Contribution of local and regional authorities to the development of the blue economy in the Mediterranean.
Date: 2019-10-17
Institutions: Commission for Citizenship, Governance, Institutional and External Affairs
Subjects: Mediterranean region (EU), conservation of resources, economic development, environmental monitoring, health policy, marine ecosystem, marine energy, maritime economy, maritime transport, regional and local authorities, tourism

Commission for
Citizenship, Governance,
 Institutional and External Aﬀairs

X
E
V

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C

Contribution of local and regional
authorities to the development
of the blue economy
in the Mediterranean

© European Union, 2019 
Partial reproduction is permitted, provided that the source is explicitly mentioned. 

More information on the European Union and the Committee of the Regions is available online at 
http://www.europa.eu and http://www.cor.europa.eu respectively. 

Catalogue number: QG-04-19-620-EN-N; ISBN: 978-92-895-1028-8; doi: 10.2863/88329 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This report was written by  
Roger Albinyana, Krzysztof Głowacki, Maria Krell, Anna Malinowska, 
Daniel Ruiz-Giménez, Katarzyna Sidło, Karolina Zubel (CASE). 

It does not represent the official views of the  
European Committee of the Regions. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Contents 

1.  Introduction ....................................................................................................1 

2.  Main blocking points for LRAs, possible solutions and recommendations ..3 

3.  Importance of the 5+5 Dialogue experience in the blue economy ............. 13 

4.  Available data sources identified ................................................................ 17 

5.  Funding possibilities identified .................................................................. 21 
6.  Annotated and commented bibliography .................................................... 27 

7.  Abbreviations .............................................................................................. 39 

8.  References ................................................................................................... 41 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1. Introduction 

This  final  note  was  prepared  as  part  of  the  project,  Contribution  of  local  and 
regional  authorities 
the 
Mediterranean,  commissioned  by  the  European  Committee  of  the  Regions 
(CoR)  under  specific  contract  No.  CDR  9102,  implementing  Framework 
contract CDR/TL1/11/2018/1.  

the  development  of 

the  blue  economy 

to 

in 

The main aim of the contract is the preparation of a file note exploring the role 
of local and regional authorities in the Mediterranean region in the development 
of  the  blue  economy.  This  includes  a  survey  of  coastal  tourism;  food,  health, 
and  ecosystem  services;  energy  at  sea  and  raw  materials;  maritime  transport 
activities; and environmental monitoring and protection of maritime areas.  

1 

 
 
 
 
 
 
2. Main  blocking  points  for  LRAs,  possible 

solutions and recommendations 

This  section  identifies  the  main  issues  which  mitigate  the  efficacy  of  LRA 
efforts  towards  capacity  building  in  relation  to  the  blue  economy;  it  also 
provides propositions and recommendations as to how the pinpointed obstacles 
could be overcome and how this could affect the future performance of LRAs in 
the  area  of  the  blue economy.  The  barriers  have  been  divided  into  three  main 
categories:  1)  technical  barriers,  encompassing  issues  such  as  the  quality  and 
availability of data as well as the lack of managerial tools and relevant digital 
expertise at LRAs; 2) structural barriers which include problems like division of 
powers,  financial  resources,  and  inadequate  regional  integration;  and  3) 
environmental  issues  reflecting  degradative  factors  such  as  coastal  tourism’s 
fuelling of air pollution, coral reef degradation, externalities to climate change, 
and marine litter.  

Technical barriers 

Data availability and quality1 

Up-to-date  and  reliable  information  on  relevant  websites  is  often  unavailable: 
research  reports  and  thematic  qualitative  and  quantitative  data  are  often 
outdated;  websites,  set  up  by  dispersed  national  or  international  agents,  are 
oftentimes  only  periodically  active  and/or  available  only  in  local  language(s). 
Data definitions, pertaining to fisheries or aquaculture, among others, may vary 
on  a  country  basis  (throughout  the  entire  Mediterranean  region).  ‘Maritime 
agriculture’ activities are not excluded from the overall ‘agriculture’ category at 
the  country  level  and  are  aggregated  separately  instead,  leading  to  a  lower 
comparability  of  research  results.  This  issue  is  exacerbated  when  data  are 
gathered  from  national  statistical  offices  (databases)  which  deploy  country-
specific  aggregation  methods.  Additionally,  difficulties  pertaining  to  data 
gathering  and  processing  emerge 
if  a  country’s  coastline  belongs 
(geographically and administratively) to several sub-regions.  

1 Developing Blue economy through better methodology for assessment on local and regional level [CoR 2016] 
and FAO and General Fisheries Commission  for the Mediterranean.  Sustainable  Fisheries and  Aquaculture  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Pêcheries  et  Aquaculture  Soutenables  en  Méditerrané.  Marseille:  Blue  Economy  Project 
Conference, 
at: 
https://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/upload/files/Indicators_for_the_BE_in_the_Mediterranean.pdf  

Available 

30-31 

2017. 

May 

3 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                           
Smart technologies, managerial tools, and know-how2 

LRAs  tend  to  suffer  from  inadequate  capacity  and  managerial/administrative 
resources which do not allow them to use existing databases and information to 
their benefit. LRAs also lack both adequate tools and know-how to benefit from 
the information made available to them. This is a major obstacle, as processing 
and benefitting from maritime data often requires the use of satellite data. 

Moreover, it would appear  that in general, LRAs  may suffer  from insufficient 
experience in adopting smart technological solutions for managerial purposes as 
well  as  lack  the  experience  required  to  fully  benefit  from  utilising  techniques 
such  as  science-based  management.3  This  also  mitigates  the  potential  value 
added created by the implementation of new technological solutions. By way of 
example,  the  FAO  and  GFCM  highlighted  that  LRAs  suffered  from  a  lack  of 
innovative solutions, especially as far as SSF value chains were concerned. The 
problem of the management of SSF was the most pronounced in the Black Sea 
and in the Central Mediterranean Sea, where SSF were prevalent. 

  Proposed solutions and policy recommendations 

The  scattered  information  sources,  fragmented  datasets,  and  incomparable 
granular data stem from the numerous international, regional, and local efforts 
to gather, process, and disseminate maritime data. As highlighted in a 2016 CoR 
report,4  while  these  sources  have  been  available  to  academia  and  professional 
research  agencies,  LRAs  were  not  always  aware  that  such  sources  existed  or 
were unable to access them. The identification and collection of the relevant 
data  sources  in  one  common  database  (repository)  might  facilitate  future 
research  carried  out  by  LRAs,  with  the  2016  CoR  report  referencing  the 
European  Marine  Observation  and  Data  Network  (EMODnet,  which  is 
discussed  more  in-depth  in  Section  5)  as  a  salient  step  towards  reaching  this 
goal.  Apart  from  EMODnet,  both  the  GFCM  Statistical  Bulletins  and  FAO-
FishStat Database,5 as well as the Copernicus satellite6 (fully operational since 

2  FAO  and  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the  Mediterranean.  The  State  of  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea 
Fisheries,  Rome,  2018  &  Developing  Blue  economy  through  better  methodology  for  assessment  on  local  and 
regional  level  [CoR  2016];  FAO  and  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the  Mediterranean.  Sustainable 
Fisheries  and  Aquaculture  in  the  Mediterranean.  Pêcheries  et  Aquaculture  Soutenables  en  Méditerrané. 
Marseille: Blue Economy Project Conference, 30-31 May 2017. 
3  This  is  of  course  not  true  of  all  LRAs,  and  many  major  coastal  cities  may  have  sufficient  capacity.  But  on 
average, levels of capacity are likely to be lower at LRAs. 
4 Developing Blue economy through better methodology for assessment on local and regional level [CoR 2016]. 
5 GFCM Statistical Bulletins and FAO-FishStat Database are referenced as reliable sources providing relevant 
data  for  the  entire  Mediterranean  Basin  and  the  Black  Sea  Region  (as  in  Plan  Bleu.  Economic  and  social 
analysis of the uses of the coastal and marine waters in the Mediterranean, characterization and impacts of the 
Fisheries,  Aquaculture,  Tourism  and  recreational  activities,  Maritime  transport  and  Offshore  extraction  of  oil 
and gas sectors. Technical Report, Plan Bleu, Valbonne, 2015 p. 28). 
6 Also mentioned in Developing Blue economy through better methodology for assessment on local and regional 

4 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
20167)  could  provide  LRAs  with  high  quality  data  that  could  be  helpful  in 
implementing  science-based  management  systems  and  identifying  important 
issues concerning fish farms, aquaculture, and illicit activities (see Section 4 for 
more information). 

In order to fully benefit from the use of modern data sources and technologies, 
LRAs need to boost their administrative skills by investing in trainings and/or 
broadening their human capital base.8 Employees should gain relevant expertise 
in the deployment of smart technologies and tools via dedicated skill-upgrading 
processes.  Apart  from  raising  awareness  and  skills  related  to  modern 
technologies, made-to-measure managerial trainings and the utilisation of smart 
tools in decision-making processes, combined with a better understanding of the 
role of science-based management in the areas of food, health, and ecosystems, 
would  maximise  the  impact  of  LRAs  on  the  development  of  the  (local)  blue 
economy.  Policy  making  could  be  reinforced  though  commissioning  socio-
economic  analyses  (both  qualitative  and  quantitative),  which  in  turn  could 
enhance regulatory and (especially) management frameworks.9 

For  example,  in  an  attempt to address  managerial issues  in the  area  of  SSF, a 
survey  on  national  marine  recreational  fisheries  was  circulated  to  all  GFCM 
contracting  parties  and  cooperating  non-contracting  parties  (CPCs)  before  the 
first meeting of the Working Group on Small-Scale and Recreational Fisheries 
was convened in 2017. The obtained outcomes indicated that data collection in 
the sector was limited and diverged between countries. In particular, it has been 
suggested  that  a  lack  of  data  on  licensing  for  recreational  fishing  (and 
specifically the lack of information on the volume of catches and difficulties in 
monitoring  fish  stocks)  has  been  a  significant  contributor  to  elevated  fishing 
mortality.  Recreational  fisheries  have  been  an  important  economic  factor 
propelling  coastal  tourism  (they  also  appear  to  have  a  cultural  dimension). 
However, a case was made that these activities were significant contributors to 
elevated  fishing  mortality10  due  to  a  lack  of  information  on  the  volume  of 
catches, difficulties in monitoring fish stocks, and sub-optimal management of 
fisheries. To alleviate the problems stemming from insufficient data availability, 
a  handbook  was  developed  outlining  the  methodological  framework  to  be 
implemented, along with appropriate monitoring procedures, by Mediterranean 
and Black Sea countries.11  

level [CoR 2016]. 
7 https://www.copernicus.eu/en/copernicus-satellite-data-access       
8 Developing Blue economy through better methodology for assessment on local and regional level [CoR 2016]. 
9 FAO and General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture in the 
Mediterranean.  Pêcheries  et  Aquaculture  Soutenables  en  Méditerrané.  Marseille:  Blue  Economy  Project 
Conference, 30-31 May 2017. 
10 Hyder K. et al., (2017). Recreational sea  fishing in Europe  in a global context  – participation rates,  fishing 
effort, expenditure, and implications for monitoring and assessment. Fish and fisheries 19: 225-243. 
11  FAO  and  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the  Mediterranean.  The  State  of  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea 

5 

 
 
 
                                                                                                                                   
Structural barriers 

Division of powers 

Due to the high level of centralisation of public administration across the region 
(even  as  decentralisation  efforts  are  underway  in  Morocco  and  Tunisia12),  the 
capacity of  LRAs to be actively involved in shaping policies pertaining to the 
blue economy  is  limited.  For  instance,  concerning  energy  and the  exploitation 
of  raw  materials,  most  activities  take  place  within  exclusive  economic  zones 
(EEZ),  where  national-level  authorities  are  responsible  for  policy  design  and 
implementation, leaving minimal room for the contribution of LRAs. 

