Country report, gender equality : how are EU rules transposed into national law? : Hungary 2020.
Date: 2020-08-13
Institutions: Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers
Subjects: Hungary, age discrimination, anti-discriminatory measure, application of EU law, equal pay, equal treatment, gender equality, maternity leave, national law, parental leave, paternity leave, pension scheme, report, sexual discrimination, sexual harassment, social security

Hungary 

2020 

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers 
Directorate D — Equality and Union citizenship 
Unit D.2 Gender Equality 

European Commission 
B-1049 Brussels 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Country report  

Gender equality 

How are EU rules transposed into 
national law? 

Hungary 

Lídia Hermina Balogh 

Reporting period 1 January 2019 – 31 December 2019 

2020 

  Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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ISSN 2600-0164  

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Country report - Gender equality – Hungary - 2020 

     CONTENTS 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Introduction ............................................................................................... 5 
1.1  Basic structure of the national legal system .............................................. 5 
1.2  List of main legislation transposing and implementing the directives ............ 6 
1.3  Sources of law ...................................................................................... 8 
General legal framework ............................................................................ 9 
2.1  Constitution .......................................................................................... 9 
2.2  Equal treatment legislation ..................................................................... 9 
Implementation of central concepts ......................................................... 11 
3.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 11 
3.2  Sex/gender/transgender ...................................................................... 12 
3.3  Direct sex discrimination ...................................................................... 12 
3.4 
Indirect sex discrimination .................................................................... 16 
3.5  Multiple discrimination and intersectional discrimination ........................... 18 
3.6  Positive action ..................................................................................... 20 
3.7  Harassment and sexual harassment ....................................................... 22 
Instruction to discriminate .................................................................... 25 
3.8 
3.9  Other forms of discrimination ................................................................ 25 
3.10  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 25 
3.11  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 26 
Equal  pay  and  equal  treatment  at  work  (Article  157  of  the  Treaty  on  the 
Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) and Recast Directive 2006/54)
 ................................................................................................................. 27 
4.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 27 
4.2  Equal pay ........................................................................................... 28 
4.3  Access to work, working conditions and dismissal .................................... 32 
4.4  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 35 
4.5  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 35 
Pregnancy,  maternity,  and  leave  related  to  work-life  balance  for  workers 
(Directive 92/85, relevant provisions of Directives 2006/54, 2010/18 and 
2019/1158) ............................................................................................. 36 
5.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 36 
5.2  Pregnancy and maternity protection ...................................................... 37 
5.3  Maternity leave ................................................................................... 42 
5.4  Adoption leave .................................................................................... 45 
5.5  Parental leave ..................................................................................... 46 
5.6  Paternity leave .................................................................................... 51 
5.7  Time off for force majeure .................................................................... 52 
5.8  Care leave .......................................................................................... 52 
5.9  Leave in relation to surrogacy ............................................................... 53 
5.10  Flexible working time arrangements....................................................... 54 
5.11  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 55 
5.12  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 55 
Occupational social security schemes (Chapter 2 of Directive 2006/54) .. 57 
6.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 57 
6.2  Direct and indirect discrimination .......................................................... 57 
6.3  Personal scope .................................................................................... 57 
6.4  Material scope ..................................................................................... 58 
6.5  Exclusions .......................................................................................... 58 
6.6  Laws and case law falling under the examples of sex discrimination mentioned 
in Article 9 of Directive 2006/54 ............................................................ 58 
6.7  Actuarial factors .................................................................................. 59 
6.8  Difficulties .......................................................................................... 59 
6.9  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 59 
6.10  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 59 
Statutory schemes of social security (Directive 79/7) ............................. 60 

3 

 
 
 
 
9 

8 

7.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 60 
7.2 
Implementation  of  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  for  men  and  women  in 
matters of social security ...................................................................... 60 
7.3  Personal scope .................................................................................... 60 
7.4  Material scope ..................................................................................... 61 
7.5  Exclusions .......................................................................................... 61 
7.6  Actuarial factors .................................................................................. 63 
7.7  Difficulties .......................................................................................... 63 
7.8  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 63 
7.9  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 63 
Self-employed  workers  (Directive  2010/41/EU  and  some  relevant 
provisions of the Recast Directive) ........................................................... 64 
8.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 64 
8.2 
Implementation of Directive 2010/41/EU ................................................ 64 
8.3  Personal scope .................................................................................... 64 
8.4  Material scope ..................................................................................... 65 
8.5  Positive action ..................................................................................... 66 
8.6  Social protection ................................................................................. 66 
8.7  Maternity benefits................................................................................ 66 
8.8  Occupational social security .................................................................. 67 
8.9  Prohibition of discrimination .................................................................. 67 
8.10  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 67 
8.11  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 67 
Goods and services (Directive 2004/113) ................................................ 68 
9.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 68 
9.2  Prohibition of direct and indirect discrimination ....................................... 68 
9.3  Material scope ..................................................................................... 68 
9.4  Exceptions .......................................................................................... 68 
9.5 
Justification of differences in treatment .................................................. 69 
9.6  Actuarial factors .................................................................................. 70 
9.7 
Interpretation of exception contained in Article 5(2) of Directive 2004/113 . 70 
9.8  Positive action measures (Article 6 of Directive 2004/113) ........................ 71 
9.9  Specific problems related to pregnancy, maternity or parenthood .............. 71 
9.10  Evaluation of implementation ................................................................ 72 
9.11  Remaining issues ................................................................................. 72 
10  Violence  against  women  and domestic violence  in  relation to  the Istanbul 
Convention ............................................................................................... 73 
10.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 73 
10.2  Ratification of the Istanbul Convention ................................................... 74 
11  Compliance  and  enforcement  aspects  (horizontal  provisions  of  all 
directives) ................................................................................................ 77 
11.1  General (legal) context......................................................................... 77 
11.2  Victimisation ....................................................................................... 77 
11.3  Access to courts .................................................................................. 77 
11.4  Horizontal effect of the applicable law .................................................... 79 
11.5  Burden of proof ................................................................................... 79 
11.6  Remedies and sanctions ....................................................................... 80 
11.7  Equality body ...................................................................................... 84 
11.8  Social partners .................................................................................... 84 
11.9  Other relevant bodies........................................................................... 85 
Evaluation of implementation .......................................................... 86 
11.10 
Remaining issues ........................................................................... 86 
11.11 
12  Overall assessment .................................................................................. 87 
Annexes ........................................................................................................... 90 

4 

 
1 

Introduction 

1.1  Basic structure of the national legal system 

The Hungarian legal system is a continental legal system following primarily German legal 
traditions. It is governed by a strict statutory hierarchy, in which lower level statutes must 
never contradict higher ranking statutes. 

The most important principles are laid down by the Constitution (the Fundamental Law of 
Hungary). Constitutional rules are expounded by laws, while detailed regulation is provided 
by government and ministerial decrees.  

The  ruling  Fidesz-KDNP  right-wing  coalition  (Fidesz  –  Magyar  Polgári  Szövetség  – 
Kereszténydemokrata  Néppárt;  Fidesz  Hungarian  Civic  Alliance  –  Christian  Democratic 
People’s  Party)  has  structurally  reorganised  the  Hungarian  state  and  fundamentally 
modified  the  Hungarian  legal  system  since  2010.  The  previous  constitution  was  also 
replaced  on  25  April  2011  with  a  new  Fundamental  Law1  by  the  representatives  of  the 
ruling coalition, which gained a two-thirds majority in the Parliament.2 The Fundamental 
Law has been amended seven times by the same coalition following its adoption in order 
to  address  domestic  political  problems  through  legislation;  however,  none  of  the 
amendments  related  to  gender  equality  issues.  From  a  gender  perspective,  the  most 
important feature is that the fifth amendment did not alter the notion of the family, which 
was introduced by the fourth amendment of the Fundamental Law. This established that 
a  family  is  based  on  a  marriage  between  a  man  and  a  woman,  thereby  excluding 
heterosexual cohabiting couples, same-sex couples and single parents.  

While  international  human  rights  treaties  are  integrated  into  the  domestic  legal  system 
through their promulgation in the form of acts of the Parliament, courts as a rule refuse 
to apply these norms directly. They are at times applied as points of reference if concurring 
interpretation of domestic law is possible. 

Gender equality is guaranteed by the Fundamental Law.3 The framework rules on equal 
treatment  are  regulated  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  (Act  CXXV  of  2003,  on  Equal 
Treatment and Promotion of Equal Opportunities),4 which contains an open-ended list of 
protected  grounds  (19  characteristics  and  the  20th  element:  ‘any  other  situation, 
attribution or condition of a person or group’). The basic concepts of the Equal Treatment 
Act are to be applied throughout the entire legal system. 

Claims  arising  from  gender  equality  cases  may  be  adjudicated  by  the  Equal  Treatment 
Authority and/or by the civil and labour courts, depending upon the merits of the case and 
the  aims  of  the  claimant.5  As  the  most  dissuasive  sanction  that  the  Equal  Treatment 
Authority  can  apply  is  a  public  fine,  a  claimant  who  seeks  financial  compensation  or 
reinstatement in their original job must proceed through the court system.  

1   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011. An unofficial English translation 
of the current version, as in force on 1 January 2019, published by the Ministry of Justice, is available at: 
https://www.kormany.hu/download/f/3e/61000/TheFundamentalLawofHungary_20180629_FIN.pdf.  

2   See the overview in English (‘Voting: Decisions requiring a qualified majority’), published on the website of 
the Hungarian National Assembly, available at: https://www.parlament.hu/web/house-of-the-national-
assembly/laws-requiring-a-two-thirds-qualified-majority. 

3   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article 15(2)-(3). 
4   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

5   Note: during the reorganisation of the judiciary, which took place in 2011, the labour courts had been 

integrated with the administrative courts. 

5 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  court  system  is  organised  on  four  levels:  the  courts  of  first  instance,  two  levels  of 
appellate  courts,  and  the  Supreme  Court  (Kúria).6  The  Constitutional  Court  adjudicates 
issues in relation to conformity with the Fundamental Law and constitutional complaints.7 

1.2  List of main legislation transposing and implementing the directives 

The  gender  equality  directives  of  the  EU  were  transposed  by  the  following  pieces  of 
national legislation: 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

The Fundamental Law of Hungary, i.e. the Constitution (fundamental rights should 
be  available  for  everyone  without  discrimination  on  grounds  of  race,  colour,  sex, 
disability,  language,  religion,  political  or  other  opinion,  national  or  social  origin, 
property,  birth  or  any  other  status;8  families,  children,  women,  the  elderly  and 
persons living with disabilities should be protected by the state);9 
Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (the right to non-discrimination is protected as an 
inherent right);10   
Act  CXXV  of  2003  on  Equal  Treatment  and  the  Promotion  of  the  Equality  of 
Opportunities11 (transposing and implementing: Council Directive 75/117/EEC of 10 
February  1975,  Council  Directive  76/207/EEC  of  9  February  1976,  Directive 
2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 September 2002, 
Council Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978, Council Directive 86/378/EEC of 
24 July 1986, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 
of 5 July 2006, Council Directive 86/613/EEC of 11 December 1986, Council Directive 
92/85/EEC of 19 October 1992, Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996, Council 
Directive  97/80/EC  of  15  December  1997,  Council  Directive  2004/113/EC  of  13 
December 2004, Council Directive 2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code12 (transposing and implementing: Council Directive 
75/117/EEC of 10 February 1975, Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament 
and  of  the  Council  of  23  September  2002,  Council  Directive  76/207/EEC  of  9 
February 1976, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 
of 5 July 2006, Council Directive 92/85/EEC of 19 October 1992, Council Directive 
96/34/EC of 3 June 1996, Council Directive 2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act  CXCIX  of  2011  on  Civil  Servants13  (transposing  and  implementing:  Council 
Directive 75/117/EEC of 10 February 1975, Directive 2002/73/EC of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 23 September 2002, Directive 2006/54/EC of the 
European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2006, Council Directive 92/85/EEC 
of 19  October 1992, Council Directive 96/34/EC  of 3 June 1996, Council Directive 
2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act CCV of 2012 on the Status of Military Personnel14 (transposing and implementing: 
Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 September 
2002, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 
2006, Council Directive 92/85/EEC of 19 October 1992, Council Directive 96/34/EC 
of 3 June 1996, Council Directive 2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 

6   See the overview in English on the judicial system, published on the website of the Courts of Hungary, 

available at: https://birosag.hu/en/judicial-system.  

7   See the overview in English on the competences of the Constitutional Court, published on the website of the 

Constitutional Court of Hungary (22 May 2017), available at: https://hunconcourt.hu/competences/. 

8   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV (2). 
9   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV (5). 
10   Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, 

Articles 2:42-43. 

11   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

12   Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012. 
13   Act CXCIX of 2011 on Civil Servants (2011. évi CXCIX. törvény a közszolgálati tisztviselőkről), 30 

December 2011.  

14   Act CCV of 2012 on the Status of Military Personnel (2012. évi CCV. törvény a honvédek jogállásáról), 18 

December 2012. 

6 

 
 
 
 
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- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

Act  XXXIII  of  1992  on  the  Legal  Status  of  Public  Servants15  (transposing  and 
implementing: Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 
of 23 September 2002, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the 
Council of 5 July 2006, Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996, Council Directive 
2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act  C  of  2012  on  the  Criminal  Code16  (transposing  and  implementing:  Council 
Directive 76/207/EEC of 9 February 1976 and Directive 2011/92/EU of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011); 
Act  LXXXI  of  1997  on  State  Pensions17  (transposing  and  implementing:  Council 
Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978); 
Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance18 (transposing 
and  implementing:  Council  Directive  86/613/EEC  of  11  December  1986;  Directive 
2010/41/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010); 
Act LXXXII of 1997 on Private Pension and Private Pension Funds19 (transposing and 
implementing: Council Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978);  
Act CXVII of 2007 on Occupational Pensions and its Institutions20 (transposing and 
implementing: Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 
of 5 July 2006, Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 2004); 
Act  XCVI  of  1993  on  Voluntary  Mutual  Insurance  Funds21  (transposing  and 
implementing: Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 2004); 
Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance22 (transposing and implementing: 
Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 2004); 
Act  CXXXIX  of  2013  on  the  National  Bank  of  Hungary23  (transposing  and 
implementing: Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 2004); 
Act  CXCI  of  2011  on  the  Benefits  of  Persons  with  an  Altered  Ability  to  Work 24 
(transposing and implementing: Council Directive 79/7/EEC of 19 December 1978, 
Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996, Council Directive 2010/18/EU of 8 March 
2010); 
Act  CXL  of  2004  on  the  General  Rules  of  the  Proceedings  and  Services  of  Public 
Administrative  Authorities25  (transposing  and  implementing:  Council  Directive 
79/7/EEC  of  19  December  1978,  Council  Directive  2004/113/EC  of  13  December 
2004); 
Act  XLII  of  2015  on  the  Service  Relationship  of  Professional  Members  of  Law 
Enforcement Organisations26 (transposing and implementing: Directive 2006/54/EC 
of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  5  July  2006,  Council  Directive 

15   Act XXXIII of 1992 on the Legal Status of Public Servants (1992. évi XXXIII. törvény a közalkalmazottak 

jogállásáról), 2 June 1992. 

16   Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012. 
17   Act LXXXI of 1997 on State Pensions (1997. évi LXXXI. törvény a társadalombiztosítási nyugellátásról), 25 

July 2007. 

18   Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997. 

19   Act LXXXII of 1997 on Private Pension and Private Pension Funds (1997. évi LXXXII. törvény a 

magánnyugdíjról és a magánnyugdíjpénztárakról), 25 July 1997.  

20   Act CXVII of 2007 on Occupational Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. 

21   Act XCVI of 1993 on Voluntary Mutual Insurance Funds (1993. évi XCVI. törvény az önkéntes kölcsönös 

biztosító pénztárakról), 6 December 1993. 

22   Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014. 

23   Act CXXXIX of 2013 on the National Bank of Hungary (2013. évi CXXXIX. törvény a Magyar Nemzeti 

Bankról), 26 September 2013. 

24   Act CXCI of 2011 on the Benefits of Persons with an Altered Ability to Work and the Amendment of Certain 
Laws (2011. évi CXCI. törvény a megváltozott munkaképességű személyek ellátásairól és egyes törvények 
módosításáról), 29 December 2011. 

25   Act CXL of 2004 on the General Rules of the Proceedings and Services of Public Administrative Authorities 

(2004. évi CXL. törvény a közigazgatási hatósági eljárás és szolgáltatás általános szabályairól), 28 
December 2004. 

26   Act XLII of 2015 on the Service Relationship of Professional Members of Law Enforcement Organisations 
(2015. évi XLII. törvény a rendvédelmi feladatokat ellátó szervek hivatásos állományának szolgálati 
jogviszonyáról), 24 April 2015. 

7 

 
- 

- 

- 

92/85/EEC of 19 October 1992, Council Directive 96/34/EC of 3 June 1996, Council 
Directive 2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act LXVIII of 1997 on the Service Status of Judicial Employees27 (transposing and 
implementing:  Council  Directive  96/34/EC  of  3  June  1996,  Council  Directive 
2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act  CLXII  of  2011  on  the  Status  and  Remuneration  of  Judges28  (transposing  and 
implementing:  Council  Directive  96/34/EC  of  3  June  1996,  Council  Directive 
2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010); 
Act  CLXIV  of  2011  on  the  Status  of  the  Chief  Public  Prosecutor,  Prosecutors  and 
Other  Prosecutorial  Employees  and  the  Prosecutorial  Career29  (transposing  and 
implementing:  Council  Directive  96/34/EC  of  3  June  1996,  Council  Directive 
2010/18/EU of 8 March 2010). 

1.3  Sources of law 

Hungary has a dualist system, i.e. international treaties are transposed into its domestic 
legislation through adopting acts.  

The main sources of gender equality law are the law adopting the CEDAW Convention, 30 
the Fundamental Law of Hungary,31 the Act on the Civil Code,32 and the Act on the Labour 
Code.33  However,  the  Act  on  Equal  Treatment  and  the  Promotion  of  the  Equality  of 
Opportunities (Equal Treatment Act)34 is considered to be the most important source of 
law; this transposed the EU acquis on anti-discrimination, including gender equality. 

The interpretive decisions of the Constitutional Court, the jurisprudence of the Hungarian 
Supreme  Court  (Kúria),  the  jurisprudence  of  Labour  and  Administrative  Courts  and  the 
Civil  Courts,  as  well  as  the  decisions  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  are  normative 
sources of law on gender equality in Hungary. The Equal Treatment Authority issues also 
opinions on the interpretation of the equality law that are considered to be indicative for 
the interpretation of the Equal Treatment Act. 

27   Act LXVIII of 1997 on the Service Status of Judicial Employees (1997. évi LXVIII. törvény az igazságügyi 

alkalmazottak szolgálati jogviszonyáról), 23 July 1997. 

28   Act CLXII of 2011 on the Status and Remuneration of Judges (2011. évi CLXII. törvény a bírák jogállásáról 

és javadalmazásáról), 2 December 2011. 

29   Act CLXIV of 2011 on the Status of the Chief Public Prosecutor, Prosecutors and Other Prosecutorial 

Employees and the Prosecutorial Career (2011. évi CLXIV. törvény a legfőbb ügyész, az ügyészek és más 
ügyészségi alkalmazottak jogállásáról és az ügyészi életpályáról), 28 November 2011. 

30   Law-Decree 10 of 1982 (1982. évi 10. törvényerejű rendelet). 
31   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011. 
32   Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013. 
33   Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012. 
34   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

8 

 
 
 
 
 
 
2 

General legal framework 

2.1  Constitution 

2.1.1  Constitutional ban on sex discrimination 

The  issue  of  gender  equality  is  discussed  in  the  Fundamental  Law  of  Hungary  (the 
constitution)  in  relation  to  the  issue  of  equality  before  the  law.35  The  Fundamental  Law 
explicitly states that ‘women and men shall have equal rights.’36 Another provision of the 
Fundamental  Law  provides  that  fundamental  rights  should  be  available  for  everyone 
without discrimination, and in particular without discrimination on grounds of race, colour, 
sex,  disability,  language,  religion,  political  or  other  opinion,  national  or  social  origin, 
property, birth or any other status.37  

2.1.2  Other constitutional protection of equality between men and women 

One  provision  in  the  Fundamental  Law,  related  to  the  issue  of  gender  equality,  is 
considered  controversial  because  of  the  paternalistic  approach  it  adopts:  ‘By  means  of 
separate  measures,  Hungary  shall  protect  families,  children,  women,  the  elderly  and 
persons living with disabilities.’38 

2.2  Equal treatment legislation 

The framework rules on equal treatment are included in the Equal Treatment Act.39 This 
Act plays a central  role in equal treatment legislation because it defines the grounds  of 
discrimination and the basic concepts of equality law to be applied throughout the entire 
legal  system.  It  also  regulates  the  mission,  the  structure  and  the  roles  of  the  most 
important equality body, the Equal Treatment Authority. 

The evaluation of the Equal Treatment Act has changed since its enactment, when it was 
considered (at least by the wider public) to be a breakthrough that would lead to a legal 
system in which equal treatment would be not only a mere legal principle (as it was in the 
socialist  era)  but  a  collection  of  rules  that  are  intended  to  be  implemented.  An  NGO 
umbrella  organisation,  the  Hungarian  Women’s  Lobby  (Magyar  Női  Érdekérvényesítő 
Szövetség),  produced  a  lengthy  in-depth  analysis  of  the  draft  act,40  although  this  was 
ignored during the legislative process. However, the past 15 years have substantiated the 
original critique of the legislation, and the Equal Treatment Act is now regarded as a rather 
unsuccessful result of initial good intentions. Although at first glance the Act did indeed 
transpose  the  EU  acquis  (and  some  international  law  norms),  the  principles  of  equal 
treatment  have  in  practice  remained  on  paper  rather  than  permeating  the  entire  legal 
system. In sum, not enough substantive or effective protection was generated by the new 
rules  (see  e.g.  that  the  phenomenon  of  maternity-related  discrimination  is  still 
widespread).  

The  formal  transposition  can  equally  be  criticised,  because  it  uses  unclear  terms  and 
definitions,  established  a  weak  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  and  has  regulated  sanctions 

35   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV (1). 
36   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV (3). 
37   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV (2). 
38   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV (5). 
39   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

40   See: ‘The position and the suggestions of the Hungarian Women’s Lobby’s regarding the Bill on Equal 

Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities’ (A Magyar Női Érdekérvényesítő Szövetség 
[röviden: Női Érdek] véleménye és javaslatai az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség 
előmozdításáról szóló törvényjavaslathoz), 27 November 2003, available at: 
http://www.nokjoga.hu/sites/default/files/filefield/2003-eselyegy-tv-kritikaja-noierdek.pdf. 

9 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
that  are  not  sufficiently  dissuasive.  Consequently,  the  legal  protection  provided  by  the 
Equal Treatment Act is rather limited.  

As  far  as  the  implementation  of  EU  definitions  is  concerned,  the  Hungarian  concepts  in 
some respects go beyond the relevant EU regulations, for example with regard to how the 
definitions of direct and indirect discrimination and unlawful segregation protect members 
of vulnerable groups against unequal treatment (although this is relevant primarily with 
respect to cases concerning the unlawful segregation of Roma children in schools, rather 
than in gender equality case law). In many other contexts, the concepts elaborated by the 
Hungarian equality law are more limited than those in Directive 2006/54/EC, as explained 
below. 

The Equal Treatment Act includes a non-exhaustive list of protected grounds:41 

a) sex, b) racial origin, c) colour, d) nationality, e) ethnic minority, f) mother tongue, g) 
disability,  h)  state  of  health,  i)  religious  or  ideological  conviction,  j)  political  or  other 
opinion, k) family status, l) motherhood (pregnancy) or fatherhood, m) sexual orientation, 
n) sexual identity, o) age, p) social origin, q) financial status, r) the part-time nature or 
fixed  term  of  the  employment  relationship  or  other  relationship  aimed  at  work,  s) 
membership  of  a  trade  union,  t)  any  other  status,  characteristic  feature  or  attribute 
(hereinafter collectively: characteristics).  

The spectrum of prohibited grounds is thus much wider than what is required by the EU 
acquis, although in the Equal Treatment Act the issue of sex discrimination is given less 
emphasis, and the gender equality directives could have been more rigorously transposed 
through  a  separate  law.  The  early  critique  of  this  arrangement  (comprehensive  anti-
discrimination  law  instead  of  specific  gender  equality  legislation),  articulated  by  the 
Hungarian Women’s Lobby, still appears to be plausible, i.e. that the Equal Treatment Act 
is ‘unable to deal  with  the specific forms  of discrimination that  occur  in the  case of  the 
different grounds, and especially on grounds of gender’ and that Act ‘does not deal with 
several  major  fields  of  discrimination,  such  as  discrimination  occurring  in  the  court 
procedures’.42 

41   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 
42   See: Krizsán, A., Pap, E. (2005): ’Equal Opportunities for Women and Men: Monitoring law and practice in 
Hungary’ (Monitoring law and practice in new member states and accession countries of the European 
Union), Open Society Institute Network Women’s Program, Foundation for the Women of Hungary, 
Budapest, p. 13, available at: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/uploads/7c3013c0-8293-428b-
aca4-7a8462eaaef6/eowmhungary_0.pdf. 

10 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3 

Implementation of central concepts 

3.1  General (legal) context 

3.1.1  Surveys on the definition, implementation and limits of central concepts of gender 

equality law 

According  to  the  conclusions  of  a  2018  study  undertaken  on  the  case  law  of  the  Equal 
Treatment Authority relating to gender stereotypes, relevant decisions do not necessarily 
significantly impact the general public’s awareness of the issue. However, the Authority 
has made an apparent effort to abolish gender stereotypes in order to promote equality, 
especially in cases relating to access to employment, where issues of ‘manly’/‘womanly’ 
jobs and the ‘masculine’/‘feminine’ look of applicants were disputed.43  

3.1.2  Other issues 

There are no further issues to mention regarding the central concepts of gender equality 
law. 

3.1.3  General overview of national acts 

The concepts of (gender) equality law, e.g. direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, 
harassment, unlawful segregation and instruction to discriminate are defined in the Equal 
Treatment Act, and all anti-discrimination provisions in various laws must be interpreted 
in accordance with this Act.44 

3.1.4  Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

In Hungary, the government itself has started to mobilise against ‘gender ideology’ during 
the  last  few  years,  unlike  in  other  countries,  where  the  ’anti-gender’  mobilisation  was 
initiated by civil society and religious organisations. According to an analysis published in 
2020, since 2017, a key focus of the government’s ’anti-gender’ agenda is the Council of 
Europe’s Istanbul Convention (signed but not ratified by Hungary): ‘The main argument 
against the Istanbul Convention was that it uses the non-consensual and ambiguous term 
“gender”.’45 

The other target of the governmental anti-gender campaign has been Gender Studies at 
universities: in August 2018, it was announced that the government plans to abolish the 
Gender Studies MA programme at the (public) Eötvös Loránd University and to withdraw 
accreditation of the MA in Gender Studies at the (private) Central European University in 
Budapest. 

from  September  201846  claimed  that  a 
The  European  Parliament’s  resolution 
misinterpretation of the concept of gender dominates the public discourse in Hungary, and 
the European Parliament deplores the wilful misinterpretation of the terms ‘gender’ and 

43   Sipos, A. (2018), ‘Eladónőt keresünk! Az Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság nemi sztereotípiákkal kapcsolatos 
döntései’ (‘Saleswomen are needed! Case law of the Equal Treatment Authority relating to gender 
stereotypes’), Fundamentum, no. 1, pp. 73-86, available at: 
http://fundamentum.hu/sites/default/files/fundamentum-18-1-06.pdf.   

44   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 2. 
45   Kováts, E. (2020), ‘Post-Socialist Conditions and the Orbán Government’s Gender Politics between 2010 

and 2019 in Hungary’, in Dietze, G., Roth, J. (eds.) Right-Wing Populism and Gender: European 
Perspectives and Beyond, Bielefeld, Transcript Verlag, p. 91. 

46   European Parliament (2018), Resolution of 12 September 2018 on a proposal calling on the Council to 
determine, pursuant to Article 7(1) of the Treaty on European Union, the existence of a clear risk of a 
serious breach by Hungary of the values on which the Union is founded (2017/2131(INL)), P8_TA-PROV 
(2018)0340, Brussels, 12 September 2018, available at: 
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2018-0340_EN.html?redirect. 

11 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
‘gender equality’.47 However, in October a government decree was passed, according to 
which MA programmes in Gender Studies will no longer be available in Hungary from the 
academic year of 2019/2020 onwards.48 

3.2  Sex/gender/transgender 

3.2.1  Definition of ‘gender’ and ‘sex’ 

Neither the concept of ‘gender’ nor ‘sex’ is defined in national legislation or case law. It 
should  be  noted  that  the  Hungarian  language  does  not  differentiate  between  these 
concepts;  the  same  noun  (nem)  is  used  to  refer  to  both.49  In  Hungarian  social  science 
literature,  the  adjective  ‘social’  is  attached  to  this  noun  (társadalmi  nem)  to  refer  to 
gender, and the adjective ‘biological’ is attached to the same noun to refer to sex (biológiai 
nem); however, this differentiation is not reflected in legal interpretation. 

3.2.2  Protection of transgender, intersex and non-binary persons 

Transgender, intersex and non-binary person are protected from discrimination under the 
category  of  ‘gender/sexual  identity’  (nemi  identitás)  under  Article  8(n)  of  the  Equal 
Treatment Act.50 

3.2.3  Specific requirements 

Protection against discrimination based on gender/sexual identity is provided without any 
specific requirements. 

3.3  Direct sex discrimination 

3.3.1  Explicit prohibition 

Direct  discrimination  is  defined  in  Hungarian  law,  but  not  specifically  ‘direct  sex 
discrimination’.  Direct  discrimination  occurs  if  a  person  or  a  group  is/are  treated  less 
favourably on the ground of his/her/their protected characteristic than any other person 
or group of persons in a comparable situation.51  

47   The European Parliament’s Resolution from September 2018 does not elaborate this claim, i.e. does not 

explain how these terms/concepts are misinterpreted in public discourse. However, a study launched by the 
FEMM Committee of the EP a few weeks earlier (in June 2018), addresses this issue: ‘The first news about 
misinterpreting the word “gender” and creating the concept “gender ideology” that undermines families and 
cultures shocked and surprised feminists, gender studies scholars, gender equality experts and civil 
servants who worked with gender mainstreaming in the first years of the millennia, especially as they were 
said to be the main proponents of such an ideology.’ See: European Parliament (2018), Backlash in Gender 
Equality and Women’s and Girls’ Rights, PE 604.955– June 2018, available at: 
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2018/604955/IPOL_STU(2018)604955_EN.pdf.  
48   Government Decree No. 188/2018. (X. 12.) on the amendment of Government Decree No. 283/2012. (X. 

4.) on the System of Teacher Education, on the Rules of Choosing a Major, and on the Registry of Education 
Majors; and of Government Decree No. 139/2015. (VI. 9.) on the Registry of Higher Education Degree 
Programmes and on the Application of New Programmes to the Registry (A Kormány 188/2018. (X. 12.) 
Korm. rendelete a tanárképzés rendszeréről, a szakosodás rendjéről és a tanárszakok jegyzékéről szóló 
283/2012. (X. 4.) Korm. rendelet, valamint a felsőoktatásban szerezhető képesítések jegyzékéről és új 
képesítések jegyzékbe történő felvételéről szóló 139/2015. (VI. 9.) Korm. rendelet módosításáról), 12 
October 2018, Article 3. 

49   See e.g.: Vasvári, L.O. (2011) ‘Grammatical Gender Trouble and Hungarian Gender[lessness]. Part I: 

Comparative Linguistic Gender’, Hungarian Cultural Studies, Vol. 4, pp. 143-170, available at: 
https://ahea.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/ahea/article/download/40/31.  

50   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8 
Point (n). 

51   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 

12 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Equal Treatment Authority endorses the concept of direct discrimination; however, in 
2019, it dealt with only one direct sex discrimination complaint (a student job agency was 
recruiting explicitly female administrative assistants).52  

An  additional  six  complaints,  claiming  direct  discrimination,  were  based  on 
pregnancy/maternity.  

