Publications Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-
resources/publications/5566

European Commission (2018). Education and training monitor 2018: United Kingdom. Luxembourg: 

Publications Office. https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/document-library-docs/et-
monitor-report-2018-united-kingdom_en.pdf 

European Commission; Cedefop; ICF International (forthcoming). European inventory on validation of non-

formal and informal learning 2018: country report UK Wales.

QQA (2009). Verification of the compatibility of the framework for higher education qualifications in 

England, Wales and Northern Ireland (FHEQ) with the framework for qualifications of the European 
higher education area (FQ-EHEA). Report of the FHEQ self-certification advisory group, November 
2008. www.ehea.info/media.ehea.info/file/Qualifications_frameworks/81/2/FHEQSelfCert_596812.
pdf

Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency et al. (2010). Report: referencing the qualifications 

frameworks of the United Kingdom to the European qualifications framework. https://ec.europa.eu/
ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/2011-05-16-uk-eqf-referencing-report.pdf

Welsh Government (2014). The credit and qualifications framework for Wales: a qualitative review of its 
impact. Social research report No 73/2014. https://gov.wales/credit-and-qualifications-framework-
wales-qualitative-review-its-impact

Welsh Government (2018a). Credit and qualifications framework for Wales. https://beta.gov.wales/sites/

default/files/publications/2019-01/cqfw-brochure.pdf

Welsh Government (2018b). CQFW case study: NHS Wales – Recognition of prior learning framework 
and toolkit. https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2018-03/cqfw-case-study-nhs-wales-
recognition-of-prior-learning-framework-and-toolkit.pdf

Prepared by:
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) in collaboration with national 
experts.

695

Volume II: National and regional casesUZBEKISTAN

Introduction and context

NQF snapshot
A national qualifications framework (NQF) has not 
been adopted yet. Instead, there are structures in 
higher education similar to the Bologna framework, 
and vocational education and training (VET) 
qualifications and occupations classifiers.

Qualifications initiatives lie with the Ministry of 
Public Education and the Ministry of Higher and 
Secondary Specialised Education.

Educational, social, economic and  
political context
Uzbekistan has a very young and rapidly growing 
population, estimated at 32 million in 2018 by 
national authorities. The share of young people aged 
15 to 29 years was 61.7% of the population in 2008. 

As a result of demographic trends with a 
significantly increasing population overall, Uzbekistan 
is experiencing a rapid increase in the working age 
population. The labour market workforce grew by 
23.9% in 2004–09, reaching 16 million people, while 
the number of people in employment increased by 
26.1%, totalling 11.3 million in 2009. According to 
official data, 95% of the population of working age 
was employed in 2010.

The highest employment rates have been registered 
in construction, the housing and communal sector, 
domestic services, trade and public catering, 
transport and communication. Differences between 
rural and urban experiences are significant in 
understanding how the benefits of vocational 
education are distributed. Agriculture employs 
27% of the country’s labour force and contributes 
17.4% of its GDP (2012 data), while over 60% of the 
population lives in rural areas.

The government acknowledges that the quality 
of the workforce is important in meeting the 
occupation and qualification requirements of 
employers (Republic of Uzbekistan, 2007). 
Vocational school curricula need to strengthen their 
relevance to labour market needs. The involvement 

of private sector businesses in curriculum 
development is important in ensuring that graduates 
obtain practical skills and the capacity to work 
independently.

Policy objectives

Education and training reforms
While a formal NQF per se does not exist, there are 
NQF-type instruments such as the State education 
standards and national classifiers. These provide 
a structure of defined and validated qualifications, 
awarded at defined levels, and specify how 
qualifications relate to each other and thus how 
a learner can progress between them. In higher 
education, level structures are similar to the Bologna 
framework.

International cooperation 
Developments in the country’s education system 
take into account the European qualifications 
framework and Bologna discussions, but 
currently there is no explicit intention to emulate 
neighbouring countries in pursuing a full NQF.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

NQF scope and structure
No decision has been made yet on the scope of  
any NQF.

Alignment to other classification systems
The State education standards define requirements 
for the quality of personnel training and education 
content; ensure a sufficient and necessary level 
of student training and qualification requirements 
of graduates of education establishments; 
and determine academic workload and the 
procedures and mechanisms for evaluating the 
activities of education establishments and the 
quality of personnel training. The State education 
standards are a basis for preparing other 
normative documents, regulating the education 
process and evaluating the activities of education 
establishments.

696

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe classifier of directions and specialties of 
higher education is a part of the unified system 
of classification and coding of information. The 
renewed classifier is being developed in accordance 
with the Decree of the President of the Republic 
of Uzbekistan #1553 issued on 20 May 2011 ‘On 
measures for strengthening the material and 
technical base of higher education institutions and 
the fundamental improvement of the quality of 
training of qualified specialists’. The classifier is 
based on the Law on Education and the national 
programme of personnel training, and constructed 
in accordance with the principles of the international 
standard classification of education (ISCED) adopted 
by UNESCO in March 1997.

The renewed classifier of the main working and 
serving professions is the instrument used for 
systematising the main titles of working and serving 
professions, determining the range of tariff ranks 
and position categories for working and serving 
professions, and requirements for the level and area 
of education.

The national classifier code assigns codes to all exit 
qualifications.

The State education standards and the classifier 
of directions and specialties of higher education 
provide a structure of defined and nationally 
accredited qualifications awarded at defined levels, 
indicate the interrelationships of the qualifications 
and how one can progress from one level to 
another. The State education standards and higher 
education classifier are, therefore, the route through 
which the country brings education and training 
together in a single unified system. Moreover, they 
provide a framework, which assures a nationally 
recognised quality standard and consistent training 
standards and provide a way of structuring existing 
and new qualifications.

NQF levels and level descriptors
The State education standards have implicit levels, 
including secondary, bachelor, master, and graduate 
levels. No numeric values are yet assigned to levels.

The Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers on the 
development and introduction of education 
standards in the system of continuous education is 
related to State education standards, which set the 
subject area-specific qualifications framework for all 
specialties listed in the renewed classifier of main 
working and serving professions and in the classifier 
of directions and specialties of higher education. 
This document sets clear descriptors of what 
graduates at bachelor and master levels should 
possess in terms of skills and knowledge. It can 
be compared to the level descriptors used in other 

European countries, but the main difference is that 
it addresses only exit level descriptors rather than 
each level within the programmes.

Use of learning outcomes
Qualifications and curricula are adopting learning 
outcomes approaches. An example is the State 
education standard for foreign languages, already 
implemented in schools and colleges.

Definition of qualification
A general definition is included in the qualification 
requirements, which set out descriptions of the 
general knowledge and level of professional 
readiness of graduates at corresponding stages of 
continuous education.

Access, progression and credit
There is not yet sufficient development of the NQF 
to say that there is easier access to qualifications 
or clear progression routes. However, the State 
education standards provide links between higher 
education and VET, and thereby some progression. 
There is no credit system yet.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

NQF legal basis
There is no NQF law at present.

Governance and institutional arrangements  
for the NQF
The Ministry of Public Education and the Ministry 
of Higher and Secondary Specialised Education are 
responsible for qualifications. Higher education and 
VET are closely linked, so there is movement and 
exchange of students between them.

Roles and functions of actors and stakeholders
Stakeholders are involved in the country’s 
qualification system, contributing particularly to 
the development of qualifications. In addition to 
ministries, actors include providers, students, 
parents, employers and professional associations. 
Examples of stakeholder influence include updates 
to VET provider curricula, following advice of 
employers and others. VET colleges also are usually 
well linked to local employers.

Resources and funding
All Ministry of Higher and Secondary  
Specialised Education’s activities are funded by 
the State or through other sources not prohibited 
by law. Funding of NQF development is currently 
limited, due to the plans for introducing the full 
NQF not being finalised. An NQF will need  
donor support.

697

Volume II: National and regional casesQuality assurance of qualifications
The process of developing and approving State 
education standards, qualification requirements and 
other normative documents, internal quality control 
and monitoring is coordinated by the Ministry of 
Higher and Secondary Specialised Education. At the 
same time, the external quality control, attestation 
and accreditation of education establishments are 
implemented by the State testing centre under 
the Cabinet of Ministers. A review is carried out 
periodically by the State testing centre, with a 
recommendation for each education establishment 
being issued as a result. In general, the main task 
of the State testing centre is to determine the 
comparability of existing potential, experience, 
level of qualification and preparedness and other 
capabilities of the education establishment under 
review to qualifications awarded to its graduates. 
Education establishments that fail to pass 
attestation or to receive accreditation within the 
framework of existing legislation can be closed. 

One element of quality assurance, referred to 
above, is strong employer input to curricula and 
qualifications, which provides some degree of 
labour market relevance to new qualifications. The 
ministries are careful to consult employers and also 
bring in foreign experts to advise on some aspects 
of qualification design.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

No validation system applies yet.

NQF implementation

Inclusion of qualifications in a register
All State education standards, classifiers and 
qualification requirements are available in open 

access through relevant ministry websites and can 
be obtained using the e-government portal. New 
services, registers and databases are constantly 
being developed and become available through the 
internet. However, these services or registers are 
not linked to an NQF.

Monitoring, evaluation and review of the NQF
Given the limited progress of NQF plans, there are 
no mechanisms to monitor the NQF development.

Impact for end-users
The NQF is at an ad hoc stage, so it has had no 
impact yet on citizens or institutions.

Referencing to regional frameworks

None. The country is not part of any wider grouping 
of countries.

Important lessons and future plans

While links between employers and colleges are 
relatively strong, and the State education standards 
and various classifiers provide NQF-type functions, 
no NQF concept has been developed. Currently, 
ministries are considering whether to go down the 
full NQF route.

Abbreviations
NQF  
VET  

national qualifications framework
vocational education and training

Prepared by:
The European Training Foundation (ETF).

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSVIETNAM

Introduction and context

The Vietnamese qualifications framework (VQF) 
is designed to categorise and standardise 
competences, the minimum required learning 
volume, and qualifications and certificates relevant 
to Vietnam’s vocational education and higher 
education. This aims to contribute to improve 
human resources; set up an effective mechanism 
to link requirements in human resource quality of 
employers with the system of training qualifications 
through training activities, measurement, testing, 
evaluation and quality accreditation; and to build 
policies to improve the quality of human resources 
quality.

The VQF helps to establish the relation with the 
national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) of 
other countries through regional and international 
referential qualifications frameworks, and thereby 
to acknowledge qualifications, improve the quality 
and sharpen the competitive edge of local human 
resources.

Programmes developed within the VQF facilitate 
progression along learning pathways, and can 
therefore contribute to the development of a 
learning society and the promotion of lifelong 
learning.

Policy objectives

The VQF was created and approved by the Prime 
Minister on 18 October 2016. The Ministry of 
Education and Training (MoET) is developing a plan 
and policies for VQF implementation in higher 
education since 2019.

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The scope of the VQF shall be applied to 
qualifications indicated in the Law on  
Technical Vocational Education and Training  
and the Law on Higher Education. The VQF is 
structured as follows:

a.  Qualification levels: there are eight levels – 

level 1, primary certificate 1; level 2, primary 
certificate 2; level 3, primary certificate 3; level 4, 
secondary diploma; level 5, college diploma; 
level 6, bachelor’s degree; level 7, master’s 
degree; and level 8, doctorate.

b.  Learning outcomes:

•  applied knowledge and theoretical 

knowledge;

•  cognitive skills, professional practical skills, 

and communication skills;

•  autonomy and personal responsibility in 
applying knowledge and skills to solve 
professional problems.

c.  The minimum required learning volume is 

calculated based on the number of credits the 
learner has to accumulate for each qualification.

d.  Qualifications and certificates are documents 
acknowledging learning results by a training 
provider for an individual after finishing a course 
and meeting the learning outcomes preset by 
the provider.

The level descriptors are as follows:

a.  Level 1 recognizes the training level of learners 
with general and basic knowledge, basic skills 
to perform one or some simple routine tasks of 
a certain occupation in an unchanged context 
under supervision of the trainer. The minimum 
required learning volume for level 1 is 5 credits. 
Learners finishing the training programme 
and meeting the outcomes of level 1 shall be 
granted a primary certificate 1.

b.  Level 2 recognizes the training level of learners 
with applied and theoretical knowledge about 
operation in a narrow scope of an occupation, 
general and basic knowledge about nature, 
culture, society and laws; occupationally practical 
skills based on technical standards to perform 
some routine tasks in a little changed context 
under supervision of the trainer; and being able 
to independently perform some activities. The 
minimum required learning volume for level 2 
is 15 credits. Learners finishing the training 
programme and meeting the outcomes of 
level 2 shall be granted a primary certificate 2.