Financial resources13 

Related to limited capacities is the lack of adequate financial resources, as the 
budgets  of  LRAs  frequently  come  from  subsidies  and  transfers  from  central 
governments,  making  them  heavily  dependent  upon  the  fiscal  health  of  the 
government.  Municipalities  are  also  normally  unable  to  efficiently  levy  local 
taxes, with local governments having ‘very limited access to funding’.14 This in 
turn  prevents  LRAs  from  investing  in  modern  technologies  (such  as  marine 
monitoring,  data  collection  services,  or  mobile  and  web  applications)  and 
training for their staff to develop the skills needed to use them. Additional funds 
are likewise needed in order to keep up with technological updates. 

Funds at the local and regional level are also needed to improve the climate and 
environmental  footprint,  especially  concerning  development  of  the  energy 
sector and the exploitation of sustainable sources. This is especially true for the 
energy fields related to the blue economy. For instance, winds farms in North 
Africa are  predominantly located onshore  –  despite  having lower performance 
levels  that  the  offshore  ones  –  due  to  lower  costs  associated  with  establishing 
them.  

Fisheries 2018. Rome, 2018 p.99 
12 https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=3676dc02-4110-6654-8539-
cba354836aeb&groupId=252038; https://platforma-dev.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Maghreb-Study-on-the-
decentralised-cooperation-between-the-regional-authorities-of-Arab-Maghreb.pdf  
13  Developing  Blue  economy  through  better  methodology  for  assessment  on  local  and  regional  level  (CoR 
2016). 
14 http://platforma-dev.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/World-Local-and-regional-government-associations.pdf; 
See more in the CoR field note The contribution of local and regional associations to regional integration in the 
Mediterranean (2019). 

6 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                                                                                                   
Regional (dis)integration 

Another obstacle to the successful management of the blue economy by LRAs 
is limited regional integration, especially in the field of trade. Although a large 
majority  (75%)  of  goods  in  the  Mediterranean  Basin  are  exchanged  via 
maritime  transport,  the  total  intra-Mediterranean  share  of  all  the  goods 
combined  is  only  around  25%  of  the  traffic  volume.  Exchanges  between  the 
majority  of  the  Euro-Mediterranean  Regional  and  Local  Assembly  (ARLEM) 
ports are low, with the South-North route being predominant as a result of oil 
and  gas  exports,  despite  far  greater  potential  in  this  respect.15  It  can  be 
concluded  that  while  transit  transport  in  the  Mediterranean  Basin  is  well 
developed,  trade  integration,  particularly  between  countries  from  the  Southern 
shore,  is  weak.  This  significantly  hinders  cooperation  and  trade  relations 
between  the  regions  at  stake  and  limits  employment  opportunities  as  well  as 
people-to-people contacts. 

  Proposed solutions and policy recommendations 

There is a need to incentivise the participation of LRAs in the implementation 
of National Energy Efficiency and Energy Transition Action Plans through the 
transferral of clear and delimited competencies. It should be noted that less than 
half of the studies consulted on the subject of ‘Energy at sea and raw materials 
in the Mediterranean’ included mentions of the role of LRAs in the process of 
implementing  policy-oriented  measures  or  in  the  overall  development  of  the 
renewable  energies  sector.  Of  those  that  did,  the  recommendation  was  to 
importance  of 
include  LRAs 
transitioning  to  energy  efficient  models. As  such,  LRAs  should  advocate  for 
the creation of legal frameworks in which they take advantage of their local 
knowledge to foster the participation of all relevant actors, but also to push for 
a role in which their contribution can go beyond consultative processes.  

in  awareness  raising  campaigns  on 

the 

Given tight budgets at the  LRA  level,  LRAs  need  to think  with  a longer-term 
perspective  when  deciding  on  investments.  Products  and  solutions,  especially 
technology,  boosting  development  of  the  blue  economy  (i.e.  tools  for  marine 
spatial  planning)  will  likely  improve  on  a  regular  basis,  and  thus  investing  in 
tools  which are  far  from  the  most  effective  and  innovative today  may  quickly 
prove counterproductive. To secure enough investments, LRAs should consider 
working  extensively  with  the  private  sector  as  a  partner  (rather  than  as  an 
adversary),  either  in  creating  public-private  partnerships  (PPPs)  in  the  area  of 
the  blue  economy  or  by  turning  over  key  facets  of  coastal  management 
exclusively  to  the  private  sector.  In  this  way,  incentives  can  be  aligned,  and 

15 http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/publications/cahier7_transport_en.pdf  

7 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
long-term planning integrated into investments. 

At the same time, funding by European institutions could be a key element that 
could give impetus to projects that are focused on the transition towards better 
energy efficiency and the development of sustainable energy projects. The lack 
of coordination between LRAs is also an area of concern and could be promoted 
through the EU-funded projects. For instance, sustainable maritime transport – 
currently a priority of the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) in the framework 
of its three core projects: LOGISMED-TA,16 Motorway of the Sea (MoS),17 and 
OPTIMED18 – encourages LRAs to create regional policy networks in order 
to  intensify  social  and  economic  ties  based  on  blue  economy  foundations. 
The coastal LRAs which do not participate in any of the projects should at least 
consider joining as observers or third parties. 

This  is  especially  important  because,  as  the  UfM  believes,  the  relocation  of 
industrial  production  from  East  Asia  to  the  Mediterranean  region  is  slowly 
becoming visible.19 This poses a significant opportunity for the regions able to 
offer an adequately skilled workforce as well as a relevant transportation hub so 
that  manufactured  products  can  be  delivered  where  needed  without  delays.  In 
the  Mediterranean  Basin,  none  of  the  transportation  and  freight  modes  are  as 
effective  as  maritime  transportation,  if  it  is  managed  and  operated  in  an 
appropriate manner. 

Port  cities  and  coastal  regions  in  the  Mediterranean  Basin  would  also  need  to 
cooperate  in launching  and  maintaining  multi-functional  and  multi-modal  port 
hubs, as these will also help boost inter-Mediterranean exchanges of goods. 

Finally, regarding efforts to streamline processes, one good example is provided 
by the Israeli authorities in Tel Aviv and their handling of the Jaffa Port. City 
authorities  created  a  company  called  Ataraim  to  oversee  creating  a  space  for 
marine and urban innovation from which blue economy and the world of clean 
energy ventures will operate.20  

16https://ufmsecretariat.org/project/ufm-labelled-project-logismedta-to-contribute-to-the-creation-of-jobs-in-the-
region-2/  
17 https://ufmsecretariat.org/project/motorway-of-the-sea-mos-turkey-italy-tunisia-project/  
18https://ufmsecretariat.org/project/optimed-implementation-towards-a-new-mediterranean-corridor-from-south-
eastern-to-north-western-ports/  
19 https://ufmsecretariat.org/ufm-suez-conference-maritime-transport-2018/  
20  The  information  was  provided  by  Ms.  Yael  Enoch-Maoz  of  the  International  Relations  department  at  the 
Mayor’s  Office  in  Tel-Aviv,  Israel,  in  an  e-mail  received  on  17  June  2019  in  response  to  a  request  for 
information sent to Ms. Shirley Pauker-Kidron, Advisor for International Affairs at the Mayor's Office in Tel-
Aviv, Israel, on 4 June 2019. 

8 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                           
Environmental barriers 

Coastal tourism and air pollution 

International  coastal  and  maritime  tourism  activities  are  dependent  on  airline 
and cruise transport, which are major sources of carbon dioxide emissions. As 
noted by experts consulted for this study, mass coastal and maritime tourism are 
present  in  the  Mediterranean  at  large  and  the  increasing  sea  and  air  traffic, 
critical  sources  of  environmental  pollution  (waste,  water,  and  carbon),  and 
natural resource depletion (land, biodiversity, and water, among others) need to 
be tackled urgently. One interviewee, Dr. Samir  Grimes, believes that ‘human 
pressure on the Mediterranean natural ecosystems’ – both due to high birth rates 
and the growing number of tourists visiting the Mediterranean – ‘combines the 
effects of demographics and economic activities’.  

Coral reef degradation 

The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report (2018)21 
estimates that if there is a 1.5 degree Celsius increase in the global temperature, 
between 70% and 90% of global reefs will be destroyed. A further increase of 2 
degrees Celsius might result in the loss of 99% of existing global reefs. Such a 
catastrophic  drop  in  coral  reefs  would  seriously  impact  the  tourism  sector  in 
many  coastal  communities,  significantly  hindering  the  incomes  of  local 
communities  employed  in  tourism  and  hospitality  (in  particular  for  Egypt  and 
its  Red  Sea  coral  reefs  as  discussed  in  Mohamed  et  al.  [2012],22  but  also  for 
Tunisia). Perhaps more importantly, the disruption of fragile ecosystems could 
diminish  food  security,  posing  a  real  threat  for  local  communities  on  both 
shores of the Mediterranean. 

Climate change externalities 

Climate  change  and  higher  global  temperatures  can  lead  to  higher  sea  levels. 
Effectively,  ‘coastal  erosion,  property  inundation,  and  saltwater  intrusion  into 
freshwater supplies and agricultural irrigation’ may impact the broader MENA 
region,  as  noted  by  the  World  Bank  in  January  2019.23  As  one  of  the  experts 

21  IPCC,  2018:  Summary  for  Policymakers.  In:  Global  Warming  of  1.5°C.  An  IPCC  Special  Report  on  the 
impacts  of  global  warming  of  1.5°C  above  pre-industrial  levels  and  related  global  greenhouse  gas  emission 
pathways,  in  the  context  of  strengthening  the  global  response  to  the  threat  of  climate  change,  sustainable 
development,  and  efforts  to  eradicate  poverty  [Masson-Delmotte,  V.,  P.  Zhai,  H.-O.  Pörtner,  D.  Roberts,  J. 
Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, 
X.  Zhou,  M.I.  Gomis,  E.  Lonnoy,  Maycock,  M.  Tignor,  and  T.  Waterfield  (eds.)].  World  Meteorological 
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 
22 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/046e/3dcf523f72e983a24800d14732bdc12e4a3f.pdf  
23 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/591141547220437102/pdf/133686-QN-172.pdf  

9 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                           
interviewed  suggested,  the  combined  risks  arising  from  the  above-mentioned 
trends  may  affect  five  inter-connected  domains:  water  resources,  ecosystems, 
food safety and security, health, and human security, although the impacts and 
expected  risks  differ  for  each  of  them.24  Further  desertification  and  soil 
degradation  are  equally  important,  particularly  for  freshwater  supplies,  given 
the inter-connectedness of the ecosystems. As it is predominantly LRAs that are 
responsible  for  managing  water  resources  at  the  local  level,  they  are  heavily 
involved  in  mitigating  the  effects  of  climate  change  on  freshwater  levels  and 
water quality. 

