Energy consumption and energy efficiency, trends in the EU-28 2000-2015 : efficiency trends of energy-related products and energy consumption in the EU-28.
Date: 2018-02-01
Institutions: Joint Research Centre
Subjects: electrical energy, energy consumption, energy efficiency, energy research, gas, household consumption, research report, transport market

Energy Consumption and Energy 
Efficiency Trends in the EU-28 
2000-2015 

Efficiency Trends of Energy-
related Products and 
Energy Consumption in the 
EU-28 

Bertoldi P., Diluiso F., Castellazzi L., 
Labanca N., Serrenho T. 

2018 

EUR 29104 EN 

This publication is a Science for Policy report by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s 
science and knowledge service. It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European 
policymaking process. The scientific output expressed does not imply a policy position of the European 
Commission. Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is 
responsible for the use that might be made of this publication. 

Contact information  
Name: Bertoldi Paolo 
Address: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Via Enrico Fermi 2749 - 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy 
Email: paolo.bertoldi@ec.europa.eu 
Tel.: 0039 0332 78 9299  

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https://ec.europa.eu/jrc 

JRC110326 

EUR 29104 EN 

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How to cite this report: Bertoldi P., Diluiso F., Castellazzi L., Labanca N. and Ribeiro Serrenho T., Energy 
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Title Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency Trends in the EU-28 2000-2015 

Abstract 
This  report  aims  at showing  the  present  status  of  energy consumption  in  the  EU-28,  in  the  four  main  energy 
consuming sectors: residential, tertiary, transport and industry. During the last years, there have been efforts 
by the European Union to cut down on energy consumption and improve energy efficiency. From 2000 to 2014, 
there  have  been  various  initiatives  that  aim  at  reducing  final  energy  consumption.  Therefore,  the  report 
demonstrates the energy consumption progress from 2000 to 2015 in the mentioned four sectors. 

Contents 

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ 1 

Executive summary ............................................................................................... 2 

1  Introduction ...................................................................................................... 4 

2  Gross, Primary and Final Energy Consumption in EU-28 ......................................... 8 

2.1  Gross inland energy consumption .................................................................. 8 

2.2  Primary energy consumption ....................................................................... 10 

2.3  Final energy consumption in different sectors ................................................ 12 

2.4  Final energy consumption per fuel types ....................................................... 20 

2.5  Final electricity and gas consumption in different sectors ................................ 22 

3  Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency Trends in the Residential Sector ........... 30 

3.1  Final energy consumption trends in the residential sector ............................... 30 

3.2  Electricity consumption trends in the residential sector ................................... 45 

3.3  Gas consumption trends in the residential sector ........................................... 52 

3.4  Overview – Residential sector ...................................................................... 59 

4  Energy Consumption Trends in the Tertiary Sector ............................................... 61 

4.1  Final energy consumption trends in the tertiary sector ................................... 62 

4.2  Electricity consumption trends in the tertiary sector ....................................... 69 

4.3  Gas consumption trends in the tertiary sector ............................................... 74 

4.4  Overview – Tertiary sector .......................................................................... 79 

5  Energy Consumption Trends and Environmental Performances of the Transport Sector

82 

5.1  Final energy consumption and energy mix of the transport sector .................... 82 

5.2  Transport subsectors .................................................................................. 90 

5.3  Road sector............................................................................................... 94 

5.3.1  Road sector – Cars ............................................................................. 99 

5.4  Passenger and freight transport ................................................................. 107 

5.4.1  Passenger traffic .............................................................................. 108 

5.4.2  Freight traffic .................................................................................. 111 

5.5  Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions ................................................................ 116 

5.6  Overview – Transport sector ..................................................................... 120 

6  Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency Trends in the Industry Sector ............. 126 

6.1  Final energy consumption and energy mix of the industrial sector .................. 126 

6.2  Electricity consumption trend in the industry sector ..................................... 131 

6.3  Gas consumption trend in the industry sector .............................................. 134 

6.4  Industry subsectors ................................................................................. 137 

6.5  Overview – Industry sector ....................................................................... 149 

7  Conclusions .................................................................................................. 152 

i 

References ....................................................................................................... 159 

List of abbreviations and definitions ..................................................................... 160 

List of figures .................................................................................................... 162 

List of tables ..................................................................................................... 169 

ii 

 
Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to thank Manjola Banja and Laura Rappucci of Directorate of the 
European  Commission's  Directorate-General  Joint  Research  Centre  (DG  ENER)  for  the 
comments  provided  to  the  draft  document  and  the  final  editing  of  the  document 
respectively. 

Authors 

Bertoldi P., Diluiso F., Castellazzi L., Labanca N., Serrenho T . 

1 

 
Executive summary 

Policy context 

The  report  is  set  in  the  context  of  the  legislative  framework  which  relates  to  energy 
efficiency  in  the  EU-28.  The  main  horizontal  policy  measures  implemented  at  EU  level 
that  aim  to  directly  or  indirectly  improve  energy  efficiency  in  the  different  covered 
economic  sectors  (i.e.  residential  sector,  tertiary  sector,  transport  sector  and  industry 
sector)  are:  the  Energy  Efficiency  Directive  (EED),  the  Energy  Performance  of  Buildings 
Directive  (EPBD),  the  Eco-design  Directive  (ED),  the  Energy  Labelling  Directive  (ELD), 
the  Directives  establishing  an  Emissions  Trading  Scheme  (ETS)  in  the  European  Union; 
the Effort Sharing Decision (ESD), the Renewable Energy Directive (RED), the Industrial 
Emissions Directive (IED), and the Regulation regarding CO2 emissions of new passenger 
cars. 

This report acquires its relevancy as it aims at analysing the EU energy consumption and 
identifying the energy  efficiency trends in the framework  of the  EU energy  consumption 
targets within the Europe 2020 strategy. 

Key conclusions 

The  EU  has  decreased  its  energy  consumption  over  period  2000-2015.  The  downward 
trend of energy consumption has influenced in the decrease of indicators such as energy 
intensity  and  energy  consumption  per  capita,  turning 
into  a  sign  of  higher 
competitiveness  as  global  actor.  In  2014,  the  EU  already  met  in  terms  of  final  energy 
consumption  the  2020  target  set  in  the  EED  for  2020  (1  061  Mtoe  in  2014  vs  1  086 
Mtoe).  In  the  same  year  the  EU  was  1.5%  below  the  2020  target  for  primary  energy 
consumption  (1  505  Mtoe  in  2014  vs  1  483  Mtoe).  In  2015  the  EU  final  energy 
consumption  increases  by  xx%  compared  with  the  previous  year,  remaining  still  under 
the 2020 target. Primary energy consumption reached at 1,530 Mtoe in 2015 increasing 
the  gap  from  the  2020  target.  Over  this  period,  the  financial  and  economic  crisis  has 
caused  remarkable  change  in  the  dynamics  and  growth  rates  of  the  different  economic 
sectors and in the EU Member States. It has contributed to get the energy consumption 
back  on  track  towards  its  2020  energy  and  environmental  targets.  Distinguishing  by 
economic sectors, the transport and the tertiary sector have increased their final energy 
consumption over the analysed period. In the other sectors (i.e. residential and industry 
sectors) the final energy consumption has decreased. The increasing trend in the tertiary 
sector is expected to continue as per the on-going tertiarization process in the EU. On the 
other  hand,  the  decreasing  trend  in  industry  sector  has  been  highly  influenced,  among 
others,  by  the  financial  and  economic  crisis.  Regarding  the  greenhouse  gas  emissions, 
the  transport  sector  has  increased  its  emissions  from  1990-2015.  In  the  residential 
sector, the energy demand depends also on weather and climate conditions, apart other 
affecting factors in the energy consumption such as building characteristics (i.e. building 
envelope, insulation level, location, etc.)  or  social and cultural reasons (lifestyle, habits, 
etc.) among others.  