699

Volume II: National and regional casesc.  Level 3 recognizes the training level of learners 
with applied and theoretical knowledge about 
some contents of an occupation; general 
knowledge about nature, culture, society and 
laws; basic knowledge about information and 
technology; cognitive skills, professional practical 
skills, communication skills essential to work 
independently in stable conditions and familiar 
contexts. The minimum required learning volume 
for level 3 is 25 credits. Learners finishing the 
training programme and meeting the outcomes 
of level 3 shall be granted a primary certificate 3.

d.  Level 4 recognizes the training level of 

learners with essential applied and theoretical 
knowledge about an occupation or a sector; 
basic knowledge about politics, culture, society, 
laws, and IT; cognitive skills, professional 
practical skills, communication skills essential 
to perform routine or complex tasks, to work 
independently or in a group in informed and 
changeable conditions, to take personal and 
teamwork responsibility, to be able to instruct, 
supervise other people to perform pre-assigned 
tasks. The minimum required learning volume for 
level 4 is 35 credits for those who have upper 
secondary certificate, and 50 credits for those 
who have lower secondary certificate. Learners 
finishing the training programme and meeting 
the outcomes of level 4 shall be granted a  
secondary diploma.

e.  Level 5 recognizes the training level of learners 
with broad applied and theoretical knowledge 
about an occupation or a sector; basic 
knowledge about politics, culture, society, laws, 
and IT; cognitive skills, professional practical 
skills, communication skills essential to perform 
routine or complex tasks, to work independently 
or in a group in informed and changeable 
conditions, to take personal responsibility; to 
instruct, supervise, and evaluate, at minimum 
level, a team to perform certain tasks. The 
minimum required learning volume for level 5 
is 60 credits. Learners finishing the training 
programme and meeting the outcomes of level 5 
shall be granted a college diploma.

f.  Level 6 recognizes the training level of learners 
with solid applied knowledge, comprehensive 
and in-depth theoretical knowledge, basic 
knowledge about social science, politics, and 
laws; cognitive skills including critical thinking, 
analytical and synthetic skills, professional 
practical skills, communication skills essential 
to perform complicated tasks, to work 
independently or in a group in changeable 
contexts, take personal and teamwork 
responsibility in instructing and educating major-
related knowledge, supervising other people to 
perform tasks. The minimum required learning 
volume for level 6 is 120 credits. Learners 

finishing the training programme and meeting 
the outcomes of level 6 shall be granted a 
bachelor’s degree.

g.  Level 7 recognizes the learning level of learners 
with applied and theoretical knowledge being 
broad and deep enough to master the major 
knowledge; critical thinking skills, scientific 
and advanced data analytical, synthetic, and 
assessment skills; research and development 
skills, renovation and application skills in 
academic and professional realms; educating 
knowledge in specialization areas; being able 
to self-directed and adapted to changeable 
contexts; being able to instruct other people 
to perform tasks; and being able to manage, 
evaluate, and renovate to improve efficiency. The 
minimum required learning volume for level 7 
is 60 credits for university degree holders. 
Learners finishing the training programme and 
meet the outcomes of level 7 shall be granted 
master’s degree. University degree holders 
who finish the training programme equivalent to 
150 credits at minimum and meet the outcomes 
of level 7 shall be certified to be at level 7.
h.  Level 8 recognizes the learning level of learners 

with advanced and intensive applied and 
theoretical knowledge at the leading position of 
the major; synthetic and analytical skills; being 
able to identify and solve problems creatively; 
independent, creative and innovative thinking 
and research skills to create new knowledge; 
being able to educate knowledge, to set up 
national and international cooperation networks 
in managing and monitoring professional 
activities; being able to demonstrate creativity, 
self-direction and leadership in professional 
areas; being able to draw expertise conclusions 
and give scientific recommendations. The 
minimum required learning volume for level 8 is 
90 credits for a master’s degree, 120 credits for 
bachelor’s degree. Learners finishing the training 
programme and meeting the outcomes of level 8 
shall be granted a doctorate degree. Those who 
are at level 7 or equivalent and finish specializing 
training programmes with the minimum learning 
volume of 90 credits and meet the outcomes of 
level 8 shall be certified to be at level 8.

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

Various institutions and stakeholders are involved in 
VQF implementation.

The MoET is responsible for:

a.  administration and implementation of the VQF 

as for qualifications of higher education; planning 

700

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSroadmaps and preparing essential conditions 
to implement the VQF to submit to the Prime 
Minister for approval;

b.  hosting and coordinating with other ministries 
and sectors related to map higher education 
qualifications of the VQF with those in the 
ASEAN qualifications referential framework 
(AQRF) and other countries’ frameworks;
c.  hosting and coordinating with other ministries 
and sectors related, professional associations, 
training providers, and research institutes 
involved to build up and approve learning 
outcomes and aligned evidence for each level, 
each area and each major of higher education;
d.  directing higher education establishments to 

review their curricular, adjust and supplement in 
accordance with the requirements of learning 
outcomes; to accredit the quality of the training 
curricular based on outcome-based evidence and 
conditions ensuring quality;

e.  working with the Ministry of Finance to set 

phase-based cost norm and budget estimation 
for the implementation of the VQF for 
qualifications of higher education.

Related ministries and sectors are responsible for:

a.  coordinating with MoET and MoLISA to develop 

learning outcomes for majors in the areas 
managed by the two ministries;

b.  directing research institutes, training providers 
directly under the management to review and 
adjust training curricular in accordance with 
learning outcomes and aligned evidence;
c.  providing information about sectors, jobs, and 
requirements for relevant job roles; developing 
and issuing occupational competency standards 
as the basis to develop learning outcomes for 
each level.

People’s committees of centrally-run cities and 
provinces are responsible for:

a.  directing local education and training sectors and 
competent agencies to organize and implement 
the VQF; examining, supervising, evaluating and 
synthesizing the results using the VQF at directly 
managed training providers.

The Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs 
(MoLISA) is responsible for:

Professional associations and representatives of 
manufacturing and service sectors are responsible 
for:

a.  administration and implementation of the VQF 

a.  researching and recommending competency 

as for qualifications of higher education; planning 
roadmaps and preparing essential conditions to 
implement the VQF to submit the Prime Minister 
for approval;

b.  hosting and coordinating with other Ministries 
and sectors related to map higher education 
qualifications of the VQF with those in the AQRF 
and other countries’ frameworks;

c.  hosting and coordinating with MoET and other 
ministries and sectors related to develop links 
between occupational competency standards, 
national occupational skills standards with 
national training qualifications;

d.  directing vocational education establishments 

profiles, requirements in knowledge and skills of 
job roles in the expertise.

b.  attending sector councils to suggest 

requirements for qualifications, learning 
outcomes and evidence for each area and major;

c.  taking part in outcome-based and evidence-

based assessment of training quality of areas 
and sectors; giving recommendations to state 
authorities and training providers on adjustment 
and supplementation to make learning outcomes 
and evidence relevant with each job role.

Training providers are responsible for:

to review their curricula, adjust and supplement 
in accordance with the requirements of learning 
outcomes; to accredit the quality of the training 
curricula based on outcome-based evidence and 
conditions ensuring the quality;

a.  reviewing and adjusting structure, content and 

methods to implement the curricular to meet the 
requirements of employers and being committed 
to run the curricular based on learning outcomes 
and evidence;

e.  working with the Ministry of Finance to set 

b.  outcome-based and evidence-based self-

phase-based cost norm and budget estimation 
for the implementation of the VQF for 
qualifications of vocational education.

assessment.

The Ministry of Finance is responsible for:

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

a.  hosting and coordinating with MoET and MoLISA 
to allocate, instruct, examine and supervise the 
funding disbursement to implement the VQF in 
accordance with current legal regulations.

One of the key aims of the NQF is to give citizens 
greater understanding of and control over their 
own education by enabling them to match formal 

701

Volume II: National and regional caseseducational provision with the learning outcomes 
and competences described in the NQF. Special 
attention will be paid to developing assessment 
mechanisms, which will allow workers to put their 
existing learning towards a full qualification in 
combination with other measures such as additional 
education and training or workplace-based learning.

c.  criteria 3: response focuses on the VQF structure 
but should be further developed to focus on the 
procedures for including qualifications in the VQF, 
either as a concept or with future plans.

This report will need to be revised based on the 
comments and to continue progress in referencing.

NQF implementation1009

Important lessons and future plans

Challenges and issues to implement the VQF are:

Challenges in implementing the VQF included:

a.  lack of leadership, vision and strategy;
b.  lack of awareness of the importance of VQF 

a.  the introduction of the learning outcomes 

approach;

implementation;

b.  the lack of national quality-assurance systems.

A reference VQF and AQRF to ensure that 
qualification outcomes: 

a.  remain contemporary, relevant and nationally 

consistent; and 

b.  meet the skills needs of the economy and the 
standards expected by industry and employers.

Future plans:

a.  Referencing the VQF to the AQRF is planned by 
MoET in consultation with MoLISA. Technical 
support for the referencing process is needed, 
as well as financing.

b.  MoET will report to the Prime Minister to 

establish the AQRF Committee of Vietnam.
c.  A plan to implement the VQF is developed and 
submitted to the Prime Minister for approval.

d.  MoET hosts and coordinates with other 
ministries and sectors to develop higher 
education standards and guidelines for VQF 
learning outcomes.

Abbreviations
AQRF 

ASEAN  

ASEAN qualifications reference 
framework
Association of Southeast Asian 
Nations
Ministry of Education and Training

MoET 
MoLISA  Ministry of Labour, Invalids and 

NQF 
VQF 

Social Affairs
national qualifications framework
Vietnamese qualifications framework

c.  existing challenges related to human, 

infrastructure, administrative and financial 
resources fully engaging with VQF 
implementation.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Vietnam submitted the draft of the Vietnam 
report on the referencing of the VQF to the 
AQRF by November 2018. This is the first draft 
partial referencing report covering the first three 
referencing criteria based on the guidelines of the 
AQRF Committee and legal documents of Vietnam. 
It received comments by Brunei Darussalam, 
Singapore, Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, 
Mike Coles and Andrea Bateman, consultants of 
the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area’s 
National Qualifications Framework Project Phases 
I to IV.

The Report of the Fifth National Qualifications 
Reference (NQF) Phase IV Workshop had a 
summary of the written feedback from countries for 
Vietnam as included below:

a.  criteria 1: general acceptance that the overview 
was clear but further refinement and additional 
information needed;

b.  criteria 2: general acceptance that the relevant 
bodies were clearly described, but more details 
required;

1009  Key criteria and indicators for stages of NQF 
implementation to be further elaborated. 

702

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

Decision No 1982/QD-TTg of 18 October 2016. On approving the Vietnamese qualifications framework.
Report of the Fifth National Qualifications Reference (NQF) Phase IV Workshop, 27 November 2018. 

Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. Including appendix 7: Collated feedback for the 1st draft 
referencing report of Vietnam (partial).

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

703

Volume II: National and regional casesZAMBIA

Introduction and context

The Zambian general education system consists 
of three levels: early childhood, primary, junior 
and secondary; and a higher education system 
composed of universities and technical education, 
vocational and entrepreneurship training (TEVET) 
colleges. Access to the education and training 
sector has increased with the growth of private 
universities and colleges.

In 2011 the government of Zambia enacted the 
Zambia Qualifications Authority Act No 13 that 
provided for the establishment of the Zambia 
Qualifications Authority (ZAQA), which became 
operational in 2014; and for the development 
and implementation of the national qualifications 
framework with measures to ensure that standards 
and registered qualifications were internationally 
comparable. The scope of the Zambia qualifications 
framework (ZQF) comprehensively covers all 
learning achievements and pathways. It provides 
a basis for improving the quality, accessibility, 
linkages, public and labour market recognition of 
qualifications within Zambia and internationally.

The ZQF is a single integrated system comprising 
three coordinated qualifications sub-frameworks:

a.  general and further education and training, 

contemplated in Education Act No 23 of 2011 – 
www.moge.gov.zm; www.exams-council.org.zm 

b.  trades and occupations, contemplated in 
the Technical Education, Vocational and 
Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET) Act No 13 of 
1998 and the Apprenticeships Act, Cap 275 – 
www.teveta.org.zm 

c.  higher education, contemplated in University 
Act No 11 of 1999 and repealed by the Higher 
Education Act No 4 of 2013 – www.hea.org.zm 

The ZQF rests on three main pillars:

a.  qualifications and awards,
b.  quality assurance (provision),
c.  quality assurance (assessments and learner 

achievement records).

The three pillars are all rooted in established 
standards. The determination, design and 
implementation of these standards through 
quality assurance regulations are provided by the 
respective quality assurance bodies in conformity 
with qualification standards and guidelines from 
ZAQA. In the context of the education and training 
system in Zambia, these quality assurance bodies 
are shown in Table 94.

Table 94. Quality assurance bodies in Zambia

ZQF SUB-
FRAMEWORK

QUALITY ASSURANCE BODY

LEGAL BASIS

General education

Department of Standards

Education Act No 23 of 2011

Trades and 
occupations

Examinations Council of Zambia

Technical Education, Vocational and 
Entrepreneurship Training Authority 
(TEVETA)

Technical, Vocational and Entrepreneurship 
Training Act No 13 of 1998

Higher education

Higher Education Authority

Higher Education Act No 4 of 2013

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSFurther quality assurance is provided by relevant 
quality assurance bodies regulating professions 
such as medical, teaching, nursing, accountancy, 
engineering, tourism etc. All quality assurance 
bodies, regardless of the focus area, are subject to 
the standards and guidelines provided by ZAQA to 
ensure consistency of learning outcomes from the 
education and training sector. 

e.  contribute to the full personal development 
of each learner and  the social and economic 
development of the nation;

f.  develop, foster and maintain an integrated 
and transparent national framework for  the 
recognition of  learning achievements;  and 
ensure  that educational qualifications meet 
appropriate criteria, and are internationally 
comparable.

Policy objectives

The main policy objectives of the ZQF that guide the 
education and training sector are to:

a.  create a single integrated national framework for 

learning achievements;

b.  facilitate access to, and mobility and progression 

within, education, training and career paths;
c.  enhance the quality of education and training;
d.  promote education, training and employment 

opportunities;

Levels and use of learning outcomes

The ZQF is organized into 10 qualification levels 
from the primary school certificate (grade 7 
certificate) at level 1 through to doctorate degree 
at level 10. Each level is described by a statement 
of learning outcomes known as a level descriptor 
defining foundational competences based on 
knowledge; technical competences based on skills; 
and reflexive competences based on values and 
attitudes.

Table 95. ZQF qualification levels and sub-frameworks

ZQF LEVEL

GENERAL EDUCATION

TRADES AND 
OCCUPATIONS (TEVET)

HIGHER EDUCATION

Doctorate

Master’s degree

Postgraduate diploma

Bachelor’s degree

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2b

2a

1

Diploma

Level 5 certificate

Level 4 certificate

Level 3 certificate

Senior secondary education 
certificate (grade 12)

Junior secondary education 
certificate (grade 9)

Primary education certificate 
(grade 7)

Quality 
assurance

Quality assurance bodies by Act of Parliament (appropriate authorities)

Qualifications

Zambia Qualifications Authority

705

Volume II: National and regional casesThe level descriptors of the ZQF were gazetted in 
July 2016 to provide the learning outcomes at each 
level. Statutory instrument No 4 of 2018 was issued 
in February 2018 to provide for guidelines on the 
registration and accreditation of qualifications on the 
ZQF. Consequently, all appropriate authorities are 
required to align their learning programmes leading 
to qualifications at all levels on the ZQF. To this end, 
by December 2018, ZAQA evaluated and approved 
88 qualifications for registration and accreditation 
on the ZQF. A qualifications management system is 
currently under pilot by ZAQA to maintain all learner 
achievement records.  

