Recent trends in child and family policy in the EU : European platform for investing in children : annual thematic report.
Date: 2019-03-30
Institutions: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion
Subjects: EU Member State, child, cloud computing, early childhood, education policy, family law, family policy, investment, report, social rights

Recent Trends in 
Child and Family 
Policy in the EU

European Platform for Investing in 
Children: Annual thematic report

PB

Employment,
1
Social Affairs 
and Inclusion

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion 
Directorate C — Social Affairs  
Unit C3 — Disability & Inclusion 

Contact: Julius op de Beke 

Email:  Julius.Opdebeke@ec.europa.eu 

European Commission 
B-1049 Brussels

Recent trends in child and 
family policy in the EU 

European Platform for Investing in Children: Annual 
thematic report 

Written by Barbara Janta (RAND Europe), Lynn M. Davies (Requat Advisory Ltd.), Victoria Jordan 
(RAND Europe), Katherine Stewart (RAND Europe) 
May 2019 

Recent trends in child and family policy in the EU 

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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2019 

ISBN 978-92-76-07997-2 
doi: 10.2767/069345 
Catalogue number: KE-02-19-406-EN-N 

© European Union, 2019 
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Trends in child and family policy in the EU 

Contents 

FOREWORD ................................................................................................................ 7 

SUMMARY: PROGRESS IN CHILD AND FAMILY POLICY ...................................................... 7 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 11 

CHAPTER  2:  EU-LEVEL  ACTION:  PROGRESS  ON  THE  EUROPEAN  PILLAR  OF  SOCIAL 

RIGHTS AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN CHILD AND FAMILY POLICY ......................... 13 

CHAPTER 3: CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING ................... 17 

CHAPTER 4 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE (ECEC) PROVISION ....................... 21 

CHAPTER 5 MATERNITY, PATERNITY AND PARENTAL LEAVE PROVISION ............................ 27 

CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL AND INCOME SUPPORT, AND BENEFITS FOR FAMILIES ...................... 31 

CHAPTER 7 WIDER MATERIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR CHILDREN ................... 35 

CHAPTER 8 SUPPORTING FIRST- AND SECOND-GENERATION MIGRANT CHILDREN ............. 37 

CHAPTER 9 SUPPORTING VULNERABLE CHILDREN .......................................................... 41 

CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................ 45 

ANNEX 1: METHODOLOGY AND DATA USED ................................................................... 46 

ENDNOTES ............................................................................................................... 48 

5 

 
 
 
 
 
Trends in child and family policy in the EU 

FOREWORD 

This second annual trend report outlines and summarises new policy developments in 
the area of child and family policy in the 28 EU Member States (EU28), and reports on 
progress  with  policies  and  activities  initiated  in  earlier  years.  It  is  drafted  as  part  of 
the  European  Platform  for  Investing  in  Children  (EPIC)  project.  The  report  is  aligned 
thematically  with  pillars  of  the  2013  European  Commission  Recommendation 
‘Investing 
the 
Recommendation). The document is also guided by relevant principles of the European 
Pillar of Social Rights. The sections below provide an overview of the direction of and 
progress with child and family policy developments in the EU28, in line with the three 
pillars of the Recommendation. 

the  cycle  of  disadvantage’  (hereafter 

in  children:  breaking 

SUMMARY: PROGRESS IN CHILD AND FAMILY POLICY 

In  2013,  the  European  Commission  Recommendation  ‘Investing  in  children:  breaking 
the  cycle  of  disadvantage’  set  out  key  recommendations  for  Member  States  with 
regard to supporting positive well-being and outcomes for children and families, along 
three pillars: access to adequate resources, access to affordable quality services, and 
children’s right to participation. 

This was followed in 2017 with the introduction of the European Pillar of Social Rights, 
which  set  out  20  key  principles  against  which  Member  States  can  benchmark  their 
social policies. Notably, principle 11 - Childcare and support to children – emphasises 
particular  measures  for  children.  This  includes  acknowledgement  of  the growing 
awareness  of  the  importance  of  early  childhood  education  and  care with  better  child 
outcomes  in  later  life,  by outlining  a  right  to  affordable  education  and  care  ‘of  good 
quality’.  Principle  11  also  states  the  rights  of  a  child  to  protection  from  poverty, 
including  the right  of  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  to  ‘specific  measures 
to  enhance  equal  opportunities’ in  order  to  ensure  their  access  to  adequate  social 
support and life opportunities. Meanwhile, Pillar 9 stresses the right to a positive work-
life balance for parents and people with caring responsibilities, including suitable leave 
arrangements, flexible working arrangements and access to care services. 

The European Platform for Investing in Children (EPIC), established in 2013, monitors 
key and innovative developments in child and family policy in the European Union (EU) 
and develops resources to support Member States to implement the Recommendation. 
Below,  EPIC  provides  an  overview  of  key  recent  developments  in  child  and  family 
policy in the EU.  

Access to adequate resources 

The  Recommendation  acknowledges  the  strong  relationship  between  parents’  labour 
market  participation  and  family  living  conditions.  One  of  the  objectives  of  the 
Recommendation is improving access to resources for parents. 

One of the most prominent initiatives in this area has been the Directive on Work-Life 
Balance  for  Parents  and  Carers.  The  Directive,  which  was  proposed  by  the  European 
Commission in 2017, was the first legislative proposal to follow the implementation of 
the Pillar. It sets new standards for leave policy in the EU by proposing a minimum of 
10  days  of  paid  paternity  leave  and  introducing  two  months  of  non-transferable  paid 
parental  leave  for  each  parent.  This  way,  the  Directive  promotes  a  more  modern 

7 

 
 
 
 
concept of gender roles and families, as well as more equal sharing of professional and 
caring responsibilities. The Directive was approved by the European Parliament in April 
2019,  and  the  EU  Member  States  need  to  transpose  the  Directive  into  their  national 
legislation by 2024.  

At MS level, we saw trends towards enabling take-up of maternity, paternity and 
parental  leave,  including  increasing  entitlements,  reforming  leave  entitlements  to 
incentivise  take-up  (for  example,  by  linking  payments  more  closely  to  previous 
salaries)  and  increasing  the  flexibility  of  leave,  including  reducing  disincentives  for 
parents who choose to make an early return to work. Notably, a number of countries 
have taken steps to enable or encourage the take-up of paternity leave by increasing 
statutory leave entitlement, or otherwise encourage leave-sharing between partners.  

The second objective of the Recommendation under this Pillar is to provide adequate 
living  standards  through  a  combination  of  benefits.  While  social  welfare  remains  the 
preserve  of  Member  States,  the  preparatory  action  for  establishing  a  ‘Child 
Guarantee  for  Vulnerable  Children’  is  a  new  EU-level  action  in  this  sphere.  The 
European Parliament formulated the Child Guarantee as a new political priority for an 
implementation framework for EU policies, legislation and programmes to ensure that 
children  get  access  to  essential  services.  As  currently  envisaged,  the  possible  Child 
Guarantee takes an integrated approach to tackling multidimensional aspects of child 
poverty,  ensuring  that  all  children  in  the  EU28  have  access  to  free  health  care,  free 
education, free childcare, decent housing and adequate nutrition. The phase assessing 
the feasibility of the Child Guarantee scheme was launched in 2018 and thus far has 
produced results from the online consultation. The feasibility study will continue until 
2020, with a series of stakeholder workshops planned for the autumn months of 2019. 
A  final  report  summarising  evidence  for  recommendations  for  the  implementation  of 
the scheme is scheduled for the early months of 2020.  

At Member State level, initiatives have also been launched to provide financial support 
to  families  and  children.  Notably,  a  number  of  countries  have  launched  schemes  to 
provide financial support for large families, including the launch of the ‘European 
Large Family Card’ and similar schemes in a number of countries to provide discounts 
for  large  families;  Poland’s  ‘500+’  initiative  to  provide  monthly  payments  for  every 
second and subsequent children; and, in Italy, the provision of land parcels to families 
with over three children. 

initiatives  have  also  been 

including  France’s 
Broader  anti-poverty 
comprehensive  anti-poverty  plan,  intended  to  focus  on  children  and  young  people; 
Ireland’s  implementation  of  a  Whole-Of-Government  Strategy  for  Tackling  Child 
Poverty;  and  Denmark’s  ‘1000  days’  programme,  to  provide  funds  for  various  ECEC, 
family and health support measures for children aged 0-3. 

launched, 

Access to affordable quality services 

The  Recommendation  also  recognises  the  importance  of  access  to  high-quality 
services  to  reduce  inequality  and  support  groups  of  children  who  may  face  particular 
barriers, such as children without parental care, children with disabilities and migrant 
children.  

The  Recommendation  acknowledges  that  investing  in  early  childhood  education 
and care (ECEC) is one of the most effective means to address inequality and socio-
economic  disadvantages.  All  Member  States  have  made  progress  towards  the  2002 
Barcelona targets of 33% of children aged under 3, and 90% of children aged between 
3  years  and  the  mandatory  school  starting  age,  having  access  to  formal  childcare 
services, although wide variation remains between the proportion of children in formal 
childcare individual Member States.  

8 

 
Trends in child and family policy in the EU 

Building on the Recommendation’s objective and on Principle 11 of the Pillar focusing 
on the right to affordable quality early childhood education and care provision, in 2018 
the European Commission issued a Proposal for a Council Recommendation of 
High  Quality  Early  Childhood  Education  and  Care  Systems.  By  introducing  this 
proposal,  childcare  quality  has  been  put  firmly  on  the  EU-  and  national-level  policy 
agendas. The Proposal was adopted at the Education, Youth, Culture and Sport Council 
in  May  2019.  The  work  on  the  Common  framework  for  high-quality  ECEC  continues, 
with an objective to modernise the provision of early childhood services in the EU28. 

Enabling access to ECEC continues to also be a priority at Member State level, with 
some Member States increasing the number of places, launching subsidies or benefits 
for  ECEC  places  for  all  or  disadvantaged  children,  and  in  some  countries,  moving 
towards  mandatory  ECEC.  The  quality  of  ECEC  provision  was  also  the  subject  of 
initiatives  in  some  countries,  including  measures  to  support  information-sharing  in 
Denmark and Greece, funding commitments to improve the quality of ECEC provision 
in  Romania  and  Germany,  and  initiatives  to  develop  the  professional  qualifications  of 
ECEC professionals in Austria and Finland. 

In  addition,  Member  States  have  announced  different  types  of  support  measures  to 
promote  child  well-being  through  positive  parenting.  These  include  the 
establishment in Germany of the Federal Foundation for Early Childhood Intervention; 
and  the  introduction  in  Malta  of  a  National  Strategic  Policy  for  Positive  Parenting 
(2016-2024);  and  the  launch  of  information  platforms  for  parents,  including  a  free 
telephone helpline in the UK and an online portal in Sweden. 

Various  actions  relating  to  promoting  family-based  care  have  also  been  advanced 
in recent years by Member States with high numbers of children in institutional care, 
including  the  introduction  of  deinstitutionalisation  strategies  and  policies,  and 
initiatives  to  promote  foster  care  (including  both  financial  support  and  awareness 
campaigns). 

Children’s right to participate 

The  third  pillar  of  the  Recommendation  focuses  on  children’s  right  to  participate  in 
different  spheres,  including  participation  in  play,  recreation,  cultural  and  sport 
activities;  the  right  for  children’s  views  to  be  heard  in  justice  proceedings,  and 
participation in policy and service planning in a way that is adapted to their age. 

While  Member  States  have  implemented  various  initiatives  to  encourage  child 
participation  in  public  decision-making  including  children’s  parliaments,  councils  and 
surveys, children’s participation has been more limited at European level. However, a 
prominent action in this sphere is the Bucharest Declaration, agreed at a Children’s 
Summit in May 2019 under the auspices of the Romanian Presidency of the Council of 
the European Union. The Declaration, co-drafted by children, is a political commitment 
which  calls  for  mechanisms  to  ensure  child  participation  in  decisions  that  affect  their 
lives.  

Recent months have also brought progress with the development and implementation 
of the Child Participation Assessment Tool. The tool, developed by the Council of 
Europe 
for  children’s  participation, 
representation  and  empowerment,  and  to  help  measure  how  well  children’s  right  to 
participate  is  protected  in  Europe.  The  tool  has  been  tested  in  several  EU  countries 
and is currently being implemented across other EU Member States.  

to  create  opportunities 

in  2016,  aims 

Meanwhile,  a  renewed  EU  2019-2027  Youth  Strategy  was  approved  by  the  EU 
Council,  with  an  objective  to  empower  and  connect  young  people  and  foster  their 
engagement in civic and democratic life.  