Main findings 

In  2014  the  EU  final  energy  consumption  reached  the  lowest  level  since  1990.  In  2015 
the EU final energy consumption start increasing.  Nevertheless the level of consumption 
remained  below  the  average  of  the  last  two  decades.  When  analysing  the  overall  EU 
energy  consumption  trends,  the  individual  growth  rates  of  the  EU-28  MSs  may  not  be 
representative as 4 Member States (i.e. Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy) 
consumed over 50% of the final energy consumption and 14 Member States (half of the 
European Union States) consumed less than 10% of the total final energy consumption in 
2015. In 2015 all the sectors  experienced an increase in their final energy  consumption 
compared with 2014. Residential sector saw in 2015 the second (after 2014) lowest final 
energy consumption since 1990.  

2 

 
 
Figure 1: Final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

359 

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2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry

Transport

Residential

Services

Source: Eurostat 

The  tertiary  sector  is  registering  the  highest  energy  consumption  values  for  the  period 
1990-2015 from 2008  onwards;  with the exception of year 2014. Transport sector start 
decreasing  its  final  energy  consumption  after  2008,  even  that  after  2014  the  energy 
consumption  in  this  sector  start  rising.  The  financial  and  economic  crisis  may  have 
impacted  the  changes  of  final  energy  consumption  in  this  sector  over  2008-2013.  Road 
transport  (mainly  cars)  consumed  the  most  among  transport  subsectors.  The  analysis 
shows that even the diesel and gasoline remained the main fuel types over period 2000 – 
2005  the  biofuels  (especially  biodiesels)  have  increased  their  share  in  the  final  energy 
consumed  in  the  transport  sector.  After  2008  the  final  energy  consumption  in  the 
industry  sector  saw  three  drops  in  its  trend  –  2009,  2014  and  2015.  In  2009  the  final 
energy consumption in this sector reached the lowest value over period 1990-2015. This 
reduction  came  mainly  due  to  the  decrease  in  production  represented  by  the  trends  of 
the Industrial Production Indexes and the sector's added value to GDP  

Related and future JRC work 

The  report  provides  with  an  analysis  of  the  energy  consumption  and  energy  efficiency 
trends with the latest available data. Therefore, future updates of this report are foreseen 
(e.g. analysis for the periods 2000-2016, 2000-2018 or 2000-2020). In addition, a more 
thorough  analysis  of  each  analysed  economic  sector  and  case  studies  of  the  EU28 
Member  States  might  be  made,  together  with  specific  research  topics  on,  for  instance: 
EU  District  Heating  Production  or  Energy-related  Products  (e.g.  domestic/industrial 
appliances, electric motors and drives, etc.). 

Quick guide 

This  report  presents  the  analysis  of  the  energy  consumption  trends  in  the  four  main 
energy consuming sectors (i.e. residential, tertiary, transport and industry) in the EU  for 
the  period  from  2000  to  2015.  During  the  last  years,  there  have  been  efforts  by  the 
European  Union  to  cut  down  and  reduce  energy  consumption,  and  improve  energy 
efficiency. Thus, this analysis is needed in order to evaluate whether the different policy 
actions have influenced the energy consumption patterns. The results and findings of the 
report may be the starting point for further analysis such assumptions or projections on 
future energy consumption trends up to relevant dates (e.g. 2020, 2030 or 2050). 

3 

 
 
 
 
 
1  Introduction 

One  of  the  five  ambitious  objectives  of  the  European  Union  regarding  the  strategy  for 
Europe 2020 focuses on climate and energy, and energy efficiency is at the heart of the 
EU's Europe 2020 Strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth1.  

The  EU  sets  three  key  targets  based  on  climate  change  and  energy  sustainability  for 
2020 which are the so-called '20-20-20' targets: 

●  20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels; 

●  20% of EU energy consumption share produced from renewable resources;  

●  20% improvement in energy efficiency on the EU primary energy consumption2. 

Therefore,  energy  efficiency  has  become  one  of  the  main  policy  goals  in  the  European 
Union and its objective of 20% reduction on primary energy consumption was identified 
in  the  Commission's  Communication  on  Energy  20203  as  a  key  step  towards  achieving 
our long-term energy and climate goals.  

In  order  to  achieve  the  EU  energy  targets  set  for  2020  and  to  continue  the  pathway  to 
the EU energy targets for 20304 which are: 

●  40% cut in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels; 

●  at least a 27% share of renewable energy consumption; 

●  at least 30% energy savings compared with the business-as-usual scenario5. 

Many  important  EU  directives  and  regulations  to  promote  energy  efficiency  have  been 
implemented or are in the planning phase just before implementation. Furthermore, the 
EU  Member  States  (MSs)  have  been  very  active  in  the  area  of  energy  efficiency  at  the 
national level by implementing many policies and measures. 

The  EU  20%  energy  saving  target  for  2020  was  first  introduced  by  the  European 
Commission (EC) in its 2005 Green Paper on Energy Efficiency or Doing More With Less6, 
where it was indicated the cost-effective potential supported by several studies.  

In 2006, the Action Plan for Energy Efficiency7 proposed a set of energy efficiency policies 
at EU level to reach the 20% energy saving target by 2020. It was in March 2007 when 
the  EU  leaders  committed  themselves  to  transform  Europe  in  a  highly  energy-efficient, 
low carbon economy and agreed on the above mentioned targets by 2020. 

The  Energy  End-use  Efficiency  and  Energy  Services  Directive8  (ESD)  introduced  the 
indicative energy  saving target of 9% over a  9 year period 2008-2016. Each MS had to 
adopt an indicative target for end-use efficiency of at least 9%. This target has been set 
and calculated in accordance with the method set out in Annex I to the Directive, i.e. it is 
based  on  the  average  final  energy  consumption  of  five  past  years  (2001-2005).  The 
target  excludes  some  end-use  sectors  such  as  industry  sector  under  ETS.  A  number  of 
MSs  introduced  targets  for  2016  higher  than  9%.  The  target  does  not include  efficiency 
improvements  in  the  energy  supply  (e.g.  generation),  although  some  renewable  energy 
sources and cogeneration were included. 