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements

The ZAQA Board, as well as governance structures 
at all institutions responsible for quality assurance 
of the education and training sector in Zambia, 
comprise stakeholders in education, training and 
industry involved at all levels of the ZQF. All other 
implementing authorities are involved and form part 
of the technical committees in relevant institutions. 
Industry and civil society are co-opted onto the 
governance structures. Further, the boards and 
committee of quality assurance and awarding 
bodies consist of representatives from stakeholder 
institutions.

In order to ensure the learning outcomes meet 
demands of various stakeholders, the ZAQA 
qualification requirements at all levels demand that 
stakeholder inclusion is evidenced throughout the 
qualification development process. To demonstrate 
this, ZAQA engages all stakeholders in the 
development of national occupational standards 
that inform the learning programmes at different 
qualification levels.  

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways

The Zambian Government has developed a 
recognition of prior learning policy in order to cater 
for learners who have not been able to attend 
formal education but have some level of experience 
in a particular field. This process will provide an 
opportunity for learners to earn a qualification or to 
upgrade an existing qualification.

The following types of learning are be considered 
for recognition of prior learning:

a.  formal: learning obtained through organized 

training in a school system from pre-school to a 
university leading to an award;

b.  non-formal: learning obtained through organized 
training not leading to an award (e.g. agricultural 
training, college, faith-based institution);

c.  informal: learning obtained through experience.

Referencing to regional frameworks

As a member of the Southern African Development 
Community (SADC) and the Common Market for 
Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Zambia 
actively works with the regional bodies and 
references to frameworks within the region by 
engaging other countries on matters of mutual 
interest. Zambia has provided inputs to the 
development and implementation of the SADC 
regional qualifications framework. Zambia has a 
National Alignment Committee comprising key 
stakeholders in education and skills training working 
on aligning the ZQF to the SADC qualifications 
framework. Zambia is signatory to the 1981 Arusha 
Convention and is currently in the process of 
ratifying the 2014 Revised Addis Convention.

Important lessons and future plans

Each sub-framework is coordinated by the relevant 
appropriate authorities who ensure adherence to set 
standards. Key developments include:

a.  general education – reviewed school curriculum 
for levels 1 and 2; enhanced teacher regulation 
by the Teaching Council of Zambia;

b.  trades and occupations – ongoing review of 

the curriculum by both the Technical Education, 
Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training 
Authority (TEVETA) and professional bodies in 
this sector. An education levy was introduced 
in 2016 to support the development of skills in 
Zambia;

c.  higher education – development of a Higher 
Education Policy and review of the Higher 
Education Act was on going in 2018 aimed at 
streamlining the provision and regulation of 
higher education;   

d.  most professional bodies are actively regulating 
the training of related professions aimed at 
enhancing quality;

e.  development of national occupational standards 

for key economic sectors with industry 
involvement has been initiated by ZAQA;

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSf.  alignment of the ZQF to the SADC qualifications 
framework and other qualification frameworks 
internationally;

g.  ratification of the Revised Addis Convention 
on the recognition of qualifications in higher 
education;

h.  availability of various standards and guideline 

documents to support the provision of education 
and the implementation of the national 
qualifications framework;

i.  popularisation of the ZQF and continuous 

stakeholder engagement.

Abbreviations
SADC 

TEVET 

ZAQA 
ZQF 

Southern African Development 
Community
technical education, vocational and 
entrepreneurship training
Zambia Qualification Authority
Zambia qualifications framework

References

Zambia Qualifications Authority. Annual Reports 2014–2018.
www.zaqa.gov.zm 
www.moge.gov.zm 
www.exams-council.org.zm 
www.teveta.org.zm 
www.hea.org.zm 

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

707

Volume II: National and regional casesZIMBABWE

Introduction and context

With the coming in of the new government in 
Zimbabwe, the economy has started to recover 
substantially expanding by an estimated 3.5%, 
driven mainly by agriculture. According to the 
African Development Bank, the fiscal deficit was 
an estimated 10.7% of GDP in 2018, compared 
to 12.5% of GDP in 2017, financed mainly through 
domestic borrowing. In 2018, the government 
started addressing the unsustainable budget deficit 
with strong fiscal consolidation measures. Total 
external debt was an estimated 45.3% of GDP in 
2018, down from 53.8% in 2017. The current account 
deficit was an estimated 3.7% of GDP in 2018, with 
merchandise imports continuing to exceed exports, 
putting pressure on the supply of urgently needed 
foreign exchange and making it critical to diversify 
exports. The economy however is projected to grow 
by 4.2% in 2019 and 4.4% in 2020. 

The country’s protracted fiscal imbalances have 
constrained development expenditure and social 
service provision, undermining poverty reduction 
efforts. Unemployment pressures have been 
mounting as employment opportunities continue to 
dwindle. The country has one of the most youthful 
populations, with those aged 15–34 accounting for 
more than 36% of the total population. However, 
most young people remain unemployed and resort 
to informal trading. 

On the educational front, technical vocational 
education and training (TVET) has remained popular, 
with polytechnics, industrial training centres, 
agricultural colleges and youth training centres 
failing to fully satisfy demand for TVET. There is 
also a marked increase in the number of students 
electing for TVET subjects at secondary school 
level. Demand for TVET graduates has increased 
compared to general and tertiary education. This 
is evidence that the TVET sector has a substantial 
contribution to make towards economic recovery. 

The rate of tertiary education attainment is 
comparatively high within the Southern African 
Development Community (SADC) region. Quality 

assurance of higher education and increased 
cooperation between polytechnics and industry is a 
priority for government. Zimbabwean TVET curricula 
have been consistently reviewed in three-year 
cycles. Reviews are carried out in consultation with 
practicing industry experts and institutional trainers 
to establish key competences in each occupation 
and develop content and assessment strategies that 
address the identified competences. 

Policy objectives

The Zimbabwe national qualifications framework 
(ZNQF) provides a mechanism for harmonising 
national qualifications to enable vertical and 
horizontal mobility of learners and graduates. The 
ZNQF allows for portability and comparability of 
qualifications in Zimbabwe and the SADC region 
to address, among others, non-recognition of prior 
learning, non-compatibility and non-comparability of 
skills and educational qualifications in the country 
and across borders.

Other than contributing to the ease of movement 
of local learners from basic education to TVET and/
or university education, the ZNQF is aligned to the 
SADC and COMESA mutual recognition agreements 
for professional qualifications. These agreements  
are meant to facilitate mobility of qualified labour 
as part of enhancing human capital for the 
industrialization and modernization of the country, 
thus providing for cooperation with transferees in 
the regions.

This framework provides an instrument for the 
development, classification and recognition of skills, 
knowledge and competences along an agreed 
continuum of 10 levels. The framework details the 
comparability of different qualifications and how 
one can progress from one level to another within 
and across occupations or industrial sectors. This 
provides a way for structuring existing and new 
qualifications, defined by learning outcomes, that 
is, clear statements of what the learner must know 
or be able to do whether learned in a classroom, on 
the job, or less formally.

708

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe specific goals of the ZNQF are to:

a.  establish pathways for vertical progression of 

education and training qualifications;

b.  establish pathways for horizontal comparability 
of education and training qualifications; and
c.  increase coherence between education output 

and needs of the labour market.

The aim is to develop a harmonized framework 
of qualifications, including those awarded outside 
formal education. The ZNQF was previously 
fragmented with three different authorities 
administering the qualifications frameworks for 
primary and secondary, tertiary and university 
qualifications respectively. The harmonized 
qualification framework has significantly increased 
cooperation between universities and polytechnics. 

Table 96. ZNQF levels of learning outcomes

ZNQF 
LEVEL

QUALIFICATION 
TYPE

DESCRIPTORS

10

Ph.D

•  Cutting edge research and creation of new knowledge 

in the development of the study

•  Advance new techniques, ideas or approaches

•  Autonomous in research conducted

TYPE OF 
OCCUPATION

Doctor/
researcher

9

Master’s  
Post-graduate

•  Mastery of knowledge in the field of study

Expert/specialist

•  Analysis of complex issues and research proposing 

solutions based on critical thinking

•  Participate in resource management and supervision 

of others

• 

In-depth expert knowledge in the field of study

•  Specialized skills and principles based on systematic 

scrutiny of information

•  Function within wide ranging independence

8

Honours degree

•  Methodical comprehension of strategic facets in area 

of specialty

• 

Implement precisely analysis and enquiry procedures 
within the area of specialty

•  Work out setbacks using thoughts and method in their 

area of specialty

•  Work within wide ranging self-sufficiency -

7

6

General degree

•  Comprehensive knowledge in the area of specialty

•  Apply recognized tenets, calling for a wide range of 

information to work out challenges in diverse settings

Higher national 
diploma

•  Work within wide ranging self-sufficiency

•  Specialized knowledge in the area of specialty

•  Relate various and specific methods in the area of 

specialty entailing elementary investigation

•  Work within wide range of structure and a specific 

self-sufficiency

Manager/
supervisor

Manager/
supervisor

Technician 
specialised

5

National diploma

•  Comprehensive knowledge in the area of specialty

Technician

•  Relate wide-ranging procedures, to work out real 

problems, in non-routine situations

•  Work under broad supervision

(Continued)

709

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 96. ZNQF levels of learning outcomes (Continued)

ZNQF 
LEVEL

QUALIFICATION 
TYPE

DESCRIPTORS

4

National certificate

•  Operational knowledge in the area of specialty

•  Relate diverse techniques in the area of specialty, 
to get to the bottom of recognizable problems in 
moderately usual settings

•  Work under general supervision

TYPE OF 
OCCUPATION

Trades person/ 
apprentice/ 
skilled at basic 
level

3

2

1

General advanced 
level certificate

• 

In-depth knowledge in specific subject areas

•  Relate series of techniques in the field of study, to 

resolve challenges in broad circumstances

Specialized 
general 
education

•  Function under general supervision

Ordinary level 
certificate/ national 
foundation 
certificate

Primary level 
certificate

•  Broad-based knowledge

•  Relate basic procedures and techniques

•  Work in a controlled atmosphere, under direct 

General 
education and 
training

supervision

•  Rudimentary knowledge

•  Relate elementary techniques to mastery and 
mathematical ability including desirable values

•  Work under intermittent guidance, consistent scrutiny 

and limited autonomy

Basic educational 
foundation

Stakeholder involvement and 
institutional arrangements 

The ZNQF is coordinated through the Directorate 
of Quality Assurance and Standards in the 
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science 
and Technology Development. Previously the 
qualifications framework was fragmented with three 
different authorities administering the frameworks 
as follows: 

a.  Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council 

(ZIMSEC): primary and secondary education;

b.  Higher Education Examinations Council 

(HEXCO): technical vocational education and 
training education from national certificate, 
national diploma, higher national diploma up to 
bachelor of technology levels;

c.  Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education 
(ZIMCHE): general university education. 

These regulatory bodies were established under 
different Acts of Parliament. Efforts are now 
underway to enact legislation to harmonize 
the operations of the bodies under one piece 
of legislation. Industry contributes 1% of the 
wage bill towards the Zimbabwe Manpower 
Development Fund (ZIMDEF) to support training. 
Industry advises the Minister of Higher and Tertiary 

Education, Science and Technology Development 
on skills development and apprenticeship training 
through the National Manpower Advisory Council 
(NAMACO), whose membership is drawn from all 
sectors of the Zimbabwean economy.  

ZIMCHE is working on the standardization of 
degrees offered by all universities in the country 
including private higher and tertiary learning 
institutions to ensure uniformity as well as matching 
international standards. This will be achieved 
through the development of minimum bodies of 
knowledge for related degree programmes. 

HEXCO is in the process of reviewing all TVET 
curricula in line with international best practices 
and technological trends. They are both guided by 
the Education 5.0 policy that embraces teaching, 
research, community service, innovation and 
industrialization. This policy was developed in 
line with the country’s vision 2030 of attaining a 
middle-income economy through modernization and 
industrialization.  

The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education 
has developed a curriculum framework, which 
provides a comprehensive plan for the rapid and 
sustainable transformation of Zimbabwe’s education 
system. Learners are now required to lay strong 

710

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSfoundations for vocational skills in order to empower 
them to develop enterprises and contribute to the 
socio-economic transformation. The curriculum 
framework exposes learners to the disciplines of 
science, technology, engineering, mathematics and 
heritage studies. In addition, learners are exposed to 
life-and-work learning contexts through the life-skills 
orientation programme.

Recognising and validating non-formal 
and informal learning and learning 
pathways 

Zimbabwe does not have a mechanism for validating 
non-formal and informal learning, but efforts are 
underway to establish one. 

Recognising foreign qualifications

Zimbabwe conducts assessments for foreign 
qualifications for purposes of recognition. The 
assessment considers content, duration and 
key competences as enunciated in the course 
regulations and syllabi. These are compared with 
similar qualifications offered in the Zimbabwean 
training system. Before assessment is done, 
authentication of the foreign qualification is carried 
out through the National Qualification Authority of 
the country of origin. 

NQF implementation

The ZNQF is still at an early stage of implementation 
and is being coordinated by the Department of 
Quality Assurance and Standards in the Ministry 
of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and 
Technology Development. Stakeholders responsible 
for accreditation of qualifications will continue to 
work according to the existing legislative framework 
while new legislation is being enacted.

Referencing to regional frameworks

Zimbabwe is a member of the SADC regional 
qualifications framework. The main purpose of 
the framework is to promote mobility. As such, it 
plays a key role in setting the regional standards 
for comparing qualifications obtained in the SADC. 
The SADC regional qualifications framework is 
a reference framework for now but might later 
develop into a framework that has qualifications 
registered onto it. Currently Zimbabwe is conducting 
a self-assessment to align itself with the SADC 
regional qualifications framework. 

Important lessons and future plans

There is a plan in place to establish a national 
qualification database by mid-2019. The database 
will contain qualifications from general, TVET and 
higher education systems. There are also plans to 
develop mechanisms for the recognition of informal 
and non-formal training. 

Abbreviations 
HEXCO 

SADC 

TVET 

ZIMCHE 

ZNQF 

Higher Education Examinations 
Council 
Southern African Development 
Community
technical vocational education and 
training
Zimbabwe Council for Higher 
Education
Zimbabwe national qualifications 
framework

Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.

