COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document Proposal for a COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION on High Quality Early Childhood Education and Care Systems
Date: 2018-05-22
Institutions: Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, European Commission
Subjects: EU Member State, access to education, child care, children's rights, cooperation in the field of education, early childhood, education, pre-school education, right to education, teaching quality

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 22.5.2018 SWD(2018) 173 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document Proposal for a COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION on High Quality Early Childhood Education and Care Systems {COM(2018) 271 final}  
 
 
Contents 

1. 

2. 

2.1. 

2.2. 

2.3. 

Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 

State of play ....................................................................................................... 2 

Access and participation .................................................................................... 2 

Legal framework for providing early childhood education and care services ... 4 

Quality in early childhood education and care .................................................. 6 

3. 

Benefits of early childhood education and care ............................................... 10 

3.1. 

3.2. 

3.3. 

Benefits for children ........................................................................................ 10 

Social and labour market outcomes ................................................................. 13 

Female labour market participation and gender equality ................................. 15 

4. 

Social inclusion and early childhood education and care provision ................ 17 

4.1. 

4.2. 

4.3. 

Breaking the cycle of disadvantage, preventing early skills gap ..................... 17 

Special education needs and disabilities .......................................................... 19 

Migrants, minorities and refugees .................................................................... 19 

5. 

The results of the ET2020 working group ....................................................... 21 

5.1. 

5.2. 

5.3. 

5.4. 

6. 

7. 

7.1. 

7.2. 

7.3. 

7.4. 

7.5. 

The three principles in the Quality Framework ............................................... 21 

The importance of play .................................................................................... 23 

Ten statements to define quality ...................................................................... 24 

Impact of the 2014 Proposal for a Quality Framework ................................... 27 

Results from the stakeholder consultation ....................................................... 29 

Evidence supporting the five dimensions of the Quality Framework .............. 33 

Access .............................................................................................................. 33 

Workforce ........................................................................................................ 35 

Curriculum ....................................................................................................... 40 

Evaluation and Monitoring .............................................................................. 42 

Governance and Funding ................................................................................. 45 

8. 

Optional factors for complementing the Quality Framework .......................... 48 

8.1. 

8.2. 

Introduction to the optional set of quality factors ............................................ 48 

The optional set of quality factors and guiding questions ............................... 49 

 
 
  
 
 
 
 
1.  Introduction 

Children  have  the  right  to  affordable  early  childhood  education  and  care  of  good 
quality1. 

Learning and education start from birth and the first years of life are the most formative as 
they set the foundations for children’s lifelong development and patterns for their lives. High 
quality  early  childhood  education  and  care2  is  an  essential  foundation  for  all  children’s 
successful lifelong learning, social integration, personal development and later employability. 
Research  shows  that  high  quality  early  childhood  education  and  care  benefits  children's 
cognitive, language and social development.  

Ensuring access to  affordable and good quality early childhood education and care systems 
across the EU is enshrined in the European Pillar of Social Rights and an essential element of 
securing  smart,  sustainable  and  inclusive  economic  growth3.  Good  quality  and  accessible 
early  childhood  education  and  care  systems  are  equally  important  for  empowering  all 
individuals to have successful lives. They are important to remove obstacles to employment, 
especially  for  women  and  are  especially  beneficial  in  improving  the  labour  market 
opportunities of single parents and women in low-income households. 

Investing  in  early  childhood  education  is  therefore  one  of  those  rare  policies  that  is  both 
socially fair – as it increases equality of opportunity and social mobility – and economically 
efficient,  as  it  fosters  skills  and  productivity.  But  all  these  benefits  are  conditional  on  the 
quality  of  the  education  provided.  Consequently  the  availability  of  high  quality,  affordable 
early  childhood  education  and  care  for  young  children  is  an  important  priority  for Member 
States and for the European Union.  

Starting from this understanding, the Proposal for a Council Recommendation on high quality 
early childhood education and care provides a framework to understand and promote quality 
in in these services. The aim is to inspire and support Member States wishing to extend their 
early childhood education and care services, improve the quality of their system and, in case 
it is decided so at the appropriate level, to set up their own quality frameworks.  

This Staff Working document assembles the relevant evidence to back up statements made in 
the proposal. It looks at the current situation in the European Union, at preparatory technical 
work carried out with Member States' experts in the context of the ET2020 cooperation, the 
input gathered from stakeholder consultations, and provides recent evidence on all 10 quality 
statements highlighted in the proposal. 

1 

2 

3 

Council (2017) Interinstitutional proclamation endorsing the European Pillar of Social Rights 
http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-13129-2017-INIT/en/pdf 
Early childhood education and care refers to any regulated arrangement that provides education and care 
for  children  from  birth  to  compulsory  primary  school  age  -  regardless  of  the  setting,  funding,  opening 
hours  or  programme  content  -  and  includes  centre  and  family  day-care;  privately  and  publicly  funded 
provision; pre-school and pre-primary provision. 
Commission Communication on Europe 2020, A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth and 
its follow-up 03/2010, COM(2010) 2020 final  

1 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
2.  State of play 

2.1.  Access and participation 

Increasing  access  and  participation  in  early  childhood  education  and  care  has  received 
considerable policy attention during the last two decades.  

 

 

It  is  one  of  the  European  benchmarks  agreed  in  the  Education  and  Training  2020 
Strategy4.  The  benchmark  calls  for  the  participation  of  at  least  95%  of  children 
between the age of four and compulsory school age by 2020.  

In  2002  the Barcelona  European  Council  agreed  that  Member  States  should  remove 
disincentives to female labour force participation, taking into account the demand for 
childcare facilities and in line with national patterns of provision, to provide childcare 
by 2010 to at least 90% of children between three years old and the mandatory school 
age and at least 33% of children under three years of age5. The Barcelona targets are 
regularly  monitored  by  the  European  Commission,  including  in  the  context  of  the 
European  Semester  and  most  recently  in  its  report  adopted  in  parallel  to  this  Staff 
Working Document6. 

Recent  data  show  that  the  benchmark  for  early  education  and  care  participation  by  the  age 
group  above  four  years  of  age  has  been  practically  met,  with  the  EU  reaching  94.8%  (see 
graph  below)7.  The  data  however  also  show  that  children  from  migration  or  minority 
background and with less educated, disadvantaged parents attend early childhood education 
and  care  services  less  frequently  than  native  children  or  those  with  more  highly  educated 
parents8.  

In addition, while the Barcelona objective for the participation of the 0-3 year olds has overall 
been  reached,  many  countries  are  still  far  from  reaching  the  objective.  More  details  on  the 
Barcelona  targets  and  their  implementation  is  published  in  the  Commission's  report  on  the 
development of childcare facilities for young children with a view to enhance female labour 
market  participation,  work-life  balance  of  working  parents  and  sustainable  and  inclusive 
growth in Europe adopted in parallel to this Staff Working Document9.  

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

119 

28/05/2009; 

2020),  OJ  C 

Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and 
training 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-
(ET 
framework/index_en.htm  
Presidency Conclusions, Barcelona European Council 15 and 16 March 2002, 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/71025.pdf  
Report from the Commission on the development of childcare facilities for young children with a view to 
increase female labour participation, strike a work-life balance for working parents and bring about 
sustainable and inclusive growth in Europe (the "Barcelona objectives"), COM(2018) 273 final; 
http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2018/EN/COM-2018-273-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF  
European Commission (2017), Education and Training Monitor, Figure 26 on page 56 from the full report 
https://ec.europa.eu/education/content/summary_en 
OECD/European Union (2015). Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In. The attendance rate 
of 3-6 year-old immigrant children in  early childhood education and care programmes was 7 p.p. lower 
than among their native-born peers in 2012 
Report from the Commission on the development of childcare facilities for young children with a view to 
increase female labour participation, strike a work-life balance for working parents and bring about 
sustainable and inclusive growth in Europe (the "Barcelona objectives"), COM(2018) 273 final; 
http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2018/EN/COM-2018-273-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF 

2 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
Participation in early childhood education and care of children between 4 and the age of 
starting ISCED 1, 2012-2015 

Source: European Commission (2017), Education and Training Monitor 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/monitor2017_en.pdf ) 

Participation in early childhood education and care (2015) 

Children in early childhood as % 
of corresponding age population 

3 years 

4 years 

5 years 

Children between 4 years and the 
starting age of compulsory education as 
% of the corresponding age group 
Girls 
Boys 
Total 

EU 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany 
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Croatia 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United 
Kingdom 

88,2 
97,8 
71,3 
77,3 
97,0 
93,3 
86,9 
38,3 
24,4 
94,9 
99,5 
55,7 
92,1 
64,1 
86,6 
77,0 
65,8 
81,2 
96,9 
82,7 
75,0 
65,2 
78,7 
77,8 
82,8 
60,3 
68,4 
91,4 
100,0 

93,9 
98,1 
80,8 
85,3 
98,0 
96,7 
90,6 
89,4 
62,0 
97,4 
100,0 
59,6 
95,8 
84,7 
91,6 
85,7 
94,8 
95,1 
100,0 
96,0 
92,7 
79,4 
90,3 
86,3 
89,3 
75,6 
74,5 
92,9 
100,0 

96,1 
98,0 
93,2 
90,7 
98,9 
98,1 
92,1 
96,1 
96,4 
97,9 
100,0 
80,9 
96,7 
94,6 
96,5 
93,3 
98,6 
95,4 

99,2 
97,1 
95,3 
96,9 
88,8 
91,8 
81,2 
88,2 
96,0 

94,8 
97,9 
89,2 
88,2 
97,7 
97,2 
91,5 
92,5 
: 
97,5 
100,0 
74,8 
97,0 
89,5 
94,6 
90,5 
96,9 
95,5 
100,0 
97,4 
93,3 
90,0 
94,2 
87,6 
90,8 
78,4 
83,6 
94,9 
100,0 

94,8 
98,1 
89,1 
87,8 
99,3 
97,6 
91,7 
93,0 
: 
97,8 
100,0 
72,7 
95,4 
89,7 
95,4 
91,1 
96,4 
95,0 
100,0 
97,9 
96,7 
90,2 
92,9 
87,5 
90,3 
78,5 
83,6 
95,0 
100,0 

94,8 
98,0 
89,2 
88,0 
98,5 
97,4 
91,6 
92,7 
79,6 
97,7 
100,0 
73,8 
96,2 
89,6 
95,0 
90,8 
96,6 
95,3 
100,0 
97,6 
95,0 
90,1 
93,6 
87,6 
90,5 
78,4 
83,6 
95,0 
100,0 

3 

70%75%80%85%90%95%100%HRSKELFIROCZBGCYPLSILTEEIEPTEUATLVSEHUITLUDENLESBEDKFRMTUK20152012Target 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Equitable access to early childhood education and care is an essential feature of good quality 
provision10. Research shows that the beneficial effects of early childhood education and care 
attendance are stronger for children in poverty and from minority ethnic groups when there is 
a context of universal provision11.  

In  OECD  countries,  expenditure  on  early  childhood  education  accounts  for  an  average  of 
0.8% of GDP, of which 0.6% is allocated to pre-primary education12. 

Expenditure on early childhood educational institutions (2014) as a percentage of GDP, 
by category 

Source: OECD Education at a Glance 2017 

2.2.  Legal framework for providing early childhood education and care services 

In  the  European  Union,  there  are  significant  differences  regarding  the  age  from  which 
children  have  a  guarantee  to  a  place  in  early  childhood  education  and  care,  the  hours  of 
entitlement and whether or not parents are expected to co-finance. Legal entitlement to early 
childhood education and care refers to a statutory duty on early childhood education and care 
providers to secure publicly subsidised service provision for all children living in a catchment 
area whose parents, regardless of their employment, socio-economic or family status, require 

10 

11 

12 

Havnes, T. and Mogstad, M. (2011) No Child Left Behind: Subsidized Child Care and Children's Long-
Run Outcomes. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 3(2): 97–129.; Felfe, C. and Lalive, R. 
(2011) How Does Early Childcare Affect Child Development? Learning from the Children of German 
Unification. CESifo Area Conference on Economics of Education: Center for Economics Studies; Del 
Boca, D. (2010) Child poverty and child well-being in the European Union: policy overview and policy 
impact analysis. A case study: Italy. Budapest & Brussels: TARKI-Applica. 
Universal provision means that there is an established right to an early childhood education and care place 
for all children; Eurydice (2009) Tackling social and cultural inequalities through early childhood 
education and care in Europe. Brussels: EACEA. 
OECD, Starting Strong V, Transitions from Early Childhood Education and Care to Primary Education 
2017 

4 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
a place for their child. Public authorities commit themselves to guarantee a place in settings 
for all children even if attending early childhood education and care is not compulsory. 

Legal framework of early childhood education and care 

Source: Eurydice (2017) Structural indicators 
When  there  is  no  provision  of  legal  entitlement,  data13  show  that  around  half  of  national 
central-level  steering  documents  do  not  address  the  allocation  of  places  in  early  childhood 
education  and  care.  This  means  that  places  are  allocated  on  the  basis  of  selection  criteria 
defined  either  by  local  authorities  or  directly  by  heads  of  settings.  In  other  countries,  some 
central level criteria for the allocation of places are defined. However, this matter is usually 

13 

European Commission; Eurydice (2014) Key data on Early childhood education and care 
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5785249/EC-01-14-484-EN.PDF/cbdf1804-a139-43a9-
b8f1-ca5223eea2a1 

5 

 
 
 
                                                 
addressed  through  recommendations  rather  than  regulations,  which  means  that  local 
authorities or heads of settings have significant autonomy when taking decisions. 

In  the  education  systems,  where  the  allocation  criteria  are  defined  at  central  level,  they 
usually make reference to parents’ employment status, family status or socio-economic status 
e.g.: 

  With  regard  to  employment  status,  most  countries  give  priority  to  working  parents, 
but some also refer to parents who are actively seeking employment or to parents who 
are in education or training. Priority is sometimes given to parents working in specific 
professions, including the armed services and government officers in internal affairs 
or border authorities; 

  when  taking  family  status  into  account,  countries  often  give  priority  to  orphans, 
children from single-parent families, large families as well as to siblings of children 
already in the setting.  

  criteria  might  give  priority  to  children  with  disabilities,  special  needs  or  health 

problems, or from certain ethnic groups  

  specific  categories  of parents are also given preference in  some countries, including 
war  veterans  or  victims  of  conflicts  political  refugees,  parents  who  are  victims  of 
domestic violence or teenage parents who need to work or continue their studies  

  often  heads  of  settings  are  required  to  take  into  account  the  order  in  which 

applications arrive (i.e. the priority should be given to earlier applications). 

Across  Europe  there  are  imbalances  between  the  supply  and  demand  of  places  in  early 
childhood education and care. The 2014 report from Eurostat and Eurydice comments that in 
almost  all  countries,  the  demand  for  places  is  higher  than  supply,  especially  for  younger 
children. 

In  approximately  half  of  the  European  education  systems,  the  entire  period  of  ISCED  0  is 
provided free of charge. Typically, in countries where early childhood education and care is 
provided  free  of  charge,  there  is  also  a  legal  entitlement  to  a  place,  or  a  statutory  duty  on 
services providers to secure publicly subsidised early childhood education and care provision 
for all children living in a catchment area. Where there is no legal entitlement or attendance is 
not compulsory, there is often a shortage of free places.  

2.3.  Quality in early childhood education and care 

In recent years, and in parallel to the efforts to increase access and participation,  increasing 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care14.  Empirical 
evidence has shown that in order for children to benefit from early childhood education and 
care,  the  provision  has  to  be  of  high  quality.  This  is  highlighted  for  example  in  the 
conclusions  from  the  NESSE  ‘Early  Matters’  symposium15  which  note that  early childhood 
education  and  care  services  can  enhance  children’s  subsequent  school  performance  if  they 
are  of  a  high  quality  but  may  impair  it  if  they  are  of  a  low  quality.  Low-quality  early 

14 
15 

OECD (2018), Engaging Young People, p.13 (forthcoming) 
See also: Early Matters (2009), Symposium Conclusions, 
http://www.nesse.fr/nesse/activities/symposia/symposia10-08/ecec_symposium_conclusions.pdf/  

6 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
childhood  education  and  care  may  be  associated  with  having  no  effect  or  even  with 
detrimental effects on children’s development and learning in the long term 
An  EENEE  report  from  201716  notes  four  policy  levers  that  policy-makers  can  pull: 
personnel, organisation, curriculum and funding. For early childhood education and care, the 
issues of access and quality are  both crucial and highly complex. Currently there is often not 
only unequal  access  to  early childhood education and care  in  general,  but  also  even  more 
unequal  access  to  high quality  services,  which reinforces  inequalities.  

This  is  the  background  against  which  in  2011  the  EU  Member  States  and  the  European 
Commission launched cooperation to address the two-fold challenge of strengthening access 
to  childcare  and  education,  and  raising  the  quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care 
provision. This included the establishment in 2012 of a Thematic Working Group as part of 
the  Education  and  Training  2020  work  programme.  This  group  developed  proposals  for 
improving  the  quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  which  became  a  topic  of 
growing interest. Their work led to the publication of a first proposal to establish a Quality 
Framework  for  early  childhood  education  and  care.  This  Quality  Framework  was  based  on 
five dimensions: access; workforce; curriculum; monitoring and evaluation; and governance 
and funding. It aimed to support policy makers and encourage all Member States to go further 
in  their  development  of  excellence  in  all  settings  for  the  benefit  of  individual  children  and 
society.  

Quality in early childhood education and care is a complex concept and measures to achieve, 
improve  and  further  develop  quality  are  inter-dependent  and  cannot  be  considered  in 
isolation.  Although  there  is  no  internationally  agreed  concept  of  quality  in  early  childhood 
education and care  services, measures have been identified which help to produce and assure 
high  quality.  These  include  measures  which  affect  the  structure  of  service  provision,  the 
quality of the processes used in settings and the outcomes from early childhood education and 
care  provision.  

  Structural  quality17  looks  at  how  the  system  is  designed  and  organised  –  it  often 
includes  rules  associated  with  the  accreditation  and  approval  of  individual  settings; 
requirements  about  the  number  of  professionally  trained  staff;  the  design  of  the 
curriculum; regulations associated with the financing of early childhood education and 
care  provision; the ratio of staff to children in any setting; arrangements to ensure all 
children  are  treated  fairly  and  in  accordance  with  their  individual  needs;  and  the 
physical  requirements  which  need  to  be  in  place  to  meet  the  health  and  safety 
requirements of providing care and education for young children; 

  Process quality looks at practice within a setting18 – it often includes the role of play 
within  the  curriculum;  relationships  between  early  childhood  education  and  care 
providers and children’s families; relationships between staff and children, and among 
children; the extent to which care and education is provided in an integrated way; the 
involvement  of  parents  in  the  work  of  the  setting  and  the  day-to-day  pedagogic 
practice of staff within an early childhood education and care  context; 

16 

17 

18 

Benefits of Early Childhood Education and Care and the conditions for obtaining them. 2018. Economics 
of Education (EENEE), Concluding remarks, p. 66. 
http://www.eenee.de/dms/EENEE/Analytical_Reports/EENEE_AR32.pdf. 
OECD (2013), Quality Matters in Early Childhood Education and Care: Norway, (Litjens, Taguma and 
Makowiecki 2010).  
OECD, Quality Matters in Early Childhood Education and Care: Norway 2013.  