9 

 
 
 
 
Trends in child and family policy in the EU 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 

Background and objectives 

Recent months have brought a number of important legislative and policy changes in 
the area of child and family policy in the EU28. These developments have been guided 
by  the  2013  European  Commission  Recommendation  ‘Investing  in  Children:  Breaking 
the Cycle of Disadvantage’1 and by relevant principles of the European Pillar of Social 
Rights.2 

Box 1 Three key pillars of the European Commission’s Recommendation 
‘Investing in Children: Breaking the Cycle of Disadvantage’ 

1.  Access to adequate resources 

  Support parents’ participation in the labour market 
  Provide for adequate living standards through a combination of benefits 
2.  Access to affordable quality services  

  Reduce inequality at a young age by investing in early childhood education and 

 
 

care 
Improve education systems’ impact on equal opportunities 
Improve the responsiveness of health systems to address the needs of 
disadvantaged children 

  Provide children with a safe, adequate housing and living environment 
  Enhance family support and the quality of alternative care settings 
3.  Children’s right to participate 
  Support the participation of all children in play, recreation, sport and cultural 

activities 

  Put in place mechanisms that promote children’s participation in decision-

making that affects their lives 

This  second  annual  thematic  report,  drafted  as  part  of  the  European  Platform  for 
in  Children  (EPIC)3  project,  outlines  and  summarises  new  policy 
Investing 
developments  and  report  on  progress  with  activities  initiated  in  previous  years.  The 
information used in this report comes from the EPIC national profiles.4 

Thematic coverage 

This  document  covers  themes  related  to  the  pillars  of  the  Recommendation  and 
principles  of  the  European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights,  focusing  on  EU-level  developments 
and  on  responses  at  the  national  level.  It  reports  on  common  themes,  trends  and 
changes  relevant  in  a  number  of  EU  Member  States.  First,  it  covers  key  aspects 
related  to  all  children  and  policies  addressing  the  socio-economic  disadvantage  (e.g. 
provision of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) services, leave provisions for 
parents).  Second,  it  gives  particular  attention  to  the  situation  of  vulnerable  children 
(e.g. migrant children, children with disabilities, children residing in institutions).  

Report structure 

Each  chapter  is  structured  in  a  similar  way.  Each  chapter  first  provides  background 
information about policy area and developments at the EU level. This is followed by a 
short overview of key policy challenges and how these are being addressed at the EU 
Member  States  level.  A  final  conclusion  summarises  the  main  findings  and  outlines 
remaining challenges and potential next steps.  

11 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER  2:  EU-LEVEL  ACTION:  PROGRESS  ON  THE  EUROPEAN  PILLAR  OF 
SOCIAL RIGHTS AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN CHILD AND FAMILY POLICY 

This chapter provides an overview of progress and recent initiatives relating to the well-
being of children and their families at EU level. 

European Pillar of Social Rights 

The  European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights  aims  to  modernise  the  EU  legal  framework  to  give 
effective  social  rights  to  EU  citizens.  Following  a  public  consultation  and  a 
Recommendation  by  the  European  Commission  (EC),  it  was  officially  proclaimed  by  the 
Commission,  Parliament  and  Council  at  the  Gothenburg  Social  Summit  in  November 
2017. The Pillar sets out 20 key principles essential to achieving fair and well-functioning 
labour markets and welfare systems across the EU. The principles are structured around 
the following three categories: 

‐  Equal opportunities and access to the labour market 
‐ 
‐  Social protection and inclusion 

Fair working conditions 

Among the principles, some are directly relevant to child and family policy. These include 
the  right  to  quality  and  inclusive  education  (Principle  1),  work-life  balance 
(Principle  9)  and  the  right  to  affordable  quality  early  childhood  education  and 
care (ECEC) (Principle 11). 

The Pillar’s social scoreboard records progress by thematic area, by country and by year.5 
Moreover, on the first anniversary of the Pillar, the EC published a factsheet summarising 
EU-level  initiatives,  achieved  or  in  progress,  related  to  each  principle  since  its 
implementation.6  

Table  1  EU-level  initiatives  related  to  principles  of  the  Pillar  relevant  for  child 
and family policies 
Principles 

EU-level initiatives 

Status 

1.  Quality  and 
education 

inclusive 

9. Work-life balance 

11.  Childcare  and  support 
to children 

  Skills agenda for Europe 
  European Solidarity Corps 
  European Education Area 
  European Social Fund + 
  Erasmus + 
  Directive on Work-Life 

Balance 

In progress 

 
  Achieved 
 
 
  Achieved 
  Achieved 

In progress 
In progress 

  Directive on Work-Life 

  Achieved 

Balance 

  Common framework for 

 

In progress 

high-quality early 
childhood education and 
care (ECEC)  

  Preparatory Action on a 

 

In progress 

Child Guarantee 
Source: European Commission, One year: European Pillar of Social Rights, 2018. Retrieved 10 June 
2019 from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-
political/files/european_pillar_one_year_on.pdf.  

Work-life balance 

A  key  deliverable  of  the  Pillar  is  to  achieve  better  work-life  balance  for  EU  citizens  by 
providing  mechanisms  for  balancing  professional  and  family  responsibilities  and  for 
encouraging  equal  sharing  of  caring  responsibilities  between  genders.  As  of  January 
2019,  caring  responsibilities  are  still  a  barrier  for  many  women  to  entering  the  labour 

13 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
market,  with  the  overall  employment  rate  of  women  11.5  percentage  points  lower  than 
that of men.7 

In  2017,  the  EC  proposed  the  Directive  on  Work-Life  Balance  for Parents  and Carers  as 
part of the Pillar.8 In January 2019, following five months of negotiations, the Parliament 
and the Council reached a provisional agreement on the details of the Directive, 9 and the 
European  Parliament  backed  it  on  4  April  2019.10  It  is  the  first  legislative  proposal  to 
follow  the  implementation  of  the  Pillar.The  Directive  set  several  minimum  standards  for 
EU Member States, as detailed in the table below. 

Table  2  New  minimum  standards  set  by  the  agreed  Directive  on  Work-Life 
Balance 

Paternity 
leave 

Parental 
leave 

Current EU law 
  No minimum standard for 
paternity  leave  across  EU 
Member States 

  Minimum of 4 months per 
transferable 

parent, 
between parents 

  No  rule  on  allowance  or 

payment of leave 

Agreed Directive 
  Minimum  of  10  days  of  paid 

paternity leave 

  Payment at sick-leave level 
  Minimum  of  4  months  per  parent, 
including 2 months which are non-
transferable between parents 

  The  2  months  of  non-transferable 
leave  are  to  be  compensated  at  a 
level set by Member States  

  Leave  can  be  flexible  (full-time, 
fragmented 

or 

in 

part-time 
periods) 

Carer’s leave 

Flexible 
working 
arrangements 

  No minimum standard for 
carers’  leave  (except  so-
called 
force  majeure, 
which allows a short time 
of  leave  for  unexpected 
family reasons) 

returning 

  Parents 

from 
parental  leave  have  the 
right  to  request  reduced 
and flexible working hours 
  All workers  have the right 
to request part-time work 

  Minimum of 5 days of carers’ leave 

per employee per year 

  Right  for  all  working  parents  of 
children  up  to  at  least  eight  years 
old  and  for  all  carers  to  request 
arrangements 
flexible  working 
(reduced  or  flexible  working  hours 
and  flexibility  on  the  place  of 
work) 

Source:  European  Commission,  A  new  start  to  support  work-life  balance  for  parents  and  carers, 
2019. 
from 
https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=17583&langId=en 

Retrieved 

2019 

June 

10 

Steps towards a child guarantee 

It is estimated that, as of 2017, a quarter of children in the EU are at risk of poverty or 
social  exclusion.11  Current  efforts  to  establish  a  Child  Guarantee  at  EU  level  aim  to 
ensure that every child in every EU Member State has access to critical services, such as 
healthcare, education, ECEC, decent housing and adequate nutrition.12 

Figure  1  Share  of  children  below  18  years  old  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social 
exclusion, EU28, 2017 

14 

 
 
 
 
 
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Source:  Eurostat,  People  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social  exclusion  by  age  and  sex  (online  data  code: 
ilc_peps010).13 

In  2015,  the  European  Parliament  (EP)  called  for  Member  States  to  introduce  a  Child 
Guarantee.  This  proposal  followed  the  2014  implementation  of  the  Youth  Guarantee,  a 
commitment  by  Member  States  to  provide  all  young  people  under  the  age  of  25  with  a 
good-quality offer of employment or continuing education within four months of entering 
the labour market.14 As currently envisaged, a Child Guarantee would aim to tackle child 
poverty and social exclusion by encouraging countries to invest in services and initiatives 
to support positive child development and well-being. 

In  October  2018,  the  EC  launched  a  feasibility  study  on  the  Child  Guarantee  proposal. 
The  study  aims  to  assess  the  feasibility,  implementation  options  and  added  value  of  a 
Child  Guarantee,  focusing  on  four  specific  groups  of  vulnerable  or  disadvantaged 
children:  children  residing  in  institutions,  children  with  disabilities  and  special  needs, 
children  of  recent  migrants  and  refugees,  and  children  living  in  precarious  family 
situations.15 Based on an online consultation, which closed in February 2019, and a series 
of  stakeholder  workshops  planned  for  September  and  October  2019,  the  study  will 
develop recommendations for the implementation of a Child Guarantee.16 

Additionally,  in  January  2019,  the  EP  voted  a  draft  regulation  on  the  European  Social 
Fund Plus (ESF+) for the period 2021-2027. It stipulates that Member States will have to 
allocate  at  least  5%  of  ESF+  resources  to  the  envisaged  European  Child  Guarantee 
scheme.17 It is now up to the European Council to support these regulations in the future 
EU budget. 

EU Youth Strategy  

In January 2019, the EU Youth Strategy for the period 2019-2027 came into force. It is 
the  result  of  a  dialogue  process  which  took  place  in  2017  and  2018 and which  involved 
young people from all EU Member States. This dialogue served to identify 11 goals for EU 
youth policy:18 

1.  Connecting EU with Youth 
2.  Equality of All Genders 
3.  Inclusive Societies 
4.  Information & Constructive Dialogue 
5.  Mental Health & Wellbeing 
6.  Moving Rural Youth Forward 
7.  Quality Employment for All 

15 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
8.  Quality Learning 
9.  Space and Participation for All 
10. Sustainable Green Europe 
11. Youth Organisations & European Programme 

Approved by the Council of the EU in November 2018, the new strategy focuses on three 
areas  of  action:  Engage,  Connect  and  Empower.  The  strategy  aims  to  foster  young 
people’s participation in democratic life; to connect young people across Europe through 
voluntary engagement, learning mobility and intercultural understanding; and to support 
youth  empowerment.19  The  strategy  will  develop  a  cross-sectoral  approach  to  address 
the needs of young people in various policy areas, including the establishment of a new 
EU Youth Coordinator.  

In sum 

Since  the  proclamation  of  the  European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights  in  2017,  the  European 
Union  has  launched  a  number  of  initiatives  in  order  to  support  and  encourage  Member 
States  in  strengthening  social  rights  for  European  citizens,  and  in  particular  the  well-
being of children and families.  

The Directive on Work-Life Balance, agreed on in April 2019, the first legislative proposal 
since the implementation of the Pillar, shows how EU-level action can provide minimum 
standards  for  supporting  parents  in  the  labour  market.  Similarly,  current  steps  towards 
the  development  of  a  Child  Guarantee  could  ensure  access  to  critical  services  for  all 
children across the EU. Finally, the EU Youth Strategy for the period 2019-2017 resulted 
from  direct  dialogue  with  young  people  across  Member  States  and  shows  the  EU’s 
commitment to encourage further participation and inclusion of young people in decision-
making. 

16 

 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 3: CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING 

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) was published in 198920 and has 
been  ratified  in  all  European  Union  (EU)  countries.21  In  recent  years,  there  has  been  a 
renewed emphasis on actively examining progress with regards to the advancements of 
the implementation of the Convention.  

Box 2 The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child 
Four core principles: 
-  Non-discrimination 
-  Devotion to the best interests of the child 
-  The right to life, survival and development 
-  Respect for the views of the child 
Source: Unicef, ‘About the Convention’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
https://www.unicef.org/rightsite/237_202.htm. 