The  Directive  introduced  the  framework  of  a  National  Energy  Efficiency  Action  Plan 
(NEEAP) which each MS had to adopt in order to reach the 9% ESD energy saving target. 

1 COM(2010) 2020 
2  7224/1/07  REV  1:  Presidency  Conclusions  of  the  European  Council  of  8/9  March  2007.  This  objective 
translates  into  a  saving  of  368  million  tons  of  oil  equivalent  (Mtoe)  of  primary  energy  (gross  inland 
consumption  minus  non-energy  uses)  by  2020  compared  to  projected  consumption  in  that  year  of  1842 
Mtoe. This objective was reconfirmed by the June 2010 European Council (17/6/2010 Nr: EUCO 13/10). 

3 COM(2010) 639 
4 COM(2014) 15 
5 Business as Usual scenario modelled with Primes in 2007. 
6 COM(2005) 265 
7 COM(2006) 545 
8 Directive 2006/32/EC 

4 

 
                                           
At the time of the ESD adoption only a few MSs had the experience to prepare and adopt 
NEEAPs. Three NEEAPs were foreseen by the ESD, one in 2008, one in  2011 and a final 
one  in  2014.  The  NEEAP9  should  be  a  strategic  document  showing  a  coherent  set  of 
policies  and  measures  needed  in  a  specific  MS  to  reach  the  9%  target.  In  addition,  the 
second  and  third  NEEAP  should  include  a  thorough  analysis  and  evaluation  of  the 
preceding  EEAP.  Each  MS  had  also  to  appoint  at  least  one  new  or  existing  independent 
public  sector  authority  or  agency  to  ensure  overall  monitoring  of  the  process  set  up  to 
achieve these targets.  

In  order  to  meet  the  EU  2020  target  and  given  the  somewhat  slow  progress  by  MSs  in 
implementing  energy  efficiency  policies  to  meet  the  2020  target,  the  Commission 
proposed  on  22  June  2011  a  new  Directive  to  step  up  Member  States  efforts  to  use 
energy  more  efficiently  at  all  stages  of  the  energy  chain  –  from  the  transformation  of 
energy  and  its  distribution  to  its  final  consumption.  That  was  the  Energy  Efficiency 
Directive10 (EED) which was adopted in December 2012 and repealed the previous ESD. 
The EED contains a set of binding measures such as: legal obligations to establish energy 
saving  schemes  in  Member  States,  public  sector  to  lead  by  example,  energy  audits, 
energy services, energy efficiency funds, efficient CHP, metering and billing information, 
consumer behaviour, etc. 

One of the key articles of the  Directive is Article 3, setting the target values for 2020 in 
terms of energy consumption: the Union’s 2020 energy consumption has to be no more 
than 1,483 Mtoe of primary energy or no more than 1,086 Mtoe of final energy11. Targets 
which  have  been  already  met  for  final  energy  consumption  (1,084  Mtoe  of  final  energy 
consumption  in  2015);  while  the  EU  is  on  the  track  to  reach  the  primary  energy 
consumption  target,  despite  of  the  increase  in  2015  (1,530  Mtoe  of  primary  energy 
consumption; corresponding to a gap of 3.2%). 

Another key article is Article 7, introducing Energy Efficiency Obligation schemes (EEOSs) 
mandating  distributors  and/or  retail  energy  sales  companies  to  reach  energy  savings 
targets or use alternative policy measures to deliver a targeted amount of energy savings 
amongst final energy consumers. The energy savings to be achieved by EEOs shall be at 
least  equivalent  to  achieving  new  savings  each  year  from  1  January  2014  to  31 
December  2020  of  1.5%  of  the  annual  energy  sales  to  final  consumers  of  all  energy 
distributors  or  all  retail  energy  sales  companies  by  volume,  averaged  over  the  most 
recent three-year period. 

On  November  2016  the  Commission  proposed  an  update  to  the  Energy  Efficiency 
Directive12,  including  a  new  30%  energy  efficiency  target  for  2030,  and  measures  to 
update  the  Directive  to  make  sure  the  new  target  is  met.  The  Energy  Council  on  June 
2017  agreed  on  a  proposal  for  a  revised  directive  on  energy  efficiency  whose  main 
elements  will  be  an  overall  energy  efficiency  target  of  30%  and  an  energy  savings 
obligation  of  1.5%,  decreasing  to  1.0%  for  the  period  2026-2030,  unless  the  mid-term 
review in 2024 concludes that the EU is not on track to meet its targets. 

Another important energy efficiency policy action at EU level has been the introduction of 
minimum  efficiency  requirements  for  products.  The  Eco-design  Directive13  is  the  EU 
framework  legislation  that  allows  the  introduction  of  energy  efficiency  requirements  for 
energy related products such as residential appliances, lamps, consumer electronics, ICT 
equipment,  etc.  Since  the  first  Eco-design  Directive14  was  introduced  a  number  of 
implementing  Regulations  have  been  adopted  introducing  efficiency  requirements  for 
residential appliances (e.g. refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, dishwashers, etc.), 

9 The evaluation of the quality of NEEAPs and the saving reported is not in the scope of the present report. 
10 Directive 2012/27/EU 
11  The  indicated  values  refer  to  EU-28.  When  the  EED  was  introduced  the  values  were referred  to  EU-27  and 

were: 1,474 Mtoe of primary energy or no more than 1,078 Mtoe of final energy. 

12 

https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/news/commission-proposes-new-rules-consumer-centred-clean-energy-

transition 

13 Directive 2009/125/EC 
14 Directive 2005/32/EC 

5 

 
                                           
lamps,  televisions,  air-conditioners,  heaters  and  water  heaters,  power  transformers  and 
ventilation  units  among  others15.  Efficiency  requirements  have  been  complemented  by 
mandatory  energy  labelling16  use  as  established  in  the  Energy  Labelling  Directive17. 
Energy  labelling  of  residential  equipment  was  first  introduced  in  199218,  with  the  first 
energy label introduced in 1994 for refrigerators. Energy label has contributed to enlarge 
the  market  for  efficient  appliances19  [1].  The  combination  of  Eco-design  and  energy 
labelling  has  been  successful  in  substantially  improving  energy  efficiency  of  residential 
equipment  and  this  result  in  energy  savings  compared  to  a  business  as  usual  scenario 
[2]. 

The  main  EU  policy  for  both  residential  and  non-residential  buildings  is  the  Energy 
Performance of Building Directive20 (EPBD) which was introduced firstly in 2002 and then 
recast in 201021. Under this Directive, Member States shall implement at national level a 
set  of  measures  regarding:  energy  performance  certificates  to  be  included  in  all 
advertisements for the sale or rental of buildings; regular inspections of heating and air-
conditioning  systems;  all  new  buildings  must  be  nearly  zero-energy  buildings  by  31 
December  2020  (new  buildings  occupied  and  owned  by  public  authorities  by  31 
December 2018); introduce a set of minimum energy performance requirements for new 
buildings,  for  the  major  renovation  of  buildings  and  for  the  replacement  or  retrofit  of 
building  elements  (i.e.  heating  and  cooling  systems,  roofs,  walls,  etc.);  Member  States 
have  also  to  implement  measures  and  other  instruments  of  national  financial incentives 
to improve the energy efficiency of buildings. 