7 

 
 
                                                 
  Outcome quality looks at the benefits for children, families, communities and society. 
Where  these  benefits  relate  to  children’s  outcomes  they  often  include  measures  of 
children’s emotional, moral, mental and physical development; children’s social skills 
and preparation for further learning and adult life; children’s health and their school 
readiness. 

Early childhood development and early learning 

Development of competences is an incremental process, and building a strong foundation in 
the  early  years  is  a  pre-condition  for  higher  level  skill  acquisitions.  While  learning  and 
physical well-being are connected at all ages, physical development in the first six years of 
life  is  critical  for  competences.  "Just  as  a  weak  foundation  compromises  the  quality  and 
strength  of  a  house,  adverse  experiences  early  in  life  can  impair  brain  architecture,  with 
negative  effects  lasting  into  adulthood"19.  In  order  to  be  able  to  develop  a  strong  brain 
architecture children need good nutrition, a stimulating environment, secure attachment and 
warm  responsive  relationships.  Also  as  part  of  physical  development  gross  and  fine  motor 
skills as well as visual motor and spatial skills are important prerequisites for skill acquisition 
and school readiness. 

Looking  at  learning  processes  the  importance  of  early  years  is  two-fold.  Firstly,  a  range  of 
pre-academic  knowledge  and  skills  -  such  as  early  numeracy,  literacy  and  science  –  is 
necessary  for  children  to  develop  and  be  successful  in  school.  Secondly,  and  with  equal 
importance,  there  is  a  range  of  social,  emotional  and  cognitive  skills  that  children  need  as 
enablers of lifelong learning, health and well-being.  
Different  studies  have  demonstrated  that  early  literacy  and  numeracy  skills20  and  basic 
knowledge  about  natural  and  social  science21  have  great  influence  on  future  competence 
development.  Early  verbal  abilities  of  very  young  children  also  impact  on  their  later 
numeracy  skills  and  mathematical  performance22.  Early  literacy  skills  (children’s  early  oral 
and  phonological  awareness  and  processing  skills  as  well  as  letter  print  knowledge)  have 
been  found  to  play  a  crucial  role  in  reading  development  and  also  in  mathematical 
achievement.  At  school  entry  there  are  large  differences  in  the  level  of  numeracy  skills 
among  children.  These  differences  tend  to  increase  during  school  years23,  suggesting  that 
early  numeracy  practices  before  school  entry  are  likely  to  improve  children’s  later 
mathematical attainment.  

Early cognitive and non-cognitive skills have also been identified as both having an impact 
on  later  competence  as  well  as  having  a  long  reach  into  adulthood  and  influence  health, 

19 
20 

Center of the Developing Child, Harvard university (2017) 
Soto-Calvo  E.;  et  al.  (2016)  Technical  Report:  The  Influence  of  Early  Literacy  Competences  on  Later 
Mathematical 
Centre, 
http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC102210/lbna28010enn.pdf  

Attainment, 

Research 

Joint 

22 

21  Morgan  P.L.;  et  al.  (2016)  Science  Achievement  Gaps  Begin  Very  Early,  Persist  and  Are  Largely 
Explained by Modifiable Factors, http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.3102/0013189X16633182 
LeFevre,  J.-A.;  et  al.  (2010)  Pathways  to  mathematics:  Longitudinal  predictors  of  performance.  Child 
development, 
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-
8624.2010.01508.x/abstract;jsessionid=072267593ECBC458B8903124528D4DB0.f04t02  
Aunola,  K.;  et  al.  (2007)  Developmental  dynamics  of  math  performance  from  preschool  to  grade  2, 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228779904_Developmental_Dynamics_of_Math_Performance_
From_Preschool_to_Grade_2  

1753-1767, 

81(6), 

23 

8 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
employability,  earnings  and  life-satisfaction24.  Most  important  early  socio-emotional 
include  self-awareness,  self-regulation25,  emotional  stability,  pro-social 
competences 
behaviour  and  empathy.  The  importance  of  early  self-regulatory  skill  has  seen  increased 
focus in the applied research given the implications of these skills for early school success.  

Furthermore education from the earliest stages has an essential role to play in learning to live 
together in heterogeneous societies. Before children can understand abstract social concepts 
(democracy,  responsibility,  rule  of  law,  human  rights),  they  need  to  experience  real  life 
personal situations in which these concepts come into play, and practice the requisite social 
skills26.  Therefore  in  order  to  develop  civic  competence  early  social  leaning  need  to  take 
place.  Later  in  life  these  social  skills  also  play  crucial  role  in  the  development  of 
entrepreneurial competence and intentions27. 

Language is a fundamental aspect and plays a key role in early childhood development and 
early learning. Research-based evidence shows that participation in early childhood education 
and  care  is  crucial  to  support  children's  language  development  and  later  readiness  for 
schooling.  There  is  a  need  to  focus  on  strengthening  the  overall  language  competences  (in 
both  first  language  and  other  or  foreign  languages)28.  Literacy  engagement  is  one  of  the 
major variables predicting strong academic development of students; in this respect starting 
early has important implications for inclusion and exposure to literature is crucial to create an 
affective bond between children and books at an early stage29. 

Parents'  socio-economic  and  educational  background  is  the  strongest  influencing  factor  for 
children's' competence development in the early years. The second most influential factor is 
the quality of any form of non-parental care children receive. In fact "going to a high quality 
early childhood education and care setting was especially important when starting school and 
remained so beyond the age of 16. It influences both attainment and progress in early school 
careers and set children on particularly beneficial learning trajectories"30. This is true for all 
children31  and  especially  if  they  came  from  more  disadvantaged  backgrounds.  In  short 
participation  in  early  childhood  education  and  care  can  compensate,  to  a  degree,  for 
inequalities in family background.  

It is necessary to support the development of different skill sets to enable children reach their 
full potential. The results of policies that simultaneously develop multiple skills are likely to 
be greater than policies concentrating on single skills only32.  

24 

25 
26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

Carneiro  P.,  Crawford  C.  and  Goodman  A.  (2007)  The  Impact  of  Early  Cognitive  and  Non-Cognitive 
Skills  on  Later  Outcomes,  http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/19375/1/The_Impact_of_Early_Cognitive_and_Non-
Cognitive_Skills_on_Later_Outcomes.pdf 
Referring to constructs such as self-control, delay of gratification, good conduct and conscientiousness 
Kemple K.M. (2016) Social Studies, Social Competence and Citizenship in Early Childhood Education, 
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10643-016-0812-z  
Schoon, I.; Duckworth K. (2012), “Who Becomes an Entrepreneur? Early Life Experiences as Predictors 
of  Entrepreneurship”,  Developmental  Psychology,  Vol. 
1719-1726, 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22746220  
Siraj-Blatchford, I., Clarke, P. (2000) - Supporting Identity, Diversity And Language In The Early Years, 
McGraw-Hill Education ;  
Great Start in Life Conference (2016), Inclusion and languages in the early years – challenges and 
opportunities for educators, Jim Cummins https://ec.europa.eu/education/great-start-in-life#video-gallery  
Sylva, K.; et al. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education [EPPE] Project (Project Final 
Report), http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3155&context=sspapers  

48,  No. 

pp. 

6, 

31  Melhuish E.; et al. (2016) CARE Project: A review of research on the effects of Early Childhood 

32 

Education and Care upon child development 
Benefits of Early Childhood Education and Care and the conditions for obtaining them. 2018. Economics 
of Education (EENEE). http://www.eenee.de/dms/EENEE/Analytical_Reports/EENEE_AR32.pdf 

9 

 
 
                                                 
3.  Benefits of early childhood education and care 

Benefits of participating in high quality early childhood education and care  are wide ranging. 
This  chapter  set  out  to  summarise  the  main  benefits  of  participation  in  early  childhood 
education and care.  

Two  recent  reports  give  full  account  of  these  positive  impacts  that  include  individual  and 
public benefits33. They conclude that high quality early childhood education and care  can lay 
the foundations for later success in life in terms of education, well-being, employability, and 
social  integration.  This  is  even  more  valid  for  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds34. 
Research  conclusions  show  that  high  quality  early  childhood  education  and  care  benefits 
children's cognitive, language and social development for both the age group of under three 
year olds and for those between four and the school entry age. 

3.1.  Benefits for children 

A wide range of background factors at child level (gender, low birth weights, genetics etc.), 
family  level  (parental  qualifications,  income,  socio-economic  situation  etc.)  and  the  home 
learning environment influences to a  great extent the educational outcomes for children. At 
the  same  time  children's  experiences  in  their  early  years  have  a  profound  impact  on  their 
social-emotional  and  cognitive  development  in  their  childhood  and  throughout  their  life. 
Children develop not in isolation but through relationships within the family, neighbourhood, 
community, and society. 

The effect of attending a high quality early childhood education and care on a child’s literacy 
and  numeracy  skills  at  age  11  can  equal  or  surpass  that  of  other  factors,  including  primary 
school  quality  and  early  developmental  problems.  In  addition,  they  are  long-lasting:  a 
significant relation between earlier entry into education and mathematic results remains after 
ten years35. 

UK Study on Educational outcomes for different age groups 

Findings  in  a  UK  study  showed  that  children  who  attended  pre-school,  compared  to  those 
who did not, had better attainment in language, pre-reading and early number concepts after 
controlling  for  the  influence  of  background  characteristics.  The  graph  below  shows  the 
advantage  in  terms  of  months  of  development  of  longer  duration  and  higher  quality  on 
literacy at school entry. It shows that children who attended high quality pre-school for 2-3 

33 

34 

35 

The CARE project was a collaborative project funded by the European Union to address issues related to 
the quality, inclusiveness, and individual, social, and economic benefits of early childhood education and 
care in Europe; Melhuish, E.; et al.; (2015), A review of research on the effects of Early Childhood 
Education and Care upon child development, CARE Project Report, http://ecec-
care.org/fileadmin/careproject/Publications/reports/new_version_CARE_WP4_D4_1_Review_on_the_eff
ects_of_ECEC.pdf ; Vandenbroeck M.; et al.; (2018) Benefits of early childhood education and care and 
the conditions for obtaining them, EENEE Report, https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/14194adc-fc04-11e7-b8f5-01aa75ed71a1/language-en 
Heckman, J.J.; (2006). Skill Formation and the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged Children. 
Science, 312(5782), 1900-1902 
Sammons P. et al. (2008) Effective Pre-School and Primary Education 3–11 Project (EPPE 3–11), 
Summary Report: Influences on Children’s Attainment and Progress in Key Stage 2: Cognitive Outcomes 
in Year 5, 
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/research/pdf/Summary_Report__2007__Influences_on_childrens_attainment_a
nd_progress_in_Key_Stage_2.pdf  

10 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
years  were  nearly  8  months  ahead  in  their  literacy  development  compared  to  children  who 
had not attended pre-school.  

Development advantage (in months) for duration and quality of pre-school on literacy 
at school entry (home as comparison) 

The beneficial effects of pre-school remained relevant at age 11. However, these effects were 
largely carried by settings of medium or high quality As the graph below shows, the benefits 
of  both  medium  and  high  quality  pre-school  persisted  at  age  11  for  attainment  in 
reading/English  and  maths.  In  addition,  attending  a  more  effective  pre-school  (one  that 
promoted  early  number  concepts)  had  particular  benefits  for  later  attainment  in  maths.  The 
effect of attending high quality early childhood education and care on a child’s literacy and 
numeracy skills at age 11 can equal or surpass that of other factors, including primary school 
quality and early developmental problems36. 

Influence of pre-school quality on academic outcomes age 11 

At  age  14,  students  who  attended  a  pre-school  that  was  highly  effective  in  promoting  pre-
reading skills had better outcomes for English. For maths, all pre-school effectiveness groups 
had better grade results than the no pre-school group. Attendance at a high medium effective 
pre-school predicted better outcomes in science compared to the no pre-school group. Higher 

36 

Sammons P. et al. (2008) Effective Pre-School and Primary Education 3–11 Project (EPPE 3–11), 
Summary Report: Influences on Children’s Attainment and Progress in Key Stage 2: Cognitive Outcomes 
in Year 5 

11 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
pre-school  quality  also  predicted  better  self-regulation,  pro-social,  hyperactivity  and  anti-
social behaviour at age 1) as seen in the graph below. 

Influence of the quality of pre-school on positive social behaviours at age 14 

At  the  end  of  secondary  school  (age  16)  pre-school  quality  still  predicted  academic 
attainment  with  high  quality  being  associated  with  better  total  final  test  scores  and  English 
and  maths  grades.  Students  who  had  attended  high  quality  pre-schools  were  more  likely  to 
achieve excellent final test results. 

The OECD’s  PISA survey suggests that  15-year-old  students who attended early childhood 
education for less than one year are 3.1 times more likely than students who attended for one 
year or more to perform below the baseline level of proficiency in science (this decreases to 
2.3 times after accounting for socio-economic status. A 2011 OECD report37 also found that 
literacy at age 15 was strongly associated with participation in early childhood education and 
care in countries where a large proportion of the population attends early childhood education 
and  care,  where  it  is  for  a  longer  duration,  and  where  there  were  measures  to  maintain  its 
quality38. 
Also  a  summary  of  the  existing  research  evidence39  from  multiple  countries  confirms  that 
good-quality  early  childhood  education  and  care  helps  children’s  successful  completion  of 
compulsory  education.  The  early  cognitive  abilities,  which  include  early  literacy,  language 
and  numeracy,  form  the  foundations  for  further  development  of  relevant  competences  at 
school and help avoid early competence gaps that would require early remedial action during 
the  compulsory  schooling.  Similarly,  pro-social  behaviour,  self-regulation  and  favourable 
learning  dispositions are a huge asset which young children might be able to  take from the 
early  childhood  education  and  care  institution  to  school  and  which  form  the  basis  for 

37 

38 

39 

OECD (2011) Investing in High-Quality Early Childhood Education and Care, 
http://www.oecd.org/education/school/48980282.pdf 
Leak J.; et al. (2010). ‘Is Timing Everything? How Early Childhood Education Program Impacts Vary by 
Starting Age, Program Duration and Time Since the End of the Program 
European Commission (2014) Study on the effective use of early childhood education and care (ECEC) in 
preventing early school leaving (ESL), https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/7548dd37-c626-4e2d-bd70-625edf707adc/language-en  

12 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
avoiding  non-cognitive  characteristics  that  are  associated  with  underachievement  and  early 
school leaving. 

3.2. 

Social and labour market outcomes 

Besides educational outcomes, potential labour market outcomes, for those who participated 
in  early  childhood  education  and  care,  have  received  much  attention  in  research.  There  are 
numerous studies showing that those who participated in early childhood education and care 
have  more  favourable  labour  market  outcomes  than  those  who  did  not40.  Examples  include 
labour  market  participation,  earnings,  productivity,  employability  and  employment 
opportunities41.  Early  childhood  education  and  care  can  foster  individual  productivity, 
especially that of children in poverty or other adverse circumstances42.  

Several  studies  for  the  US  and  EU  have  detected  significant  and  lasting  effects  of 
participation  in  early  childhood  education  and  care  on  both  educational  attainment  and 
wages. Dumas and Lefranc (2010)43, for example, start from a policy change in France in the 
1960s, which increased participation in early childhood education and care from 35 to 90%. 
They  show  that  an  additional  year  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  attendance  raises 
average earnings by 3% and lowered the dropout rate by 2%.  

In part, the above results can be explained through improved education: because individuals 
who  attended  early  childhood  education  and  care  generally  have  higher  educational 
attainment than those who did not, they also have better chances in the labour market. While 
the literature has  clearly demonstrated a  positive relationship between participation in  early 
childhood education and care and labour market outcomes later in life, the quantification of 
these effects is not straightforward.  

With regard to the situation of parents, the lack of (full-time) formal care services for children 
can lead working parents, in particular women, to reduce their working hours or drop out of 
the  labour  market44.  The  accessibility  of  these  services  in  terms  of  physical  distance  and 
opening  hours  can  present  obstacles  to  female  employment.  Poor  quality  of  services  has  a 
strong  impact  on  female  participation  in  the  labour  market  as  well.  Almost  one  third  of 
parents not using childcare services due to their low quality. Affordability can also be a major 
barrier to the use of these services; 53% of mothers who declare that they do not work or that 
they work part-time for reasons linked to formal childcare services consider the costs to be an 
obstacle. 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

Karoly L.A.; et al. (2005), Early Childhood Interventions: Proven Results, Future Promise, RAND 
Corporation; and Barnett, W.S.; (2011). Effectiveness of Early Educational Intervention. Science, 333, 
975-978. 
Shomos, A. (2010). Links between literacy and numeracy skills and labour market outcomes. Productivity 
Commission Staff Working Paper; and Van Belle, J.; (2016). Early Childhood Education and Care 
(ECEC) and its long-term effects on educational and labour market outcomes, 
https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1600/RR1667/RAND_RR1667.pdf, 
RAND Corporation 
Heckman, J.J. and Masterov, D.V; (2004). The Productivity Argument for Investing in Young Children, 
Working Paper No. 5, Invest in Kids Working Group Committee for Economic Development, October 4 
2004, http://jenni.uchicago.edu/Invest/FILES/dugger_2004-12-02_dvm.pdf  
Dumas, A. and Lefranc, A. (2010). Early schooling and later outcomes: Evidence from pre-school 
extension in France. Thema Working Paper 2010-07, Université de Cergy Pontoise, https://thema.u-
cergy.fr/IMG/documents/2010-07.pdf   
OECD (2012) Closing the Gender Gap . European Commission (2015), Employment and Social 
Developments in Europe 2015, chapter III.2. 

13 

 
 
 
                                                 
Improving  the  provision  of  affordable,  accessible  and  quality  (full-time)  early  childhood 
education and care can therefore also have a direct positive impact on parents’, and especially 
mothers’, participation in the labour market. Childcare services for young children are a way 
for  parents  to  enter  and/or  remain  in  the  labour  market  only  if  they  are  financially 
accessible45.  

The  economic  benefits  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  generally  take  the  form  of 
reduced spending or increased revenues in specific policy domains, such as social security or 
taxation46.  With  regard  to  education,  public  expenditure  on  education  is  likely  to  decrease 
because  fewer  students  repeat  grades,  are  enrolled  in  special  education,  need  additional 
lessons or training, or drop out of high school altogether47. As for health, there are positive 
effects  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  in  relation  to  government  spending  and 
revenues48 because improved health and overall well-being are associated with reductions in 
expenditure on health-related programmes.  

Spending  on  early  childhood  education  and  care  is  generally  lower  than  that  on  other 
education levels,  despite the evidence on its importance for future  learning and growth and 
the  finding  that  returns on  investment  are  higher  than  those  for  other  education  levels.  The 
economic benefits from investing in early childhood education and care (compared to other 
stages of education) can be summarised in the following graph49. 
Investments in early education have the highest rate of return50 

45 

46 

47 

48 
49 

50 

D. Del Boca, D. Vuri, (2005) The mismatch between employment and child care in Italy: the impact of 
rationing https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00148-006-0126-3 
Early Childhood Interventions: Proven Results, Future Promise, RAND Corporation; and Barnett, W.S. 
(2011) Effectiveness of Early Educational Intervention,  
Van Huizen, T.; Dumhs, L. and Plantenga, J. (2016). A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Universal Preschool 
Education Evidence from a Spanish Reform.  
Karoly, L.A., et al. (2005). Early childhood intervention,  
Benefits of early childhood education and care and the conditions for obtaining them, EENNEE 
Report 2018,  
The Heckman curve - https://heckmanequation.org/resource/the-heckman-curve/ 

14 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
3.3. 