In  order  to  ensure  that  children’s  rights  are  upheld,  the  Council  of  Europe’s  1996 
European  Strategy  for  Children  included  a  proposal  that  each  Member  State  appoint  a 
commissioner,  ombudsperson,  or  similarly  functioning  institution  with  the  independence 
and  resources  to  monitor  and  advise  policymakers  on  the  extent  to  which  their  political 
and  legislative  decisions  adhere  to  the  aims  set  out  in  the  UNCRC.22  The  majority  of  EU 
Member  States  have  established  an  ombudsperson  or  commissioner  to  focus  exclusively 
on  children’s  rights,  with  Romania  becoming  the  most  recent  addition,  following  the 
establishment  of  a  dedicated  Children’s  Advocate  in  2018.23,24  In  that  same  year,  the 
Czech  Republic’s  Committee  for  the  Rights  of  Children  also  began  discussing  the 
introduction of its own ombudsperson for children.25 

Box 3 What is a children’s ombudsperson? 
A  children’s  ombudsperson,  also  sometimes  referred  to  as  a  children’s  or  youth’s 
commissioner,  is  an  authority  responsible  for  protecting  and  promoting  the  rights  of 
children and young people. 
Although  the  role  of  ombudspersons  will  vary  from  country  to  country,  their  functions 
generally include: 
-  Monitoring, collecting and publishing data on children’s health, economic and social 

conditions 

-  Receiving, responding to, and (where possible) resolving complaints from individual 

children or their representatives  

-  Influencing law, policy and practice to reflect the best interests of children 
In order to achieve their aims successfully, ombudspersons must: 
-  Be independent of the national government, but in close enough contact to monitor 

and influence government activities 

-  Have sufficient autonomy to set their own priorities, processes and overall agenda 
-  Have the right to publish their research and opinions without censorship 
Sources:  European  Network  of  Ombudspersons 
‘Organization  of  ENOC’, 
http://enoc.eu/?page_id=8; United Nations, National human rights institutions: a handbook on the 
establishment and strengthening of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human 
rights, 
1995, 
for 
https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/training4en.pdf. 

for  Children, 

Geneva, 

Human 

Rights, 

Centre 

In  addition  to  establishing  offices  of  a  children’s  ombudsperson,  many  Member  States 
have also undertaken additional legislative and policy actions to strengthen the provision 
of children’s rights in their countries. For example, in 2016, the German Children’s Fund 
began implementing the Council  of Europe’s 2016-2021 Sofia Strategy for the Rights of 
the Child on a national level, including campaigning for the interests of children in politics 
and raising awareness of children’s rights among schools, child and youth services, local 
authorities  and  the  general  public.26  In  2018,  the  Scottish  government  launched  a 
national action plan for progressing children’s rights from 2018 to 2021, including plans 
to  deliver  a  three-year  awareness  programme  on  children’s  rights  and  to  explore 
approaches to the integration of a rights-based perspective on child welfare into Scottish 

17 

 
 
 
 
 
 
law.27  Similarly,  in  2018,  the  Swedish  government  committed  to  enshrining  the  UN 
Convention  on  the  Rights  of  the  Child  in  national  law,  making  the  document  legally 
binding from 2020 onwards.28 

In  addition,  the  German  federal  government  intends  to  explicitly  recognise  children’s 
rights in the constitution. To this end, a joint working group composed of representatives 
of  the  federal  government  and  of  the  state  (Länder)  governments  has  been  tasked  to 
work  out  a  proposal  for  an  amendment  of  the  constitution  by  the  end  of  2019  at  the 
latest.  

More  information  on  how  a  children’s  rights  perspective  is  embedded  in  policy  and 
decision-making is included in the EPIC policy memo on this subject.29  

In focus: EU-level efforts to support children’s right to participation 

A major focus in the area of children’s rights has been the fundamental right of children 
to  participate  in  politics,  with  many  recent  developments  occurring  at  the  EU  level.  As 
reported in Chapter 2, in 2018, the EU 2019-2027 Youth Strategy was approved by the 
EU  Council  to  establish  a  cross-policy  and  multi-sectoral  approach  to  meeting  young 
people’s  needs.30  Furthermore,  International  Day  of  the  Girl  Child  (October  11)  saw  a 
variety  of  efforts  to  inspire  young  girls’  interest  in  politics  and  raise  awareness  of 
women’s roles in political decision-making, including the invitation of teenage girls to an 
event  hosted  by  MEPs  at  the  European  Parliament  and  the  launch  of  the  #Girl2Leader 
Campaign  by  the  Women  Political  Leaders  Global  Forum.31  Similarly,  the  European 
Parliament  marked  World  Children’s  Day  (November  20)  by  inviting  40  children  and 
young  people  to  meet  and  engage  in  discussions  with  political  decision-makers, 
particularly regarding the results of the Europe Kids Want survey.32 

2018 also saw progress in the Council of Europe development and implementation of the 
Child Participation Assessment Tool (CPAT).33 Following successful piloting of the CPAT in 
Estonia, Ireland and Romania throughout 2016 to 2017, the finalised version of the tool 
was applied in Bulgaria, Italy and Latvia from 2017 to 2018.34  

Box 4 What is the Child Participation Assessment Tool? 
The Child Participation Assessment Tool (CPAT) was developed by the Council of Europe 
in order to help Member States meet the goals set out in 2012 by the Recommendation 
on Participation of Children and Young People under the Age of 18.35 The goals included: 
-  Protecting children’s right to participation through constitutional, legislative and 

regulatory mechanisms 

-  Raising awareness of children’s rights to participation among policymakers, service 

providers and the general public 

-  Creating opportunities for child participation through intergenerational dialogue, 

media platforms and contact with political institutions 

The main function of the CPAT is to enable Member States to:  
-  Determine how well they are adhering to the Recommendation at baseline 
-  Identify measures needed for states to better comply with the Recommendation 
-  Monitor progress on an ongoing basis 
Source:  Council  of  Europe,  ‘Child  Participation  Assessment  Tool‘  (n.d.).  Retrieved  10  June  2019 
from https://www.coe.int/en/web/children/child-participation-assessment-tool 

Children’s  right  to  participate  is  also  a  prominent  on  the  EU  policy  agenda  during  the 
Romanian  Presidency  of  the  EU,  in  the  first  half  of  2019.  The  Bucharest  Children’s 
Declaration, co-developed and co-drafted by children, was agreed at a Children’s Summit 
in May 2019.36 The Declaration includes calls for a ‘clear roadmap’ for implementing the 
UNCRC, the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and EU recommendations related to child 
participation;  for  provision  of  training  for  children  and  adults  about  children’s  right  to 
participate and the establishment of EU-level mechanisms for children to participate; and 
for the use of these mechanisms and fora to inform children about policies affecting their 
right.37 

18 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In  focus:  Member  State  initiatives  to  support  children’s  right  to 
participation 

In some Member States, mechanisms to facilitate children’s active participation in politics 
are  well  established.  The  Cyprus  Children’s  Parliament,  for  example,  has  been  a  year-
round standing body since 2001 and provides children with opportunities to deliberate on 
decisions  which  concern  them.  It  comprises  80  voting  members  and  four  observer 
members,  the  composition  of  which  is  regulated  by  quotas  to  ensure  adequate 
representation of the nation’s different ethnic groups.38 In Ireland, ‘youth councils’ called 
Comhairle  na  nÓg’  have  been  operating  in  31  regions  since  2002,  in  order  to  enable 
young people to influence changes in their local areas.39 Furthermore, although there are 
no  permanently  active  youth  parliaments  in  Estonia,  the  government  holds  an  annual 
Youth  Forum  called  ‘101  Children  at  Toompea’,  during  which  children  are  invited  to  the 
Estonian parliament to express their views and participate in decision-making.40 

While  these  mechanisms  have  long  been  in  place  in  Cyprus,  Bulgaria,  and  Estonia, 
various  initiatives  by  Member  States  across  the  EU  have  indicated  that  attention  to 
children’s participation is spreading. In Croatia, for example, the government announced 
in  2018  that  local  and  regional  representatives  would  soon  begin  to  receive  training  to 
enable  representatives  to  better  support  the  youth  councils  under  their  supervision  and 
more effectively encourage young people’s involvement in politics and society.41 In Malta, 
in  January  of  2019,  children  were  invited  to  a  roundtable  organised  by  the  President’s 
Foundation for the Wellbeing of Society, where they were given the opportunity to meet 
candidates  standing  for  election  in  the  European  Parliament  and  discuss  topics  of  their 
choice.42 

In Ireland, a National Strategy on Children and Young People’s Participation in Decision-
Making is currently in place for the period 2015-2020 and has led to the establishment of 
a  participation  hub  titled  Hub  na  Nóg  to  centralise  and  provide  central  support  for 
different participation-related activities by local authorities.43 Meanwhile, in Scotland, the 
cabinet  meetings  have  been  held  with  children  and  young  people  on  an  annual  basis 
since 2017 to provide children with the opportunity to share their views and experiences 
with Scottish ministers.44 Furthermore, 2018 was designated the Year of Young People in 
Scotland.  It  encompassed  events  organised  both  by  young  people  and  by  their 
representative  organisations.45  The  2018-2021  Action  Plan  for  progressing  Children’s 
Rights  in  Scotland  also  places  a  strong  focus  on  children’s  participation  and  includes 
plans to develop a framework for the participation of children and young people.46 

In sum  

The UNCRC sets directions for the development, implementation and adoption of EU- and 
Member State-level initiatives to ensure protection of children’s rights. To date, most of 
the  EU  countries  have  appointed  an  authority  responsible  for  protecting  and  promoting 
the rights of children and young people, and they have undertaken additional legislative 
and  policy  actions  to  strengthen  the  provision  of  children’s  rights.  Several  of  these 
initiatives include efforts to support children’s right to participate, e.g. development and 
implementation of the Child Participation Assessment Tool and establishment of children’s 
parliaments  and/or  children’s  and  youth  councils.  However,  there  is  still  a  considerable 
diversity in activities undertaken at the level of the national Member State. As the impact 
of  these  initiatives  has  not  been  assessed  yet,  there  is  also  uncertainty  about  the 
effectiveness of these actions. 

19 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 4 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE (ECEC) PROVISION 

Many  European  countries  continue  to  invest  in  accessible,  affordable  and  high-quality 
early childhood education and care (ECEC) provision. This investment is motivated by the 
well-known  benefits  of  ECEC  services  for  children,  their  parents  and  society  at  large. 
Participation in ECEC has positive impact on the cognitive, physical and socio-emotional 
development  of  children;  their  educational  and  labour  market  outcomes;  and  parental 
employment (in particular women’s employment).47  

Most  of  the  efforts  undertaken  at  the  European  and  national  levels  are  still  focused  on 
increasing  access  to  services  and  making  services  more  available  by  creating  additional 
childcare  places.  However,  over  recent  years  there  has  been  a  gradual  shift  in  policy 
discussions  and  more  focus  on  issues  related  to  the  quality  of  care  provision.  The 
development  of  a  Proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  High  Quality  Early 
Childhood Education and Care Systems in 2018, and the adoption of this Proposal by the 
Education, Youth, Culture and Sport Council in May 2019, has put childcare quality firmly 
on the EU- and national level agendas.48 The following sections of this chapter focus on 
assessing progress in the provision of ECEC services across EU Member States.  

Assessing progress against Barcelona targets 

At the Barcelona Summit in 2002, the European Council set childcare provision targets to 
ensure that at least 33 % of children under age 3 and at least 90 % of children between 
age  3  and  the  mandatory  school  starting  age  have  access  to  formal  ECEC  services  by 
2010. Despite progress made, there are still considerable differences among EU Member 
States in the extent of participation of children in formal ECEC. 

On  average,  34.2  %  of  under-3-year-olds  were  enrolled  in  childcare  in  the  EU  in  2017 
according  to  Eurostat  data.  However,  there  are  considerable  differences  in  enrolment 
among Member States, varying between 71.7 % in Denmark, 61.6 % in the Netherlands 
and  60.8 %  in  Luxembourg,  to  only  9.4 %  in  Bulgaria,  6.5 %  in  Czechia  and  less  than 
1 % in Slovakia. Comparison of the 2008 and 2016 full-time attendance data shows that 
participation  rates  increased  in  most  Member  States.  Yet,  there  are  still  countries  that 
need to invest more in ECEC provision to reach the Barcelona targets. 

As for children age 3 and above, 84.8% had access to ECEC services in 2017. However, 
access to childcare for this age group is still less than the agreed Barcelona target of 90 
% in 15 EU Member States.  