In three (similar) cases, when a pregnant worker’s employment was terminated, the Equal 
Treatment Authority established discrimination, and imposed sanctions: 

- 

- 

- 

A  grocery  cashier’s  employment  was  terminated  on  the  last  day  of  her  probation 
period, when she told her superior that she was pregnant, with a high risk pregnancy, 
and had to take sick leave. The Equal Treatment Authority ordered the employer to 
cease the discriminatory practice, to pay a fine of HUF 800 000 (cca. EUR 2 480) and 
to  publish  the  decision.  The  employer  sought  judicial  review  at  the  Metropolitan 
Court, but the claim was dismissed.53 
A warehouse worker’s employment was terminated when she told her superior that 
she  was  pregnant.  The  Equal  Treatment  Authority  ordered  the  employer,  a 
temporary  work  agency,  to  cease  the  discriminatory  practice,  to  pay  a  fine  of 
HUF 500 000 (cca. EUR 1 550) and to publish the decision.54  
A client service administrator, during the probation period, told her superior that she 
was pregnant. Her superior claimed that she could work in her position (at the front 
desk) only as long as her pregnancy is ‘not visible’; later, still during the probation 
period,  she  was  told  by  her  superior  that  her  employment  was  to  be  terminated, 
because she could not perform her tasks any longer at the front desk, and there was 
no back office position available for her. The Equal Treatment Authority ordered the 
employer to cease the discriminatory practice, to pay a fine of HUF 1 000 000 (cca. 
EUR 3 100) and to publish the decision.55 

The  Equal  Treatment  Authority  established  direct  discrimination  in  the  case  of  a  public 
servant, who claimed that she was discriminated against based on her motherhood, since 
she  did  not  receive  extra  benefits  during  her  maternity  leave  and  annual  leave  time 
whereas her colleagues did receive such a benefit during their annual leave (she was on 
maternity leave with her first child, when she became pregnant with her second child, and 
she  used  up  her  annual  leave  to  bridge  the  time  between  the  two  periods  of  maternity 
leave). While she was not entitled to such benefits during her maternity leave, she was 
entitled to the benefits during the time of her annual leave.56 

- 

In 2019, two (similar) cases before the Equal Treatment Authority involving pregnant 
workers’  employment  issues  were  closed  with  a  friendly  settlement:  When  an  HR 
assistant told her superior during the probation period that she was pregnant, she 
was told that she could continue working on a part-time basis, however, a couple of 
days later her employment was terminated with immediate effect. The dispute was 
closed with a friendly settlement, in which the employer committed itself to conclude 
an employment contract with the complainant.57 

52   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/364/2019.  
53   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/218/2019. This case is also 

mentioned at Section 5.2.11 of this report. 

54   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/238/2019. This case is also 

mentioned at Section 5.2.11 of this report. 

55   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/348/2019. This case is also 

mentioned at Section 5.2.11 of this report. 

56   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/433/2019. See this case also at 

Section 5.3.10 of this report.  

57   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/182/2019. This case is also 

mentioned at Section 5.2.11 of this report. 

13 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A sales coordinator’s employment was terminated during the probation period, when she 
had  to  take  sick  leave  because  of  her  high-risk  pregnancy.  The  complaint  procedure 
concluded with a friendly settlement, in which the employer undertook to reestablish her 
employment and to take care of the administration of her health insurance, as well.58 

According  to  the  Equal  Treatment  Act,59  in  cases  of  alleged  direct  discrimination  the 
principle of equal treatment is not violated by an action a) that limits a basic right of the 
entity brought into a disadvantageous position in order to enforce another basic right in 
an unavoidable situation, assuming that such a limitation is suitable for this purpose and 
is also in proportion thereto; or b) that is found by an objective consideration to have a 
reasonable explanation directly related to the relevant relationship in cases not referred 
to in point a). Notably, exemption is not allowed60 in cases involving direct discrimination 
based on race, colour, nationality or ethnicity;61 however, in order to comply with Directive 
2006/54  this  exemption  should  also  extend  to  sex  and  maternity  discrimination  cases. 
Moreover,  since  the  Recast  Directive  allows  exemptions  only  in  relation  to  indirect 
discrimination,  the  provision  in  the  Hungarian  legislation  that  allows  exemptions  in  the 
cases listed above does not comply with the EU definition of direct discrimination.  

Certain relationships are excluded from the scope of the Equal Treatment Act: family law 
relationships;  relationships  between  relatives;  relationships  of  ecclesiastical  entities 
directly connected with the activities of the religious life of churches; and relationships in 
respect of membership between members of NGOs, and relationships in political parties. 
This  further  limits  the  scope  of  situations  to  which  the  definitions  of  Directive  2006/54 
apply, including direct discrimination.  

For  employment  discrimination  cases,  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  used  to  establish  an 
additional, somewhat broad and vaguely worded exemption,62 which was modified in 2017 
and  entered  into  force  on  1  January  2018,  as  described  below.  Most  importantly,  the 
amendment63  has  reduced  the  scope  of  the  exemption  from  any  kind  of  employment 
situation  to  only  the  hiring  process,  and  the  wording  of  the  provision  is  clearer.  The 
reasoning behind the drafting of this provision originates from a progressive resolution by 
the Labour Department of the Supreme Court in 1977,64 which established the first rule 
on  discrimination  in  adjudication.  In  1992,  when  the  previous  Labour  Code  was 
implemented,  the  resolution  was  partly  modified,  and  in  2003,  the  main  text  was 
transposed into the Equal Treatment Act. This transposition was incorrect because the text 
was used to limit the notion of discrimination, which was never the intention of the Labour 
Department when it adopted the resolution. This original mistake was partly corrected in 
2007, when an amendment was added that prohibited the application of the exemption to 

58   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/9/2019. This case is also 

mentioned at Section 5.2.11 of this report. 

59   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2). 
60   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(3). 
61   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8(b)-
(e). 

62   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1) 
Point (a). 

63   Act L of 2017 amending certain Acts in respect of the entry into force of the Act on the Code of General 

Administrative Procedure and the Act on the Code of Administrative Court Procedure (2017. évi L. törvény 
az általános közigazgatási rendtartásról szóló törvény és a közigazgatási perrendtartásról szóló törvény 
hatálybalépésével összefüggő egyes törvények módosításáról), 16 May 2017, Article 226(2).  

64   Supreme Court, Labour Department (Legfelsőbb Bíróság Munkaügyi Kollégiuma), Position No. MK 97 (MK. 
97. számú állásfoglalás). This resolution was repealed in 2016 by the Employment Administrative-Labour 
Department of the Supreme Court, arguing that the subject is properly regulated by legislation, so there is 
no longer any need for the resolution. See: Hungary, Supreme Court, Administrative-Labour Department 
(Kúria Közigazgatási-Munkaügyi Kollégiuma), Opinion No.4/2016 (III. 21.). KMK (4/2016 (III. 21.). KMK 
vélemény), 21 March 2016.   

14 

 
 
 
 
direct  pay  discrimination  cases  if  the  grounds  of  discrimination  were  sex,  racial  origin, 
colour, nationality, belonging to a national minority.65 Following the 2017 amendment, this 
provision now reads:66 

‘It does not constitute an unlawful violation of equal treatment  

a) 

b) 

if the discrimination, in the course of hiring, by reason of the nature of the work 
or the working conditions [in which they are carried out], is based on a genuine 
and determining occupational requirement, and its objective is legitimate and 
proportionate.’ 
As the phrase ‘in the course of hiring’ was added to the paragraph, the scope 
of  the  exemption  has  been  reduced  from  any  employment  scenario  to 
situations  where  the  distinction  takes  place  during  the  hiring  process. 
Furthermore,  the  wording  of  the  paragraph  is  far  clearer  than  the  previous 
version. As the amendment repeats the wording of Article 14(1) of the Recast 
Directive in a fairly faithful manner, its interpretation will become easier.’67  

In  relation  to  the  issue  of  direct  discrimination  based  on  sex/maternity,  the  Equal 
Treatment  Advisory  Board  (Egyenlő  Bánásmód  Tanácsadó  Testület)  issued  a  position 
paper  on  the  questions  eligible  to  be  asked  by  employers  at  job  interview,  i.e.  that 
employers are not supposed to ask questions about the family situation and personal plans 
(especially regarding childbearing) of the applicants.68 

3.3.2  Prohibition of pregnancy and maternity discrimination 

Discrimination  on  the  grounds  of  pregnancy  and  maternity,  and  also  on  the  ground  of 
paternity, is explicitly prohibited by the Equal Treatment Act.69 

3.3.3  Specific difficulties 

The  courts  tend  to  broadly  interpret  the  provisions  that  narrow  the  scope  of  the  Equal 
Treatment Act or establish an exemption from the definitions of the basic concepts of equal 
treatment.  

Furthermore,  the  unspecific,  all-embracing  nature  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  gives  the 
false impression that it is enough to refer to discrimination in general without indicating 
the protected ground on which basis legal redress is claimed. This is problematic because 
there  are  still  many  cases  being  adjudicated  by  the  Supreme  Court  and  the  Equal 
Treatment Authority where the claimant failed to specify the protected ground on which 
his/her discrimination claim is based, while this would be necessary for shifting the burden 
of proof to the respondent.70 

65   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 17/A., 
Article 22(2). 

66   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1) 
Point (a). 

67   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1) 
Point (a). 

68   Equal Treatment Advisory Board (Egyenlő Bánásmód Tanácsadó Testület) (2007), Position No. 1/2007. TT 
on the questions eligible to be asked by employers at job interviews (1/2007. TT. sz. állásfoglalás az 
állásinterjún feltehető munkáltatói kérdésekről), February 2007, available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/hu/jogszabaly/tanacsado-testulet-2007-februari-allasfoglalasa-az-
allasinterjun-felteheto-munkaltatoi. 

69   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8 
Point (l). 

70   E.g. Supreme Court (Kúria) Decision in Principle No. 24/2018 in Labour Law, available at: https://kuria-

birosag.hu/hu/elvhat/242018-szamu-munkaugyi-elvi-hatarozat.  

15 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Gender-stereotypes are also deeply rooted in Hungarian public opinion, as illustrated by a 
case  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority:  a  male  parking  inspector  was  obliged  by  his 
employer to shorten his long hair that he had worn in a ponytail for the past few years (he 
had been given several warnings, and one day he was not allowed to start his shift – he 
was told to go home, and his working day was considered as absence without leave. He 
then went on sick leave, and later his employment was terminated by mutual agreement). 
The company argued that long hair was a security risk, because the inspector could have 
been grabbed by his hair and pulled to the ground. The inspector claimed that he had been 
discriminated  against  due  to  his  sex,  because  this  policy  was  not  applied  to  female 
employees.  In  their  defence,  the  employer  contended  that  long  hair  is  an  important 
external  element  of  female  gender  identity  and  that  long  hair  looks  slovenly  and 
ungroomed on men, and male employees were expected to defend female employees if 
they are attacked. The Equal Treatment Authority established direct discrimination based 
on sex, and prohibited the employer from engaging in similar discrimination in the future 
(meanwhile, the employer provided compensation for the day of absence without leave).71 
In the author’s opinion, the employer was evidently so insensitive to gender issues that 
they  tried  to  defend  themselves  in  an  equal  treatment  case  before  an  equal  treatment 
authority with a sexist argument. 

3.4  Indirect sex discrimination 

3.4.1  Explicit prohibition 

Indirect  discrimination  is  defined  in  Hungarian  law,  but  not  specifically  indirect  sex 
discrimination. According to the Equal Treatment Act,72 indirect discrimination occurs when 
a provision that is not considered to be direct discrimination and apparently complies with 
the  principle  of  equal  treatment,  places  any  person  or  any  group  with  a  protected 
characteristic (as defined in Article 8)73 at a considerably larger disadvantage compared 
to other persons or groups in a similar situation. The concept of indirect discrimination in 
the  Equal  Treatment  Act  refers  to  a  ‘considerably  larger  disadvantage’  compared  to  a 
‘disadvantage’  as  specified  in  Directive  2006/54,  thus  the  definition  in  Hungarian 
legislation is narrower than that stipulated by EU law.  

The  exemption  laid  down  in  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  makes  the  scope  of  indirect 
discrimination  in  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  even  narrower  compared  to  the  provision  in 
Directive 2006/54. According to Hungarian legislation,74 the principle of equal treatment 
is  not  violated  by  a  conduct,  measure,  condition,  omission,  instruction  or  practice 
(hereafter referred to collectively as a ‘disposition’) that a) limits a basic right of someone 
in order to enforce another person’s basic right in an unavoidable situation, assuming that 
such a limitation is suitable for this purpose and is also in proportion thereto; or b) is found 
by  an  objective  consideration  to  have  a  reasonable  explanation  directly  related  to  the 
relevant relationship in cases not referred to in point a). The exemption stipulated in point 
a)  is  narrower  than  the  objective  justification  test,  as  it  refers  to  the  constitutionally 
protected  basic  rights,  but  the  exemption  described  in  point  b)  is  far  wider  than  the 
objective  justification  test;  therefore,  the  definition  of  indirect  discrimination  is 
considerably narrower than specified in Article 2(1)(b) of Directive 2006/54. 

71   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/103/2017.  
72   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 9. 
73   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 
74   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2). 

16 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.4.2  Statistical evidence 

Statistical  evidence  is  only  marginally  part  of  the  sex  discrimination  litigation,  and 
relatively recently. The use of statistical evidence is not required either by law or by custom 
in indirect discrimination cases.  

However,  the  parties  to  indirect  discrimination  cases  may  opt  to  present  statistical 
evidence to the Equal Treatment Authority or the courts. This occurred in a landmark case 
adjudicated by the Equal Treatment Authority in 2017; an important stepping-stone in the 
Hungarian  anti-discrimination  case  law,  because  it  sets  a  good  example  of  how  to 
investigate indirect wage discrimination cases and how to collect, examine and evaluate 
statistical evidence. In this case, female workers claimed that they were victims of indirect 
discrimination  when  they  had  not  received  the  extra  ‘13th  month  payment’  (an  in-cash 
benefit) due to being on sick leave with their children. The preconditions for the benefit 
had been set by the applicable collective agreement. Only employees who were away from 
work less than 25 days per year were eligible to receive the benefit. The calculation of the 
workers’ days of absence did not include the annual paid holiday, work-related illness, or 
illness which needed in-patient hospital care. The mothers of young children claimed that 
even though the regulations appeared neutral, they were disproportionately detrimental 
and discriminatory towards mothers with children under the age of 12, which is the age 
limit for eligibility for sickness payments based on children’s rights under the social security 
scheme.  The  Equal  Treatment  Authority  conducted  a  detailed  statistical  investigation 
comparing the number of workers who were and were not eligible for the benefit and the 
total number of workers, and the number of female workers who had and  did not have 
children  under  the  age  of  twelve.  The  statistical  investigation  showed  that  the  rule 
determined by the collective agreement was disproportionately disadvantageous to female 
workers  with  young  children  compared  to  those  male  or  female  workers  who  had  no 
children. On the basis of this statistical evidence, the Equal Treatment Authority concluded 
that indirect discrimination had occurred, and ordered the employer to eliminate it. The 
Equal Treatment Authority obliged the employer to reconsider the eligibility criteria of the 
benefit, and it prohibited the employer from engaging in any further similar discrimination. 
It  obliged  the  employer  to  send  a  written  report  on  the  measures  that  it  had  taken  to 
eliminate the discrimination within 60 days. The Equal Treatment Authority did not impose 
a fine in this case.75  

3.4.3  Application of the objective justification test 

The  objective  justification  test  provided  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Act76  has  been  applied 
very liberally by the courts in Hungary. However, since there is very limited case law on 
indirect  sex  discrimination,  no  assessment  can  be  provided  of  the  strictness  of  the  test 
regarding claims of indirect sex discrimination. The only relevant case is the decision by 
the Equal Treatment Authority Decision on the policy of granting a 13th month payment, 
which was found to be indirectly discriminatory towards mothers of young children. In this 
case,  the  defendants  did  not  provide  any  objective  justification  or  rely  on  any  specific 
exemption. Therefore, the Equality Body did not apply the objective justification test.77 

75   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/130/2017. See the description 

of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See the details at Section 
3.4.2 of this report. 

76   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2). 
77   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/130/2017. See the description 
of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-%20to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See the details at Section 
3.4.2 of this report. 

17 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.4.4  Specific difficulties 

According to the case law, the exemption provided by the Equal Treatment Act78 allows 
defendants to justify almost any kind of indirect discrimination.  

3.5  Multiple discrimination and intersectional discrimination79 

3.5.1  Definition and explicit prohibition 

Neither  multiple  nor  intersectional  discrimination  is  addressed  explicitly  in  national 
legislation.  

In  2018,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  issued  a  report  on  the  concept  of  multiple 
discrimination  and  the  implementation  of  the  concept  in  its  jurisprudence.80  The  report 
describes  international  and  EU  legal  and  policy  frameworks  and  jurisprudence  on 
multiple/intersectional discrimination. The Equal Treatment Authority found in its analysis 
that while the Equal Treatment Act does not contain explicit regulation of multiple and/or 
intersectional  discrimination,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  does  have  the  authority  to 
examine  such  claims.  Since  the  Authority  has  already  done  so,  this  has  given  it  the 
opportunity to examine discrimination based on multiple protected grounds and their inter-
connectivity in discrimination cases. The report includes a collection of recent case law on 
multiple/intersectional  discrimination  cases  decided  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority. 
These  include  the  case  of  a  Roma  woman  who  was  harassed  verbally  by  medical  staff 
when  she  gave  birth  in  a  public  hospital  (see  details  below  at  3.5.2);81  a  case  where  a 
mayor harassed Roma women who were working within the framework of the local public 
work programme (the case involved sexual harassment and racist insults as well);82 and 
a case where female workers were not granted the  extra  ‘13th month payment’ due to 
being on sick leave with their children (see details above at 3.4.2).83 

3.5.2  Case law and judicial recognition 

Hungarian case law on gender-based discrimination does not yet recognise the specialist 
nature of cases when multiple discrimination and/or intersectional discrimination occurs. 
However, in a case on indirect wage discrimination, the Equal Treatment Authority noted 
in  its  decision  that  the  disadvantages  of  being  a  woman  and  having  a  young  child 
accumulated and resulted in multiple and intersectional discrimination, although it did not 
discuss the issue any further.84  

78   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2) 
Point (b). 

79   See for more information Fredman, S. (2016) Intersectional discrimination in EU gender equality and non-
discrimination law, European network of legal experts in gender equality and non-discrimination, available 
at https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/3850-intersectional-discrimination-in-eu-gender-equality-and-
non-discrimination-law-pdf-731-kb. 

80   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) (2018), ‘A többszörös diszkrimináció megjelenése 
az Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság joggyakorlatában’ (Multiple discrimination in the jurisprudence of the Equal 
Treatment Authority ), EBH-füzetek, No. 5, available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/sites/default/files/kiadvany/5_teljes_HU.pdf. 

81   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/349/2016. See the description 
of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4069-hungary-roma-woman-harassed-in-
hospital-while-giving-birth-pdf-110-kb.  

82   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/467/2016.  
83   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/130/2017. See the description 

of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See the details at Section 
3.4.2 of this report. 

84   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/130/2017. See the description 

of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See the details at Section 
3.4.2 of this report. 

18 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In  2016,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  also  established  harassment  in  the  case  of  a 
Romani  woman  who  claimed  that  she  was  verbally  abused  by  some  members  of  the 
medical staff when she was giving birth in a public hospital in the city of Miskolc (she was 
told, among other things, that ‘you, Gypsies,  only give birth for the money, anyways’). 
Whereas the Equal Treatment Authority only reviewed her claim based on her belonging 
to  a  nationality  and  skin  colour  and  established  the  discrimination  on  these  multiple 
grounds,  it  failed  to  recognise  the  intersectional  discrimination  stemming  from  the 
vulnerability of the victim’s status of motherhood/pregnancy and her sex, despite the fact 
that  her  motherhood/pregnancy  was  inherently  linked  to  her  being  harassed,  and  that 
both sex and motherhood/pregnancy are explicitly listed as protected grounds under the 
Equal Treatment Act.85  

One year later, in 2017, the European Roma Rights Centre (ERRC – a human rights NGO) 
filed  an  actio  popularis  claim  against  the  same  public  hospital  in  Miskolc,  because  of  a 
policy  of  the  maternity  clinic  which  affected  socio-economically  disadvantaged  Roma 
women  disproportionately.86  It  should  be  noted  that  Miskolc  is  in  the  middle  of  the 
economically disadvantaged north-eastern region of Hungary, where the concentration of 
marginalised Roma population is higher than the average in the country.  The ERRC was 
informed  by  local  pro-Roma  activists  that  the  public  maternity  clinic  in  Miskolc  hospital 
charges the companions of women who arrive to give birth in the hospital, with a relatively 
high fee (cca. EUR 10-15) for ‘visitor attire’ (a disposable hygienic suit, to be worn in the 
delivery room), which is not affordable for families living in poverty. Thus, in many cases, 
mothers (among them  young girls under the age of 18 years) are forced to  endure the 
hours of labour and childbirth without a supporting companion. This means also that they 
are  hindered  from  exercising  their  right  provided  by  the  Act  on  Health  Care,  i.e.  that 
women are entitled to be accompanied during childbirth by a person of their choice (an 
adult  family  member,  a  relative,  a  friend  or  a  doula,  etc.).87  The  first  instance  court 
(Regional Court of Miskolc), found direct discrimination based on pregnancy/maternity and 
on  social/economic  status  (these  are  protected  grounds  in  the  Hungarian  anti-
discrimination legislation),88 and indirect discrimination based on (Roma) ethnicity. Sex as 
a base of discrimination was not explicitly included in the argumentation, as pregnancy as 
a base covered this aspect of the situation. According to the reasoning of the judgment, 
the  hospital’s  practice  amounts  to  direct  discrimination  based  on  maternity/pregnancy, 
because  of  the  principle  developed  by  the  ECtHR  in  Thlimmenos  v  Greece,  i.e.  that  the 
right  not  to  be  discriminated  against  may  be  violated  when  groups  of  persons  whose 
situations are significantly different are not treated differently. In this case, the situation 
of the group of birthing women was compared with the group of other patients. Moreover, 
the practice of the hospital amounted to direct discrimination based  on social/economic 
status, as the fee of the mandatory ‘visitors’ attire’ may not be affordable for families living 
in poverty. And because Roma families are overrepresented among the poor families in 
the region, the practice is to be considered as indirect discrimination based on ethnicity. 
The  first  instance  court  ordered  the  hospital  to  cease  the  unlawful  and  discriminatory 
practice (of charging a fee for the mandatory hygienic attire) and to pay a public fine of 
HUF  5  million  (cca.  EUR  17 000).89  This  judgment  by  the  Court  of  Appeal  of  Debrecen 
upheld  the  first  instance  court’s  line  of  argument  about  direct  discrimination  based  on 
pregnancy/maternity and on social/economic status and indirect discrimination based on 

85   Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/349/2016.  
86   See the description of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4898-hungary-

discriminatory-practice-at-the-maternity-clinic-of-a-public-hospital-in-miskolc-the-visitors-attire-case-pdf-
125-kb.  

87   Act CLIV of 1997 on Health Care (1997. évi CLIV. törvény az egészségügyről), 23 December 1997, Article 

11(5). 

88   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 
89   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 

19 

 
 
Roma ethnicity, but decreased the fine to HUF 2 million (cca. EUR 6 800).90 The defendant 
asked  for  judicial  review,  and  the  case  is  currently  pending  before  the  Supreme  Court 
(Kúria) of Hungary.  

3.6  Positive action 

3.6.1  Definition and explicit prohibition 

The Fundamental Law (constitution) of Hungary provides that:  
- 
- 

‘Hungary promotes the realisation of equal opportunity by special measures’91 and  
‘Hungary  protects  children,  women,  the  elderly  and  the  disabled  through  special 
measures’.92 

The key pieces of primary legislation are: 
- 

Act  on  Equal  Treatment  and  the  Promotion  of  the  Equality  of  Opportunities:  ‘a 
measure aimed at the elimination of an expressly identified social group’s objectively 
substantiated inequality of opportunities is not considered a breach of the principle 
of equal treatment’,93 given that it is ‘based on an Act of Parliament, on a government 
decree based on an Act or on a collective contract, effective for a definite term or 
until a specific condition is met’;94 and does ‘not violate any basic rights, shall not 
provide  unconditional  advantage,  and  shall  not  exclude  the  consideration  of 
individual circumstances’.95 
Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and on Assistance Provided for the 
Unemployed:  ‘While  the  requirement  of  equal  treatment  shall  be  respected  in 
connection with the promotion of employment and the support of job seekers, this 
shall  not  exclude  the  possibility  of  offering  additional  rights  to  those  who  are  in  a 
disadvantaged  position  on  the  labour  market’;96  the  latter  includes  those  who  are 
living  alone  with  at  least  one  dependant,97  or  are  working  in  a  sector  or  job 
characterised  by  a  significant  gender  imbalance,  and  they  belong  to  the 
underrepresented gender.98 

- 

This definition complies with Article 157(4) of the TFEU. The conditions of positive actions 
as formulated in the Equal Treatment Act are in line with the relevant EU standards, as 
the case law of the CJEU and the Directives detailed the criteria for the lawful introduction 
of positive measures.99  

90   Court of Appeal of Debrecen, Judgment no. Pf.I.20.749/2018/8, available at: 

http://www.errc.org/uploads/upload_en/file/5106_file1_anonymised-version-of-the-judgment-in-
hungarian-2018.pdf. 

91   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), Article XV, Paragraph (4). 
92   Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), Article XV, Paragraph (5). 
93   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról) Article 11, Paragraph (1). 

94   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról) Article 11, Paragraph (1)(a). 
95   Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról) Article 11, Paragraph (2). 

96   Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and on Assistance Provided for the Unemployed (1991. évi 

IV. törvény a foglalkoztatás elősegítéséről és a munkanélküliek ellátásáról), Article 2, Paragraph (1). 

97   Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and on Assistance Provided for the Unemployed (1991. évi 
IV. törvény a foglalkoztatás elősegítéséről és a munkanélküliek ellátásáról), Article 57/B, Paragraph (4)(d). 
98   Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and on Assistance Provided for the Unemployed (1991. évi 
IV. törvény a foglalkoztatás elősegítéséről és a munkanélküliek ellátásáról), Article 57/B, Paragraph (4)(e). 

99   See: Halmos, Sz. (2019), ‘The Impact of EU Law on Hungarian Anti-discrimination Law in Employment’ 

ELTE Law Journal, no. 2, pp. 81-99, available at: https://eltelawjournal.hu/wp-
content/uploads/2019/12/04_Halmos.pdf. 

20 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.6.2  Conceptual  distinctions  between  ‘equal  opportunities’  and  ‘positive  action’  in 

national law 

In  Hungary,  ‘equal  opportunities’  is  a  self-standing  legal  concept,  and  both  the  terms 
‘inequality  of  opportunities’ 
(esélyegyenlőség)  and 
‘equality  of  opportunities’ 
(esélyegyenlőtlenség) are used. 

Positive  action  measures  are  considered  legally  as  exceptions  to  the  non-discrimination 
principle, or regarded as a way of fulfilling the non-discrimination principle in practice. 

Legal provisions either use the term ‘special measure’ (külön intézkedés) or ‘preferential 
treatment’  (előnyben  részesítés).  Both  of  these  terms  emphasise  the  aspect  that  these 
kinds of measures are to be considered as a form of differentiation.  

However,  in  public  debates  and  also  in  everyday  conversations,  it  is  almost  always  the 
term  ‘reverse  discrimination’  (literally:  ‘positive  discrimination’:  pozitív  diszkrimináció) 
which  is  used.  According  to  experts,  the  negative  connotation  (association  to 
discrimination) of this widely used term contributes to the controversies around positive 
action in Hungary.100 

3.6.3  Specific difficulties  

A controversial justification for positive actions (in the Hungarian terminology: ‘preferential 
treatment’) is the intention to support women in performing their traditional family roles 
(as  mothers  and  care  providers):  a  high  profile  example  of  this  is  the  early  retirement 
option for women after 40 years of service (the option is based on special eligibility criteria, 
i.e.  all  time  periods  covered  by  any  kind  of  child-related  social  security  benefits  are 
recognised as service).101 This measure is not only controversial because it recognises care 
work in the family as service only in the case of women (thus does not encourage men to 
take a larger share), but also because it encourages women, implicitly, to perform even 
more care work, provided for free (grandparental care, care for senior family members). 
According to an analysis from 2018, the ‘Women 40’ scheme is a ‘flawed pension product’ 
for three main reasons: it provides a lower pension for women (compared to the pension 
they  could  have  if  they  would  not  have  made  use  of  the  early  retirement  option);  it  is 
discriminatory  towards  men  (who  have  been  involved  fathers);  and  the  scheme  is  not 
synchronised with the (ongoing) increase of the general retirement age.102 

Quota-like positive action measures are controversial in Hungary not just because of the 
anti-EU  political  sentiments  (given  the  role  of  the  EU  as  a  promoter  of  certain  types  of 
quotas), but also for historical reasons,103 specifically the negative experiences from the 
era of ‘State socialism’. During the period of Soviet dominance (from 1949 until 1989) a 
number of quotas were applied in non-democratic institutions, including the single-party 
parliament, aimed at securing seats not just for women, but for representatives of various 
social groups (youth, workers, farmers, etc.).  

100  See e.g. Kollonay, Cs. (2006), ‘Fórum: Előnyben részesítés’ (Forum: Preferential treatment) Fundamentum, 

vol. X, no. 4, pp. 71-78. 

101  Article 1 of Act CLXX of 2010 modified Article 18(2) of Act LXXXI of 1997 on social security pensions (1997. 

évi LXXXI. törvény a társadalombiztosítási nyugellátásról). 

102  Gerencsér, L. (2018) ‘Nyugdíjvita: A „Nők 40” hibás nyugdíjtermék’ (Debate on Pensions: The “Women40” 
is a flawed pension product), Új Egyenlőség, 9 December, available at: http://ujegyenloseg.hu/nyugdijvita-
a-nok-40-hibas-nyugdijtermek/. 

103  See: '8 March 2020: International Women’s Day: Only 1 manager out of 3 in the EU is a woman…even less 

in senior management positions’, Eurostat News Release, 40/2020 - 6 March 2020, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/10474926/3-06032020-AP-EN.pdf/763901be-81b7-
ecd6-534e-8a2b83e82934.  

21 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.6.4  Measures to improve the gender balance on company boards 

Hungary  has  not  adopted  any  measures  that  aim  to  improve  the  gender  balance  on 
company boards.  
According to Eurostat data referring to 2019, the share of female board members in the 
largest publicly listed companies is 12.9 % in Hungary (the EU average is 28.8 %), while 
the share of senior executives in the largest publicly listed companies is 18.6 % (the EU 
average is 20.9 %).104 

There is no major debate on this issue in either the media or in governmental and non-
governmental  organisations.  In  2016,  an  NGO  umbrella  organisation,  the  Hungarian 
Women’s  Lobby  (Magyar  Női  Érdekérvényesítő  Szövetség),  launched  a  policy  paper  on 
gender equality in decision-making in the field of the economy.105 

3.6.5  Positive action measures to improve the gender balance in other areas 

Hungary has not adopted measures that aim to improve gender balance in any other fields, 
e.g.  in  political  decision-making,  despite  the  fact  that  women’s  participation  in  elected 
bodies is low in Hungary: 

- 

- 

the proportion of female MPs was 11 % (22 women out of 199) after the elections in 
2018,106 and in 2014, 9.5 % (19 women out of 199);107  
since  July  2019,  the  government  has  consisted  of  2  women  (Minister  Without 
Portfolio for the Development of Public Assets and Minister of Justice) and 12 men;108 
the  previous  ‘Third  Orbán-Government’,  set  up  in  2014,  was  an  all-male 
government.109 

3.7  Harassment and sexual harassment 

3.7.1  Definition and explicit prohibition of harassment 

According to the Equal Treatment Act, harassment is conduct of a sexual or other nature 
violating human dignity related to the relevant person’s protected characteristics with the 
purpose or effect of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive 
environment  faced  by  the  person  in  question.110  This  definition  is  in  compliance  with 
Article 2(1)(c) of Directive 2006/54. 

In 2008, the Equal Treatment Advisory Board (Egyenlő Bánásmód Tanácsadó Testülete) 
issued a position paper on the concepts of harassment and sexual harassment.111 
In 2019, the Equal Treatment Authority did not deal with any complaint relating to sexual 
harassment or harassment based on sex/gender.  

104  See: Positions held by women in senior management positions (source: EIGE), SDG_05_60.  
105  Nagy, B. (2016) ‘Nemek közötti egyenlőség a gazdasági döntéshozatalban’ (Gender equality in decision-

making in the field of economy), in A Magyar Női Érdekérvényesítő Szövetség közpolitikai ajánlásai (Policy 
papers of the Hungarian Women’s Lobby), Budapest, Hungarian Women’s Lobby (Magyar Női 
Érdekérvényesítő Szövetség), ed. Juhász, B.; p. 17-23. 