711

Volume II: National and regional casesSection II
Inventory of Regional  
Qualifications Frameworks

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

AQRF

ASEAN

CANTA

ASEAN qualifications reference framework

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

Caribbean Association of National Training Agencies

Caricom

Caribbean Community

CQF

CVQ

Caricom qualifications framework

Caribbean vocational qualification

ECOWAS

Economic Community of West African States

EQAP

educational quality and assessment programme

EQF

MRA

NQF

PQAF

PQF

PRQS

QA

European qualifications framework

mutual recognition arrangement

national qualifications framework

Pacific quality assurance framework

Pacific qualifications framework

Pacific register of qualifications and standards

quality assurance

QF-EHEA

qualifications frameworks in the European higher education area

SADC

Southern African Development Community

SADCQF

Southern African Development Community qualifications framework

TCCA

TQF

TVET

VET

Technical Committee on Certification and Accreditation

transnational qualifications framework

technical and vocational education and training

vocational education and training

VUSSC

Virtual University for Small States of the Commonwealth

714

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTHE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST  
ASIAN NATIONS QUALIFICATIONS  
REFERENCE FRAMEWORK

Member States: 

Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, 
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand  
and Vietnam.

Background

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations 
(ASEAN) is a political and economic organization of 
10 Southeast Asian countries, which was formed 
on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the 
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Since then, 
its membership has expanded to include Brunei, 
Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. Its aims 
include accelerating economic growth, social 
progress and sociocultural evolution among its 
members, protection of regional peace and stability, 
and providing opportunities for Member States to 
discuss differences peacefully.

The ASEAN Charter, signed by the 10 ASEAN 
leaders in Singapore on 20 November 2007, 
provides the basis for an ASEAN qualifications 
reference framework (AQRF). The Charter reinforces 
aspirations for a single ASEAN Community that 
aims, among other things, to develop human 
resources through closer cooperation in education 
and lifelong learning, and in science and technology, 
for the empowerment of the ASEAN peoples and 
for the strengthening of the ASEAN Community. 
In the same year, the ASEAN Member States also 
signed the ASEAN Economic Blueprint (ASEAN, 
2007), which calls for multiple areas of economic 
integration, including the aspiration for the free 
flow of skilled labour, which is facilitated through 
harmonisation and standardisation of qualifications 
(ASEAN, 2007). 

Another important ASEAN initiative related to the 
AQRF in terms of facilitating the free flow of skilled 
labour is the mutual recognition arrangement 
(MRA). In addition to MRAs in engineering and 
nursing, completed in 2005 and 2006, respectively, 
five additional MRAs were finalised between 2007 

and 2009 – in architecture, surveying, medical 
practitioners, dental practitioners and accountancy –  
and then tourism in 2012, and most recently,  
in 2014, the MRA in accountancy services  
was updated.

In support of mutual confidence building, the 
‘ASEAN guiding principles for quality assurance and 
recognition of competency certification systems’ 
were adopted by the ASEAN labour ministers in 
2016. In 2019, the guiding principles will be piloted 
in three ASEAN countries, which are currently also 
participating in the AQRF referencing process.

About the AQRF

The AQRF is a common reference framework that 
enables comparisons of educational qualifications 
across the ASEAN countries. It aims to: 

a.  support recognition of qualifications; 
b.  encourage the development of qualifications 

frameworks that can facilitate lifelong learning; 

c.  encourage the development of national 

approaches to validating learning gained outside 
formal education; 

d.  promote and encourage education and learner 

mobility; 

e.  promote worker mobility; 
f.  support better understanding of qualifications 

systems; and 

g.  promote higher quality qualifications systems.

The AQRF is based on agreed understandings 
between Member States and invites their voluntary 
engagement (ASEAN, 2016). It aims to be a neutral 
influence on national qualifications frameworks 
(NQFs) within ASEAN countries. While the goal 
is to make national qualifications systems explicit 
vis-à-vis the AQRF, referencing to it does not require 
changes in national qualifications systems (Ibid.). 
The AQRF respects the Member States’ specific 
structures and processes that are responsive to 
national priorities (Ibid.).

715

Volume II: National and regional casesThe framework is underpinned by a set of 
agreed quality assurance principles and broad 
standards related to: (i) the functions of the 
registering and accrediting agencies; (ii) systems 
for the assessment of learning and the issuing of 
qualifications; and (iii) regulation of the issuance 
of certificates. As such, these quality assurance 
processes build confidence and trust in national 
qualifications and in the value of the region’s 
qualifications. Furthermore, the AQRF requires 
countries to refer to one or more established quality 
assurance frameworks as the basis for their agreed 
quality assurance principles and standards more 
broadly (Ibid.). 

The AQRF includes a set of regional level 
descriptors and will, in the future, allow ASEAN 
countries to link the levels of their NQFs to the 
ASEAN framework. The level descriptors cover two 
domains: knowledge and skills; and application and 
responsibility (see Table 97).

Implementation of the AQRF

The AQRF Committee convened its first meeting 
in February 2017. This meeting launched the 
implementation of Phase IV of the NQF project on 
referencing NQFs to the AQRF. Supported by the 
ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand free trade agreement 
economic cooperation support programme, this 
project aims to support the referencing process 
of the ASEAN countries’ NQFs or qualifications 
systems to the AQRF. The project aims to have 
at least two ASEAN countries undertake this 
referencing. 

The AQRF Committee began the informal 
peer-review process of the draft referencing 
reports submitted by some Member States 
at its fourth meeting in May 2018, and formal 
consideration of draft referencing reports submitted 
by two Member States, at its fifth meeting in 
November 2018. 

Development of the AQRF

In 2011 a process was initiated to develop a concept 
design for the AQRF. A task force on the AQRF, 
comprising representatives from ASEAN ministries 
of trade, education, and labour/manpower, as well 
as representatives of qualification, accreditation and 
other agencies, was created in 2012. The task force 
was set up under the auspices of the economic 
cooperation and work programme of the ASEAN-
Australia-New Zealand free trade agreement, with 
the mandate of developing the AQRF in consultation 
with stakeholders in the different ASEAN countries. 
By 2015, the AQRF was completed and the 
document containing its principles and structure 
was endorsed by the ASEAN economic, education 
and labour ministers. Subsequently, the AQRF 
governance and structure document was endorsed 
by ASEAN labour and education ministers in May 
2016, and by economic ministers in August 2016. 
This document provides for the establishment of the 
AQRF Committee, which is tasked with overseeing 
the referencing process and further development of 
the AQRF, among other roles.

ASEAN countries are at different stages in the 
development of their NQF. Most of the Member 
States’ NQFs have been endorsed, but are at 
different stages of implementation (Bateman and 
Coles, 2015). 

The future of the AQRF

At least four ASEAN countries have expressed their 
intention to undertake the referencing process 
in 2018–19. Other Member States also intend to 
undertake the referencing once ready. Referencing 
requires countries to describe their education 
and training, and quality assurance systems. The 
referencing process also requires each ASEAN 
country to set up a national referencing panel of key 
stakeholders that includes at least one observer 
from another Member State.

In the long term, the AQRF is expected to serve 
as a meta-framework to support recognition of 
its levels against other regional qualifications 
frameworks as well as support inter-regional 
recognition. 

Further information

https://asean.org/asean-economic-community/sectoral-bodies-under-the-purview-of-aem/services/asean-
qualifications-reference-framework/ 

716

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSReferences

ASEAN (2007). ASEAN economic blueprint. Jakarta: ASEAN.
ASEAN (2016). ASEAN qualifications reference framework. http://asean.org/asean-develops-framework-to-

facilitate-movement-of-skilled-labour-and-professionals/

ASEAN (2018). Press release May 2018: ASEAN qualifications reference framework committee commences 

peer-review process. https://asean.org/asean-qualifications-reference-framework-committee-
commences-peer-review-process/

ASEAN (November 2018). https://asean.org/asean-commences-review-qualification-reference-framework-

report/

Bateman, A.; Coles, M. (2015). ASEAN qualifications reference framework and national qualifications 

framework: state of play. Jakarta: European Support to Higher Education in the ASEAN Region  
(EU SHARE).

Prepared by:
UNESCO.

Table 97. Level descriptors for the ASEAN qualifications reference framework (AQRF)

LEVELS

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

APPLICATION AND RESPONSIBILITY

DEMONSTRATION OF KNOWLEDGE 
AND SKILLS THAT:

THE CONTEXTS IN WHICH KNOWLEDGE 
AND SKILLS ARE DEMONSTRATED:

8

•  are at the most advanced and 

•  are highly specialised and complex involving 

specialised level and at the frontier of 
a field

• 

involve independent and original 
thinking and research, resulting in the 
creation of new knowledge or practice

• 

the development and testing of new theories 
and new solutions to resolve complex, 
abstract issues

require authoritative and expert judgment in 
management of research or an organization, 
and significant responsibility for extending 
professional knowledge and practice and 
creation of new ideas and or processes

7

•  are at the forefront of a field and show 

mastery of a body of knowledge

• 

involve critical and independent thinking 
as the basis for research to extend or 
redefine knowledge or practice

•  are complex and unpredictable and involve 
the development and testing of innovative 
solutions to resolve issues

• 

require expert judgment and significant 
responsibility for professional knowledge, 
practice and management

6

5

4

•  are specialised technical and theoretical 

•  are complex and changing

within a specific field

• 

involve critical and analytical thinking

• 

require initiative and adaptability as well as 
strategies to improve activities and to solve 
complex and abstract issues

•  are detailed technical and theoretical 

•  are often subject to change

within a general field

• 

involve analytical thinking

• 

involve independent evaluation of activities 
to resolve complex and sometimes abstract 
issues

•  are technical and theoretical with 

•  are generally predictable but subject to 

general coverage of a field

change

• 

involve adapting processes

• 

involve broad guidance requiring some 
self-direction, and coordination to resolve 
unfamiliar issues

(Continued)

717

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 97. Level descriptors for the ASEAN qualifications reference framework (AQRF) (Continued)

LEVELS

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

APPLICATION AND RESPONSIBILITY

3

2

1

DEMONSTRATION OF KNOWLEDGE 
AND SKILLS THAT:

THE CONTEXTS IN WHICH KNOWLEDGE 
AND SKILLS ARE DEMONSTRATED:

• 

• 

include general principles and some 
conceptual aspects

involve selecting and applying basic 
methods, tools, materials and 
information

•  are general and factual

• 

involve use of standard actions

•  are basic, general

• 

involve simple, straightforward and 
routine actions

•  are stable with some aspects subject to 

change

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

involve general guidance and require 
judgment and planning to resolve some 
issues independently

involve structured processes

involve supervision and some discretion for 
judgment on resolving familiar issues

involve structured routine processes

involve close levels of support and 
supervision

Source: ASEAN, 2016.

718

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTHE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY  
QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK

Member States: 

Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, 
Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, 
Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, 
Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 
Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. 

Associate members: 

Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, 
Cayman Islands, and Turks and Caicos Islands.

recognise and describe the competences required 
to do a job at various levels and act as the basis of 
an articulation and accreditation system. National 
training agencies, TVET councils and apex bodies 
are responsible for facilitating the development 
of standards through various institutional 
arrangements and industry engagement. These 
standards are reviewed at a regional level by 
CANTA, the regional coordinating mechanism 
for TVET and, finally, the Council for Human 
and Social Development. The CVQ certificate is 
then awarded by the authorised national training 
agencies1010.

Background

Level of development 

Established in 1973, the Caribbean Community 
(Caricom) comprises 20 Caribbean nations, of which 
15 are full members, and 5 (all overseas British 
territories) are associate members. Caricom’s 
mission is to develop resilient societies that 
promote economic integration and cooperation 
among its members; to ensure that the benefits of 
integration are equitably shared; to facilitate social 
development and cohesion; and to coordinate 
foreign policy. 

In 1990, Caricom developed a regional strategy for 
technical vocational education and training (TVET). 
In 2002, a corresponding ‘competence model for 
TVET’ was developed and adopted, which laid the 
basis for a Caricom TVET strategy. The Caribbean 
Association of National Training Agencies (CANTA) 
was established in 2003 and endorsed by Caricom 
as the ‘implementation arm’ of the regional 
coordinating mechanism for TVET. CANTA’s key 
purpose was to establish and govern a regional 
training and certification system, called the 
Caribbean vocational qualification (CVQ), to ensure 
standard and uniform delivery of competence-
based TVET training within the Caricom single 
market and economy (Caricom, 2007; 2009) and 
thus facilitate the free movement of skills across 
the Community. CVQs are awarded on completion 
of assessment measured against regional 
occupational standards. These qualifications 

At the centre of the CVQ model is the regional 
occupational qualifications framework, adopted 
by Caricom for use by national training agencies, 
ministries with responsibility for TVET and/or 
workforce training, and the Caribbean Examination 
Council. The framework is characterised by a five-
tiered system of qualifications at different levels of 
skill, autonomy and responsibility. These correspond 
to levels of employment in the labour market, 
beginning with level 1, which describes the entry-
level worker, through to level 5, which describes the 
professional worker1011.

In 2012 Caricom developed a draft regional 
qualifications framework (CQF) (Caricom, 2012). 
The CQF was designed as a ‘reference point’ to 
facilitate mobility of learners and recognition and 
accreditation of qualifications within the region. The 
CQF also aims to provide sufficient independent 
data to improve the transparency of qualifications, 
both regionally and internationally.  

1010  Jamaica/Heart Trust National Training Agency; Barbados 
TVET Council; National Training Agency of Trinidad 
and Tobago; Saint Lucia TVET Council; Grenada TVET 
Council; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sector Skills 
Development Agency; Guyana TVET Council. 

1011  The regional occupational qualifications framework is 
presently being expanded from five to eight levels. It 
is also being harmonised with the recently approved 
Caricom qualifications framework. 

719

Volume II: National and regional casesThe CQF is informed by the principles of the ‘ideal 
Caribbean citizen’ as defined by Caricom, and is 
based on 10 generic level descriptors (Caricom, 
2012). Five domains are used at each level: 

a.  knowledge and understanding; 
b.  application and practice;
c.  communication, numeracy and ICT; 
d.  life skills; and
e.  autonomy, accountability and working with 

others. 

The CQF was approved in Georgetown, Guyana 
by the 32nd Council for Human and Social 
Development meeting on education on  
30–31 March 2017.