Figure  2  and  Figure  3 show  the  percentage  of  formal  ECEC  in  all  EU  Member  States  for 
children up to age 3 and children age 3 until mandatory school age, respectively. 

21 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure  2  Percentage  of  children  up  to  age  3  in  full-time  or  part-time  formal 
childcare arrangements, EU28, 2008 and 2017 

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Source:  Eurostat,  Children  in  formal  childcare  or  education  by  age  group  and  duration  EU-SILC 
survey (online data code: [ilc_caindformal]).49  
Note:  No  2008  data  are  available  for  EU28,  Croatia  and  Slovakia,  so  2009  data  were  used  for 
Slovakia and 2010 data were used for EU28 and Croatia instead. 

22 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3 Percentage of children from age 3 to mandatory school age in full-time 
and part-time formal childcare arrangements, EU28, 2008 and 2017 

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Source:  Eurostat,  Children  in  formal  childcare  or  education  by  age  group  and  duration  EU-SILC 
survey (online data code: [ilc_caindformal]).50 
Note: No 2008 data are available for EU28 and Croatia, so 2010 data were used instead. 

Expanding the number of ECEC places 

A  number  of  Member  States  have  made  legislative  changes  to  increase  the  volume  of 
childcare  provision  offered  to  families.  In  2018,  the  Austrian  government  announced 
plans to invest €552.5 million towards the expansion of childcare places over the period 
2018-2021.51 New legislation was also passed in Hungary obligating local governments to 
provide childcare in any settlement where there are more than 40 children under the age 
of  3,  whereas  previously,  childcare  only  needed  to  be  provided  in  settlements  with  at 
least  10 000  inhabitants.52  Furthermore,  the  president  of  Romania  initiated  the  national 
project  Educated  Romania,  which  runs  2018-2030  and  includes  goals  to  achieve  30 % 
enrolment  of  children  aged  0-3  in  childcare  by  2030  and  95 %  enrolment  of  children 
aged 3-5 in preschool by 2025.53 

Recent  EU-wide  developments  indicate  that  the  move  to  create  more  ECEC  places  is 
ongoing.  France,  for  example,  is  currently  working  to  create  30 000  additional  ECEC 
‘priority 
places  by  2022,  some  of  which  are  concentrated 
neighbourhoods’ and targeted at disabled or socioeconomically disadvantaged children.54 
Meanwhile,  Estonia  is  applying  to  secure  2.5  million  from  the  European  Social  Fund  to 
create  new  ECEC  places,  with  express  priority  for  children  with  disabilities  and  children 
whose parents work outside of standard business hours.55 

in  underserviced 

Sharing information about ECEC places  

Some Member States have sought to improve ECEC provision by developing knowledge-
sharing platforms. In 2018, Denmark’s Ministry of Education created a new online portal 

23 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
with  records  on  approximately  two  thirds  of  the  country’s  ECEC  centres,  thus  providing 
parents  with  up-to-date  and  easily  accessed  information  about  the  centres’  opening 
hours,  staffing,  languages  and  pedagogical  practices.56  In  December  of  that  same  year, 
Greece  launched  an  online  platform  to  collate  information  on  educational  initiatives, 
programmes  and  interventions  implemented  by  the  government  over  the  past  three 
years.57,58 

Making ECEC more affordable 

In  recent  years,  some  Member  States  have  begun  to  prioritise  the  subsidisation  of 
existing  ECEC  places.  In  2018,  the  Walloon  community  of  Belgium  prohibited  schools 
from  charging  parents  unauthorised  fees  and  committed  additional  funding  to  enable 
schools  to  meet  the  costs  that  would  ordinarily  fall  upon  parents.59  In  the  Netherlands, 
the  free  early  education  entitlement  of  disadvantaged  children  was  increased  from  10 
hours per week in 2018 to 16 hours per week in 2019.60 In 2018, the Irish government 
announced  plans  to  expand  the  eligibility  criteria  for  its  free  preschool  scheme,  so  that 
more children are able to benefit from the 15 hours of free preschool education it offers 
to  current  beneficiaries  per  week.61  Furthermore,  both  Scotland62  and  Wales63  have 
announced that they will follow England’s 2017 decision64 to increase the free preschool 
entitlement of eligible children from 15 to 30 hours per week, and are currently trialling 
pilot programmes to inform future implementation. 

A  number  of  Member  States  have  also  committed  to  abolishing  ECEC  fees  for  some 
parents  altogether.  In  Estonia,  the  passing  of  the  Bill  on  the  Amendments  to  the 
Preschool  Child  Care  Institutions  Act  in  December  2018  effectively  guaranteed  close-to-
home,  free-of-charge  nursery  places  to  all  children  in  Estonia.65  In  Germany,  the  Good 
Daycare Facilities Act became effective in January 2019, mandating the reduction of fees 
for low-income parents and the abolition of fees for parents who are eligible for specific 
benefits.66 

In  the  Czech  Republic,  recent  initiatives  have  centred  less  upon  reducing  childcare  fees 
and  more  upon  creating  affordable  childcare  alternatives.  Low-cost  childcare  centres 
called  ‘children’s  groups’,  which  offer  less  structured  education  and  are  prohibited  from 
charging fees that exceed their operating costs, were introduced in 2014.67 

Additionally, in Slovenia, the Kindergarten Act (2008) and the Exercise of Rights to Public 
Funds  Act  (2012)  grants  payments  to  parents  with  two  or  more  children  enrolled  in 
preschool education in order to improve access to ECEC. Parents only pay 30 % for the 
second child and no fee for younger siblings. The fee amount is determined according to 
the  parents’  income  levels.  Municipalities  can  also  further  reduce  the  fees,  according  to 
their policies in this area.68  

Making ECEC mandatory 

Across  the  European  Union,  there  has  been  a  trend  towards  the  introduction  of 
compulsory  preschool  attendance.  Hungary  is  unique  among  Member  States,  as  since 
2012  preschool  attendance  for  a  minimum  of  4  hours  per  day  has  been  compulsory  for 
children from the age of 3.69 However, preschool attendance during the final year before 
primary  school  has  been  compulsory  in  certain  Member  States  (including  Cyprus70  and 
Croatia71) for several years, and this policy was also adopted by Lithuania72 and Poland73 
in  2016,  the  Czech  Republic  in  2017,74  and  Sweden  in  2018.75  In  Greece,  preschool 
attendance for two years before primary school was made compulsory in 2017.76  

Improving ECEC quality 

As  research  has  linked  the  extent  to  which  ECEC  exposure  improves  child  outcomes  to 
the  quality  of  the  services  delivered  (for  a  review  of  evidence,  see  Janta  et  al.  201677) 
ECEC quality standards have also become a priority among Member States. The President 
of Romania’s Educated Romania project  includes plans both to develop a framework for 
regulating  the  quality  of  ECEC  provision  and  to  ensure  its  implementation  by  2030.78 

24 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Germany’s  Good  Daycare  Facilities  Act  (usually  shortened  to  Gute-KiTa-Gesetz) 
committed €5.5 billion towards the improvement of ECEC quality from 2019 to 2022.79 

Some  Member  States  have  focused  on  the  role  of  ECEC  professionals  in  ensuring  the 
provision of high-quality services. In 2018, Austrian universities introduced new Bachelor 
programmes  in  Early  Education  and  Care,  aimed  at  qualifying  preschool  and  nursery 
educators  to  lead  their  own  ECEC  institutes.80  In  Finland  in  the  same  year,  a  new  law 
raised  the  minimum  qualifications  required  for  staff  to  be  employed  at  an  ECEC  centre, 
with the ultimate aim of emphasising child rights in the ECEC system.81 

Some Member States have sought to ensure high-quality ECEC provision through mainly 
pedagogical  approaches.  Luxembourg,  for  example,  introduced  a  multilingual  education 
programme  to  preschools  in  2017,  with  the  aim  of  promoting  proficiency  in  three 
languages (Luxembourgish, French, and the language spoken at home) for children aged 
1  to  4.82  Meanwhile,  Belgium  is  piloting  a  new  personal  learning-support  system  across 
85  French-speaking  primary  schools,  with  the  aim  of  informing  the  roll-out  of 
personalised  learning  support  to  all  French-speaking  primary  and  secondary  schools  in 
Belgium by the start of the 2020 school year.83  

In sum 

Overall,  the  availability  and  use  of  the  formal  childcare  provision  has  increased  across 
Member  States  over  the  past  decade.  This  increase  resulted  from  a  combination  of 
several factors, such as continuing investment towards the expansion of childcare places, 
wider  information  sharing  about  available  provision,  making  accessing  ECEC  provision 
more affordable, and making participation in the ECEC provision mandatory. There have 
been  also  improvements  in  the  quality  of  the  services  delivered,  in  line  with  recent 
legislative and policy actions at the EU and national levels. 

However, despite progress made, many children still face difficulties in accessing and/or 
affording high-quality provision. This calls for more efforts at the EU and national levels 
to  ensure  that  all  children  can  benefit  from services  that  can  have  enduring  impacts  on 
their development and the work-balance of their parents. 

25 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 5 MATERNITY, PATERNITY AND PARENTAL LEAVE PROVISION 

Research  demonstrates  that  early  infancy  is  a  formative  and  critical  period  for  child 
development  and  that  adequate  access  to  maternity  and  paternity  leave  following  the 
birth  of  a  child  yields  a  range  of  positive  outcomes  for  parents  and  for  children.  Recent 
research  concerning  the  best  ways  to  support  parents  through  maternity,  paternity  and 
parental  leave  provision  has  shown,  for  example,  that  prolonged  periods  of  maternity 
leave  can  have  a  detrimental  impact  on  mothers’  career  progression  and  labour  force 
participation.84 Recent research has also show that, while the presence of fathers in early 
infancy has been found to benefit children in a range of ways, fathers’ uptake of available 
parental leave remains uneven.85 

Box 5 Definitions of leave entitlements for parents of young children 
Maternity  leave  is  usually  understood  as  a  health  and  welfare  measure  taken  just 
before, during and immediately after childbirth. 
Paternity leave is a short period of leave available to fathers, usually immediately after 
the birth of a child.  
Parental leave is a period of leave to care for children in their first years of life. 
Sources: Janta, B., Stewart, K., Paternity and parental leave policies across the European Union: 
assessment of current provision, Policy memo for the European Platform for Investing in Children, 
2018.  Retrieved  10  June  2019 
from  https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/a8464ad8-9abf-11e8-a408-01aa75ed71a1/language-en  

European-level policy measures to support working parents and carers  

In  2017,  the  Directive  on  Work-Life  Balance  for  Parents  and  Carers86  was  proposed  by 
the European Commission as part of the European Pillar on Social Rights, with the aim of 
ensuring  that  maternity,  paternity  and  parental  leave  policies  are  developed  for  the 
benefit of citizens across the EU. The European Parliament and European Council reached 
a  provisional  agreement  on  the  details  of  the  Directive  in  early  2019,  which  includes 
setting  a  minimum  standard  of  10  days  of  paid  paternity  leave,  providing  2  months  of 
non-transferable parental leave for each parent, and entitling carers to 5 days of carer’s 
leave  per  year.87  This  EU-level  initiative  coincided  with  a  range  of  Member  State 
initiatives to expand and improve leave provision for parents and carers. 

Table 3 Summary of results of research on the benefits of leave provisions 
Children 

Active  participation  of  both  parents  in  children’s  lives  from  birth  has 
positive and long-lasting benefits for child development. 
Involvement  of  both  parents  in  caring  responsibilities  leads  to  improved 
gender  equality  in  the  labour  market  as  flexibility  becomes  a  workplace 
imperative.  

Parents 

Employers  Despite  the  cost  to  employers,  paid  leave  can  have  positive  impacts  on 
businesses, in that it reduces absenteeism and staff turnover and increases 
morale and productivity.  
Sharing professional and domestic responsibilities has a positive impact on 
work-life balance in families. 