Marine litter 

Marine  litter  across  the  Mediterranean  is  affecting  the  coastal  and  marine 
environment,  posing  a  threat  to  fauna,  flora,  biodiversity,  and  human  health, 
according to a recent study undertaken in the framework of the AMARe Project 
(Actions  for  Marine  Protected  Areas)  funded  by  Interreg  MED  Programme 
2014–2020.25 The results of the project prove that, apart from Malta, every other 
Mediterranean country’s coastline is polluted more with plastic from their own 
terrestrial inputs than from maritime transport. Furthermore, plastic islands tend 
to accumulate not only in the sea bottoms, but also near to coastlines, affecting 
ecosystems and even livelihoods.  

  Proposed solutions and policy recommendations 

LRAs  have  the  capacity  and  responsibility  to  positively  influence  the 
development  of  coastal  maritime  tourism  through  governance  mechanisms  at 
their  level  to  ensure  adequate  balance  and  sustainability  between  and  within 
Mediterranean  territories.  This  has  to  be  done  by  regularly  planning  and 
terrestrial  pollution, 
those 
monitoring  activities,  especially 
implementing  sound  and  appropriate  regulation  (at  an  environmental,  social, 
and  economic  level,)  ensuring  law  enforcement,  as  well  as  involving  all 
stakeholders  (tourism  industry,  local  actors,  and  NGOs)  in  the  policy  and 
decision-making processes. However, a broader institutional framework is also 
needed  at  a  supra-national  level  to  make  sure  coastal  and  maritime  tourism  is 
consistent  with  global  commitments  such  as  the  Paris  Agreement,  the 
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and Agenda 2030, as well as at the 
regional level with the MSSD (Barcelona convention). 

related 

to 

24 Insight provided by Dr. Samir Grimes, Professor-Researcher representing the National High School of Marine 
Sciences  and  Coastal  Management  and  National  Hub  of  the  WestMed  Initiative  of  Blue  Economy  in  West 
Mediterranean, in an e-mail received on 21 June 2019. 
25  Liubartseva  S.,  Coppini  G.,  Lecci  R.,  Clementi  E.  Tracking  plastics  in  the  Mediterranean:  2D  Lagrangian 
model,  2018,  Marine  Pollution  Bulletin,  Volume  129,  Issue  1,  Pages  151-162,  ISSN  0025-326X,  DOI: 
10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.02.019. 

10 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                           
Although localised actions might not be fully sufficient to save coral reefs if no 
ambitious  policies  are  in  place  globally  (as  the  latest  research  suggest26),  the 
former still has a major impact on the condition of the latter. Addressing local 
pollution,  hiring  local  guides  for  open  water  diving,  and  the  coordination  of 
fishing  practices  at  the  local  level  can  nevertheless  assist  in  the  protection  of 
coral reefs and improve local maritime stewardship. 

Locally  and  regionally  managed  climate  change  adaptation,  and  mitigation 
plans  and  actions  as  well  as  participation  in  national  and  global  initiatives 
tackling climate change (i.e. the Covenant of Mayors or Energy Cities) can help 
cities and regions become more resilient and prepared. Such an affiliation also 
comes  along  with  acquiring  specific  know-how  from  other  participating 
authorities.  According  to  our  interviewee,  Dr.  Samir  Grimes,  promoting 
regional  networks  such  as  the  Mediterranean  Experts  on  Climate  and 
Environment  Change  (MedECC),  may  contribute  to  a  better  understanding  of 
climate  change’s  impact  in  the  region.  This  type  of  cooperation  can  help  to 
appropriately tackle the problem of climate change and to build the resilience of 
cities, regions, and countries alike.27 

Actions undertaken in the framework of the SwitchMed Programme,28 such as 
seminars  on  best  practices  in  reducing  the  consumption  of  single  use  plastic 
bags,  could  be  disseminated  more  broadly,  as  their  current  outputs  can  be 
assessed  as  very  promising.  Focusing  on  incentives  for  environmentally-
friendly  alternatives  to  single-use  plastic  products  could  be  an  opportunity  for 
LRAs, not only from an environmental perspective, but also because it enables 
LRAs  to  form  partnerships  with  interested  businesses  and  civil  society  actors 
while  helping  to  acquire  new  abilities  related  more  to  ‘technical  assistance’. 
Investments in new processes targeting recycling and waste management should 
also be considered. 

26  I.e.  Rebecca  L.  Maher,  Mallory  M.  Rice,  Ryan  McMinds,  Deron  E.  Burkepile,  Rebecca  Vega  Thurber. 
Multiple  stressors  interact  primarily  through  antagonism  to  drive  changes  in  the  coral  microbiome.  Scientific 
Reports, 2019; 9 (1) DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43274-8. 
27 Supra note 32. 
28 https://www.switchmed.eu/en  

11 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
3. Importance 

of 
experience in the blue economy 

the 

5+5  Dialogue 

The Mediterranean Sea region is split into two well-defined basins, the Western 
and Eastern Mediterranean sub-regions. Of the two, the Western Mediterranean 
has seen more initiatives aimed at increasing multilateral stewardship at the sub-
regional  level,  with  the  5+5  Dialogue  most  prominent  among  them.29  The 
Dialogue  includes  ten  Western  Mediterranean  countries  on  both  shores  of  the 
sea (Spain, France, Italy, Malta, and Portugal from the north and Algeria, Libya, 
Morocco, Mauritania, and Tunisia from the south).  

The  Dialogue  was  originally  created  in  1990  but  was  on  hiatus  for  ten  years, 
with  geopolitical  considerations  (specifically  the  Lockerbie  terrorist  attack 
sponsored  by  Libya)  preventing  any  true  ‘dialogue.’  In  the  intervening  years, 
the structures built with the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership from 1995 began to 
gather  steam,  and  the  relevance  of  having  such  an  intergovernmental  forum 
became more apparent (especially since the Dialogue ‘was an attempt to avoid 
the  difficulties  faced  by  the  Euro-Mediterranean  process’)30.  onwards  the 
Dialogue resumed in Lisbon in January 2001. In addition to  high-level foreign 
affairs ministerial meetings (a key component of the Dialogue), the forum has 
expanded its work into issues relevant for the blue economy, such as transport 
and  migration,  in  addition  to  explicitly  examining  renewable  energy  and 
environment,  tourism,  and  water  issues.31  However,  the  Dialogue  has  only 
embraced  these  issues  as  of  late,  as  in  2003  it  resolved  to  focus  on  migration 
issues  and  by  2009  was  still  ‘focused  almost  exclusively  on  a  securitized 
approach  to  stemming  migration.’32  With  the  additional  involvement  of  the 
European Union and its affiliated institutions, as well as the inclusion of actors 
such as UfM, the Dialogue is attempting to become a comprehensive forum for 
regional stakeholders. Whether or not it can become so remains to be seen, but 
it  has  provided  an  institutional  framework  for  pursuing  cooperation  related  to 
the blue economy. 

In  addition  to  the  Dialogue,  there  is  a  tradition  of  cooperation  on  marine  and 
maritime issues in the Western Mediterranean that dates back to the adoption of 
the Barcelona Convention,33 one of the oldest regional sea conventions, adopted 

29 For a fuller description of the Dialogue, see https://medthink5plus5.org/en/the-dialogue-55/#dialogue,whose. 
30 Collyer, M. (2016). Geopolitics as a migration governance strategy: European Union bilateral relations with 
Southern Mediterranean countries. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(4), 606-624. 
31 Ibid. 
32 See Kausch, K., & Youngs, R. (2009). The end of the ‘Euro-Mediterranean vision’. International 
Affairs, 85(5), 963-975. 
33 Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution. See: 
http://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/id/53143/convention_eng.pdf  

13 

 
 
 
 
                                           
in  1975  under  the  umbrella  of  the  United  Nations  Environment  Programme 
(UNEP).  This  convention  is  the  first  integrated  governance  initiative  in  the 
Mediterranean  that  fosters  cooperation  on  the  preservation  of  the  marine 
environment. Prior to the Convention, the General Fisheries Commission for the 
Mediterranean  provided  (since  1949)  a  cooperation  framework  on  thematic 
issues, such as fisheries, under the FAO. 

In 2015, the UfM convened the first Ministerial Conference on Blue Economy 
that agreed on ‘the need for the Mediterranean region to make the best use of 
the potential of the blue economy, to promote growth, jobs and investments and 
reduce poverty’,34 while inviting the participating countries to explore avenues 
for  sub-regional  cooperation.  A  few  months  later,  in  2016,  the  Ministers  of 
Foreign  Affairs  of  the  5+5  Dialogue35  envisaged  a  Western  Mediterranean 
partnership. In response to that vision, in April 2017, the European Commission 
launched the initiative for the sustainable development of the blue economy in 
the Western Mediterranean region, also known as the WestMED initiative.36 

This initiative is based on the European Commission’s long-standing experience 
with sea basin and macro-regional strategies, such as the EU Maritime Strategy 
for  the  Atlantic,37  the  EU  Strategy  for  the  Baltic  Sea  Region,38  and  the  EU 
Strategy  for  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  Region.39  It  is  also  based  on  over  two 
decades of work within the 5+5 Dialogue, which has created strong ties between 
the  participating  countries,  and  it  builds  on  other  EU  policies  linked  to  the 
region, such as the European Neighbourhood Policy Review from 2015 and the 
Joint Communication on International Ocean Governance from 2016. 

Following the launch of the WestMED initiative by the European Commission 
the  ministers  responsible  for  maritime  affairs40 
in  2017, 
in  Western 
Mediterranean countries gathered in Naples (Italy) on 30 November 2017 with 
the aim to endorse and launch the WestMED initiative, as well as to establish its 
governance. In parallel to the Ministerial Meeting, a two-day UfM Stakeholder 
Conference  on  the  Blue  Economy  took  place  on  29-30  November.  The 
conference  gathered  400  participants  from  30  countries  representing  national, 
regional,  and  local  authorities,  the  private  sector,  international  organisations, 
academia,  and  civil  society  organisations  engaged  with  marine  and  maritime 

34 See: https://ufmsecretariat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/2015-11-17-declaration-on-blue-economy_en.pdf  
35 See: https://medthink5plus5.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2016-Marseille-A-Etrangeres-pdf.pdf  
36 Communication from the European Commission on WestMED, COM(2017)183. 
37 Communication from the European Commission on the Maritime Strategy for the Atlantic, COM(2011)782. 
38 Communication from the European Commission on the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region, 
COM(2012)128. 
39 Communication from the European Commission on the EU Strategy for the Adriatic and Ionian Region, 
COM(2014)357. 
40 See Ministerial Declaration: https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/2017-11-30-west-
med-declaration_en.pdf  

14 

 
 
 
 
                                           
issues, signalling the importance given to non-state actors in this process. 