Female labour market participation and gender equality 

In 2016, the employment rate of women in the EU was 65.3% as compared to 76.9% for men 
(20-64  age  group)51.  At  the  current  rate  of  change,  female  labour  market  participation  will 
only reach 75%, the current employment rate of men, by the year 203852. 

Gender  gaps  in  the  labour  market  are  most  acute  for  parents  and  people  with  other  caring 
responsibilities.  The  gender  employment  gap  has  been  shown  to  widen  substantially  after 
having children. Data suggest that the younger the child, the lower the probability of staying 
in or joining the labour market. On average in 2016, the employment rate of women with one 
child under 6 is 7.5 percentage points (pp) less than women without young children, and in 
several  countries  this  difference  is  over  15  pp.  Mothers  tend  to  be  less  represented  in  the 
labour market than non-mothers across all educational levels and household types.  
The  employment  gap  is  particularly  high  for  low-skilled  women  and  single  parents53.  As 
noted  by  the  OECD54,  the  availability  of  early  childhood  services  plays  a  key  role  in  the 
increased labour force participation rates among women. This in turn has public benefits in 
terms of higher contributions to society and to economic growth. But having a good access to 
such services is not sufficient. The number of  early childhood education and care hours per 
week  available  to  young  children  is  paramount  to  increasing  the  full-time  participation  of 
mothers in the labour market. For that reason, many OECD countries have recently increased 
the number of free hours of early childhood education and care entitlements, or shifted from 
half-day to full-day kindergartens. However, here again, wide variations among countries still 
exist. Countries with both high levels of participation in early childhood education and care 
and  greater  intensity  of  participation  (in  hours  per  week),  such  as  Nordic  countries,  are  in 
general those in which most mothers work full-time. 

An  Education  indicators  in  Focus  brief  recently  published  by  OECD  highlights  that  the 
availability, intensity, reliability and affordability of early childhood education and care play 
an  important  role  in  engaging  women  full  time  in  the  labour  market  and  points  out  to  the 
persistence  of  wide  variations  across  countries.  In  addition,  it  underlines  that  the  barrier  of 
costs prevents poor families and lone parents, mostly mothers, from accessing paid work. It 
concludes that provision and accessibility of free early childhood education and care services 
need to be increased, especially for children under the age of 355. 

In  many EU  Member States  there is lack  of places  especially for children under three. The 
high cost of the available private nurseries and kindergartens is a major obstacle for women. 
Furthermore  close  to  one  third  of  Europeans  claim  that  they  do  not  use  early  childhood 
education  and  care  services  due  to  their  (perceived)  low  quality.  Investing  in  high  quality 
early  childhood  education  and  care  services  can  be  considered  a  major  enabler  for  women 
with  young  children  to  participate  in  the  labour  market.  The  most  recent  information  on 

51 
52 
53 

54 

55 

Based on the Labour Force Survey data for 2016  
European Commission (2014) Report on Progress on equality between women and men in 2013. 
European Commission (2016) The efficiency and effectiveness of social protection systems over the life 
course, chapter 3.2. in Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2015 
OECD, Education and Skills today, http://oecdeducationtoday.blogspot.co.uk/2018/03/womens-
employment-early-childhood-
education.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Feed:+EducationtodayBlo
g+(educationtoday+blog)  
Education Indicators in Focus February 2018 Education Indicators in Focus February 2018 #59, 
http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/how-does-access-to-early-childhood-education-services-affect-
the-participation-of-women-in-the-labour-market_232211ca-en 

15 

 
 
                                                 
women’s  participation  in  the  labour  force  in  Member  States  is  set  out  in  the  European 
Commission’s 2018 Barcelona Report56. 
The OECD57 notes that the benefits of early childhood education and care services to better 
learning  are  now  widely  acknowledged,  a  widespread  and  accessible  provision  for  these 
services  also  helps  support  gender  equality  in  the  workforce.  In  particular,  the  availability, 
intensity, reliability and affordability of early childhood education and care play an important 
role in engaging women full time in the labour market. While early childhood education and 
care  has  experienced  a  surge  of  policy  attention  over  the  last  decades,  wide  variations  still 
exist across countries and its costs remains a barrier to accessing paid work for poor families 
and lone parents, mostly mothers. 

By addressing women’s underrepresentation in the labour market, increasing the provision of 
early childhood education and care could have positive impacts on companies, the economy 
and society as a whole. Indeed, the current situation in terms of female employment strongly 
impedes  companies’  turn-over  as  it  exacerbates  skills  shortages58  and  leads  to  costly  staff 
turnover as women drop out of the labour market to take care of their children59. Moreover, 
women’s  underrepresentation  in  the  labour  market  leads  to  their  underrepresentation  in 
decision-making positions. This in turn has costs for businesses, as it can lead to sub-optimal 
decision-making with negative economic consequences60. 

Addressing the gender employment gap would also translate into decreased presser on public 
finances  due  to  higher  available  labour  supply,  increased  tax-revenue  and  increase  social 
transfers in order to address women and child poverty. In 2013, the cost of gender inequality 
in the labour market amounted to an estimated €370 billion euros, equivalent to 2.8% of EU-
GDP61.  

56 

57 

58 
59 
60 

61 

European Commission (2018), Report on equality between women and men in the EU, 
http://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/just/document.cfm?doc_id=50074. 
OECD (2018), "How does access to early childhood education services affect the participation of women 
in the labour market?", Education Indicators in Focus, No. 59, OECD Publishing, Paris. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/232211ca-en 
Such as for doctors, nurses, midwives and teachers, see Cedefop (2016)  
Australian Workplace Gender Equality Agency (2013) The business case for gender equality  
See Impact Assessment On Costs And Benefits Of Improving The Gender Balance In The Boards Of 
Companies Listed On Stock Exchanges, SWD(2012) 348 final, p. 44.  
Eurofound (2016) The Gender Employment Gap: Challenges and Solutions  

16 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
4.  Social inclusion and early childhood education and care provision 

Early  childhood  education  and  care  contributes  to  social  inclusion  and  social  cohesion  in 
several  ways.  It  brings  together  children  and  parents  of  different  backgrounds  in  a  familiar 
environment.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  having  young  children  is  a  matter  that  can 
connect people from diverse origins and socio-economic statuses62. In a context of increased 
diversity, academics and policy-makers have pointed to the role of the educational system in 
general,  and  to  early  childhood  education  and  care  in  particular,  on  supporting  social 
inclusion and cohesion63.  

High quality early childhood education and care services have to take account of questions of 
access, affordability and availability of the services. However ‘availability and affordability 
do  not  necessarily  make  provision  accessible,  as  multiple  obstacles  may  exclude  children 
from poor and immigrant families, for example, language barriers, knowledge of bureaucratic 
procedures, waiting lists, or priorities set by management’64. 

The work carried out to date in the context of EU cooperation on early childhood education 
and  care  has  used  the  following  definition  of  at-risk  children:  Children  can  be  at  risk  of 
disadvantage  because  of  their  individual  circumstances  or  because  they,  or  their  families 
belong to a group which is disadvantaged in society. These children may include those with 
disabilities,  with  mental  health  problems,  in  alternative  care,  at  risk  of  neglect/abuse, 
undocumented  child  migrants/asylum  seekers,  those  whose  families  live  in  poverty  or  are 
socially  disadvantaged,  those  whose  families  have  a  migrant  and/or  second  language 
background,  those  whose  families  have  limited  access  to  services,  Roma  and  traveller 
children. 

4.1.  Breaking the cycle of disadvantage, preventing early skills gap 

In  their  2014  review  of  the  literature  Vandenbroeck  and  Lazzari  comment  that  all  studies 
which  focus  on  sub-samples  of  vulnerable  children  report  that  high  quality  early  childhood 
education  and  care  benefits  especially  children  from  the  most  disadvantaged  backgrounds 
whose gains in cognitive and socio-emotional development are higher than for middle-class 
children.  The  research  further  suggest  that  a  universal  service  providing  good  quality 
programmes  for  all,  in  which  special  attention  is  given  to  disadvantaged  children,  is  be 
preferred  over  separate provision  focussed  exclusively  on  targeted  populations.  In  addition, 
children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  gain  most  when  early  childhood  education  and 
care  services  are  closely  linked  to  employment,  health  and  social  policies  that  promote  a 
more equal redistribution of resources across a population. 

62 

63 

64 

Geens, N. and Vandenbroeck, M. (2013). Early childhood education and care as a space for social support 
in urban contexts of diversity. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 21(3), 407-419. 
European Commission (2015). Draft 2015 joint report of the Council and the Commission on the 
implementation of the Strategic Framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 
2020). New priorities for European cooperation in education and training 
Lazzari, A. and Vandenbroeck, M., Literature Review of the Participation of Disadvantaged Children and 
Families in ECEC Services in Europe compiled for the study: 'Early childhood education and care (ECEC) 
in promoting educational attainment including social development of children from disadvantaged 
backgrounds and in fostering social inclusion' - European Commission Directorate – General for 
Education and Culture (2012), 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236347330_Literature_Review_of_the_Participation_of_Disadv
antaged_Children_and_Families_in_ECEC_Services_in_Europe_compiled_for_the_study_%27Early_chil
dhood_education_and_care_ECEC_in_promoting_educational_attain 

17 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
The graph below highlights research from the UK65 on the links between children’s reading 
ability at age 7 (the end of Key Stage 1) and children’s ability to regulate themselves at the 
age of 11 (the end of Key Stage 2). This research shows how children’s abilities are affected 
by  the  quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  and  children’s  abilities  as  well  as  the 
impact of social class. 

Sustainable benefits of participation of disadvantaged children in early childhood 
education and care 

Source: UK, Effective Pre-School, Primary and Secondary Education Project 1997-2004 

Among  children  of  comparable  background,  those  who  attended  preschool  in  their  current 
OECD  host  country  score  better  in  reading66.  A  recent  study  confirmed  that  a  longer  time 
spent  in  preschool  is  associated  with  better  German  language  skills  for  Turkish-origin 
children  with  low  levels  of  German  at  home67.  However,  immigrant  students  and  students 
with  less  educated  parents  attend  early  childhood  education  and  care  less  frequently  than 
native  students  or  those  with  higher  educated  parents:  the  attendance  rate  of  3-6  year-old 
immigrant children in early childhood education and care programmes was 7 p.p. lower than 
among their native-born peers in 201268. 

65 
66 

67 

68 

UK, Effective Pre-School, Primary and Secondary Education Project 1997-2004 
OECD/European Union (2015). Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In. 
http://www.oecd.org/els/mig/Indicators-of-Immigrant-Integration-2015.pdf  
Klein, O. Becker, B. (2017). Preschools as language learning environments for children of immigrants. 
Differential effects by familial language use across different preschool contexts, Research in Social 
Stratification and Mobility 48, pp. 20-31, 
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0276562417300203  
OECD/European Union, Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In, http://www.oecd-
ilibrary.org/docserver/download/8115051e.pdf?expires=1520869047&id=id&accname=guest&checksum
=C9B92951817DE51B559DC91B174A523A  

18 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
The  Inclusive  Early  Childhood  Education  Literature Review69  finds  that  promoting  inclusive 
early childhood education and care programmes  can enhance the development  of children with 
disabilities  and  foster  inclusive  and  non-discriminatory  attitudes  among  children  from  the 
start.  Early  childhood  education  and  care  programmes  which  are  ‘responsive  to  individual 
needs and respectful of diversity benefit all children and contribute  to building the  foundations 
of  an inclusive society’. Research also suggests that the  best  performing  education  systems 
do  not  segregate  young  children according to ability but “embrace the diversity in students´ 
capacities,  interests and social backgrounds with individualised approaches to learning” 70. 

4.2. 

Special education needs and disabilities 

The  UN Sustainable  Development  Goals  cover  all  children  including  those  with  special 
needs and disabilities. The SDG include the statement that: 

By  2030,  ensure  that  all  girls  and  boys  have  access  to  quality  early  childhood 
development,  care  and  pre-primary  education  so  that  they  are  ready  for  primary 
education (UN, 2015, Goal 4.2). 

The Inclusive Early Childhood Education Literature Review71 also comments on the critical need 
to  support  early  childhood  education  and  care  for  children  with  s pecial  needs.  Early 
childhood  services are particularly  important,  as they can contribute  to children’s  health  and 
social  and  cognitive  development.  Early  childhood  education  and  care  services  make  an 
important  contribution  for  at-risk children and their families, as they allow for early screening 
and  identification  of  special needs.  The  literature  review  also  notes  that  according  to  OECD 
data only  one  quarter  of  children  with  special educational needs are included  in mainstream 
early education settings.  

4.3.  Migrants, minorities and refugees 

Immigrant students and students with less educated parents attend early childhood education 
and  care  less  frequently  than  native  students  or  those  with  higher  educated  parents:  the 
attendance  rate  of  3-6  year-old  immigrant  children  in  early  childhood  education  and  care 
programmes was 7 percentage points lower than among their native-born peers in 201272. 
A  recent  OECD  study73  underlines  that,  on  average  across  OECD  countries  with  available 
data,  immigrant  students  are  12  percentage  points  less  likely  than  native  students  to  have 
participated in pre-primary programmes (13 percentage points less likely across EU countries 
only).  Attendance  at  pre-primary  education  can  be  a  mediating  factor  between  immigrant 
background and academic resilience. According to this report, the gap in participation in pre-

69 

70 

71 
72 
73 

and 

review 

literature 

European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education (2017) Inclusive Early Childhood 
Education, Literature Review: https://www.european-agency.org/publications/reviews/iece-literature-
review  
Eurochild,  ECEC  for  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds:  findings  from  a 
European 
see: 
http://eurochild.org/policy/library-details/article/ecec-for-children-from-
disadvantaged-backgrounds-findings-from-a-european-literature-review-and-
two/?tx_news_pi1%5Bcontroller%5D=News&tx_news_pi1%5Baction%5D=detail
&cHash=b92846a9ed159ff72e2c7795527ebe23  
Inclusive Early Childhood Education, Literature Review  
OECD/European Union, Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In,  
OECD (2018), The resilience of students with an immigrant background: Factors that shape well-being, 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264292093-en 

studies, 

(2012), 

case 

two 

19 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
primary  education  between  native  and  immigrant  students  explains  part  of  the  gap  in 
academic  performance  between  the  two  groups.  On  average,  the  difference  between  native 
and  immigrant  students  in  the  percentage  of  students  who  attained  baseline  academic 
proficiency  decreases  by  one  percentage  point  after  accounting  for  participation  in  pre-
primary education. 
The research from Vandenbroeck and Lazzari74 has also emphasised that immigrant families 
and  families  living  in  poverty  often  have  smaller  informal  networks  and  less  access  to 
information about early childhood education and care and enrolment procedures. In addition, 
language and cultural barriers may prevent them from fulﬁlling the bureaucratic procedures 
necessary to enrol  their children. A striking  example in  this regard are Roma communities, 
where lack of trust toward authorities and public services combined with discrimination and 
hostility encountered in educational environments tend to undermine children’s participation 
in early childhood education and care (Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe 
2010). 
The 2015 report75 from the Transatlantic Forum on Inclusive early years notes the extent to 
which  societies  in  Europe  have  been  changing  from  monocultural  entities  to  multidiverse 
communities  with  many  different  languages,  cultures  and  religions.  The  report  also 
comments that early childhood education and care has yet to find ‘clear cut answers’ to this 
emerging complexity. Other work76 from the Transatlantic Forum has highlighted that there 
are  differential  rates  of  access  to  high  quality  non-maternal  care  and  preschools  among 
children  from  ethnic  minority  and  low-income  families  have  been  well-documented  in 
several European countries. 

In  2012  EU  commissioned  review  of  the  literature  77  on  child  poverty  and  disadvantage 
identifies  there  is  a  consensus  across  the  literature  that  the  main  barriers  to  participation  in 
early childhood education and care services are: 

 

 

 

low  socio-economic  status  including  a  low  level  of  parental  education,  low  family 
income or parental unemployment; 

living in poor neighbourhoods/rural areas/marginalised settlements; 

ethnic  minority  background,  influenced  by  the  length  of  time  parents  have  been 
residing in the host country and their ability to master the host country language; 

  on the supply side, other factors hinder participation in early childhood education and 
care  services,  in  particular:  desirability  by  excluded  groups,  based  on  whether  they 
understand  these  services  and  their  evaluation  of  the  usefulness  of  these  services  for 
their children. 

74  Michel Vandenbroeck & Arianna Lazzari (2014) Accessibility of early childhood  education and care: a 

75 
76 
77 

state of affairs 
Transatlantic Forum on Inclusive Early Years, Report number 6  
Transatlantic Forum on Inclusive Early Years, Report number 1  
Accessibility of early childhood  education and care: a state of affairs, European Early Childhood 
Education Research Journal, 22:3,  327-335 

20 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
5.  The results of the ET2020 working group 

Between 2012 and 2014, a group of experts worked on ways of strengthening access to early 
childhood  education  and  care  and  raising  the  quality  of  service  provision.  This  ET  2020 
Thematic  Working  Group  comprised  national  experts  from  ministries  in  more  than  20 
countries  as  well  as  representatives  from  international  and  European  Agencies  (e.g.  OECD 
and Eurydice). The group developed a proposal for a quality framework on early childhood 
education  and  care78  that  was  discussed  and  agreed  in  an  international  conference  on  early 
childhood education and care organised under the auspices of the Greek Presidency in 2014. 
The  current  proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  is  to  a  large  extent  based  on  this 
preparatory work. 

5.1.  The three principles in the Quality Framework 

The Quality Framework is based on three key principles which are regarded as fundamental 
to the development and maintenance of high quality early childhood education and care: 

  Early  childhood  education  and  care  services  need  to  be  child-centred, acknowledge 
children’s views and actively involve children in everyday decisions in the setting  

Each  child  is  unique  and  a  competent  and  active  learner  whose  potential  needs  to  be 
encouraged  and  supported.  Each  child  is  a  curious,  capable  and  intelligent  individual.  The 
child is a 'co-creator of knowledge' who needs and wants interaction with other children and 
adults79. Early childhood education and care services need to be child-centred, acknowledge 
children’s views and actively involve children in everyday decisions in the setting. Services 
should offer a nurturing and caring environment and provide a social, cultural and physical 
space with a range of possibilities for children to develop their present and future potential. 
Early  childhood  education  and  care  is  designed  to  offer  a  holistic  approach  based  on  the 
fundamental assumption that education and care are inseparable. 