Families  

Source:  Janta,  B.,  Stewart,  K.,  Paternity  and  parental  leave  policies  across  the  European  Union: 
assessment of current provision, Policy memo for the European Platform for Investing in Children, 
2018.  Retrieved  10  June  2019 
from  https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/a8464ad8-9abf-11e8-a408-01aa75ed71a1/language-en 

Expanding Maternity, Paternity and Parental Leave 

For  some  Member  States,  improved  provision  has  involved  expanding  eligibility  for 
existing  leave  provision.  In  2017,  for  example,  paid  paternity  leave  entitlements  were 
extended  to  include  fathers  of  adoptive  children  up  to  age  3  in  Latvia88  and  age  5  in 
Bulgaria.89 In 2018, maternity protection legislation in Germany was extended to include 

27 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
students,  women  in  the  national  voluntary  service  and  women  in  the  development 
cooperation service.90 

Box 6 Barriers to uptake of leave provisions  
The  EPIC  policy  memo  Paternity  and  parental  leave  policies  across  the  European 
Union91 concluded that there are several challenges for the uptake of leave provisions, 
such as: 

  Low compensation levels 
  Lack of flexibility in leave use 
  Eligibility criteria (e.g. employment length) 
  Prolonged periods of leave having negative impacts on parents’ labour market 

situation 

  Cultural norms and perceptions about gender roles 

The new Directive92 aims to address these challenges by giving more flexibility in the 
timing of leave, obliging Member States to financially compensate the periods of leave 
and giving all parents and carers a right to request flexible working arrangements.  
Source:  Janta,  B.,  Stewart,  K.,  Paternity  and  parental  leave  policies  across  the  European  Union: 
assessment of current provision, Policy memo for the European Platform for Investing in Children, 
from  https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
2018.  Retrieved  10  June  2019 
/publication/a8464ad8-9abf-11e8-a408-01aa75ed71a1/language-en; 
Commission, 
‘Work-life balance: Commission welcomes the provisional agreement reached today’. Retrieved 10 
June 2019 from http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_STATEMENT-19-424_en.htm 

European 

Several  Member  States  have  also  opted  to  increase  the  time  and  financial  support  to 
which parents are entitled. In 2017, for example, the Croatian government increased the 
benefit  ceilings  for  both  maternity  and  paternity  leave.93  That  same  year,  the  Belgian 
government  increased  maternity  leave  entitlements  for  self-employed  women94  and  the 
government  of  Luxembourg  reformed  parental  leave  to  enable  salaried  workers  to  care 
for their ill children without loss of pay.95,96 In 2018, the Romanian government fielded a 
legislative proposal to increase the maximum parental leave allowance offered to parents 
who need to start a new parental leave period less than 12 months after the end of their 
previous period of parental leave.97 In January 2019, furthermore, Slovenia increased the 
cap  on  paternity  and  parental  leave  benefits  from  2  to  2.5  times  the  average  national 
salary.98  

In focus: Expanding paternity leave 

Over  the  past  two  years,  several  EU  Member  States  have  made  amendments  to  their 
paternity  leave  entitlements.  For  example,  in  2017,  Luxembourg  extended  paternity 
leave to 10 days for the birth or adoption of a child.99 In Cyprus, also in 2017, statutory 
paternity leave was introduced for the first time through the Protection of Paternity Law, 
which entitles working fathers to 2 weeks of paid leave to care for a newborn child.100 In 
2018, statutory paternity leave was increased from 4 days to 5 days in Italy101 and from 
4  weeks  to  5  weeks  in  Spain.102  In  January  of  2019,  paternity  leave  in  the  Netherlands 
was extended from 2 days to 1 week, and there are plans to extend it to a maximum of 5 
weeks  from  July  of  2020.  The  leave  offers  flexibility,  and  it  needs  to  be  taken  within  6 
months after the birth.103 

These  recent  initiatives  have  been  accompanied  by  discussions  within  other  Member 
States  about  amending  their  own  policies  on  paternity  leave  provision.  In  2018,  for 
example,  a  French  government  audit  suggested  making  paternity  leave  compulsory,  as 
well as extending it to 4 weeks in duration.104 That same year, the Romanian government 
put forward a proposal to increase paternity leave to 7 days for the birth of one child and 
10 days for the birth of multiple children, with the possibility of an extension to 10 days 
for the birth of one child and 15 days for that of multiple children if the father attends a 
childcare course.105 

28 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Making leave more flexible 

Based  on  the  available  research,  in  EPIC  policy  memo106  we  concluded  that  the  lack  of 
flexibility in the conditions (e.g. length, compensation level) of maternity, paternity, and 
parental leave are key explanations for their lack of uptake.107 Some Member States have 
amended their policies to provide parents with more autonomy in deciding when and how 
they use leave. In 2019, Italy granted mothers the flexibility to choose how much of their 
20-week  maternity  leave  entitlement  to  use  before  and  after  birth.108  Meanwhile, 
Slovakia introduced the option for parents to claim maternity and paternity leave benefits 
simultaneously,  primarily  to  benefit  parents  who  have  two  or  more  children  in  close 
succession.109  In  Estonia,  moreover,  the  passage  of  the  Family  Benefits  Act  in  2017 
ensured  that,  from  July  2020,  all  parents  will  have  the  ability  to  pause  and  re-initiate 
payment of parental benefit as they wish until the child turns 3.110 

Across some Member States, there has also been a noticeable trend towards eradicating 
financial  disincentives  for  parents  who  want  to  make  an  early  return  to  work.  In  2017, 
Bulgaria changed its maternity leave regulations so that if a mother chooses to return to 
work less than one year after the birth of her child, she can retain 50 % of the remaining 
financial compensation she would have been entitled to if she had used the full duration 
of  her  leave.111  That  same  year,  Germany  introduced  Parental  Allowance  Plus  with 
Partnership Bonus, a scheme to enable parents to combine their parental allowances with 
part-time  work.112  In  2018,  Greece  followed  suit  with  the  introduction  of  special 
breastfeeding  and  childcare  leave,  which  provides  parents  with  the  option  of  combining 
their  parental  leave  with  reduced  working  hours  for  up  to  30  months  after  the  birth  of 
their  child.113  That  same  year,  Estonia  passed  the  Family  Benefits  Act  and  granted 
parents the ability to retain parental leave benefits even if they return to work, provided 
their salary remains below the value of €1 544 per month.114  

In  Portugal,  in  December  2018,  the  3  em  linha  (‘Three  In  Line’)  programme  was 
launched  aiming  for  the  reconciliation  of  work,  personal  and  family  life.  115  The 
programme  includes  several  sectoral  measures  (e.g.  cross-sectoral),  pilot  projects,  and 
widespread  implementation  measures,  with  diverse  target  groups:  public,  social  and 
private organizations as well as different types of families. The impact of the programme 
will be evaluated three years after its implementation. 

Encouraging leave-sharing between the partners 

Some  Member  States  have  also  taken  recent  steps  to  encourage  sharing  of  parental 
leave  among  both  parents  during  the  early  years  of  their  children’s  lives.  For  instance, 
Germany’s Parental Allowance Plus with Partnership Bonus, introduced in 2017, includes 
financial  incentives  for  parents  who  both  decide  to  work  part-time  simultaneously  while 
raising  young  children.116  The  Czech  Republic’s  Family  Policy  Strategy,  introduced  in 
2017, includes several initiatives related to the provision of childcare services and work-
life  balance  measures.  As  part  of  this  strategy,  a  legislative  act  on  job-sharing  and  a 
draft on an increase in parental allowance are currently under discussion.117,118 

The  status  of  leave  provision  for  non-traditional  families  –  including  foster  families, 
reconstructed  families  and  same-sex  parents  –  will  be  covered  in  an  upcoming  EPIC 
policy memo on this subject. 

In sum 

Overall,  recent  changes  in  leave  policies  aim  to  create  more  gender  equality  in  the 
workplace  and  flexibility  for  both  parents  to  benefit  from  leave  provisions.  Legislative 
changes,  e.g.  the  proposal  for  a  new  Directive,  put  more  emphasis  on  encouraging 
fathers to take up allocated leave entitlements. These EU-level initiatives are introduced 
in parallel with national-level policy changes, with many Member States putting in place 
regulations making leave provisions more flexible and encouraging more equal sharing of 
leave between the parents. Yet, despite progress, there are still opportunities for EU and 

29 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Member  States  to  introduce  policies  that  would  further  support  families  in  achieving 
greater reconciliation between work and family life. 

30 

 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL AND INCOME SUPPORT, AND BENEFITS FOR FAMILIES 

Most  European  countries  provide  financial  support  to  families.  However,  there  are 
considerable differences among countries in how this support is offered. In general, the 
financial  support  can  take  the  form  of  direct  cash  transfers  (e.g.  child  benefit,  working 
family payments) and/or of a fiscal support (e.g. tax rebates, tax credits). The objectives 
of  financial  support  for  families  also  differ,  from  offering  a  better  reconciliation  of  work 
and  family  life,  to  promoting  child  development  and  reducing  child  poverty  and 
maltreatment.  

Child benefits, and child and family tax credits 

Many  Member  States  have  opted  to  enhance  their  support  for  children  and  families  by 
increasing the value of existing child benefits and child or family tax reliefs or expanding 
access.  These  include  Bulgaria,119    Germany,120,121  Slovenia122  and  Romania123,  in  2018, 
and  the  Netherlands,  in  2019.124  New  child  benefits  were  introduced  in  Italy,125 
Lithuania126  and  Luxembourg127,  in  2018.  The  eligibility  criteria  for  support  were  also 
adjusted in the Netherlands128 and Croatia,129 in order to increase the number of families 
able to access them. 

In Poland, a new cash benefit, called Family 500 Plus, was introduced in April 2016. This 
benefit is a universal monthly cash transfer of 500 PLN (around €118) for every second 
and any consecutive child below the age of 18. Some low-income families are eligible to 
receive  the  transfer  for  their  first  child  as  well.  From  July  2019,  the  means  test  will  be 
abolished and all the children up to age 18 will be eligible for the benefit.130 

Support for large families 

In addition to expanding universal and means-tested support for parents, some Member 
States have introduced measures to ease financial pressure on large families. In Latvia, 
for example, a ‘3+ family card’ was introduced in 2016 to provide a range of discounts to 
families  with  three  or  more  children,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  introduction  of  an 
allowance  to  cover  large  families’  travel  costs  on  public  transport  in  2017.  131  In  2018, 
Latvia also extended supplementary child benefit payments to families with two or more 
children.132  That  same  year,  state  family  allowances  for  families  with  three  or  more 
children  were  increased  in  Estonia133  and  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  Lithuania.134 
Estonia  also  introduced  a  new  monthly  benefit  for  parents  of  triplets  or  higher-order 
births.135  Furthermore,  Italy  proposed  that  from  2019  to  2021,  parents  who  have  three 
children or more will be awarded state-held agricultural land, as well as being eligible for 
a zero-interest loan to buy their first home on or near this land.136 In Poland, the Large 
Family Card was introduced in June 2014 as a document that offers discounts to families 
with  at  least  three  children,  irrespective  of  their  income,  when  using  the  services  of 
participating  public  institutions  and  private  companies.  In  January  2018,  a  smartphone 
application of the card was launched, allowing families to access discounts more easily.137 
Finally, in November 2018, the European Large Families Confederation launched the new 
European Large Family Card. The objective of the card is to provide opportunities to large 
families to access discounts and special offers when travelling within the EU countries.138  

Support for single parents 

Some  initiatives  have  also  centred  on  increasing  support  to  single  parents.  In  2017, 
Malta introduced a single-parent benefit for parents engaged in full-time post-secondary, 
vocational  or  tertiary  education;139  Portugal  increased  the  value  of  existing  benefits  for 
single parents;140 and Luxembourg increased the value of single-parent tax credits.141 In 
2018,  the  Luxembourgish  government  increased  the  rate  of  existing  benefits  for  single 
parents.142  In  the  same  year,  the  Romanian  government  considered  a  new  proposal  to 
offer a monthly, means-tested allowance for single parents.143  

31 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Notably,  some  Member  States  have  opted  to  provide  special  support  to  single  parents 
whose (ex-)partners refuse to provide court-ordered child support or alimony payments. 
State-funded  subsistence  payments  for  such  families  were  introduced  in  Estonia  in 
2017,144  and  they  were  increased  in  Germany  in  2018.145  Additionally,  Poland146 
introduced  plans  in  2019  to  enact  new  legislation  and  empower  the  state  to  recover 
funds from non-caregiving parents who fail to contribute to their children’s maintenance. 
Finally, also in Estonia, the state can claim back maintenance costs from debtor parents 
and  implement  various  measures  to  encourage  compliance,  e.g.  rescinding  driving 
licenses, restricting entrepreneurial support and publishing the names of debtors.147 

Other initiatives aiming to combat child and family poverty  

Member States have also sought to prevent child and family poverty in a range of other 
financial  and  non-financial  ways.  For  example,  a  national  strategy  for  reducing  poverty 
and promoting social inclusion was in place from 2017 to 2018 in Bulgaria,148 and such a 
strategy  is  currently  ongoing  in  Malta  for  the  period  2014-2024.149  Also  in  Malta,  apart 
from  financial  benefits,  the  government  introduced  the  National  Strategic  Policy  for 
Positive Parenting (2016-2024), which seeks to strengthen the family, support parents in 
their parenting roles and promote collaboration among ministries and agencies to ensure 
that services are available and accessible to those who need them most.150 

France  has  also  undertaken  additional  actions  to  tackle  poverty.  President  Emmanuel 
Macron, on 13 September 2018, unveiled an €8 billion anti-poverty plan focused on early 
childhood and on training young people. It pledges to guarantee children’s rights to food, 
health  and  shelter.  The  goal  of  this  policy  is  to  address  the  root  of  the  problem  in  the 
long run, explicitly the intergenerational poverty trap.151 

In Ireland, the Whole of Government Approach to Tackling Child Poverty, issued in 2017, 
emphasises  the  need  for  a  combined  approach  to  tackling  child  poverty,  involving  both 
income  supports  and  services.152  In  relation  to  children,  the  main  actions  under  this 
approach  include  a  provision  of  universal  free  GP  care  for  all  children,  the  reduction  of 
the cost of education at all levels and the provision of safe and adequate housing. Wider 
initiatives include support for parents to enter, remain and progress in the labour market. 