One  year  later,  on  4  December  2018,  a  second  Ministerial  Meeting41  of  the 
countries  participating  in  the  WestMED  initiative  took  place  in  Algiers 
(Algeria), in which a  roadmap for the initiative was adopted. Six priorities for 
action  were  identified  in  the  framework  of  the  initiative:  1)  maritime  cluster 
development; 2) biodiversity and maritime habitat conservation; 3) sustainable 
consumption  and  production;  4)  the  development  of  coastal  communities  and 
sustainable fisheries and aquaculture; 5) skills development and circulation; and 
7) maritime safety and the fight against marine pollution. 

With  regards  to  the  governance  of  the  initiative,  political  coordination  is 
provided through ad-hoc ministerial meetings based on the initiative of the co-
presidency  of  the  WestMED  Steering  Committee,  exploiting  (as  much  as 
possible)  the  existing  mechanisms  and  processes  of  the  UfM  Senior  Officials 
and  Ministerial  Meetings.  The  aforementioned  WestMED  Steering  Committee 
is  the  decision-making  body  of  the  initiative,  which  prioritises  actions  and 
proposes,  approves,  and  labels  projects  in  line  with  the  decisions  taken  at  the 
ministerial level. Likewise, this initiative is funded by channelling, aligning, and 
coordinating existing EU, national, and regional funding that is relevant to the 
goals  of  the  WestMED.  In  this  regard,  the  Steering  Committee  has  identified 
appropriate labelling criteria, and projects judged to contribute to the initiative’s 
objectives are assessed by the governance bodies of the initiative and advertised 
for possible funding (e.g. macro-regional strategies).42 

Technical and administrative support is of utmost importance for  the  effective 
and efficient performance of the functions attributed to the Steering Committee. 
To  this  aim,  the  European  Maritime  and  Fisheries  Fund  has  funded  the 
establishment  of  a  WestMED  Assistance  Mechanism,  which  supports  the 
governance  and  implementation  of  the  initiative.  In  addition,  the  European 
Commission  ensures  a  strategic  approach  at 
including 
coordination  with  existing  EU-related  policies  and  initiatives,  including  the 
adjoining Atlantic Action Plan and the EU Strategy for the Adriatic and Ionian 
Region,  as  well  as  with  the  BLUEMED43  and  Partnership  on  Research  and 
Innovation in  the  Mediterranean  Area  (PRIMA)44  initiatives,  and  alignment  to 

the  EU 

level, 

41 See Ministerial Declaration: https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/mare/document.cfm?doc_id=55934   
42 https://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/sites/maritimeaffairs/files/2017-11-30-west-med-declaration-
annex_en.pdf 
43 BLUEMED is the research and innovation initiative for promoting the blue economy in the Mediterranean 
Basin through cooperation. It is funded by the European Commission within the Horizon2020 framework 
programme. 
44 The Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area (PRIMA) is a joint programme 
focused on the development and application of solutions for food systems and water resources in the 
Mediterranean basin. It is financed through a combination of funding from participating countries and a 
contribution from the EU through Horizon 2020 programme. 

15 

 
 
 
 
                                           
funds and programmes such as the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) 
and Interreg programmes. 

In order to ensure full coordination with the governance in place at the level of 
regional organisations, such as the UfM Senior Officials Meetings (SOM) and 
the  Blue  Economy  Working  Group,  the  WestMED  Steering  Committee  is 
convened as much as possible in conjunction with UfM decision-making bodies 
and it periodically informs these bodies on the progress of the implementation 
of the initiative. In return, the UfM Secretariat ensures coordination at the UfM 
level and liaises with relevant regional organisations and institutions (including 
financial  ones)  to  mobilise  resources  and  capacities  for  the  implementation  of 
the initiative and its projects. 

Despite  the  inter-governmental  nature  of  the  5+5  Dialogue,  the  WestMED 
initiative has involved the LRA dimension from its very first inception, not only 
through  the  incorporation  of  LRAs  as  key  stakeholders  in  various  official 
documents and appeals to coordinate funding efforts with those existing at the 
local and regional levels, but also within the scope of governance. Indeed, two 
organisations composed of regional authorities – the Committee of the Regions 
and  the  Conference  of  Peripheral  and  Maritime  Regions  –  were  invited  to  the 
WestMED  Steering  Committee  as  observer  members.  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  among  the  projects  supported  by  this  initiative,  there  are  several  financed 
by  the  European  Neighbourhood  Instrument  (ENI)  and  the  transnational 
European  Cooperation  Programme  for  the  Mediterranean area  (Interreg  MED) 
programmes which are currently being implemented by LRAs.45 

45 For a comprehensive list of existing or ongoing projects, some of which are carried out by LRAs, and which 
are linked to the WestMED priorities for action under funding schemes such as Interreg, ENI South MED, 
Horizon 2020, and others, please refer to the annexed table (pp. 16-31) at 
https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/mare/document.cfm?doc_id=55934   

16 

 
 
 
                                           
4. Available data sources identified 

Marine  data  sources  are,  in  general,  numerous  and  scattered,  which  makes  it 
challenging to extract relevant information from the stream of data, especially 
for  non-experts.  This  includes  LRAs  who  rely  on  maritime  data  for  the 
development  of  the  blue  economy  on  a  local  and  regional  level. Accordingly, 
the  following  section  provides  an overview  of  sources accessible for  LRAs  in 
South Mediterranean partner countries (SMCs).46 It does so by building on and 
extending  the  2016  CoR  study,  ‘Developing  Blue  Economy  through  better 
methodology for assessment on local and regional level’.47 

Copernicus 

One of the most comprehensive sources of data in the area of the blue economy 
is the EU’s  Copernicus programme. Based on satellite information and in-situ 
systems,  the  platform  offers  a  huge  amount  of  open,  near-real-time,  and  free 
maritime  and  marine  data  accessible  to  citizens  and  organisations  around  the 
world.48  The  coverage  of  the  database  was  increased  when  the African  Union 
Commission and the European Commission signed a cooperation arrangement, 
sharing satellite data and information in June 2018.49 

Copernicus explicitly addresses policy makers and local authorities. To cite the 
platform’s  operator,  Copernicus  aims  at  the  provision  of  information  ‘to  help 
service  providers,  public  authorities,  and  other  international  organisations 
improve  the  quality  of  life  for  the  citizens  of  Europe.’50  Of  particular 
importance  here  is  the  Copernicus  Marine  Environment  Monitoring  Service 
(CMEMS), which produces data on the physical and biogeochemical state of the 
world’s ocean in general, and of the Mediterranean Sea in particular.51 Through 
the  programme,  LRAs  from  the  SMCs  have  access  to  important  parameters 
concerning  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  their  own  coastlines,  ranging  from 
salinity,  temperature,  currents,  sea  level,  nutrients,  and  plankton  to  oxygen 

46 This includes Egypt, Turkey, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine*, and Libya. *This 
designation shall not be construed as recognition of a State of Palestine and is without prejudice to the 
individual positions of the Member States on this issue. 
47 Charalambous, Alexander. Developing Blue Economy through better Methodology for Assessment on Local 
and Regional Level. Committee of the Regions, 2017.  
https://cor.europa.eu/en/engage/studies/Documents/order%206203_Blue%20Economy_form_WEB.pdf 
48 Access to Data. Copernicus Website, European Union. https://www.copernicus.eu/en/access-data. Accessed 1 
June 2019. 
49 Copernicus In Brief. Copernicus Website, European Union. https://www.copernicus.eu/en/about-
copernicus/copernicus-brief. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
50About Copernicus. Copernicus Website, European Union. https://www.copernicus.eu/en/about-copernicus. 
Accessed 1 June 2019. 
51 Ibidem and Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service. Copernicus Website, European Union. 
https://www.copernicus.eu/en/services/marine. Accessed 1 June 2019. 

17 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
levels.52 The information provided not only covers currently available data, but 
also  includes  forecasts  as  well  as  data  archives.53  By  drawing  a  picture  of  the 
state  of  the  ocean  both  literally  and  metaphorically,  the  CMEMS  lays  the 
foundation  for  the  development  of  the  blue  economy.  How  this  works  in 
practice is illustrated by the case of fish and shellfish farmers in France, Ireland, 
Portugal, Spain, and the UK. In these Atlantic countries,  researchers  compiled 
forecasts  on  harmful  algal  blooms  with  satellite  data  provided  by  Copernicus, 
enabling  fish  farmers  to  react  in  advance  and  increase  their  productivity  by 
5%.54 

EMODnet 

is 

the  European  Marine 
Another  rich  source  for  marine-related  data 
Observation  and  Data  Network  (EMODnet).  Organised  around  seven 
discipline-based  themes,  the  EMODnet  provides  access  to  ‘standardized 
observations, data quality indicators and processed data products.’ The network, 
which  consists  of  more  than  160  different  organisations,  started  with  the 
aspiration to address ‘threats to the marine environment, in the development of 
policies and legislation to protect vulnerable areas.’55  Furthermore,  ‘accessible 
marine data is a prerequisite for further sustainable economic development, the 
so-called  “blue  growth”.’56  At  present,  the  project  is  in  its  final  development 
phase  and  expected  to  be  completed  in  2020.57  By  then,  all  ‘multi-resolution 
maps of all Europe’s seas and oceans, spanning all seven disciplinary themes’ 
should be available.58  

A  strong  European  component  dominates  the  network  and  the  idea  behind  it, 
and while LRAs from SMCs are also able to search for useful data that can help 
them develop their blue economy projects, the available data is limited to more 
general parameters such as currents, chemistry components, sea level, or seabed 
habitat (among others). The limitations in data are due to the fact that most of 
the SMCs are not part of the network and thus do not contribute to a wider data 
base. As a result, a look at the digital maps often shows a picture with points of 

52 Service Commitments and Licence. Copernicus Marine environment monitoring service Website, European 
Commission. http://marine.copernicus.eu/services-portfolio/service-commitments-and-licence/. Accessed 1 June 
2019. 
53 European Commission. Marine Environment Monitoring Service. Copernicus, European Commission, 
September 2016. 
https://www.copernicus.eu/sites/default/files/documents/Copernicus_MarineMonitoring_Feb2017.pdf 
54 European Commission. Copernicus Helps Fish and Shellfish Farmers Monitoring Toxic Algal Bloom. 
Copernicus Case Study, European Commission, November 2016. 
https://www.copernicus.eu/sites/default/files/UseCase_Fisheries_AlgalBloomMonitoring.pdf 
55 What is EMODnet? EMODnet Website, European Union 2017. http://www.emodnet.eu/what-emodnet. 
Accessed 1 June 2019. 
56 Ibidem. 
57 Ibidem. 
58 Ibidem. 

18 

 
 
 
 
                                           
information sprinkled along the coasts of EU Member States and (nearly) bald 
spots  around  Southern  Mediterranean  partner  countries,  especially  around  the 
coasts  of  Libya,  Tunisia,  and  Algeria.  For  instance,  LRAs  in  the  SMCs 
interested in the  water  quality  of  their  country’s  coast  might  face  problems  in 
finding  the needed information. The  availability of data is particularly poor in 
the case of information on human activities, a crucial indicator in the context of 
the  blue  economy.  Data  scarcity  at  the  national  level  might  play  a  role  in  the 
SMCs’ lower levels of contribution to the EMODnet. 