The future of the CQF

At present, several Caricom countries have 
established national qualifications frameworks 
(NQFs). These include Barbados, Belize, Guyana, 
Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. Other countries 
in the region are still in the initial stages of NQF 
development. These include Saint Kitts and Nevis, 
and Suriname. Guidelines for NQF development 
have been produced by the Caricom Secretariat.

In conclusion, the CQF will only be successful 
once all Member States have established their own 
NQFs that are articulated and harmonised with 
the CQF. In October 2019, the TVET qualifications 
framework, showing its alignment with the CQF, will 
be presented to education ministers at a meeting of 
the Council for Human and Social Development.

References

Caricom (2007). Launch of the Caribbean vocational qualification. Caricom Secretariat. Press release. 

23 October 2007.

Caricom (2009). Caribbean vocational qualifications framework. Presentation made at the Technical 

Commission meeting of the ILO Cinterfor, Brasilia, 28 October 2009.

Caricom (2012). Caricom qualifications framework. Draft document (unpublished). St Michael, Barbados: 

Caricom.

Caricom (2014). Caricom regional TVET strategy for workforce development and economic competitiveness 

to be launched. Press release. 16 September 2014. Accessed 2 March 2017 at: http://caricom.org/
communications/view/caricom-regional-tvet-strategy-for-workforce-development-and-economic-
competitiveness-to-be-launched

Prepared by:
UNESCO. 

Table 98. Domain and descriptors for the Caricom qualifications framework (CQF)

DOMAIN

DESCRIPTORS

Knowledge and 
understanding

Theoretical and/or factual knowledge; possesses ability to recall and present 
information; demonstrates knowledge and understanding of specific facts, 
concepts, principles, procedures and theories

Application and practice

Cognitive (logical, intuitive and creative thinking) and practical (manual 
dexterity and use of methods, materials, tools and instruments) competencies 
to achieve results

Communication, 
numeracy, information and 
communication technology

Literacy in verbal and non-verbal communication, in numerical and graphical 
tasks and in ICT applications demonstrated through ability to use a range of 
skills in context to access, process, produce and respond appropriately to 
information

Life skills

Problem-solving; decision-making; critical and creative thinking; interpersonal 
relationships; empathy; emotional and self-awareness; coping with stress and 
effective communication skills

Autonomy, accountability 
and working with others

From working alone on simple and routine tasks under direct supervision 
to becoming increasingly autonomous and accountable within a work role; 
greater independence and focus on management and leadership; becoming 
more self-critical and responsive to ethical and professional issues

720

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTHE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF  
WEST AFRICAN STATES  
QUALIFICATIONS SYSTEMS

Member States:

Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, 
Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, 
Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, 
The Gambia and Togo.

prosperity in West Africa. It aims to replace the 
current ‘Ecowas of States’ with an ‘Ecowas 
of People’ (Ecowas, 2010). In this context, it is 
expected that all countries will have ‘a highly skilled, 
flexible and mobile workforce’.

Background

The Economic Community of West African States 
(Ecowas) was established in 1975 with the signing 
of the treaty of Lagos. The group consists of 
15 Member States and has the mandate to promote 
economic cooperation and regional integration in all 
fields of activity of the constituting countries These 
are seen as tools for an accelerated development 
of the West African economy. Ecowas vision is to 
create a borderless region where the population 
has access to its abundant resources, can enjoy 
free movement, with access to efficient education 
and health systems, and engage in economic and 
commercial activities in peace and security. The 
ultimate aim is to achieve collective self-sufficiency 
for Member States by creating a single large trade 
bloc and building a full economic and trading union.

There are considerable differences in terms of 
population sizes, economies and levels of per capita 
income across Ecowas member countries. While 
there are labour flows between member countries 
they are not as great as those of some other 
regions. Nevertheless, Ecowas is a robust entity 
and has been active in building mutual economic 
and social cooperation between Member States. 
Ecowas countries had an estimated population of 
over 349 million in 2015. West Africa is also one of 
the strongest sub-regions in the continent, growing 
by as much as 6.3% in 2013 and this is largely due 
to the collective prosperity drive of Ecowas.

Development work on harmonization  
of qualifications systems

The development and implementation of national 
and regional qualifications frameworks has been 
one of the priorities of Ecowas education ministers 
for some time. After a first conference that took 
place in Dakar in 2002, two reference documents 
were published in 2003: the Protocol on education 
and training and its annex on the equivalence of 
certificates (Ecowas, 2003). From the Protocol, it 
became clear that the main interest of ministers 
was to have a holistic approach concerning the 
whole range of provision from basic to higher 
education and to adult learning. In the annex on the 
equivalence of certificates, the focus was on the 
assessment of knowledge, skills and competences 
and their recognition; for (re-)entering the formal 
education and training system and/or the labour 
market. This approach aimed also at facilitating 
geographical, occupational and social mobility.

Among the 15 Ecowas countries, only The Gambia, 
Nigeria and Senegal seem to have concrete 
initiatives to develop a national qualifications 
framework (NQF). In most other countries of the 
region, there exists an intention to develop a NQF 
as part of their broad education and training policies. 
Within this context a regional common reference 
framework needs to accommodate different types 
of NQFs that are at different stages of development, 
ranging from the in principle and conceptual to the 
fully developed and functioning NQFs.

In 2011, Ecowas adopted its development blueprint 
for the next decade – Vision 2020. Vision 2020 
is aimed at setting a clear direction and goal to 
significantly raise the standard of living of the 
Ecowas people through conscious and inclusive 
programmes that will guarantee peace and 

There is already a set of arrangements and 
initiatives between neighbouring countries 
that aim to facilitate labour mobility and the 
recognition and use of qualifications between 
countries in the region. Several bilateral, trilateral 
and multilateral agreements between national 

721

Volume II: National and regional casesqualifications agencies, professional bodies and 
education providers for qualifications standards and 
recognition exist across the region. 

In this context, the Ecowas Commission, in 
cooperation with Unesco, launched in 2018 
a new initiative to strengthen the capacities of its 
Member States in reforming qualifications systems 
while adopting a combined national and regional 
perspective. The initiative aims at deepening the 
integration and harmonization among qualifications 
systems; creating a common identity; improving 
the transparency of multiple complex systems; 
supporting the mobility of workers and learners 
as well as the social and economic imperatives as 
defined by Ecowas Vision 2020. The initiative may 
lead to the development of a regional qualifications 
framework as adopted in other regions in the world. 
The form and type that this future framework may 
take will be discussed and decided by Member 
States as part of this initiative. 

In addition to the regional dimension, the initiative 
will provide the basis for the development of 
qualifications systems in countries that have 
not yet engaged in this process. The regional 
process will support and enhance each country’s 
national qualifications framework or system while 
providing the necessary mechanism to facilitate 
comparison and transparency. The initiative will 
link the participating Ecowas national qualifications 
frameworks or systems and become the 
Community’s mechanism for recognition of its 
qualifications against other sub-regional, continental, 
regional and international qualifications systems. 

Two regional workshops took place in Senegal and 
Nigeria in June and December 2018 respectively. 
The workshops brought together stakeholders 
from nearly all Ecowas Member States and 
international experts and were the first steps in 
creating a regional community of practice in the 
field of qualifications. Workshop participants had 
the opportunity to discuss the aims of the initiative 
and engage in a comparative analysis of their 
programmes and qualifications systems, focusing 
in particular on the use of learning outcomes and 
quality assurance processes.

Future steps

A clear workplan for the year ahead was adopted 
by the national focal points for the initiative at the 
workshop in December 2018. The workplan has 
three overall objectives:

a.  strengthen the capacities of national focal points 
and develop with them a common language and 
mutual understanding at regional level;

b.  enable focal points to work together on concrete 

activities related to NQFs and cross-border 
issues;

c.  mobilise and ensure political support at both 
national and regional levels to ensure the 
success of the initiative. 

Specific activities will be undertaken under each of 
these objectives to achieve the workplan’s expected 
results. 

References

Ecowas (2003). Ecowas Protocol on Education and Training. www.esc.comm.ecowas.int/wp-content/

uploads/2016/04/protocol-on-education-and-training1.pdf 

Ecowas (2010). Ecowas Vision 2020. Towards a democratic and prosperous community. Abuja: Ecowas 

Commission.

Prepared by:
UNESCO.

722

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTHE EUROPEAN QUALIFICATIONS  
FRAMEWORK

Countries involved in EQF 
implementation (February 2018):

EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, 
Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, 
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, 
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, 
Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, 
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and 
the United Kingdom.

Not members of the EU: Albania, Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, Iceland, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, 
Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, 
Switzerland and Turkey.

Background

The European qualifications framework (EQF) 
came into force in April 2008 (European Parliament 
and Council of the EU, 2008). Since then it has 
become a common reference point for comparing 
qualifications across national and institutional 
borders and making them easier to understand, 
both for study and working purposes. It consists 
of eight learning-outcomes-based levels, ranging 
from basic (level 1) to most advanced (level 8), 
to which each national qualifications framework 
(NQF) or system is linked or ‘referenced’. Given the 
diversity of education and training systems across 
Europe, each level is defined in terms of knowledge, 
skills, and responsibility and autonomy – previously 
competence1012 – (learning outcomes) that need to 
be acquired to reach it. The EQF applies to all types 
and levels of education, training and qualifications, 
from general education, vocational education and 
training (VET), and higher education. Each level 
is attainable by a variety of education or career 
pathways; this includes qualifications awarded 
through validation of non-formal and informal 
learning. Individual qualifications are not directly 

1012  One important change in the revision of the EQF 

recommendation in 2017 is the change of the headline 
of the third descriptor pillar from ‘competence’ to 
‘responsibility and autonomy’.

referenced to the EQF but have to be initially 
included in an NQF. NQF levels are referenced to 
EQF levels based on a comparison of NQF level 
descriptors to the EQF level descriptors. 

In May 2017, the EQF recommendation was revised 
(Council of the European Union, 2017) to respond 
better to current and future challenges. While the 
core objectives agreed a decade ago to create 
transparency and comparability in qualifications 
across Europe were kept, the revision was one 
of the 10 key actions of the New skills agenda for 
Europe (Europe European Commission, 2018), 
which aims to improve the relevance and quality 
of training, make skills more visible, and improve 
skills intelligence1013. The EQF also contributes to 
the European Pillar of Social Rights1014, whose first 
principle emphasises that everyone has ‘the right 
to quality and inclusive education, training and 
lifelong learning in order to maintain and acquire 
skills that enable them to participate fully in society 
and manage successfully transitions in the labour 
market.’ The EQF has been used in Europass and 
will be integrated in the new Europass platform1015 
allowing individuals to be able to present the 
results of their learning through qualifications, with 
information on the content (learning outcomes) and 
level of their learning.

Level of development

The EQF has acted as a catalyst for development 
of learning-outcomes-based NQFs and contributed 
to changes in the qualifications landscape in 
Europe. In the 39 countries currently cooperating 

1013  https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1223 
1014  https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/deeper-and-

fairer-economic-and-monetary-union/european-pillar-social-
rights/european-pillar-social-rights-20-principles_en
1015  Decision 2018/646 of the European Parliament and the 

Council of 18 April 2018 on a common framework for the 
provision of better services for skills and qualifications 
(Europass) and repealing Decision No 2241/2004/EC. 
Official Journal of the European Union, L112, 2.5.2018, 
pp. 42–50. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/
PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018D0646&rid=9 

723

Volume II: National and regional caseson EQF implementation, 43 NQFs using explicit 
levels of learning outcomes have been established 
or are being developed. Most countries are 
working towards a comprehensive NQF including 
all levels and types of qualification from formal 
education and training (general education, VET 
and higher education) and increasingly opening 
up to qualifications awarded outside the formal 
system; examples of this can be found in France, 
the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Sweden and 
the UK (Scotland) (Cedefop, 2018). Although these 
frameworks have reached different implementation 
stages, an increasing number are now becoming 
operational and making a contribution to education 
and training policies and practices in their respective 
countries (Cedefop, 2019). 

Montenegro, the Netherlands, North Macedonia, 
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, 
Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the UK 
(England, Scotland and Wales)1017. The EQF advisory 
group1018 is responsible for overall monitoring and 
coherence of the process.

The remaining four countries are expected to follow 
in 2019, which means that the first stage of EQF 
referencing is nearly finished. The EQF referencing 
report is a snapshot in time; as national qualification 
systems and frameworks evolve, it will eventually 
become outdated, requiring updates according to 
national developments. EQF implementation is a 
continuing process and Estonia, Malta, Poland and 
UK-Scotland presented updates in 2015–18.

The EQF has promoted two important principles 
supporting the transparency and modernisation of 
qualifications systems in Europe.

a.  The learning outcomes orientation – focuses on 
what the holder of a qualification is expected 
to know, be able to do and understand. This 
provides a new perspective on qualification 
systems and the content and profile of 
individual qualifications. The EQF has reinforced 
qualification design in terms of learning 
outcomes, providing a common language to 
compare them. Calibrating the qualifications 
description requirements and NQF level 
descriptors is work in progress in many 
countries.

b.  The comprehensive approach – covers all levels 
and types of qualification from formal education 
and training (VET, general education, higher 
education) as well those awarded outside 
formal education and training and through 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. 
This comprehensive approach draws attention 
to progression across education sectors and 
borders.

Countries have voluntarily adapted these principles 
to their national circumstances and needs. Ten EQF 
referencing criteria and procedures1016 have been set 
up to help ensure that NQFs are linked to the EQF 
in a coherent and transparent way.

By February 2019, 35 countries had formally 
referenced their national qualifications levels to 
the EQF: Austria, Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia), 
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, 
Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, 
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, 
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, 

1016  Annex III, EQF recommendation, 2017.

Development of the EQF is closely coordinated 
with the Bologna process and the agreement 
to implement qualifications frameworks in the 
European higher education area (QF-EHEA). This 
means that EQF levels 5 to 8 are compatible with 
the ‘cycles’ of the Bologna process and the ‘Dublin 
descriptors’.

A total of 31 countries have formally self-certified 
their higher education qualifications to the QF-EHEA. 
Countries are increasingly combining referencing 
to the EQF and self-certification to the QF-EHEA1019. 
Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, 
Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, 
Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, North Macedonia, 
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and Turkey 
have all produced joint reports on both processes, 
reflecting the priority given to the development 
and adoption of comprehensive NQFs covering all 
levels and types of qualification. This development 
reflects the increasingly close cooperation between 
the two European framework initiatives, also 
illustrated by regular meetings between EQF 
national coordination points and Bologna framework 
coordinators.