106  As of: 8 May 2018. 
107  As of: 6 May 2014. 
108  See: Members of the Government, available at: https://www.kormany.hu/en/members-of-the-government. 
109  Prime Minister’s Office (Miniszterelnöki Kabinetiroda) (2014): ‘Megalakult a harmadik Orbán-kormány’ (The 
third Orbán-government is set up), 6 June 2014, available at http://www.kormany.hu/hu/hirek/megalakult-
a-harmadik-orban-kormany. 

110  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 10(1). 

111  Equal Treatment Advisory Board (Egyenlő Bánásmód Tanácsadó Testület) (2008), Position No. 

384/5/2008.(IV.10.) TT. on the concepts of harassment and sexual harassment (384/5/2008.(IV.10.) TT. 
sz. állásfoglalás a zaklatás és a szexuális zaklatás fogalmáról), 10 April 2008, available at:  
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/sites/default/files/content/torveny/szexualis_zaklatas.pdf. 

22 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
During  the  previous  few  years,  the  number  of  harassment  cases  heard  by  the  Equal 
Treatment Authority on the grounds of sex or maternity ranged between one and five.  

According to the case law, harassment is established if the behaviour is long lasting and/or 
severe in nature. For instance, in 2017, the Equal Treatment Authority found harassment 
in the case of a female truck driver who claimed to have been harassed by her employer 
because her requests for repair work on her vehicle had been systematically ignored, the 
chief mechanic had made degrading remarks about the claimant by referring to her sex, 
and the CEO of the  company aimed to stop the conflict by advising  them not to talk to 
each other.112 

In  2016,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  also  found  harassment  in  the  case  of  a  Roma 
woman who claimed that she was verbally abused when she was giving birth in a public 
hospital.113 Notably, the Equal Treatment Authority reviewed the claim based on ‘belonging 
to a national minority’ and ‘skin colour’, and made only a note on the vulnerable situation 
of  women  in  labour,  although  the  ground  of  maternity/pregnancy  (protected  under  the 
Equal Treatment Act) was also relevant, in the opinion of this report’s author. 

3.7.2  Scope of the prohibition of harassment 

The scope of the prohibition of harassment is governed by the general anti-discrimination 
provisions the Equal Treatment Act.  

The institutional (personal) scope of the Act covers: (a) the Hungarian State; (b) local and 
minority municipalities and the bodies thereof; (c) authorities exercising state powers; (d) 
the armed forces and law enforcement bodies; (e) public foundations, public corporations, 
trade unions and employers’ associations; (f) public utility companies; (g) institutions of 
public education and higher education; (h) persons and institutions providing social care 
and child-protection services, as well as child-welfare services; (i) museums, libraries, and 
community centres; (j) voluntary mutual insurance funds and private pension funds; (k) 
healthcare institutions; (l) political parties; and (m) budgetary agencies that do not belong 
to points (a)-(l).114  

The relational scope115 (or material scope) of the Act, which specifies the legal relationships 
to  which  the  prohibition  of  harassment  is  applied,  could  be  grouped  into  three 
subcategories: its employment-related scope (covering work-related legal relationships), 
its public subsidies-related scope (covering all legal relations related to public subsidies) 
and its scope with regard to civil law relationships (covering legal  relationships through 
which tenders are made, services are provided and goods are sold to the public).116  

3.7.3  Definition and explicit prohibition of sexual harassment 

The original text of the Equal Treatment Act contained only the definition of harassment, 
which was slightly modified in 2006 in order to include cases of sexual harassment and by 
inserting  into  the  definition  of  harassment  that  a  violation  of  the  dignity  of  the  person 
occurs as a result of unwanted conduct ‘of a sexual or other nature.’  

112  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/244/2017. 
113  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/349/2016. See the description 
of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4069-hungary-roma-woman-harassed-in-
hospital-while-giving-birth-pdf-110-kb. 

114  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 4. 
115  See: Freedland M., Kountouris, N. (2012), ‘Employment Equality and Personal Work Relations – A Critique 

of Jivraj v Hashwani’, Industrial Law Journal, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 56-66. 

116  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 5. 

23 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In 2008, the Equal Treatment Advisory Board (Egyenlő Bánásmód Tanácsadó Testülete) 
issued  a  position  paper  on  the  concepts  of  harassment  and  sexual  harassment.117  This 
position paper includes a reference to a relevant decision of the Equal Treatment Authority 
from 2006, which includes, however, a controversial element: it provides a kind of ‘victim 
profile’  by  claiming  that  applying  the  method  of  harassment  occurs  especially  in  those 
situations where the woman (the victim of harassment) has a ‘well-developed and strong 
self-esteem, identity and personality, which enables her to express assertiveness in words 
or in actions.’118 

3.7.4  Scope of the prohibition of sexual harassment 

The scope of the prohibition of sexual harassment, as a form of harassment, is governed 
by the general anti-discrimination provisions of the Equal Treatment Act.  

The institutional (personal) scope of the Act covers: (a) the Hungarian State; (b) local and 
minority municipalities and bodies thereof; (c) authorities exercising state powers; (d) the 
armed  forces  and  law  enforcement  bodies;  (e)  public  foundations,  public  corporations, 
trade unions and employers’ associations; (f) public utility companies; (g) institutions of 
public education and higher education; (h) persons and institutions providing social care 
and  child-protection  services,  as  well  as  child-welfare  services;  (i)  museums,  libraries, 
community centres; (j) voluntary mutual insurance funds and private pension funds; (k) 
healthcare institutions; (l) political parties; and (m) budgetary agencies that do not belong 
to points (a)-(l).119  

The relational scope120 (or material scope) of the Act, which specifies the legal relationships 
to  which  the  prohibition  of  harassment  is  to  be  applied,  could  be  grouped  into  three 
subcategories: its employment-related scope (covering work-related legal relationships), 
its public subsidies-related scope (covering all legal relations related to public subsidies) 
and its scope with regard to  civil-law  relationships (covering legal  relationships through 
which tenders are made, services are provided and goods are sold to the public).121 

3.7.5  Understanding of (sexual) harassment as discrimination 

Harassment (including harassment of a sexual nature) is defined by the Equal Treatment 
Act as a violation of the principle of equal treatment.122 

3.7.6  Specific difficulties  

The  definition  of  sexual  harassment  has  been  developed  through  the  (limited) 123 
jurisdiction  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  and  the  courts,  and  the  Equal  Treatment 
Authority has properly transposed the content of the prohibition of sexual harassment laid 
down by the Directive. For example, the Equal Treatment Authority imposed a fine on a 

117  Equal Treatment Advisory Board (Egyenlő Bánásmód Tanácsadó Testület) (2008), Position No. 

384/5/2008.(IV.10.) TT. on the concepts of harassment and sexual harassment (384/5/2008.(IV.10.) TT. 
sz. állásfoglalás a zaklatás és a szexuális zaklatás fogalmáról), 10 April 2008, available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/sites/default/files/content/torveny/szexualis_zaklatas.pdf. 

118  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/69/2006.  
119  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 4. 
120  See: Freedland M., Kountouris, N. (2012), ‘Employment Equality and Personal Work Relations – A Critique 

of Jivraj v Hashwani’, Industrial Law Journal, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 56-66. 

121  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 5. 
122  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(1), 
10(1). 

123  See an overview: Sebestyén, A. (2017), ‘Beszéljünk a “jogi értelemben véve is” szexuális zaklatásról’ (Let’s 

talk about sexual harassment also from a legal perspective), Fundamentum, no. 3-4, pp. 44-48. 
http://fundamentum.hu/sites/default/files/fundamentum-17-3-4-06.pdf. 

24 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
respondent for habitually making remarks about the attractive appearance of a female co-
worker,  using  a  very  intimate  tone  (calling  her  ‘puppy’  or  ‘piglet’),  and  repeatedly,  in 
public,  offering  himself  as  her  sexual  partner.124  Similarly,  the  court  of  second  instance 
considered it to be sexual harassment when a public servant received text messages of a 
sexual and threatening nature from his superior.125  

3.8  Instruction to discriminate 

3.8.1  Explicit prohibition 

According  to  the  Equal  Treatment  Act,  instruction  to  any  of  the  forms  of  discrimination 
(direct  and  indirect  discrimination,  harassment,  including  sexual  harassment,  unlawful 
segregation,  retaliation)  is  considered  to  be  a  violation  of  the  principle  of  equal 
treatment.126 

3.8.2  Specific difficulties 

The  existing  case  law  on  instruction  to  discrimination  is  minimal  and,  as  yet,  has  not 
revealed any specific difficulties. 

3.9  Other forms of discrimination 

The Equal Treatment Act details the following on other forms of discrimination: 

- 

- 

Unlawful segregation is a conduct that separates individuals or groups of individuals 
from other individuals or groups of individuals in a similar situation on the basis of 
their protected characteristics, without any law expressly allowing for this;127 
Retaliation is conduct that causes an infringement, is aimed at an infringement, or 
threatens  an  infringement  against  the  person  making  a  complaint  or  initiating 
procedures  because  of  a  violation  of  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  or  against  a 
person assisting in such a procedure in relation to these acts.128 

3.10 Evaluation of implementation 

There  are  some  gaps  in  the  concepts  and  consequently  some  gaps  in  the  full 
implementation of the EU law concepts. 

According to the Equal Treatment Act,129 in alleged direct discrimination cases the principle 
of equal treatment is not violated by an action (a) which limits a basic right of the entity 
brought  into  a  disadvantageous  position  in  order  to  enforce  another  basic  right  in  an 
unavoidable situation, assuming that such a limitation is suitable for this purpose and is 
also in proportion thereto; or (b) which is found by an objective consideration to have a 
reasonable explanation directly related to the relevant relationship in cases not referred 
to  in  point  (a).  Similar  exemptions  are  allowed  in  Directive  2006/54  only  in  relation  to 
indirect  discrimination.  Consequently,  the  definition  of  direct  discrimination  does  not 
comply with the EU definition, because it is much narrower by allowing the possibility of 
an exemption.  

124  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/365/2011. 
125  Hungary, published as Decision No. BH 347/2011. 
126  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(1). 
127  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 10(2). 
128  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 10(3). 
129  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2). 

25 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
With  regards  to  indirect  discrimination,  the  Equal  Treatment  Act130  provides  narrower 
protection than the Directive 2006/54, because it states that when a provision that is not 
considered to be direct discrimination and apparently complies with the principle of equal 
treatment  puts  any  person  or  group  having  a protected  characteristic  at  a  considerably 
larger  disadvantage  compared  with  other  persons  or  groups  in  a  similar  situation,  then 
this is considered to be indirect discrimination.131 The concept of indirect discrimination is 
narrower  in  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  because  it  stipulates  a  ‘considerably  larger 
disadvantage’ compared to a ‘disadvantage’ as mentioned in Directive 2006/54. 

Although in use, the concept of multiple and/or intersectional discrimination is not defined 
in the Equal Treatment Act. Similarly, sexual harassment is not defined explicitly, and it 
has  been  for  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  and  courts  to  develop  the  concept  in  their 
respective case law.  

The amendment of the provision of the Equal Treatment Act on exemptions by adding the 
phrase ‘in the course of hiring’, is to be considered as an important improvement to equal 
treatment law in Hungary, as it improves the transposition of the EU acquis into Hungarian 
legislation by repeating the wording of Article 14(1) of Directive 2006/54. 

3.11 Remaining issues 

There are no remaining issues to be mentioned regarding the central concepts of gender 
equality law. 

130  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 9. 
131  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 

26 

  
 
 
 
 
 
4 

Equal  pay  and  equal  treatment  at  work  (Article  157  of  the  Treaty  on  the 
Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) and Recast Directive 2006/54) 

4.1  General (legal) context 

4.1.1  Surveys on the gender pay gap and the difficulties of realising equal pay 

According to data from the Hungarian Central Statistical Office referring to the first nine 
months of 2019, the average gross salary of men working full time was 20 % higher than 
that  of  women:  HUF  393  600  for  men  (cca.  EUR  1  150)  and  HUF  327  700  for  women 
(cca. EUR 950).132 According to data from Eurostat referring to 2018, the gender pay gap 
in Hungary was 11.2 % (while the gender pay gap at the EU level was 14.8 %).133 

The authors of an analysis published in 2018 refer to the gender pay gap ranking list of 
the World Economic Forum (WEF) from 2016, where Hungary is ranked 130th out of 140 
countries. In addition, the authors point to the fact that the gender pay gap is especially 
pronounced among the highly educated, and conclude that with the current pace of closing 
the gap, equality would not be achieved until 2102 in Hungary.134  

According  to  the  preliminary  results  of  research  launched  in  2019,  the  sectoral  and 
educational  factors  are  the  most  consistent  regarding  the  gender  pay  gap  in  Hungary, 
while  other  factors  (firm  size,  age,  tenure)  also  play  a  role,  concluding  that  high 
educational achievement in certain other industries are responsible for the highest gaps, 
especially in the cases of middle aged or older women.135 

4.1.2  Surveys on the difficulties of realising equal treatment at work 

In  Hungary,  discrimination  is  apparently  not  considered  as  one  of  the  major  elements 
contributing to the hardships of women: according to the results of a survey (published in 
2018), only 9 % of the problems mentioned by the participants to the open-ended question 
‘What are the primary problems that women living in a situation similar to yours are faced 
with the most?’ were related to discrimination (maximum of 5 answers/person, cumulative 
number of answers referring to some specific problem of women = 688).136 Discrimination 
of women may still be an unspoken issue: in other research from 2018, the participants 
of  a  focus  group  interview  (HR  experts)  only  implicitly  referred  to  the  phenomenon  of 
discrimination in relation to the employment of mothers of young children.137 

132  Hungarian Central Statistical Office (Központi Statisztikai Hivatal): ‘Munkaerőpiaci folyamatok, 2019. I–III. 

negyedév’ (Labour Market Tendencies, I-III. quarter of 2019), 
https://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mpf/mpf193/index.html.  

133  Eurostat: Gender pay gap statistics, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-

explained/index.php/Gender_pay_gap_statistics.  

134  Simonovits, B., Szeitl, B. (2018) ‘Nők és férfiak helyzete – nemzetközi összehasonlításban’ (The situation of 
women and men – in international comparison), in Kolosi, T., Tóth I. Gy. (eds.) Társadalmi Riport 2018, 
Budapest, TÁRKI, p. 182, available at: http://www.tarki.hu/sites/default/files/trip2018/166-
183_simonovits_szeitl_Nok_ferfiak_helyzete.pdf. 

135  Takács, O., Vincze, J. (2019): ‘A nemek közti béregyenlőtlenség Magyarországon: új eredmények egy új 
módszerrel’ (The gender pay gap in Hungary: new results with a new methodology), Discussion papers, 
MT-DP – 2019/24, Budapest, Institute of Economics, Centre for Economic and Regional Studies, 
http://real.mtak.hu/104619/1/MTDP1924.pdf. 

136  Gregor A., Kováts E. (2018), Women's Affairs 2018: Societal Problems and Solution Strategies in Hungary 

(Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Budapest), available at: https://library.fes.de/pdf-
files/bueros/budapest/14462.pdf. English summary of a research report in Hungarian: Gregor, A., Kováts E. 
(2018) Nőügyek 2018: Társadalmi problémák és megoldási stratégiák (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Budapest), 
p. 5, available at: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/budapest/14461.pdf. 

137  Lipták, K., Matiscsákné Lizák, M. (2018), ‘A kisgyermekes nők foglalkoztatási helyzete és lehetőségeik’ (The 

employment situation and opportunities of women with young children) Vezetéstudomány – Budapest 
Management Review, vol. 49, no. 3, p. 47, available at: https://doi.org/10.14267/VEZTUD.2018.03.05. 

27 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
However, according to  a research report, 51 %  of the respondents in 2019 opined that 
more attention should be paid to the issue of discrimination in Hungary, which  shows a 
slight increase compared to data from 2017, when the respective proportion was 46 %.138 

4.1.3  Other issues 

The  previous  constitution,  unlike  the  Fundamental  Law  (the  current  constitution), 
expressly guaranteed equal pay for equal work.139  

4.1.4  Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

There has been no political or social debate, and there are no pending legislative proposals 
on the principles of equal pay and equal treatment at work. 

4.2  Equal pay 

4.2.1  Implementation in national law 

The rules on equal pay are very briefly regulated in Hungary; only one article of the Labour 
Code  addresses  the  issue  of  equal  pay,  which  states  that  in  connection  with  the 
remuneration  of  work  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  must  be  strictly  observed. 
Remedying  the  consequences  of  any  breach  of  this  requirement  may  not  result  in  any 
violation  of,  or  harm  to,  the  rights  of  other  workers.  The  Labour  Code  also  includes  a 
provision on work of equal value, stipulating that it should be ‘determined based on the 
nature of the work performed, its quality and quantity, working conditions, the required 
vocational training, physical or intellectual efforts expended, experience, responsibilities 
and labour market conditions’.140  

The Equal Treatment Act also prohibits direct and indirect wage discrimination and refers 
to the same article in the Labour Code.141 

4.2.2  Definition in national law 

The concept of ‘pay’ is defined in the Labour Code as ‘any remuneration provided directly 
or indirectly in cash or in kind, based on the employment relationship’; this definition is in 
compliance with the definition provided by Article 157(2) TFEU. 

4.2.3  Explicit implementation of Article 4 of Recast Directive 2006/54 

As for the implementation of Article 4 of the Recast Directive 2006/54, the Equal Treatment 
Act  defines  direct  discrimination  and  establishes  sex  as  a  protected  ground,142  defines 

138  Neményi M., Ságvári, B., Tardos, K. (2019), A diszkrimináció személyes és társadalmi észlelése és az 

egyenlő bánásmóddal kapcsolatos jogtudatosság. Kutatási eredmények (Personal and social perception of 
discrimination and rights awareness regarding equal treatment. Research results). Budapest, Equal 
Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság), Centre for Social Sciences Institute for Sociology 
(Társadalomtudományi Kutatóközpont Szociológiai Intézet), p. 149, available at: 
http://real.mtak.hu/104962/1/EBH_2019_FINAL_20191208_HU_vegles.pdf.  

139  Act XX of 1946. The Constitution of the Hungarian Republic. (1949 évi XX, törvény. A Magyar Köztársaság 

Alkotmánya), 18 August 1949, Article 78/B (2). 

140  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

12(1). 

141  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

12(1). 

142  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 

28 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
indirect discrimination,143 regulates the institutional scope,144 and lays down the relational 
scope of the act;145 furthermore, it prohibits direct and indirect wage discrimination.146  

4.2.4  Related case law 

In 2018, the Equal Treatment Authority established direct discrimination in a case in which 
a civil servant working in a public healthcare institution complained that her salary was 
lower than for men who worked in the same field.147 The employer asked for judicial review 
of the decision of the Equal Treatment Authority establishing direct sex discrimination by 
the Budapest-Capital Regional Court, which dismissed the claim in 2019. The judgment is 
not final.148 In this case, the employer did not dispute that the petitioner’s pay was lower 
than that of her male colleagues, but argued that the differences in pay could be explained 
by differences in their respective positions; their age; their work experience; the time that 
they had spent at their place of employment and the number of hours they had worked. 
The Equal Treatment Authority identified the year 2017 as the period under investigation. 
The petitioner acted as team leader for a team of employees responsible for work safety, 
fire safety and property protection, with the rest of the team being made up of three of 
her  male  colleagues  who  worked  as  her  subordinates.  In  December  2017  there  was  a 
reorganisation  at  the  petitioner’s  workplace,  and  as  part  of  that  process,  the  unit 
responsible for the protection of work and property and protection from fire was split into 
three distinct units. The petitioner was put in charge of one of the groups, while  two of 
her male colleagues who had previously been her subordinates were appointed as the two 
other unit managers. It is indisputable that the differences between the salaries of public 
employees  may  be  justified  by  reasons  such  as  the  ones  specified  by  the  employer. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  case  at  hand  it  was  apparent  that  throughout  the  entire  period 
investigated,  all  of  the  petitioner’s  male  colleagues  had  received  a  monthly  bonus  –  in 
addition to their base salary, and a pay supplement to bring their salary to the level of the 
legally  guaranteed  minimum  salary.  This  was  awarded  on  the  basis  of  the  employer’s 
discretionary decision, while during the same period the petitioner only received the legally 
guaranteed  minimum  salary.  It  was  further  possible  to  determine  that  as  soon  as  the 
petitioner’s male colleagues were appointed team managers, they also received a monthly 
supplement for the performance of their additional responsibilities as team leaders, while 
the petitioner did not receive an additional allowance for her work. This difference was not 
justified by the factors that the employer had invoked. Furthermore, the employer failed 
to provide other  explanations for the pay difference,  even though it bore the burden  of 
proof. Based on the above, the Authority concluded that the petitioner was not awarded 
the supplement because of her sex. 

In 2017, in one case, the Equal Treatment Authority skilfully used statistical evidence to 
establish a case of indirect wage discrimination. In this case, female workers claimed that 
they were victims of indirect discrimination when they had not received their extra ‘13th 
month payment’ (an in-cash benefit) due to being on sick leave with their children. The 
preconditions for this benefit had been set by  the applicable collective agreement. Only 
employees who were away from work less than 25 days per year were eligible to receive 
the benefit. The calculation of the workers’ days of absence did not include the annual paid 
holiday, work-related illness, or illness which needed inpatient hospital care. The mothers 
of young children claimed that even though the regulations were seemingly impartial, they 

143  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 9. 
144  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 4. 
145  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 5. 
146  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 21 
Point f). 

147  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/152/2018.  
148  Budapest Capital Regional Court No. 107.K.700.759/2018/7. 

29 

 
 
 
 
were  disproportionately  detrimental  and  discriminatory  towards  mothers  with  children 
under the age of 12, which is the age limit for eligibility for sickness payments based on 
children’s  rights  under  the  social  security  scheme.  The  Equal  Treatment  Authority 
conducted a statistical investigation comparing the number of workers who were and were 
not  eligible  for  the  benefit  and  the  total  number  of  workers,  and  the  number  of  female 
workers  who  had  and  did  not  have  children  under  the  age  of  12.  The  statistical 
investigation  showed  that  the  rule  determined  by  the  collective  agreement  was 
disproportionately disadvantageous to female  workers with young children  compared to 
male or female workers who had no children.149 

4.2.5  Permissibility of pay differences 

According to the Equal Treatment Act, since 2007, exemptions are no longer possible in 
direct  wage  discrimination  cases.150  A  resolution  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority’s 
Advisory Body (from 2008) provided that the general rules of exemption provided by the 
Equal  Treatment  Act  cannot  be  applied  in  sex-based  discrimination  cases  where  the 
principle of ‘equal pay for work of equal value’ is violated.151 

4.2.6  Requirement for comparators 

In  Hungary  neither  legislation  nor  case  law  in  wage  discrimination  cases  requires  the 
claimant to point to a particular comparator. 

At present, in most of the published cases the arguments are phrased in general terms; 152 
for  instance,  the  claimant  argues  that  a  preference  is  awarded  to  employees  in  a 
discriminatory  fashion  without  referring  to  one  particular  employee  as  a  comparison. 
Sometimes  the  employer  uses  the  pay  of  other  employees  to  exempt  itself  from  legal 
liability by demonstrating a lack  of discrimination. Usually the arguments  on both sides 
remain at the level of general arguments, even if a list of employees’ pay is sent to the 
court. Nonetheless, the review of the published cases reveals that taking, elaborating, and 
contrasting the actual pay of the claimant with another concrete employee, significantly 
improves  the  claimant’s  chances  of  winning  the  case.  In  an  Equal  Treatment  Authority 
case, the monthly wages  of two  male storekeepers were 45-110 %  more than those  of 
their two female colleagues during a longer period of time. The detailed data on monthly 
wages  enabled  the  claimant  (one  of  the  female  storekeepers)  to  prove  direct  wage 
discrimination.153  

In a recent case, a pregnant employee argued that employees who were hired later than 
her  received  a  higher  initial  base  wage,  and  therefore  she  was  directly  discriminated 
against due to her pregnancy. The data collected during the proceeding, however, showed 
that  all  employees  who  were  hired  later  than  the  plaintiff  received  a  higher  base  wage 
even  before  she  became  pregnant  (Hungarian  language  does  not  have  gender-specific 
pronouns, thus we can only assume that all the employees involved were female, although 
it is not stated in the case). Therefore, the Equal Treatment Authority concluded that her 
pregnancy was not the reason for the difference in wages.154 

149  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/130/2017. See the description 

of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See also at Section 3.4.2 of 
this report. 

150  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(2). 

151  Resolution no. 384/4/2008. (III.28.) TT. of the Advisory Body of the Equal Treatment Authority relating to 

the share of the burden of proof (Az Egyenlő Bánásmód Tanácsadó Testület 384/4/2008. (III.28.) TT. sz. 
állásfoglalása a bizonyítási kötelezettség megosztásával kapcsolatban), available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/sites/default/files/content/torveny/bizonyitasi_kotelezettseg.pdf. 

152  Supreme Court (Kúria), Decision in Principle No. 22/2014. in Labour Law. 
153  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/117/2010. 
154  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/19/2016. 

30 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A comparator could also be a hypothetical comparator, because the notions of direct and 
indirect discrimination both use the phrase ‘would be’. According to the knowledge of the 
author, none of the published case law was based on a hypothetical comparison of wages. 

4.2.7  Existence of parameters for establishing the equal value of the work performed 

According to the Labour Code:  

‘[t]he equal value of work for the purposes of the principle of equal treatment shall 
be determined based on the nature of the work performed, its quality and quantity, 
working conditions, the required vocational training, physical or intellectual efforts 
expended, experience, responsibilities and labour market conditions’.155  

The  latter  criterion  (‘labour  market  conditions’)  was  inserted  into  the  paragraph  by  the 
new Code in 2012, and according to the intentions of the drafters, the provision aims to 
open  up  the  possibility  for  nationwide  employers  to  provide  different  wages  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  Thus,  it  may  be  legitimate  if  a  company  pays  higher  salaries  for 
employees working for a Budapest unit, compared to the salaries of employees working 
for a unit located in the North-Eastern part of the country. This is based on the rationale 
that the labour market in the capital city is more developed and competitive compared to 
an economically disadvantaged rural region, where labour market opportunities are rather 
limited. This criterion fits somewhat oddly within this subsection, as all the other criteria 
deal  with  the  individual,  while  the  labour  market  condition  reflects  the  local  or  national 
labour market data. According to the views of the author, this added criterion mitigates 
the effectiveness of the article and provides too much leeway for employers. 

4.2.8  Other relevant rules or policies 

No other measures, tools or procedures have been developed to lay down parameters for 
establishing the equal value of work. 

4.2.9  Job evaluation and classification systems 

The  Ministry  of  Interior,  within  the  framework  of  a  project  funded  by  the  EU  Structural 
Funds  in  2015,  implemented  a  comprehensive  job  evaluation  initiative  in  the  public 
administration  sphere;  moreover,  it  developed  and  implemented  job  evaluation  and 
classification training courses.156 

4.2.10 Wage transparency 

In the public sector, performance or job classification schemes are widespread, which in 
theory would create a high level of transparency in wages. According to the Act on Civil 
Servants, the director of the State administrative organ may increase the basic wage of 
the public servant by 50 % or may reduce it by 20 %.157 For civil servants working at some 
specific  public  institutions  the  adjustment  cannot  be  bigger  than  30  %.158  The  wage 
adjustment is linked to the result of an evaluation of the performance or the quality of the 
work  done  in  the  previous  year,  although  no  detailed  regulations  exist  in  this  regard. 
Although equal pay rules are applicable to public servants, the possibility of a severe wage 
adjustment  reduces  the  transparency  of  wages,  and  may  also  result  in  a  gender-based 
wage gap in the public sector. 

155  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

12(3). 

156  See: Ministry of Interior: Új közszolgálati életpálya (ÁROP-2.2.17-2012-2013-000), 

https://bmprojektek.kormany.hu/uj-kozszolgalati-eletpalya.  

157  Act CXCIX of 2011 on Civil Servants (2011. évi CXCIX. törvény a közszolgálati tisztviselőkről), 

30 December 2011, Article 133(3). 

158  Act CXCIX of 2011 on Civil Servants (2011. évi CXCIX. törvény a közszolgálati tisztviselőkről), 

30 December 2011, Article 134(1). 

31 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
It  is  fairly  frequent  in  both  the  private  and  public  sector  that  the  employer  arbitrarily 
provides  better  wage  conditions  for  some  individuals  or  some  groups  of  workers.  For 
example, in one case, some groups of nurses working in different departments of the same 
hospital were entitled to receive hazard bonuses, while other groups of nurses were not, 
despite  working  under  identical  or  very  similar  conditions.159  During  the  litigation,  the 
employer stopped paying the hazard bonus to all its nurses, meaning that the claimants’ 
reference point ceased to exist, and their claim was dismissed. Nonetheless, the Supreme 
Court concluded that as long as the bonus is paid to a group of employees, all groups who 
are  in  a  comparable  situation  may  request  the  same  remuneration.  According  to  the 
decision in a more recent case,160 a public servant cannot claim a higher wage by referring 
to  equal  pay  regulations  if  that  wage  was  established  by  the  violation  of  the  applicable 
wage law. 

4.2.11 Implementation of the transparency measures set out by European Commission’s 
Recommendation  of  7  March  2014  on  strengthening  the  principle  of  equal  pay 
between men and women 

The measures set out by the European Commission’s Recommendation of 7 March 2014 
on  strengthening  the  principle  of  equal  pay  between  men  and  women  have  not  been 
implemented in Hungary.  

4.2.12 Other measures, tools or procedures 

No other measures, tools or procedures have been developed to enhance pay transparency 
and promote equal pay. 

4.3  Access to work, working conditions and dismissal 

4.3.1  Definition of the personal scope (Article 14 of Recast Directive 2006/54) 

As  for  the  personal  scope  provided  by  the  Equal  treatment  Act,  it  covers:  ‘employment 
relationship’ (foglalkoztatási jogviszony) which includes employment in the private sector; 
civil  servants;  public  servants;  judges;  other  employees  of  the  judiciary;  public 
prosecutors; professional and contractual service relationship in law enforcement and the 
military; professional foster parents, temporary employment through an agency,161 and 
‘other  relationships  aimed  at  work’  (munkavégzésre  irányuló  egyéb  jogviszony);  cover 
homeworkers  (piece-rate  workers);  contracts  for  work  and  to  work;  the  working 
relationship  of  members  of  co-operatives;  and  partnership  activities  under  civil  law 
involving a personal contribution and aimed at work.162 

4.3.2  Definition of the material scope (Article 14(1) of Recast Directive 2006/54) 

As for the material scope, the Equal Treatment Act163 provides protection against the forms 
of direct and indirect discrimination listed in the Recast Directive 2006/54 in relation to 
access to work and working conditions. This protection covers the following major areas: 
application  for  work,  establishment  and  termination  of  the  employment  relationship, 

159  Supreme Court (Legfelsőbb Bíróság) Judgment No. Mfv.II.10.514/2011; adopted as Decision in Principle 

No. as 2424/2011. in Labour Law. 

160  Supreme Court (Kúria) Judgment No. Mfv.I.10.563/2013; adopted as Decision in Principle No. as 19/2014. 

in Labour Law. 

161  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 3 
Point (a). 

162  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 3 
Point (b). 

163  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 21, 
Points (a)-(i). 

32 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
vocational training, promotions, membership of workers’ unions, disciplinary procedures 
and compensatory responsibility, equal pay, the reconciliation of employment and parental 
responsibilities.  

4.3.3  Implementation of the exception on occupational activities (Article 14(2) of Recast 

Directive 2006/54) 

As for the implementation of the exception on occupational activities (Article 14(2) Recast 
Directive 2006/54), the Equal Treatment Act provides that the principle of equal treatment 
is  not  violated  if  ‘the  differentiation  is  proportionate,  justified  by  the  characteristics  or 
nature  of  the  job  and  is  based  on  all  relevant  and  legitimate  terms  and  conditions  that 
may be taken in consideration in the course of employment’.164 

This text was formulated following the amendment to the article which reduced the scope 
of the exception from virtually any employment situation to distinctions which take place 
during the hiring process by adding the phrase ‘in the course of hiring’. This modification 
resulted in a text which very much resembles Article 14(2) of Directive 2006/54/EC which 
must be considered a major legal development.  

In addition, the Equal Treatment Act provides165 that the principle of equal treatment shall 
not be considered to have been violated if the discrimination arises directly from a religious 
or other ideological conviction or national or ethnic origin fundamentally determining the 
nature  of  the  organisation,  and  it  is  proportional  and  justified  by  the  nature  of  the 
employment activity or the conditions of its pursuit. 