A  central  aspect  of  many  monitoring  and  evaluation  systems  is  the  need  to  collect 
information from the perspective of the child. These models80 emphasise the well-being and 
involvement  of  children  in  the  quality  assurance  process  i.e.  how  children  feel  and  how 
involved they are in the early childhood education and care activities. A range of approaches 
can be used including semi-structured interviews which record the children’s perspectives on 
quality. This can include their views on the early childhood education and care environment; 
the professionals; the children’s relationships with their peers; and the rules which are applied 

78 

79 

Proposal for a European quality framework on early childhood education and care, 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/archive/documents/ecec-quality-
framework_en.pdf  
Children in Europe Policy Paper (2008). Young children and their services: Developing a European 
Approach (p. 5-6). http://www.grandirabruxelles.be/Publications/Europe/policydocEN.pdf ; Kickbusch, I. 
(2012), Learning for Well-being: A Policy Priority for Children and Youth in Europe. A process for 
change, with the collaboration of Jean Gordon & Linda O’Toole, drafted on behalf of the Learning for 
Well-being Consortium of Foundations in Europe, (published by Universal Education Foundation): p.37ff. 
http://www.eiesp.org/hosting/a/admin/files/L4WB%20A%20Policy%20Priority%20for%20Children%20
%26%20Youth%20in%20Europe.pdf J. Qvortrup/ Bardy, M. Sgritta, G.B.H. Wintersberger (Hrsg.). 
Childhood Matters. Social Theory, Practice and Politics. Aldershot: Avebury, Ashgate. 

80  Monitoring quality in ECEC – approaches and experiences from selected countries. N. Klinkhammer, B 

Schafer, Dana Harring and A Gwinner (Eds), 2017, The German Youth Institute. 
https://www.dji.de/fileadmin/user_upload/.../Monitoring_Sammelband_E_final.pdf 

21 

 
 
 
                                                 
in  the  setting.  Children  are  given  the  status  of  independent  participants  and  their  views  are 
taken seriously when the quality of provision is assessed. 

Thus,  a  recent  study  examines  the  challenges  and  opportunities  linked  to  involving  young 
children's  perspectives  as  part  of  quality  monitoring  in  a  decentralized  context  imposing  a 
legal  requirement  in  this  respect  on  municipalities  and  settings81.  The  focus  was  on 
pedagogical  work  with  children's  perspectives,  to  examine  how  a  broader  understanding  of 
the  concept  (covering  not  only  children's  opinions  but  also  their  daily  experiences  at  the 
setting) could contribute to improve quality. Within the framework of a project drawing on 
the  Mosaic  approach82,  children  were  invited  to  express  themselves  (through  various 
methods)  and  were  involved  in  various  ways  (whatever  their  age,  maturity  or  language 
skills). In this particular instance, context sensitivity has emerged as an important aspect to 
succeed  in  taking  account  of  children's  views;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  the  systematic 
inclusion of children's perspectives offers great potential for increasing professional learning 
outcomes  for  staff  and  for  inspiring  crucial  quality  improvement  in  settings  (and  even 
potential for increased parental involvement in some cases).  

  parents’ participation as partners of  early childhood education  and care  services is 

essential  

The family is usually the first and most important place for children to grow and develop, and 
parents  (or  primary  caregivers)  are  responsible  for  each  child’s  well-being,  health  and 
development.  Families  are  characterised  by  great  social,  socio-economic,  cultural  and 
religious  diversity  –  and  this  diversity  should  be  respected  as  a  fundamental  element  of 
European societies83. Within a context that is set by the national, regional or local regulations, 
the  family  should  be  fully  involved  in  all  aspects  of  education  and  care  for  their  child.  To 
make  this  involvement  a  reality,  early  childhood  education  and  care  services  should  be 
designed  in  partnership  with  families  and  be  based  on  trust  and  mutual  respect.  These 
partnerships can support families by developing services that respond to the needs of parents 
and  allow  for  a  balance  between  time  for  family  and  work.  Early  childhood  education  and 
care services can complement the family and offer support as well as additional opportunities 
to parents and children. 

  a shared understanding of high quality services is needed  

High quality early childhood education and care services are crucial in promoting children’s 
development and learning and, in the long term, enhancing their educational chances84. The 
Quality  Framework  shares  the  underlying  assumptions  of  quality  set  out  by  the  European 
Commission’s  Network  on  Childcare.  In  1996  this  Network  produced  40  targets  to  be 
achieved  by  all  Member  States  over  a  10  year  period.  The  Network  also  emphasised  that 
quality  is  a  relative  concept  based  on  values  and  beliefs,  and  defining  quality  should  be  a 
dynamic, continuous and democratic process. A balance needs to be found between defining 

81 

82 
83 

84 

Klinkhammer N. et al., Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care, (2017), chapter 7, 
https://www.dji.de/fileadmin/user_upload/bibs2017/Monitoring_Sammelband_E_final.pdf 
Clark, A., Moss, P. (2011) Listening to Young Children,: the Mosaic Approach 
Young children and their services: developing a European approach. A children in Europe policy paper. 
(2008), p. 6. http://www.childrenineurope.org/docs/eng_discpaper.pdf  
Young children and their services: developing a European approach. A children in Europe policy paper. 
(2008): p.5. http://www.childrenineurope.org/docs/eng_discpaper.pdf  

22 

 
 
                                                 
certain  common objectives, applying them to  all services, and supporting diversity between 
individual services85. 

5.2.  The importance of play86 

The  Quality  Framework  is  also  based  on  a  shared  view  of  how  should  children  learn  and 
grow  up  in  society.  This  acknowledges  that  children  are  willing,  adventurous  and  active 
learners,  who  benefit  from  a  combination  of  learning,  care  and  play.  Children  are  active 
participants in their own learning and central to the education and care process. Children are 
not  solely  recipients  of  education;  they  have  an  active  role  in  framing  their  own  learning. 
Children have different emotional, physical, social and cognitive needs and these should be 
recognised in the design and implementation of early childhood education and care provision. 

Children’s  education  and  care  as  well  as  their  cognitive,  social,  emotional,  physical  and 
language development are important. A well-balanced combination of education and care can 
promote children’s well-being, positive self-image, physical development and their social and 
cognitive  development.  Also  the  significance  of  learning  through  play  is  understood  and 
supported. Throughout the Quality Framework  there is an underlying  assumption that  early 
childhood  education  and  care  programmes  (sometimes  based  on  a  curriculum  or  set  of 
educational  guidelines)  are  delivered  through  play  which  is  seen  as  spontaneous  and 
unstructured.  It  is  a  child-led  and  child-initiated  activity.  It  offers  children  opportunities  to 
explore  and  reflect  on  their  interests  and  issues  that  are relevant to  and  meaningful  in  their 
lives. The role of staff is to encourage children’s play through creating the right environment 
and using a pedagogic approach to learning. 

This emphasis on play can be seen in the early childhood education and care curriculum (or 
set  of  guidelines)  when  children  are  encouraged  to  learn  through  play87.  Play  sustains 
children’s  interests;  encourages  them  to  make  decisions,  solve  problems  and  develop 
independence.  Children  learn  to  exercise  choice  and  take  increasing  responsibility  for  their 
own learning. This enables them to feel successful, develop their confidence, and make age-
appropriate contributions to the decisions and activities of the early childhood education and 
care  setting88.  Most  importantly,  when  children’s  learning  initiatives  are  accompanied  by 
adults who are able to design opportunities for progression, play becomes a powerful tool for 
promoting the general foundations of formalised learning. Research shows that play supports 
the  development  of  meta-cognitive  abilities  that  are  associated  with  long-term  gains  from 
early  childhood  education  and  care  (such  as  verbal  abilities  and  logical  reasoning);  and 

85 

86 

European Commission Network on Childcare and Other Measures to Reconcile the Employment and 
Family Responsibility of Men and Women (1996). Quality Targets in Services for Young Children. 
Proposal for a Ten Year Action Programme, p.11, 
http://www.childcarecanada.org/sites/default/files/Qualitypaperthree.pdf  
The Quality Framework defined play as ‘Spontaneous and unstructured play is child-led and child-
initiated activity. It offers children opportunities to explore and reflect on their interests and issues that are 
relevant to and meaningful in their lives. The role of staff is to encourage children’s play through creating 
the right environment and using a pedagogic approach to learning’ 

87  Monaco, C. and Pontecorvo, C. (2010). The interaction between young toddlers: constructing and 

88 

organising participation frameworks. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 18(3), 341-
371.  
Jensen, J. J. (2011). Understandings of Danish pedagogical practices. In Cameron, C. & Moss, P. (eds.) 
Social Pedagogy and Working with Children and Young People, p. 141 -1 57. London: Jessica Kingsley 
Publishers. 

23 

 
 
 
                                                 
mature symbolic play has the potential to affect specific literacy and numeracy skills89. This 
is  also  confirmed  by  the  findings  of  international  literature  reviews  highlighting  how 
children’s  developmental  potential  is  optimised  in  contexts  where  learning  is  nurtured 
through  a  reciprocal  and  well-balanced  interaction  between  children-initiated  activities  and 
adult-led educational initiatives90. 

Children’s  self-confidence  improves  and  their  feelings  of  belonging  grow  when  their 
contributions are valued and their views have an impact on the everyday life of the setting. 
Each early childhood education and care curriculum (or set of education guidelines) should 
therefore  acknowledge  the  importance  of,  and  provide  opportunities  for  children  to  make 
sense of and assign meaning to the surrounding world. For this reason children’s play should 
be  at  the  centre  of  any  education  and  care  programme  aimed  at  enhancing  children’s 
learning91. 

Young  children’s  learning  processes  are  highly  dependent  on  their  social  environment,  the 
presence of stable and trusting interaction with other children and adults, as well as free and 
unconditional space and time for play and free expression92. Play in an educational and caring 
context is a part of children’s life where they are able to make autonomous choices. 

5.3.  Ten statements to define quality 

The proposed recommendation invites Member States to improve access to high quality early 
childhood  education  and  care  systems  in  line  with  the  statements  set  out  in  the  'Quality 
framework  for  early  childhood  education  and  care'  presented  in  the  Annex  to  the 
Recommendation. This annex is largely based on the quality framework developed by experts 
in 2014. The following presents the content the Quality Framework’s ten statements. These 
statements  underline  that  high  quality  early  childhood  education  and  care  is  based  on  high 
expectations which require: 

Access to early childhood education and care 

1.  provision that is available and affordable to all families and their children. 

The  potential  benefits  of  high  quality  universal  provision  are  particularly  significant  for 
children from disadvantaged and/or marginalised groups. Early childhood education and care 

89 

90 

91 

92 

Bodrova, E. (2008) Make‐believe play versus academic skills: a Vygotskian approach to today’s dilemma 
of early childhood education, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 16:3, 357-369. 
Van Oers, B. (2010) Emergent mathematical thinking in the context of play. Educational Studies in 
Mathematics, 74(1), 23-37. 
Burger, K. (2014) Effective early childhood care and education: Successful approaches and didactic 
strategies for fostering child development, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, DOI: 
10.1080/1350293X.2014.882076 
Pramling, N. & Pramling Samuelsson, I. Eds. 2011. Educational encounters: Nordic studies in early 
childhood didactics, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. 
Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2009) Conceptualising progression in the pedagogy of play and sustained shared 
thinking in early childhood education: a Vygotskian perspective. Educational and Child Psychology, 26 
(2). p. 77-89; http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2223&context=sspapers Vygotsky, L. 
(2004). Imagination & creativity in childhood. Journal of Russian & East European Psychology 42, (1), p. 
4-84. http://lchc.ucsd.edu/MCA/Mail/xmcamail.2007_07.dir/att-
0503/Vygotsky__Imag___Creat_in_Childhood.pdf Wood, E. (2013). Play, Learning and the Early 
Childhood Curriculum. 3rd edition, Sage: London  

24 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
provision should be made available from birth to the age at which children start compulsory 
primary school. To respond to parental circumstances and encourage all families to use early 
childhood  education  and  care,  services  provision  needs  to  offer  flexibility  in  relation  to 
opening hours and the content of the programme. 

2.  provision  that  encourages  participation,  strengthens  social  inclusion  and 

embraces diversity.  

Successful  inclusion  in  early  childhood  education  and  care  is  based  on:  a  collaborative 
approach  to  promoting  the  benefits  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  which  involves 
local organisations and community groups; approaches which respect and value the beliefs, 
needs and culture of parents; an assurance that all children and families are welcome in the 
setting/centre;  a  pro-active  approach  to  encouraging  all  parents  to  use  early  childhood 
education  and  care  services  a  recognition  that  staff  should  be  trained  to  help  parents  and 
families  to  value  these  services  and  to  assure  them  that  their  beliefs  and  cultures  will  be 
respected  -  this  training  can  be  supported  by  parenting  programmes  which  promote  early 
childhood  education  and  care;  by  close  cooperation  between  the  staff  in  early  childhood 
education and care centres, health and social services, local authorities and the school sector. 

The early childhood education and care workforce 

3.  well-qualified  staff  whose  initial  and  continuing  training  enables  them  to  fulfil 

their professional role 

Recognising  the  early  childhood  education  and  care  workforce  as  professionals  is  key. 
Professional development has a huge impact on the quality of staff pedagogy and children’s 
outcomes.  Developing common education  and training programmes  for all  staff working  in 
an early childhood education and care context (e.g. preschool teachers, assistants, educators, 
family day carers etc.) helps to create a shared agenda and understanding of quality.  

4.  supportive  working  conditions  including  professional  leadership  which  creates 
opportunities  for  observation,  reflection,  planning,  teamwork  and  cooperation 
with parents.  

Good  working  conditions  benefit  staff  and  contribute  to  their  retention.  Policy  measures 
affect the structural quality of early childhood education and care provision including locally-
determined arrangements on the size of a group; children to adult ratios; working hours, and 
wage  levels  which  can  help  to  make  employment  in  an  early  childhood  education  and  care 
context  an  attractive  option.  Good  working  conditions  can  also  reduce  the  constant  and 
detrimental staff turnover in the sector.  

Curriculum  

5.  a  curriculum  based  on  pedagogic  goals,  values  and  approaches  which  enable 

children to reach their full potential in a holistic way. 

Children’s  education  and  care  as  well  as  their  cognitive,  social,  emotional,  physical  and 
language  development  are  important.  The  curriculum  should  set  common  goals,  values  and 
approaches which reflect society’s expectation about the role and responsibilities of settings 
in  encouraging  children’s  development  towards  their  full  potential.  All  children  are  active 
and  capable  learners  whose  diverse  competences  are  supported  by  the  curriculum.  At  the 
same  time  the  implementation  of  the  curriculum  needs  to  be  planned  within  an  open 
framework which acknowledges and addresses the diverse interests and needs of children in a 

25 

 
 
 
 
holistic manner. A well-balanced combination of education and care can promote children’s 
well-being,  positive  self-image,  physical  development  and  their  social  and  cognitive 
development.  Children’s  experiences  and  their  active  participation  are  valued,  and  the 
significance of learning through play is understood and supported. 

6.  a  curriculum  which  requires  staff  to  collaborate  with  children,  colleagues  and 

parents and to reflect on their own practice.  

A curriculum is an important instrument to stimulate the creation of a shared understanding 
and trust between children; and between children, parents and early childhood education and 
care  staff  in  order  to  encourage  development  and  learning.  At  a  system  or  national  level  a 
curriculum can guide the work of all early childhood education and care settings and contexts 
–  and  at  a  local  or  setting  level,  it  can  describe  to  day-to  day  activities  of  the  centre.  An 
essential  factor  in  developing  a  collaborative  approach  to  the  curriculum  is  the  ability  of 
individual  staff  to  analyse  their  own  practice,  identify  what  has  been  effective  and,  in 
partnership with their colleagues, develop new approaches based on evidence. The quality is 
enhanced when staff discuss the implementation of the curriculum within the context of their 
centre/setting and take account of the needs of the children, their parents and the team. The 
curriculum  can  enhance 
through 
experimentation  and  innovation;  and  encouraging  cooperation  with  parents  on  how  early 
childhood education and care provision contributes to supporting children’s development and 
learning.  

this  approach  by  promoting  children’s 

learning 

Monitoring and evaluation 

7.  monitoring  and  evaluating  produces  information  at  the  relevant  local,  regional 
and/or national level to support continuing improvements in the quality of policy 
and practice.  

Systematic monitoring allows for the generation of appropriate information and feedback at 
the relevant local, regional or national level. This information should support open exchange, 
coherent planning, review, evaluation and the development of early childhood education and 
care  in  the  pursuit  of  high  quality  at  all  levels  in  the  system.  Monitoring  and  evaluation  is 
more  effective  when  the  information  collected  at  a  provider  level  is  aligned  with  the 
information collected at a municipal, regional and system level.  

8.  monitoring and evaluation which is in the best interest of the child  

Monitoring  and  evaluation  processes  are  conducted  to  support  children,  families  and 
communities. All stakeholders, including early childhood education and care staff, should be 
engaged  and  empowered  during  the  implementation  of  any  monitoring  and  evaluation 
process. While monitoring can focus on the quality of structures, processes or outcomes, the 
focus  on  the  interest  of  the  child  and  staff  engagement  strengthens  the  need  to  look  at  the 
quality of the processes used in settings. 

Achieving  these  statements  is  easier  if  the  following  governance  arrangements  are  in 
place: 

9.  Stakeholders in the early childhood education and care system have a clear and 
shared understanding of their role and responsibilities, and know that they are 
expected to collaborate with partner organisations.  

26 

 
 
 
 
Given the cross-sectoral nature of early childhood education and care provision government, 
stakeholders  and  social  partners  need  to  work  together  to  secure  the  success  of  services. 
Legislation,  regulation  and  guidance  can  be  used  to  create  clear  expectations  about  the 
importance  of  collaborative  working  which  supports  high  quality  outcomes  for  children, 
families and local communities. 

10. Legislation,  regulation  and/or  funding  supports  progress  towards  a  universal 
legal entitlement to publicly subsidised or funded early childhood education and 
care, and progress is regularly reported to all stakeholders93. 

Structural or legislative arrangements support access to early childhood education and care by 
giving  families  the  right  to  access  affordable  service  provision.  Approaches  which  support 
progress  towards  the  universal  availability  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  recognise 
that providing additional funds to support access for disadvantaged groups can be an effective 
strategy  for  increasing  access  especially  for  children  from  migrant,  disadvantaged  or  low-
income  families.  Monitoring  the  uptake  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  ensures  that 
funding  is  used  effectively.  In  order  to  make  progress  towards  universal  entitlement  to 
provision measures to emphasise the attractiveness and value of these services need to be in 
place. 

5.4. 

Impact of the 2014 Proposal for a Quality Framework  

In  2017  the  Network  of  Experts  on  Social  Aspects  of  Education  and  Training  (NESET  II) 
published  a  report94  on  the  state  of  national  early  childhood  education  and  care  quality 
frameworks (or equivalent strategic policy documents) governing quality in Member States. 
The report shows that the following policy measures, for example, have been used in recent 
years to improve quality: 

 

 

inclusiveness of services and pedagogical approaches (with specific  reference to the 
criteria of availability, affordability, usefulness, comprehensibility and desirability)95; 

improvement of pedagogical practices in a way that is respectful of children’s holistic 
development  and  learning  strategies,  while  simultaneously  being  responsive  to  the 
diversity of children’s needs and potentialities (with specific reference to pedagogical 
guidelines, curricula)96; 

93 

94 

95 

96 

The representatives of the Netherlands to the Group stress the importance of accessibility and freedom of 
choice for parents for ECEC provision. Universal entitlement and progress towards this goal are not 
supported as they do not match the Netherlands' early childhood education and care system. In the 
Netherlands the system combines a demand-driven structure for children aged 0 - 4 and supply-side 
arrangements for all children aged four and up and for children aged 2.5 - 4 from disadvantaged 
backgrounds. This combined system has led to a 90% participation rate for 3 year old children.  
NESET II ad hoc question No. 4/2017, The current state of national ECEC quality frameworks, or 
equivalent strategic policy documents, governing ECEC quality in EU Member States, 
http://nesetweb.eu/wp-content/uploads/AHQ4.pdf  
See in particular current policy developments in Belgium Flanders (from birth to age three, and from the 
age of three to six), Finland, France (from birth to the age of three), Ireland, Italy, Romania (from birth to 
age three), Slovakia (from birth to age six), Scotland, and Portugal (from birth to age three). 
See in particular current policy developments in Finland, France (from birth to age three), Scotland, 
Slovakia, Romania (from birth to age three), Ireland, and Italy.  