It  is  within  this  legislative  framework  where  the  present  report  acquires  its  importance, 
as it aims at showing the present status and existing trends in energy consumption along 
the  EU-28  Member  States,  in  the  four  main  energy  consuming  sectors:  residential, 
tertiary, transport and industry. In the residential sector, a special focus on the electricity 
consumption  of  main  household  appliances  and  equipment  is  carried  out.  Also,  in  the 
industry  sector,  an  analysis  of  electricity  consumption  by  electric  motors  and  drives  is 
provided.  During  the  last  years,  there  have  been  efforts  by  the  European  Union  to  cut 
down and reduce on energy consumption and improve energy efficiency. 

From  2000-2015,  there  have  been  various  policies  that  aim  at  reducing  final  energy 
consumption.  Therefore,  the  present  report  demonstrates  the  energy  consumption 
progress  from  2000-2015  in  the  mentioned  sectors.  Besides  the  final  energy 
consumption, electricity and gas consumption are analysed.  

The report consists of seven chapters. The second chapter provides with data for gross, 
primary  and  final  energy  consumption  such  as  energy  supply  composition  and  energy 
drivers as energy intensity and energy per capita across the EU-28 Member States. This 
comparison gives insights about energy consumption and efficiency level that take place 
throughout the delivery and transformation of the energy for the final end use. Chapter 3 
analyses  the  final  energy  consumption  in  the  residential  sector.  The  analysis  includes 
consumption drivers such as economic growth, population, heating demand, household's 
characteristics  and  energy  prices  with  the  aim  of  analysing  their  influences  in  the 
consumption  trends  qualitatively.  Chapter  4  focuses  on  the  tertiary  sector  and  provides 
with  an  overview  of  the  energy  consumption  changes.  Chapter  5  analyses  the  energy 
consumption trends in the transport sector with a focus on the road sector and the CO2 
emissions produced by the sector. Chapter 6 provides an overview of  the main changes 

15 For the updated list of the Regulations adopted and the products covered by efficiency requirements under 

the Eco-design see: 
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/list_of_ecodesign_measures.pdf 

16  For  the  updated  list  of  the  Regulations  adopted  and  the  products  covered  by  energy  labelling  see: 

https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/list_of_enegy_labelling_measures.pdf 

17 Directive 2010/30/EU 
18 Council Directive 92/75/EEC 
19 There is an on-going energy labelling directive revision process (see COM (2015) 341 final). 
20 Directive 2002/91/EC 
21 Directive 2010/31/EU 

6 

 
                                           
in the industry sector and subsectors  regarding the energy consumption and production 
output. Chapter 7 corresponds to the conclusions and findings of the report. 

7 

 
2  Gross, Primary and Final Energy Consumption in EU-28 

Gross inland energy consumption, also known as total primary energy supply, represents 
the  quantity  of  energy  necessary  to  satisfy  inland  consumption  of  a  geographical  entity 
under consideration [3]. It is composed by the final energy consumption and the energy 
that is  consumed  in  the  stages  before  the  delivery  to  the  final destination.  Final  energy 
consumption is the amount of energy that is actually consumed in the different sectors. 
This  report  is  focused  mainly  on  the  final  energy  consumption.  However,  gross  inland 
consumption  is  also  important  in  order  to  have  an  indication  of  the  losses  that  occur 
throughout  the  transport,  distribution  and  transformation  stages  in  the  delivery  of  the 
energy for final consumption. 

This  chapter  covers  the  gross  inland  energy  consumption  and  the  final  energy 
consumption  in  the  EU-28  Member  States.  The  share  of  the  different  sectors  in  the 
energy  consumption  and  the  contribution  of  the  different  fuel  types  are  analysed, 
together with the growth rates in the EU-28 along the covered period. 

2.1  Gross inland energy consumption 

Gross  inland  energy  consumption  in  the  EU-28  declined  from  1,730  Mtoe  in  2000  to 
1,627  Mtoe  in  2015.  Figure  2  shows  how  gross  inland  consumption  and  final  energy 
consumption have  evolved from 2000  onwards.  It  can be  seen that  both have declined. 
Final  energy  consumption  (1,084  Mtoe)  represented  the  66.6%  of  the  gross  inland 
consumption  in  2015.  That  means  that  a  large  share  equal  to  33.4%  of  energy  is 
consumed during the process of the energy delivery to end-users. Looking at this data is 
important for understanding the efficiency of the entire energy system. 

Figure 2: Gross inland energy consumption – Final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

Inland Gross Consumption

Final Energy Consumption

)
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2,000

1,800

1,600

1,730 

1,133 

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

1,627 

1,084 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

8 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The gross inland consumption in the EU-28 reached a maximum of almost 1,840 Mtoe in 
year  2006.  A  significant  drop  by  5.8%  took  place  in  2009  rising  then in  2010  by  3.8%. 
After 2010 a decreasing trend has been undergone (Figure 3). In 2015, the gross inland 
consumption was 1,627 Mtoe which establishes the second lowest value over the period 
from 1990 to 2015. 

Figure 3: Gross inland consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

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1,900

1,850

1,800

1,750

1,700

1,650

1,600

1,839 

1,804 

1,764 

1,730 

1,700 

1,699 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

1,627 

1,608 

The  difference  between  gross  inland  and  final  energy  consumption  is  due  to 
transformation  losses  (20.9%),  consumption  in  the  energy  sector  (5.0%),  final  non-
energy  consumption  (5.9%),  distribution  losses  (1.6%)  and  other  exchanges,  transfers 
and  returns  (0.2%)  -  Figure  4.  Compared  to  2000,  there  has  been  a  slight  increase 
(+1.36%) of the share of the final energy to gross inland consumption. This is the result 
of  the  reduction  of  the  share  of  the  other  components,  with  the  only  exception  of  the 
consumption  in  energy  sector.  However,  these  changes  are  very  small  and  the  main 
consumption patterns have remained the same. 

9 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4: Gross inland energy consumption breakdown in the EU-28, 2000 and 2015 

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Transformation Losses

Exchange, Transfers, Returns

Consumption in Energy Sector

Distribution Losses

Final Non-energy Consumption

Final Energy Consumption

2000

21.69%

0.26%

4.95%

1.59%

6.44%

65.07%

Source: Eurostat 

2015

20.92%

0.18%

4.97%

1.56%

5.93%

66.43%

2.2  Primary energy consumption 

Primary  energy  consumption22  in the  EU-28  declined  from  1,618  Mtoe  in  2000  to  1,530 
Mtoe in 2015; representing a drop by 5.4% over the period. Primary energy consumption 
experienced  an  increasing  trend  from  2000  to  2006,  reaching  the  maximum  value  over 
the  analysed  period  in  2006  (1,722  Mtoe).  The  series  show  two  minimum  over  period 
2000-2015,  in  2009  and  2014  respectively.  In  2009  the  primary  energy  consumption 
dropped  by  1.2%  in  comparison  to  year  2000.  In  2014  we  can  observe  a  further 
decrease  of  5.6%  compared  to  2009.    In  2014,  the  EU  primary  energy  consumption 
registered the lowest value since 2000 (1,508 Mtoe) with a fall of 3.9% in comparison to 
2013 . In 2015 the consumption increased again with a growth rate of 1.5% compared to 
the previous year. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  EU  target  values  for  2020  for  the  primary  energy  are  set  in 
1,483  Mtoe.  Before  the increase  registered  in  2015,  the  analysed  data  indicate  that  the 
EU was on track to achieve its goal in terms of primary energy consumption. The actual 
gap  to  accomplish  the  target  is  3.2%  as  per  the  data  corresponding  to  2015.