Nonetheless,  the  exception  provision  in  the  Equal  Treatment  Act166  also  applies  to  sex 
discrimination cases, which allows employers to prove that, ‘by objective consideration’, 
there  is  ‘a  reasonable  explanation’  for  discrimination,  ‘directly  related  to  the  relevant 
[employment] relationship’. This exception can cover situations where, for example, sex 
discrimination is justified by deeply rooted socio-cultural norms (e.g. that bath attendants 
should be females in a women’s public bath). However, sometimes the (alleged) financial 
interest of the employer is also seen as a ‘reasonable explanation’ for sex discrimination, 
thus the phrasing of this provision may be problematic from the aspect of gender equality. 

4.3.4  Protection  against  the  non-hiring,  non-renewal  of  a  fixed-term  contract,  non-
continuation  of  a  contract  and  dismissal  of  women  connected  to  their  state  of 
pregnancy and/or maternity 

The Equal Treatment Act covers ‘motherhood (pregnancy)’ as a protected ground against 
any form of discrimination including in the area of employment (access to employment, 
advertising, hiring, work conditions).167  

164  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1) 
Point (a). 

165  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1) 
Point (b). 

166  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2) 
Point (b). 

167  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8(l) 
and Article 21(a)-(e). 

33 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
4.3.5  Implementation  of  the  exception  on  the  protection  for  women  in  relation  to 

pregnancy and maternity (Article 28(1) of Recast Directive 2006/54) 

The  exception  on  the  protection  for  women  in  relation  to  pregnancy  and  maternity 
(Article 28(1) Recast Directive 2006/54) has not been implemented explicitly in national 
law. 

4.3.6  Particular difficulties 

Hungarian courts are excessively strict when determining the amount of compensation to 
be paid to victims of sex discrimination. In a case from 2008, when a female bus driver 
was not employed because of her sex and hence directly discriminated against, only the 
lost wages up to the day she found employment elsewhere were awarded and no further 
financial  compensation  (non-pecuniary  damages)  was  awarded  to  her,  although  the 
Supreme Court referred to ECJ case C-14/83168 and noted that dissuasive sanctions should 
be applied to serve the purpose of a general deterrent. 

4.3.7  Positive action measures (Article 3 of Recast Directive 2006/54)  

With  regards  to  positive  action  measures  on  work-life  balance  issues,  the  only  hard 
(legally-binding) regulation is imposed on a defined group of employers: budgetary organs 
and  legal  entities  in  state  majority  ownership  employing  more  than  fifty  employees  are 
obliged to adopt an ‘Equal Opportunity Plan’.169 However, these plans, as a rule, contain 
only soft provisions, including positive action measures on work-life balance, that do not 
grant rights to targeted individuals in practice. 

Another  relevant  measure  is  that  employers  are  eligible  for  tax  reward  if  they  employ 
individuals  (both  women  and  men)  returning  from  parental  leave170  (obviously,  women 
are disproportionately represented in this group) or women with three or more children. 171 
However, according to a report by the IMF from 2016, the impact of the tax cuts on the 
employment of women coming back to work from maternity has been limited (while the 
unemployment rate of women in the age group of 25-45 years declined, and their labour 
market participation increased since the introduction of the measure, ‘these improvements 
were subpar or similar to those of the untargeted group’).172 

The Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Magyar Tudományos Akadémia) has introduced an 
extension  of  the  age  limit  (of  30  years  as  a  default)  set  for  Junior  Research  Fellow 
positions173 by two years per child in the case of female applicants raising young children 
(below the age of 10 years); male applicants may also be eligible for this extension if they 
have spent some time on parental leave, or if they are single fathers. This provision may 
be considered as a form of positive measure – and not a form of direct sex discrimination 
– because it recognises women’s disadvantages in the field of academia stemming from 
childcare  responsibilities,  but  it  does  not  exclude  men  who  take  a  significant  share  of 
childcare. Moreover, this measure does not create an entitlement or guarantee access to 
a  position,  and  does  not  even  provide  any  advantage  for  women  during  the  selection 
process, it just widens the circle of potential female applicants. In the case of the Post-

168  Case C-14/83, Sabine von Colson and Elisabeth Kamann v Land Nordrhein-Westfalen 10 April 1984.  
169  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról) Article 63, Paragraph (4). 
170  Act LII of 2018 on the social contribution tax (2018. évi LII. törvény a szociális hozzájárulási adóról), 31 

July 2018, Article 11. 

171  Act LII of 2018 on the social contribution tax (2018. évi LII. törvény a szociális hozzájárulási adóról), 31 

July 2018, Article 12. 

172  International Monetary Fund (April 2016), ‘Hungary 2016. Article IV Consultation — Press Release, Staff 

Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Hungary’, IMF Country Report, No. 16/107, p. 52, 
https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2016/12/31/Hungary-2016-Article-IV-Consultation-Press-
Release-Staff-Report-and-Statement-by-the-43878. 

173  See e.g. a call from 2019 (in Hungarian): https://iti.btk.mta.hu/hu/21-hirek/700-fiatal-kutatoi-palyazat-

2019. 

34 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
doctoral Fellowship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the age limit (40 years as a 
default) may also  be  raised in cases  of  applicants who have children (by two years per 
child,  but  by  a  maximum  of  four  years),  but  this  applies  only  for  those  applicants  who 
have  spent  some  time  on  childcare  leave174  –  i.e.  this  regulation  does  not  differentiate 
between  women  and  men  (mothers  and  fathers),  but  focuses  only  on  parental 
involvement. 

4.4  Evaluation of implementation 

In 2017, an important amendment was applied to the Equal Treatment Act: previously, in 
employment discrimination cases employers were allowed to justify differential treatment 
among  workers  on  a  broad  basis,  covering  de  facto  any  employment  scenario,  but  the 
amended provision175 narrows the possible justifications for differential treatment to the 
hiring process in accordance with Article 14(1) of the Recast Directive. This modification 
clearly indicates a trend towards a better implementation of the EU acquis.  

4.5  Remaining issues 

There are no further issues regarding national law specifically on equal pay and/or equal 
treatment at work. 

However,  as  for  the  general  context,  an  amendment176  of  the  Labour  Code  should  be 
mentioned, in force from 1 January 2019, often referred to by critics as the ‘Slave Law’. 
Ir provides an increase of annual overtime period allowed by the law to 400 hours (from 
250  hours)  and  the  increase  of  the  reference  period  to  36  months  (from  12  months). 
According to the public statement of the  Hungarian Trade Union Confederation (Magyar 
Szakszervezeti  Szövetség),  the  legislation  is  a  direct  infringement  of  the  working  time 
provisions of Directive 2003/88/EC /Article 19/ Chapter 4: and the increase ‘could lead in 
practice to excessive vulnerability of employees and further shift the balance to the benefit 
of  employers’.177  According  to  available  data,  in  Hungary,  men  are  more  likely  to  work 
overtime  than  women,178  which  reinforces  men’s  role  as  breadwinners,  and  which  may 
affect  the  division  of  work  within  the  family,  i.e.  women  may  end  up  performing  more 
unpaid/care work.  

174  See the latest call, from 2019 (in Hungarian): https://mta.hu/aktualis-palyazati-kiirasok/mta-premium-

posztdoktori-kutatoi-program-109449. 

175  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1) 
Point (a). 

176  Act CXVI of 2018 on the amendment of certain laws relating to working time organisation and to the 
minimum fee for temporary work (2018. évi CXVI. törvény a munkaidő-szervezéssel és a munkaerő 
minimális kölcsönzési díjával összefüggő egyes törvények módosításáról), 12 December 2018. 

177  See: ‘Slave Law – Hungary 2018.’ Statement of the Hungarian Trade Union Confederation, 

https://www.labourstart.org/slavelaw.html. 

178  Bakó, T., Czethoffer, É., Kónya I., Köllő J. (2019) Munkaerőpiaci tendenciák, különösen az elvándorlás, a 

munkaerőhiány hatása a gazdaságra, államháztartásra (Labour market tendencies, with special attention to 
the impact of outmigration and labour shortage on the economy and public finances) Budapest MTA KRTK 
KTI, p. 19, http://real.mtak.hu/105497/1/MTA_KRTK_KTI_Munkaero-piacitendenciak.pdf. 

35 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5 

Pregnancy,  maternity,  and  leave  related  to  work-life  balance  for  workers 
(Directive 92/85, relevant provisions of Directives 2006/54, 2010/18 and 
2019/1158)179 

5.1  General (legal) context 

5.1.1  Surveys and reports on the practical difficulties linked to work-life balance 

According to an analysis published in 2019, the labour market situation of mothers with 
young children depends both on family and employment policies in Hungary; the authors 
argue  that  the  relevant  policies  struggle  ‘to  find  a  balance  between  two  contradicting 
principles: providing sufficient family allowances and maintaining labour market flexibility 
by  weak  protection  of  employees’,  and  suggest  that  labour  reforms  would  be  needed: 
measures concerning working time arrangements, part-time work and protection against 
dismissal (including the protection of fathers with young children).180 

A study published in 2018 concludes that care work is clearly considered to be the primary 
responsibility of women. As a result, women  expect help only from  other female family 
members, and few believe that men and/or the state/municipalities should help. Moreover, 
while  some  level  of  ‘tolerance’  is  shown  by  employers  towards  workers  with  childcare 
responsibilities (typically women), workers with elderly-care responsibilities (also typically 
women)  may  face  special  difficulties,  as  this  type  of  work-life  balance  issue  is  less 
recognised  by  employers,  thus  suitable  working  arrangements  may  not  be  available  for 
them.181 

5.1.2  Other issues 

A policy paper published in 2018 by an NGO, suggests that the approach of parental leave 
policies  from  Scandinavia  (more  specifically,  from  Norway),  i.e.  that  fathers  are 
encouraged  by  provisions  to  take  parental  leave,  should  be  considered  in  Hungary  as 
well.182  

5.1.3  Overview of national acts on work-life balance issues 

Work-life balance issues are addressed first of all by the following national acts:  

- 

- 

Labour Code (provisions on the legal protection of, and on special arrangements for 
pregnant women/parents/care providers in the field of employment);183  
Act on the Protection of Families (provisions on the legal protection of parents, with 
attention to adoptive parents as well, in the field of employment);184 

179  See Masselot, A. (2018) Family leave: enforcement of the protection against dismissal and unfavourable 
treatment, European network of legal experts in gender equality and non-discrimination, available at 
https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4808-family-leave-enforcement-of-the-protection-against-
dismissal-and-unfavourable-treatment-pdf-962-kb and McColgan, A. (2015) Measures to address the 
challenges of work-life balance in the EU Member States, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, European 
network of legal experts in gender equality and non-discrimination, available at 
https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/3631-reconciliation. 

180  Hungler, S., Kende, Á. (2019) ‘Nők a család- és foglalkoztatáspolitika keresztútján’ (Women at the 
crossroads of family policies and employment policies’), Pro Futuro, vol. 9, no. 2., available at: 
https://doi.org/10.26521/Profuturo/1/2019/3881. 

181  Gregor, A. and Kovats, E. (2018), ‘Women’s Affairs 2018 Societal Problems and Solution Strategies in 

Hungary’, May 2018, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Budapest, available at: https://library.fes.de/pdf-
files/bueros/budapest/14462.pdf. 

182  Füstös, M., Sáfrány, R. (2018), A skandináv családtámogatási modell jó gyakorlatainak feltérképezése: 
kutatási jelentés (Mapping the good practices of the Scandinavian model of family support policies: 
Research results), Ampók Foundation (Ampók Alapítvány), available at: 
https://issuu.com/hungreenstone/docs/tanulmany_final_0404_vegleges_web. 

183  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012. 
184  Act CCXI on the Protection of Families (2011. évi CCXI. törvény a családok védelméről), 31 December 

2011. 

36 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- 
- 

- 

- 

Act on the Support of Families (provisions on childcare allowances);185 
Act  on  the  Benefits  of  Compulsory  Health  Insurance  (provisions  on  maternity  and 
parental leave);186 
Act  on  Social  Governance  and  Social  Benefits  (provisions  on  different  care 
allowances);187 and 
Act on Work Safety (provisions on protecting workers’ reproductive health and foetal 
health).188 

5.1.4  Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

There has been no political or social debate, and there are no pending legislative proposals 
on the issue of work-life balance. 

5.2  Pregnancy and maternity protection 

5.2.1  Definition in national law 

A pregnant worker is defined implicitly in relation to protection against dismissal during 
pregnancy in the Labour Code: protection against dismissal only applies if the pregnant 
employee informs her employer of her condition.189 (This definition is consistent with the 
definition provided in Article 2 of Directive 92/85.) 

The  Hungarian  law  used  to  apply  the  term  ‘childbed’  (gyermekágy)  for  the  time  period 
following childbirth, in the context of employment and maternity-related allowances, but 
currently  this  term  is  only  used  in  legislation  relating  to  healthcare,  and  no  explicit 
definition is provided for a worker who has recently given birth. It may be noted that the 
maternity allowance that is now called ‘infant care fee’ (csecsemőgondozási díj) was until 
2015 termed ‘aid covering pregnancy and childbed’ (terhességi-gyermekágyi segély); this 
allowance is available until the 168th day after the birth of the child (unless the child was 
born prematurely).190  

The explicit definition of breastfeeding women, as provided in Article 2c of Directive 92/85, 
is lacking in Hungarian law.  

Articles  4-6  of  Directive  92/85  are  implemented  by  the  Labour  Code:191  a  reduction  in 
working  hours  is  provided  for  breastfeeding  mothers  (the  provision  includes  the  term 
‘mother’, instead of ‘woman’, which may exclude those women who are donating or selling 
their  breast  milk).192  The  Act  on  Work  Safety  definition  on  vulnerable  workers  includes 
both ‘breastfeeding mothers’ and ‘women who are breast milk suppliers’ (although this act 
does not provide specific measures for these women).193  

185  Act LXXXIV of 1998 on the Support of Families (1998. évi LXXXIV. törvény a családok támogatásáról), 24 

December 1998. 

186  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997. 

187  Act III of 1993 on Social Governance and Social Benefits (1993. évi III. törvény a szociális igazgatásról és 

szociális ellátásokról), 27 January 1993. 

188  Act XCIII of 1993 on Work Safety (1993. évi XCIII. törvény a munkavédelemről), 3 November 1993. 
189  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

65(5). 

190  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Article 40. 

191  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 51(3) and 60. 

192  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

55(1) Point (e). 

193  Act XCIII of 1993 on Work Safety (1993. évi XCIII. törvény a munkavédelemről), 3 November 1993, Article 

49(1) Point (c). 

37 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.2.2  Obligation to inform employer 

According to the Labour Code,194 protection against dismissal only applies if the pregnant 
employee informs her employer of her condition. Previously the definition requested the 
pregnant  employee  to  inform  her  employer  of  her  condition  before  any  dismissal  was 
delivered to her. On 30 May 2014 the Constitutional Court nullified this ‘preliminary’ phase 
because  it  unnecessarily  interfered  with  the  private  sphere  of  pregnant  women.195  The 
modified  article196  of  the  Labour  Code  came  into  force  on  18  June  2016  (without  the 
reference  to  ‘prior’).  If  the  notification  of  pregnancy  is  given  following  the  delivery  of  a 
letter  of  dismissal,  the  dismissal  may  be  withdrawn  by  the  employer  within  15  days 
following the notification. In this case the employee is entitled to receive any wage unpaid 
due to the dismissal and the period of time between the dismissal and its withdrawal will 
be considered as working time for the purpose of employment and social security.197 

5.2.3  Case law on the definition of a pregnant worker, a worker who has recently given 

birth and/or a worker who is breastfeeding 

Please see under 5.2.2 for case adjudicated by the Constitutional Court.  

The Equal Treatment Authority has directly invoked the definition from the Directive 92/85 
regarding a case  of a pregnant employee’s dismissal during the probationary period. In 
this case, the Authority established direct discrimination based on pregnancy, imposed a 
fine of EUR 3 100 (HUF 1 000 000), and prohibited the employer from engaging in similar 
discrimination in the future.198  

5.2.4  Implementation of protective measures (Articles 4-6 of Directive 92/85) 

The  regulations  laid  down  by  both  the  Labour  Code199  and  the  Act  on  Work  Safety200 
together  implement  Articles  4-7  of  Directive  92/85.  The  obligation  to  conduct  risk 
assessments and to notify employees and their representatives are regulated by the Act 
on Work Safety:201 it provides that an employee can only be employed to perform given 
work when that work does not endanger her reproductive abilities and her foetus.202 The 
Act  also  lists203  substances  considered  detrimental  to  foetuses  among  ‘dangerous 
substances’. 

According to the Labour Code,204 a pregnant employee shall be offered a job that is suitable 
for  her  state  of  health  if,  according  to  a  medical  opinion,  she  is  unable  to  work  in  her 
original  position  from  the  time  her  pregnancy  is  established  until  her  child  reaches  one 
year of age. If a job which is suitable for her state of health cannot be found, the pregnant 
worker shall be discharged from her  obligation to conduct the work. The worker will be 
paid the basic wage which is normally paid for the job offered, which may not be less than 
her basic wage in her employment contract. The basic wage is also payable for the duration 

194  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

65(5). 

195  Constitutional Court Decision (AB határozat) No.17/2014. (V. 30.), 30 May 2014.  
196  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

65(3). 

197  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 65(5) and 83(2)-(4). 

198  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/379/2014. 
199  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012. 
200  Act XCIII of 1993 on Work Safety (1993. évi XCIII. törvény a munkavédelemről), 3 November 1993. 
201  Act XCIII of 1993 on Work Safety (1993. évi XCIII. törvény a munkavédelemről), 3 November 1993, Article 

42. 

202  Act XCIII of 1993 on Work Safety (1993. évi XCIII. törvény a munkavédelemről), 3 November 1993, Article 

49(1) Point (c). 

203  Act XCIII of 1993 on Work Safety (1993. évi XCIII. törvény a munkavédelemről), 3 November 1993, Article 

87(12). 

204  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

60. 

38 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
of  the  time  during  which  she  has  been  discharged  from  her  obligation  to  do  the  work, 
except if the job offered is refused without good reason. 

The  Labour  Code205  indicates  that  the  employer  is  obliged  ‘to  make  an  offer  to  the 
employee  to  have  his/her  wage  adjusted’  at  the  end  of  any  birth-related  leave; 
consequently,  the  offer  of  a  modification  must  address  only  the  wage  of  the  returning 
parent  and  not  any  other  working  conditions,  which  creates  a  gap  in  the  Hungarian 
implementation. 

Two provisions206 of the Labour Code were amended,207 and the new provisions entered 
into  force  on  1  January  2018.  The  amendment  added  a  second  sentence  to 
Section 51(3):208 the first sentence determines that employees may not be employed to 
perform work that could endanger their health. The second sentence extends this rule to 
situations  where  the  employee’s  state  of  health  changes  during  the  employment 
relationship  and  obliges  the  employer  to  adapt  the  working  conditions  or  adjust  the 
working  time  according  to  the  employee’s  different  state  of  health.  The  amendment  in 
Section 60(1)209 is technical in nature and does not change the core of the existing rules; 
if the working conditions cannot be accordingly changed in the employee’s original job and 
as long as a medical opinion declares that the employee is unfit to perform the duties of 
her  regular  job,  she  will  be  offered  a  job  that  is  suitable  for  her  altered  state  of  health 
from the time that the pregnancy is declared until the child reaches the age of one year. 
The employee must be completely exempted from the obligation to work if the employer 
cannot offer her any alternative job compatible with her state of health.  

Since  2009,  Hungarian  labour  law  has  recognised  a  special  category  of  fixed-term 
employment – ‘simplified employment’ (egyszerűsített foglalkoztatás) – which is regulated 
by the Labour Code210 and the Act on Simplified Employment,211 covering seasonal work 
and short-term contracts in the agricultural sector and in the field of tourism (the length 
of  employment  may  not  exceed  120  days  per  calendar  year).  In  the  case  of  ‘simplified 
employment’, employers are not obliged to continue the employment of mothers returning 
from child-related leave.212 

5.2.5  Case law on issues addressed in Articles 4 and 5 of Directive 92/85 

As  for  case  law  on  issues  addressed  in  Articles  4  and  5  of  Directive  92/85,  the  Equal 
Treatment  Authority  established  in  2014  that  an  employer  had  unlawfully  dismissed  an 
employee  after  not  renewing  her  contract  following  her  request  to  be  transferred  to  a 
physically less demanding job due to her pregnancy. The employer could not be exempted 
from  their  liability  by  arguing  that  there  was  no  need  for  more  cashiers  and  that  the 
termination was due to the seasonal fluctuation of the workforce demand because they 
had  placed  a  job  advertisement  seeking  cashiers  during  the  same  period  of  time.  The 

205  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

59. 

206  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 51(3) and 60. 

207  Act CLIX of 2017 on the Amendment of Acts Relating to the Implementation of the Act on General Public 
Administration Procedures and Certain Other Acts (2017. évi CLIX. törvény az általános közigazgatási 
rendtartásról szóló törvény hatálybalépésével összefüggő törvények és egyes egyéb törvények 
módosításáról), 23 November 2017, Article 202. 

208  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

51(3). 

209  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

60(1). 

210  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 201-203. 

211  Act LXXV of 2010 on Simplified Employment (2010. évi LXXV. törvény az egyszerűsített foglalkoztatásról), 
12 July 2010. This act replaced the previous act on simplified employment: Act CLII of 2009 on Simplified 
Employment (2009. évi CLII. törvény az egyszerűsített foglalkoztatásról), 14 December 2009 

212  Act LXXV of 2010 on Simplified Employment (2010. évi LXXV. törvény az egyszerűsített foglalkoztatásról), 

12 July 2010. 

39 

 
 
 
 
 
 
findings of the Equal Treatment Authority were confirmed by the workforce statistics which 
did not show any seasonal pattern either. As the dismissal was based on the pregnancy of 
the employee, it constituted direct sex discrimination and the employer was obliged to pay 
a fine of EUR 2 000.213 

5.2.6  Prohibition of night work 

The Labour Code defines night work as work performed between 22.00 pm and 6.00 am.214 
According to the Labour Code, night work is prohibited for women during pregnancy until 
their  child(ren)  reaches  three  years  old,  also  for  single  parents  (fathers)  until  their 
child(ren) reaches three year old  –  even in cases when the employee would consent to 
perform night work.215 This means that, for example, if a waitress would like to return to 
work in a bar – which is open during the night hours – under the law she cannot return to 
her employment until her child reaches three years, except in the event that the employer 
can offer her daytime work.216 

5.2.7  Case law on the prohibition of night work 

There is no recent case law or publicly available report on the discrimination of women in 
relation to the prohibition of night work.  

In  a  2007  case  at  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  a  mother  of  three  children  (a  nine-
month-old,  a  six-year-old  and  a  nine-year-old)  complained  that  she  was  discriminated 
against because she was refused employment, based on maternity. The employer claimed 
that among other things, one of the main reasons for the refusal was the legal provision 
that prohibits night work for mothers of young children. The Equal Treatment Authority 
established  discrimination  because  the  employer  could  not  prove  that  the  refusal  was 
solely based on this legal prohibition and was  not based  on  other arguments  related to 
maternity.217 

5.2.8  Prohibition of dismissal  

A dismissal with notice is prohibited during pregnancy, maternity leave, parental leave and 
IVF  treatment  for  six  months.218  Employees  in  executive  positions  are  protected  during 
pregnancy  and  maternity  leave,  and  from  18  June  2016,  during  IVF  treatment  for  six 
months,  but  not  during  parental  leave.219  A  dismissal  with  immediate  effect,  which  is 
discussed below, is allowed as an exception in these situations. 

Mothers  on  maternity  leave  and  mothers  and  single  fathers  on  parental  leave  enjoy 
protection against dismissal which lasts until the child reaches three years of age. If the 
mother or the single father does not take parental leave until the child reaches three years 
of age, they are no longer covered by protection against dismissal, but still enjoy some 
legal protection, which in the Hungarian labour law is called ‘restriction on dismissal’. The 
form of such a restriction varies according to the actual reason for the dismissal. If the 
reason for the dismissal is related to the employee’s behaviour, it must be so serious that 
it could serve as a basis for dismissal with immediate effect. If the reason for the dismissal 

213  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/189/2014. 
214  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

89. 

215  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

113(1) Points (a)-(b), (3). 

216  Kártyás, G. (2018), ‘Ki és hogyan kötelezhető éjszakai munkára?’ (Who can be required, and under which 

conditions, to perform night shift work?), Adó Online, 2 October 2018, available at: 
https://ado.hu/munkaugyek/ki-es-hogyan-kotelezheto-ejszakai-munkara/. 

217  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/310/2007.  
218  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

55(3) Points (a)-(c), (e). 

219  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

209(2) Point (b). 

40 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
is related to either the capabilities of the employee or the operation of the employer, the 
employee can only be dismissed if there is no vacancy at the employer’s premises where 
(s)he  was  employed  before,  which  corresponds  to  the  capabilities,  practice  and 
qualification used by the employee in his/her current job.220  

In  Hungarian  labour  law,  the  regulations  on  parental  leave  and  the  related  protection 
against  dismissal  reveal  that  Hungarian  legislation  is  still  permeated  with  stereotypical 
ideation about the gender roles in family and in society. The legislation suggests that it is 
the right and obligation of the mother to take care of the child and therefore legislative 
protection is provided to mothers. The father enjoys equivalent protection only if he is a 
single  father  who  replaces  the  mother  in  the  caring  role,  because  the  mother  is  not 
available (has died or left the family). This legislation seems to be in violation of Article 14 
1.3 of Directive 2006/54/EC.  

According to the Labour Code,221 a dismissal with immediate effect could be applied during 
any period of the employment relationship, including during pregnancy, and while being 
on  leave,  or  having  returned  from  leave  until  the  child  reaches  the  age  of  three,  if  the 
employee a) wilfully or by gross negligence commits a grave violation of any substantive 
obligations arising from the employment relationship; or b) otherwise engages in conduct 
that would render the employment relationship impossible.  

5.2.9  Redundancy and payment during maternity leave 

When  an  employee  is  made  redundant  during  her  maternity  leave,  the  payment  for 
maternity leave is continued. 

5.2.10 Employer’s obligation to substantiate a dismissal 

According to the Labour Code, all employment terminations must be put in writing, and a 
dismissal  with  immediate  effect  must  be  justified  by  the  employer.222  No  justification  is 
needed for terminating the employment during the probationary period.223  

5.2.11 Case law on the protection against dismissal 

Every year the Equal Treatment Authority adjudicates cases where a pregnant employee’s 
employment was terminated during the probationary period.224 

In a case from 2014,225 the Equal Treatment Authority established that the employer could 
not  prove  a  legitimate  reason  for  terminating  a  pregnant  employee’s  employment 
relationship  during  her  probationary  period;  therefore,  this  amounted  to  direct  sex 
discrimination. It was proved that first the employer decided to continue the employment 
relationship of the claimant until the end of the 6-month probationary period. This decision, 
however, was overturned two days after the claimant had been placed on sick leave due 
to her pregnancy and she was duly dismissed with immediate effect. It is long-established 
case law of the Equal Treatment Authority that the employer must prove the legitimate 
reason for the dismissal if the employee claims that the dismissal during the probationary 
period  was  discriminatory,  even  though  the  general  rules  relating  to  the  probationary 

220  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

66(6). 

221  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

78. 

222  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

22(5). 

223  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

79(1) Point (a). 

224  See e.g.: Hungary, Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. 

EBH/182/2019. 

225  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/379/2014. 

41 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
period do not require the employer to include any justification in the letter of dismissal. 
As in this case no legitimate reason could be found to support the dismissal of the claimant, 
the action of the employer therefore amounted to direct sex discrimination and the Equal 
Treatment Authority applied sanctions against the employer (a fine equalling EUR 4 000 
and a prohibition on any further infringement of equal opportunities laws; these sanctions 
being issued under the Act on the General Rules of the Proceedings and Services of Public 
Administrative  Authorities).226  In  a  2018  decision,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority 
reinforced  this  rule  and  stipulated  that  the  fact  that  the  labour  regulations  allow  the 
immediate termination of employment during the probationary period does not provide a 
lower  level  of  scrutiny  for  proof  under  the  anti-discrimination  framework  and  therefore 
does  not  derogate  the  obligation  of  the  employer  to  observe  the  requirement  of  equal 
treatment.227  The  Equal  Treatment  Authority  invoked  leading  principle  no.  23/2018  in 
administrative law of the Supreme Court.228 

In  2019,  two  of  such  cases  were  closed  with  friendly  settlement,229  while  the  Equal 
Treatment  Authority  established  violation  of  the  equal  treatment  in  three  other  cases, 
when the termination of the employment contract was due to pregnancy.230 

5.3  Maternity leave 

5.3.1  Length 

According to the Labour Code, mothers are entitled to 24 weeks of maternity leave.231  

5.3.2  Obligatory maternity leave 

The  obligatory  period  of  maternity  leave  is  two  weeks  (from  the  24  weeks);  it  is  not 
stipulated  whether  these  weeks  should  be  taken  prior  to  or  following  birth).232  In  the 
absence  of  an  agreement  to  the  contrary,  maternity  leave  shall  be  allocated  so  as  to 
commence four weeks prior to the expected date of birth.233 

5.3.3  Legal protection of employment rights (Articles 5, 6 and 7 of Directive 92/85)  

According  to  the  Labour  Code,  the  employment  rights  of  a  woman  relating  to  the 
employment contract are ensured in the event of a mandatory transfer due to the health 
risk for her: during her pregnancy and until her child reaches the age of one year, she is 
entitled to the basic wage associated with the new job title, if it is at least equal to her 
original  basic  wage.  If  no  adequate  work  can  be  found  for  the  employee  within  the 
organisation, she is exempted from work and still receives her basic pay.234 

226  Act CXL of 2004 on the General Rules of the Proceedings and Services of Public Administrative Authorities 

(2004. évi CXL. törvény a közigazgatási hatósági eljárás és szolgáltatás általános szabályairól), 28 
December 2004.  

227  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/309/2018. 
228  Supreme Court (Kúria) decision in principle no. 23/2018 in administrative law (judgment no. 

Kfv.III.37.585/2017 of 5 June 2018). 

229  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/182/2019, EBH/9/2019. See 

these cases also at 3.3.1 of this report. 

230  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/218/2019, EBH/238/2019 and 

EBH/348/2019. See these cases also at 3.3.1 of this report. 

231  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

127(1). 

232  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

127(1). 

233  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

127(3). 

234  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

60. 

42 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.3.4  Legal protection of rights ensuing from the employment contract  

The period of maternity leave is recognised as a period of ‘time spent at work’ (with the 
exception  of  certain  rights  relating  directly  to  the  performance  of  work).235  Upon  the 
employee’s return from maternity leave, the employer is obliged to offer the employee a 
modification  of  her  wage,  consistent  with  the  increase  in  the  average  annual  wage  for 
employees  in  the  same  position;  in  the  absence  of  employees  who  work  in  the  same 
position,  the  rate  of  actual  annual  wage  increases  implemented  by  the  employer  will 
apply.236  

5.3.5  Level of pay or allowance 

The  allowance paid for  maternity leave is  equal to,  or higher than, the payment during 
sickness leave.  

During  maternity  leave,  the  ‘infant  care  fee’  (csecsemőgondozási  díj)  is  paid  to  insured 
parents, primarily to mothers, but also to fathers if the mother is absent due to death, 
sickness or other serious circumstances. The infant care fee is paid by the social security 
system, the amount of which is equal to 70 % of the average daily wage of the woman in 
question (with no ceiling on payments).237  

For  comparison,  in  the  case  of  sick  leave,  the  employer  pays  70  %  of  the  employee’s 
payment  during  the  first  15  days  of  sickness.238  Afterwards,  the  social  security  system 
pays 60 % or 50 % of the salary depending upon certain circumstances, e.g. whether the 
person is hospitalised or not.239  

5.3.6  Additional statutory maternity benefits 

Statutory maternity benefits can be supplemented by the employer, but it is quite rare in 
practice.  

5.3.7  Conditions for eligibility (Article 11(4) of Directive 92/85) 

Different  types  of  benefits  are  available  during  maternity  leave  and  the  subsequent 
parental leave, depending upon whether the mother (parent/grandparent240 was insured 
or not. As a default, a mother/parent/grandparent is considered to be insured if (s)he has 
had  insurance  cover  for  365  days  over  a  period  of  two  years  prior  to  the  birth  of  the 
child;241  higher  education  students  or  mothers  who  have  recently  graduated  (or,  under 
special circumstances such as the death of the mother, also fathers) are eligible without 
being insured previously for 365 days (in their case, the calculation may be based on the 
amount of the minimum wage, or on their actual salary, if they had insurance cover for at 
least 120 days).242 

235  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

127(5). 