NQF and EQF levels increasingly feature on 
new qualifications documents, Europass and 
qualifications databases. As a result, learners, 
employers, training providers and recognition 
bodies can better understand the level, content and 
value of a qualification. Qualifications documents 
(certificates and diplomas, and/or Europass 

1017  Referencing reports, see: https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/

referencing-reports-and-contacts  

1018  All 39 countries taking part in the EQF process are 
represented in the EQF advisory group, as are the 
European social partners (trade unions and employers) as 
well as representatives of the non-governmental sector.

1019  Self-certification reports verify the compatibility of the 

national framework for higher education with the QF-
EHEA.

724

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKScertificate and diploma supplements) have started 
to include EQF/NQF levels in 27 countries1020: 
Austria, Belgium (Flemish Community), Czechia, 
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, 
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, 
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, the 
Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, 
Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Switzerland and the 
UK. It is also important that national and European 
qualifications databases contain this information 
and ideally structure information on qualifications in 
line with their framework. Qualifications databases 
indicate NQF/EQF levels in 20 countries (though 
some only have NQF levels and are at initial 
stages): Austria, Belgium (Flemish and French 
Communities), Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, France, 
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, 
Montenegro, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, 
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and the UK. Several 
countries have indicated their intention to do so (or 
to include EQF levels also) in 2019, such as Cyprus 
and Greece.

transparency and recognition tools created over 
recent decades. It is generally considered a 
success and an important instrument for increasing 
transparency in national qualification systems and 
qualifications, and promoting mutual trust between 
European countries. Visible progress has been made 
in the last 10 years1021.

The revised EQF recommendation aims to address 
current challenges and increase the transparency 
and coherence of EQF referencing, reflecting the 
changing nature of qualification systems. It also 
aims to strengthen the link between qualifications 
referenced to the EQF and quality assurance, and 
clarify the role of the EQF in relation to international 
and third country qualifications.

There is agreement that a key priority in the coming 
period is to make the EQF more visible to end users 
and show its contribution to the wider objectives 
of lifelong learning, employability, and worker and 
learner mobility and social integration.

The future of the EQF

The EQF is at the core of EU transparency tools 
in education and training and relates to all other 

1020  This is work in progress. Most widely spread is indication 
on VET certificates and/or Europass certificates, at least in 
general education; in higher education this is the decision 
of higher education institutions.

1021  On 15–16 March 2018, a conference was organised 
in Brussels to celebrate the EQF’s 10th anniversary. 
More information at: https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.
jsp?langId=en&catId=89&newsId=9068& 
furtherNew%20s=yes

References

Cedefop (2018). National qualifications framework developments in Europe 2017. Luxembourg: Publications 

Office. www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/4163_en.pdf 

Cedefop (2019). Qualifications frameworks in Europe 2018. Briefing note. www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/

publications-and-resources/publications/9139

Council of the European Union (2017). Council recommendation on the European qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning and repealing the recommendation of the European Parliament and of the 
Council of 23 April 2008 on the establishment of the European qualifications framework for lifelong 
learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C189, 15.6.2017, pp. 15–28. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017H0615(01)

European Commission (2018). The European qualifications framework: supporting learning, work and cross-

border mobility. Luxembourg: Publications Office. 

European Parliament; Council of the European Union (2008). Recommendation of the European Parliament 

and of the Council of 23 April 2008 on the establishment of the European qualifications framework 
for lifelong learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C111, 6.5.2008.

Prepared by: 
The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop).

725

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 99. Reference levels in the European qualifications framework (EQF)

LEVEL

KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS

8

7

6

5

4

Knowledge at the most 
advanced frontier of a field 
of work or study and at the 
interface between fields

Highly specialised 
knowledge, some of 
which is at the forefront 
of knowledge in a field of 
work or study, as the basis 
for original thinking and/or 
research 

Critical awareness of 
knowledge issues in a field 
and at the interface between 
different fields

Advanced knowledge 
of a field of work or 
study, involving a critical 
understanding of theories 
and principles

The most advanced and 
specialised skills and 
techniques, including synthesis 
and evaluation, required to 
solve critical problems in 
research and/or innovation and 
to extend and redefine existing 
knowledge or professional 
practice

Specialised problem-solving 
skills required in research 
and/or innovation in order to 
develop new knowledge and 
procedures and to integrate 
knowledge from different fields

Advanced skills, demonstrating 
mastery and innovation, 
required to solve complex and 
unpredictable problems in a 
specialised field of work or 
study

Comprehensive, specialised, 
factual and theoretical 
knowledge within a field 
of work or study and an 
awareness of the boundaries 
of that knowledge

Factual and theoretical 
knowledge in broad contexts 
within a field of work or 
study

A comprehensive range of 
cognitive and practical skills 
required to develop creative 
solutions to abstract problems

A range of cognitive and 
practical skills required to 
generate solutions to specific 
problems in a field of work or 
study

RESPONSIBILITY AND 
AUTONOMY

Demonstrate substantial 
authority, innovation, autonomy, 
scholarly and professional 
integrity and sustained 
commitment to the development 
of new ideas or processes at 
the forefront of work or study 
contexts including research

Manage and transform work or 
study contexts that are complex, 
unpredictable and require new 
strategic approaches; take 
responsibility for contributing 
to professional knowledge and 
practice and/or for reviewing the 
strategic performance of teams

Manage complex technical 
or professional activities or 
projects, taking responsibility for 
decision-making in unpredictable 
work or study contexts; take 
responsibility for managing 
professional development of 
individuals and groups

Exercise management and 
supervision in contexts of work 
or study activities where there 
is unpredictable change; review 
and develop performance of self 
and others

Exercise self- management 
within the guidelines of work or 
study contexts that are usually 
predictable, but are subject to 
change; supervise the routine 
work of others, taking some 
responsibility for the evaluation 
and improvement of work or 
study activities

726

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 99. Reference levels in the European qualifications framework (EQF) (Continued)

LEVEL

KNOWLEDGE

SKILLS

3

2

Knowledge of facts, 
principles, processes and 
general concepts, in a field 
of work or study

Basic factual knowledge of a 
field of work or study

1

Basic general knowledge

Source: Council of the European Union, 2017.

A range of cognitive and 
practical skills required to 
accomplish tasks and solve 
problems by selecting and 
applying basic methods, tools, 
materials and information

Basic cognitive and practical 
skills required to use relevant 
information in order to carry 
out tasks and to solve routine 
problems using simple rules 
and tools

Basic skills required to carry 
out simple tasks

RESPONSIBILITY AND 
AUTONOMY

Take responsibility for completion 
of tasks in work or study; adapt 
own behaviour to circumstances 
in solving problems

Work or study under supervision 
with some autonomy

Work or study under direct 
supervision in a structured 
context

727

Volume II: National and regional casesTHE PACIFIC QUALIFICATIONS  
FRAMEWORK 

Member states: 

Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, 
Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New  
Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau,  
Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. 

Background

The Pacific Community includes the 22 Pacific 
Island countries and territories as well as four 
of the original founders (the Netherlands and 
United Kingdom withdrew in 1962 and 2004 
respectively, when they relinquished their Pacific 
interests). The Council of Regional Government 
and Administrations, which meets once a year, is 
the governing body of the Pacific Community. The 
Pacific Community works in a wide range of sectors 
to achieve three development goals1022:

a.  Goal 1: Pacific people benefit from sustainable 

economic development;

b.  Goal 2: Pacific communities are empowered and 

resilient;

c.  Goal 3: Pacific people reach their potential and 

live long and healthy lives.

The notion of a Pacific qualifications register was 
first mooted in 2001 at the Pacific Islands Ministers 
of Education Forum in Auckland, New Zealand. In 
the meetings that followed, officials reaffirmed their 
commitment to developing a regional qualifications 
register and, in February 2009, they proceeded to 
establish a dedicated unit within the South Pacific 
Board for Educational Assessment1023 (SPBEA) 
to champion the development of the Pacific 
qualifications register1024 (SPBEA, 2009). 

1022  www.spc.int/about-us/  
1023  The South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment has 
now become the educational quality and assessment 
programme (EQAP) within the Secretariat of the Pacific 
Community.

1024  The Pacific qualifications register has been renamed the 

Pacific register of qualifications and standards.

The education ministers’ initial expectation of 
a Pacific qualifications framework (PQF) was to 
achieve a regional commitment to continually 
improving the quality of all forms of Pacific 
education and training (basic and primary, 
secondary, TVET and tertiary) that would culminate 
in the award of internationally recognised 
qualifications.

Level of development

The PQF is a common reference framework that 
is linked to the Pacific register of qualifications and 
standards (PRQS)1025. The PQF supports the current 
international move to outcomes-based learning. 
This is expected to shift the focus from teaching 
and delivery to learner achievement and learning 
outcomes. The PQF includes qualifications and 
components of qualifications from the primary and 
secondary school sector, TVET, tertiary or higher 
education levels as well as community-based 
training.

All qualifications to be entered into the register are 
to be referenced against the PQF: for example, 
both volume and level profiles are included in the 
information in the register. In particular, the PQF 
enables accredited qualifications (and components 
of qualifications) from diverse national education 
and training systems to be listed in the PRQS, which 
also notes their assigned PQF level and credit value.

The PQF includes a set of 10 level descriptors (see 
Table 100). The 10-level framework encompasses all 
forms of education and training, including general, 
adult education and community programmes; the 
primary and secondary school sector; TVET; and 
tertiary or higher education. The level descriptors 
include three domains: knowledge and skills; 
application (deconstructed to type and problem 
solving); and autonomy (deconstructed to level 
of support and degree of judgement). The PQF 

1025  See details in: www.spbea.org.fj/getattachment/

Our-Work/Projects/Pacific-Register-for-Qualifications-
Standards/2--PQF-booklet-FINAL.pdf.aspx 

728

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSlevel descriptors have been compared with the 
descriptors used in the Australian and New Zealand 
qualifications frameworks in 2012, as well as with 
NQFs in the Pacific Island countries – Fiji, Papua 
New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu. Individual 
countries have also assessed their frameworks 
against the PQF and have found them to be 
comparable.

The governing body for the PQF and PRQS is the 
Pacific Board for Educational Quality, a specially 
mandated sub-committee of the Council of Regional 
Government and Administrations. An advisory board 
for the PRQS was established in 2014 to help guide 
the administration and operations of the register. 
Members of the advisory board are the heads of 
national and regional accrediting agencies from 
Pacific countries, including representatives from 
Australia and New Zealand. 

Both the register and the framework are 
underpinned by a set of quality assurance standards 
for agencies (including the registration of providers 
and accreditation processes of qualifications), 
as well as minimum standards for providers and 
programmes. The quality assurance standards 
are supported by various policies and procedures, 
guidelines and criteria, which are set out in the 
Pacific quality assurance framework (PQAF). The 
PQAF is intended to serve two important purposes. 
First, it provides broad quality principles on the roles 
and functions of accrediting agencies in monitoring 
and sustaining quality within post-school education 
and training institutions; and second, as the 
educational quality and assessment programme’s 
(EQAP) internal quality system.

The PQAF is not intended to standardise quality 
assurance practices in the Pacific; however, it 
provides a broad base for accrediting agencies 
and institutions to compare their own quality 
assurance policies and processes. Where the 
opportunity arises to relate to regional initiatives 
such as the PQF and the PRQS, the PQAF provides 
a common standard for mutual understanding and 
implementation.

framework. The Northern Pacific countries 
(Micronesia, Palau and Marshall Islands), however, 
seek accreditation from the Western Association of 
Schools and Colleges of the United States. Kiribati 
and Tuvalu have adopted the PQF and PQAF as 
their national qualifications and quality assurance 
frameworks and are working with EQAP to improve 
the quality assurance of their post-secondary 
education and training. Solomon Islands are in the 
early stages of establishing their qualifications 
and quality assurance system. Nauru now offers 
qualifications that are accredited by the Queensland 
Curriculum and Assessment Authority.

The future of the PQF 

The Qualifications Unit oversees the PRQS and  
will further:

a.  develop the region’s capacity to set professional 

licensing and occupational standards. This 
means hosting information on national and 
regional professional associations, occupational 
standards, licensing criteria and other related 
aspects that support the various Pacific 
trade agreements that have labour mobility 
components;

b.  develop procedures for regional and international 

recognition of qualifications;

c.  explore the benefits of adding an external quality 
assurance function to ensure the integrity and 
credibility of the PRQS;

d.  support national and regional accrediting 

agencies;

e.  assist smaller island States (e.g. Kiribati and 
Tuvalu) in exploring best options for their 
frameworks and quality needs;

f.  assist countries in developing their qualifications 

and quality assurance frameworks;

g.  support the development, accreditation and 

delivery of regional qualifications;

h.  support the development and accreditation of 

i. 

micro-qualifications; and
review the PRQS database over the next two-
year period.

In the Pacific region, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, 
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu 
have made progress in developing their national 
qualifications agencies and NQFs. Cook Islands and 
Niue are aligned with the New Zealand qualifications 

The unit will continue to work with countries and 
stakeholders to ensure the PQF and PQAF become 
fully operational, and their benefits are realised, 
across the region.

729

Volume II: National and regional casesReferences

SPBEA (2009). Report on the regional consultation on the Pacific qualifications register. Nadi, Fiji, 

28 September to 2 October 2009. Suva, Fiji: South Pacific Board for Educational Assessment.  
www.fnu.ac.fj/patvet/images/publications/Final__PQR_Consultaton_Report_22%20121.pdf
SPBEA (2011). The Pacific qualifications framework. Suva, Fiji: South Pacific Board for Educational 

Assessment. http://eqap.org.fj/getattachment/Our-Work/Projects/Pacific-Register-for-Qualifications-
Standards/2--PQF-booklet-FINAL.pdf.aspx
Pacific Community. About us: www.spc.int/about-us/

Prepared by:
UNESCO.