22 Primary energy consumption covers the consumption of the energy sector, losses during transformation and 
distribution  of  energy,  and  the  final  consumption  by  end  users.  It  excludes  energy  used  for  non-energy 
purposes. 

10 

 
 
                                           
Figure 5: Primary energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

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1,750

1,700

1,650

1,600

1,618 

1,550

1,500

1,450

1,722 

1,692 

1,657 

1,598 

1,570 

1,530 

1,508 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

Looking  at  the  composition  of  primary  energy  (Figure  6)  it  is  possible  to  observe  that 
final  energy  consumption  accounts  for  70.62%  of  primary  energy;  followed  by 
transformation losses (22.24%) and consumption in energy sector (5.29%). 

The  EU  energy  intensity23  declined  from  0.15  to  0.12  toe/thousand  Euro  over  period 
2000-2015. Since 2000 this indicator has followed a downward trend, with the exception 
of year 2003 and the period 2007-2010, when this indicator remained almost-constant at 
approximately 0.14 toe/thousand Euro (Figure 6). This reduction is due to several factors 
such  as  structural  changes  in  recent  years  in  the  overall  economy  and  technological 
improvements, together with the positive impact of energy efficiency policies both at the 
EU and national level. 

Energy  per  capita  in  the  EU,  has  decreased  in  total  by  0.4  toe/cap  over  period  2000-
2015.  It  reached  a  maximum  in  2006  (3.7  toe/cap).  Both,  the  EU's  population  growth 
and  the  gross  inland  energy  consumption  decrease  have    influenced  in  the  decrease  of 
this indicator. 

23 Energy intensity is defined as the ratio between the primary energy consumption and Gross Domestic Product 
(GDP) calculated for a calendar year. Generally, the lower energy intensity, the higher competitiveness of 
the region or country analysed. 

11 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
Figure 6: Primary energy consumption breakdown in the EU-28, 2015 

Transformation 
Losses 
22.24% 

Exchange, 
Transfers, Returns 
0.19% 

Consumption in 
Energy Sector 
5.29% 

Distribution Losses 
1.66% 

Final Energy 
Consumption 
70.62% 

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 7: Energy indicators for primary energy consumption: energy per capita and energy 
intensity24 in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

3.8

3.7

3.6

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2

3.1

3

2.9

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3.6 

0.15 

3.7 

0.14 

0.2

0.19

0.18

0.17

0.16

0.15

3.2 

0.14

0.13

0.12

0.12 

0.11

0.1

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2000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015

Energy per capita

Energy Intensity

Source: Eurostat 

2.3  Final energy consumption in different sectors 

In  2015  the  EU  total  final  energy  consumption  in  EU-28  was  1,084  Mtoe  (Figure  8).  It 
can  be  observed  a  decrease  of  4.32%  in  comparison  to  year  2000,  when  the 
consumption  was  1,133  Mtoe.  ).  In  order  to  capture  potential  differences  between 
European countries it is interesting to consider separately countries that were in the EU 
prior of May 2004 and countries entered in the EU after this date. Differentiating by MS 

24  GDP values  at  market prices  have  been  considered  to  calculate  the  energy  intensity  values  reported  in  the 

graph. 

12 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
groups 84.3% (914 Mtoe) was  consumed in EU-15 and 15.7% (170 Mtoe) in NMS-1325. 
The  EU-15  shows  a  decrease  of  6%  for  the  period  2000-2015.  In  contrast,  NMS-13 
increased their consumption by 6%, from 161 Mtoe to 170 Mtoe. 

Figure 8: Final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015.  

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1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

1,133 

972 

161 

1,084 

914 

170 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat  

This  energy  was  mainly  consumed  by  four  sectors:  industry,  residential,  services  and 
transport  (Figure  9).  In  2015,  the  sector  with  the  largest  share  of  final  energy 
consumption  was  the  transport  sector,  which  consumed  33.1  %  of  the  total  amount  of 
final  energy  consumption.  Residential  sector  follows  with  25.4%.  Industry  was  the  third 
sector  with  a  share  of  25.4%.  The  contribution  of  the  service  sector,  accounted  for 
13.6%. 

Final energy consumption distribution by sector for five different years (i.e. 2000, 2004, 
2007, 2010 and 2015) is shown in  Figure 10. It can be  observed that the shares have 
slightly changed during the period, and the ranking of the sectors regarding final energy 
consumption has been often maintained. 

Figure 9: Final energy consumption breakdown into sectors in the EU-28, 2015.  

Other, 0.35% 

Services, 
13.55% 

Agriculture/Fores
tyFishing; 2.28% 

Residential, 
25.38% 

Industry, 
25.35% 

Transport, 
33.09% 

Source: Eurostat  

25 The New Member States 13 (NMS-13) includes the following 13 countries: Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech 

Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. 

13 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
Figure 10: Final energy consumption shares by sector in the EU-28, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2010 and 
2015  

Industry

Transport

Residential

Agriculture/Forestry/Other

Services

10.72% 

3.73% 

11.92% 

3.20% 

11.95% 

3.34% 

25.70% 

26.00% 

24.38% 

13.55% 

3.15% 

27.38% 

13.55% 

2.63% 

25.38% 

30.43% 

30.79% 

32.65% 

31.28% 

33.09% 

29.43% 

28.08% 

27.67% 

24.65% 

25.35% 

2000

2004

2007

2010

2015

Source: Eurostat 

Figure  11  shows  how  the  final  energy  consumption  per  sector  changed  from  2000  to 
2015. It can be seen that the final energy in industry and residential sector has notably 
varied  throughout  the  different  years  (e.g.  between  2008  and  2009  for  the  industry 
sector and between 2013 and 2014 for the residential one), while energy consumption of 
the  transport  and  services  sector  has  changed  more  gradually.  The  increase  of  final 
energy consumption in transport and services sectors combined with the decrease in the 
industry sector might be representative of an on-going tertiarization process in the EU. In 
2015,  however,  the  final  energy  consumption has  increased  in  all  the  sectors  compared 
to  year  2014.  In  2015,  however,  the  final  energy  consumption  has  increased  in  all  the 
sectors compared to year 2014.  