236  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

59. 

237  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 40. 

238  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

146(5). 

239  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 48. 

240  Under certain circumstances, grandparents may be eligible to take parental leave; see Section 5.5.7 and 

Section 5.12 of this report. 

241  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, 40(1), 42/A(1). 

242  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/F. 

43 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
During  maternity  leave,  ‘infant  care  fee’  (csecsemőgondozási  díj)  is  paid  to  insured 
mothers (and to the father, but  only if the  mother is absent, i.e. has  died, is  sick  or is 
absent due to other serious circumstances), the amount of which is equal to 70 % of the 
average daily pay (with no ceiling on payments).243  

Following maternity leave, up until the child reaches the age of two (in cases of twins, age 
of three), a ‘childcare fee’ (gyermekgondozási díj) is paid to the insured parent, which is 
equal  to  70  %  of  the  average  daily  pay,  with  a  ceiling  of  70  %  of  twice  the  minimum 
wage,244  which  was  HUF  225  400  gross  per  month  in  2019  (cca.  EUR  667;  reduced  by 
taxes: HUF 169 050, cca. EUR 500). 

5.3.8  Right to return to the same or an equivalent job (Article 15 of Directive 2006/54) 

The new Hungarian Labour Code (unlike the previous Labour Code)245 does not expressly 
guarantee the right of a woman to return to the original job or an equivalent job by the 
end of maternity leave. A cumulative interpretation of the following regulations, however, 
leads to the conclusion that such a right is provided: 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 
- 

Taking  maternity/parental  leave  does  not  terminate  the  employment  relationship, 
therefore the employment contract remains in force during the leave;246  
The employee has to inform the employer at least 30 days in advance of the intention 
to return to work;247  
It  is  a  mandatory  element  of  the  employment  contract  to  specify  the  job  of  the 
employee;248  
The  employment  contract  may  only  be  modified  with  the  mutual  consent  of  the 
parties;249  
A dismissal is prohibited during maternity leave;250 and 
Upon the employee’s return from maternity leave, the employer is obliged to offer 
the employee a modification of her wage, consistent with the increase in the average 
annual wage for employees in the same position; in the absence of employees who 
work  in  the  same  position,  the  rate  of  the  actual  annual  wage  increases  as 
implemented by the employer will apply.251  

According to a cumulative interpretation of these sections, the employee has the right to 
return  to  work  with  the  same  employer,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  mutually  agreed 
modification  of  the  employment  contract,  the  employee  has  the  right  to  return  to  her 
original job. Nonetheless, the lack of an expressis verbis obligation to employ the employee 
in the original job obviously widens the employer’s room for manoeuvre which might lead 
to situations where the parent is unable to return to the original job. 

Usually the employer offers a termination by mutual consent and pays equal to or slightly 
above the amount that would be due in the case of a dismissal with notice. If the employer 

243  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 40. 

244  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/D. 

245  Act XXII of 1992 on the Labour Code (1992. évi XXII. törvény a Munka Törvénykönyvéről), 30 March 1992. 
246  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 127-128, 130. 

247  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

133(2). 

248  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

45(1). 

249  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

58.  

250  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

65(3) Point (b)-(c). 

251  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

59. 

44 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
dismisses  the  parent  unlawfully,  the  employee  may  claim  his/her  reinstatement  in  her 
original job.252 

5.3.9  Legal right to share maternity leave 

National law does not provide share arrangements regarding maternity leave.  

5.3.10 Case law 

There  have  been  several  cases  with  regards  to  discrimination  of  women  based  on 
pregnancy or maternity. 

In a case before the Equal Treatment Authority in 2017, the complainant claimed that she 
was discriminated against based on maternity when, after returning from maternity leave, 
she asked her employer to let her work remotely 20 hours per week to care for her three 
small children, which was in compliance with her previously agreed employment contract. 
The employer, however, arbitrarily amended her contract and ordered her to work in the 
office for 40 hours a week. The Equal Treatment Authority established direct discrimination 
and found that the employer did not provide any reasonable justification for not providing 
the option of working remotely for the complainant.253  

In another case from 2017, the Equal Treatment Authority established discrimination when 
a  woman  was  not  provided  with  cafeteria  benefits  during  maternity  leave,  although 
maternity leave is considered as ‘time spent with work’.254 

In 2019, in a case before the Equal Treatment Authority, the complainant claimed that she 
was  discriminated  against  based  on  her  motherhood,  since  she  did  not  receive  extra 
benefits  during  her  maternity  leave  and  annual  leave  time  whereas  her  colleagues  did 
receive such a benefit during their annual leave. Whereas according to the law she is not 
entitled to such benefits during her maternity leave, she is entitled to the benefits during 
annual  leave.  The  employer  did  not  provide  any  justification  for  the  difference  in 
treatment,  therefore  the  ETA  established  the  violation  of  equal  treatment  based  on 
motherhood.255 

5.4  Adoption leave 

5.4.1  Existence of adoption leave in national law 

According to the Labour Code, adoptive parents (both mothers and fathers) are entitled 
to parental leave for 3 years, or in the case of children older than 3 years, for 6 months.256 
Adoptive mothers are entitled to maternity leave (24 weeks).257 

252  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

83(1) Points (a)-(b). 

253  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/57/2017. 
254  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) (2018), Report on the activity of the Equal 

Treatment Authority in 2017 and on the experiences gathered in the context of applying Act CXXV of 2003 
on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of Equal Opportunities, pp. 26-29, available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/sites/default/files/tajekoztatok/EBH%20eves%20jelentes%202017%20
EN_final.pdf.  

255  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/433/2019. See this case also at 

Section 3.3.1 of this report. 

256  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

128(2). 

257  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Article 40(2)(a). 

45 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.4.2  Protection against dismissal (Article 16 of Directive 2006/54) 

As provided by the Family Protection Act, employees are protected against dismissal during 
the period of the adoption procedure.258 

5.4.3  Case law 

Case law is not available in relation to adoption leave. 

5.5  Parental leave 

5.5.1  Implementation of Directive 2010/18 

Directive 2010/18 on parental leave is transposed to national law by the provision of the 
Labour Code.259  

5.5.2  Applicability to public and private sectors (Clause 1 of Directive 2010/18) 

The national legislation on parental leave, provided by the Labour Code, is applicable to 
both  the  public  and  the  private  sector.260  For  civil  servants,  the  relevant  provisions  are 
provided by the Act on Civil Servants;261 these provisions are substantively identical to the 
respective provisions in the Labour Code.  

5.5.3  Scope of the transposing legislation 

Provisions on parental leave cover full-time and part-time employees, fixed-term contract 
workers and also persons with a contract of employment with a temporary agency. 

Parental  leave  provisions  do  not  apply  to  employees  working  within  the  framework  of 
‘simplified employment’ (seasonal work and short-term contracts in the agricultural sector 
and in the field of tourism), since they are not considered to be ‘insured’ persons by the 
healthcare regulations (with the exception of work-related accidents),262 thus they are not 
entitled to insurance-based childcare benefits. 

5.5.4  Length of parental leave 

The  total  duration  of  parental  leave  (both  in  the  public  and  the  private  sectors)  is  3 
years;263 in cases of chronically ill or severely disabled children, 10 years.264 

258  Act CCXI on the Protection of Families (2011. évi CCXI. törvény a családok védelméről), 31 December 

2011, Article 18 Point (c). 

259  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

2.  

260  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

2.  

261  Act CXCIX of 2011 on Civil Servants (2011. évi CXCIX. törvény a közszolgálati tisztviselőkről), 30 

December 2011, Articles 110-114. 

262  Act LXXV of 2010 on Simplified Employment (2010. évi LXXV. törvény az egyszerűsített foglalkoztatásról), 

12 July 2010, Article 10(1) Point (a). 

263  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

128. 

264  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

133. 

46 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.5.5  Age limits 

Workers are entitled to parental leave until the child reaches the age of 3;265 in cases of 
chronically ill or severely disabled children, until the age of 10.266  

5.5.6  Individual nature of the right to parental leave  

The right to parental leave is not individual for each of the parents; it is a joint right. 

The  Hungarian  system  of  parental  leave  (different  types  of  child-related  leave  and 
benefits)  has  been  criticised  for  perpetuating  gender  inequalities  by  encouraging 
arrangements where the mother stays away from the labour market for a relatively long 
period of time (up to two or three years per child), while the father is the primary bread-
winner.  However,  an  amendment  of  the  regulation  of  the  income-related  ‘childcare  fee’ 
(gyermekgondozási díj),267 in effect since 2016, creates the opportunity for (one of the) 
parents to work full time from the sixth month after the child’s birth until his/her second 
birthday, while still getting the fee. While the number of fathers who apply for the fee is 
increasing (it was 8 % among the applicants in 2017), supposedly, it does not necessarily 
mean that they would actually stay at home with their young children.268  

There are scenarios where the father applies for this fee after the first six months, as his 
income is higher compared to the mother’s (so the fee would be higher), while, in practice, 
the  mother  continues  to  stay  at  home  to  take  care  of  the  child,  and  she  is  left  in  a 
particularly vulnerable situation: not just without independent income, but even without 
insurance.269 

5.5.7  Transferability of the right to parental leave  

When the child reaches the age of one year, the parents may opt to transfer their joint 
right to parental leave to one of the grandparents.270 

5.5.8  Form of parental leave 

From  2016,  parents  may  work  full  time  (or  part  time)  while  receiving  the  childcare  fee 
(gyermekgondozási díj).271 

5.5.9  Work and/or length of service requirements (Clause 3(b) of Directive 2010/10)  

In  the  case  of  the  childcare  allowance  (gyermekgondozást  segítő  ellátás),  there  is  no 
eligibility criteria  regarding service time or insurance.272 This allowance is paid until the 

265  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

128. 

266  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

133. 

267  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/A-F. 

268  Kardos, K. (2019): ’Kisgyermekes anyák foglalkoztatása’ (Employment of mothers with young children), 

Infojegyzet, 2019/48., Országgyűlés Hivatal (Office of the Parliament), 
https://www.parlament.hu/documents/10181/1789217/Infojegyzet_2019_48_Kisgyermekes_anyak_foglalk
oztatasa.pdf/7c2d9a99-777a-0b39-ad8d-3f282553c0ec?t=1573810293701.  

269  Füstös, M., Sáfrány, R. (2018), A skandináv családtámogatási modell jó gyakorlatainak feltérképezése: 
kutatási jelentés (Mapping the good practices of the Scandinavian model of family support policies: 
Research results), Ampók Foundation (Ampók Alapítvány), pp. 55-56, available at: 
https://issuu.com/hungreenstone/docs/tanulmany_final_0404_vegleges_web. 

270  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/G. 

271  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/A-F. 

272  Act LXXXIV of 1998 on the Support of Families (1998. évi LXXXIV. törvény a családok támogatásáról), 24 

December 1998, Articles 20-22. 

47 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
child reaches the age of 3 (in cases of twins: until the children reach the minimum age of 
compulsory education; in cases of chronically ill or disabled children: until the child reaches 
the age of 10). The allowances amount to the minimum old age pension;273 in 2019 this 
amounted to HUF 28 500 gross (cca. EUR 83; reduced by taxes: HUF 25 650, cca. EUR 75) 
per month. 

In order to be eligible for the childcare fee (gyermekgondozási díj), at least 365 service 
days must be collected during the preceding two years (prior to the birth of the child). 274 
In  the  case  of  successive  fixed-term  contracts  with  the  same  employer  (as  defined  in 
Council  Directive  1999/70/EC  on  fixed-term  work),  the  sum  of  these  contracts  is  taken 
into  account  for  the  purpose  of  calculating  the  qualifying  period,  unless  it  is  simplified 
employment. 

Under  certain  circumstances,  studying  in  higher  education  is  also  recognised  as  service 
regarding the eligibility for childcare fee.275  

5.5.10 Notice period 

Notice  period  is  provided  by  the  national  legislation:  the  employee  must  convey  the 
request for parental leave in writing, at least fifteen days in advance. The parental leave 
ends at the time when the employee has indicated, or at the earliest on the 30th day from 
the date of delivering the legal act for the termination of the leave.276  

These regulations are applicable to all firms, regardless of their size. The 15-day and 30-
day periods of notice are considered to be long enough so as to enable the employer to 
adjust its workforce requirements to the request of the employee.277 

In a case in 2011,278 the Supreme Court concluded that it is the employee who is entitled 
to choose the day when he/she will return to work. 

5.5.11 Postponement of parental leave (Clause 3(c) of Directive 2010/18) 

The employer is not allowed under any circumstances to postpone the granting of parental 
leave; it must be granted for the employee whenever (s)he requests. 

5.5.12 Special arrangements for small firms (Clause 3(d) of Directive 2010/18) 

There are no specific arrangements for small firms regarding parental leave. 

5.5.13 Special rules and exceptional conditions for parents of children with a disability or 

long-term illness (Clause 3(3) of Directive 2018/10) 

Parents of chronically ill or severely disabled children are entitled to parental leave until 
the child reaches the age of 10.279 

273  Act LXXXIV of 1998 on the Support of Families (1998. évi LXXXIV. törvény a családok támogatásáról), 24 

December 1998, Articles 20-22. 

274  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/A. 

275  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 42/E. 

276  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

133. 

277  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

133. 

278  Supreme Court (Legfelsőbb Bíróság) Judgment No. Mfv.11134/2010/4, 2 November 2011. 
279  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

130. 

48 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.5.14 Measures addressing the specific needs of adoptive parents (Clause 4 of Directive 

2010/18) 

As  a  general  rule,  adoptive  parents  and  native  parents  have  the  same  rights  regarding 
parental  leave.  However,  the  special  needs  of  adoptive  parents  are  addressed  by  a 
measure in the Family Protection Act: under certain circumstances, parental leave for six 
months  is  available  even  in  cases  when  the  child  has  already  reached  the  age  of  three 
years  (or  in  case  of  twins:  when  the  children  reached  the  minimum  age  of  compulsory 
education),  but  the  child  is  (or  in  case  of  twins:  the  children  are)  below  the  age  of  10 
years.280  

5.5.15 Provisions  protecting  workers  against  less  favourable  treatment  or  dismissal 

(Clause 5(4) of Directive 2010/18) 

The  Equal  Treatment  Act  prohibits  direct  and  indirect  discrimination,  harassment,  and 
unlawful  segregation  on  the  basis  of  maternity  or  paternity;281  consequently,  the  law 
provides  legal  protection  for  employees  against  unlawful  actions  due  to  the  taking  of 
parental leave. 

5.5.16 Right to return to the same or an equivalent job (Clause 5(1) of Directive 2010/18) 

The new Hungarian Labour Code (unlike the previous Labour Code)282 does not expressly 
guarantee the right of a parent to return to the original job or an equivalent job by the 
end of parental leave. A cumulative interpretation of the following regulations, however, 
leads to the conclusion that such a right is provided: 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 
- 

taking different forms of parental leave (including maternity leave, parental leave, 
and parent’s leave to take care of a sick child) does not terminate the employment 
relationship, therefore the employment contract remains in force during the leave; 283  
the employee has to inform the employer at least 30 days in advance of the intention 
to return to work;284  
it  is  a  mandatory  element  of  the  employment  contract  to  specify  the  job  of  the 
employee;285  
the  employment  contract  may  only  be  modified  with  the  mutual  consent  of  the 
parties;286  
a dismissal is prohibited during parental leave;287 and 
upon the employee’s return from parental leave, the employer is obliged to offer the 
employee a modification of his/her wage, consistent with the increase in the average 
annual wage for employees in the same position; in the absence of employees who 
work  in  the  same  position,  the  rate  of  the  actual  annual  wage  increases  as 
implemented by the employer will apply.288  

280  Act LXXXIV of 1998 on the Support of Families (1998. évi LXXXIV. törvény a családok támogatásáról), 24 

December 1998, Articles 20/B. 

281  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8(1) 
Point (i); Article, 9. 

282  Act XXII of 1992 on the Labour Code (1992. évi XXII. törvény a Munka Törvénykönyvéről), 30 March 1992. 
283  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 127-128, 130. 

284  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

133(2). 

285  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

45(1). 

286  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

58.  

287  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

65(3) Point (b)-(c). 

288  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

59. 

49 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
According to a cumulative interpretation of these sections, the employee has the right to 
return  to  work  with  the  same  employer,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  mutually  agreed 
modification of the employment contract, the employee has the right to return to his/her 
original job. Nonetheless, the lack of an expressis verbis obligation to employ the employee 
in the original job obviously widens the employer’s room for manoeuvre which might lead 
to situations where the parent is unable to return to the original job. 

Usually the employer offers a termination by mutual consent and pays equal to or slightly 
above the amount that would be due in the case of a dismissal with notice. If the employer 
dismisses the parent unlawfully, the employee may claim his/her reinstatement in his/her 
original job.289 

5.5.17 Maintenance of rights acquired or in the process of being acquired by the worker 

(Clause 5(2) of Directive 2010/18) 

The national legislation does not provide explicitly that the rights acquired by the worker 
(or  in  the  process  of  being  acquired  on  the  date  on  which  parental  leave  starts)  are 
maintained until the end of parental leave, thus this principle may not be enforceable in 
practice. 

5.5.18 Status of the employment contract or relationship during parental leave 

The  employment contract remains in force for  the period of the parental leave, but the 
execution of most of the rights and obligations are suspended.  

5.5.19 Continuity of entitlement to social security benefits 

During the period of the parental leave, there is a continuity of the entitlements to social 
security cover. 

5.5.20 Remuneration 

Parental leave may be remunerated by the employer (employers are not legally obliged, 
but they are allowed to do so).  

5.5.21 Social security allowance 

Allowance is provided during parental leave in every sector. 

The  childcare  fee  (gyermekgondozási  díj)  is  paid  to  insured  parents  (both  mothers  and 
fathers are eligible), from the end of the maternity leave until the child reaches the age of 
two. The allowance is equal to 70 % of average daily earnings, with a ceiling of 70 % of 
twice  the  amount  of  minimum  daily  wage,  which  was  HUF  225  400  gross  per  month  in 
2019 (cca. EUR 667; reduced by taxes: HUF 169 050, cca. EUR 500).290  

Moreover, there is a ‘maternity allowance’ (anyasági támogatás), which is a once-only in-
cash  benefit,  paid  to  every  mother  who  has  attended  prenatal  care  at  least  once.  The 
allowance amounts to 225 % of the minimum amount of old-age pension,291 which was 
HUF 64 125 (cca. EUR 180) in 2019.  

289  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

83(1) Points (a)-(b). 

290  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Article 42/A-42/E. 

291  Act LXXXIV of 1998 on the Support of Families (1998. évi LXXXIV. törvény a családok támogatásáról), 24 

December 1998, Articles 29-33. 

50 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.5.22 More favourable provisions (Clause 8 of Directive 2010/18) 

The national legislation applies more favourable provisions (Clause 8 Directive 2010/18) 
regarding the length of maternity leave (24 weeks), regarding the length of parental leave 
(up to 3 years or 10 years, if the child is chronically ill or severely disabled) and regarding 
the corresponding protection against dismissal. 

5.5.23 Case law  

In a case from 2006, a female employee wanted to return to her original job after taking 
maternity and parental leave for taking care of three children. The employer made an offer 
to  terminate  the  employment  relationship  with  mutual  consent  (as  dismissal  was 
prohibited  by  the  Labour  Code  during  parental  leave),  but  they  could  not  agree  on  the 
monthly wage to be paid following the legally stipulated increase. The employee resigned 
with immediate effect and sued the employer for compensation. The employee finally only 
won  her  case  before  the  Supreme  Court;  the  courts  of  first  and  second  instance  had 
concluded that the employer did not breach the law so severely that it would entitle the 
employee to resign with immediate effect. The Supreme Court established, however, that 
as the employer had not adequately increased the wage of the employee, had not provided 
employment  for  the  returning  parent,  and  it  had  breached  its  core  and  fundamental 
obligations, this entitled the employee to resign with immediate effect.292 

In  a  2012  Supreme  Court  case293  the  employer  did  not  provide  reinstatement  for  the 
employee in her original or similar job and instead she was given a job at a much lower 
level. The employee worked in this position for one day and the following day she explained 
in a letter that this job was not equivalent to the job that she had left at the beginning of 
her  maternity  leave,  so  therefore  she  was  not  willing  to  continue  working  there  in  the 
future. The employer considered this behaviour to be a  serious omission and dismissed 
the employee with immediate effect. The employee sued the employer and lost her case 
before the courts of first and second instance. The Supreme Court concluded that as the 
employer  had  unilaterally  modified  the  employment  contract,  the  employee’s  omission 
could not be considered to be sufficiently serious so as to lawfully justify the dismissal with 
immediate effect.  

5.6  Paternity leave 

5.6.1  Existence of paternity leave in national law 

Fathers are entitled to five days of paternity leave (seven days in the case of twins), until 
the end of the second month from the date of birth of the child (including cases when the 
child is stillborn, or dies within two months after birth); the days of the leave are allocated 
as requested by the father.294 Paternal leave is covered from the state budget.295 

292  Supreme Court (Legfelsőbb Bíróság) Judgment No. Mfv. I. 10.130/2006, adopted as Decision in Principle 

No. 1439/2006 in Labour Law. 

293  Supreme Court (Kúria) Judgment No. Mfv. 10.036/2012/3, 17 April 2013. 
294  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

118(4). 

295  Government Decree No. 350 of 2014 (XII.29.) on the Reimbursement of Additional Annual Leave for 

Fathers upon the Birth of their Child (350/2014. (XII. 29.) Korm. rendelet a gyermek születése esetén az 
apát megillető pótszabadság igénybevételéről és a pótszabadsággal összefüggő költségek megtérítéséről), 
29 December 2014, Article 1(2). 

51 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.6.2  Protection against unfavourable treatment and/or dismissal (Article 16 of Directive 

2006/54) 

The Labour Code does not provide for protection against dismissal during paternity leave; 
however, paternity is listed among the protected grounds in the Equal Treatment Act,296 
which may provide a certain level of protection against unfavourable treatment of workers 
who take paternity leave.  

5.6.3  Case law 

There is no case law regarding paternity leave; presumably since the duration of it is very 
short (five or seven days), the leave does not result in any employment disputes. 

5.7  Time off for force majeure 

5.7.1  Time off for force majeure 

According to the Labour Code, workers are entitled to be away from work on grounds of 
force majeure, for the duration of personal or family circumstances of special concern, or 
justified by unavertable causes.297 In the event of the death of a relative, employees are 
entitled to two days’ paid leave.298 

5.7.2  Case law 

Relevant case law is not available in relation to time off for force majeure. 

5.8  Care leave 

5.8.1  Existence of care (or carers’) leave in national law  

Unpaid leave of between 30 days and two years is available to care for relatives subject 
to medical certification that this is necessary.299 The term relative covers spouses, direct 
descendants and ascendants, adopted, step and foster children, adoptive parents, step-
parents, foster parents, siblings, and domestic partners, spouses of the direct descendants 
and  ascendants,  a  spouse’s  direct  descendants  and  ascendants  and  siblings,  and  the 
spouses  of  siblings.  The  employee  is  legally  entitled  to  full-time  unpaid  leave,  but  the 
employer must be informed 15 days in advance and in writing. The leave ends on the day 
determined by the medical certification, or earlier if the employee so wishes, but at least 
30-days’ notice must be given to the employer. Entitlement for the leave does not vary 
according  to  the  size  of  the  firm.  Part-time  leave  could  be  taken  on  the  basis  of  an 
agreement with the employer.  

An application may be made for a care allowance (ápolási díj)300 for the duration of the 
unpaid  leave  from  the  social  security  system.  Four  hours  of  daily  work  is  allowed  while 
receiving this allowance, relating to the care of adult family members/relatives. In 2019, 
the  amount  of  the  care  allowance  varied  between  HUF  37  490  and  HUF  67  485  gross 

296  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8 
Point (l). 

297  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

55(1) Point (j). 

298  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

55(1) Point (f). 

299  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

131. 

300  Act III of 1993 on Social Governance and Social Benefits (1993. évi III. törvény a szociális igazgatásról és 

szociális ellátásokról), 27 January 1993, Articles 40-44. 

52 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
(reduced by taxes: between HUF 33 741 and HUF 60 736; cca. EUR 95 and EUR 170) per 
month depending upon the condition of the person being cared for. 

Parents are entitled to sick leave to take care of their children (under the age of 12): an 
unlimited number of days in cases of children aged less than 12 months; up to 84 calendar 
days in cases of children aged 1-3 years; 42 calendar days in cases of children aged 3-6 
years (84 days for single parents); and 14 calendar days in cases of children aged 6-12 
years (28 days for single parents).301 

From 2019, parents are entitled to take a new form of care leave, to take care at home of 
their  disabled  or  permanently  ill  children  (gyermekek  otthonhondozási  díja).302  The 
amount  of  the  fee  provided  for  this  leave  was  HUF  100  000  gross  in  2019  (reduced  by 
taxes: HUF 91 000, cca. EUR 260). 

5.8.2  Case law  

Given  the  fact  that  mostly  women  take  parental  and  care  leave,  consequently  they  are 
disproportionately affected by discriminatory practices relating to care leave. In a key case 
adjudicated by the Equal Treatment Authority in 2017, female employees (shift workers) 
claimed that the preconditions of the extra ‘13th month payment’ (an in-cash benefit), set 
by the collective agreement, constituted indirect discrimination, as only those employees 
who were away from work for less than 25 days per year were eligible for the benefit. The 
calculation of the workers’ days of absence did not include the annual paid holiday, work-
related illness, or illness resulting in hospitalisation. Although the regulation appeared to 
be neutral, it was disproportionately detrimental towards mothers who had been on sick 
leave to take care of their children under the age of 12 (which is the age limit in the case 
of care leave for parents under the social security scheme). The Equal Treatment Authority 
conducted a detailed statistical investigation comparing the number of workers who were 
and were not eligible for the benefit and the total number of workers, and the number of 
female workers who had and who did not have children under the age of 12. The statistical 
investigation  showed  that  the  rule  determined  by  the  collective  agreement  was 
disproportionately disadvantageous for female workers with young children compared to 
workers of both sexes without children. On the basis of this statistical evidence, and the 
fact that the employer did not provide any objective justification or rely on any specific 
exemption, the Equality Body did not apply the objective justification test but concluded 
that  indirect  discrimination  had  occurred,  and  ordered  the  employer  to  cease  the 
discriminatory practice, to reconsider the eligibility criteria of the benefit, and to send a 
written report on the measures taken to improve the situation within 60 days. The Equal 
Treatment Authority did not impose a fine in this case.303  

5.9  Leave in relation to surrogacy 

In case of surrogacy, parental leave (or other leave is not available), as surrogacy is not 
regulated by Hungarian law.  

301  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Article 44. 

302  Act III of 1993 on Social Governance and Social Benefits (1993. évi III. törvény a szociális igazgatásról és 

szociális ellátásokról), 27 January 1993, Articles 38-39. 

303  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/130/2017. See the description 

of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See also at Section 3.4.2 of 
this report. 

53 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.10 Flexible working time arrangements 

5.10.1 Right to reduce or extend working time 

The  employer  is  obliged  to  amend  the  employment  contract  from  full  time  to  part  time 
(equal to half of the normal working hours) at the employee’s request: when the  parent 
returns to work from maternity/parental leave before the child reaches the age of three 
years (or in the case of three or more children, up to the age of five of the youngest) and 
(s)he  requests  the  modification  of  the  employment  contract  to  a  part-time  job.304  The 
Labour Code refers to an ‘employee’ without specifying whether it is the parent of the child 
or some other relatives. There are no specific  eligibility criteria or any limitations on its 
purpose; the size of the firm is of no relevance. The employee may request a modification 
until the child reaches the age of three years, which is equal to the period of time when 
the parental leave ends (unless the child is permanently ill). The part-time work and the 
childcare allowance (gyermekgondozást segítő ellátás) or childcare fee (gyermekgondozási 
díj) (both paid by the social security system) may be combined. This combined income is 
below the amount that could be earned in a full-time job and usually does not cover the 
shortfall in salary.  

The  right  to  reduced  working  time  does  not  apply  to  workers  in  simplified  employment 
relationships.305 

5.10.2 Right to adjust working time patterns 

According to Hungarian labour legislation, workers do not have a right to adjust working 
time  patterns  on  request.  The  employer  decides  on  the  duration  of  the  working-time 
account  and  its  scheduling.306  When  scheduling  working  time,  the  employer  is  legally 
obliged to take into account the requirements of workplace safety and the nature of the 
work,307 but not the employees’ personal needs. 

5.10.3 Right to work from home or remotely  

Working from home or working remotely is based on the decision on the employer, which 
in  practice  is  based  on  the  mutual  agreement  of  the  parties.  In  this  case,  the  rules  on 
maximising  the  working  time  do  not  apply  and  no  overtime  payments  are  due  after 
working long hours.308 

Working  from  home  or  working  remotely  is  allowed  for  part-time  workers  whose 
contractually agreed daily working time amounts to no longer than six hours. The employer 
may request them to work at times deemed necessary to best accommodate the specific 
demands of their jobs, as long as at least three days’ warning is provided in advance.309 

5.10.4 Other legal rights to flexible working arrangements 

Other legal rights to flexible working arrangements are not provided.  

304  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

61(3). 

305  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

203(1) Point (e). 

306  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, 

Articles 93(1) and 96(1) of the Labour Code. 

307  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

97(1). 

308  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

96(2)-(3). 

309  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

193(1). 

54 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.10.5 Case law  

In 2017, the Equal Treatment Authority concluded that a termination of the possibility for 
an employee to work from home following the birth of her third child constituted direct sex 
discrimination.310 

The  complainant  claimed  that  she  was  discriminated  against  based  on  her  motherhood 
when, with regards to her three children (including a 9-month-old), after returning from 
maternity  leave  she  requested  to  work  from  home  20  hours  per  week.  This  request 
complied  with  her  previously  agreed  employment  contract.  The  employer  rejected  the 
request, arbitrarily amended her contract, and ordered her to work in the office 40 hours 
per week. The Equal Treatment Authority established direct discrimination and found that 
the employer did not provide any reasonable justification for not providing the option for 
the complainant to work from home when she returned to work from maternity leave.311  

5.11 Evaluation of implementation 

With  regards  to  the  duration  of  maternity  and  parental  leave,  national  legislation 
significantly exceeds EU law. As for the most explicit shortfall, the lack of prohibition of 
dismissal for (non-single) fathers is notable. 

It should be mentioned, however, that Hungary was one of the four Member States voting 
against the adoption of Directive 2019/1158 (on work-life balance for parents and carers 
and  repealing  Council  Directive  2010/18/EU)  in  June  2019.312  According  to  Hungary’s 
statement:  

‘[o]ne of the key elements of the Hungarian family policy is to support the adequate 
balance  between  work  and  family  life,  to  help  women  with  children  to  be  able  to 
return to work and to support men's involvement in the life of the family,’  

but:  

‘Hungary is strongly convinced that we shall not intervene in the life of families and 
force their decision regarding the uptake of parental leave, without respecting their 
freedom of decision based on their personal, social and financial circumstances. This 
is particularly true regarding the non-transferability of parental leave.’313 

5.12 Remaining issues 

There are some additional features in the national law relating to work-life balance: 

- 

- 

Short-term  leave  is  also  granted  for  the  period  of  receiving  IVF  treatment  in  a 
healthcare  institution  for  the  duration  of  mandatory  pregnancy-related  medical 
examination;314  
Working time reduction is available for breastfeeding mothers: one hour twice a day 
until the end of the sixth month, then one hour a day until the end of the ninth month 

310  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/57/2017. 
311  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/57/2017. 
312  Voting result: Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on work-life balance for parents and 

carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU (First reading), Interinstitutional File: 2017/0085 (COD), 
13 and 14 June 2019, Luxembourg, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CONSIL:ST_10282_2019_INIT&from=EN. 

313  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CONSIL:ST_9310_2019_ADD_1&from=EN. 
314  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

55(1) Point (b). 

55 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- 

- 

(in the case of twins, two hours twice a day until the end of the sixth month, then 
two hours a day until the ninth month);315 
Both parents of children under 16 years are entitled to additional days of paid leave: 
annually two days in the case of one child, four days in the case of two children, and 
seven days in the case of three or more children316 (parents of disabled children are 
entitled to two more days annually).317 
While grandparents are, under specific conditions, already eligible for certain forms 
of  childcare-related  schemes, the  ‘Family Protection Plan’ (a comprehensive policy 
and legislative package of the government, launched in 2019, aimed at increasing 
fertility  rates)  would  further  broaden  these  opportunities:  from  2020,  working 
grandparents will be entitled to leave to take care of their grandchildren (until the 
second birthday of the child; in cases of twins, up to the third birthday).318 

315  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

55(1) Point (e). 