Table 100. Level descriptors of the Pacific qualifications framework (PQF)

LEVEL

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

APPLICATION

AUTONOMY

DEMONSTRATED KNOWLEDGE 
AND SKILLS THAT:

APPLIED IN CONTEXTS 
THAT:

IN CONDITIONS 
WHERE THERE IS:

10

• 

involve critical understanding 
of a substantial and complex 
body of knowledge at the most 
forefront of a discipline or area

• 

• 

9

• 

• 

• 

involve high-level critical 
analyses, reflection and 
independent and original 
thinking

involve the creation and 
interpretation of new 
knowledge or practice, through 
original advanced research 
that satisfies formal academic 
review

involve mastery and integrated 
understanding of a complex 
body of knowledge, some of 
which is at the forefront in one 
or more disciplines or areas

involve high level critical 
analyses

involve research as the basis 
for extending or redefining 
knowledge or practice in one or 
more disciplines or areas

•  are subject to change with 

some complexity 

• 

involve the formulation of 
or adaptation of  processes 
to resolve complex and 
sometimes abstract issues

•  minimal guidance and 
high-level autonomy, 
initiative, adaptability 
and self-direction

•  authoritative 

judgement and 
high-level planning, 
management and 
innovation required

•  are complex and 

specialised, generally 
involving some new or 
evolving aspects

• 

involve the formulation 
and testing of theories and 
processes to resolve highly 
complex, abstract and 
emergent issues

•  minimal guidance and 
substantial autonomy, 
initiative, adaptability 
and self-direction

•  expert judgement and 
high-level planning, 
management and 
innovation required

8

•  are highly advanced, theoretical 
and/or technical, within one or 
more disciplines or areas

• 

involve critical, analytical and 
independent thinking

•  are complex with some 

specialisation

• 

involve the formulation of 
processes to resolve highly 
complex and abstract issues

•  minimal guidance and 
demonstrated self-
direction or autonomy

•  significant judgement, 
planning, coordination 
and organization 
required

730

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 100. Level descriptors of the Pacific qualifications framework (PQF) (Continued)

LEVEL

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

APPLICATION

AUTONOMY

DEMONSTRATED KNOWLEDGE 
AND SKILLS THAT:

APPLIED IN CONTEXTS 
THAT:

IN CONDITIONS 
WHERE THERE IS:

7

•  are highly theoretical and/

•  are subject to complex 

•  broad guidance and 

or technical with significant 
underpinning of knowledge, 
within one or more disciplines 
or areas

• 

involve critical and analytical 
thinking 

change

• 

involve the formulation of 
or substantial adaptation 
of processes to resolve 
complex and abstract issues

demonstrated self-
direction

•  significant 

judgement and 
high-level planning, 
management and 
innovation required

6

•  are highly theoretical and/or 
abstract or technical within a 
broad field or with depth in one 
area

•  are subject to change with 

•  broad guidance or 

some complexity 

direction

• 

involve the formulation or 
adaptation of processes 
to resolve complex and 
sometimes abstract issues

•  well-developed 

judgement planning 
required

5

•  are mainly technical and 

•  are both known and 

•  general guidance or 

theoretical, within a broad field 
or with depth in one area

changing

direction

• 

involve unfamiliar issues 
that are addressed using a 
range of processes

•  both judgement and 
planning required

4

3

•  are broadly factual, within a 
broad field in one area

•  are stable but sometimes 

unpredictable

•  are factual or procedural, 
technical, with some 
theoretical aspects

• 

involve familiar and 
unfamiliar issues 

•  are stable and predictable

• 

involve familiar issues that 
are addressed by selecting 
from known solutions 

• 

• 

• 

routine guidance or 
direction

judgement and some 
planning required

routine supervision, 
guidance and direction

•  some judgement and 
discretion required

2

•  are factual or manual or 

•  are structured and stable

•  close support and 

operational

1

•  are basic, foundational and 

explicit

• 

involve straightforward 
issues that are addressed 
by set, known solutions

•  are highly structured, 
defined and repetitive

• 

involve straightforward and 
everyday issues that are 
addressed by simple and 
rehearsed procedures

guidance or direction

•  minimal judgement or 
discretion required

• 

immediate support 
and guidance or 
direction

•  almost no judgement 
and planning required

Source: SPBEA, 2011.

731

Volume II: National and regional casesTHE SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT 
COMMUNITY QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK: 
BUILDING TRUST FOR BETTER MOBILITY

Member States: 

Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Democratic 
Republic of the Congo, Eswatini (formerly 
Swaziland), Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, 
Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, 
South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Introduction and background

The main objectives of the Southern African 
Development Community (SADC) are to enhance 
development, peace and security, and economic 
growth, to alleviate poverty, improve the standard 
and quality of life of the peoples of Southern Africa, 
and support the socially disadvantaged through 
regional integration, built on democratic principles 
and equitable and sustainable development.

In this context, SADC countries adopted in 1997 
the Protocol on education and training which seeks 
to promote a regionally integrated and harmonised 
education system, especially with regard to 
issues of access, equity, relevance, and quality of 
educational interventions. In 2015, SADC countries 
adopted the SADC industrialisation strategy 2015–26 
to promote greater regional integration, focusing on 
the industrialisation of economies in the region and 
enhancing factor accumulation (labour, capital and 
technology) to substantially raise total productivity.

The SADC qualifications framework (SADCQF) is 
considered an important mechanism to implement 
the Protocol on education and training and the 
SADC industrialisation strategy as it contributes 
to the harmonisation of the education and training 
systems, and facilitates the mobility of labour in 
the region. The SADCQF, a comprehensive regional 
qualifications framework for schooling, technical 
and vocational education and training (TVET) and 
higher education, was established in 2011 by the 
SADC education ministers. Its purpose is to ease 
mobility of learners and workers across the region 
and internationally. It is a 10-level framework 
underpinned by learning outcomes and quality 
assurance (QA) principles that will provide a regional 

reference for qualifications and QA mechanisms  
in the region1026. 

Member States have agreed to align their 
qualifications and QA mechanisms with those of 
the SADCQF. All new qualification certificates, 
diplomas and other credentials issued by competent 
authorities throughout the region will need to 
include the SADCQF relevant level. Alignment will 
enable this recognition of achievement at a regional 
level. The resulting transparency and information 
about the qualifications and QA of aligned Member 
States will further assist in generating mutual trust 
among SADC members. Regional alignment will 
also enable institutions and individuals to make 
comparisons of their learning and competence 
levels and reduce unnecessary duplication of 
learning and effort when moving through the SADC 
region for study or work. 

The task of implementing the SADCQF was 
given by the education ministers to the Technical 
Committee on Certification and Accreditation 
(TCCA) – a group of experts from the 16 SADC 
Member States supported by the SADC Secretariat. 
At a TCCA meeting in September 2016, the 
implementation process of the SADCQF was 
revived and an implementation model developed. 
A clear two-year milestone plan was agreed 
and an implementation model was adopted1027. 
Initially comprising three programmes, namely 
(1) development and alignment; (2) quality 
assurance, and (3) verification, three more 
programmes relevant to regional development were 
added to the implementation model later, namely 
(4) communication and advocacy; (5) recognition of 

1026  The SADC level descriptors and quality assurance 
guidelines are presented in the SADCQF booklet  
(pp. 10–11 and 13–14 respectively), see: www.saqa.org.za/
docs/webcontent/2017/SADCQF%20booklet.pdf
See infographics on the SADCQF level descriptors and 
guidelines: www.saqa.org.za/docs/webcontent/2017/
SADCQF%20Level%20descriptors.pdf www.saqa.
org.za/docs/webcontent/2017/SADCQF%20QA%20
Guidelines%20Poster.pdf

1027  www.saqa.org.za/docs/webcontent/2017/SADCQF%20

Implementation%20Model.pdf

732

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 
prior learning, credit accumulation and transfer, and 
articulation; and (6) governance. 

Quality assurance

Eight countries volunteered to pilot the alignment 
of their qualifications frameworks or education 
and training systems with the SADCQF. In order 
to provide support and centrally drive coordination 
of implementation, a TCCA executive committee 
(EXCO) was established based on the SADC troika 
principle, consisting of the current, outgoing and 
incoming chairs. To ensure the sustainability of 
the SADCQF implementation process, a funding 
proposal for a SADCQF implementation unit 
was submitted to the SADC Secretariat. In the 
meantime, Member States have volunteered 
to support the SADC Secretariat with the 
implementation effort and considerable progress 
has been made since the September 2016 meeting.

Development and alignment of  
national qualifications frameworks  
and systems

The main purpose of the SADCQF is to promote 
mobility. As such, it plays a key role in being the 
regional reference framework for comparing 
qualifications obtained in SADC countries. The 
eight countries that are piloting the alignment of 
their national qualifications frameworks or national 
qualifications systems with the SADCQF are: 
Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Mauritius, Namibia, 
Seychelles, South Africa and Zambia. An alignment 
plan and a roadmap, as well as alignment timelines 
were developed to assist these pilot countries. 
Support was provided via alignment capacity-
building workshops hosted by the South African 
Qualifications Authority (SAQA). 

Essential to the alignment process is the 
establishment of a national alignment committee to 
spearhead and approve the process. The committee 
typically comprises councils on higher education 
or tertiary councils; departments of education 
(including basic, TVET and higher); occupational and 
trades sector; and qualifications authorities. Each 
country establishes a national alignment committee 
that suits its particular needs and context.

The TCCA’s future plans are to assist pilot countries 
to complete their alignment reports and, eventually, 
roll out alignment to the other eight SADC countries. 
Looking ahead, there is also a plan to develop an 
inventory of the national qualifications frameworks 
and systems in the SADC countries. South Africa 
is overseeing this programme to ensure that it 
is centrally driven and supported. South Africa is 
also providing secretarial assistance to the SADC 
Secretariat. 

The SADCQF encourages SADC countries to have 
good QA mechanisms in place and links up with 
key regional QA bodies. In this regard, the Southern 
African Quality Assurance Network (SAQAN) has 
nominated two experts to assist the TCCA with the 
implementation of QA in the SADC. The Southern 
Africa Association for Educational Assessment has 
also nominated two representatives who will assist 
the TCCA with implementation of the SADCQF, with 
specific focus on the general education sector.  

The aim is to strengthen SADC countries’ QA 
mechanisms in terms of accreditation and 
certification and support their alignment with the 
SADC QA guidelines. Progress has been made in 
creating a list of credible SADC institutions and 
their qualifications, and making the information 
publicly available. Looking ahead, it is important to 
strengthen QA capacity within the SADC. To this 
end, opportunities for QA capacity building are 
consistently being sought, in particular opportunities 
to engage with the Addis Convention1028. Botswana 
is overseeing this programme to ensure that QA 
alignment and implementation are centrally driven 
and supported.

Verification

While the preceding programmes promote trust by 
ensuring that qualifications and quality assurance 
meet the regional standards, it is also important 
that countries have mechanisms in place that can 
verify information about individual qualifications 
obtained in Member States. To ensure that 
credible, trustworthy information is shared across 
the SADC, a regional Qualifications Verification 
Network was established. It was initiated to 
strengthen verification in the SADC countries 
and it is a member of the African Qualifications 
Verification Network, which shares the common 
goal of ensuring that African qualifications can be 
trusted. A booklet was produced which provides 
information on the appropriate people to contact 
when verifying qualifications in the SADC1029. The 
annual collation of statistical information on learner 
and worker mobility in SADC countries, as well as 
on misrepresented qualifications, is a key feature of 
the SADC Qualifications Verification Network’s work. 
Future plans also include creating a recognition 

1028  Revised Convention on the recognition of studies, 

certificates, diplomas, degrees and other academic 
qualifications in higher education in African States.

1029  See www.saqa.org.za/docs/webcontent/2017/

SADCQVN%20Brochure.pdf (booklet consistently 
updated and shared across the region).

733

Volume II: National and regional casesmanual, developing regional policies on verification, 
and implementing verification agreements between 
SADC countries. To ensure that the network 
employs modern and innovative technologies, there 
are plans to pilot real-time verification at a regional 
level. There are also plans to assist Member States 
to develop their qualifications infrastructure so that 
information on their qualifications can be provided 
quickly and efficiently. Eswatini is overseeing this 
programme to ensure that it is centrally driven and 
supported.

Communication and advocacy

The TCCA has identified platforms to advocate 
for – and communicate about – the SADCQF. 
Information has been distributed already at national, 
regional and international levels. A communication 
strategy, which includes promotional material on 
the SADCQF, was developed and approved. Social 
media sites have been set up and are being used to 
disseminate information1030.

Despite being approved in 2011, the SADCQF was 
not formally launched until six years later. To ensure 
that it is visible and that Member States commit to 
its implementation, a formal launch by the SADC 
education ministers, and a popularisation campaign 
by the TCCA, finally took place during the first half 
of 2017. Zambia is currently driving this initiative to 
ensure that it is supported. 

Recognition of prior learning, credit 
accumulation and transfer, and 
articulation

The SADC region has a set of guidelines for 
recognition of prior learning that were approved 
by SADC education ministers in June 20161031. The 
International Labour Organisation has been closely 
involved in the production of these guidelines and 
has further indicated a readiness to assist with 
implementation across the region. The Southern 
African Quality Assurance Network (SAQAN) has 
been closely involved in the production of the 
draft regional guidelines for credit accumulation 
and transfer and is available to provide support 
to the SADC. This programme will also focus on 
articulation, namely on pathways and progression 
opportunities within and between schooling, TVET 
and higher education. This programme is centrally 
driven and supported by Namibia.

Governance

The TCCA, with assistance from the SADC 
Secretariat, was tasked with implementing the 
SADCQF. However, implementation has been 
constrained by a lack of human capacity and 
financial resources at both national and regional 
levels to undertake the SADCQF-related activities. 
Implementation has nonetheless improved through 
effective chairing by Member States, which are 
supporting the strategic processes as well as 
assisting the SADC Secretariat to be the key driving 
force. As part of this effort, a TCCA executive 
committee (EXCO) was established to speed up 
implementation. 

Since September 2016, the TCCA and its executive 
committee have accelerated implementation of the 
SADCQF. The following has been achieved:

a.  developing an action plan to start 
implementation of the SADCQF;

b.  setting up and ensuring regular meetings to 

coordinate the work of the TCCA and capacity 
building; 

c.  developing an implementation roadmap and 
implementation model which include the six 
programmes of the SADCQF;

d.  mobilising Member States to take on the 

responsibility to drive the six programmes of 
SADCQF implementation;

e.  mobilising Member States to provide secretarial 

support to the SADC Secretariat;

f.  setting up the Electronic Certificate pilot project;
g.  developing and facilitating capacity-building 
workshops for alignment for eight pilot 
countries; 

h.  developing and implementing an advocacy 

strategy. 