SeaDataNet 

The situation with another EU-funded database is slightly different. SeaDataNet 
is a network which describes itself as a ‘distributed Marine Data Infrastructure 
for the management of large and diverse sets of data deriving from in situ of the 
seas  and  oceans.’59  This  Pan-European  network  processes  a  wealth  of  marine 
data, which originates from 100 national oceanographic and marine data centres 
in 35 countries, covering all European seas.60 The availability of data for LRAs 
from SMCs is better than in the above-mentioned EMODnet network, due to the 
fact that research institutions from Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Lebanon, Turkey, 
and  Israel  are  integrated  in  SeaDataNet,  and  they  channel  their  data  to  the 
database.  There  are  different  levels  of  access,  ranging  from  restriction-free  to 
licenced data.61 Users looking for information tailored to their needs can comb 
through  the  website’s  Common  Data  Index  by  selecting  precise  biological, 
chemical, or geological parameters.62 

59 About us. SeaDataNet website, European Union. https://www.seadatanet.org/About-us. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
60 Data Access Service. SeaDataNet website, European Union. https://www.seadatanet.org/Data-Access. 
Accessed 1 June 2019. 
61 SeaDataNet Common Data Index (cdi) v3. SeaDataNet website, European Union. 
http://seadatanet.maris2.nl/v_cdi_v3/search.asp. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
62 Ibidem. 

19 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
5. Funding possibilities identified 

The  following  section  provides  a  non-exhaustive  list  of  funding  possibilities 
available to LRAs from South Mediterranean partner countries (SMCs). It does 
so  by  building  on  the  2016  CoR  study  ‘Developing  Blue  economy  through 
better  methodology  for  assessment  on  local  and  regional  level’,63  extending  it 
with other sources, including a 2018 report for Executive Agency for Small and 
Medium-sized  Enterprises  (EASME),  ‘Study  to  support  investment  for  the 
sustainable development of the blue economy’ (co-authored by CASE). Due to 
the  comprehensive  coverage  of  most  funding  mechanisms,  the  majority  of 
countries  are  treated  collectively;  the  conditions  of  funding  specific  to  certain 
countries are described in separate sections. 

Cross-cutting 

The first port of call for LRAs on the lookout for funding opportunities is the 
European  Neighbourhood  Instrument  (ENI),  which  comprises  cross-border 
collaboration  programmes  between  the  EU  and  Southern  Neighbourhood 
partners.64  The  ENI’s  joint  priorities  for  cooperation  include  (next  to  good 
governance  and  the  rule  of  law)  economic  development  for  stabilisation.  The 
lion’s  share  of  the  funding  flows  are  from  bilateral  cooperation,  which  is 
complemented  by  other  programmes,  such  as  regional,  cross-border,  and 
neighbourhood-wide  cooperation  programmes.65  One  of 
the 
Cross-Border  Cooperation  (CBC),  which  addresses  explicitly  local  and 
regional administrations from partner countries (including SMCs). It focuses on 
common challenges such as climate change and the environment and promotes 
‘economic  and  social  development  in  border  areas’.66  In  particular,  a  CBC 
programme called ‘Mediterranean Sea Basin’67 can be used to fund projects in 
the  areas  of  ‘Environmental  protection,  climate  change  adaptation  and 
mitigation’ and ‘Business and SMEs development,’ both of which  are relevant 
to  the  blue  economy  through  their  focus  on  the  diversification  of  tourism  and 
the conservation of coastal areas.68 The projects receive funding of up to EUR 6 

these 

is 

63 Charalambous, Alexander. Developing Blue Economy through better Methodology for Assessment on Local 
and Regional Level. Committee of the Regions, 2017.  
https://cor.europa.eu/en/engage/studies/Documents/order%206203_Blue%20Economy_form_WEB.pdf 
64 Regional Development Co-operation Programmes Outside the EU. European Commission’s website. 
https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/policy/cooperation/european-territorial/outside-the-eu/. Accessed 1 June 
2019. 
65 European Neighbourhood Policy. European Commission’s Website. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-
enlargement/neighbourhood/overview_en. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
66 Cross Border Cooperation. European Commission Website. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-
enlargement/neighbourhood/cross-border-cooperation_en. Accessed 1 June 2019.  
67 The ENI CBC Med Programme. ENPI CBCMED Website. 
http://www.enpicbcmed.eu/enicbcmed-2014-2020/the-eni-cbc-med-programme. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
68 Ibidem 

21 

 
 
 
 
                                           
million  for  a  period  of  one  to  four  years  and  are  to  be  managed  by  consortia 
composed  of  a  maximum  of  seven  to  ten  partners  (with  no  more  than  three 
partners from a single country).69 

Another  funding  opportunity  provided  by  the  EU  is  the  LIFE  programme,  a 
funding  instrument  dedicated  to  environment  and  climate  actions.70  Split  into 
two  sub-programmes,  ‘Environment’  and  ‘Climate  action,’  its  funding  is 
provided  for  projects  related  to  nature  conservation  and  resource  efficiency, 
among  others.  With  a  view  to  the  development  of  the  blue  economy,  LRAs 
planning  to  invest  in  the  protection  of  habitats,  the  circular  economy,  marine 
and  coastal  management,  climate  change  mitigation  strategies,  or  energy 
efficiency would be advised to monitor the LIFE programme.71 However, LRAs 
from  SMCs  are  only  eligible  for  funding  as  a  partner  of  a  coordinating 
beneficiary from the EU. 72 

Furthermore,  some  calls  under  the  Horizon  2020  programme  address  topics 
related to the blue economy and open their funding to SMCs.73 For example, the 
European Pre-Commercial Procurement Programme for Wave Energy Research 
& Development74 aims at the development of wave energy convertors through 
Pre-Commercial  Procurement.  The  call  encourages  public-public  partnerships 
(PPPs), opening room for the involvement of LRAs. Participants may advance 
their ‘experience with national public procurement approaches’ to drive forward 
the  commercialisation  of  Wave  Energy  Research  and  Development. 
Unfortunately,  success  rates  in  Horizon  2020  applications  are  known  to  be 
rather  on  the  low  end,  and  LRAs  without  the  capacity  to  write  high-quality 
grants are unlikely to succeed in the competition. 

LRAs can also turn to the European Investment Bank (EIB), which provides 
project-related loans to local authorities and PPPs as well as intermediated loans 
to local authorities.75 One prerequisite for intermediated loans is the promotion 
of one of the following goals: 

1) 

Increase in growth and employment potential – including support to small 

69 Ibidem 
70 LIFE programme. European Commission Website. https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/life. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
71 LIFE - Environment Sub-programme. European Commission Website. 
https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/section/life/life-environment-sub-programme. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
72 LIFE - Who can apply? European Commission Website. 
https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/section/life/life-who-can-apply. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
73 European Commission. Horizon 2020: Work Programme 2018-2020. Available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/other/wp/2018-2020/annexes/h2020-wp1820-annex-a-
countries-rules_en.pdf  
74 LC-SC3-JA-3-2019 (14/11/2018 – 27/08/2019). See more: Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (H2020). 
European Commission Website. https://bit.ly/2I7ZcX1. Accessed 20 June 2019.  
75 Intermediated Loans. European Investment Bank Website. 
https://www.eib.org/en/products/lending/intermediated/index.htm. Accessed 1 June 2019. 

22 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and midcap companies; 

2) 
Economic and social cohesion, by addressing economic and social 
imbalances, promoting knowledge-sensitive skills and innovation, and linking 
regional and national transport infrastructure; 

Environmental sustainability – including support to competitive and 

3) 
secure energy supplies; and 

Action for climate-resilient growth. 

4) 
76 
Among  the  EIB’s  priorities  are  ‘energy  efficiency,  transport,  water  and 
sustainable  urban  infrastructure.’77  To  apply  for  an  intermediated  loan, 
Mediterranean  partner  countries78  should  approach  the  Facility  for  Euro-
Mediterranean  Investment  and  Partnership  (FEMIP)  Trust  Fund.  Under  the 
fund,  the  EIB  channels  its  activities  related  to  SMCs.  Projects  related  to 
environmental protection or energy, transport, and water sectors are eligible for 
financial or advisory support.79 However, the EIB operates with relatively strict 
lending criteria, which might be an obstacle to LRAs. 

A  slightly  different  target  is  pursued  by  the  Special  Climate  Change  Fund 
(SCCF), which provides money to developing countries80 in order to implement 
measures and projects related to climate change.81 Located under the umbrella 
of the Global Environment Facility, the SCCF’s financing revolves around areas 
such  as  water  resources  management,  infrastructure  development,  fragile 
ecosystems, and integrated coastal zone management.82 The fund’s top priority 
are  water  resources,  land  management,  and  capacity  building  for  disaster 
prevention,  although  it  also  supports  technology  transfer  and  mitigation  in 
industry,  and  economic 
selected  sectors, 
diversification.83 An example of how LRAs can benefit from the scheme can be 
illustrated  by  the  project  ‘Enhancing  Regional  Climate  Change Adaptation  in 

including  energy, 

transport, 

76 Adopted directly from: Ibidem. 
77 Infrastructure. European Investment Bank Website. 
https://www.eib.org/en/projects/priorities/infrastructure/index.htm. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
78 That is Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria, and Tunisia, see ibidem 
79 FEMIP Trust Fund Annual Report 2017: Serving the Southern Neighbourhood. European Investment Bank 
Website. https://www.eib.org/en/infocentre/publications/all/femip-trust-fund-annual-report-2017.htm. Accessed 
1 June 2019. 
80 All relevant SMCs are eligible for funding, except for Palestine, see: Funding. Global Environment Facility 
Website. https://www.thegef.org/about/funding. Accessed 4 June 2019 and Country Profiles. Global 
Environment Facility Website. https://www.thegef.org/country. Accessed 4 June 2019. 
81 Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF). World Bank Website. http://fiftrustee.worldbank.org/Pages/sccf.aspx. 
Accessed 1 June 2019. 
82 Funding. Global Environment Facility Website. http://www.thegef.org/about/funding. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
83 Special Climate Change Fund – SCCF. Global Environment Facility Website. 
https://www.thegef.org/topics/special-climate-change-fund-sccf. Accessed 1 June 2019. 

23 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Areas,’ funded by the SCCF in Albania, 
Algeria,  Libya,  Montenegro,  Morocco,  and  Tunisia  with  the  objective  to  ‘to 
assist  countries  to  increase  the  resilience  of  the  Mediterranean  marine  and 
coastal  areas  to  the  impacts  of  climate  change  with  the  view  to  influencing 
wider development processes in the region.’84 

The  EU  also  provides  another  source  of  funding,  the  Instrument  for 
Pre-Accession  Assistance,  which  is  described  in  the  section  dedicated  to 
Turkey below. 

Another  global  source  of  funding  is  the  International  Finance  Corporation 
(IFC),  the  World  Bank’s  sister  organisation.85  The  IFC  promotes  PPPs  in 
developing countries86 by providing financial support and advice to national and 
municipal governments on the implementation of PPPs.87 Sectors on the priority 
list  of  the  IFC  relevant  to  the  blue  economy  include  power,  transport,  and 
water.88  For  instance,  under  the  section  ‘Transport,’  LRAs  can  apply  for  debt 
and  equity  financing  of  modernisation  and  investments  in  port,  shipping,  and 
logistics.89 Unfortunately, LRAs cannot apply for the funding directly, and state 
support is necessary, reducing the practicality of the mechanism for them. 