27 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
  professionalisation  of  the  early-years’  workforce  (with  specific  reference  to 
professional  preparation,  continuing  professional  development  and  ongoing  support, 
and working conditions)97; 

  processes and tools for monitoring and evaluating curriculum implementation, and for 

sustaining ongoing improvements within a participatory perspective98; 

  governance  and  funding  strategies/schemes  that  allow  for  better  coordination  of 
initiatives  across  different  ministries  and  departments  (especially  in  split  systems), 
that  better  align  with  local  authorities,  that  increase  cross-sectoral  cooperation,  and 
that raise stakeholders’ involvement99. 

In addition to the different initiatives, the report also shows how the Quality Framework was 
shared  in  many  countries  by  local  stakeholders  engaged  in  policy  advocacy,  research  and 
training  initiatives.  In  these  countries,  the  Framework  contributed  to  policy  consultation 
processes  that  sustained  existing  reform  pathways.  The  report  concludes  that  the  Quality 
Framework has played an important role in several Member States100 in triggering reforms or 
sustaining  existing  reforms,  by  guiding  both  policy  consultation  and  advocacy  processes. 
Nevertheless, in most cases the reforms in Member States were not based on, or implemented 
with,  comprehensive  national  or  regional  early  childhood  education  and  care  quality 
frameworks. Available evidence points to a broad array of initiatives and measures that have 
been  put  in  place  (or  are  currently  under  development).  These  have  been  part  of  a  more  or 
less formalised strategy to improve the accessibility and quality of early childhood education 
and care provision, but often have not been covering all the five dimensions of quality. This 
experience shows that the 2014 technical work provides a very good basis, but would benefit 
from being scaled up through a political initiative.  

97 

98 

99 

Belgium Flanders (from birth to age three), France (from birth to age three), Portugal (from birth to age 
three, and ages three to six), Lithuania (from birth to age six), and Italy. 
See in particular current policy developments in Belgium Flanders (from birth to age three), Finland, 
Ireland, Scotland, and Germany. 
See in particular current policy developments in Scotland, Romania (from birth to age three), Portugal, 
Italy, Ireland, and Germany.  

100  The full text of the EU Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education and Care has been translated 
into French, German, Italian and Portuguese, and in parts (summary of key principles and action 
statements or extracts for the purpose of informing policy debates and consultation processes at national 
level) into Dutch, Danish, Slovenian and Romanian, The current state…, p. 7-8. 

28 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
6.  Results from the stakeholder consultation  

Following  the  work  of  the  Thematic  Working  Group,  the  Commission  organised  the  Great 
Start in Life conference101 which brought together experts in early childhood education and 
care  and  primary  education  in  December  2016  to  discuss  challenges  and  further 
implementation.  The  Commission  also  organised  meetings  with  a  small  group  of  early 
childhood  education  and  care  academic  and  policy  experts  from  Member  States  and 
international organisations.  

Their discussions led to the development of a draft set of options to assess the state of play in 
relation  to  the  quality  statements  and  offer  options  to  develop  quality102.  The  list  is  an 
‘toolbox’  from  which  users  are  invited  to  focus,  in  accordance  with  their  legislation  and 
practice, on those indicators or quality factors they consider most relevant to their particular 
systems  and  context.  It  can  be  used  at  national,  regional  or  local  level  and  is  intended  to 
encourage self-assessment and reflection on the quality in early childhood education and care 
provision and to offer support in assessing the performance of their early childhood education 
and care systems (for more information see chapter 8). 

The need to improve the provision of early childhood education and care was also highlighted 
in  the  stakeholder  consultations  on  the  Work-Life  Balance  initiative.  In  the  public 
consultation  held  in  preparation  of  the  initiative,  organisations  responded  that  the  highest 
priority in order to improve work-life balance and female labour market participation is the 
availability  of  childcare103.  In  their  dedicated  two-stage  consultation,  social  partners  also 
insisted  on  the  importance  of  early  childhood  education  and  care.  In  their  respective 
responses  BusinessEurope  stated  that  “childcare  facilities  are  actually  an  essential 
precondition to progress on work-life balance”104 and ETUC underlined that “family-related 
leave  and  flexible  working  arrangements  should  be  combined  with  the  availability, 
affordability, accessibility and quality of early childhood education”105. 

On 31 January 2018, DG Education and Culture organised a consultation meeting for  early 
childhood  education  and  care  stakeholders.  The  one-day  meeting  was  attended  by  50 
participants and provided an opportunity to discuss the quality framework, the draft quality 
factors,  and  first  ideas  for  a  Commission  proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  high 
quality early childhood education and care systems. Participants represented a wide range of 
civil  society  organisations  as  well  as  representatives  from  Member  States.  They  were 
covering  organisations  working  in  the  field  of  education  and  lifelong  learning;  child 
protection  and  child  rights,  parent  and  family  associations,  social  inequalities  networks, 
special educational and disabilities agencies and teacher unions. 

The discussion focused on whether: 

 

 

the  Commission’s  analysis  of  the  current  situation  in  early  childhood  education  and 
care was correct; 

the  Commission  services'  first  ideas  were  appropriate  and  likely  to  be  effective  in 
supporting reflection on the quality of early childhood education and care systems. 

See Section 8  

101  A Great Start in Life conference https://ec.europa.eu/education/great-start-in-life_en. 
102 
103  European Commission, Report on the public consultation: “Working Carers in the EU”, October 2016 
104  BusinessEurope, Addressing the challenges of work-life balance faced by working parents and caregivers 

– BusinessEurope’s response to second stage social partners’ consultation, 30.09.2016 

105  ETUC Position on the Second Stage Consultation of the social partners at European Level under Article 

154 TFEU on possible action addressing the challenges of work-life balance faced by working parents and 
caregiver, 28.09.2016 

29 

 
 
                                                 
Overall, the stakeholders welcomed the work which had led to the production of the Quality 
Framework  and  many  stakeholders  agreed  with  the  intention  to  further  develop  the  work 
through  a  proposed  Council  Recommendation.  It  was  though  remarked  that  the  Quality 
Framework  sets  out  a  minimum standard and that Member States  could be  encouraged and 
supported to go further in developing high quality. Stakeholders asked for clear links to the 
UN’s Sustainable Development Goals106 and the European Semester107 process. 

The  list  of  indicators  or  quality  factors  in  relation  to  the  proposed  Recommendation  was 
presented to participants, highlighting that the purpose was to support system-level reflection 
and policy development and that the proposed list was not intended to facilitate international 
comparisons.  On  this  basis,  there  was  consensus  amongst  stakeholders  that  such  quality 
factors appeared to be useful as one way for those with responsibility for the early childhood 
education and care system(s) to evaluate the quality of provision.  

There were a number of detailed comments and recommendation such as 

  strengthen the voice and perspective of the child; 

  be explicit about those groups which are included in a general term ‘disadvantaged’. 
This  could  include  children  with  disabilities,  children  with  a  migrant  or  ethnic 
background, children from economically vulnerable families etc.; 

  make an explicit reference to inclusivity e.g. a clearer way of measuring the provision 

for children with special educational needs; 

  highlight the value of learning through play; 

  highlight the importance of parents; 

  highlight the benefits of early childhood education and care – these are not only to be 

seen in relation to preparedness for compulsory schooling and lifelong learning; 

  clarify that the list of quality factors refers to accredited provision. 

On  the  main  dimensions  of  the  quality  framework,  stakeholders  made  the  following 
comments: 

Access 

Throughout the discussion in the stakeholder meeting there was a strong desire to ensure that 
any  recommendation  would  made  explicit  references  to  priority  groups  e.g.  those  with 
linguistic  diversity;  children  from  migrant  or  asylum  backgrounds;  children  with  special 
needs; children living in rural areas or more deprived city neighbourhoods etc. Access is also 
enhanced  when  there  is  a  strong  role  for  parents,  and  parents  are  empowered  to  work  with 
early childhood education and care and other staff.  

To  support  improvements  in  access  stakeholders  highlighted  the  importance  of  organising 
services  around  the  needs  of  each  child.  Integrating  services  (particularly  those  concerned 
with health and social services) can support the different needs of children. 

There was agreement that the focus should be on all children. There was a strong view that it 
was  important  to  be  specific  about  which  individual  groups  of  children  were  covered  by 
references to ‘disadvantaged groups’. The stakeholders’ experiences highlighted the need for 

106  United Nations, Sustainable Development Goals, 17 Goals to Transform our World, 
http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/  

107  The European Semester 2018, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/news/european_semester_2018.html  

30 

 
 
                                                 
specific groups of children (or families) to be named or referenced in order to ensure they are 
not forgotten. 

Some  stakeholders  raised  the  importance  of  the  urban/rural  divide  on  the  availability  and 
quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  –  this  is  a  particular  issue  in  some  Central 
European  Member  States.  There  are  infrastructure  issues  in  rural  areas  which  lead  to 
significant  barriers  to  early  childhood  education  and  care  access  and  the  recruitment  and 
training of staff. These differences can also be seen in different parts of some cities; 

In  addition,  there  is  a  need  for  childcare  provision  which  supports  a  diverse  range  of 
provision  and  be  flexible  enough  to  reflect  the  real  lives  of  the  families  who  rely  on  these 
facilities  locally  and  address  their  needs  (including  emergency  childcare,  drop-in,  part-time 
babysitting services, out-of-hours childcare, employer supported childcare etc.) 

Workforce 

The stakeholders highlighted the importance of qualifications as a key determinant of quality 
and  the  group  welcomed  the  strong  emphasis  on  the  workforce,  their  qualifications  and 
professional  development.  There  was  one  request  to  including  a  reference  to  these  level  of 
these  qualifications  e.g.  EQF  Level  6.  In  addition  the  value  of  including  early  childhood 
education and care assistants in the draft proposal was emphasised. 

A number of issues were raised in relation to the workforce. These included comments on: 

 

 

 

 

the  value  of  facilitating  ongoing  professional  development  which  includes  time  for 
reflection, speaking to parents and access to research; 

the prevalence of high staff turnover rates and a tendency (in some systems) to rely on 
staff with relatively low qualifications; 

the  low  status  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  compared  to  other  roles  with 
children and young people; 

the differences in pay between staff working in the early childhood education and care 
and the primary school sector. 

Curriculum  

There was discussion on whether to use the term ‘curriculum’ to describe the education and 
care  provision  in  early  childhood  education  and  care.  For  some  ‘curriculum’  was  felt  to 
suggest something which lacked flexibility, playfulness and overemphasised education rather 
than care. For other stakeholders a ‘curriculum’ could be flexible and had the advantage of 
being a well-known and widely used term. 

There was a request to ensure that any Recommendation should acknowledge the connections 
and the balance between education and care. For a few stakeholders it was also important to 
include connections to other services and sectors which are potentially involved in a child’s 
life e.g. health care, social work etc. 

Stakeholders raised the question of school readiness and the extent to which early childhood 
education and care should focus on preparing children for the next stage of their education. 
There was agreement that  early childhood education and care needs to prepare children  for 
school but it is equally important for early childhood education and care to be strengthened in 
its own right, focus on the needs of children, and include age-specific objectives and goals.  

Various stakeholders commented that the Quality Framework should have a greater emphasis 
on play based learning as this is how young children develop best. 

31 

 
 
Evaluation and Monitoring 

The stakeholders noted the importance of ensuring there are systems in place to monitor the 
outputs of the quality assurance process – this helps to judge the success of particular quality 
assurance  methods.  However,  there  was  a  range  of  opinions  on  the  relative  importance  of 
focusing  on  outputs  or  outcomes;  and  some  stakeholders  wanted  a  greater  focus  on  the 
quality  assurance  of  the  input  to  early  childhood  education  and  care.  Despite  different 
priorities, there was agreement on the need for independent and long term evaluations of the 
quality assurance processes; 

Governance and Funding 

The  stakeholders  underlined  the  importance  of  investing  in  the  sector,  particularly  as  there 
has been a period of low investment following the 2008 financial crisis. They pointed out to 
the  need  to  reconcile  the  tension  between  the  affordability  of  high  quality  early  childhood 
education and care provision and the rights of all children. 

32 

 
 
 
 
7.  Evidence supporting the five dimensions of the Quality Framework  

7.1.  Access 

Generalised and equitable access to early childhood education and care is an essential feature 
of  good  quality  provision  which  contributes  to  reducing  the  attainment  gap108.  Research 
shows  that  the  beneficial  effects  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  attendance  are 
stronger for children in poverty and from minority ethnic groups when there is a context of 
universal  provision109.  Despite  the  consensus  among  researchers  and  policy  makers  at  an 
international  level110  it  is  well  documented  that  children  from  minority  ethnic  groups  and 
low‐income families are less likely to be enrolled in early childhood education and care. It is 
important for access to take account of the  Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European 
Union111  to  ensure  all  children  are  able  to  use  early  childhood  education and  care  services. 
Eurydice112  has  reported  that  that  most  Member  States  have  committed  themselves  to 
providing a place for all children either by establishing a legal entitlement to early childhood 
education and care or by making attendance compulsory for at least the pre-primary year. 
Eurofound113  identified  that  the  main  obstacles  which  hinder  attendance  are  cost  (59%  of 
respondents) and availability of provision (58% of respondents), followed by organisational 
arrangements  such  as  access,  distance  and  the  opening  hours  of  facilities  (41%  of 
respondents). These obstacles have been confirmed in research in Member States e.g. 

 

the cost of provision is a barrier in most countries and is specifically salient to those 
countries in which early childhood education and care provision is largely marketised, 
such  as  Ireland,  the  UK  and  the  Netherlands114.  It  is  to  be  noted  the  cost  is  more 
significant in low-income households. In France, for example, 64% of households in 
the top  income quintile use  childcare services compared with  15%  of households in 
the  bottom  quintile.  The  situation  is  similar  in  other  countries  where  the  childcare 
participation  rate  is  significant,  such  as  Belgium,  Finland  and  Ireland,  but  also  in 

108  Havnes, T. and Mogstad, M. (2011) No Child Left Behind: Subsidized Child Care and Children's Long-
Run Outcomes. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 3(2): 97–129; Felfe, C. and Lalive, R. 
(2011) How Does Early Childcare Affect Child Development? Learning from the Children of German 
Unification. CESifo Area Conference on Economics of Education: Center for Economics Studies; Del 
Boca, D. (2010) Child poverty and child well-being in the European Union: policy overview and policy 
impact analysis. A case study: Italy. Budapest & Brussels: TARKI-Applica. 
http://www.tarki.hu/en/research/childpoverty/report/child_poverty_final%20report_jan2010.pdf  
109  Eurydice (2009) Tackling social and cultural inequalities through early childhood education and care in 

Europe. Brussels: EACEA. http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/about/eurydice/documents/098EN.pdf  

110  European Commission (2011) Early Childhood Education and Care: Providing all our children with the 

best start for the world of tomorrow,  

111  Charter Of Fundamental Rights Of The European Union, 

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf : Article 21 states that any discrimination based on 
any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, 
political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual 
orientation shall be prohibited. 

112  European Commission; Eurydice (2014) Key data on Early Childhood Education and Care in Europe 

http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5785249/EC-01-14-484-EN.PDF/cbdf1804-a139-43a9-
b8f1-ca5223eea2a1  

113  Eurofound (2012) Third European Quality of Life Survey - Quality of life in Europe: Impacts of the crisis. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 

114  Noailly, J., Visser, S., & Grout, P. (2007). The impact of market forces on the provision of childcare: 

Insights from the 2005 Childcare Act in the Netherlands. CPB Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy 
Analysis. 

33 

 
 
                                                 
countries where the childcare rate is lower. Conversely, in Denmark the childcare rate 
is very high among households in the bottom quintile115; 

the  availability  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  provision  which  tends  to  be 
unequally distributed in urban and rural  areas, in affluent  and poor  neighbourhoods, 
and  across  regions.  This  situation  seems  to  be  particularly  exacerbated  for  0-3 
provision in the context of split systems116; 

the inflexibility of early childhood education and care facilities in relation to opening 
hours117  and  bureaucratic  enrolment  procedures  (e.g.  waiting  lists,  monolingual 
information  leaflets  and  forms  to  be  filled  out  etc.)  which  are  a  major  deterrent  to 
participation especially for minority ethnic families or marginalised groups118; 

the presence of rationing criteria that, in situations where there is a lack of provision, 
might  give  priority  to  children  whose  parents  are  in  employment  or  to  those  who 
subscribe early to waiting lists119.  

 

 

 

The  research  also  highlights  that  –  along  with  structural  conditions  –  less  visible  barriers 
might  act  as  a  deterrent  to  participation,  especially  for  children  and  families  with  a 
disadvantaged background. These barriers are: 

 

the  unintended  benefits  generated  by  social  distribution  mechanisms  within  family 
policies (this includes the criteria for distributing public subsidies to early childhood 
education and care providers, for establishing income-related enrolment fees and tax-
deductions)  that  –  especially  in  liberal  and  residual  welfare  states  favour  the  more 
advantaged families at the expense of low-income families120; 

 

the  lack  of  trust  in  professional  education  and  care  that  is  generated  when  early 
childhood education and care provision does not match families’ goals and values in 
relation, for example, to cultural childrearing practices and bilingual development121.  
Research  from  Member  States122  (as  set  out  above)  emphasises  the  need  to  address  the 
barriers that prevent families and children from participating in early childhood education and 
care.  These  barriers  include  structural  conditions  (availability,  affordability  and  delivery  of 

115  EU-SILC, 2010.  
116  Bennett, J. and Moss P. 2011. Working for inclusion: how early childhood education and care and its 

workforce can help Europe’s youngest citizens. https://childreninscotland.org.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2017/09/FINALWFIA4Reportv1.3.pdf   

117  Wall, K. and José S. J. (2004) Managing work and care: a difficult challenge for immigrant families. 

Social Policy and Administration, 38(6), 591‐62. 

118  OSCE (2010) Mapping of participation of Roma and Sinti children in early education processes within the 

OSCE region. https://www.osce.org/odihr/73874  

119  Vandenbroeck, M., De Visscher S., van Nuffel, K. and Ferla J. (2008) Mothers’ search for infant child 
care: the dynamic relationship between availability and desirability in a continental European welfare 
state. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(2), 245‐258. 

120  Ghysels, J. & Van Lanker, W. (2011) The unequal benefits of activation: an analysis of the social 

distribution of family policies among families with young children. Journal of European Social Policies, 
21, 472‐85; Hynes, B. O. D. and Hayes, N. (2011) Who benefits from early childcare subsidy design in 
Ireland? Journal of Poverty and Social Justice, 19(3): 277-288. 2011. 