Other financial initiatives to tackle child poverty include, for instance, an increase in the 
value  of  the  survivor  benefit  offered  to  children  who  have  lost  a  parent,  introduced  in 
Latvia in 2018.153 Also in 2018, birth grants for newborn infants were introduced for low-
income  parents  in  Scotland.154  Furthermore,  the  Spanish  government  introduced  a  new 
tax  deduction  to  meet  the  childcare  costs  incurred  by  mothers  of  children  under  age  3 
who  engage  in  full-time  work,155  and  the  Danish  government  launched  its  1000-day 
Programme,  aimed  specifically  at  supporting  children  from  vulnerable  families  up  to  the 
age  of  3.156  More  recently,  in  2019,  the  Swedish  government  invested  in  a  national 
strategy  to  help  parents  through  maternity-  and  child-support  groups,  a  parenting-
support programme, and an online knowledge-sharing platform.157 In the same year, the 
United  Kingdom  launched  a  freephone  helpline  to  provide  advice  and  emotional  support 
to  parents  facing  financial,  parenting  or  family-related  stressors.158  Finally,  the  Federal 
Foundation  for  Early  Childhood  Intervention  was  established  in  Germany  in  January 
2018, with a dedicated funding to support families and child development and to protect 
children from violence.159 

In sum 

Family policies across Europe often have a direct objective of providing financial support 
to  children  and  families.  This  support  takes  the  form  of  direct  cash  transfers,  such  as 
child  benefits,  and  of  child  and  family  tax  credits,  with  many  Member  States  increasing 
the  value  of  existing  benefits  or  introducing  new  forms  of  financial  support.  Additional 
financial  measures  are  often  available  for  some  family  types,  such  as  large  families  or 
single-parent households, identified as requiring extra support. Many countries have also 

32 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
introduced  national  strategies  and  actions  to  tackle  poverty,  seen  as  a  root  cause  of 
many social problems.  

33 

 
CHAPTER 7 WIDER MATERIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR CHILDREN 

In  order  to  meet  their  national  family  policy  objectives,  European  Member  States  also 
provide  a  wider  range  of  packages.  These  include  initiatives  related  to  improving  the 
material well-being of families to reduce child poverty, e.g. through housing support, and 
initiatives  promoting  child  development  and  strengthening  resilience  in  children  by 
offering psychosocial support to children and families.  

Housing 

Some Member States have opted to support children by improving their access to secure 
and good-quality housing. A programme to guarantee bank loans for families looking to 
buy  or  construct  houses  has  operated  in  Latvia  since  2015,160  while  rent  subsidies  for 
low-income  families  were  introduced  in  Luxembourg  in  2016,161  and  subsidies  to  help 
young  parents  buy  property  were  introduced  in  Lithuania  in  2018.162  The  Bulgarian 
government  also  outlined  a  National  Strategy  for  Dwellings  in  2018,  which  includes  a 
strong  emphasis  on  the  construction  and  provision  of  adequate  housing  for  vulnerable 
groups.163  Initiatives  to  improve  housing  for  children  were  also  proposed  in  France  and 
Romania  in  late  2018. France  allocated  additional  funds  to  provide  adequate  housing  to 
children living in overcrowded conditions.164 In Romania, as part of the National Strategy 
on  Social  Inclusion  and  Poverty  Reduction  2015-2020,  new  recommendations  were 
issued  regarding  vulnerable  children  and  families  living  in  inadequate  housing.  There, 
recommendations cover those in overcrowded households and those who are homeless, 
with  proposals  around  developing  social  housing  services,  ensuring  emergency  support 
and adopting homelessness-prevention policies.  

Measures to support participation in schools 

Member States have also sought to provide children with a range of material resources to 
facilitate  their  participation  in  education.  In  2018,  for  example,  a  bill  was  passed  in 
Poland  to  grant  80  euros  to  each  child  per  year  to  subsidise  the  costs  of  education-
related  supplies.165  In  2019,  schemes  for  free  school  meals  were  launched  in  Poland166 
and  Slovakia.167  In  Romania,  a  pilot  programme  to  provide  warm  food  in  schools  was 
initiated  in  2017,  and  it  is  still  ongoing.168  Furthermore,  a  school  vacations  programme 
was  approved  for  launch  in  Spain  in  2018  to  ensure  continued  access  to  food,  cultural 
activities, leisure activities, and care for children from low-income families.169 

Psychological support 

There  have  also  been  efforts  across  some  Member  States  to  facilitate  children’s 
participation  in  education  through  the  delivery  of  emotional  and  psychological  support. 
For  example,  in  2018,  the  Greek  parliament  launched  a  weekly  educational  television 
programme  for  youths designed  to  promote  media  literacy  and  dialogue  about  bullying, 
smoking  and  other  critical  topics.170  The  Greek  government  also  mandated  the 
employment  of  psychologists  in  all  vocational  schools  from  2019  in  order  to  provide 
regular support to students.171,172  

Some initiatives have focused specifically on bullying prevention. In Latvia, for example, 
a school-based initiative called Friendly School is run each year by the State Inspectorate 
for  Protection  of  Children’s  Rights,  with  the  aim  of  preventing  violence  and  promoting 
cooperation  among  pupils,  parents,  teachers,  and  staff.173,174  Meanwhile  in  Spain,  a 
Strategic  Plan  for  School  Coexistence  is  currently  in  place  for  the  period  2016-2020  to 
develop  and  implement  best-practice  approaches  to  the  prevention  of  physical  and 
emotional violence among children in schools.175 

Additionally, some initiatives have focused on the promotion of tolerance and prevention 
of  discrimination.  In  Spain,  a  manual  was  produced  and  distributed  in  2015  to  collate 
legal resources, information on good practices, and a guide to action for the prevention 

35 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
of homophobia and transphobia in schools.176 More recently in 2019, Germany launched 
the  programme  Youth  Remembers  in  order  to  encourage  German  youths  to  reflect  on 
German history and the dangers of xenophobia, racism and antisemitism.177  

In sum 

Apart  from  the  direct  cash  transfers  and  fiscal  support  to  families,  European  Member 
States  also  provide  a  wider  range  of  financial  and  non-material  initiatives  to  support 
families.  Provision  of  secure  and  adequate  housing  is  seen  as  one  of  the  strategies  to 
reduce  child  poverty  and  promote  social  inclusion.  Improving  the  material  well-being  of 
families  through  housing  support  is  an  ongoing  challenge  across  many  countries,  with 
several  programmes  aiming  at  improving  housing  conditions.  Other  family  policy 
priorities  implemented  by  Member  States  focus  on  facilitating  children’s  participation  in 
education by the provision of additional financial resources and the delivery of emotional 
and psychological support.  

36 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 8 SUPPORTING FIRST- AND SECOND-GENERATION MIGRANT CHILDREN  

Reviewed  evidence  suggests  that  supporting  migrant  children  (including  refugee  and 
asylum-seeking  children)  is  one  of  the  most  urgent  policy  challenges  facing  European 
countries. Migrant children are often identified as the most vulnerable groups in society, 
at  risk  of  social  exclusion  and  in  need  of  support  and  protection  (see,  for  example,  the 
EPIC policy memos178,179). During the migration crisis in 2015 and 2016, more than 1.3 
million  people  applied  for  asylum  in  the  EU.180  Many  Member  States  have  since  had  to 
initiate  urgent  policy  responses  in  order  to  ensure  the  smooth  integration  of  newly 
arrived  (first-generation)  migrant  children.  Member  States  also  need  to  design, 
implement  and  monitor  policies  and  initiatives  that  support  second-generation  migrant 
children to ensure that the multiple and complex needs of these children are adequately 
addressed.  

European-level policy responses 

In 2017, the Council of Europe’s Action Plan on Protecting Refugee and Migrant Children 
in  Europe  was  adopted.  It  emphasises  that  it  is  paramount  to  ensure  the  better 
protection of children. Based on three key pillars, the Action Plan states that all children 
should have access to child-friendly procedures and be provided with effective protection, 
and  that  counties  should  take  actions  to  enhance  the  integration  of  children  into  host 
societies.181  

Research by the Migration Policy Institute suggests that assimilation into a host country’s 
mainstream  schooling  system  is  among  the  most  effective  drivers  of  migrant  children’s 
integration,  primarily  because  it  facilitates  their  successful  entry  into  the  job  market  in 
the  future.182  In  2017,  the  European  Commission’s  Communication  on  the  Protection  of 
Children  in  Migration  re-emphasised  the  importance  of  education  for  migrant  children’s 
long-term  outcomes  and  encouraged  Member  States  to  ensure  that  migrant  children 
have rapid and equal access to the formal education system.183  

Removing barriers to migrant children’s integration 

Although  in  legal  terms  migrant  children  are  guaranteed  education  in  most  EU  Member 
States,  research  has  indicated  that  even  in  settings  where  they  have  a  legal  and 
undisputed  right  to  education,  access  may  still  be  limited.  Significant  barriers  to 
education  include  racism,  poor  financial  support,  lack  of  knowledge  on  available 
educational  opportunities,  and  inadequate  knowledge  of  the  language  of  instruction.184 
Furthermore, while many Member States have mechanisms in place that are intended to 
ease  migrant  children’s  transition  into  formal  education,185  the  Fundamental  Rights 
Agency has presented evidence that the migrant children who do access state education 
sometimes  continue  to  be  segregated  in  schools.186  Member  States  have  sought  to 
address these obstacles to successful integration in a number of ways. 

Continuing  and  preparing  new  national  responses  to  address  the  needs 
of migrant children 

In  response  to  increases  in  new  arrivals,  however,  many  Member  States  have  also 
introduced or amended laws and policies that are specific to migrants in order to better 
coordinate national responses. In Latvia, a new asylum law was enacted in 2016 in order 
to guarantee asylum-seeking children with access to the same state educational system 
as  all  other  children.187  In  2017,  Cyprus  developed  a  policy  framework  to  guide  the 
integration  of  migrant  children  in  the  Cypriot  education  system188  and  Slovenia  ratified 
the  International  Protection  Act,  guaranteeing  all  applicants  for  international  protection 
with  the  same  rights  to  primary,  secondary,  tertiary  and  adult  education  as  Slovenian 
citizens.189  In  addition,  various  Member  States  produce  national  action  plans  relating  to 
the wider integration and protection of migrants and asylum seekers. 