316  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

118(1). 

317  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

118(2). 

318  See the description of the programme in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4924-hungary-

the-family-protection-action-plan-pdf-106-kb. 

56 

 
 
 
6 

Occupational social security schemes (Chapter 2 of Directive 2006/54) 

6.1  General (legal) context 

6.1.1  Surveys  and  reports  on  the  practical  difficulties  linked  to  occupational  and/or 

statutory social security issues 

No surveys or reports from the last five years are available that provide insight into the 
difficulties workers face in practice in relation to occupational social security schemes. 

6.1.2  Other issues related to gender equality and social security 

No specific issue may be mentioned in  relation to gender equality and the  occupational 
social security schemes. 

6.1.3  Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

There  have  been  no  political  or  social  debates,  and  there  are  no  pending  legislative 
proposals on the topic of occupational social security schemes. 

6.2  Direct and indirect discrimination 

Direct  and  indirect  discrimination  are  defined  in  the  Equal  Treatment  Act,319  and  the 
prohibition of direct and indirect discrimination is applicable to occupational social security 
schemes320 (detailed regulations on social security are also included in the Equal Treatment 
Act).321 

6.3  Personal scope 

The personal scope, as defined by the Equal Treatment Act322 and the Act on Occupational 
Pensions and its Institution (adopted in 2007),323 is the same as provided by Article 6 of 
Directive 2006/54. 

Due to an amendment that came into force in 2016, the Act on Occupational Pensions324 
now expressly lists all forms of employment relationships that fall under the scope of the 
act, provided by:  

- 
- 
- 
- 

Act on the Labour Code;325  
Act on Civil Servants;326  
Act on Public Servants;327  
Act on the Status of Military Personnel;328  

319  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Articles 8-9. 
320  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 5. 
321  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 24-25. 

322  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

323  Act CXVII of 2007 on Employers' Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. 

324  Act CXVII of 2007 on Employers' Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007, Article 2(23). 

325  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012.  
326  Act CXCIX of 2011 on Civil Servants (2011. évi CXCIX. törvény a közszolgálati tisztviselőkről), 

30 December 2011. 

327  Act XXXIII of 1992 on the Legal Status of Public Servants (1992. évi XXXIII. törvény a közalkalmazottak 

jogállásáról), 2 June 1992. 

328  Act CCV of 2012 on the Status of Military Personnel (2012. évi CCV. törvény a honvédek jogállásáról), 18 

December 2012. 

57 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- 

- 
- 
- 

- 

Act  on  the  Service  Relationship  of  Professional  Members  of  Law  Enforcement 
Organisations;329  
Act on the Service Status of Judicial Employees;330  
Act on the Status and Remuneration of Judges;331  
Act on the Status of the Chief Public Prosecutor, Prosecutors and Other Prosecutorial 
Employees and the Prosecutorial Career;332 and 
Act on State Officials (which includes the clergy).333 

6.4  Material scope 

The material scope, as defined by the Equal Treatment Act334 and the Act on Occupational 
Pensions  and  its  Institution,335  is  similar  to  the  scope  provided  by  Article  7  of  Directive 
2006/54, although worded differently. The rules on equal treatment should be followed in 
the  course  of  claiming  and  providing  benefits  financed  from  the  social  security  system, 
social benefits, and financial and in-kind child protection or personal care. With respect to 
healthcare,  the  rules  on  equal  treatment  are  applied  with  respect  to  participation  in 
preventive  programmes  and  medical  check-ups,  preventive  medical  care,  the  use  of 
residence premises, and the satisfaction of dietary and other needs.336  

The relational scope of the Equal Treatment Act must also be applied: the principle of equal 
treatment must be observed in all public services, including public and higher education, 
social care, child welfare, healthcare services, and public utilities (etc.). Private services 
are  also  covered  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  if  they  concern  offers  and  calls  for  offers 
(tenders) presented to the public (preliminarily undefined persons), and if they concern 
services  that  are  provided  and  goods  that  are  sold  at  premises  that  are  open  to  the 
public.337 

6.5  Exclusions 

The exclusions from the material scope, as specified in Article 8 of Directive 2006/54, are 
not applied in national law. 

6.6  Laws  and  case  law  falling  under  the  examples  of  sex  discrimination 

mentioned in Article 9 of Directive 2006/54 

There  are  no  laws  or  case  law  falling  under  the  examples  of  sex  discrimination  as 
mentioned in Article 9 of Directive 2006/54. 

329  Act XLII of 2015 on the Service Relationship of Professional Members of Law Enforcement Organisations 
(2015. évi XLII. törvény a rendvédelmi feladatokat ellátó szervek hivatásos állományának szolgálati 
jogviszonyáról), 24 April 2015. 

330  Act LXVIII of 1997 on the Service Status of Judicial Employees (1997. évi LXVIII. törvény az igazságügyi 

alkalmazottak szolgálati jogviszonyáról), 23 July 1997. 

331  Act CLXII of 2011 on the Status and Remuneration of Judges (2011. évi CLXII. törvény a bírák jogállásáról 

és javadalmazásáról), 2 December 2011. 

332  Act CLXIV of 2011 on the Status of the Chief Public Prosecutor, Prosecutors and Other Prosecutorial 

Employees and the Prosecutorial Career (2011. évi CLXIV. törvény a legfőbb ügyész, az ügyészek és más 
ügyészségi alkalmazottak jogállásáról és az ügyészi életpályáról), 28 November 2011. 

333  Act LII of 2016 on State Officials (2016. évi LII. törvény az állami tisztviselőkről), 14 May 2016. 
334  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

335  Act CXVII of 2007 on Employers' Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. 

336  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Articles 24-
25. 

337  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Articles 4-5. 

58 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
6.7  Actuarial factors 

Sex is not used as an actuarial factor in occupational social security schemes. 

6.8  Difficulties 

The  terms  and  conditions  of  occupational  pension  schemes  are  to  be  decided  by  the 
employer within the framework of the investment companies’ manual. The more selective 
the terms and conditions of the scheme as set up by the employer, the more likely it is 
that  gender-related  indirect  discrimination  might  occur,  because  men  are  significantly 
overrepresented in managerial and key positions in Hungary. It will take years before case 
law will develop in this regard. 

6.9  Evaluation of implementation 

The  related  EU  norms  are  largely  implemented  in  Hungarian  legislation.  As  for  the 
definition of the material scope, the wording of the Hungarian provision differs from Article 
7 of Directive 2006/54, but the width of the scope does not. However, exclusions from the 
material scope (as provided by Article 8 of Directive 2006/54) are not applied in national 
law, while the implementation of Article 8(2) – which allows employers to grant pension 
supplements with a gender equality perspective – could be seen as a progressive step. It 
should  be  noted  that  the  provision  on  widening  the  scope  of  the  Act  on  Occupational 
Pensions,  which  was  enacted  in  2016,338  signals  that  the  state  intends  to  utilise 
occupational pension schemes to reward its key personnel in different service relationships 
that are attached more closely to the state.  

6.10 Remaining issues 

According to an analysis from 2017, while all three pension pillars exist in Hungary, the 
Hungarian  pension  system  ‘continues  to  rely  far  too  heavily  on  the  first  pillar  [state 
pension], the sustainability of which is surrounded by risks’339 because the first pillar (the 
‘pay-as-you-go’  state  pension  system)  is  characterised  by  ‘excessive  dependence  from 
demographic and economic circumstances even on the part of retirees’.340 

338  Act CXVII of 2007 on Occupational Pensions and its Institution (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. 

339  Pandurics, A., Szalai, P. (2017), The Role of the Second and Third Pension Pillar in the Hungarian Pension 
System’, Public Finance Quarterly, no. 2, p. 212, available at: https://asz.hu/storage/files/files/public-
finance-quarterly-articles/2017/pandurics_2017_2_a.pdf.  

340  Pandurics, A., Szalai, P. (2017), The Role of the Second and Third Pension Pillar in the Hungarian Pension 
System’, Public Finance Quarterly, no. 2, p. 219, available at: https://asz.hu/storage/files/files/public-
finance-quarterly-articles/2017/pandurics_2017_2_a.pdf. 

59 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
7 

Statutory schemes of social security (Directive 79/7) 

7.1  General (legal) context 

7.1.1  Surveys and reports on the practical difficulties linked to statutory schemes of social 

security (Directive 79/7) 

No surveys or reports are available from the last five years that provide insight into the 
difficulties workers face in practice in relation to statutory social security schemes. 

7.1.2  Other relevant issues  

No  other  issues  may  be  mentioned  regarding  the  gender  equality  aspects  of  statutory 
schemes of social security. 

7.1.3  Overview of national acts 

The key national acts governing the statutory social security schemes are the following: 

- 
- 

Act on State Pensions;341 
Act on Social Governance and Social Benefits.342 

7.1.4  Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

There  have  been  no  political  or  social  debates,  and  there  are  no  pending  legislative 
proposals on the topic of social security and gender equality. 

7.2  Implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women in 

matters of social security 

The  Equal  Treatment  Act  provides  that  the  requirement  of  equal  treatment  should  be 
applied with respect to social security, particularly in the course of claiming and ensuring 
benefits financed from  the social  security  schemes, and in the  course of claiming social 
benefits and financial and in-kind child protection benefits or care benefits.343 

7.3  Personal scope 

The general rules on the personal scope of the Equal Treatment Act are applicable to the 
field of statutory fields of social security schemes,344 and the scope is as wide as specified 
by Article 2 of Directive 79/7 although the wording of the provisions is different. The Equal 
Treatment  Act  obliges  state  authorities  (including  state  social  security  schemes)  and 
private pension schemes to follow the rules of equal treatment in all their activities and 
legal relationships.345  

341  Act LXXXI of 1997 on State Pensions (1997. évi LXXXI. törvény a társadalombiztosítási nyugellátásról), 25 

July 1997. 

342  Act III of 1993 on Social Governance and Social Benefits (1993. évi III. törvény a szociális igazgatásról és 

szociális ellátásokról), 27 January 1993. 

343  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 24. 
344  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 6. 
345  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 4 
Points (c) and (j). 

60 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
7.4  Material scope 

The general rules on the material scope of the Equal Treatment Act are applicable to the 
all statutory social security schemes,346 and the scope is as wide as specified by Article 3 
paragraphs 1 and 2 of Directive 79/7.  

7.5  Exclusions 

As for exclusions specified in Article 7 of Directive 79/7, the amendment347 of the Act on 
State  Pensions  (the  details  of  this  measure  have  been  amended  several  times  since  it 
came into force in 2011) is relevant, which established an early retirement option only for 
women.348 The ‘Women 40’ (Nők 40) pension scheme is a form of old-age pension available 
for women with at least 40 years of ‘eligibility period’, which is somewhat different from 
the  concept  of  ‘contribution  period’  or  ‘service  period’:  in  this  context,  it  refers  to  time 
spent  with  gainful  activity,  and  it  may  include  time  spent  caring  for  children  (different 
forms of maternity or parental leave).349 

According to an analysis from 2018, the ‘Women 40’ scheme is a ‘flawed pension product’ 
for three main reasons: it provides a lower pension for women (compared to the pension 
they could have if they would not have made use of the early retirement option), which 
may lead to situations where eligible women are pressured by their families, colleagues or 
even by their employers (informally) to make use of the possibility of early retirement; it 
is discriminatory towards men (who have been involved fathers), and the scheme is not 
synchronised with the (ongoing) increase of the general retirement age.350 It should also 
be  mentioned  that  the  OECD’s  policy  paper  from  2017  suggested  that  Hungary  should 
reduce ‘work disincentives for the elderly’ and remove ‘pathway into early retirement for 
women’.351 The authors of an analysis from 2017 claim that the ‘Women 40’ scheme would 
increase  pension-related  gender  inequality,  as  ‘men  are  overrepresented  among  high 
income earners and women among low earners (due to their lower wages and generally 
shorter employment records)’.352 The pension gap would be further widened by the gradual 
increase  of  the  general  retirement  age,  while  the  early  retirement  option  for  women 
remains unchanged.353 

The  competent  State  Secretary  of  the  Ministry  of  Human  Capacities  claimed  in  January 
2019 that the importance of the ‘Women 40’ scheme is shown by the data that 241 000 
women have made use of it since 2011, and the scheme ‘reflects the basic value of the 
government  of  providing  the  greatest  support  for  those  who  combine  work  and  raising 
children’,  and  added  that  the  scheme  is  ‘rather  meant  to  be  a  measure  of  supporting 
families than a pension policy provision, because it helps families, for example, by allowing 

346  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 6. 
347  Act CLXX of 2010 on the Amendment of Certain Acts Relating to Pension Insurance on Other Related Acts 
(2010. évi CLXX. törvény egyes nyugdíjbiztosítási tárgyú és más kapcsolódó törvények módosításáról), 20 
December 2010, Article 1. 

348  Act LXXXI of 1997 on State Pensions (1997. évi LXXXI. törvény a társadalombiztosítási nyugellátásról), 25 

July 2007, Article 18(2). 

349  Act LXXXI of 1997 on State Pensions (1997. évi LXXXI. törvény a társadalombiztosítási nyugellátásról), 25 

July 2007, Article 18(2a)–(2d). 

350  Gerencsér, L. (2018) ‘Nyugdíjvita: A „Nők 40” hibás nyugdíjtermék’ (Debate on Pensions: The “Women40” 
is a flawed pension product), Új Egyenlőség, 9 December, available at: http://ujegyenloseg.hu/nyugdijvita-
a-nok-40-hibas-nyugdijtermek/.  

351  OECD (2017) ‘Hungary’, in Economic Policy Reforms 2017: Going for Growth, p. 205, available at: 

http://www.oecd.org/economy/growth/Going-for-Growth-Hungary-2017.pdf. 

352  Szikra, D., Kiss, D. (2017) ‘Beyond Nationalization: Assessing the Impact of the 2010-2012 Pension Reform 

in Hungary’, Review of Sociology Vol. 27, No. 4, p. 100, available at: 
http://szociologia.hu/dynamic/2017_04_83_107_oldal.pdf.  

353  Szikra, D. (2017) ‘A magyar nyugdíjrendszer a rendszerváltás óta’ (The Hungarian pension system since 

the political change) in: Ferge, Zs. (ed.) Társadalom - és szociálpolitika, Magyarország, 1990-2015 (Social 
politics and social policies, Hungary, 1990-2015) (Budapest: Osiris) p. 306, available at: 
http://real.mtak.hu/84683/1/TB_25_Szikra.pdf. 

61 

 
 
 
 
 
 
grandmothers  to  participate  in  taking  care  of  grandchildren’.354  According  to  expert 
opinion, the (obviously very popular) ‘Women 40’ scheme not only reflects the Hungarian 
government’s  conservative  approach  to  women’s  roles,  but  the  basic  concept  of  it  is 
unprecedented  in  other  countries,  i.e.  that  a  pension  scheme  is  explicitly  aimed  at 
encouraging the fertility of younger generations (by promoting grandmothers’ unpaid care 
work in families).355 

The regulation was challenged by a trade union leader as a private individual who initiated 
a referendum in order to allow men to retire under the same conditions as women. The 
referendum was refused by the National Election Committee,356 which based its decision 
on the Article on Initiating Referendums, on the European Citizens' Initiative, and on the 
Referendum Procedure,357 providing two justifications: 1. the question was not sufficiently 
clear; and 2. the question was in relation to the central budget, while no question could 
be  asked  in  a  referendum  that  is  related  to  the  central  budget,  according  to  the 
Fundamental  Law.358  The  Supreme  Court  altered  the  decision  of  the  National  Election 
Committee and allowed the question to be asked in a referendum, because the question 
was  clear  and  the  matter  of  the  referendum  was  related  to  the  national  budget  only 
indirectly.  Trade  unions  and  the  opposition  parties  who  joined  the  initiative,  quickly 
gathered together more than 100 000 supporters out of the required 200 000. However, 
the  collection  of  signatures  was  halted  at  this  point,  because  a  procedure  was  initiated 
(challenging the legality of the planned referendum) before the Constitutional Court, based 
on several petitions lodged by individuals and associations.359 The case was dealt with in 
an  unprecedentedly  rapid,  combined  procedure,  and  eventually  the  referendum  was 
refused by a deeply divided Constitutional Court: out of 13 judges, 3 submitted concurring 
opinions, and a further 4 judges submitted dissenting opinions to the decision.360 However, 
a  majority  of  the  Constitutional  Court  agreed  that  the  referendum  cannot  be  allowed 
because it violates the provision of the Fundamental Law that prohibits the holding of any 
referendum on issues related to the central budget and its regulating laws.361 Point 34 of 
the reasoning briefly reflects upon the merits of the issue: what are the fundamental legal 
grounds for regulating differently the rights for early retirement of women and men? The 
Constitutional Court emphasised that according to the Fundamental Law,362 fundamental 
rights must be enjoyed by all without differentiating on the basis of sex,363 and that men 
and women are equal before the law.364 Specific rules, however, allow Parliament to adopt 
laws  that  protect  families,  children,  women,  the  elderly  and  persons  living  with 
disabilities.365 The last sentence  of Article XIX(4)366 of the Fundamental  Law specifically 
allows  Parliament  to  enact  regulations  on  statutory  pensions  that  provide  ‘stronger 
protection’  for  women.  The  Constitutional  Court  argued  that  the  suggested  referendum 
could not be allowed because it aims to eliminate the specific protection that women enjoy 

354  See the official website of the Hungarian government: ‘Több mint 240 ezren vették igénybe a Nők40 

programot 2011 óta’ (More than 240 000 have made use of the Women40 scheme since 2011), 12 January 
2019, available at: https://www.kormany.hu/hu/emberi-eroforrasok-miniszteriuma/parlamenti-
allamtitkarsag/hirek/tobb-mint-240-ezren-vettek-igenybe-a-nok40-programot-2011-ota. 

355  Szikra, D. (2017) ‘A magyar nyugdíjrendszer a rendszerváltás óta’ (The Hungarian pension system since 

the political change) in: Ferge, Zs. (ed.) Társadalom - és szociálpolitika, Magyarország, 1990-2015 (Social 
politics and social policies, Hungary, 1990-2015) (Budapest: Osiris) pp. 305-306, available at: 
http://real.mtak.hu/84683/1/TB_25_Szikra.pdf. 

356  National Election Committee (Nemzeti Választási Bizottság), Decision No. 83/2015, 30 April 2015. 
357  Act CCXXXVIII of 2013 on Initiating Referendums, on the European Citizens' Initiative, and on the 

Referendum Procedure (2013. évi CCXXXVIII. törvény a népszavazás kezdeményezéséről, az európai 
polgári kezdeményezésről, valamint a népszavazási eljárásról), 23 December 2013, Article 11. 

358  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article 8(3)(b). 
359  Constitutional Court Case No. IV/02774/2015 (submitted 27 August 2015), IV/02779/2015 (submitted 28 

August 2015), IV/02822/2015 (3 September 2015). 

360  Constitutional Court Decision (AB határozat) No. 28/2015. (IX. 24.), 22 September 2015. 
361  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article 8(3)(b). 
362  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV. 
363  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV(1). 
364  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV(2). 
365  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XV(5). 
366  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article XIX(4). 

62 

 
 
with regard to early retirement, and thereby attempts to make the two subsections of the 
Fundamental Law empty and meaningless, even though their aim is to provide further and 
stronger  protection  for  women.  The  reasoning  does  not  investigate  the  issue  from  the 
angle of equal treatment; it merely relies upon the need to provide stronger protection for 
women as is articulated by the Fundamental Law. No reference was made to any European 
or international sources of law on equal treatment or equal pay. The Constitutional Court 
‘protected’  the  Fundamental  Law  regardless  of  the  fact  that  its  controversial  content  is 
deeply rooted in gender stereotypes (women, as a weaker party, have to be protected; 
women are in charge of raising children; the role of men is to work, etc.).  

7.6  Actuarial factors 

Sex is not used as an actuarial factor in statutory social security schemes.  

7.7  Difficulties 

There are no specific difficulties in relation to implementing Directive 79/7. 

7.8  Evaluation of implementation 

Formally, the EU norms are transposed on a rather satisfactory level. 

7.9  Remaining issues 

No additional issues may be mentioned in relation to implementing Directive 79/7.  

63 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
8 

Self-employed  workers  (Directive  2010/41/EU  and  some  relevant 
provisions of the Recast Directive) 

8.1  General (legal) context 

8.1.1  Surveys and reports on the specific difficulties of self-employed workers 

No surveys or reports are available from the last five years that provide insight into the 
specific difficulties of self-employed workers. 

8.1.2  Other issues 

No  other  issues  may  be  mentioned  regarding  the  gender  equality  aspects  of  self-
employment. 

8.1.3  Overview of national acts 

The Hungarian legislation addresses the issue of self–employment in a rather fragmented 
and ambiguous way:  

- 

- 

- 

the  Act  on  the  Promotion  of  Employment  and  on  Assistance  Provided  for  the 
Unemployed  defines  the  self-employed  person  as  someone  ‘who  provides 
employment  for  him/herself  outside  of  a  dependent  employment  relationship, 
including starting up a new business, or joining an existing business’;367  
in the Act on Occupational Pensions, the notion of self-employed person covers both 
private and corporate entrepreneurs;368 and  
the Labour Code does not include any explicit reference to self-employment. 

8.1.4  Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

There  have  been  no  political  or  social  debates,  and  there  are  no  pending  legislative 
proposals on the topic of self-employment. 

8.2  Implementation of Directive 2010/41/EU 

Two  Acts  contain  references  to  the  transposition  of  Directive  2010/41/EU:  the  often-
modified Act on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance369 and the Act CCXII of 2012 
on the Amendment of Certain Acts on Healthcare.370 However, no specific legislation has 
been enacted to transpose Directive 2010/41/EU. 

8.3  Personal scope 

8.3.1  Scope 

The concept of a ‘self-employed’ person is elaborated in Hungarian law in a rather formal 
and ambiguous way:  

367  Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and on Assistance Provided for the Unemployed (1991. évi 

IV. törvény a foglalkoztatás elősegítéséről és a munkanélküliek ellátásáról), 23 February 1991. 

368  Act CXVII of 2007 on Occupational Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. 

369  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997. 

370  Act CCXII of 2012 on the Amendment of Certain Acts on Healthcare (2012. évi CCXII. törvény az egyes 

egészségügyi tárgyú törvények módosításáról), 17 December 2012. 

64 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
- 

- 

- 

Article  17  of  Act  IV  of  1991  on  the  Promotion  of  Employment  and  on  Assistance 
Provided  for  the  Unemployed371  defines  the  self-employed  as  one  ‘who  provides 
employment  for  him/herself  outside  of  a  dependent  employment  relationship, 
including starting up a new business, or joining an existing business’;  
in the case of the Act on Occupational Pensions,372 the notion of self-employed covers 
both private and corporate entrepreneurs; and 
the  Act  on  Private  Entrepreneurs  and  Sole  Proprietorship373  defines  the  private 
entrepreneur (egyéni vállalkozó) as a natural person who carries out an economic 
activity on a regular basis for the purpose of acquiring assets and profits, and through 
undertaking economic risks. Corporate entrepreneurs are the owners of businesses 
(legal entities). 

8.3.2  Definitions 

There is no well-developed definition of a self-employed person in the national legislation.  

8.3.3  Categorisation and coverage 

Both in legal provisions and in statistical systems, the definition of self-employed relies on 
formal criteria (being an owner of a business, being registered as a private entrepreneur 
in  the  taxation  system,  etc.)  and  disregards  the  fundamental  difference  between  ‘the 
owner of the business’ and ‘the self-employed’. 

8.3.4  Recognition of life partners 

The life partner relationship is legally recognised by the Civil Code,374 and from 2009, there 
is a special arrangement for same sex couples: registered partnership (bejegyzett élettársi 
kapcsolat).375  The  rights  of  life  partners  in  the  specific  context  of  self-employment  are, 
however, not regulated. 

8.4  Material scope 

8.4.1  Implementation of Article 4 of Directive 2010/41/EU 

As for the implementation of Article 4 of Directive 2010/41/EU, the Equal Treatment Act 
provides  that  the  self-employed  person  has  a  right  to  equal  treatment  with  respect  to 
access  to  work,  especially  in  public  job  advertisements,  hiring,  and  regarding  the 
conditions of employment; in establishing and terminating the employment relationship or 
other relationship for work; in relation to any training before or during the work; and in 
determining and providing working conditions.376  

8.4.2  Material scope 

The material scope of the national legislation is in accordance with Article 4 of Directive 
2014/41, however, the provision is worded differently. The Equal Treatment Act defines 

371  Act IV of 1991 on the Promotion of Employment and on Assistance Provided for the Unemployed (1991. évi 

IV. törvény a foglalkoztatás elősegítéséről és a munkanélküliek ellátásáról), 23 February 1991. 

372  Act CXVII of 2007 on Occupational Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. 

373  Act CXV of 2009 on Private Entrepreneurs and Sole Proprietorships (2009. évi CXV. törvény az egyéni 

vállalkozóról és az egyéni cégről), 26 November 2009. 

374  Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, Article 

6:514 (1). 

375  Act XXIX of 2009 on registered partnership, and on the amendment of legal acts relating thereto and 
needed for the facilitation of the justification of the partnership (2009. évi XXIX. törvény a bejegyzett 
élettársi kapcsolatról, az ezzel összefüggő, valamint az élettársi viszony igazolásának megkönnyítéséhez 
szükséges egyes törvények módosításáról), 8 May 2009. 

376  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 21. 

65 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
self-employment  through  the  legal  relationships  in  which  the  self-employed  are  usually 
engaged:  ‘other  relationships  of  work’  (munkavégzésre  irányuló  egyéb  jogviszony).377 
However,  the  unusual  use  of  this  term  contradicts  terminology  used  in  labour  law, 
according to which the term ‘other relationships of work’ usually covers relationships where 
the  work  is  performed  between  independent  parties,  through  an  assignment  contract 
(megbízási szerződés), a contract for professional services (vállalkozási szerződés), and 
membership of private companies (gazdasági társaság). 

8.5  Positive action 

Hungary has not taken any positive action measures in the field of self-employment. 

8.6  Social protection 

The  Hungarian  social  security  system  covers  those  who  perform  work,  receive  income 
and/or pay contributions – including self-employed persons – on a mandatory basis. The 
scope  of  the  legislation  covers  sickness,  invalidity,  old  age,  industrial  accidents  and 
occupational  diseases  and  unemployment,  and  ensures  equal  treatment  with  regard  to 
access  to,  contributions  to  and  benefits  from  insurance  covering  these  risks.  Voluntary 
systems are also available for both healthcare services and pensions.  

Article 24 of the Equal Treatment Act378 prescribes that the requirement of equal treatment 
is applied with respect to social security, particularly in the course of claiming and ensuring 
benefits financed from the social security schemes, and social benefits, financial and in-
kind child protection or personal care. According to the personal scope of this Article, this 
rule covers the self-employed but not their spouses and life partners. However, the spouse 
and/or life partner is free to establish a social security contract and to pay contributions 
in his or her personal capacity. In this case the spouse’s or life partner’s equal treatment 
is safeguarded by the provision of the Equal Treatment Act379 which obliges the authorities 
to  follow  the  rules  on  equal  treatment  in  all  their  legal  relationships,  and  also  by  the 
provision on social security.380  

Equal  treatment  is  formally  safeguarded  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Act,  though  no  tailor-
made legal machinery has been established in order to address the specific issues of social 
protection and the unequal treatment of self-employed women. 

8.7  Maternity benefits 

The  general  rules  apply  to  self-employed  mothers  for  the  duration  of  maternity  leave 
(24 weeks).  The  infant  care  fee  (csecsemőgondozási  díj)  is  paid  by  the  social  security 
system, the amount of which is equal to 70 % of the average daily wage of the mother 
(with no ceiling on payments).381  

Childcare allowance (gyermekgondozást segítő ellátás) is also available, paid until the child 
reaches  the  age  of  3  (in  cases  of  twins:  until  the  children  reach  the  minimum  age  of 
compulsory education; in cases of chronically ill or disabled children: until the child reaches 

377  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 3(1) 
Point (b), Article 5 Point (d) and Article 21 Point (f).  

378  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 24. 
379  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 4. 
380  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 24.  
381  Act LXXXIII of 1997 on the Benefits of Compulsory Health Insurance (1997. évi LXXXIII. törvény a kötelező 

egészségbiztosítás ellátásairól), 25 July 1997, Articles 40-42. 

66 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
the  age  of  10).  The  allowances  amount  to  the  minimum  old  age  pension; 382  it  was 
HUF 28 500 gross (reduced by taxes: HUF 25 650, cca. EUR 75) per month. 

The available benefits, infant care fee and childcare allowance meet the legal criteria of 
sufficiency  established  by  Article  8(a)  and  (c)  of  Directive  2010/41/EU  respectively. 
However,  while  equal  treatment  is  formally  guaranteed,  no  attention  is  paid  to  the 
disproportionately disadvantaged position of self-employed women in reality.  

8.8  Occupational social security 

8.8.1  Implementation of provisions regarding occupational social security 

The  Act  on  Occupational  Pensions  provides  that  self-employed  persons,  including  both 
private  and  corporate  entrepreneurs,  are  eligible  to  join  to  an  occupational  pension 
institution.383 

8.8.2  Application  of  exceptions  for  self-employed  persons  regarding  matters  of 

occupational social security (Article 11 of Recast Directive 2006/54) 

The national law in Hungary has not made use of the exceptions for self-employed persons 
regarding  matters  of  occupational  social  security  (as  mentioned  in  Article  11  of  Recast 
Directive 2006/54).  

8.9  Prohibition of discrimination 

Prohibition  of  discrimination  against  self-employed  persons  is  provided  by  the  Equal 
Treatment  Act,  which  covers  self-employment  under  the  term  of  ‘other  relationships  of 
work’ (munkavégzésre irányuló egyéb jogviszony).384 

8.10 Evaluation of implementation 

Hungarian law has formally transposed Directive 2010/41/EU with some gaps, especially 
with  regard  to  the  legal  protection  of  spouses  and  life  partners.  However,  it  does  not 
provide  real  life  protection  to  self-employed  persons  due  to  the  lack  of  tailor-made 
regulations addressing the special regulatory needs of this group.  

8.11 Remaining issues 

Female interviewees, interviewed within the framework of a research project, claimed that 
they were affected by sexist stereotypes throughout their professional lives.385 

382  Act LXXXIV of 1998 on the Support of Families (1998. évi LXXXIV. törvény a családok támogatásáról), 24 

December 1998, Articles 20-22. 

383  Act CXVII of 2007 on Occupational Pensions and its Institutions (2007. évi CXVII. törvény a foglalkoztatói 

nyugdíjról és intézményeiről), 26 October 2007. Article 8(4). 

384  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 3(1) 
Point (b).  

385  Keveházi, K. (2017), ‘Nem-ügy. Nemi alapú diszkrimináció a munkahelyeken és a vállalkozási szférában’ 
(Sex matter. Sex-based discrimination at workplaces and in the field of entrepreneurship), in Csiszárik-
Kocsir, Á., Vállalkozásfejlesztés a XXI. században (Entrepreneurship development in the 21st century) VIII. 
(Budapest: Óbudai Egyetem), pp. 255-272, available at: http://kgk.uni-
obuda.hu/sites/default/files/18_KevehaziKata.pdf. 

67 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
9 

Goods and services (Directive 2004/113)386 

9.1  General (legal) context 

9.1.1  Surveys and reports about the difficulties linked to equal access to and supply of 

goods and services 

No surveys or reports are available from the last five years about the difficulties linked to 
access to and supply of goods and services from the gender equality aspect. 

9.1.2  Specific  problems  of  discrimination 

in 

the  online  environment/digital 

market/collaborative economy 

Hungarian  legislation  does  not  specifically  address  the  issue  of  gender  equality  in  the 
online  environment  or  digital  market,  but  the  general  provisions  (on  equal  treatment 
between  men  and  women  in  the  access  to  and  provision  of  goods  and  services)  are 
intended to be adequate for these spheres as well. However, there is no case law in this 
field. 

9.1.3  Political and societal debate 

There  have  been  no  political  or  social  debates,  and  there  are  no  pending  legislative 
proposals on goods and services and the issues of gender equality. 