Figure 11: Final energy consumption dynamics through main sectors in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

345 

333 

291 

400

350

300

250

200

150

121 

100

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359 

275 

275 

147 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry

Transport

Residential

Services

Source: Eurostat 

14 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 12 shows the final energy consumption changed in each EU Member States. For 
the analysed period, final energy consumption growth rate varies considerably among the 
EU Member States.  

In  the  period  2000-2015,  ten  EU  Member  States  experienced  higher  decreasing  rates 
than the average decreasing rate for EU-28. The highest drop took place in UK (-14.3%), 
followed  by  Greece  (-11.6%)  and  Portugal  (-10.5%).  In  contrary,  Malta  (29.3%), 
Lithuania  (29.2%)  and  Latvia  (16.4%)  were  the  EU  MS  where  the  final  energy 
consumption rose the  most in comparison to 2000. Fourteen MSs, ten of which NMS-13 
and  four  of  which  EU-15,  experimented  an  increasing  of  the  final  energy  consumption. 
Slovakia, Romania and Czech Republic are the  only New Member States where the final 
energy consumption decreased below the average European level. 

Figure 12: Final energy consumption growth rate by EU-28 Member State; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 
and 2007-2015  

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

-10%

-20%

-30%

UK EL PT SE SK NL FR IT DK BE RO DE CZ FI CY ES IE BG SI HU HR PL EE LU AT LV LT MT

EU
28

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 13: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 Member States 2000, 2007 and 2015  

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

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2000

2007

2015

DE FR UK IT ES PL NL BE SE AT CZ FI RO HU EL PT DK IE SK BG HR LT SI LU LV EE CY MT

Source: Eurostat 

15 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 14: Share of EU-28 Member States final energy consumption in 2015 

9.80% 

8.08% 

8.76% 

10.22% 

7.42% 

55.73% 

DE, FR, UK, IT

ES

PL, NL

BE, SE, AT

CZ, FI, RO, HU

OTHERS

Source: Eurostat 

In  2015,  Germany  was  the  EU  Member  State  that  consumed  the  most  (212.1  Mtoe) 
reaching a contribution of 19.6% in the EU total final energy consumption. Together with 
France  (144.1  Mtoe;  13.30%),  the  United  Kingdom  (131.4  Mtoe;  12.12%)  and  Italy 
(116.4 Mtoe; 10.74%) they covered more than 55% of the EU final energy consumption. 
Figure  13  shows  the  ranking  of  the  EU  Member  States  as  regard  to  the  final  energy 
consuming as well as share  of each EU MS   in the  final energy  consumption. It can be 
observed  how  fourteen  Member  States  consumed  less  than  10%  of  the  total  energy 
consumption (Figure 14). 

The  decline  of  4.32%  in  the  European  final  energy  consumption,  for  the  period  2000-
2015,  has  not  been  gradual.  Figure  15  shows  that  until  2010  the  EU  final  energy 
consumption  increases  each  year  compared  to  2000,  except  for  2009.  From  2003  to 
2006 there was a constant growth reaching a maximum in 2006 with 1,194 Mtoe. During 
the  period  2011-2013,  the  final  energy  consumption  has  remained  nearly  constant.  In 
2014 the EU final energy consumption reached the lowest level since 2000. In 2015 the 
EU final energy consumption increased by 2% compared to 2014. 

Figure 15: Final Energy Consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (Detailed) 

)
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1,210

1,190

1,170

1,150

1,130

1,110

1,090

1,070

1,050

1,145 

1,133 

1,194 

1,181 

1,175 

1,164 

1,115 

1,107 

1,084 

1,062 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

16 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 16: Energy indicators for final energy consumption: energy per capita and energy 
intensity26 in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

2.41 

0.09 

0.12 

2.33 

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2.4

2.3

2.2

2.1

2.0

1.9

0.12

0.11

0.1

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

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0.07 

2000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015

Energy per capita

Energy Intensity

Source: Eurostat 

Energy intensity (EI) and energy per capita are two indicators related to the final energy 
consumption  analysed  below.  Between  2000  and  2015,  the  energy  intensity  in  the  EU 
dropped  by  0.05  toe/thousand  Euro,  reaching  0.07  toe/thousand  Euro.  Over  the  same 
period  the  energy  per  capita  indicator  followed  a  different  trend  reaching  in  2014  the 
lowest  value  (2.1  toe/capita)  since  2000.  In  2015  the  energy  per  capita  in  the  EU  rose 
slightly  at  2.13  toe/capita.  Energy  per  capita  indicator  is  mainly  influenced  by  the  final 
energy  consumption.  The  growth  rates  between  years  reflect  the  dynamics  of  final 
energy consumption more than the changes in the population growth rate. 

Figure 17: Final Energy intensity in the EU-28 (GDP at Current prices, Purchasing Power 
Standards), 2000, 2006, 2011 and 2015 

s
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0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0

E
I

T
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K
D

T
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K
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U
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O
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T
P

S
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T
A

E
D

T
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V
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R
H

L
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K
S

E
B

Z
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I

G F
B

E
E

8
2
U
E

2000

2006

2011

2015

Source: Eurostat 

26  GDP values  at  market prices  have  been  considered  to  calculate  the  energy  intensity  values  reported  in  the 

graph. 

17 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Ireland  had  the  lowest  energy  intensity  among  the  EU  Member  States  in  2015,  at  0.06 
toe/thousand Euro at pps27. Malta and Denmark followed with 0.07 toe/thousand Euro at 
pps and 0.08 toe/thousand Euro at pps respectively. The EU MSs with the highest energy 
intensity  in  the  same  year  were  Estonia  (0.22  toe/  thousand  Euro  at  pps),  Finland  and 
Bulgaria (0.19 toe/ thousand Euro at pps). In 2015, twelve European countries registered 
energy intensity values below the European average (<0.11 toe/ thousand Euro at pps).  

The highest reductions in the energy intensity values between 2000 and 2015 have been 
found in Romania (68.67%), Slovakia (60.27%) and Lithuania (59.53%). Greece, Finland 
and  Italy  are  the  countries  were  the  energy  intensity  has  reduced  the  least  during  this 
period  (25.02%,  28.24%  and  28.46%  respectively).  The  trends  in  energy  intensity  can 
reflect the efforts made by the EU Member States in order to reach the target imposed by 
Europe 2020 strategy. The average reduction rate in energy intensity for EU-28 has been 
-38.8% over the period 2000-2015.  

Table 1 presents an overview of the EU final energy consumption over period 2000-2005. 
It  provides  data  the  absolute  level  of  energy  consumed  in  the  sectors,  as  well  as  the 
indexed  final  consumption  versus  2000  and  year-on-year  growth  rates.  Comparing  with 
2000 it  can  be  observed  that,  over  period  2001-2008,  the  EU  experienced  positive  final 
energy  consumption's  growth  rates.  In  contrast,  from  2009  onwards,  only  year  2010 
shows  a  higher  level  of  final  energy  consumption.  Specific  insights  about  the  main 
consuming sectors are given in each of the subsequent chapters. 