121  Leseman, P. (2002). Early childhood education and care for children from low income and minority 

122 

backgrounds. Paper presented to OECD, Oslo, June 2002. www.oecd.org/dataoecd/48/15/1960663.pdf  
See for example Michel Vandenbroeck & Arianna Lazzari (2014) Accessibility of early childhood 
education and care: a state of affairs, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 22:3, 327-
335, DOI: 10.1080/1350293X.2014.912895  

34 

 
 
                                                 
provision)  and  socio-cultural  aspects  that  are  directly  linked  to  the  pedagogical  approaches 
and educational practices in the services.  

The recent increase in refugees and asylum seekers across Europe has led many countries to 
struggle  to  address  their  basic  reception  needs  and  provide  effective  integration  services. 
Young  children  comprise  a  substantial  share  of  these  arrivals,  and  many  have  experienced 
significant  trauma  and  stress  that  pose  serious  risks  to  their  cognitive,  psychosocial,  and 
physical development.  Early childhood education and care  can  provide an important means 
by  which  receiving  countries  can  mitigate  many  of  the  risks  these  young  children  face, 
thereby  boosting  their  education  and  career  trajectories  and  supporting  longer-term 
integration  success.  In  addition,  the  promotion  of  EU  fundamental  values  such  as  gender 
equality is crucial to ensure solid and sustainable integration in Europe. Since parents engage 
with  these  services  on  behalf  of  their  children,  such  programmes  provide  an  important 
opportunity  to  reach  out  to  and  promote  the  successful  integration  of  refugee  parents  and 
families more generally123. 

7.2.  Workforce  

Both  cross-sectional  and  longitudinal  studies  agree  that  staff  qualifications  matter  and  that 
higher  teacher  qualifications  are  related  to  improvements  in  supporting  children’s 
development,  including  those  related  to  supervision  and  the  scheduling  of  activities, 
organization and arrangement of the room, providing varied social experiences for children, 
and  creating  a  warm  and  friendly  environment  for  interactions124.  Higher  levels  of 
preparation  correlate  positively  with  better  childcare  quality  as  well  as  with  better 
developmental outcomes for children125. The 2006 Starting Strong report from the OECD126 
also  concludes  that:  ‘Research  from  many  countries  supports  the  view  that  quality  in  the 
early-childhood field requires adequate training and fair working conditions. Research shows 
the link between strong training and support of staff and the quality of services. In particular, 
staff who have more formal education and more specialised early-childhood training provide 
more stimulating, warm and supportive interactions with children’ (OECD, 2006, p. 158). 

There is broad consensus in literature around the required level of qualification for the core 
professional.  ‘Teachers  with  at  least  a  bachelor’s  degree  in  early  childhood  or  child 

123 

Park, Maki, Caitlin Katsiaficas, and Margie McHugh. 2018. Responding to Early Childhood Education 
and Care Needs of Young Children of Refugees and Asylum Seekers: A Comparison of Policies and 
Practices in Nine Receiving Countries. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. 

124  Manning, M., et al.(2017). The relationship between teacher qualification and the quality of the early 

childhood care and learning environment. Campbell Systematic Reviews, quoted in: Mitter, R. & Putcha, 
V. (2018). Strengthening and Supporting the Early Childhood Workforce: Training and Professional 
Development. Washington, D.C.: Results for Development,  

125  Clarke-Stewart, K.; et al;. (2002). Do regular features of child-care homes affect children's development? 
Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 17(1), 52-86.; and Early, D., ; et al. (2007). Teachers' education, 
classroom quality, and young children's academic skills: results from seven studies of preschool programs. 
Child Development, 78(2), 558-580.; and Fukkink, R. G., & Lont, A. (2007). Does training matter? A 
meta-analysis and review of caregiver training studies. [Review]. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 
22(3), 294-311. 

126  OECD (2006). Starting Strong II, Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris. 

https://www.unicef.org/lac/spbarbados/Implementation/ECD/StartingStrongII_OECD_2006.pdf Peeters, 
J. (2008a). The Construction of a new Profession. A European perspective on professionalism in ECEC. 

35 

 
 
 
                                                 
development, or both, provided more appropriate care giving, were more sensitive and were 
less detached than teachers with vocational training or less’127. 

In  academic  literature,  the  correlations  between  staff  qualifications  and  children’s 
developmental outcomes – mostly cognitive – have also been measured. There is a consensus 
in  these  studies  that  the  level  of  qualification  positively  correlates  with  the  outcomes  in 
children: better ‘pre-academic skills’, including language development128.  

Despite  the  consensus  on  the  importance  of  initial  training,  there  is  little  research  on  the 
content and format of this initial training. Interesting studies in this domain have been carried 
out  within  several  Italian  Universities  in  the  context  of  the  introduction  of  a  4-year 
compulsory  degree  for the primary  and  pre-primary teaching129. These  highlight  the central 
role played by specific activities – such as practicum and workshops – for the development of 
the  competences  of  future  teachers  and  educators.  The  strength  of  the  workshops,  in 
particular, has been identified as bridging theory (university lectures) and practice (practicum 
experience  in  nursery  schools)  by  promoting  an  alternative  approach  to  the  construction  of 
knowledge through the active involvement of students in project work activities. More recent 
work  by  the  International  Step  by  Step  Association  (ISSA)130  has  suggested  that  it  is  the 
quality of the training programme (rather than the qualification) which may be a more critical 
factor  in  a  teacher’s  ability  to  influence  children’s  development  and  learning  in  a  positive 
way.  

The relationship between quality and staff qualification depends on the interaction of multiple 
factors131, such as:  

 

 

 

the content of training programmes (curriculum design); 

the  delivery  of  training  programmes  (the  strategies  that  are  used  to  combine  theory 
and practice); 

the  contextual  conditions  provided  by  the  settings  where  training  interventions  take 
place (e.g. availability of non-contact time, team work, or supervision). 

Fundamental aspects of effective initial training are: investing in reflective competences, co-
reflecting  on  practice  in-group,  with  the  support  of  pedagogical  guidance,  balancing  theory 
and practice and appropriate planning of content132. Staff qualifications and training can only 
deliver  positive  effects  if  the  content  was  well  adjusted  and  when  working  conditions  (e.g. 
adult:  child  ratio  and  group  size)  allow  professionals  to  make  use  of  their  competences133. 
Recent work by NESET134 has highlighted the professionalisation of staff as one of the key 

127  Cassidy, D. J.; et al. (1995). The effect of education on child-care teachers beliefs and classroom quality - 

year one evaluation of the teach early-childhood associate degree scholarship program. Early Childhood 
Research Quarterly, 10(2), 171-183. 

128  Clarke-Stewart, K.; et al;. (2002). Do regular features of child-care homes affect children's development? 

Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 17(1), 52-86.; 

129  Torre, E.; Ricchiardi, P.; & Coggi, C.; (2007). Le competenze dell’insegnante: strumenti e percorsi di 

autovalutazione. Trento: Erickson. 

130  Training and Professional Development – executive summary, 2018. https://issa.nl/node/388 
131  Vandenbroeck, M ; Urban, M. Peeters, J.; (2016) Pathways towards professionalism in ECEC. London: 

Routledge. 

132  Lazarri, A.; Peeters, J.; Vandenbroeck, M.; (2013). The early years workforce: A review of European 

research and good practices on working with children from poor and migrant families  

133  Eurofound (2015) Working conditions, training of early childhood care workers and quality of services – 

A systematic review, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 
https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ef_publication/field_ef_document/ef1469en.pdf  
Sharmahd N., Peeters J., Van Laere K., Vonta T., De Kimpe C., Brajković S., Contini L., Giovannini D.,.; 
Transforming  European  ECEC  services  and  primary  schools  into  professional  learning  communities: 

134 

36 

 
 
                                                 
issues requiring further work in early childhood education and care. It calls for strong support 
of practitioners/teachers and emphasises the need to  enhance their training by ensuring  that 
both  initial  education  and  continuous  professional  development  are  well  established  and 
combine subject matter, socio-pedagogy and practice. Investing in reflexivity is recognised as 
a  fundamental  part  of  this  approach,  especially  when  it  means  co-reflecting  on  practice  in-
group,  with  the  support  of  pedagogical  guidance.  Co-reflection  is  also  seen  as  a  way  to 
empower educational staff in dealing with the growing diversity of children and families and 
in  highlighting  the  importance  of  taking  into  account  diverse  backgrounds  and  experiences 
when it comes to recruiting educational staff, since the different backgrounds among the staff 
would support negotiation. 
Eurofound135  has  analysed 
training,  working  conditions, 
interactions  between  staff  and  children,  and  outcomes  for  children.  Their  conclusions  shed 
some  light  on  the  impact  that  adequate  working  conditions  and  training  opportunities 
(including continuous professional development interventions lasting over a year, integrated 
into practice, such as pedagogical guidance and coaching in reflection groups)136, have on the 
quality  of  service  and  on  the  interactions  between  staff  and  children.  This  is  all  the  more 
important  as  the  experiences,  training  and  qualification  of  staff  working  in  early  childhood 
education and care services are very diverse across Member States137. 

the  relationships  between 

It  has  been  widely  demonstrated  in  international  research  that  staff  working  conditions  and 
professional  development  are  essential  components  of  quality138  and  that  such  quality 
components are linked to children’s cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. Recent research 
conducted within the OECD quality project stresses that there is strong evidence to suggest 
that  better  educated  staff  are  more  likely  to  provide  high  quality  pedagogy  and  stimulating 
learning environments, which in turn, foster children’s development leading to better learning 
outcomes139.  

The  professional  competence  of  staff  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  salient  indicators  of 
quality especially in ensuring higher process quality. In this sense, effective educators nurture 
children’s  development  by  creating  rich  and  stimulating  early  learning  environments,  by 
intentionally  sustaining  shared  thinking  and  logical  reasoning  in  social  interactions,  by 
valuing children’s initiatives for extending their learning opportunities140. In turn, significant 

drivers, barriers and ways forward, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European 
Union, 2017. 

135  Eurofound (2015), Sixth European Survey on Working Conditions, 

https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/surveys/european-working-conditions-surveys/sixth-european-
working-conditions-survey-2015 

136  Mitter, R. & Putcha, V. (2018). Strengthening and Supporting the Early Childhood Workforce 
137  Urban, M, Vandenbroeck, M., Peeters, J., Lazzari, A. and Van Laere, K. (2011) CoRe: Competence 

Requirements in Early Childhood Education and Care;. European Commission; Eurydice (2014) Key data 
on ECEC http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5785249/EC-01-14-484-EN.PDF/cbdf1804-
a139-43a9-b8f1-ca5223eea2a1 

138  OECD (2012a) Research brief: working conditions matter. www.oecd.org/edu/school/49322250.pdf 
OECD (2012b) Research brief: Qualifications, education and professional development matters. 
www.oecd.org/education/school/49322232.pdf; ;CoRe: Competence Requirements in Early Childhood 
Education and Care,  

139  Litjens, I. and Taguma, M. (2010) Literature overview for the 7th meeting of the OECD Network on Early 

140 

Childhood Education and Care. OECD: Paris. 
Sylva, K., Melhuish, E. C., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004) The Effective 
Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project. Effective Pre-School Education. London: DfES / 
Institute of Education: University of London. http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/8543/7/SSU-SF-2004-01.pdf ; 

37 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                        
positive  relationships  between  early  childhood  education  and  care  quality  and  children’s 
educational achievement have been found in international research findings141.  

Research  also  shows  that  the  ongoing  professionalisation  of  staff  is  a  key  element  in 
guaranteeing  children‘s  positive  outcomes  although  it  seems  clear  that  it  is  not  staff 
professional development per se that has an impact, but rather that the effects depend on the 
content  and  delivery  mode  of  the  training142.  Research  shows  that  professionalisation 
initiatives  that  actively  involve  practitioners  in  designing  the  content  of  the  training  –  by 
addressing issues that arise out of their everyday practices – and activities that support them 
throughout the process of reflecting and collectively re-devising practices might be the most 
successful143.  Evidence144  has  shown  that  long-term  CPD  interventions  integrated  into 
practice,  such  as  pedagogical  guidance  and  coaching  in  reflection  groups,  proved  to  be 
effective  not  only  in  countries  with  a  well-established  system  of  early  childhood  education 
and  care  provision  and  a  high  level  of  qualification  requirements  for  the  practitioners,  but 
also in countries with poorly subsidised early childhood education and care systems and low 
qualification  requirements.  CPD  initiatives  based  on  the  active  engagement  of  practitioners 
and on peer exchanges within a shared scientific framework, proved to be the most effective. 

Moreover, access to training and professional development is often limited for staff working 
with  the youngest children. Those working  with children in the 0  –  3 age  group,  and those 
working  as  care-givers  or  teacher-assistants,  typically  receive  less  training  than  core  early 
childhood educators145. 

In this respect, investing in the professionalization of childcare assistants is a key element for 
quality  improvement  in  early  childhood  education  and  care.  Assistants  remain  largely 
invisible  workers  in  research,  even  though  they  sometimes  form  a  high  share  of  the 
workforce in childcare. With little or no initial qualifications, assistants should be offered real 
opportunities to qualify and develop professionally, including job mobility opportunities, and 
be  given  more  (paid  non-contact)  time  for  reflecting  together  on  pedagogical  practice  as  a 
team as well as for continuous in-service training. Otherwise, the risk is a division between 
care  (considered  as  a  set  of  merely  technical  tasks)  and  education  (restricted  to  cognitive 
development). Such an approach would fail to recognize both the educational value of caring 

Pramling, N. and Pramling Samuelsson, I. (2011). Education Encounters: Nordic studies in early 
childhood didactics. Dordrecht: Springer. 
Pešikan A. and Ivić, I. (2009) Education against poverty: Analysis of effects of Preschool Preparatory 
Programmes introduction in Serbia. Belgrade: Ministry of Education of Republic of Serbia; Sylva, K., 
Melhuish, E. C., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2004) The Effective Provision of Pre-
School Education (EPPE) Project. Effective Pre-School Education. London: DfES / Institute of Education: 
University of London. http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/8543/7/SSU-SF-2004-01.pdf  
Fukkink, R. G., & Lont, A. (2007) Does training matter? Meta-analysis and review of caregiver training 
studies. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22 (3), 294-311. 

141 

142 

143  Bleach, J. (2013) Using action research to support quality early years practice. European Early Childhood 
Education Research Journal, 21 (3), 370–379; Peeters J. and Vandenbroeck, M. (2010) ‘Childcare 
practitioners and the process of professionalization.’ In Miller, L. and Cable, C. (2010) 
Professionalization, Leadership and Management in the Early Years. London: Sage; Vujicic, L. (2008) 
‘Research and Improvement of One's own Practice – Way to Development of Teachers'/preschool 
teachers' Practical Competence.’ In Žogla, I. (2008) Teacher of the 21st century: Quality Education for 
Quality Teaching. Riga: University of Latvia Press. 
Peleman B.; et al.; (2017) Continuous professional development and ECEC quality: Findings from a 
European systematic literature review 

144 

145  Mitter, R. & Putcha, V. (2018). Strengthening and Supporting the Early Childhood Workforce 

38 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                        
and the caring role of education and reinforce the hierarchical division between education and 
care146. 

Other research evidence points out that quality requires not only a competent practitioner but 
also  a  competent  system  that  sustains  and  contributes  to  the  ongoing  professionalisation  of 
staff in relation to changing societal needs147. Along this line, it has been demonstrated that 
short term in-service training courses, which are often based on acquiring specific knowledge 
or techniques, have a very limited impact on the improvement of pedagogical practice148. 

Similarly, international research on the impact of staff working conditions shows a clear link 
between  the  staff  to  child  ratio,  group  size,  wages  and  early  childhood  education  and  care 
quality.  These,  have  a  positive  impact  on  children’s  outcomes.  At  the  same  time,  research 
findings stress the complex interplay between working conditions and this makes it difficult 
to  disentangle  the  effects  of  each  particular  characteristic149.  As  reported  in  comparative 
studies  and  reviews150,  no-single  component  of  structural  quality  associated  with  working 
conditions has – on its own – a significant impact on quality. It is the combination of several 
components  –  related  to  staff  working  conditions  –  that  produces  quality.  And  a  different 
balance  is  needed  in  different  countries.  It  is  therefore  argued  that,  in  planning  for  quality 
improvements, many structural characteristics need to be considered simultaneously, with an 
understanding  of  how  each  structural  characteristic  has  an  impact  on  quality  within  each 
national system. 

Building  on  this  body  of  research  and  in  consultation  with  national  stakeholder 
representatives,  the  International  Labour  Organisation  has  released  policy  guidelines  on  the 
‘Promotion of decent working conditions for early childhood education personnel’ (2014)151. 
This  recognises  the  crucial  role  of  the  early  childhood  workforce  in  achieving  high  quality 
early  childhood  education  and  care  provision  for  all;  and  underlines  that  a  greater  focus 
should be placed on improving the professional development, status and working conditions 
of  personnel.  As  emphasised  in  the  research  overview  carried  out  by  Bennett  and  Moss 

146 

Professionalisation of Childcare Assistants in ECEC Pathways towards Qualification (2016) Neset II, 
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jan_Peeters/publication/308919431_Professionalisation_of_Childcar
e_Assistants_in_Early_Chilhood_Education_and_Care_Pathways_towards_Qualification_NESET_II_An
alytical_Report/links/57f79c4008ae886b89834722/Professionalisation-of-Childcare-Assistants-in-Early-
Chilhood-Education-and-Care-Pathways-towards-Qualification-NESET-II-Analytical-Report.pdf 
147  CoRe: Competence Requirements in Early Childhood Education and Care; Lazzari, A., Picchio, M., and 
Musatti, T. (2013). Sustaining ECEC quality through continuing professional development: systemic 
approaches to practitioners’ professionalisation in the Italian context. Early Years: an International journal 
of research and development. Special issue: ‘Continuing professional development and the early years 
workforce’, 33 (2), 133-145. 
Pianta, R. C., Mashburn, A. J., Downer, J. T., Hamre, B. K., & Justice, L. (2008) Effects of web-mediated 
professional development resources on teacher-child interaction in pre-kindergarten classrooms. Early 
Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(4), 431-451. 

148 

149  OECD (2012a) Research brief: working conditions matter,  
150  Munton, T., Mooney, A., Moss, P., Petrie, P., Clark, A., Woolner, J., et al. (2002). Research on ratios, 

group size and staff qualifications and training in early years and childcare settings. TCRU: University of 
London. Commissioned by the Department for Education and Skills; Cryer, D., Tietze, W., Burchinal, M., 
Leal, T., & Palacios, J. (1999). Predicting process quality from structural quality in preschool programs: A 
cross-country comparison. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(3), 339-361. 
ILO (2014) Policy guidelines on the promotion of decent working conditions for early childhood 
education personnel. Geneva. www.ilo.org/sector/Resources/codes-of-practice-and-
guidelines/WCMS_236528/lang--en/index.htm  

151 

39 

 
 
                                                 
(2011)152  within  the  Working  for  Inclusion  project,  the  workforce  is  central  to  early 
childhood education and care provision as it accounts for the greater part of the total cost of 
early  childhood  services  and  is  the  major  factor  in  determining  children’s  experiences  and 
their outcomes. For these reasons how staff are recruited, trained and treated is critical for the 
quality of early childhood services and for the inclusion of all children.  