9.2  Prohibition of direct and indirect discrimination 

Prohibition  of  direct  and  indirect  discrimination  on  grounds  of  sex  in  access  to  and  the 
supply of goods and services is provided by the Equal Treatment Act.387  

9.3  Material scope 

The material scope, as provided by the Equal Treatment Act, is similarly wide, but worded 
differently compared to the specification in Article 3 of Directive 2004/113: the principle 
of  equal  treatment  must  be  observed  in  all  public  services,  including  public  and  higher 
education,  social  care,  child  welfare,  healthcare  services,  public  utilities,  (etc.).  Private 
services  are  also  covered  by  the  provision  if  they  concern  offers  and  calls  for  offers 
(tenders) presented to the public (preliminarily undefined persons), and if they concern 
services that are provided and goods that are sold at premises open to the public.388 

9.4  Exceptions 

The  national  law  has  not  explicitly  applied  the  exceptions  from  the  material  scope 
regarding the content of the media, advertising, and education, as provided by Article 3(3) 
of Directive 2004/113. 

386  See e.g. Caracciolo di Torella, E. and McLellan, B. (2018), Gender equality and the collaborative economy, 

European network of legal experts in gender equality and non-discrimination, available at 
https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4573-gender-equality-and-the-collaborative-economy-pdf-721-kb. 
387  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Articles 8-9. 
388  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Articles 4-5. 

68 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
9.5  Justification of differences in treatment 

According  to  the  general  provisions  on  exceptions  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Act,389 
differences in treatment in the provision  of the goods and  services may be justified, as 
provided by Article 4(5) of Directive 2004/113. 

As  for  case  law,  the  first  reverse  discrimination  case  in  Hungary  is  relevant.  This  case 
revolved around the issue that men had to pay a fee for services that were provided free 
of  charge  for  women.  A  male  activist  from  a  progressive  student  organisation  filed  a 
complaint against a bar that offered free entrance for women until midnight, while male 
patrons would have paid cca. EUR 0.96 (HUF 300) as an entrance fee. He argued that he 
was discriminated against because of his sex. In its defence, the bar used the following 
arguments:  (1)  it  wanted  to  balance  the  wage  discrimination  that  women  suffer  in  the 
labour market; (2) it is a societal expectation that men pay for women in bars, clubs and 
restaurants, so the free entrance for women was a gesture to both sexes; and (3) the free 
entrance for women was a business necessity for the bar. It argued that without providing 
free entrance for women, women would not attend the club in sufficient numbers and that 
would contribute to the reduction of male patrons. So as to remain profitable, it had to 
provide free entrance for women for some of the events, while other events were free for 
both sexes, and on other occasions both sexes had to pay an entrance fee.  

The Equal Treatment Authority established that the claimant suffered direct discrimination 
because of his sex. The Equal Treatment Authority dismissed all defences raised by  the 
bar. The first defence, based on the preferential treatment of women reflecting the wage 
pay  gap  was  refused  because  the  bar’s  pricing  policy  did  not  fulfil  the  legal  criteria  of 
preferential  treatment  (positive  action)  laid  down  in  the  Equal  Treatment  Act.390  The 
second and third arguments of the bar were dismissed by the authority because the legal 
criteria of lawful exemptions from the non-discrimination principle were not fulfilled as laid 
down in the Equal Treatment Action.391 The Equal Treatment Authority stressed that the 
bar is free to decide whether it requires entrance fees from its patrons, though the rules 
must be the same for both sexes. Occasionally, the bar could provide free entrance to one 
sex or the other but it must be clearly linked to certain holidays (no example was given in 
this regard in the decision).  

In a media interview, the claimant explained that he believed that the treatment of women 
by  most  of  the  bars  and  clubs  in  Budapest  is  alarming.  The  women,  who  enter  the  bar 
seemingly  free  of  charge,  but  in  fact  at  the  expense  of  men,  seem  to  be  treated  as  a 
‘reward’, provided by the bar for solvent men. The claimant’s interpretation of the case in 
the interview points to the Janus-faced nature of his legal and ethical position. Legally he 
argued  that  he,  as  a  man,  was  discriminated  against,  but  in  fact  he  wanted  to  raise 
awareness of the increasingly degrading treatment of women in Hungary.392 The decision 
of  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  in  2013393  became  final  by  the  decision  of  the 
Constitutional Court in 2016.394  

In a similar case,395 a man turned to the Equal Treatment Authority claiming that he was 
discriminated against by a bar, based on his sex, as men have to pay EUR 7.75 to enter 
(cca. HUF 2 500), while women only need to pay EUR 3.10 (cca. HUF 1 000), whilst also 

389  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2). 
390  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 11. 
391  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2). 

392  Magyarkúti, B. (2013), ‘Vége a nők ingyenbulijának’ (No more free partying for women), Index, 21 

November 2013, available: https://index.hu/belfold/2013/11/21/diszkriminativ_a_nok_ingyenbulija/. 

393  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/545/13/2013. 
394  Constitutional Court Decision (AB határozat) No.3001/2016. (I. 15.), 15 January 2016. 
395  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/22/2016.  

69 

 
 
 
 
 
 
receiving a EUR 1.55 (cca. HUF 500) voucher for drinks. The Equal Treatment Authority 
established direct discrimination based on his sex and ordered the bar to both cease the 
practice and pay a fine.396 

9.6  Actuarial factors 

Article 5(1)  of Directive 2004/113 was transposed to national law by  a provision  of the 
Equal Treatment Act.397 However, the general legal framework of the legislation remained 
unchanged  with  regard  to  the  definitions  of  different  forms  of  discrimination  and  the 
procedure  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority.  The  relevant  Article  30/A  of  the  Equal 
Treatment Act allows for a deviation from the unisex rule, which contravenes the CJEU’s 
Test Achats decision in two respects: 

- 

- 

the group of life, accident and sickness insurances, as a general exemption, do not 
fall under the unisex rule; and 
further  derogations  are  allowed  from  the  unisex  rule  if  they  are  regulated  by  the 
separate Act on the Business of Insurance.398 

9.7  Interpretation of exception contained in Article 5(2) of Directive 2004/113 

As for the interpretation of the exception contained in Article 5(2) Directive 2004/113, the 
Act  on  the  Business  of  Insurance  specifies399  cases  in  which  sex-related  data  and 
information  might  be  stored,  managed  and  used.  These  cases  are  in  line  with  the 
Guidelines  on the application  of Directive 2004/113.400 Moreover, it  specifies401 cases  in 
which a differentiation among the members of the two sexes does not constitute unlawful 
discrimination: in relation to indirect discrimination, as it is reflected upon in points 16 and 
17 in the COM Guidelines; in the case of positive action, as long as it does not constitute 
unlawful  discrimination  against  other  persons  or  groups  of  persons  who  are  in  a 
comparable situation. If the application of this point remains within the boundaries of the 
case law of the CJEU, as was also reflected upon by Article 16 of the Directive, it does not 
constitute unlawful discrimination. The provisions402 in the Act comply with Article 4(5) of 
the  Directive  2004/113  and  point  15  in  the  Guidelines  on  the  application  of  Council 
Directive 2004/113/EC to insurance.403 

The regulation in the Act on the Business of Insurance correctly follows the timing provided 
by  the  EU  acquis:  the  unisex  rule  does  not  apply  to  contracts  concluded  before  21 
December  2007.404  However,  there  is  no  rule  on  what  qualifies  as  an  ‘old’  and  ‘new’ 
contract in this regard; there are specific rules for new (or modified) contracts concluded 

396  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/357/2018.  
397  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 30/A. 

398  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014. 

399  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 134(1). 

400  European Commission (2012), Guidelines on the application of Council Directive 2004/113/EC to insurance, 
in the light of the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union in Case C-236/09 (Test-Achats) 
Text with EEA relevance. (2012/C 11/01), 13 January 2012. 

401  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 134(2). 

402  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 134(2) Point (c). 

403  European Commission (2012), Guidelines on the application of Council Directive 2004/113/EC to insurance, 
in the light of the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union in Case C-236/09 (Test-Achats) 
Text with EEA relevance. (2012/C 11/01), 13 January 2012. 

404  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 447. 

70 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
between 21 December 2007 and 21 December 2012,405 and the Act specifies406 that only 
derogations allowed under the unisex rule407 are to be applied if the last legal statement 
was delivered to the other party following 21 December 2012 (which establishes a ‘new 
contract’). 

Article 5(1)  of Directive 2004/113 was transposed to national law by  a provision  of the 
Equal  Treatment  Act408  (while  the  general  legal  framework  of  the  legislation  remained 
unchanged  with  regard  to  the  definitions  of  different  forms  of  discrimination  and  the 
procedure of the Equal Treatment Authority), which allows for a deviation from the unisex 
rule in two respects: 1) life, accident and sickness insurances, as a general exemption, do 
not fall under the unisex rule; and 2) further derogations are allowed from the unisex rule 
if regulated by the separate Act on the Business of Insurance.409 According to the author’s 
understanding, such a wide and general exemption cannot be made by national legislation, 
because it empties the aim of the Test-Achats ruling, namely promoting gender equality 
in the field of insurance services. 

9.8  Positive action measures (Article 6 of Directive 2004/113) 

The only (quasi) positive action measure taken by Hungary in relation to access to and the 
supply  of  goods  and  services  is  controversial.  According  to  recent  amendments  of  the 
Governmental  Decree  on  Student  Loans  (in  force  from  1  January  2018),410  women  are 
entitled to an alleviation of 50 % of their student loans after giving birth to (or adopting) 
a second child, and an alleviation of 100 % after giving birth to (or adopting) a third child. 
However, only those women who gave birth to (or adopted) at least one of their children 
after 31 December 2017 are eligible.  

An  individual  affected  by  this  measure  lodged  a  complaint  against  the  Decree  to  the 
Constitutional  Court,  claiming  that  the  conditions  of  the  student  loan  alleviation  are 
discriminatory  because  the  mothers  whose  children  were  born  (or  adopted)  earlier  are 
excluded from the alleviation. The Constitutional Court  rejected the complaint, claiming 
that  the  restriction  falls  within  the  scope  of  exemption  regarding  the  principle  of  equal 
treatment. According to the Court, the restriction is not arbitrary and based on a sensible 
reason,  which  carries  due  constitutional  weight  to  justify  the  differential  treatment;  i.e. 
the measure serves the aim to encourage further childbearing, thus increasing the birth 
rates  in  Hungary  and  promoting  a  favourable  demographic  turn.  Moreover,  the 
Constitutional  Court  explicitly  stated  that  the  measure  is  not  aimed  to  support  the 
upbringing of children already born.411  

9.9  Specific problems related to pregnancy, maternity or parenthood 

Moving  around  with  a  pram  seems  to  be  a  challenge  for  parents,  especially  in  the 
countryside.  There  have  been  numerous  cases  before  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  in 
which individuals have complained about being discriminated against because of trying to 
use  services  with  small  children  sitting  in  a  pram.  In  one  case,  a  mother  initiated  a 
procedure against a public transportation bus company which regularly caused hardship 

405  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 447. 

406  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 447. 

407  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014, Article 134. 

408  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 30/A. 

409  Act LXXXVIII of 2014 on the Business of Insurance (2014. évi LXXXVIII. törvény a biztosítási 

tevékenységről), 22 December 2014. 

410  Governmental Decree 1/2012 (I. 20.) on the System of Student Loans (1/2012. (I. 20.) Korm. rendelet a 

hallgatói hitelrendszerről), 20 January 2012. 

411  Constitutional Court Decision (AB határozat) No.3363/2018. (XI. 28.), 20 November 2018. 

71 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
for her when she travelled with her child and pram.412 In this case, the Equal Treatment 
Authority  concluded  that  the  complainant  suffered  direct  discrimination  based  on 
maternity/parenthood  (as  this  characteristic  is  explicitly  listed  as  a  protected  ground  in 
the Equal Treatment Act).413  

9.10 Evaluation of implementation 

Although  the  transposition  of  Directive  2004/113  and  the  Ruling  does  not  appear  to  be 
logical and thorough in every respect, a violation of the  acquis could only be concluded 
with regard to the provision of the Equal Treatment Act414 in which the group life, accident 
and sickness insurances are generally exempt from the unisex rule.  

9.11 Remaining issues 

No  additional  issues  are  relevant  in  relation  to  gender  equality  regarding  goods  and 
services. 

412  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/161/2014. 
413  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8 
Point (l). 

414  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 30/A. 

72 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
10  Violence  against  women  and domestic violence  in  relation to  the Istanbul 

Convention 

10.1 General (legal) context 

10.1.1 Surveys and reports on issues of violence against women and domestic violence 

Intimate  partner  violence  against  women  is  a  major  human  rights,  health  and  social 
problem in Hungary. However, public policy has never regarded it as an important issue. 
Comparable  national  data  are  lacking,  as  in  Hungary  very  little  relevant  data  collection 
and research has been undertaken in the past 20 years. A paper from 2018 has reviewed 
available  research  and  presents  the  main  findings:  data  proves  the  lack  of  relevant 
information  and knowledge about intimate partner  violence even amongst professionals 
working at law enforcement agencies, and stereotypical thinking about intimate partner 
violence (victim-blaming  or an idealised image of the family) is also accepted in a wide 
circle of professionals and public opinion.415 

10.1.2 Overview of national acts on violence against women, domestic violence and issues 

related to the Istanbul Convention 

The key element of national legislation regarding violence against women and domestic 
violence is the Criminal Code,416 and especially the provisions on: 

- 
- 
- 
- 
- 
- 

sexual coercion (szexuális kényszerítés);417  
sexual violence (szexuális erőszak);418  
sexual abuse (against children) (szexuális visszaélés);419 
incest (vérfertőzés);420 
partnership violence (kapcsolati erőszak);421 and  
stalking (zaklatás).422 

There is also a separate Act on Restraining Applicable for Violence Between Relatives (i.e. 
on the application of restraining orders).423 

10.1.3 National provisions on online violence and online harassment 

National  legislation  does  not  explicitly  tackle  online  harassment;  however,  the 
phenomenon  can  be  addressed  through  the  pre-existing  criminal  law  provisions.424 
Especially  useful  here  is  the  provision  on  stalking  (engaging  in  a  conduct  intended  to 

415  Tóth, O. (2018), ‘A nők elleni párkapcsolati erőszak Magyarországon: Az elmúlt 20 év kutatási 

eredményeinek összegzése’ (Intimate partner violence against women in Hungary: A summary of research 
done in the past 20 years), Socio.hu, No. 4, pp. 1-28, available at: 
https://socio.hu/uploads/files/2018_4/30_toth.pdf. 

416  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012. 
417  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

196. 

418  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

197. 

419  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

198. 

420  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

199. 

421  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

2012/A. 

422  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

222. 

423  Act LXXII of 2009 on Restraining applicable for Violence Between Relatives (2009. évi LXXII. törvény a 

hozzátartozók közötti erőszak miatt alkalmazható távoltartásról), 6 July 2009. 

424  Parti, K. (2016), ‘A megfélemlítés (bullying) szabályozása Magyarországon és külföldön’ (Legislation 
regarding intimidation/bullying in Hungary and abroad), In Medias Res, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 114-146, 
available at: http://media-tudomany.hu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2017/11/media-tudomany-a-
megfelemlites-bullying-szabalyozasa-magyarorszagon-es-kulfoldon-cikk-115.pdf. 

73 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
intimidate another person, to disturb the privacy of or to upset, or cause emotional distress 
to  another  person  arbitrarily,  engaging  in  the  pestering  of  another  person  on  a  regular 
basis),425  or,  in  some  cases,  the  provisions  on:  partnership  violence,426  coercion 
(kényszerítés),427 extortion (zsarolás),428 misuse of personal data (személyes adattal való 
visszaélés),429  defamation  (rágalmazás),430  libel  (becsületsértés),431  publication  of  false 
audio  or  visual  material  that  is  injurious  to  another  person’s  reputation  (becsület 
csorbítására  alkalmas  hamis  hang-  vagy  képfelvétel  nyilvánosságra  hozatala),432  aiding 
suicide  (öngyilkosságban  való  közreműködés),433  degrading  treatment  of  a  vulnerable 
person  (kiszolgáltatott  személy  megalázása),434  failure  to  provide  care  (gondozási 
kötelezettség  megszegése),435  and  incitement  against  a  community  (közösség  elleni 
uszítás).436 

10.1.4 Political and societal debates 

Regarding the issues of violence against women and domestic violence, the ratification of 
the Istanbul Convention is at the centre of political debates. 

10.2 Ratification of the Istanbul Convention 

The Istanbul Convention was signed by Hungary on 14 March 2014, but has not yet been 
ratified.437 

Between 2014 and 2015, heated debates were held within and outside Parliament about 
the ratification of the Convention, and the actions and measures to be taken in order to 
prevent and remedy domestic violence and how to support victims. Independent MPs438 
and  MPs  from  the  liberal–green  party  (Politics  Can  Be  Different;  Lehet  Más  a  Politika  – 
LMP), especially MP Bernadett Szél, and those of the Hungarian Socialist Party, argued for 
the ratification of the Convention and emphasise that Hungary is far behind the Western 
EU  Member  States  with  regard  to  both  infrastructure  and  law  in  the  field  of  domestic 
violence.  

In June 2015, Zoltán Balog, the Minister for Human Capacities, submitted to Parliament a 
Proposal  for  a  Parliamentary  Resolution  on  the  establishment  of  national  strategic 

425  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

222. 

426  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

2012/A. 

427  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

195. 

428  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

367. 

429  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

219. 

430  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

226. 

431  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

227. 

432  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

226/B. 

433  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

162. 

434  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

225. 

435  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

167. 

436  Act C of 2012 on the Criminal Code (2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről), 13 July 2012, Article 

332. 

437  See: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/210/signatures.  
438  Motion for Parliament Resolution No. H/2390 on the Ratification of the Istanbul Convention (H/2390. számú 

határozati javaslat az Isztambuli Egyezmény elfogadásáról), 15 December 2014. 

74 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
objectives in order to promote effective actions against domestic violence.439 This proposal 
has been highly criticised by the Hungarian Women’s Lobby (Magyar Női Érdekérvényesítő 
Szövetség,  an  NGO  umbrella  organisation)  and  other  women’s  organisations  because  it 
lags behind compared to the provisions outlined in the Istanbul Convention.440 However, 
it was adopted by the Parliament.441 

In May 2017, two statements from right-wing political leaders made it clear that the ruling 
right-wing FIDESZ-KDNP alliance (Fiatal Demokraták Szövetsége – Kereszténydemokrata 
Néppárt:  Alliance  of  Young  Democrats  –  Christian  Democratic  People’s  Party)  has  no 
intention  of  ratifying  the  Council  of  Europe  Convention  on  preventing  and  combating 
violence against women and domestic violence. On 21 May 2017, the leader of the youth 
wing of KDNP stated that numerous laws protected  women in  Hungary, therefore there 
was no need for the ratification of the Convention. He also stated that ratification would 
be a ‘very precarious’ measure politically. The ‘precarious’ nature was explained by Szilard 
Nemeth,  the  vice  president  of  the  FIDESZ,  who  stated  in  an  interview:  ‘The  Istanbul 
Convention is not about the equality of women, nor is it about the rights of women, rather 
it is “very sneaky” gender politics.’ (It should be noted that he erroneously claimed in this 
interview that the Istanbul Convention was not even signed by Hungary).442  

This statement above is a  clear departure  from (and contradicts the  declaration  of)  the 
vice  president  of  the  Parliamentary  Justice  Committee,  who  said  in  February  2017  that 
Hungarian  legislation  is  working  on  establishing  the  legislative  background  for  the 
ratification of the Istanbul Convention.443 However, that Hungary must  be populated by 
Hungarians  and  not  immigrants  seems  to  be  a  core  element  of  FIDESZ’s  politics. 
Populating Hungary with Hungarians rests on the shoulders of women: they are expected 
to give birth to so many children that this will counterbalance the decline of the population 
due to the deaths of older generations and the continuous emigration from the country. 
This approach does not embrace the diverse functions that women could play in society, 
but degrades women to being simple ‘child-bearers’. As evidenced by the repeated political 
comments  of  FIDESZ,  the  current  Hungarian  political  establishment  opposes  any  policy 
measure  encouraging  women  away  from  being  a  wife  and  a  mother.  Ironically  and 
surprisingly, the political elite do not  feel called upon to provide  strong legal protection 
against physical abuse to women who play such an essential role. Until recently, FIDESZ, 
at least in rhetoric, did not openly refuse the ratification of the Convention. Labelling the 
Istanbul Convention as a measure of ‘sneaky gender politics’ reveals, however, that the 
political leadership has no intention of ratifying the Istanbul Convention. 

In  November  2018,  some  female  MPs  from  opposition  parties  demonstrated  for  the 
ratification of the Istanbul Convention.444 

439  Motion for Parliament Resolution No. H/5048 on Defining the National Strategic Aims that Promote Effective 

Measures Against Partnership Violence (H/5048. számú országgyűlési határozati javaslat a kapcsolati 
erőszak elleni hatékony fellépést elősegítő nemzeti stratégiai célok meghatározásáról), June 2015. 

440  Hungarian Women’s Lobby (Magyar Női Érdekérvényesítő Szövetség), NANE Women’s Rights Organisation 
(NANE Egyesület), Patent Association (Patent Egyesület) (2015), ‘Határozat helyett határozott fellépést!’ 
(We claim for decided measures instead of decisions on motions!), Press release, 11 June 2015. 
http://nokjoga.hu/sites/default/files/filefield/2015-06-11-noi-erdek-nane-patent-mona-sajtokozlemeny-
ogyh-javaslatra.pdf. 

441  Parliament Resolution No. 30/2015. (VII. 7.) on Defining the National Strategic Aims that Promote Effective 

Measures Against Partnership Violence (30/2015. (VII. 7.) OGY határozat a kapcsolati erőszak elleni 
hatékony fellépést elősegítő nemzeti stratégiai célok meghatározásáról), 30 June 2015. 

442  Jámbor, A. (2017), ‘Németh Szilárd szerint minden rendben van a nők elleni erőszak ügyében’ (According 
to Szilárd Németh, everything is fine regarding the issue of violence against women), Mérce, 14 November 
2017, available at: https://merce.hu/2017/11/14/nemeth-szilard-szerint-semmi-szukseg-a-nok-eroszak-
elleni-kiallasra/. 

443  P., Sz. (2017), ‘Démonizálja a nőket védő egyezményt Németh’ (Németh demonises the Convention aimed 
at protecting women), Hír TV, 21 May 2017, available at: http://hirtv.hu/ahirtvhirei/demonizalja-a-noket-
vedo-egyezmenyt-nemeth-szilard-1395549. 

444  Botos, T. (2018), ‘“Orbán azt mondta, szerződne a nőkkel. Itt a lehetőség: ratifikálja a kormány az 

Isztambul Egyezményt!”’ (“Orbán said he would like to reach an agreement with the women. Here is a way 
for it: the Government should ratify the Istanbul Convention!”), 444.hu, 23 November 2018, 

75 

 
 
 
 
 
It  should  be  noted  that  on  28  November  2019,  none  of  the  MEPs  from  Hungary  voted 
against the resolution on the EU’s accession to the convention; however, 12 MEPs absented 
(11 out of the 13 MEPs delegated by the governing coalition).445 

https://444.hu/2018/11/23/orban-azt-mondta-szerzodne-a-nokkel-itt-a-lehetoseg-ratifikalja-a-kormany-
az-isztambul-egyezmenyt.  

445  The source of data is the VoteWatch Europe’s database: https://www.votewatch.eu/en/term9-eu-

accession-to-theistanbul-convention-and-other-measures-to-combat-gender-based-violence-motion-fo-
8.html#/##vote-tabs-list-4.  

76 

 
 
 
11  Compliance  and  enforcement  aspects  (horizontal  provisions  of  all 

directives)  

11.1 General (legal) context 

11.1.1 Surveys  and  reports  about  the  particular  difficulties  related  to  obtaining  legal 

redress 

No  survey  or  report  is  available  from  the  last  five  years  specifically  on  the  issue  of 
difficulties related to obtaining legal redress in gender-based discrimination cases. 

However, the Equal Treatment Authority and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (HAS), 
Centre for Social Sciences, Institute for Sociology undertook a joint research project, which 
was published in 2017. Its findings include that only 44 % of the respondents were aware 
of the very existence of the anti-discrimination legal framework in Hungary. This reflects 
a decline compared to respective survey data from 2013, when 60 % of the respondents 
knew of some legislation against discrimination in Hungary.446 

11.1.2 Other issues related to the pursuit of a discrimination claim 

There are no further additional issues regarding the pursuit of a discrimination claim in the 
field of gender equality. 

11.1.3 Political and societal debate and pending legislative proposals 

There  have  been  no  political  or  social  debates,  and  there  are  no  pending  legislative 
proposals regarding the horizontal provisions of gender equality directives. 

11.2 Victimisation 

The  Equal  Treatment  Act  addresses  the  issue  of  victimisation  by  the  provision  on 
retaliation,447  which  is  defined  as  conduct  that  causes  an  infringement,  is  aimed  at  an 
infringement, or threatens with an infringement, against the person making a complaint 
or  initiating  procedures  because  of  a  violation  of  the  principle  of  equal  treatment,  or 
against a person assisting in such a procedure, in relation to these acts.  

11.3 Access to courts 

11.3.1 Difficulties and barriers related to access to courts  

Access to the courts is safeguarded by legislation, although the case law of the lower level 
courts  demonstrates  considerable  gaps  in  the  legal  practice  in  four  areas:  the  wide 
interpretation given to  the very broadly worded exemption from the scope of the Equal 
Treatment Act;448 being reluctant to apply dissuasive compensation; minimising the weight 
of violations against women; and not correctly applying the rules on the burden of proof. 

Awareness  about  the  anti-discrimination  legislation  and  available  legal  avenues  and 
remedies is low. This is demonstrated by the findings of the joint research undertaken by 

446  Neményi M., Ságvári, B., Tardos, K. (2017), Az egyenlő bánásmóddal kapcsolatos jogtudatosság: kutatási 
eredmények (Rights awareness regarding equal treatment: research results), Budapest, Equal Treatment 
Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság), Hungarian Academy of Sciences Centre for Social Sciences 
Institute for Sociology (MTA Társadalomtudományi Kutatóközpont Szociológiai Intézet), p. 23, available at: 
http://real.mtak.hu/73102/1/nemenyi_sagvari_tardos_ebh_2017_.pdf. 

447  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 10(3). 
448  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

77 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  and  the  HAS  Centre  for  Social  Sciences,  Institute  for 
Sociology, mentioned above in 11.1.1.449 

The  Supreme  Court  in  the  theoretical  guidelines  on  employment  cases  pointed  out  the 
difference between the burden of proof in cases on the misuse of the law (direct burden 
of proof) and equal treatment cases (shared and reversed burden of proof).450  

The Civil Code addresses the issue of discrimination in the context of ‘protection of rights 
relating to personality’451 where it is listed among the specific personality rights violations:  

‘a)  harm  to  life,  physical  integrity  and  health;  b)  violation  of  personal  liberty  and 
privacy, and trespass; c) discrimination against a person; d) defamation or violation 
of good reputation; e) violation of the right to keep personal secrets and the right to 
the protection of personal data; f) violation of the right to a name; g) violation of 
the right to the protection of one’s image and recorded voice.’452  

In the case of launching a personality rights claim (személyiségi jogi per) for the violation 
of equal treatment, the claimant is exempt from having to advance the procedural fees 
due  to  the  subject  matter  of  the  action  (tárgyi  illetékfeljegyzési  jog).453  In  this  case, 
however, if the claimant loses the litigation, he or she has to pay the court fees, including 
the procedural fee, the fee for the legal representative of the adverse party and the expert 
fees. 

11.3.2 Availability of legal aid 

Alleged victims of gender discrimination may be entitled, depending upon their financial 
status, to state-funded legal aid to cover the lawyer’s fee at a civil court. However, the 
means-test threshold is very low,454 and if the claimant loses the case (s)he may be obliged 
to pay back the lawyer’s fee.455 

According  to  the  Act  on  Legal  Aid,  legal  aid  providers  shall  give  assisted  persons  legal 
advice or prepare submissions or other papers for them, and (if so authorised) inspect the 
documents of their case, and the State shall pay or advance the legal aid providers for the 
pertinent costs and fees.456 

449  Neményi M., Ságvári, B., Tardos, K. (2017), Az egyenlő bánásmóddal kapcsolatos jogtudatosság: kutatási 
eredmények (Rights awareness regarding equal treatment: research results), Budapest, Equal Treatment 
Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság), Hungarian Academy of Sciences Centre for Social Sciences 
Institute for Sociology (MTA Társadalomtudományi Kutatóközpont Szociológiai Intézet), p. 23, available at: 
http://real.mtak.hu/73102/1/nemenyi_sagvari_tardos_ebh_2017_.pdf.  
450  Supreme Court (Kúria), Decision in Principle No. 22/2014 in Labour Law. 
451  Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, Article 

2:42: (1) Everyone shall have the right, subject to limitations by law and by the rights of others, to 
exercise his personality rights freely, in particular the right to respect for his private and family life, his 
home, and to his communications made by whatever ways or means, and the right to good reputation and 
not to be hindered by anyone from exercising these rights. 
(2) Everyone shall respect human dignity and the personality rights derived from it. Personality rights are 
protected by this Act.’ 

452  Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, Article 

2:43. 

453  Act XCIII of 1990 on Stamp Duties (1990. évi XCIII. törvény az illetékekről), Article 59(1)(f). 
454  Government Decree no. 421/2017. (XII. 19.) on the Detailed Rules of Procedures regarding the 

Authorisation, Disbursement and Reimbursement of Allowances within the Framework of Legal Aid 
(421/2017. (XII. 19.) Korm. rendelet a jogi segítségnyújtás keretében nyújtott szolgáltatások 
engedélyezése, folyósítása és visszatérítése iránti eljárások részletes szabályairól). 

455  Act LXXX of 2003 on Legal Aid (2003. évi LXXX. törvény a jogi segítségnyújtásról), 6 November 2003, 

Article 11/B(2). 

456  Act LXXX of 2003 on Legal Aid (2003. évi LXXX. törvény a jogi segítségnyújtásról), 6 November 2003, 

Article 1(2). 

78 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11.4 Horizontal effect of the applicable law 

11.4.1 Horizontal effect of relevant gender equality law 

The  issue  of  horizontal  effect  of  the  anti-discrimination  EU  acquis,  including  gender 
equality law, has been  discussed in Hungary. In 2010, the Advisory Board of the Equal 
Treatment Authority issued an opinion on the effect of the EU acquis in anti-discrimination 
cases.  Following  the  interpretation  of  the  Mangold  case,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority 
held that private parties may rely on EU directives in cases in which domestic law failed to 
fully implement it, or if it is not possible to interpret domestic law in conformity with the 
EU Directive applicable to their case when the deadline for implementation has expired. 457  

11.4.2 Impact of horizontal direct effects of the charter after Bauer 

The  impact  of  the  Bauer  judgment  is  not  perceivable  yet  regarding  the  field  of  gender 
equality in Hungary. 

11.5 Burden of proof 

The  rule  of  the  shared  of  burden  of  proof  applies.  In  direct  discrimination  cases,  the 
complainant  has  to  demonstrate  that  it  is  probable  that  s/he  suffered  a  disadvantage 
compared to the comparator, and that s/he actually, or as assumed by the respondent, 
possessed any of the protected characteristics listed in the Equal Treatment Act458 at the 
time  of  the  accused  violation  of  equal  treatment.  In  case  of  actio  popularis,  if  the 
disadvantage  has  not  yet  occurred,  the  direct  prospect  of  its  occurrence  must  be 
demonstrated. The burden of proof then shifts to the respondent, who has to prove that 
the  circumstances  rendered  probable  by  the  complainant  are  not  true;  the  principle  of 
equal treatment was not violated because there is no  causality  connection between the 
protected characteristic and the disadvantage; or that the respondent was not obliged to 
follow  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  because  the  case  falls  under  one  of  the  several 
exemptions stipulated in the Equal Treatment Act. This procedure is in compliance with EU 
law. 

The first reverse discrimination case in Hungary provides a good example of the regulation 
of  the  shared  burden  of  proof  and  how  it  is  applied  in  the  legal  practice  of  the  Equal 
Treatment Authority. The case revolved around the issue that men had to pay a fee for 
services which were provided free of charge for women.459 The claimant (a man who was 
charged an entrance fee by a bar that offered free entry for women) was only supposed 
to  demonstrate  that  he  possessed  a  protected  characteristic  and  that  he  suffered  a 
disadvantage,  i.e.  that  the  difference  in  treatment  was  based  on  his  (male)  sex.  The 
burden of proof then shifted and since the defendant (the bar) could not successfully prove 
that the difference in treatment was  either based on an objective justification or that it 
could  be  considered  as  a  positive  action  measure,  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority 
established direct discrimination based on sex. 