27 Purchasing power standard 

18 

 
                                           
Table 1: Overview of final energy consumption changes for different sub-sectors, EU-28  

Source: Eurostat 

19 

(Mtoe)20002001200220032004200520062007Total1132.8971156.6551145.2071176.7931188.7041192.2801194.0561174.514Industry333.372332.099328.023335.558333.747328.063322.293324.975Transport344.691348.019350.962356.412366.061369.275377.030383.484Residential291.201305.521299.257309.170309.091309.224305.848286.382Services121.420128.551126.093138.730141.723144.160148.268140.386(Mtoe)20082009201020112012201320142015Total1180.5781115.1191164.4931107.2501107.9651107.5671061.6681083.957Industry312.454266.805287.009283.223277.949277.600273.965274.737Transport377.669365.457364.206362.256351.555347.907352.580358.629Residential300.753298.303318.864283.001297.527300.489264.515275.155Services151.357150.026157.770147.425149.759150.674141.784146.924(%)20002001200220032004200520062007Total2.10%1.09%3.87%4.93%5.24%5.40%3.67%Industry-0.38%-1.60%0.66%0.11%-1.59%-3.32%-2.52%Transport0.97%1.82%3.40%6.20%7.13%9.38%11.25%Residential4.92%2.77%6.17%6.14%6.19%5.03%-1.66%Services5.87%3.85%14.26%16.72%18.73%22.11%15.62%(%)20082009201020112012201320142015Total4.21%-1.57%2.79%-2.26%-2.20%-2.24%-6.29%-4.32%Industry-6.27%-19.97%-13.91%-15.04%-16.62%-16.73%-17.82%-17.59%Transport9.57%6.02%5.66%5.10%1.99%0.93%2.29%4.04%Residential3.28%2.44%9.50%-2.82%2.17%3.19%-9.16%-5.51%Services24.66%23.56%29.94%21.42%23.34%24.09%16.77%21.01%(%)20002001200220032004200520062007Total2.10%-0.99%2.76%1.01%0.30%0.15%-1.64%Industry-0.38%-1.23%2.30%-0.54%-1.70%-1.76%0.83%Transport0.97%0.85%1.55%2.71%0.88%2.10%1.71%Residential4.92%-2.05%3.31%-0.03%0.04%-1.09%-6.36%Services5.87%-1.91%10.02%2.16%1.72%2.85%-5.32%(%)20082009201020112012201320142015Total0.52%-5.54%4.43%-4.92%0.06%-0.04%-4.14%2.10%Industry-3.85%-14.61%7.57%-1.32%-1.86%-0.13%-1.31%0.28%Transport-1.52%-3.23%-0.34%-0.54%-2.95%-1.04%1.34%1.72%Residential5.02%-0.81%6.89%-11.25%5.13%1.00%-11.97%4.02%Services7.81%-0.88%5.16%-6.56%1.58%0.61%-5.90%3.63%% Growth rate to preavious yearFinal Energy Consumption per Sector, EU-28% Growth rate to year 2000 
 
2.4  Final energy consumption per fuel types 

The  main  energy  fuels  of  final  energy  consumption  are  petroleum  products,  gas,  and 
electricity that provide respectively the 39.6%, 21.8% and 21.7% of the EU final energy 
consumption  in  2015.  Renewables  (geothermal  energy,  solar  thermal  energy,  biofuels, 
and  renewable  municipal  waste)28,  solid  fuels  and  derived  heat,  have  a  total  share  of 
around  16.5%.  Over  the  period  there  has  been  a  reduction  of  108  Mtoe  in  solid  fuels, 
petroleum  products  and  gas,  and  an  increase  of  59  Mtoe  in  renewables,  electricity  and 
waste.  This  shows  that  the  drop  of  49  Mtoe  in  final  energy  consumption  from  2000  to 
2015 is the combined result of diverse changes in the energy type mixture. For instance 
the energy gap due to  a decline of 31 Mtoe in gas has been covered  by the increase  of 
other  energy  types  such  as  renewables,  electricity  and  heat.  In  this  perspective  an 
increase  in  electricity  can  be  explained  not  only  as  a  direct  increase  of  electricity 
consumption  for  the  same  type  of  service,  but  also  as  a  substitute  for  gas  or  other 
energy sources. Furthermore, in the specific case of electricity, the consumption share is 
expected to grow in the future as renewable energy sources are integrated into electrical 
grids once generated in renewable power plants such as hydroelectric power plants, wind 
farms or PV power stations. 

Figure 18: Final energy consumption by energy types in the EU-28, 2000 and 2015  

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

)
e
o
t
k
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
g
r
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n
E
l
a
n
i
F

Waste (non renewable)

Electricity

Renewable Energies

Derived Heat

Gas

Total Petroleum Products

Solid Fuels

2000

1,039.2

217,399.8

49,143.8

45,333.1

267,565.8

490,473.00

61,941.7

Source: Eurostat 

2015

3,455.8

235,664.6

86,846.0

45,882.9

236,254.0

429,569.10

46,284.2

28Renewable  energy  sources  other  than  hydro  power,  wind  power,  tide,  wave  and  ocean  energy,  and  solar 
photovoltaic. These sources are accounted under the contribution generated by electricity consumption. 

20 

 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 19: Share of energy source to final energy consumption in the EU-28,  
2000 and 2015  

2000 

5.5% 

0.1% 

19.2% 

43.3% 

4.3% 

4.0% 

23.6% 

Waste (non renewable)

Electricity

Renewable Energies

Derived Heat

Gas

Total Petroleum Products

Solid Fuels

2015 

0.3% 

4.3% 

39.6% 

21.7% 

8.0% 

21.8% 

4.2% 

Source: Eurostat 

With regard to the shares of the different energy sources, from 2000 to 2015 electricity 
has raised its share (by 2.5%), renewable energy sources' share has notably augmented 
(nearly  doubled),  derived  heat's  share  has  remained  almost  stable,  while  the  shares  of 
solid  fuels,  gas,  petroleum  and  oil  product  have  decreased  by  1.2%,  1.8%  and  3.7% 
respectively. 

21 

 
 
 
 
2.5  Final electricity and gas consumption in different sectors 

This  subchapter  covers  the  analysis  of  electricity  and  gas  consumptions  in  different 
sectors over the period 2000-2015 in the 28 countries of the European Union. 

Final Electricity consumption 

In  2015,  total  electricity  consumption  across  the  EU-28  countries  was  2,741  TWh.  It 
corresponds  to  an  increase  of  8.4%  in  comparison  to  year  2000,  when  the  electricity 
consumption was 2,528 TWh (Figure 20). 86.5% of the total electricity consumption was 
made by EU-15 (2,370 TWh), while NMS-13 consumed 13.5% (371 TWh) of electricity. 

Figure 20: Final electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015   

)
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2,528 

2,229 

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

300 

0

2,741 

2,370 

371 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 21 provides a detailed picture of the electricity consumption trend at the EU level. 
From 2000 to 2006 the EU region experienced a positive steady annual growth rate from 
1%  to  2.5%.  In  2008  the  electricity  consumption  reached  its  maximum  level  (2,864 
TWh). A fall by 5.2% occurred in 2009, followed by an increase of 4.57% in 2010. From 
2011 to 2014 it is possible to observe a decrease in the electricity consumption, followed 
by a new increase in 2015. In the period 2010-2015, electricity has undergone a drop by 
3.5%.