7.3.  Curriculum  

There  is  a  consensus  among  researchers  and  policy  makers  that  the  development  of  early 
childhood  education  and  care  curricula  can  be  regarded  as  a  powerful  tool  to  improve  the 
pedagogical quality of services attended by young children from birth to compulsory school 
age153. In fact the presence of an explicit curriculum which provides clear purposes, goals and 
approaches for the education and care of young children within a coherent framework154 can 
significantly support the role of practitioners in creating effective learning environments that 
successfully  nurture  children’s  cognitive  and  socio-emotional  development,  therefore 
maximising their gains from early childhood education and care attendance. 

Across  Europe  there  are  many  similarities  in  relation  to  the  design  and  implementation  of 
each early childhood education and care curriculum155, although the cultural values and wider 
understanding  of  childhood  differ  in  each  country  state,  region  and  programme.  Despite  a 
large  consensus  on  the  broad  developmental  domains  that  are  addressed  in  early  childhood 
education and care – which cover emotional, personal and social development, language and 
communication, knowledge and understanding of the surrounding world, creative expression 
and physical development and movement – significant differences exists on the space that is 
given to academic learning156.  

In some countries literacy and numeracy take a dominant position and, despite the broadening 
of the scope of the curriculum, children’s early learning experiences tend  be predominantly 
focused  toward  preparation  for  compulsory  schooling  (school  readiness).  By  contrast, 
curricula in other countries tend to be reluctant to introduce formalised learning experiences 
in  the  early  years.  A  broader  holistic  approach  promoting  children’s  cognitive  and  non-
cognitive  development  –  through  experiential  learning,  play  and  social  interactions  –  is 
understood as more appropriate for fulfilling children’s learning potential.  

In this context research evidence shows that putting academic learning at the forefront does 
not  pay-off157.  In  fact,  according  to  the  findings  of  the  EPPI  study  in  relation  to  effective 

152  Working for inclusion: how early childhood education and care and its workforce can help Europe’s 

youngest citizens 

153  Rayna, S., & Laevers, F. (2011). Understanding children from 0 to 3 years of age and its implications for 
education. What's new on the babies' side? Origins and evolutions. European Early Childhood Education 
Research Journal, 19(2), 161-172; Oberhumer, P. 2005. International Perspectives on Early Childhood 
Curricula. International Journal of Early Childhood, 37(1), 27-38. UNICEF (2012) Draft document of 'A 
framework and tool box for monitoring and improving quality'. 

154  Bertrand, 2007 quoted in OECD (2012), Starting Strong III: A Quality Toolbox for Early Childhood 

155 

Education and Care, OECD. 
Paul Leseman’s presentation at the meeting of the thematic working group on ECEC (18-9-2013, 
Brussels) Utrecht University. 

156  Laevers, F. (2005) The curriculum as means to raise the quality of early childhood education. Implications 

for policy, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 13:1, 17-29. 

157  OCED (2004) Starting Strong, Curricula and Pedagogies in Early Childhood Education and Care. Five 

Curriculum Outlines. Paris: OECD Directorate for Education. 
http://www.oecd.org/education/school/31672150.pdf  

40 

 
 
 
                                                 
pedagogy158,  sustained  shared  thinking  between  the  child  and  a  responsive  adult  is  an 
essential  prerequisite  for  children’s  learning.  Within  this  study  effective  pedagogical 
practices are acknowledged as those that encompass: a mutual involvement on the part of the 
child and the adult; a joint process of constructing knowledge, meaning and understanding; 
and learning instruction and support, which is understood as demonstrating, explaining, and 
asking  questions,  particularly  open-ended  questions  which  further  stimulate  the  child´s 
thinking and learning. This implies that the instructive elements of early childhood education 
and care practices can only be effective if they support the active process of co-construction, 
but not if they are acted out as practices of knowledge transmission159. 

Findings  from  research  conclude  that  early  childhood  education  and  care  curricula  can  be 
powerful  instruments  to  make  the  system  more  effective  in  its  overall  mission  but,  at  the 
same time, ‘it can also engender processes that move away from this main goal because they 
go  against  the  principles  of  good  practice’160.  Therefore,  in  order  to  be  effective,  the 
elaboration  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  curricula  should  not  solely  rely  on 
knowledge about children’s development but take account of shared notions of good practice 
that are shaped in the context of local pedagogies of childhood. 

By  drawing  on  the  findings  from  research,  it  is  possible  to  identify  a  convergence  toward 
certain  features  of  curricula  that  are  commonly  regarded  as  good  practice  across  different 
contexts161. Such features include: 

  a curriculum based on a statement of principles and values that recognise the rights of 
the  child  as  a  competent  human  being  (UN  Convention  on  the  Rights  of  the  Child, 
1989162) and respect for parents as the first educators of the child; 

  a  curriculum  with  a  broad  pedagogical  framework  that  sets  out  the  principles  for 
sustaining  children’s  development  through  educational  and  care  practices  that  are 
responsive  to  children’s  interests,  needs  and  potentialities.  Such  a  framework  might 
provide pedagogues and educators with general guidance on how children’s learning 
processes could be supported - e.g. through adult interaction and involvement; group 
management;  enriched  learning  environments;  theme  or  project  methodology  –  in 
order to achieve curricular goals; 

158 

Siraj-Blatchford, I., Muttock, S., Sylva, K., Gilden, R., & Bell, D. (2002). Researching Effective 
Pedagogy in the Early Years. Research Report No. 356. London: Department of Education and Skills 
http://www.327matters.org/docs/rr356.pdf  

159  Oberhumer, P. 2005. International Perspectives on Early Childhood Curricula. International Journal of 

Early Childhood, 37(1), 27-38 
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.453.641&rep=rep1&type=pdf  

160  Laevers, F. (2005) The curriculum as means to raise the quality of early childhood education. Implications 

for policy, European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 13:1, 17-29. 

161  Bennett, J. (2013) Early childhood curriculum for children from low-income and immigrant backgrounds. 

Paper presented at the second meeting of the Transatlantic Forum on Inclusive Early Years held in New 
York, 10-12 July 2013; Pramling, I, Sheridan, S. and Williams, P. (2006) Five preschool curricula - 
Comparative perspective. International Journal of Early Childhood, 38 (1), 11-30; Laevers, F. The 
curriculum as means to raise the quality of early childhood education; Oberhumer, P. International 
Perspectives on Early Childhood Curricula,  

162  United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) was ratified by the EU in 

2010 and 27 of its Member States and is part of EU law. The CRPD outlines in Article 24 the right to 
inclusive education to all children with disabilities. See the General comment on Article 24 CRPD, issued 
by the UN CRPD Committee: 
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/4&Lang=
en  

41 

 
 
                                                 
  a  curriculum  which  states  explicit  goals  that  address  the  holistic  development  of 
children  across  broad  developmental  domains  -  emotional,  personal  and  social 
development,  language  and  communication,  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the 
surrounding  world,  creative  expression  and  physical  development  and  movement  – 
and  strives  for  an  appropriate  balance  between  learning  and  well-being.  Given  the 
high inter-personal and intra-personal variations within which children’s development 
occurs in early childhood, the formulation of broad learning goals would seem more 
appropriate than the age-specific sequential learning standards; 

  a curriculum with a strong focus on communication, interaction and dialogue as key 
factors  that  sustain  children’s  learning  and  well-being  through  meaning-making  and 
belonging;  

  a curriculum that encourages staff to work collegially and to continually assess their 
practice in order to improve. It is widely acknowledged in research that practitioners 
develop a better understanding of how children learn and develop by being reflective; 
and  that  just  having  knowledge  of  child  development  does  not  suffice  for  shaping 
effective  practices.  Therefore  regular  reflection  on  practice  through  observation  and 
the  documentation  of  children’s  learning  experiences  allows  staff  to  face  new 
challenges  by  being  responsive  to  the  needs  and  potentialities  of  all  children. 
Practitioners‘  collegial  work  can  set  the  basis  for  constantly  co-constructing,  de-
constructing and re-constructing educational practices through dialogue with children 
and by involving parents as equal partners in pedagogic decision-making; 

  a curriculum that includes cooperation with parents and promotes agreed democratic 

values within a framework of socio-cultural diversity163. 

7.4.  Evaluation and Monitoring 

Monitoring and evaluation processes are important components of enhancing quality in early 
childhood  education  and  care  systems  –  by  pointing  to  the  strengths  and  weaknesses  of 
service  provision  they  can  act  as  catalysts  for  change  to  support  stakeholders  and  policy 
makers  in  undertaking  initiatives  that  respond  to  the  needs  of  children,  parents  and  local 
communities.  There  is  a  consensus  among  researchers  and  policy-makers  that  by  linking 
systematically  data  collection,  research  and  ongoing  assessment  these  processes  can  be 
powerful  tools  for  driving  continuous  improvement  of  service  provision  and  support 
children’s development164. According to the OECD literature review on monitoring quality in 
early childhood education and care 165, the procedures undertaken by countries for monitoring 
and evaluating quality can address four dimensions of service provision: 

1.  service  quality:  mainly  for  accountability  purposes  with  the  procedures  focusing 
primarily  on  monitoring  compliance  with  regulations  and  standards  (e.g.  through 
inspections or surveys); 

163 

Prott, R. & Preissing, C. (2006) Bridging Diversity: an early childhood curriculum [Beliner 
Bilungsprogramm]. Berlin: Verlag das Netz. 
Starting Strong III: A Quality Toolbox for Early Childhood Education and Care, OECD  

164 
165  Taguma, M. and Litjens, I. (2013) Literature Review on Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education 
and Care (ECEC). OECD Network on Early Childhood Education and Care: Directorate for Education 
and Skills. 

42 

 
 
 
                                                 
2.  staff  quality:  mainly  for  internal  accountability  purposes  and  directed  to  the 
improvement of staff practices and skills (e.g. through observations, peer-review and 
self-evaluation); 

3.  curriculum  implementation:  mainly  to  evaluate  the  usefulness  of  a  curriculum, 
analysing the need for changes and adaptation, as well as for defining the professional 
development needs of staff; 

4.  child  development  and  outcomes:  this  refers  to  both  formative  and  summative 
assessment (the latter is rarely used as formal testing is not considered appropriate for 
this  age  group).  Informal  formative  assessment  practices  that  are  more  commonly 
used  in  early  childhood  education  and  care  look  at  children’s  development  and 
progress  and  give  an  account  of  their  learning  and  socialising  experiences  (through 
observations, documentation, portfolios or narrative accounts). 

Despite  the  support  provided  by  the  research  literature  for  the  idea  of  monitoring  and 
evaluation  practices  as  a  critical  factor  for  high  quality  services,  the  implementation  of 
monitoring  and  evaluation  practices  does  not  have  a  positive  impact  per  se166.  Research 
shows  that  procedures  and  tools  for  monitoring  and  evaluation  need  to  be  designed 
coherently  with  the  intended  aim  and  purposes  of  specific  monitoring  and  evaluation 
initiatives that might entail: e.g. 

  accountability purposes for the audit of public funds; 

 

 

improvement  purposes:  to  identify  weaknesses  and  strengths  of  early  childhood 
education  and  care  systems  and  elaborate  appropriate  strategies  to  address  them  in 
consultation with stakeholders; 

identifying  staff  learning  needs:  in  order  to  tailor  the  provision  of  continuing 
professional  development  to  the  needs  of  children  and  families  within  the  local 
communities ; 

  support to policy-makers: to provide information for administrators which helps them 
to make informed choices and to adapt/re-direct their interventions responsively and 
effectively; 

 

to  inform  the  public:  results  from  monitoring  and  evaluation  procedures  might  for 
example be used by parents and stakeholders for policy advocacy.  

A  consensus  has  emerged  from  the  research  on  the  importance  of  involving  families, 
practitioners and other stakeholders. The involvement of relevant stakeholders in monitoring 
the  service  or  staff  quality,  or  even  curriculum  implementation,  can  contribute  to  greater 
parental  engagement167  and  generate  a  sense  of  'ownership'.  This  might  contribute  to 
improving the quality of early childhood education and care as well as lead to the elaboration 
of policies and practices that are responsive to local needs. Quality evaluation and monitoring 
procedures therefore need to be designed within participatory and consultative processes168, 
as  different  perspectives  exists  on  what  high  quality  provision  might  mean  and  on  how 

166  Literature Review on Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)  
167  OECD (2012) Starting Strong III, A Quality toolbox for Early Childhood Education and Care: executive 

summary. www.oecd.org/edu/school/startingstrongiii-
aqualitytoolboxforearlychildhoodeducationandcare.htm#1  

168  Bondioli, A. and Ghedini, P.O. (2000) La qualità negoziata: gli indicatori per i nidi della Regione Emilia-
Romagna [The negotiated quality: indicators for 0-3 services in Emilia-Romagna Region]. Bergamo: 
Edizioni Junior. 

43 

 
 
                                                 
improvement  could  be  achieved169.  In  this  regard  Sheridan  (2009)170  argues  that  quality 
should  be  understood  within  a  ‘sustainable  dynamism’  that  goes  beyond  the  traditional 
dichotomy between objectivity and subjectivity. This implies that the procedures undertaken 
for the evaluation and improvement of early childhood education and care quality should be 
‘dynamic,  cultural,  and  contextual  sensitive’  in  order  to  enable  the  negotiation  of  multiple 
perspectives among all the participants. 

The  research  also  highlights  that  ongoing  evaluation  which  is  linked  to  professional 
development  can  have  a  beneficial  impact  on  practitioners’  practices  and  on  children’s 
outcomes171.  In  this  context  several  studies  indicate  that  staff  self-evaluation  can  be  an 
effective  tool  for  professional  development  as  it  enhances  practitioners’  reflectivity  and 
collegial  work172.  Along  the  same  line,  research  findings  seem  to  indicate  that  curriculum 
monitoring  initiatives  are  particularly  beneficial  when  combined  with  staff  training  or 
coaching  support.  However  research  findings  indicate  that  when  monitoring  and  evaluating 
procedures are  implemented within a framework of  managerial  accountability that does  not 
take  into  account  practitioner’s  perspectives,  they  might  actually  turn  out  to  have  adverse 
effects on the quality of education and care in early childhood services173. 

In relation to the monitoring of child development, research from the OECD literature review 
unequivocally points out that the formal assessment of child outcomes  which aim to define 
school  readiness  –  and  with  the  purpose  of  postponing  or  denying  kindergarten  entry  to 
school  –  have  negative  impacts  on  children’s  cognitive  as  well  as  socio-emotional 
development174.  The  literature  indicates  that  the  use  of  non-formal  monitoring  procedures 
such  as  ongoing  observation,  documentation  of  children’s  learning  and  socialising 
experiences,  as  well  as  narrative  assessment  of  children  competences  (e.g.  portfolios)  can 
have  a  positive  impact  on  children’s  outcomes.  These  practices  contribute  to  deepening 
practitioners’  understanding  of  children’s  learning  processes  in  the  everyday  life  of  the 
setting. 
More recent work175 on the value of monitoring and evaluation in early childhood education 
and care concludes by commenting that 

  successful  evaluation  and  monitoring  is  more  than  the  implementation  of  formal 

structures and procedures, though it needs reliable framework conditions; 

  sustainable evaluation and monitoring relies on the use of the knowledge gained and 

the will/resources to change; 

 

the core of evaluation and monitoring is transparency and discourse on what is high 
quality in early childhood education and care. 

169  Dahlberg, G., Moss, P. and Pence, A. (2007) Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: 

170 

Languages of evaluation. London: Routledge. 
Sheridan, S. (2009) Discerning pedagogical quality in preschool. Scandinavian Journal of Educational 
Research, 53(3), 245-261. 

171  Literature Review on Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)  
172 

Sheridan, S. (2001). Quality evaluation and quality enhancement in preschool: A model of competence 
development. Early Child Development and Care, 166(1), 7-27. 

173  Ahrenkiel, A., Schmidt, C., Nielsen, B. S., Sommer, F., & Warring, N. (2013) Unnoticed Professional 

Competence in Day Care Work. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 3(2), 79-96. 
174  Literature Review on Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)  
175 

Presentation from Nicole Klinkhammer, International Centre for ECEC  German Youth Institute, Munich 
Brussels, 6-3-18 (not published) 

44 

 
 
                                                 
Quality factors can be used to support the work on monitoring and evaluation. This issue was 
considered by an expert group which sought to identify, among many potential measures of 
quality,  indicators  that  complement  the  2014  early  childhood  education  and  care  quality 
framework, reduce the level of complexity and ambiguity, and are useful to Member States as 
one  way  to  support  improvements  in  the  quality  of  service  provision.  This  group  selected 
indicators which could operate at the system level though some may be useful in individual 
settings. The selection took into account: 

 

 

 

the  need  to  provide  statements  relevant  to  each  of  the  ten  statements  in  the  Quality 
Framework; 

the  need  to  suggest  quality  factors  which  were  relevant  for  a  majority  of  Member 
States; 

the  value  of  encouraging  self-reflection  in  order  to  improve  the  quality  of  early 
childhood education and care; the importance of promoting understanding of the key 
ideas and objectives in each of the ten statements;an agreement to focus on the quality 
of the processes which are used in early childhood education and care. 

The quality factors support the evaluation, self-reflection and improvement of the quality of 
early childhood education and care systems in accordance with the context of each Member 
States’  national  legislation  and  conditions  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  practice. 
They have the potential to serve as a ‘toolbox’ from which various users are invited to choose 
those they consider most relevant to their particular system(s) and context. The factors which 
have been selected are most appropriate for centre-based provision. However it is for policy 
officials  in  individual  Member  States  to  decide  whether  a  quality  factor  could  be  useful  in 
measuring  and  recording  the  quality  of  other  forms  of  early  childhood  education  and  care. 
Each can be applied to provision which is organised in the private, public or voluntary sector, 
for  children  from  birth  to  the  start  of  compulsory  schooling.  In  some  systems,  especially 
those  where  there  is  a  split  in  responsibility  for  policy176,  it  may  be  easier  to  create  two 
measures  :  one  which  covers  provision  for  children  aged  from  birth  to  three;  and  one  for 
children aged from three to the start of compulsory schooling.  

7.5.  Governance and Funding 

The Quality Framework notes that ‘governance and funding which values and recognises the 
importance  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  can  take  the  quality  of  the  service  much 
further. Increasingly  across  Member  States,  clearer  rules  and  expectations  on the  quality  of 
the structures, processes and outcomes from early childhood education and care provision are 
being  embedded  in  regulations.  These  changes  reflect  the  growing  recognition  of  the 
importance of high quality early childhood education and care, and an acknowledgement that 
funding  which  is  invested  in  this  sector  reduces  subsequent  expenditure,  improves  the  life 

176  The  Quality  Framework  defines  split  and  unitary  systems  as  follows:  Split  system  -  ECEC  provision  is 
offered  in  separate settings  for different  age  groups, often under  different  administrative  structures. The 
age ranges vary between countries but usually covers 0/1 to 2/3 years and from 3/4 years up to start of 
primary  schooling (usually  5/6  years).  Unitary  system  -  Provision  for  all children  from  birth  to primary 
school is organised in a single phase and delivered in settings catering for the whole age range.  The age 
range is usually defined in the national or system context. Unitary systems are usually governed by one 
Ministry.  Working  Group  on  Early  Childhood  Education  and  Care  under  the  auspices  of  the  European 
Commission (2014) Proposal for key principles of a Quality Framework for Early Childhood Education 
and  Care, 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/policy/strategic-
framework/archive/documents/ecec-quality-framework_en.pdf  

71, 

p. 