One last funding possibility is World Bank’s newly created PROBLUE fund.90 
The  multi-donor  trust  fund  is  part  of  the  World  Bank’s  Blue  Economy 
Programme  and  aims  to  ensure  the  ‘protection  and  sustainable  use  of  marine 
and coastal resources’91 by focusing efforts on four topics: 1) ‘the management 
of  fisheries  and  aquaculture;’  2)  ‘the  threats  posed  to  ocean  health  by  marine 

84 Enhancing Regional Climate Change Adaptation in the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Areas. Global 
Environment Facility Website. 
https://www.thegef.org/project/enhancing-regional-climate-change-adaptation-mediterranean-marine-and-
coastal-areas. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
85 About IFC: Overview. International Finance Cooperation Website. 
https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/corp_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/about+ifc_new. Accessed 1 
June 2019.  
86 Finance is directed to less developed countries and countries which are members of the World Bank Group. 
That includes all relevant SMCs with the exception of Palestine, see: IFC. About IFC. IFC ANNUAL REPORT 
2016: 16. https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/0d31877e-ca84-46b0-9e05-
60ff442653c1/IFC_AR16_Section_1_AboutIFC.pdf?MOD=AJPERES and Member Countries. The World Bank 
Website. http://www.worldbank.org/en/about/leadership/members#3. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
87 IFC's Priorities in PPPs. IFC Website. 
 https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/industry_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/ppp/priorities. 
Accessed 1 June 2019. 
88 Ibidem. 
89 Transportation. IFC Website.  
https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/industry_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/infrastructure/priorities/
transportation/transportation. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
90 The World Bank’s Blue Economy Program and PROBLUE: Supporting Integrated and Sustainable Economic 
Development in Healthy Oceans. World Bank Website, Brief, 26 November 2018. 
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/environment/brief/the-world-banks-blue-economy-program-and-problue-
frequently-asked-questions. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
91 Ibidem. 

24 

 
 
 
 
                                           
pollution, including litter and plastics;’ 3) ‘the sustainable development of key 
oceanic  sectors  such  as  tourism,  maritime  transport  and  off-shore  renewable 
energy;’  and  4)  ‘building  the  capacity  of  governments  to  manage  their  marine 
and coastal resources in an integrated fashion to deliver more and long-lasting 
benefits  to  countries  and  communities.’92  Direct  contact  with  the  trust  is 
necessary  to  establish  whether  and  to  what  extent  LRAs  are  eligible  for  the 
funding. 

Apart from the above-mentioned funding sources, available to all the countries 
in  the  region93,  in  Turkey  the  initiatives  of  the  LRAs  in  the  area  of  the  blue 
economy  can  be  funded  through  the  EU  Instrument  for  Pre-Accession 
Assistance  (IPA).  IPA  funds are  implemented by  three programmes,  of  which 
the  Transport  Operational  Programme  (TOP),  which  channels  funds  into 
infrastructural  projects,  is  of  particular  relevance  to  the  blue  economy,  as  the 
improvement of maritime infrastructure is explicitly named under priority 2 of 
the programme.94 According to the IPA, the funding aims to ‘modernize the port 
infrastructure in Turkey in order to improve the capacity of some strategic ports’ 
as well as ‘to promote international and transit movement of freight in Turkey 
by  providing  effective  connections  with  the  EU  maritime  routes  through  the 
modernization and development’.95 

92 Ibidem. 
93  In  Algeria,  the  funding  situation  of  LRAs  is  more  problematic  than  in  the  other  South  Mediterranean 
countries.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Algerian  LRAs  are  currently  ‘prohibited  by  law  from  independently 
seeking out or receiving external funding of any kind.’93 This confines the scope of action to national funding 
opportunities, creating an obstacle to the development of the blue economy. 
94 IPA Regional Development Programmes in Turkey. European Commission Website. 
https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/funding/ipa/turkey/. Accessed 1 June 2019. 
95 IPA Transport Operational Programme in Turkey. European Commission Website. 
https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/funding/ipa/turkey/transport/. Accessed 1 June 2019. 

25 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
6. Annotated and commented bibliography 

  FAO  and  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the  Mediterranean.  Sustainable 
Fisheries  and  Aquaculture  in  the  Mediterranean.  Pêcheries  et  Aquaculture 
Soutenables en Méditerrané. Marseille: Blue Economy Project Conference, 30-
31 May 2017. Available at:  
https://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/upload/files/10_Sustainable_fisheries_and
_aquaculture_in_Mediterranean.pdf 

This  presentation,  part  of  the  Blue  Economy  Project  of  the  Food  and 
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and situated within much 
of the work that the FAO does in the blue economy area, sets forth a number of 
goals  to  be  fulfilled  as  part  of  the  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the 
Mediterranean  (GFCM)  mid-term  strategy  (2017-2020)  to 
improve  the 
sustainability  of  Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea  fisheries.  Specifically,  it 
highlights the importance of reversing a decline in fish stocks. It proposes to: 1) 
limit  illegal,  unreported,  and  unregulated  fishing  (IUU);  2)  help  develop 
sustainable  SSF;  3)  engage  in  activities  leading  to  cooperation  and  capacity 
creation;  and  4)  mitigate  the  likelihood  of  undesirable  outcomes  from 
interactions  between 
the  environment  and  fisheries.  The  presentation 
emphasises  the  need  to  strengthen  the  role  of  scientific  advice  by  introducing 
improvements  in  knowledge  and  broadening  the  expertise  base  on  the 
Mediterranean  region  and  Black  Sea  fisheries.  Additionally,  the  authors 
recommend  incorporating  socio-economic  data  and  analysis  into  management 
frameworks and enhanced GFCM regulatory frameworks overseeing fisheries.  

Themes: food, health, and ecosystem services  

  FAO  and  General  Fisheries  Commission  for  the  Mediterranean.  The  State  of 
Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea  Fisheries  2018.  Rome,  2018.  Available  at: 
http://www.fao.org/3/CA2702EN/ca2702en.pdf  

The  document  emphasises  the  need  for  capacity  building  at  the  regional  and 
sub-regional  levels  of  national  administrations,  especially  regarding  the 
implementation  of  guidelines  for  small-scale  fisheries  (SSF). In  particular,  the 
report  emphasises  the  enhancement  of  regional  platforms  for  participatory 
processes,  access  to  financing,  education  opportunities  (for  employees, 
employers, and consumers), and the development of synergies between SSF and 
related  sectors.  The  report  highlights  the  requirements  for  innovation  within 
existing  SSF  value  chains,  where  local  fishing  cooperatives  would  assume 
important tasks to improve market access and the bargaining power of SSF. The 
document highlights the implementation process of the Regional Plan of Action 

27 

 
 
 
 
 
 
for Small-Scale Fisheries in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, focusing on 
goals and actions for the years 2018-2028. Specifically noted are improvements 
which need to be implemented at a local level, including in scientific research, 
value chain creation, database building, management, capacity building, decent 
work  promotion,  and  promoting  cooperation  between  stakeholders  (inter-  and 
non-governmental units). 

Themes: food, health, and ecosystem services  

  Fosse, Jérémie, et al. Blue Economy in the Mediterranean. Barcelona: Union for 
at:  https://ufmsecretariat.org/wp-

the  Mediterranean,  2017.  Available 
content/uploads/2017/12/UfMS_Blue-Economy_Report.pdf 

The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  provide  a  general  overview  of  the  state  of  the 
blue economy in the Mediterranean in the context of implementing the United 
Nations  (UN)  Sustainable  Development  Goals  (SDGs),  highlighting  the 
potential  challenges  and  opportunities  for  sustainable  development.  Given  the 
importance  of  the  blue  economy  for  Mediterranean  economies,  the  paper  also 
includes an analysis on the potential of tourism, fisheries, and aquaculture in the 
region. 

In  particular,  Marine  Protected  Areas  (MPAs)  are  highlighted  as  a  key  cross-
sectorial  approach  to  sustainable  management  of  the  blue  economy  in  the 
region,  with special benefits  in  economic  sectors  such  as  coastal tourism.  The 
study also points to the need to replicate this model, which is present mainly in 
the Northern Mediterranean and in the Southern Mediterranean Basin.9697 There 
are  multiple  references  to  the  importance  of  promoting  local  economic 
development  through  support  to  local  businesses,  local  communities,  and  the 
creation  of  local  jobs.  Local  and  regional  authorities  (LRAs)  are  called  upon, 
based on Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development Objective 4.4, to 
play a relevant role in the development of renewable energy in general, and off-
shore  production  specifically,  through  local  policies  such  as  regulation, 
incentives, and the phasing out of fossil fuel subsidies.  

The  study  also  offers  an  overview  of  deep-sea  mining  activities  in  the 
Mediterranean and provides an assessment of the pertinence of offshore mining 
in blue economy activity. Last, the study discusses the prospective challenges of 
focusing  on  marine-friendly 
industries, 
the 

fisheries  and  aquaculture 

96 Gomei M. and Di Carlo G. Making Marine Protected Areas Work—Lessons Learned in the Mediterranean. 
WWF Mediterranean, 2012. 
97  Di  Carlo  G.,  Lopez  A.,  Staub  F.  Capacity  building  strategy  to  enhance  the  management  of  MPAs  in  the 
Mediterranean Sea. WWF MedPO / MedPAN / UNEP/MAP/RAC/SPA, 2012.  

28 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                           
 
technologies  and  management  practices,  which  combine  productivity  and 
employment effects, preserve the natural biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea, 
and  boost  socio-economic  progress  for  coastal  communities.  However,  while 
raising  salient  points  for  local  communities,  the  report  presents  little 
quantitative  data  to  substantiate  the  claims  set  forth,  especially  at  the  sub-
regional level. 

Themes:  coastal  tourism,  governance  and  legal  framework,  tourism,  energy, 
food, health, and ecosystem services, maritime transport and port activities  

  Fosse,  Jérémie,  et  al.  Indicators  for  the  Blue  Economy  in  the  Mediterranean. 
at: 

Plan 
https://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/upload/files/Indicators_for_the_BE_in_th
e_Mediterranean.pdf  

Technical 

Available 

Report, 

2017. 

Bleu, 

The  study  highlights  the  scarcity  of  data  and  inadequacy  of  existing 
information,  making an  assessment  of the  parameters  relevant to  fisheries  and 
aquaculture  industries  in  the  Mediterranean  region  (i.e.  general  data  on  fish 
stock and specific information regarding the economic output of SSF) difficult. 
A  case  study  looking  at  problems  related  to  maritime  transport  addresses  the 
issue of data scarcity in relation to the management of local ports – the data for 
which are almost non-existent, apart from data on container port traffic which is 
specifically  provided  by  Eurostat  and  the  World  Bank.  There  is  also  no 
available database regarding passenger traffic – a critical issue for this particular 
region given its tourism potential. 