In 2018, the Hungarian Supreme Court (Kúria) ruled in a case on the right to equal pay 
for  equal work that the shift of the burden of proof in discrimination cases requires  the 
respondent to prove the absence of causality between the protected characteristic and the 

457  See: Opinion of the Advisory Board of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság 

Tanácsadó Testülete) No. 288//4/2010. (VI.21) TT., available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/hu/jogszabaly/tanacsado-testulet-28842010-vi-21-tt-sz-allasfoglalasa-
az-europai-unios-jog. 

458  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 
459  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) Decision No. EBH/545/13/2013. See the details at 

Section 9.5 of the present report. 

79 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
suffered  disadvantage.460  The  case  concerned  a  male  employee  (a  human  resources 
officer) who filed a discrimination claim with the administrative and labour court  against 
his employer, claiming that he was discriminated against based on his sex when he was 
hired to replace a female employee during her maternity leave, and received a lower salary 
than she did. The respondent (the employer) asked the court to dismiss the claim, arguing 
that the difference in treatment was justified and there was no causal link between the 
suffered disadvantage and his sex. The respondent argued that the difference in treatment 
was  based  on  the  condition  that  he  did  not  have  the  same  level  of  qualification  for  the 
position as his female comparator did. In this case the Supreme Court ruled that the right 
to equal pay for equal work shall be considered under the anti-discrimination framework. 
It is for the employee to substantiate that he ‘possesses the protected characteristic’ (in 
this case, that he is male) and that the employer treated him less favourably based on 
this protected characteristic by paying him a lower wage compared to another employee 
in a comparable situation. Thereafter, based on the principle of the shift of the burden of 
proof,  it  is  for  the  employer  to  justify  that  there  was  no  causality  link  between  the 
difference in treatment and the protected characteristic. The number of years served, and 
thus  more  experience,  may  result  in  better  performance  and  may  therefore  serve  as  a 
legal justification for a difference in wage. 

11.6 Remedies and sanctions  

11.6.1 Types of remedies and sanctions 

In Hungary, the following procedures exist for enforcing the principle of equal treatment, 
including judicial, administrative, and non-judicial procedures. 

Victims  of  discrimination  may  sue  in  civil  courts  based  on  the  provisions  of  the  Civil 
Code,461 claiming that inherent rights are protected by the Civil Code, and that the right 
to non-discrimination is an inherent right. The possible remedies applicable by the court 
are listed under the Civil Code:  

- 

- 

Article 2:51: ‘(1) A person whose inherent rights have been violated may  – within 
the  statute  of  limitation  –  demand  the  following  on  the  basis  of  the  violation  and 
depending on the circumstances of the case: (a) a court declaration of the occurrence 
of the infringement, (b) to have the infringement discontinued and the perpetrator 
banned  from  further  infringement;  (c)  that  the  perpetrator  provides  adequate 
redress, and, makes this fact public at his/her own expense; (d) the termination of 
the injurious situation and the restoration of the previous state, and the elimination 
of the object that came into existence as a result of the violation, or to have such an 
object deprived of its injurious nature; (e) that the perpetrator or its successor hand 
over the financial asset acquired through the violation’;  
Article 2:52: ‘(1) A person whose inherent rights have been violated, may claim a 
payment of restitution (grievance fee) for the non-pecuniary damage he/she suffered 
from. (2) The provisions pertaining to damages shall be applied to compensation – 
with special regard to the determination of the liable person and exculpation – with 
the difference that for the entitlement to restitution the claimant shall not be required 
to prove any further damage beyond the occurrence of the inherent right violation. 
(3)  The  court  shall  determine  the  amount  of  restitution  in  one  sum,  taking  into 
account the gravity of the infringement, whether it was committed on one or more 
occasions,  the  degree  of  responsibility,  the  impact  of  the  infringement  upon  the 
aggrieved party and his environment’; and  

460  National court decision (judgment no. Mfv.I.10.371/2017) of the Curia of 18 June 2018, 1 adopted as 
decision in principle no. 24/2018 in Labour Law, See: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4849-
hungary-curia-s-decision-in-a-case-regarding-the-principle-of-equal-pay-for-equal-work-causality-between-
sex-and-the-suffered-disadvantage-pdf-87-kb. 

461  Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, 

Articles 2:42-43. 

80 

 
 
 
 
 
 
- 

Article 2:53 prescribes that a person who suffers pecuniary damages as a result of 
the  violation  of  his/her  inherent  rights,  may  claim  damages  from  the  violator  in 
accordance with the general provisions governing damages. These provisions provide 
victims  of  discrimination  with  a  flexible  instrument,  as  they  apply  to  all  types  of 
discrimination no matter which field or ground is at issue. 

The Civil Procedures Code allows for class actions,462 including cases of sex discrimination 
claims. Two different types of class actions are recognised: either compulsory joinder of 
joinder  of  parties  (célszerűségi 
parties  (kényszerű  pertársaság)  or  permissive 
pertársaság). In the case of sex discrimination claims, the latter form is relevant:  

‘Multiple  plaintiffs  may  bring  an  action  together,  and  multiple  defendants  may  be 
sued together if a) the  res judicata  effect of the judgment adopted on the matter 
would apply to the co-litigants, even without their involvement in the action, b) the 
claims in the action arise from the same legal relationship, or c) the claims in the 
action arise from a similar factual and legal basis, and the territorial jurisdiction of 
the same court may be established with respect to all defendants.’463 

In  Hungary,  ‘labour  and  administrative’  courts  apply  the  Labour  Code.464  The  most 
important remedies in labour law are the following: the court may declare an agreement 
null and void under the relevant provision of the Labour Code;465 and if the discrimination 
is  manifested  in  the  unlawful  termination  of  the  employment,  the  employer  shall 
compensate  the  employee  for  the  damages  suffered.466  Full  compensation  is  restricted, 
according to which (under the heading of lost income) a maximum of 12-months’ salary 
may be claimed by the employee.467 If the termination of the employment constitutes the 
violation of the requirement of equal treatment, the employee may request the court to 
order his/her reinstatement (in other cases  of the unlawful termination of employment, 
this option is not available with some exceptions, such as when the dismissed employee 
was a trade union representative).468 In other cases of discrimination (i.e. when it is not a 
dismissal that serves as the subject matter of the case), the employer is liable to pay full 
damages to the employee.469 

As  an  administrative  procedure,470  if  the  Authority  has  established  that  the  provisions 
ensuring  the  principle  of  equal  treatment  have  been  violated,  it  may  a)  order  that  the 
situation constituting a violation of law be terminated; b) prohibit the future continuation 
of the  conduct  constituting a violation of law;  c) order that its decision establishing the 
violation of law be published; d) impose a fine; or e) apply a legal consequence determined 
in a special act. These sanctions can be applied jointly. The legal consequences shall be 
determined taking into consideration all circumstances of the case, with particular regard 
to those who have been affected by the violation of law, the consequences of the violation 
of  law,  the  duration  of  the  situation  constituting  a  violation  of  law,  the  repeated 
demonstration of conduct constituting a violation of law and the financial standing of the 

462  Act CXXX of 2016 on the Code of Civil Procedures (2016. évi CXXX. törvény a polgári perrendtartásról), 2 

December 2016, Articles 36-37. 

463  Act CXXX of 2016 on the Code of Civil Procedures (2016. évi CXXX. törvény a polgári perrendtartásról), 2 

December 2016, Article 37. 

464  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012. 
465  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

27. 

466  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

82. 

467  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

83. 

468  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

167. 

469  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

167. 

470  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 17/A. 

81 

 
 
 
 
 
person or entity committing such a violation. The sum of the fine imposed by the Authority 
can  range  from  cca.  EUR  167  (HUF  50  000)  to  a  maximum  of  cca.  EUR 20 000 
(HUF 6 million).  The  decision  of  the  Authority  may  not  be  appealed  within  a  public 
administrative procedure, but its judicial review is possible according to the general rules 
applicable to public administrative decisions. The lawsuit falls within the scope of authority 
and  exclusive  competence  of  the  Metropolitan  Administrative  and  Labour  Court.  The 
Metropolitan Administrative and Labour Court shall proceed through a panel comprised of 
three professional judges (instead of normal proceedings, when only one judge presides 
over a case), if the claimant or the Authority so requests.  

The Equal Treatment Authority is an administrative body, the role of which is to safeguard 
the enforcement of equal treatment laws. The Authority can only establish an infringement 
of the law, prohibit the violator from discrimination in the future, issue fines and order the 
publication of its decision on its own website and that of the violator.471 However, the Equal 
Treatment  Authority  is  not  authorised  to  impose  sanctions  that  could  repair  the  harm 
suffered by the petitioner (e.g. the payment of compensation or reinstatement in a job).  

In  terms  of  access  to  goods  and  services,  victims  of  discrimination  may  turn  to  local 
consumer protection offices of the Ministry of Innovation and Development in cases when 
the  requirement  of  equal  treatment  are  breached  in  the  course  of  access  to  goods  and 
services. As of 1 January 2017, the National Consumer Protection Authority’s duties were 
transferred  to  local  governmental  offices  (járási  hivatalok)  and  to  the  regional 
governmental  offices  (kormányhivatal)  on  appeal.  According  to  the  Act  on  Consumer 
Protection,472  if  the  authority  establishes  the  breach  of  the  provisions  guaranteeing 
consumers’  rights  (including  the  requirement  of  non-discrimination),  it  may  apply  a 
number  of sanctions, including a fine, the maximum amount of which  is determined by 
the annual revenue of the service provider concerned. 

11.6.2 Effectiveness, proportionality and dissuasiveness 

The sanctions that can be applied by the Equal Treatment Authority cannot be considered 
to  be  effective,  proportionate  or  dissuasive.  For  the  application  of  such  sanctions,  the 
applicant has to submit the case to a court of law (instead of or after the procedure at the 
Equal  Treatment  Authority).  Hungarian  anti-discrimination  legislation  makes  it  rather 
difficult  and  time-consuming  for  women  to  seek  effective,  proportionate  and  dissuasive 
penalties under the Equal Treatment Act. 

Two  serious  sanctions  can  be  imposed  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  which  might 
have some deterrent effect: (1) imposing a fine, the amount of which ranges from EUR 165 
(HUF  50 000)  to  EUR  20 000  (HUF  6  million);473  and  (2)  publishing  the  decision  on  the 
websites of the defendant and the Equal Treatment Authority.  

In  2015,  the  fine  was  only  EUR  310  (HUF  100 000)  in  two  employment  discrimination 
cases  in  which  applications  for  employment  by  a  camerawoman474  and  a  driver  were 
refused because of their sex.475  

471  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 
17/A(5). 

472  Act CLV of 1997 on Consumer Protection (1997. évi CLV. törvény a fogyasztóvédelemről), 23 December 

1997, 45/A(3)(f). 

473  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 
17/A(5). 

474  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. 218/2015. 
475  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. 280/2015. 

82 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In 2016, in some of the gender equality cases the fines applied by the Equal Treatment 
Authority  had  increased  significantly  (from  the  usually  applied  EUR  322-485  in  2015  to 
EUR 1 630-3 260 in 2016), which may have a stronger deterrent effect in the future. 

Higher fines were mainly imposed in cases where pregnant women were dismissed during 
their  probation  period.  It  seems  to  be  an  unbreakable  practice  of  many  employers  to 
dismiss pregnant women once pregnancy is reported to the employer during the probation 
period. Employers often attempt to take advantage of the fact that the Labour Code does 
not oblige them to give a reason for a dismissal during a trial period. However, recent case 
law of the national courts and Equal Treatment Authority point out that the reason for a 
dismissal may never be discriminatory in nature despite the fact that there is no obligation 
to justify a dismissal during a trial period. It is also noteworthy that in a case from 2016, 476 
the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  referred  to  two  European  Court  Cases,  Carole  Louise 
Webb477 and Tele Danmark,478 in order to support its interpretation of the Labour Code in 
favour  of  pregnant  women.  This  emphasises  the  fact  that  dismissal  based  on 
discriminatory motives is prohibited under all circumstances, also in cases where there is 
no obligation to give a reason for the dismissal.  

In 2017, the number of fines somewhat increased again, reaching a total of EUR 26 500 
in 15 cases, out of 30 cases in which a violation of equal treatment was found. In 13 cases 
the authority published its decision on its own website as well as that of the perpetrator.479  

In 2018, the Equal Treatment Authority issued 36 decisions establishing the violation of 
equal treatment, and fines totalling cca. EUR 18 800 were imposed.480 In four cases, the 
violation  of  equal  treatment  based  on  motherhood  was  established  in  the  field  of 
employment, and in another three cases discrimination based on sex was established, two 
of them in the field of employment and in one case in the field of access to services. The 
highest fine imposed amounted to  cca. EUR 1 500 (HUF 500 000), which concerned the 
dismissal of a pregnant employee during her probation period.481 In one sex discrimination 
case, the complaint was dismissed. However, it is to be noted that two of the complaints 
on  sex  discrimination  were  submitted  by  men  claiming  discriminatory  treatment  in 
accessing  services  and  employment.  In  both  cases  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority 
established discrimination based on their sex.482  

The Equal Treatment Authorities annual report for 2019 (including figures on the imposed 
fines) has not been published yet. 

The amendment to the rules on non-material damages for pain and suffering might lead 
to more effective, proportionate and dissuasive sanctions in the future. The new Civil Code 
(adopted in 2013)483 introduced the new rule on compensation, the so-called restitution 
payment  or  ‘grievance  fee’  (sérelemdíj)  for  violation  of  personality  rights  (non-material 
damages,  compensation  for  pain  and  suffering),  including  infringement  of  equality 

476  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/182/2016. 
477  CJEU Case C-32/93, Carole Louise Webb v EMO Air Cargo (UK) Ltd, judgment of 14 July 1994. 
478  CJEU Case 109/00, Tele Danmark A/S v Handels- og Kontorfunktionærernes Forbund i Danmark (HK), 

judgment of 4 October 2001.  

479  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) (2018), Report on the activity of the Equal 

Treatment Authority in 2017 and on the experiences gathered in the context of applying Act CXXV of 2003 
on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of Equal Opportunities, p. 11., available at: 
https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/sites/default/files/tajekoztatok/EBH%20eves%20jelentes%202017%20
EN_final.pdf. 

480  Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) (2015), Report on the activity of the Equal 
Treatment Authority in 2018, available at: https://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/hu/hirek/az-egyenlo-
banasmod-hatosag-tevekenysege-2018-ban. 

481  Decisions of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/309/2018. 
482  See: Decisions of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/291/2018 and 

EBH/357/2018. 

483  Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, Article 

2:52. 

83 

 
 
 
 
 
 
treatment. The amount of the non-material damages is decided by the courts on the basis 
of the totality of the facts, such as the gravity and the repetitive nature of the infringement, 
the  degree  of  culpability,  the  effect  of  the  infringement  on  the  victim  and  on  the 
environment,  but  the  claimant  is  not  requested  to  prove  the  exact  amount  of  damages 
suffered. The amount must be enough to compensate the non-material damage suffered 
and to prevent similar occurrences in the future, according to the opinion of the Advisory 
Committee on the application of the new Civil Code.484 

11.7 Equality body  

The  Equal  Treatment  Authority  (Egyenlő  Bánásmód  Hatóság)485  is  the  central 
administrative  body  mandated  to  implement  the  requirements  of  all  equal  treatment 
legislation, including gender equality law.  

The  Equal  Treatment  Authority  administers  cases  of  equal  treatment  regarding  all  the 
protected grounds by the Equal Treatment Act. The list of grounds is non-exhaustive: it 
includes  19  characteristics,  with  a  20th  proclaiming  ‘any  other  situation,  attribution  or 
condition of a person or group’.486 

The Equal Treatment Authority’s scope of activity is the following: 

- 

- 
- 

- 
- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

conducting complaint-based and ex officio investigations and deciding on violations 
of  equal  treatment  (the  administrative  procedure  before  the  Equal  Treatment 
Authority is free of charge according to the Act on Stamp Duties, due to the subject 
matter of the dispute);487 
and, if necessary, applying sanctions on the basis of the investigation; 
initiating lawsuits (the Equal Treatment Authority may act as a legal representative 
authorised  by  the  party  who  suffered  a  violation  of  law  in  procedures  initiated 
because of a violation of the principle of equal treatment before all courts);488 
reviewing and commenting on legislative drafts on equal treatment; 
making  proposals  concerning  governmental  decisions  and  legislation  pertaining  to 
equal treatment; 
regularly informing the public and the Parliament (the National Assembly) about the 
situation concerning the issue of equal treatment; 
in the course of performing its duties, co-operating with the social and representative 
organisations and the relevant state bodies; 
continually providing information to those concerned and offering assistance in acting 
against a violation of equal treatment; 
assisting in the preparation of governmental reports to international organisations, 
especially to the Council of Europe concerning the principle of equal treatment; and 
assisting in the preparation of the reports for the Commission of the European Union 
concerning the harmonisation of directives on equal treatment. 

11.8 Social partners  

The social partners in Hungary have the right to file a collective claim (actio popularis)489 
and also to participate in different policy-making bodies.  

484  Advisory Body on the New Civil Code (Új Ptk. Tanácsadó Testület), Opinion related to Article 2:52, available 

at: https://kuria-birosag.hu/hu/ptk?tid%5B%5D=344&body_value=. 

485  Website: www.egyenlobanasmod.hu. 
486  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 8. 

487  Act XCIII of 1990 on Stamp Duties (1990. évi XCIII. törvény az illetékekről), Article 33(2) 31. 
488  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 18(1). 
489  Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code (2013. évi V. törvény a Polgári Törvénykönyvről), 26 February 2013, Article 

6:105(1) Point (d). 

84 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Interest groups may represent the  claimant490 and may also initiate proceedings before 
the Equal Treatment Authority or the courts in the interest of a large group with a protected 
characteristic  in  the  case  of  an  infringement  or  the  imminent  danger  thereof  (actio 
popularis).491  

Collective  agreements  are  not  used  as  a  means  to  implement  EU  gender  equality  law; 
implementation  is  intended  to  be  carried  out  through  legislation.  Although  collective 
agreements  are  legally  binding,492  they  would  not  serve  as  a  proper  means  for  the 
transposition of the acquis because they are concluded almost exclusively at the company 
level. Furthermore, since the new Labour Code493 has widened the possibility of derogating 
from the legislation in collective agreements, the contents of collective agreements have 
been altered in order to favour regulations that reduce the rights of employees. Collective 
agreements might contain rules that violate equal treatment legislation, e.g.: 

- 

- 

In  a  case  from  2016,  published  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  a  collective 
agreement contained a rule based on which the employer did not provide a voucher 
(a form of benefit) for  the employee while she was on maternity leave; the Equal 
Treatment  Authority  and  the  Labour  Court  established  that  this  violated  the 
regulations on equal pay and the employer was obliged by the court to pay the wage 
difference to the employee. No further sanctions were applied.494  
In  a  case  adjudicated  in  2017  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority,  the  collective 
agreement contained regulation which constituted indirect wage discrimination.495 

Initiatives by social partners in addressing gender inequality problems are rare and rather 
ineffective. 

11.9 Other relevant bodies 

Victims of discrimination, including victims of gender/sex-based discrimination, may turn 
to the Parliamentary Commissioner for Fundamental Rights (alapvető jogok biztosa), who 
is  the  ‘Ombudsman’  of  Hungary.  The  Ombudsman  has  two  deputies  responsible  for  the 
right of future generations and minorities respectively. 

According to the Fundamental Law,496 the Ombudsman (who is appointed by two-thirds 
parliamentary  majority  vote  for  six  years)  investigates  violations  of  fundamental  rights 
and initiates general or individual measures to remedy such violations.  

The status and proceedings of the Ombudsman is regulated by Act on the Parliamentary 
Commissioner  for  Fundamental  Rights.497  Any  victim  of  acts  or  omissions  of  public 
authorities or public service providers can complain to the Ombudsman’s office, provided 
that all administrative remedies are exhausted or do not exist. The Ombudsman can also 
proceed ex officio investigations. The Ombudsman can investigate any authority, including 
the armed forces, national security services, and law enforcement organisations. He/she 
may request information, look into files, visit premises and can hear any employee of the 

490  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 18. 
491  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 20. 
492  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012, Article 

277. 

493  Act I of 2012 on the Labour Code (2012. évi I. törvény a munka törvénykönyvéről), 6 January 2012. 
494  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. EBH/19/2016. 
495  Decision of the Equal Treatment Authority (Egyenlő Bánásmód Hatóság) No. 130/2017. See the description 

of the case in English: https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/4594-hungary-employer-obliged-to-
reconsider-conditions-13th-month-payment-for-female-workers-pdf-149-kb. See also at Section 3.4.3 of 
this report. 

496  Fundamental Law of Hungary (Magyarország Alaptörvénye), 25 April 2011, Article 30. 
497  Act CXI of 2011 on the Parliamentary Commissioner for Fundamental Rights (2011. évi CXI. törvény az 

alapvető jogok biztosáról), 26 July 2011. 

85 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
examined authority. When finding a violation, the Ombudsman issues recommendations, 
to which the supervisory body of the authority found to be in breach of fundamental rights 
shall respond within 30 days. Further, the Ombudsman may (i) petition the Constitutional 
Court;  (ii)  initiate  criminal  or  disciplinary  proceedings;  and  (iii)  propose  that  a  legal 
provision  be  amended,  repealed  or  issued.  The  Ombudsman’s  main  publicity  weapon  is 
the  annual  report  submitted  to  Parliament.  Further,  he/she  can  request  parliamentary 
investigations and debates. 

11.10  Evaluation of implementation 

Access to the courts is safeguarded by legislation and there is an institutional framework 
established  to  remedy  the  violation  of  equal  treatment;  however,  several  obstacles 
prevent access to justice for victims of discrimination. 

The low level of legal awareness of the victims and the jurisprudence of the lower level 
courts lead to considerable gaps in the legal practice in four areas: the wide interpretation 
given  to  the  legislatively  very  broadly  worded  exemption  from  the  scope  of  the  Equal 
Treatment Act;498 being reluctant to apply dissuasive compensation; minimising the weight 
of violations against women; and not correctly applying the rules on the burden of proof. 

11.11  Remaining issues 

No  additional  issues  are  relevant  regarding  the  issue  of  compliance  and  enforcement 
aspects of the gender equality directives. 

498  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 

törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003. 

86 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
12  Overall assessment  

The following transposition problems were mentioned in this report: 

1. 

2. 

Possible exemptions should be narrower in cases of direct discrimination (in alleged 
direct discrimination cases, the scope of exemptions is similar to the scope allowed 
in Directive 2006/54 only in relation to indirect discrimination); 

Protection should be broader with regards to indirect discrimination. The concept of 
indirect discrimination is narrower in the Equal Treatment Act because it stipulates a 
‘considerably  larger  disadvantage’  compared  to  a  ‘disadvantage’  as  mentioned  in 
Directive 2006/54; 

3. 

The early retirement option (after 40 years of service) is available for women only; 

4. 

5. 

There is a lack of adequate protection of fathers in the labour market (especially in 
regard to certain aspects of parental leave and related rights); 

There  is  a  lack  of  governmental  will  to  introduce  the  concept  of  non-transferable 
parental  leave  (provided  by  Directive  2019/1158  on  work-life  balance  for  parents 
and carers).  

With  some  gaps,  Hungarian  law  formally  transposed  the  majority  of  EU  acquis 
communautaire,  while  some  structural  problems  remain.  Creating  a  definition  of 
breastfeeding  and  providing  better  legal  protection  for  parents  working  in  simplified 
employment  relationships  would  be  an  important  step  forward  in  the  future.  The  major 
structural shortcoming of the Hungarian legislation (dating back to the original adoption 
of the Equal Treatment Act) is that in many regards the transposition is only formal, and 
the law has never been scrutinised or  modified in order to support the  substantive and 
genuine equality of women (for example, in the case of self-employed women and spouses 
of the self-employed). The rough regulation on equal wages has not had a significant effect 
on the considerable gender wage gap, especially among well-educated persons. 

The major theoretical shortcoming of the Hungarian legislation is that the excessively wide 
scope  of  the  Equal  Treatment  Act  is  counterbalanced  by  the  similarly  excessively  wide 
terms  for  exemptions.499  Consequently,  protection  is  weak  because  the  accused  could 
exculpate  him/herself  in  many  cases.  The  amendment  to  the  Equal  Treatment  Act500 
reduced  the  scope  of  possible  justifications  for  sex-based  differential  treatment  in 
employment  relationships,  which  was  a  considerable  development  in  2017.  More 
specifically targeted legislation, which weighs the interests of the parties more cautiously 
and  reflectively  for  specific  situations  of  infringements  of  equal  treatment  rights,  would 
provide women, mothers and fathers with much more reliable and solid legal protection 
than  this  boundary-free,  highly  general  legislation,  which  in  theory  covers  (with  little 
exaggeration) any kind of differentiation committed by any legal entity and any person, 
but is rarely enforced in practice due to its vague and unspecific content and the extremely 
wide terms of the exemptions. 

The enforcement of the equal treatment legislation is weak in Hungary. The sanctions that 
can  be  applied  by  the  Equal  Treatment  Authority  cannot  be  considered  to  be  effective, 
proportionate  and  dissuasive,  as  it  cannot  order  civil  compensation  or,  for  example, 
reinstatement in the original job.  

499  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 7(2) 
Point (b). 

500  Act CXXV of 2003 on Equal Treatment and the Promotion of the Equality of Opportunities (2003. évi CXXV. 
törvény az egyenlő bánásmódról és az esélyegyenlőség előmozdításáról), 28 December 2003, Article 22(1). 

87 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The case law of the courts reveals that there are considerable gaps in legal practice in four 
areas: the wide interpretation given to the very broadly worded legislative exemption from 
the scope of the Equal Treatment Act; the reluctance towards the application of dissuasive 
compensation  (this  might  change  in  the  future  due  to  the  new  rules  on  non-material 
damages for pain and suffering); minimising the weight of violations against women; and 
the courts of first and second instance frequently not correctly applying the rules on the 
burden of proof.  

With  regards  to  positive  action  aimed  at  promoting  women’s  opportunities,  the  only 
legally-binding  measure  is  the  requirement  towards  a  defined  group  of  employers 
(budgetary organs and legal entities in state majority ownership employing more than 50 
employees)  to  adopt  an  ‘Equal  Opportunity  Plan’,  which  may  include  gender  equality 
objectives. However, these plans usually contain only soft provisions in the field of work-
life  balance,  and  there  is  neither  an  evaluation  system  to  assess  the  content,  nor  a 
monitoring mechanism to supervise the implementation of these plans. 

A  study,  commissioned  by  the  European  Parliament’s  Policy  Department  for  Citizens’ 
Rights and Constitutional Affairs  at the request of the FEMM  Committee, highlights that 
since  2011,  the  Hungarian  government  has  committed  itself  to  introducing  family 
mainstreaming instead of gender mainstreaming. According to an analysis, this approach 
puts  women  at  the  ‘crossroads  of  employment  and  family  policies’,  without  sufficiently 
ensuring women’s/mothers’ (or fathers’) rights in the field of employment.501 

Family policies have a clear demographic target: encouraging fertility by financial means 
(allowances, bonuses, special loan schemes); the Family Protection Action Plan, launched 
in 2019 by the government, is a prominent example of this. 

Family  policies  in  Hungary  have  been  criticised  for  having  a  clear  tendency:  providing 
‘welfare for the wealthy’,502 and are based on a division: generously rewarding ‘deserving’ 
families,  i.e.  the  relatively  well-off  and  educated  ones,  while  not  giving  much  to  the 
‘undeserving’,  i.e.  the  disadvantaged  and  marginalised  ones.503  The  features  of  the 
parental  leave  system  cement  the  disadvantages  of  those  women  who  are  living  in 
(relative) poverty and facing multiple/intersectional disadvantages on the labour market.  

The idea that the equal sharing of family responsibilities is the key to combating gender 
discrimination is still not widely accepted either by the general public or by the legislator. 
Labour legislation in regard of certain aspects of parental leave and related rights, treats 
mothers, fathers and single fathers differently, which constitutes direct discrimination on 
the basis of sex and family status, and might be in violation of Article 14 1.3 of Directive 
2006/54/EC.  

Notably,  Hungary  voted  against504  the  adoption  of  Directive  2019/1158  (on  work-life 
balance for parents and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU), objecting to 
the  non-transferability  of  parental  leave,  claiming  that  this  feature  would  mean 

501  Hungler, S., Kende, Á. (2019) ‘Nők a család- és foglalkoztatáspolitika keresztútján’ (‘Women at the 
crossroads of family policies and employment policies’), Pro Futuro, vol. 9, no. 2., available at: 
https://doi.org/10.26521/Profuturo/1/2019/3881. 

502  Szikra, D. (2018), Welfare for the Wealthy: The Social Policy of the Orbán-regime, 2010-2017, Friedrich 

Ebert Stiftung Budapest, available at: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/budapest/14209.pdf. 

503  Szikra, D. (2019) ‘Ideology or Pragmatism? Interpreting Social Policy Change under the System of National 
Cooperation’, in Kovács, J. M.Trencsényi, B. (eds.) Brave New Hungary: Mapping the System of National 
Cooperation; Rowman and Littlefield, Lexington Books, pp. 225-241. 

504  See: Voting result ‒ Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on work-life balance for 

parents and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU (First reading), Brussels, 13 June 2019, 
10282/19, 2017/0085 (COD), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CONSIL:ST_10282_2019_INIT&from=EN. 

88 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
intervention in the life of families and in decisions based on personal, social and financial 
circumstances.505 

Hungary signed the Council of Europe’s Istanbul Convention (in 2014), but has not ratified 
it yet, and since 2017, the governmental rhetoric started to target and reject the (alleged) 
gender concept of the Convention.506 

505  See: Statements ‒ Draft Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on work-life balance for 
parents and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU (first reading), Brussels, 29 May 2019, 
9310/19 ADD 1, p. 4, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CONSIL:ST_9310_2019_ADD_1&from=EN. 

506  Balogh, L. (2020), ‘The Ratification Status of the Council of Europe's Istanbul Convention Among EU 

Member States’, MTA Law Working Papers 2020/7, https://jog.tk.mta.hu/mtalwp/the-ratification-status-of-
the-council-of-europes-istanbul-convention-among-eu-member-states. 

89 

 
 
 
 
Annexes 

Bibliography 

Hungler,  S.,  Kende,  Á.  (2019)  ‘Nők  a  család-  és  foglalkoztatáspolitika  keresztútján’ 
(‘Women at the crossroads of family policies and employment policies’), Pro Futuro, vol. 
9, no. 2., available at: https://doi.org/10.26521/Profuturo/1/2019/3881. 

Kováts, E. (2020), ‘Post-Socialist Conditions and the Orbán Government’s Gender Politics 
between 2010 and 2019 in Hungary’, in Dietze, G., Roth, J. (eds.) Right-Wing Populism 
and Gender: European Perspectives and Beyond, Bielefeld, Transcript Verlag, pp. 75-99.  

Neményi  M.,  Ságvári,  B.,  Tardos,  K.  (2019),  A  diszkrimináció  személyes  és  társadalmi 
észlelése  és  az  egyenlő  bánásmóddal  kapcsolatos  jogtudatosság.  Kutatási  eredmények 
(Personal  and  social  perception  of  discrimination  and  rights  awareness  regarding  equal 
treatment.  Research  results).  Budapest,  Equal  Treatment  Authority  (Egyenlő  Bánásmód 
Hatóság),  Centre  for  Social  Sciences  Institute  for  Sociology  (Társadalomtudományi 
Kutatóközpont Szociológiai Intézet), available at: 
http://real.mtak.hu/104962/1/EBH_2019_FINAL_20191208_HU_vegles.pdf. 

Szikra, D. (2019) ‘Ideology or Pragmatism? Interpreting Social Policy Change under the 
System  of  National  Cooperation’,  in  Kovács,  J.  M.Trencsényi,  B.  (eds.)  Brave  New 
Hungary: Mapping the System of National Cooperation; Rowman and Littlefield, Lexington 
Books, pp. 225-241. 

Tóth, O. (2018), ‘A nők elleni párkapcsolati erőszak Magyarországon: Az elmúlt 20 év 
kutatási eredményeinek összegzése’ (Intimate partner violence against women in 
Hungary: A summary of research done in the past 20 years), Socio.hu, No. 4, pp. 1-28, 
available at: https://socio.hu/uploads/files/2018_4/30_toth.pdf. 

90 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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