45 

 
 
 
                                                 
chances  and  opportunities  for  children,  and  strengthens  society’s  shared  values.’  In  this 
context the OECD comments177 that ‘in the light of budgetary constraints, policy makers need 
to spend smarter and require the latest knowledge base of the quality dimensions that are the 
most important for ensuring children’s healthy development and early learning.’ 

Research shows that when governance is not integrated (meaning that responsibility for early 
childhood education and care regulation and funding rests with different departments both at 
the central and regional government level) or is only partially integrated (as in the majority of 
EU  Member  States)  children  aged  under  three  experience  a  lower  standard  of  care;  higher 
costs  to  parents;  less  equal  access  to  all  families;  and  more  poorly  educated  and  paid 
workforce. 

As a contrast fully integrated systems seem to offer more coherence across  early childhood 
education  and  care  policy 
funding,  curriculum,  workforce 
education/training  and  working  conditions,  monitoring  and  evaluation  systems)  as  well  as 
more resources allocated to younger children and their families178. 

regulation  and 

(e.g. 

Unitary  systems  –  by  providing  a  more  coherent  framework  for  governance  and  funding  across  the 
early  childhood  education  and  care  sector  -  lead  to  better  quality  and  more  equitable  service 
provision and result in greater financial efficiency179. 

The  EU’s  2017  Education  Monitor  notes  that  as  costs  and  accessibility  are  both  barriers  to 
early  childhood  education  and  care,  in  OECD  countries  where  this  is  free,  attendance  rates 
are higher than 90% and the gaps between migrant and native-born children are negligible. 

The  proportion  of  children  enrolled  in  private  early  childhood  education  programmes  is 
considerably  greater  than  the  private  enrolment  shares  at  primary  and  secondary levels.  On 
average,  55%  of  children  in  early  childhood  educational  development  programmes  attend 
private institutions, compared to 33% for pre-primary programmes  

High  quality  early  childhood  education  and  care  is  also  part  of  a  comprehensive  system  of 
coherent  public  policies  that  link  early  childhood  education  and  care  to  other  services 
concerned  with  the  welfare  of  young  children  and  their  families180.  These  connections 
between early childhood education and care and other services are particularly important for 
children from low-income families or disadvantaged background as the potential benefits of 
early  childhood  education  and  care  attendance  have  an  even  stronger  impact  than  for  their 
more  advantaged  peers181.  In  fact,  while  acknowledging  that  early  childhood  education  and 
care can have an important role in ‘levelling the playing field’, the research also stresses that 
socio-economic  and  socio-cultural  factors  weigh  heavily  on  children’s  outcomes182.  In  this 
sense, the impact of broader socio-economic factors associated with welfare policies should 

177  OECD (2018) Engaging Young People, 2018, p.13 (not yet published) 
178  Kaga, Y., Bennett, J., and Moss, P. (2010). Caring and learning together: A cross-national study on the 

integration of early childhood care and education within education. UNESCO. 

179  European Commission (2013) Barcelona objectives: The development of childcare facilities for young 
children in Europe with a view to sustainable and inclusive growth. Report from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of 
the Regions, p.16. 

180  Eurydice (2009) Tackling social and cultural inequalities through early childhood education and care in 

Europe 

181  Lazzari A. and Vandenbroeck M. 2013. Literature Review of the Participation of Disadvantaged Children 
and Families in ECEC Services in Europe. In Bennett, J., Gordon, J. & Edelmann J. (2013) ECEC in 
promoting educational attainment including social development of children from 
disadvantaged backgrounds and in fostering social inclusion. European Commission: DG EAC. 

182  Bennett, J. (2013) Early childhood curriculum for children from low-income and immigrant backgrounds  

46 

 
 
                                                 
not be underestimated. The effects of family background on children’s educational attainment 
tend to  be more limited  in  countries  where  universally accessible childcare  is  provided and 
socio-economic status differences in the population are less marked. UNICEF has concluded 
that early childhood education and care provision, in order to succeed in improving the life 
chances of children and their families, needs to be closely linked to labour, health and social 
policies  which  promote  a  more  equal  redistribution  of  resources  by  targeting  extra-funding 
toward disadvantaged neighborhoods183. 

183  Bennett, J. (2008). Early childhood services in the OECD countries: Review of the literature and current 

policy in the early childhood field. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. www.unicef-
irc.org/publications/502  

47 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
8.  Optional factors for complementing the Quality Framework 

8.1. 

Introduction to the optional set of quality factors 

The  European  Commission  worked  with  European  early  childhood  education  and  care 
experts,  under  the  quality  strand  of Working  Groups  Schools,  to  identify  an  optional  set  of 
indicators  to  complement  the  Early  Childhood  Education  and  Care  Quality  Framework184. 
The experts met in 2017 September and December and identified a list of 22 items which can 
be used as indicators or quality factors of the effectiveness of the early childhood education 
and care system in each Member State and its capacity to support and promote the quality of 
provision and practice. 

In the process of defining this optional list, the experts gave due consideration to: 

  The  OECD’s  work  to  prepare  Starting  Strong  VI,  the  Education  at  a  Glance  2018 

Annual Report and the TALIS Starting Strong Survey;  

  Eurydice’s work on the second edition of Key Data on early childhood education and 

care (2019), work on the Education and Training Monitor; 

  The  Curriculum  Quality  Analysis  and  Impact  Review  of  European  early  childhood 
education  and  care  project  (CARE)  which  produced  a  framework  for  defining, 
implementing, and assessing accessibility, quality and wellbeing in this field;  

  The  2017  report  from  the  Network  of  Experts  on  Social  Aspects  of  Education  and 
Training  (NESET  II)  on  the  current  state  of  national  ECEC  quality  frameworks  (or 
equivalent strategic policy documents) governing ECEC quality in Member States. 

This optional set is meant to encourage self-reflection and self-evaluation as critical processes 
in the development of high quality early childhood education and care system(s); guide those 
who are responsible for selecting and using it for evaluating progress in the establishment and 
delivery of high quality early childhood education and care. 

Furthermore  this  set  aims  at  supporting  assessment  in  order  to  improve  the  performance  of 
the early childhood education and care systems. The experts sought to identify, among many 
potential measures of quality, tools that are useful to Member States to support improvements 
in the quality of early childhood education and care provision. The items have been selected 
to operate at the system level though some may be useful in individual settings. The selection 
took into account: 

  The need to provide statements relevant to each of the ten statements in the Quality 

Framework; 

  The  need  to  bring  forward  suggestions  that  were  relevant  for  a  majority  of  EU 

Member States; 

  The value of encouraging self-reflection which goes beyond in order to improve the 
quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care;  the  importance  of  promoting 
understanding of the key ideas and objectives in each of the ten statements; 

  An agreement to focus on the quality of the processes used in the sector. 

184  European Commission (2018) Monitoring the Quality of Early Childhood Education and Care – 

Complementing the 2014 ECEC Quality Framework proposal with indicators, Recommendations from 
experts 

48 

 
 
 
                                                 
The quality factors support the evaluation, self-reflection and improvement of the quality of 
early childhood education and care systems in accordance with the context of each Member 
States’ national legislation and conditions of practice in the sector. They have the potential to 
serve as a ‘toolbox’ from which various users are invited to choose those they consider most 
relevant to their particular system(s) and context. The items selected are most appropriate for 
centre-based  provision.  However  it  is  for  policy  officials  in  individual  Member  States  to 
decide whether any could be useful in measuring and recording the quality of other forms of 
early childhood settings. 

Each  quality  factor  can  be  applied  to  provision  for  children  from  birth  to  the  start  of 
compulsory  schooling.  In  some  systems,  especially  those  where  there  is  a  split  in 
responsibility for policy, it may be easier to create two measures for each: one which covers 
provision for children aged from birth to three; and one for children aged from three to the 
start  of  compulsory  schooling.  Each  can  be  applied  to  provision  which  is  organised  in  the 
private, public or voluntary sectors. 

One  purpose  was  to  provide  an  opportunity  to  collect  and  disseminate  data  at  the  national, 
regional  or municipal  level.  To  support the  use  of  each  item,  the  experts  identified  guiding 
questions.  These  are  designed  to  encourage  self-reflection  and  assist  users  in  assessing  the 
performance of their systems. These questions will be particularly helpful when it is difficult 
or impossible to collect valid and reliable data. 

The following quality factors cover the five dimensions and the ten statements in the Quality 
Framework. 

8.2.  The optional set of quality factors and guiding questions 

The following list of quality factors  is optional and to be used at national, regional or local 
level:  it  is  intended  to  encourage  self-assessment  and  reflection  on  the  quality  in  early 
childhood  education  and  care  provision  and  to  offer  support  in  monitoring  and  measuring 
the performance of early childhood education and care systems. This  list  can  be used as  a 
‘toolbox’  from  which  various  users  can  choose,  in  accordance  with  their  legislation  and 
practice, those items they consider most relevant to their particular systems and context. 

Quality  statement  1  -  provision  that  is  available  and  affordable  to  all  families  and  their 
children 

  Factor 1 - The percentage of children who have publicly funded subsidised access to 

ECEC. 

To support this it is worth considering whether: 

  the legislation pays special attention to disadvantaged children;  

  the legislation addresses all known barriers to children’s participation in ECEC; 

  there are reductions or free provision for children from disadvantaged and/or 

marginalised families; 

  every family which is entitled to publicly funded subsidised ECEC can find a 

place for their child/children; 

  the size of the public subsidy is significant. 

49 

 
 
 
 
  Factor 2 - For parents who earn the average national income, the percentage of their 
disposable income which is required to pay for ECEC services for one child who 
attends an ECEC setting for at least 30 hours per week. 

To support this it is worth considering the extent to which the arrangements differ 
between: 

  children under three years of age and children aged over three; 

  single parent families and other families; 

  families living in an urban and rural environment. 

Quality Statement 2 - provision that encourages participation, strengthens social inclusion 
and embraces diversity 

  Factor 3 - A system-level policy to encourage disadvantaged families to use ECEC 

services. 

As it is likely to lead to the answer ‘yes’, users of this report may wish to consider the 
following guiding questions: 

  is there an agreed definition of disadvantaged families? 

  does the policy apply to all groups of children from disadvantaged families? 

  is the policy to encourage the use of ECEC services well-known? 

  has the policy led to an increase in the number of disadvantaged families using 

ECEC services? 

  does the policy include outreach services or other activities to encourage 

participation? 

  is there training for staff in ECEC providers to enable them to promote their 

services to disadvantaged families? 

  Factor 4 - The percentage of children who attend ECEC regularly. 

To support this it is worth considering the extent to which attendance differs between: 

  children who are under and over three years of age; 

  children from single parent and other families; 

  children from families living in an urban and rural environment; 

  boys and girls;  

  children from disadvantaged and/or marginalised families, and other families. 

Quality Statement 3 - well-qualified staff whose initial and continuing training enables them 
to fulfil their professional role 

  Factor 5 - The percentage of staff working directly with children who have 
completed professional education relevant to their role in an ECEC setting. 

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To support this, it is worth considering: 

  staff who work with children under and over the age of three; 

  ECEC assistants and staff with more pedagogic responsibilities;  

  the breadth of the definition of staff working directly with children; 

  the balance between initial and continuing education/training; 

  whether professional development is as important as qualifications. 

  Factor 6 - The percentage of staff who receive formal support for at least their first 

six months at work. 

As this is difficult to measure, the following guiding questions may help: 

  is there support for all new staff? 

  are there different arrangements for different groups of staff? 

  is support linked to a probationary period of employment? 

  Factor 7 - The percentage of ECEC leaders working in an ECEC setting who have 

completed leadership training or have a recognised, relevant leadership qualification. 

To support this , where there is a system based on qualifications, it is worth 
considering: 

  what is the European Qualification Framework level of the ECEC leadership 

qualification(s)? 

  how long would it normally take to complete a ECEC leadership qualification? 

  is there one, or many, qualifications which could be taken by ECEC leaders? 

  how are ECEC leaders supported (both professionally and financially) to complete 

a qualification? 

To support this , where there is a system based on training, it is worth considering: 

  how is an ECEC leader supported during the training? 

  what is the normal amount of time/week which is allocated to leadership training? 

  is training mainly ‘on-the-job’ or ‘off-the-job’? 

  does the training include assessment of the leaders’ skills and competences? 

  Factor 8 - The percentage of qualified ECEC staff working directly with children 
who have received at least three months’ relevant work experience as part of their 
initial training programme. 

To support this it is worth considering if: 

  the work experience is relevant to the individual’s future ECEC role; 

  the trainee receives support during their work experience; 

  the work experience is assessed; 

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  staff in the ECEC setting receive guidance and training on how to support 

trainees during their work experience. 

Quality Statement 4 - supportive working conditions including professional leadership 
which creates opportunities for observation, reflection, planning, teamwork and cooperation 
with parents. 

  Factor 9 - The average salary of ECEC staff employed in the public sector (with 
similar qualifications to primary school teachers) as a percentage of the average 
salary of a primary school teacher. 

To support this it is worth considering whether: 

  primary school teachers and ECEC staff have similar terms and conditions of 

employment, security of employment and progression opportunities; 

  the initial qualifications of ECEC staff (covered by this pointer) and primary 
school teachers are similar; the entry requirements for their initial training 
programmes are similar; and whether they have similar responsibilities when 
they are employed. 

  Factor 10a - The average ratio of children to all staff working directly with children 

  Factor 10b - The average ratio of children to professionally trained staff working 

directly with children. 

To support this it is worth considering: 

  the definition of ‘working directly with children’; 

  the arrangements for children under and over three years of age; 

  whether there are rules on the size of each group of children; 

  whether different ratios are used to support children from disadvantaged or 

marginalised families, or children with special needs. 

  Factor 11 - The percentage of time assigned to staff for preparation and reflection i.e. 

when they are not working directly with children. 

To support this it is worth considering: 

  whether this data is best collected through a sampling approach; 

  how staff use non-contact time to support their work with children; 

  which members of staff are included; 

  whether there are different arrangements for staff who work with children under 

and over the age of three. 

Quality Statement 5 - a curriculum based on pedagogic goals, values and approaches which 
enable children to reach their full potential in a holistic way. 

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  Factor 12 – There is an official, approved or mandatory curriculum framework for 

ECEC. 

To support this it is worth considering if there are different arrangements for: 

  children under and over the age of three; 

  settings in the public, private and voluntary sectors. 

  Factor 13 - The percentage of settings whose work with children is based on an 

ECEC curriculum framework. 

To support this it is worth considering if the data shows different arrangements are in 
place for: 

  children under and over the age of three; 

  settings in the public, private and voluntary sectors. 

Quality Statement 6 - a curriculum which requires staff to collaborate with children, 
colleagues and parents and to reflect on their own practice. 

  Factor 14 – The curriculum or other guiding documents requires staff to use 

feedback from children, parents and colleagues to systematically improve their 
practice. 

To support this it is worth considering if there are different arrangements for the 
curriculum which is offered: 

  to children under and over the age of three; 

  in the public, private and voluntary sectors. 

  Factor 15 - The percentage of primary schools which are required to use a curriculum 

which builds on children’s experiences of learning in ECEC. 

To support this it is worth considering if there are different expectations for: 

  schools in the private and public sectors; 

  pre-primary and primary schools; 

  children who have not used ECEC services. 

Quality Statement 7 - monitoring and evaluating produces information at the relevant local, 
regional and/or national level to support continuing improvements in the quality of policy 
and practice.  

  Factor 16 - Information on the quality of the ECEC system is used as the basis for 

improvement.  

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To support this it is worth considering if there are different arrangements for ECEC 
provision which is offered to children under and over the age of three. It is also 
worth considering: 

  to what extent is the collection of data based on self-evaluation (or self-

assessment); 

  whether the data collected at the provider/setting level can easily be collated at 

the system level to support improvements; 

  whether there is system-level guidance to ECEC provider/settings on what data 
should be collected to support improvements in quality at the system level; 

  whether the quality assurance system is based on using data to improve the 

quality of provision? 

  how quickly data is used to strengthen the quality of ECEC provision. 

  Factor 17 – Information on the quality of the ECEC system is publicly available. 

To support this it is worth considering the type of information that is publicly 
available. Is information available: 

  on the quality of ECEC provision at the system level? 

  on the outcomes achieved by the ECEC system? 

  on an annual basis? 

  in a form that can be easily understood by members of the public? 

  in an easily-accessible on-line format? 

  with no charges to access the information? 

Quality Statement 8 - monitoring and evaluation which is in the best interest of the child  

  Factor 18 - The percentage of ECEC settings with monitoring systems which include 

a focus on the best interests of the child. 

To support this it is worth considering: 

  the frequency of the monitoring which is required; 

  whether monitoring is based on an internal or external process; 

  who is required to be involved in the monitoring; 

  how the views of children are taken into account in the monitoring process. 

  Factor 19 - The percentage of ECEC settings which use administrative and 

pedagogic data to improve the quality of their provision. 

To support this it is worth considering: 

  whether improvements in quality are undertaken on an annual basis; 

  whether the outcomes of the improvements are monitored and evaluated; 

  who is required to ensure that the improvements are effective; 

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  how the improvements benefit children. 

Quality Statement 9 - stakeholders in the ECEC system have a clear and shared 
understanding of their role and responsibilities, and know that they are expected to 
collaborate with partner organisations.  

  Factor 20 - A formal set of arrangements enables parents and partner organisations to 

work with ECEC settings. 

To support this it is worth considering: 

  whether the formal set of arrangements are published and easily accessible for 

parents, staff, partner organisations and other stakeholders; 

  how often the arrangements are updated; 

  whether the arrangements cover ECEC providers who work with children aged 

from birth to three, and from three to pre-primary or primary school age; 

  whether a narrow or broad definition of stakeholders is used  

  the frequency of the collaboration; 

  whether collaboration covers the design, delivery and monitoring of ECEC; 

  whether data on collaboration is collected from each ECEC setting; 

  how data on collaboration is collated to provide a system-level response. 

Quality Statement 10 - legislation, regulation and/or funding supports progress towards a 
universal legal entitlement to publicly subsidised or funded ECEC, and progress is regularly 
reported to all stakeholders.  

  Factor 21 – The age at which there is publicly funded subsidised ECEC provision for 

all children (at least 15 hours per week). 

To support this it is worth considering if: 

  there is access in each part of the country e.g. in rural and urban areas; 

  parents have a choice about which ECEC service to use. 

  Factor 22 – The percentage of gross domestic product spent on ECEC. 

To support this it is worth considering whether the: 

  percentage of total public funds increases each year or over a longer period; 

  availability of public funds is affected by changes in: 

- 

- 

- 

the number of children in the ECEC age range; 

the staff/children ratios (Pointer 10) 

the training/qualifications expected from ECEC staff (Pointers 5,6 and 7) 

55