As  for  aquaculture,  the  information  pertaining  to  relevant  methods  and 
environmental impacts is scarce, preventing a robust assessment of the state of 
the industry and its environmental footprint. The findings indicated that, based 
on  the  data  on  the  status  of  fish  stocks  that  are  available,  inadequate 
management  and  lack  of  sufficient  monitoring  may  have  led  to  an  over-
exploitation  of  fish  stocks  (the  report  further  raised  the  probability  of 
pharmaceutical  and  pollution  releases  which  were  harmful  for  the  local 
biodiversity).  The  paper  calls  for  a  prioritisation  of  regional  recuperation, 
ensuring  the  sustainable  use  of  biodiversity  and  food  security  via  the 
implementation of ecosystem-based standards and management policies drafted 
and implemented by LRAs.  

Themes: energy at sea and raw materials, food, health and ecosystem services, 
coastal tourism, maritime transport activities 

  Fosse,  Jérémie  and  Le  Tellier,  Julien.  Sustainable  Tourism 

the 
Mediterranean:  State  of  Play  and  Strategic  Directions.  Valbonne:  Plan  Bleu, 

in 

29 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Report Paper, 17, 2017. Available at:  
https://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/publications/cahier17_tourisme_en_web.p
df 

This report builds on the recent regional and international literature on tourism 
and  sustainability  to  shape  guidelines  and  recommendations  for  sustainable 
tourism  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  particular,  this  study  analyses  the  critical 
environmental, social, economic, cultural, and governance issues that need to be 
addressed  in  order  to  ensure  the  development  of  sustainable  and  inclusive 
Mediterranean tourism. It also presents a set of Strategic Directions and Actions 
(SDAs)  to  structure  this  future  strategic  framework  for  sustainable  tourism  in 
the Mediterranean. While the SDAs are rather generic, they from a valuable list 
of shared challenges that are applicable on a regional scale, mainly focused on 
the need to incentivise cooperation in the field based on common goals (which 
are  also  correlated  to  SDGs).  LRAs  are  identified  as  key  stakeholders  in  the 
study with the role  of ‘fostering local strategies and planning; Implementation 
of  policy  and  regulations;  Local  infrastructure  development  and  management; 
Stakeholder engagement, coordination and support’. 

Themes:  coastal  tourism,  social  progress  and  inclusiveness,  governance  and 
legal  framework,  Sustainable  Development  Goals,  tourism  sustainability, 
regional challenges 

   International  Union  for  Conservation  of  Nature.  Mediterranean  Programme 

2017-2020. Available at:  
https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/iucn_mediterranean_pro
gramme_2017-2020.pdf  

The study, undertaken in cooperation with local partners, provides an overview 
of both identified needs as well as solutions related to nature conservation in the 
Mediterranean basin. According to the authors, given various local peculiarities, 
partnerships  (including  those  with  local  authorities  aware  of  local  conditions) 
are  seen  as  one  of  the  most  important  ‘modalities’  safeguarding  the 
implementation of successful environmental programmes and local strategies on 
nature  conservation.  Additionally,  participatory  models  allow  for  civil  society 
empowerment  and  further  enhance  monitoring  actions  at  various  levels 
(national,  regional,  local,  civil  society),  making  natural  resource  conservation 
governance  more  effective  and  dissemination  broader.  The  model  of  co-
management of  important environmental spots, including maritime areas, with 
the participation of relevant local actors, additionally saves human and financial 
resources, allowing cooperating institutions to build strong consortia specialised 
in specific conservation actions. 

30 

 
 
  
 
 
 
Themes: food security and economic and social development 

   International  Union  for  Conservation  of  Nature.  North  Africa  Programme 

2017-2020. Available at: 
https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/north_africa_programm
e_2017-2010_en.pdf 

The study focuses on issues related to the post-2015 agenda of the UN and the 
implementation  of  specific  SDGs.  The  authors  emphasise  the  interrelations 
among  environmental  issues,  arguing  that  a  holistic  approach  is  necessary  to 
overcome difficult issues. In particular, sharing of lessons learned and technical 
expertise oftentimes proves beneficial regardless of the local peculiarities. They 
also demonstrate direct and indirect benefits for the parties involved in such an 
extensive  type  of  cooperation.  A  case  study  describing  the  intra-country 
(Algeria,  Morocco,  and  Tunisia)  process  of  building  a  threatened  species 
conservation  mechanism,  where  local  conservation  managers  were  involved, 
has  been  used  to  showcase  these  benefits.  Apart  from  safeguarding  the 
environment, opening up new networking opportunities and providing guidance 
for  local  staff,  the  capacity  building  undertaken  helped  to  create  (and 
implement)  a  common  methodology  for  sub-regional  conservation  managers. 
Such an approach has been used to unify the legislation in the countries of the 
region, leading to further integration and regional cooperation. 

Themes:  energy  at  sea  and  raw  materials,  environmental  monitoring  and 
protection of maritime areas 

 Mediterranean  Association 

of  National  Agencies 

Energy 
Management/Observatoire  Méditerranéen  de 
l’Energie.  Les  Energies 
Renouvelables en Méditerranée: Tendances, Perspectives et Bonnes Pratiques. 
2018. Available at:  
http://www.ome.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/MEDENER_OME-
Brochure_ENR_PDF2018.pdf 

for 

Without  purporting  to  be  exhaustive,  this  study  provides  relevant  elements  to 
help  understand  the  framework  of  renewable  energy  in  the  Mediterranean.  It 
shows the progressive development of the field in the Mediterranean region and 
presents the main challenges to renewable energy, the public policies that have 
been  put  in  place,  a  list  of  relevant  projects,  as  well  as  the  best  practices 
identified  in  the  region.  It  also  offers  data  analysis  on  a  regional  and  national 
level.  

The document provides a country by country description of the institutional and 
regulatory  framework  as  well  as  the  renewable  energy  projections  for  2020. 

31 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
However, the participation and contribution of LRAs to the development of the 
policies is treated as an accessory, as the study mentions them no more than two 
to  three  times  and  does  not  include  them  in  any  substantive  discussions  on 
solutions.  The  conclusions  focus  on  the  need  to  reinforce  the  capacities  of 
Southern  and  Eastern  Mediterranean  countries  in  the  field.  Little  to  no 
information is given on energy and raw materials related to the blue economy 
due to the lack of development of the field in the analysed countries.  

Themes:  energy,  general  and  environmental  development,  renewable  energy, 
projections, governance and legal framework 

  Nadcrinicinii, Artur, Greening the Blue Economy: A Collection of Case Studies 
Showcasing  the  Application  of  Sustainable  Consumption  and  Production 
Principles and Practices to Blue Economy Sectors in the Mediterranean. Union 
for  the  Mediterranean,  2017.  Available  at:  https://ufmsecretariat.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/12/Greening-the-Blue-Economy-UfM-Report.pdf 

The report presents a number of qualitative studies of the blue economy sectors, 
inter  alia  related  to  food  and  health.  Its  main  focus  is  on  enterprises  which 
contribute  to  local  socio-economic  development  but  have  also  adopted 
sustainable  production  and  business  management  models  (contributing  to  the 
decoupling  of  economic  growth  and  revenues  from  excessive  resource  use). 
While the scope and size of the entrepreneurial activities analysed in the report 
vary  from  start-ups  to  large-scale  sustainable  consumption  and  production 
strategies  (e.g.  large-scale  fisheries  in  Morocco,  artisan  fishing  businesses  in 
Tunisia, or sustainable aquaculture in Egypt), all the cases focus on accelerating 
socio-economic growth and reducing its environmental impact. The case studies 
deliver a broad collection of good practices which can be implemented by the 
local authorities to ameliorate the welfare of local communities and promote a 
low-carbon economy; however, the report fails to discuss the operationalisation 
issues of such actions and how to assign tasks to LRAs. In general, the report 
does not perceive LRAs to be promising agents who might effectively argue in 
favour of environmental solutions. 

sustainable 
Themes: 
aquaculture, green entrepreneurship 

consumption, 

sustainable  production, 

fisheries, 

  Observatoire  Méditerranéen  de  l’Energie.  Mediterranean  Energy  Perspectives 
2018.  2018.  Available  at:  http://www.ome.org/event/mediterranean-energy-
perspectives-2018/ 

The  study  provides  a  comprehensive  analysis  of  the  energy  sector  in  the 
Mediterranean region and gives detailed information on the current state of fuel 

32 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
sources, from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, in all end-use sectors of 
economy.  It  presents  data  ranging  from  the  early  days  of  the  region’s  energy 
industry to the present as well as an outlook to 2040 based on projections done 
by  the  Observatoire  Méditerranéen  de  l’Energie  (OME)  (divided  by  reference 
and  proactive  scenarios).  It  includes  a  rich  compilation  of  graphics,  tables, 
maps,  and  other  sources  coming  from  national  institutions  and  offers  a  clear 
explanation  of  the  legal  framework  and  sector-based  country  policies  that 
enhance or block the  transition  to  renewable  energy  resources.  The study  also 
analyses 
the  Southern  and  Eastern 
Mediterranean  countries  are  investing  in  the  development  of  their  regulatory 
frameworks and the introduction of stronger policy support measures. 

the  different  speeds  with  which 

With reference to LRAs, the study praises the introduction of specific initiatives 
fostered by regional governments and municipalities on renewable energy and 
solar ordinances, but it is mainly focused on the state of the energy sector at the 
national level.  

Themes:  energy,  renewable  energy,  governance  and  legal  framework,  energy 
demand and generation, hydrocarbons, energy and climate change 

  Piante, Catherine and Ody, Denis, Blue Growth in the Mediterranean Sea: The 
Challenge  of  Good  Environmental  Status,  WWF-France,  MedTrends  Project, 
2015. Available at: 
http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/medtrends_regional_report.p
df  

This study summarises the results of the MedTrends Project aimed at mapping 
possible  scenarios  related  to  maritime  economic  growth  in  the  Mediterranean 
countries  to 2030.  It focuses predominately  on  the overall development of the 
region and what environmental impacts this may cause. The authors present an 
extensive and interesting list of ‘descriptors’ influencing possible future trends 
and conclude that, apart from fisheries, all sectors currently considered relevant 
for the blue economy will increase in the next 15 years. This might lead to new 
conflicts between the sectors at stake, such as offshore exploration and maritime 
transport.  Multiple  pragmatic  recommendations  are  presented  to  limit  these 
potential disputes. 

Specifically,  maritime  transport  is  projected  to  grow  in  the  Mediterranean 
region  significantly,  both  when  it  comes  to  traffic  intensity  and  variety  of 
maritime routes. This is projected to significantly affect the local environment, 
both  in  generating  underwater  noise  and  threatening  specific  endangered 
species;  at  the  same  time,  however,  it  is  evident  that  maritime  transport, 
including the cruise sector, brings various benefits for local development. In this 

33 

 
 
 
 
 
 
respect,  the  implementation  of  a  well-designed  system,  monitoring  various 
pollution-related parameters at the local level, is pointed out as a key to success.  