A fully operational SADCQF will provide the region 
with the following benefits:

a.  improved mobility of skilled labour in the region;
b.  easier comparability and recognition, including 
verification, of qualifications in the region;

c.  improved articulation of qualifications within the 

education systems in the region;

d.  improved quality assurance systems in the 

region; 

e.  improved awareness of how qualifications 

compare in the region; 

f.  reduction of misrepresented and fraudulent 

qualifications being used in the region.

1030  Twitter: https://twitter.com/sadcqf and Facebook: www.

facebook.com/SadcQualificationsFramework/

1031  See www.saqa.org.za/docs/webcontent/2017/SADC%20

RPL%20Guidelines.pdf

It is against this background that the TCCA has 
proposed that a SADCQF implementation unit be 
established to ensure the sustainable functioning of 
the SADCQF at regional level.

734

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSThe way forward

As mentioned above, implementation of the 
SADCQF entails implementing the following six 
programmes: governance; development and 
alignment; verification of qualifications; quality 
assurance; recognition of prior learning, credit 
accumulation and transfer, and articulation; and 
advocacy and communication. 

The TCCA understands that in order to maintain the 
momentum created since September 2016 there is 
a need to consolidate, review and plan the work to 
move ahead. Therefore, it meets regularly to keep 
members updated on SADCQF matters, including 
discussing the following:

a.  harmonising energies to synergise quality 
assurance initiatives across Africa and 
strengthening countries’ capacity to ratify the 
Addis Convention;

b.  meeting with the SADC Qualifications 

Verification Network to plan and monitor its 
various verification initiatives;

c.  reviewing overall progress to fast-track SADCQF 
implementation, with a focus on improving the 

References

overall structures that need to be put in place to 
foster optimal functioning of the SADCQF and 
make recommendations to education ministers; 

d.  considering funding models for setting up a 

sustainable regional implementation unit that 
will assist with implementing the SADCQF and 
strengthening countries’ capacities by employing 
more resources at the country level.

Progress has been made in SADCQF 
communication and advocacy, aligning national 
qualifications frameworks with the SADCQF, 
ensuring that qualifications meet regional quality 
assurance standards, establishing a mechanism 
for verifying SADC qualifications, and furthering 
recognition of prior learning, credit accumulation 
and transfer, and articulation. All of these measures 
have the common purpose of building trust in SADC 
qualifications and enhancing the mobility of learners 
and workers across the region. It is envisaged that 
a fully operational SADCQF will promote lifelong 
learning by facilitating movement of learners and 
workers regionally, continentally and internationally.

SADC (1997). Protocol on education and training in the Southern African Development Community. 

8 September 1997. Malawi, Blantyre.

SADC (2016). Guidelines for recognition of prior learning in the Southern African Development Community. 

Botswana, Gaborone: SADC Secretariat.

SADC (2017). The Southern African Development Community qualifications framework. As revised in April 

2017. Botswana, Gaborone: SADC Secretariat.

Prepared by:
Prepared by:
UNESCO in collaboration with national experts.
UNESCO

.

735

Volume II: National and regional casesTHE TRANSNATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS 
FRAMEWORK FOR THE VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY  
FOR SMALL STATES OF THE COMMONWEALTH

Member States1032:

Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, 
Belize, Botswana, Brunei, Cyprus, Dominica, 
Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), Fiji, Grenade, 
Guyana, Jamaica, Kiribati, Lesotho, Maldives, 
Malta, Mauritius, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, 
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent 
and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra 
Leone, Solomon Islands, The Gambia, Tonga, 
Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu and Vanuatu.

Background

The Commonwealth of Nations, commonly known 
as the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental 
organization of 53 Member States that were 
mostly territories of the former British Empire. The 
Commonwealth operates by intergovernmental 
consensus of its Member States, organized 
through the Commonwealth Secretariat, and non-
governmental organizations working through the 
Commonwealth Foundation. 

On request of Commonwealth Heads of State, 
the Commonwealth of Learning initiated the 
development of the Virtual University for Small 
States of the Commonwealth (VUSSC) in 2003, 
based on a virtual model of distance education. This 
was expected to improve access to educational 
opportunities, enhance the quality of teaching and 
reduce costs. All participating VUSSC countries 
are small States that share at least some common 
challenges in the face of globalisation and the 
increased mobility of highly skilled professionals. 

1032  The Virtual University for Small States of the 

Commonwealth is an initiative of the education 
ministers of the 32 small States that account for 
two thirds of Commonwealth Member States. The 
Commonwealth defines small States as sovereign 
countries with a population of 1.5 million people or 
fewer. The Commonwealth also designates some of its 
larger member countries – Botswana, Jamaica, Lesotho, 
Namibia and Papua New Guinea – as small States 
because they share many of the characteristics of small 
States.

Participating VUSSC countries are located across the 
globe and represent a unique initiative that does not 
rely on geographical proximity. 

After approval of the VUSSC concept in 2003 by the 
education ministers of the countries concerned, 
the Commonwealth of Learning was asked to help 
them to collaborate and strengthen the capacity of 
their national education institutions through VUSSC. 
There followed a period of four years of course 
development through the VUSSC ‘boot camps’. This 
resulted in a proposal for small States to create a 
transnational qualifications framework (TQF) that 
would support the development, international 
recognition, comparability and understanding of the 
VUSSC courses.

The TQF is defined as ‘a translation instrument for 
the classification of VUSSC qualifications according 
to set criteria for specified levels of learning 
achieved, to improve credit transfer and promote 
common accreditation mechanisms between 
participating VUSSC countries’.

The proposed architecture of the TQF includes a set 
of level descriptors (see Table 101) that include three 
domains: knowledge and understanding; skills; and 
wider personal and professional competences.

Level of development

The first TQF management committee was 
appointed in October 2008, comprising two 
representatives from each of the three main 
regions in which the 32 countries participating in 
VUSSC are located. The committee developed an 
implementation plan for the TQF in 2010 (COL and 
SAQA, 2010). In 2016 the second TQF management 
committee was elected.

The TQF was officially launched in 2010 in Namibia. 
In 2011 work was initiated to register the first 
qualifications on the TQF. Standards for VUSSC 
courses have subsequently been developed in 
tourism, agriculture and ICT through consultative 
workshops held since 2010 in the Bahamas and 

736

GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSSamoa, and in 2012 in the Seychelles. In 2015, 
the TQF management committee approved the 
registration of six VUSSC programmes.

For quality assurance, the TQF relies entirely on the 
quality assurance mechanisms in countries where 
courses originate and/or are offered. The TQF design 
excludes the accreditation of providers, which is 
done at national and regional levels, but includes 
the registration of qualifications: a qualification 
that meets the transnational qualifications criteria 
will be registered on the TQF and is referred to 
as a ‘TQF registered qualification’. Any education 
and training provider within a participating VUSSC 
country that meets the broad quality-assurance 
criteria, and is accredited on a sectoral, national 
and/or regional level, will be able to offer such 
a registered qualification. Guidelines have been 
approved for higher education institutions, regional 
bodies, external quality assurance bodies, and 
students. The TQF can provide guidance on national 
quality assurance processes, based on existing 
international guidelines. 

To date 86 institutions have participated in VUSSC 
activities and more than 53 000 individuals have 
been trained. Ten institutions in eight countries have 
started to offer VUSSC courses and programmes 
through a variety of means, but mainly through 
conventional, online or blended modes. More open 
courses are now available. VUSSC has developed 
more than 13 courses and programmes, all of which 
were identified by the small States themselves. 
These courses are now being shared as open 
educational resources.

The TQF was revised by the management 
committee in 2016. This is significant because the 
Commonwealth of Learning initially sought the 
help of the South African Qualifications Authority to 
develop the TQF. The small States are now taking 
the lead in implementation of VUSSC. 

When senior officials met in Malaysia in March 
2016 they also approved the referencing of the 
TQF against national and regional qualifications 
frameworks, which included the European 
qualifications framework. A qualification emanating 
from any VUSSC participating country can now 
be recognised throughout the Commonwealth, 
provided it has met all the quality assurance 
criteria of the national, regional and transnational 
qualifications frameworks.

Development of a national qualifications framework 
(NQF) among the small States involved in the TQF 
varies greatly, but is mostly still at an early stage. 
Only Malta, Mauritius, Namibia and Samoa have 
moved ahead more rapidly. 

The future of VUSSC

The Open University of Malaysia hosted a meeting 
during the first week of March 2015 to finalise the 
review of the TQF, the referencing of NQFs against 
the TQF, and to approve the registration of six 
VUSSC programmes on the TQF. The announcement 
of the completed TQF is expected to provide 
small States with more up-to-date procedures and 
guidelines and a referencing tool for alignment of 
qualifications to the TQF. 

References

COL; SAQA (2010). Transnational qualifications framework for the Virtual University for Small States of the 

Commonwealth. Procedures and Guidelines. Pretoria: Commonwealth of Learning; South African 
Qualifications Authority. www.vussc.info 

Prepared by:
UNESCO.

737

Volume II: National and regional casesTable 101. Level descriptors for the VUSSC transnational qualifications framework

LEVEL

DESCRIPTORS

10

9

8

7

6

Acquire and possess a systematic understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is 
at the forefront of an academic discipline, field of study or area of professional practice; be able 
to create and interpret new knowledge at a most advanced frontier of a field of work or study 
through original and advanced research of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront 
of the discipline and merit publication; possess the most advanced and specialised skills and 
techniques to be able to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new 
knowledge or to solve critical problems or to refute or redefine existing knowledge; demonstrate 
authority, innovation, autonomy, integrity and personal responsibility in the production or 
development of innovative ideas or processes in the context of an academic discipline, field of 
study or area of professional practice.

Have a logical understanding of a body of highly specialised knowledge, some of which is at 
the forefront of their academic discipline, field of study, or area of professional practice, as a 
basis for original thought and/or the conduct of research and/or enquiry; have a comprehensive 
understanding of the research skills and/or relevant established techniques applicable to their 
own research or to advanced scholarship that can be used to create and interpret knowledge; 
demonstrate originality in the application of knowledge to solve problems, together with a 
practical understanding of how knowledge can be managed to transform work or study; possess 
a conceptual understanding of how to analyse and critically evaluate current research in their 
academic discipline, field of study or work and to apply, where appropriate, to solve problems.

Have systematic, extensive and comparative knowledge of the key aspects of their academic 
discipline, field of study or work; possess an ability to deploy accurately established analytical 
tools and/or techniques and enquiry within their academic discipline, field of study or work; 
be able to use their knowledge, understanding and skills of a wide range of concepts, ideas 
and information to devise and sustain arguments and/or to solve problems; display a critical 
understanding of the uncertainty, ambiguity and limits of knowledge and how it is developed; 
possess the ability to manage their own learning and to make use of scholarly reviews and 
primary sources (e.g. refereed research articles and/or original materials appropriate to the 
discipline).

Have advanced knowledge of a field of work or study, involving a critical understanding of the 
well-established principles and including an understanding of some advanced aspect(s) of their 
area(s) of their field of work or study; where appropriate, the application of those principles 
in an employment context; have an understanding of the limits of that knowledge and how 
this influences analysis and interpretation based on that knowledge; possess advanced skills, 
demonstrating mastery and innovation, required to solve complex and unpredictable problems 
in their specialised field of work or study; be able to manage complex technical or professional 
activities or projects, taking responsibility for decision-making in unpredictable work or study 
contexts.

Possess an in-depth knowledge and critical understanding of the ideas, concepts and principles in 
their field of work or study; have knowledge of the methods of enquiry in the subject, and use a 
range of techniques to initiate and undertake critical analysis of information, proposing solutions 
to problems arising from that analysis; demonstrate an ability to evaluate critically and apply the 
appropriateness of different approaches to solving problems; apply those concepts and principles 
more widely; have an understanding of the limits of their knowledge, and how this influences 
analyses and interpretations; effectively communicate information, arguments and analysis, in 
a variety of forms, to specialist and non-specialist audiences, and deploy key techniques of the 
discipline effectively; have the qualities necessary for employment in situations requiring the 
exercise of personal responsibility and decision-making.

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GLOBAL INVENTORY OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKSTable 101. Level descriptors for the VUSSC transnational qualifications framework (Continued)

LEVEL

DESCRIPTORS

5

4

3

2

1

Have broad knowledge and understanding of the main underlying ideas, concepts and principles 
in a field of work or study; be able to use their knowledge, understanding and skills to evaluate 
critically and determine appropriate methods and procedures to respond to a range of problems 
of a generally routine nature; display qualities and transferable knowledge and skills necessary for 
employment in situations requiring the exercise of some personal responsibility; communicate the 
results of their field of study or work accurately and reliably using a range of different modalities; 
identify and articulate their own learning needs within defined contexts and undertake guided 
further learning in new areas.

Have a broad knowledge and understanding of the main underlying concepts and principles in a 
field of work or study; demonstrate a basic understanding of the major theories, principles, ideas 
and concepts of their particular area of study; be able to use different approaches to identify, 
evaluate and solve problems of a generally routine nature; be able to use their knowledge, 
understanding of a particular subject area to communicate accurately and reliably with structured 
and coherent arguments; use their knowledge, understanding and skills to undertake further 
learning within a structured and managed environment; possess the qualities and transferable 
skills needed for employment in situations requiring the exercise of some personal responsibility.

Demonstrate a knowledge of basic concepts and principles in a field of work or study; have 
command of analytical interpretation of information; express informed judgement; be able to 
display a range of known responses to familiar problems.

Demonstrate a narrow range of applied knowledge and basic comprehension in a field of work or 
study; display a narrow range of skills in a field of work or study; be able to use known solutions to 
familiar problems.

Demonstrate basic literacy and numeracy skills.

Source: COL and SAQA, 2010.

739

Volume II: National and regional casesT
A
-
0
1
-
1
9
-
4
1
9
-
E
N
-
N
–

d
o

i
:
1
0
.
2
8
1
6
/
8
4
1
5
1
9