37 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Providing language support  

in 

Some  Member  States  automatically  offer  extra  language  classes  to  newcomer  children 
including  Belgium,190 
who  are  not  proficient 
language  of 
Luxembourg,191  France,192  and  the  Czech  Republic,  with  the  latter  offering  Czech 
language  classes  to  children as  early  as  nursery  school.193  In  Greece,  children  who  lack 
proficiency  in  Greek  have  been  offered  additional  support  classes  at  school  since  the 
beginning  of  the  2016/17  school  year.194  In  Austria,  language-support  classes  for  non-
German speakers were introduced from the beginning of the 2018/19 school year.195 

instruction, 

the 

Additionally, some Member States have opted to make language learning for new arrivals 
obligatory. In Estonia, for example, free-of-charge Estonian language learning was made 
compulsory  for  refugees  of  all  ages  in  2016.196  From  2017  in  Denmark,  attending  30 
hours of ‘language stimulation activities’ per week became obligatory for all bilingual 3-
year-olds,  including  migrants,  provided  they  were  not  already  attending  a  Danish-
speaking preschool.197 

Providing broader educational support 

For some Member States, integration efforts for migrant children have extended beyond 
language learning alone. In Poland, for example, migrant children are entitled both to 12 
months of language learning and 12 months of intensive preparatory education, both of 
which  are  intended  to  facilitate  an  easier  transition  into  mainstream  schooling.198  In 
Ireland, the Irish Refugee and Protection Programme (IRPP), which has been active since 
2015,  coordinates  all  services  for  asylum-seeking  children  and  families,  including 
accommodation,  healthcare,  language  education,  academic  education  and  cultural 
orientation. For children who have not yet been placed in conventional housing and live 
in reception centres, schooling is provided on-site.199 

More  recently,  in  2017,  Luxembourg  established  a  ‘guided  integration  trail’  to  formalise 
the  integration  of  newly  arrived  children,  including  16  hours  of  compulsory  language 
learning and civic education courses on Luxembourgish life and institutions.200 That same 
year,  Cyprus  ran  a  programme  called  Measures  to  Improve  the  Social  and  Educational 
Integration of Third Country Children in Cyprus, which aimed to promote the integration 
of  newly  arrived  children  by  raising  awareness  among  parents  and  teachers,  providing 
Greek-language  teaching  to  children,  and  coordinating  the  efforts  of  external  partner 
organisations  in  meeting  migrant  children’s  needs.201,202  In  October  of  2018,  Greece 
commenced  the  development  of  special  reception  classes  for  state  schools  with 
comparatively high rates of migrant or refugee pupils.203,204  

Improving information provision 

Member States have also addressed barriers to integration through improved information 
sharing. In Croatia, for example, a web programme called Article 28 was developed with 
the aim of accelerating the inclusion of asylum-seeking children, both by streamlining the 
process  through  which  they  are  allocated  to  schools  and  by  supporting  schools  and 
kindergartens  to  prepare  adequately  for  their  arrival.205  In  Germany,  furthermore, 
migrant children and young people were provided with access to a range of support and 
information-sharing  services.  These  include  the  programme  Jugend  Stärken,206  which  is 
aimed at assisting all disadvantaged youths aged 12-26 in the transition from school to 
work,  and  Jugendmigrationdienste,207  a  service  for  youths  with  migration  backgrounds 
that offers support and advice on questions relating to education, vocational training and 
social  aspects  of  integration.  A  separate  version  of  the  service,  called  jmd2start,  was 
piloted  from  2015  to  2017  with  the  specific  aim  of  providing  advice  and  information  to 
young refugees immediately following their arrival.208  

Other initiatives 

38 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally,  some  recent  Member  State  initiatives  have  focused  primarily  on  ensuring 
sufficient  resource  availability  to  deal  with  new  arrivals.  In  the  UK,  for  example,  a 
National  Transfer  Scheme  was  launched  in  2016  to  facilitate  the  even  distribution  of 
unaccompanied minors across local authorities, thus ensuring that every child is placed in 
a council that has sufficient capacity to meet the child’s needs.209 In 2018, furthermore, 
the  Spanish  government  responded  to  a  sudden  spike  in  the  arrival  of  unaccompanied 
migrant  children  by  allocating  €40  million  to  the  autonomous  communities  where  they 
were received.210  

In sum 

Over  recent  years,  many  legal  and  policy  initiatives  have  been  implemented  across 
Member States that are aimed at promoting the social inclusion of migrant children and 
their  families.  Many  of  these  actions  focus  on  educational  services  and  provision  of 
language  training,  because  host  country  language  competencies  are  considered  an 
essential component of a successful integration into the host societies. It is now essential 
to monitor implementation of these policies and initiatives to ensure that they contribute 
to building more inclusive societies in the EU28.  

39 

 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 9 SUPPORTING VULNERABLE CHILDREN 

Several  groups  of  children  and  families  are  identified  across  European  countries  as 
requiring additional protection and support because of their psychosocial and/or physical 
conditions,  family  situation,  or  membership  in  a  societally  disadvantaged  group.  This 
chapter  provides  evidence  on  the  services  that  are  provided  to  those  children  and  their 
families.  

Children with disabilities  

Supporting children with disabilities and the families who care for them 

Across  the  European  Union,  many  Member  States  have  policies  in  place  to  support  the 
families  of  children  with  disabilities.  Parents  of  children  with  disabilities  are  entitled  to 
additional  annual  leave  from  work  in  order  to  fulfil  their  caring  duties  in  many  Member 
States, including France,211 Estonia,212 Greece,213 Portugal,214 Romania215 and Slovenia.216 
However, the length of this leave and compensation levels (whether it is paid or not, and 
how much) varies significantly from country to country. 

There are well-established structures to provide special financial allowances to families of 
children  with  disabilities  in  several  EU  Member  States.  Many  Member  States  have  also 
taken  recent  action  to  enhance  existing  support.  In  the  Flanders  region  of  Belgium,  for 
example,  eligibility  for  a  non-taxable  allowance  of  300  euros  for  adults  with  disabilities 
was extended in 2017 to include children with disabilities.217 In 2018, Italy increased the 
annual  cash  benefit  available  for  parents  of  children  with  disabilities  to  cover  the 
expenses of public and private care services.218 Sweden also reformed its benefits system 
in 2019, introducing two separate benefits for children with disabilities and their parents, 
respectively.219  

Providing educational support for children with disabilities 

There have been a range of initiatives by Member States to ensure that the educational 
needs of children with disabilities are met. In Poland, for example, a new programme was 
introduced  in  2016  with  the  aim  of  building  380  specialised  childcare  and  education 
institutions to provide care and therapy to children with disabilities.220 

However,  many  Member  States  have  placed  particular  emphasis  on  ensuring  that 
children  with  disabilities  are  educated  in  non-segregated  environments.  The  Scottish 
government,  for  example,  has  stressed  the  rights  of  children  with  special  educational 
needs  to  learn  alongside  their  peers  in  mainstream  schools.221  Since  2014,  all  regular 
schools  in  the  Flanders  region  of  Belgium  have  been  obligated  to  make  ‘reasonable 
adaptations’ for children with special needs, specifically in order to reduce the large share 
of  special  needs  children  learning  in  segregated  settings.222  In  Croatia,  a  National 
Strategy  for  the  Equalization  of  Opportunities  for  People  with  Disabilities  is  in  place  for 
the period 2017-2020; it includes an emphasis on integrating children with special needs 
into  the  mainstream  education  system.223  In  Austria,  the  Education  Reform  Act  was 
enacted  in  2017  in  order  to  fulfil  a  national  action  plan  of  developing  inclusive  school 
classes.224,225  Furthermore,  in  Portugal,  an  Inclusive  Education  Law  was  passed  in  2018 
specifically  to  universalise  access  for  children  with  disabilities  to  education  in  non-
segregated settings.226  

Many  Member  States  have  undertaken  more  targeted  measures  to  ensure  that  children 
with disabilities have access to mainstream education. For instance, in Malta, an inclusive 
education  policy  has  been  active  since  2005;  it  provides  learning-support  zones,  home 
tuition and teachers to children with special needs.227 In France, plans to create 30 000 
additional early childhood education and care places by 2022 have also included financial 
bonuses  to  incentivise  centres  to  reserve  a  share  of  new  places  for  children  with 

41 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
disabilities who need extra support.228 Finally, the Italian government announced plans in 
December  2018  to  provide  Italian  sign  language  training  to  teachers  in  mainstream 
schools.229

Gypsy, Roma and Traveller children 

Strategies for integrating Roma communities 

Box  7  EU  Framework  for  integration  of  Roma  communities  guides  national 
strategies  
The  protection  and  integration  of  Roma  communities  has  long  been  a  priority  of  the 
European Union.230 In 2011, the EU launched an EU Framework for National Integration 
Strategies up to 2020 and called on all Member States to develop national strategies for 
the  integration  of  Roma  populations.  The  priorities  outlined  in  the  framework  aim  to 
ensure that Roma populations have equal access to the entitlements stipulated in the EU 
Charter  of  Fundamental  Rights,  including  education,  employment,  healthcare,  housing 
and essential services.231 

A  range  of  Member  States  have  modelled  their  own  national  strategies  for  Roma 
integration  upon  the  priorities  of  the  EU  framework,  including  Croatia,232  Cyprus,233 
Greece,234 Italy,235 Portugal,236 Romania,237 Slovakia238 and Spain.239 Additionally, Poland 
passed  an  act  for  the  integration  of  the  Roma  community  in  2014,  outlining  a  range  of 
strategic goals for the period from 2014 to 2020, including improving health and housing 
conditions,  fostering  cultural  integration  and  facilitating  Roma  participation  in  education 
and in the labour force.240  

Government funding for non-governmental organisations 

In  contrast  with  those  Member  States  that  have  developed  national  strategies 
themselves,  some  Member  States  have  chosen  to  outsource  Roma  integration  efforts 
within  their  state  to  non-governmental  organisations.  For  example,  while  the  Austrian 
government has not initiated any of its own programmes, it continues to provide financial 
support  to  non-governmental  integration  strategies.  These  include  the  Roma-School-
Mediators  in  Vienna,  who  facilitate  communication  among  Roma  parents  and  teachers, 
and learning assistance for Roma pupils in schools.241 More recently, the UK government 
opted to provide £200 000 (approx. €226 000) to six community-led projects from 2018 
to  2019,  all  of  which  aim  to  improve  the  health,  educational  attainment  or  social 
integration of Gypsy, Roma and Traveller children.242 

Targeting discrimination and intolerance against Roma populations 

Some  Member  States  have  undertaken  targeted  efforts  to  reduce  discrimination  and 
intolerance. In 2017, Latvia launched the European Commission-funded project Platform 
I  for  Latvian  Roma  people:  dialogue,  cooperation,  and  involvement.  The  aim  of  this 
project was to foster collaboration among Roma citizens, state, municipal representatives 
and social partners, and develop effective policies for Roman integration. It was followed 
by  the  project  Platform  II  for  Latvian  Roma  People:  Dialogue,  Participation,  and  Peer 
Learning in 2018.243  

In  addition,  in  2017  in  Estonia  the  Ministry  of  Culture  initiated  a  12-month  project  to 
identify young Roma who would be interested in active civil society participation with the 
potential  to  become  Roma  community  spokespeople  in  the  future.244  Furthermore,  in 
2018, an exhibition of Roma children photographing their own lives was presented. It is 
still  available  online  and  has  been  supported  by  different  Estonian  ministries  and 
governmental institutions, among others.245 

42 

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally,  Poland  initiated  a  Cultural  Integration  plan  in  2018  which  aimed  to  promote 
tolerance by protecting the cultural heritage of Roma communities and educating broader 
Polish  society  about  Roma  history  and  customs.  To  this  end,  the  Polish  government 
delegated funding to a range of cultural programmes and activities.246  

De-institutionalisation and foster care provision 

As  research  evidence  continues  to  underline  the  negative  impact  that  institutionalised 
care can have upon children who have become wards of the state,247 the European Union 
has prioritised the expansion of family-based foster care.248 

Countries with de-institutionalisation strategies 

At  the  national  level,  many  Member  States  have  undertaken  long-running  processes  of 
de-institutionalisation  in  their  own  foster  care  systems.  In  Austria,  for  example,  de-
institutionalisation  began  in  the  mid-1980s  and  is  now  nearing  completion.249  However, 
recent  changes  across  the  EU  suggest  a  renewed  emphasis  upon  reforming  the  way  in 
which  orphaned  or  otherwise  unaccompanied  children  are  raised.  National  policies, 
strategies  and  legislative  changes  for  the  de-institutionalisation  of  care  have  been 
similarly enacted in a range of Member States.250 For example, in Latvia, an action plan 
on  deinstitutionalisation  announced  by  the  government  in  2015  included  supplementing 
the existing foster care system with the introduction of two new types of alternative care, 
namely  foster  families  for  crisis  intervention  and  foster  families  for  children  with 
disabilities.251 

Countries  promoting 
incentives 

family-based 

foster  care 

through 

financial 

Many  Member  States  aim  to  secure  the  availability  of  family-based  foster  care  by 
providing  financial  support  to  foster  parents,  including  Lithuania,252  Malta253  and 
Slovakia.254  Financial  allowances  for  foster  parents  were  also  increased  in  Latvia255  and 
Croatia256 in 2018. Additionally, Estonia ruled that from 2022, the rights for family leave 
and benefits will be extended to include both adoptive and foster parents.257  

Countries  promoting  family-based  foster  care  through  non-financial 
incentives 

Many  Member  States  have  also  looked  beyond  strictly  financial  means  to  encourage 
citizens  to  become  foster  carers.  For  example,  media  awareness  campaigns  to  promote 
participation  in  family-based  foster  care  provision  were  run  in  Croatia258  and  Malta259  in 
2018  and  in  Belgium  from  2015  to  2018.260  In  Estonia,  in  2017,  specialised  counselling 
services were established to provide additional support and advice to foster and kinship 
carers.261  Similarly,  Latvia  developed  a  service  called  Plecs  (meaning  ‘shoulder’  in 
English)  to  expand  the  assistance  and  support  available  to  families  who  are  either 
planning  to  become  alternative  care  providers  or  have  already  taken  a  foster  child  into 
their care.262  

In sum 

European Member States recognise that some groups of children and families should be 
provided with additional support. Accordingly, countries are updating and developing new 
legal  actions,  policies  and  services  to  improve  the  quality  of  life  and  social  inclusion  of 
vulnerable children and young people. Initiatives related to children with disabilities tend 
to  focus  on  the  provision  of  additional  financial  support  for  families  caring  for  such 
children, as well as on the provision of educational support to ensure that the educational 
needs of children with disabilities are met. Policy, strategies and practice towards Gypsy, 
Roma  and  Traveller  children  aim  to  provide  protection,  target  discrimination  and 
intolerance,  and  support  integration  of  those  children  within  the  wider  society.  Member 

43 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
State  countries  are  also  making  systematic  progress  towards  the  development  of 
alternative child care services to transform the lives of children living in institutions. 