Themes:  coastal  tourism,  energy  at  the  sea  and  raw  materials,  maritime 
transport activities, environmental monitoring and protection of maritime areas 

  Plan Bleu, Economic and Social Analysis of the Uses of the Coastal and Marine 
Waters  in  the  Mediterranean,  Characterization  and  Impacts  of  the  Fisheries, 
Aquaculture,  Tourism  and  Recreational  Activities,  Maritime  Transport  and 
Offshore  Extraction  of  Oil  and  Gas  Sectors,  Valbonne:  Plan  Bleu,  Technical 
Report, 2015.98  

The report contributes to the Mediterranean Initial Integrated Assessment (IIA) 
in  surveying  the  progress  in  the  implementation  of  the  Mediterranean  Action 
Plan  Ecosystem  Approach  Initiative.  It  provides  an  in-depth  socio-economic 
assessment  of  key  activities,  such  as  fisheries  and  aquaculture,  among  others, 
which are subject to analysis at the Mediterranean basin level as well as at sub-
regional levels. It provides quantitative socio-economic indices for each of the 
areas  under  scrutiny,  indicating  their  impact  on  the  development  of  national 
economies.  The  study  also  examines  dynamics  between  environmental  issues 
(e.g.  marine  and  coastal  ecosystems)  and  socio-economic  systems  at  the 
national level, providing insights regarding the design of effective management 
policies at central and regional levels.  

With  regard  to  maritime  transport,  the  paper  notes  that  the  scale  of  such 
transport is difficult to measure, largely because there are more than 600 ports 
in the Mediterranean basin. Despite these data issues, the authors emphasise that 
currently  ‘70%  of  marine  pollution  is  caused  by  maritime  transport  through 
emissions  and  leaks  of  hazardous  substances  (e.g.  oil  products,  chemical 
products,  anti-fouling  components...)’.99  Their  data  points  out  that  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  is  the  most  oil-polluted  sea  basin.  This  significantly 
degrades the environmental condition of coastal resorts in the Southern parts of 
the  region.  Additionally,  they  suggest  that  marine  and  coastal  litter  has  been 
increasing,  despite  passing  the  International  Convention  for  the  Prevention  of 
Pollution  from  Ships  (MARPOL)  legislation  which  bans  throwing  plastic  into 
the  sea.  Although  regulations oblige the relevant  authorities  and  local ports  to 
provide appropriate waste management facilities to all ships, there is still much 
to be done to fulfil this goal (this is an area where LRAs may contribute).  

98 Document available at (please copy the link and paste to the Internet browser): 
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.660.395&rep=rep1&type=pdf  
99 Plan Bleu. Economic and Social Analysis of the Uses of the Coastal and Marine Waters in the Mediterranean, 
Characterization and Impacts of the Fisheries, Aquaculture, Tourism and Recreational Activities, Maritime 
Transport and Offshore Extraction of Oil and Gas Sectors. Valbonne: Plan Bleu, Technical Report, 2015, p. 11.  

34 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
Estimations presented  in  the  report  may  be  biased  by  inadequate  (for  regional 
analyses)  granularity  of  the  data  utilised  –  both  as  regards  the  geographical 
(e.g. existence of maritime façades) and sectoral (aquaculture and fisheries are 
rarely disaggregated) angle.  

Themes:  coastal  tourism,  energy  at  sea  and  raw  materials,  maritime  transport 
activities, environmental monitoring and protection of maritime areas 

  Soukissian, Takvor H., et al., Marine Renewable Energy in the Mediterranean 
Sea:  Status  and  Perspectives,  Anavyssos:  Institute  of  Oceanography,  Hellenic 
Center for Marine Research, 2017. Available at:  
http://antalyadeniziklim.org/wp-content/uploads/energies-10-01512.pdf  

The  paper  surveys  the  marine  renewable  energy  (MRE)  sector  in  the 
Mediterranean Sea, including the different types of MRE (offshore wind, wave, 
tidal,  thermal,  and  salinity  gradient  energy  conversion),  and  discusses  their 
current  status,  potential  problems,  challenges,  and  development  perspectives. 
The  authors  outline  a  potential  approach  towards  the  economic  viability  and 
sustainability of marine renewable energy projects.  

The  study  thoroughly  considers  three  key  frameworks  contributing  to  the 
success  or  failure  of  the  development  of  marine  renewable  energy  projects: 
geotechnical and engineering, socio-economic, and environmental. It includes a 
roadmap  for  the  sustainable  development  of  MRE  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
built  around  a  four-helix  model  (data  efficiency,  MRE  technology,  social 
approach,  and  state-level  actions)  with  recommendations  and  guidelines 
involving a triangle of technical, environmental, and socio-economic aspects.  
The  document  mentions  specific  cases  involving  LRAs’  role  in  the  decision-
making process, but the feedback is deemed negative. The analysis suggests that 
LRAs  and  other  relevant  stakeholder  groups  involved  in  MRE  projects 
participate in the appropriate consultation processes. 

Themes:  energy,  marine  renewable  energy,  MRE,  current  energy  status, 
governance  and  legal  framework,  key  issues  of  geotechnical  framework,  key 
issues  of  socio-economic  framework,  key  issues  of  the  environmental 
framework, Marine Protected Areas. 

   United  Nations  Environment  Programme/Mediterranean  Action  Plan, 
Mediterranean  Strategy  for  Sustainable  Development  2016-2025.  Valbonne: 
Plan Bleu, Regional Activity Centre, 2016. Available at:  
https://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/publications/mssd_2016-2025_final.pdf 

The strategy focuses on addressing cross-cutting issues that lie in the interface 

35 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
between  environment  and  development.  It  addresses  issues  across  sectoral, 
institutional,  and  legal  boundaries,  emphasising  the  interlinkages  between 
environmental  issues  and  economic  and  social  challenges,  rather  than  specific 
economic sectors. The strategy tries to promote synergies between the work of 
key  national  and  regional  stakeholders,  by  providing  a  commonly  agreed 
framework.  Given  the  institutional  framework  under  which  the  Mediterranean 
Strategy  for  Sustainable  Development  (MSSD)  was  developed,  it  is  also  the 
most comprehensive document to understand the governance system in support 
of  sustainable  development  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  role  that  LRAs  can 
play in achieving its goals. The strategy revolves around six objectives and a set 
of strategic directions for which both the role of national and local governments 
is  fundamental.  Strategic  directions  establish  the  priority  actions,  the  owners 
that  are  called  upon  to  carry  out  the  actions,  as  well  as  the  time  frame  and 
specific indicators to measure progress.  

Furthermore,  the  strategy  summarises  the  outcomes  of  broad  consultations 
undertaken to secure the sustainable development of the Mediterranean region. 
The authors suggest that this cannot be safeguarded  without green investments 
in place, particularly in expensive actions such as environmental monitoring or 
tracking,  such  as 
integrated  coastal  zone  management  or  sustainable 
consumption  and  production.  Their  local  insights,  coupled  with  vast  regional 
experience,  resulted  in  creation  of  a  specific  process  and  stakeholders 
engagement  techniques  fostering  the  MSSD.  For  example,  ‘Strategic direction 
7.4:  Ensure  the  regular  monitoring  of  the  Mediterranean  Strategy  for 
Sustainable  Development  2016-2025’,100  mentions  only  one  national  action 
related  to  environment  monitoring,  while  at  the  regional  level,  three  broad 
solutions  have  been  suggested.  Surprisingly,  all  these  require  very  technical 
knowledge, which might be difficult to find among LRA representatives dealing 
with protection of maritime areas.  

Themes:  coastal  tourism,  food  health  and  ecosystem  services,  environmental 
monitoring and protection of maritime areas 

  United  Nations  Environment  Programme  and  World  Tourism  Organization, 
Tourism in the Green Economy: Background Report. Madrid: UNWTO, 2012. 
Available at: https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/book/10.18111/9789284414529 

This  report  aims  to  encourage  policy  makers  to  invest  in  green  tourism  by 
providing  guidance  on  how  to  implement  such  undertakings.  The  document 
introduces the notion of tourism in the green economy and the characteristics of 

100 UNEP/MAP. Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development 2016-2025. Valbonne: Plan Bleu, 
Regional Activity Centre, 2016. p. 81. 

36 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
required 

to  enable  greening 

this sector, mainly detailing its challenges and opportunities based on regional 
case  studies.  The  gains  of  greening  the  tourism  sector  are  also  discussed; 
benefits  in  employment,  local  economic  development,  poverty  reduction, 
environmental  benefits,  and  possibly  the  protection  of  cultural  heritage  (i.e. 
physical  artefacts  or  intangible  attributes).  This  paper  presents  the  steps  and 
conditions 
the  sector,  offering  several 
recommendations in order to create a suitable environment to boost investments 
in  the  development  of  sustainable  tourism.  The  study  envisages  a  multi-
stakeholder  participatory  planning  process 
transformation 
programmes  in  which  LRAs  (together  with  national  stakeholders,  non-
governmental  organisations 
[NGOs],  enterprises,  experts,  and  other 
organisations) actively take part. It also identifies LRAs as possible donors and 
investors  to  help  finance  green  tourism  projects.  The  conclusion  of  report  is 
dedicated to help governments to target tourism through a convincing economic 
case for greening tourism.  

the  green 

in 

Themes:  coastal  tourism,  green  tourism,  governance  and  legal  framework, 
tourism sustainability, energy, water consumption and waste management 

37 

 
 
 
 
 
 
7. Abbreviations 

Arab Maghreb Union 

Exclusive economic zones 
European Investment Bank 

Cross border cooperation 
Convention on Biological Diversity 

AMARe  Actions for Marine Protected Areas 
AMU 
ARLEM  Euro-Mediterranean Regional and Local Assembly 
CBC 
CBD 
CMEMS  Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service 
Committee of the Regions 
CoR 
CPC 
Contracting parties and cooperating non-contracting parties 
EASMEs  Executive Agency for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises 
EEZ 
EIB 
EMODnet European Marine Observation and Data Network 
European Neighbourhood Instrument 
ENI 
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 
FAO 
FEMIP 
Facility for Euro-Mediterranean Investment and Partnership 
GFCM  General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean 
IFC 
IIA 
IPA 
IPCC 
IUU 
LRA 
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 
MENA  Middle East and North Africa 
Motorway of the Sea 
MoS 
Marine Protected Areas 
MPA 
Marine renewable energy 
MRE 
MSSD  Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development  
NGO 
OME 
PPP 
PRIMA  Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area 
SCCF 
SDA 

International Finance Corporation 
Initial Integrated Assessment 
Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 
Illegal, unreported, and unregulated  
Local and regional authority 

Non-governmental organization 
Observatoire Méditerranéen de l’Energie 
Public-private partnerships 

Special Climate Change Fund 
Strategic Directions and Actions 

39 

 
 
SDG 
SMEs 
SMC 
SOM 
SSF 
TOP 
UfM 
UNEP 

Sustainable Development Goals 
Small and medium-sized enterprises 
South Mediterranean partner countries 
Senior Officials Meetings 
Small-scale fisheries 
Transport Operational Programme 
Union for the Mediterranean 
United Nations Environment Programme 

40 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
8. References 

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Charalambous,  Alexander.  Developing  Blue  Economy 
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45 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EN

ISBN 978-92-895-1028-8
doi:10.2863/88329

QG-04-19-620-EN-N

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the European Committee of  the Regions is the EU's assembly of 350 regional and
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