44 

 
 
 
 
 
CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSIONS  

This  second  edition  of  the  European  Platform  for  Investing  in  Children  (EPIC)  annual 
trend  report  provides  an  overview  of  the  main  changes  in  European-  and  national-level 
child  and  family  policies.  The  document  builds  on  the  information  provided  in  the  EPIC 
national  profiles  highlighting  and  summarising  recent  developments  in  all  EU  Member 
States.  

The  main  developments  and  changes  in  child  and  family  policy  in  the  EU  in  recent 
months  are  related  to  progress  made  with  delivering  on  the  European  Pillar  of  Social 
Rights. The Pillar, introduced in April 2017, aims to modernise the EU legal framework to 
give more effective social rights to EU citizens. As part of the Pillar (Principle 9 related to 
work-life  balance),  the  European  Commission  proposed  the  Directive  on  Work-Life 
Balance  for  Parents  and  Carers.  In  April  2019,  the  European  Parliament  backed  the 
Directive,  making  it  the  first  legislative  proposal  to  follow  the  implementation  of  the 
Pillar.  The  Directive  must  now  be  transposed  into  the  national  legislation  in  all  Member 
State countries by 2024. In this way, through the EU legal framework, the Directive is a 
step in a direction of promoting a more equal understanding of gender roles and a more 
equal sharing of responsibilities within families.  

The  Proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  of  High  Quality  Early  Childhood  Education 
and  Care  Systems  in  2018  is  also  one  of  the  developments  coming  from  the  Pillar.  It 
builds  on  Principle  11,  focusing  on  the  right  to  affordable  quality  early  childhood 
education and care provision. Adopted at the Education, Youth, Culture and Sport Council 
in May 2019, the proposal has put childcare quality firmly on the EU- and national-level 
policy  agendas  and  has  a  potential  to  modernise  the  provision  of  ECEC  services  in  the 
EU28. The work on the Common framework for high-quality ECEC is still in progress.  

Work also continues on the preparatory action for establishing a Child Guarantee Scheme 
for  Vulnerable  Children.  As  currently  envisaged,  the  Child  Guarantee,  formulated  as  a 
new  political  priority  by  the  European  Parliament,  aims  to  provide  an  implementing 
framework  for  EU  policies,  legislation  and  programmes  for  the  provision  of  essential 
services  for  children.  The  study  assessing  the  feasibility  of  the  implementation  of  the 
child guarantee was launched in 2018 and thus far has produced results from the online 
consultation.  A  series  of  stakeholder  workshops  are  planned  for  the  autumn  months  of 
2019  to  provide  further  evidence  for  recommendations  for  the  implementation  of  the 
scheme.  

Recent  months  have  also  brought  more  EU-level  efforts  to  support  Children’s  Right  to 
Participation.  In  2018,  the  EU  2019-2027  Youth  Strategy  was  approved  by  the  EU 
Council,  and  there  was  also  progress  on  the  development  and  implementation  of  the 
Child Participation Assessment Tool. In May 2019, the Bucharest Declaration was agreed 
at a Children’s Summit, making children’s right to participate more prominent on the EU 
policy agenda.  

Despite  progress  made  across  several  areas  related  to  child  and  family  policy,  key 
challenges  remain  with  regard  to  child  poverty  and  social  inclusion.  The  direction  of 
current  policy  developments  is  based  on  the  principle  of  inclusion  and  integrated 
approaches within the policy framework of the European Pillar of Social Rights. It is also 
crucial to assess the impact of all these initiatives. Project managers are advised to insist 
more  often  on  evaluations  that  can  assess  the  effectiveness  of  their  programmes, 
initiatives  and  projects.  It  is  only  through  the  collection  of  robust  evaluation  evidence 
that we can inform and shape future policy decisions.  

45 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ANNEX 1: METHODOLOGY AND DATA USED 

The  report  draws  on  the  data  and  information  collected  during  the  process  of  updating 
the  national  profiles  featured  on  the  EPIC  website.263  National  profiles  are  an  important 
tool to report on family policy trends and changes at national level, to monitor progress 
made  towards  the  implementation  of  the  Recommendation,  and  to  map  how  common 
certain practices are in a particular country. EPIC national profiles are updated annually. 
The  information  used  for  this  report  builds  on  the  recent  round  of  national  profile 
updates, conducted during the last months of 2018 and the first months of 2019. 

The  EPIC  project  team  at  RAND  Europe  worked  in  close  collaboration  with  national 
experts  across  Member  States  to  collect  relevant  information  and  data.  All  national 
profiles  are  structured  in  accordance  with  a  common  reporting  template,  requiring 
experts  to  provide  information  on  current  policy  objectives,  legislation,  programmes, 
initiatives and other measures covering the past 12 months in relation to the three pillars 
of the Recommendation. Nevertheless, national experts have some flexibility in reporting 
information,  thus  there  is  some  variation  in  the  content,  length  and  breadth  of 
information  available  for  each  Member  States  country  profile.  This  variability  is  also 
reflected  in  our  report  when  we  outline  the  policy  changes  across  European  countries. 
Therefore,  information  on  some  topics  is  sometimes  covered  in  more  depth  for  some 
Member States than for others. And on a few occasions, information is not available for 
some countries at all. The report should be read with this caveat in mind. 

We would like to acknowledge the following experts for their contributions to this report: 

  Dr. Markus Kaindl, Austrian Institute for Family Studies, University of Vienna 
 

Ides Nicaise, Research Group Social and Economic Policy and Social Inclusion, KU 
Leuven  University  and  Özgün  Ünver,  Senior  Researcher,  HIVA,  KU  Leuven 
University  

  Elitsa  Dimitrova,  PhD  -  Institute  for  Population  and  Human  Studies,  Bulgarian 

Academy of Sciences. 

  PhDr.  Alena  Krizkova,  Gender  &  Sociology  Department,  Institute  of  Sociology, 

Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic 

  Dr. Konstantina Rentzou, Scientific Collaborator, European University Cyprus 
  Lene  Tølbøll,  Associate  Professor,  PhD,  at  Department  of  Sociology  and  Social 

Work, Aalborg University 

  Liili Abuladze and  Asta Põldma, Estonian Institute for Population Studies, School 

of Governance, Law and Society, Tallinn University 
Jessica Nisén, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research 
 
  Anne Solaz, French Institute for Demographic Studies (INED)  
  Zsuzsanna Makay, Hungarian Demographic Research Institute 
  Dr. Deirdre Horgan, School of Applied Social Studies, University College Cork 
  Angela Paparusso, Institute for Research on Population and Social Policies (IRPPS-
CNR)  and  Marina  Zannella,  Department  of  Methods  and  Models  for  Economics, 
Territory and Finance, Sapienza University of Rome 
  Ms. Līga Āboliņa (Dr.demogr.), University of Latvia 
  Dr.  Ruta  Braziene,  Lithuanian  Social  Research  Centre,  Institute  of  Labour  and 

Social Research 

  Anissa  Amjahad  and  Kristell  Leduc,  Luxembourg  Institute  of  Socio-Economic 

Research (LISER) 

  Prof Valerie Sollars, Faculty of Education, University of Malta 
  Dr. Chantal Remery, Utrecht University School of Economics 
  Maria Filomena Gaspar, Centro de Estudos Sociais, Universidade de Coimbra 
  Dr. Costina-Ruxandra Passarelu, Babe-Bolyai University 
  Dr. Nada Stropnik, Slovenia 
  Elvira Gonzalez-Gago, Research4Consulting 

46 

 
 
 
 
 
 
  Maelis  Karlsson  Lohmander,  Department  of  Education,  Communication  and 

Learning (IPKL), University of Gothenburg 
  Our experts from Poland, Croatia and Germany 

47 

 
 
ENDNOTES 

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24 
‘Ombudsman 
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June  2019 

from 

for 

48 

 
                                                 
 
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33 Council of Europe, ‘Child Participation Assessment Tool’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
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34 Latvijas Bērnu labklājības tīkls, ‘Eiropas Padomes Bērnu līdzdalības novērtēšanas rīka ieviešana’. Retrieved 10 
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38 Pancyprian Coordinating Committee for the Protection and Welfare of Children, ‘The Cyprus Children’s 
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49 Data extracted on 20 September 2018  
50 Data extracted on 20 September 2018.  
51 Vereinbarung gemäß Art. 15a B-VG zwischen dem Bund und den Ländern über die 
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49 

 
                                                                                                                                                         
 
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71 Ivana Dobrotić, ‘Croatia’, in Blum, S., Koslowski, A., Macht, A., Moss, P., ‘14th International Review of Leave 
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76 Gavroglou, ‘Γαβρόγλου: Από το φθινόπωρο η υποχρεωτική 14χρονη εκπαίδευση’, Αυτοδιοίκηση, 2017. 
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77 Janta, B., van Belle, J., Stewart, K., Quality and impact of centre-based early childhood education and care, 
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78 Presidency Romania, ‘Educated Romania’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
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79 Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend, Das Gute-KiTa-Gesetz, 2019. Retrieved 10 
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80 University College of Teacher Education Styria Campus South, ‘Bachelorstudium Elementarpädagogik’. 
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50 

 
                                                                                                                                                         
 
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81 Ministry of Education and Culture, ‘Legislation on early childhood education and care’. Retrieved 10 June 
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82 Ministère de l’Éducation nationale, de l’Enfance et de la Jeunesse, Sprache und Sprachen in der frühen 
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83 European Commission, ‘January 2019 developments in child and family policy in EU Member States’. 
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84 Strang, L., Broeks, M., Maternity leave policies: trade-offs between labour market demands and health 
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85 Janta, B., Stewart, K., Paternity and parental leave policies across the European Union, Policy memo for the 
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86 European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on work-life 
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87 European Commission, ‘Work-life balance: Commission welcomes provisional agreement‘. Retrieved 10 June 
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88 Valsts sociālās apdrošināšanas aģentūras, ‘Consideration for the care of an adopted child’, 2018. Retrieved 10 
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90 Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend, Leitfaden zum Mutterschutz, ‚Guideline to 
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91 Janta, B., Stewart, K., Paternity and parental leave policies across the European Union: assessment of 
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92 European Commission, ‘Work-life balance: Commission welcomes the provisional agreement reached today’. 
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94 European Commission, ‘Belgium—Maternity and paternity benefits’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
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95 Gouvernement du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, ‘Declaration and management of periods of incapacity for 
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98 Republike Slovenije, Uradni list, 2018, p.9780. Retrieved 26 June 2019 from https://www.uradni-
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101 Addabbo, T., Cardinali, V., Giovannini, D., Mazzucchelli, S., ‘Italy’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
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f  

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103 Rijksoverheid voor Nederland, ‘Uitbreiding geboorteverlof voor partners’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
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107 Ibid. 
108 European Parliament, ‘Maternity and paternity leave in the EU’. Retrieved 10 June 2019 from 
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109 European Commission, ‘December 2018 developments in child and family policy in EU Member States’. 
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