22 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 21: Electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

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2,900

2,850

2,800

2,750

2,700

2,650

2,600

2,550

2,500

2,528 

2,864 

2,839 

2,835 

2,785 

2,741 

2,715 

2,703 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

In  2015,  final  electricity  per  capita  consumption  was  5,390  kWh,  a  rise  by  3.9%  in 
comparison  to  2000.  There  is  a  sharp  difference  within  the  EU-28  on  average  terms  a 
person living in NMS-13 consumes 1.65 times less energy than a person living in EU-15. 
Despite  of  this,  the  final  electricity  consumption  per  capita  in  NMS-13  has  grown  by 
29.7%  in  the  analysed  16-year  period,  while  EU-15  has  reduced  its  consumption  by  -
0.6% (Figure 22).  

Figure 22: Final electricity per capita consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

)
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5,902 

5,189 

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

2,733 

1000

0

5,868 

5,390 

3,546 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

23 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Three  sectors  account  for  95%  of  the  electricity  consumption  in  EU-28.  36.4%  of  the 
electricity is consumed in the industry sector, 30. 5% in the service sector and 29.0% in 
the residential (Figure 23).  

Figure 23: Electricity consumption breakdown into sectors in the EU-28, 2015  

Other 
0.11% 

Services 
30.45% 

Industry 
36.35% 

Agriculture/ 
Forestry/Fishing 
1.78% 

Residential 
29.02% 

Transport 
2.28% 

Source: Eurostat 

In the period 2000-2015, the industry sector has always been the sector with the highest 
electricity  consumption,  reaching  a  maximum  of  1,141,034  TWh  in  2007.  For  the  same 
sector, a dramatically drop of 14% in the electric consumption took place between 2008 
and 2009, as a result of the impact of the financial crisis. Since 2011, it can be observed 
a slight lowering trend in the electricity consumption at European level, interrupted by a 
small  increase  in  2015.  Residential  and  Service  sectors  had  different  growth  rates  from 
2000  to  2008.  Since  then  these  sectors  have  undergone  similar  trends  as  illustrated  in 
Figure 24. 

24 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 24: Final electricity consumption dynamics through main consuming sectors in the EU-28, 
2000-2015  

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1,200

1,100

1,000

900

800

700

600

1,061 

718 

635 

996 

835 

795 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry

Residential

Services

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 25: Energy indicators for final electricity consumption: electricity per capita and electrical 
energy intensity29 in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

)
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5,800

5,700

5,600

5,500

5,400

5,300

5,200

5,100

5,000

0.262 

5,725 

5,642 

0.220 

5,189 

5,407 

0.221 

5,390 

0.186 

Electrical Energy per capita

Energy Intensity of Electricity

Source: Eurostat 

0.27

0.26

0.25

0.24

0.23

0.22

0.21

0.20

0.19

0.18

)
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29  GDP values  at  market prices  have  been  considered  to  calculate  the  energy  intensity  values  reported  in  the 

graph. 

25 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 25 describes the trend of the energy intensity of the final electricity consumption 
and the trend of final electricity consumption per capita. In 2015 the energy intensity of 
the final electricity consumption was 0.186 kWh/Euro, the lowest value over the analysed 
16-years  period.  In  the  period  from  2000  to  2015,  the  energy  intensity  of  the  final 
electricity has gradually dropped by 0.076 kWh/Euro. Between 2007 and 2010, the value 
remained  stable  around  0.22  kWh/Euro.  In  the  period  2000-2015,  the  final  electrical 
energy  consumption  per  capita  has  grown  by  201  kWh/cap.  This  indicator  reached  a 
maximum in 2008 with 5,725 kWh/cap, followed by a fall of 318 kWh/cap in 2009. From 
2010 to 2014, this indicator has continuously dropped with the exception of year 2012 in 
which  remained  quite  stable.  It  increased  in  2015,  however  staying  below  the  level  of 
2013. 

Final Gas Consumption 

In 2015, the total gas consumption of the EU-28 countries reached 236.25 Mtoe (Figure 
26). This established a drop of 11.9% in comparison to the level of year 2000 when the 
consumed gas was  equal to 267.68 Mtoe. EU-15 was responsible for  86.3% of the total 
gas consumption, while NMS-13 consumed 13.6% (32.32 Mtoe) of gas.  

Figure 26: Final gas consumption trends in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

)
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(
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268 

300

250

231 

200

150

100

50

0

36 

236 

204 

32 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

In  2015,  the  final  gas  consumption  per  capita  in  the  EU-28  was  5,403  kWh/cap.  This 
value represents a drop by 15.4% in comparison to year 2000. The overall trend shows a 
decrease in the gas consumption; this decrease has been more representative in the EU-
15 where the gas consumption per capita has been reduced by 17.5% as shown in Figure 
27.  As  in  the  case  of  final  electricity  consumption  per  capita,  there  is  a  remarkable 
heterogeneity  across  the  EU-28  Member  States  as  on  average  terms  a  person  in  EU-15 
consumes 1.6 times more than a person in NMS-13. 

26 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 27: Final gas per capita consumption trend in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

7,123 

6,386 

3,850 

n
o
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n
o

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s
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/
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(

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0

5,873 

5,403 

3,591 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

As in the case of final electricity consumption, the gas consumption is located primarily in 
three sectors. Residential sector is the highest consumer of gas with 41.2%, followed by 
industry sector with 36.7% and service sector which accounts for 18.8% of total final gas 
consumption.  The  three  sectors  together  cover  the  96%  of  the  gas  consumption  of  the 
European Union, as illustrated in Figure 28. 

Figure 28: Gas consumption breakdown into sectors in the EU-28, 2015  

Agriculture/Forestry
/Fishing 
1.38% 

Other 
0.48% 

Services 
18.86% 

Residential 
41.24% 

Industry 
36.67% 

Transport 
1.37% 

Source: Eurostat 

Figure  29  shows  the  gas  consumption  trend  for  the  period  2000-2015  in  three  above 
mentioned  sectors.  In  2000,  industry  and  residential  sectors  had  the  highest  shares  of 

27 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
consumption of gas, 112.64 Mtoe (42.1%) and 108,80 Mtoe (40.7%) respectively. Over 
the  period,  the  trends  have  reversed  and  their  ranking  has  changed.  Both  sectors  have 
occasionally  experienced  high  changes  in  comparison  to  previous  year,  e.g.  between 
2008 and 2009 the consumption of gas in industry sector declined by 15.9% or between 
2010 and 2011 it dropped by 16.6% in the residential sector. Overall both sectors have 
undergone  a  reduction  of  the  gas  consumption,  while  service  sector  has  experienced  a 
gradually increasing trend for the same period. To be noted that, from 2014 to 2015, gas 
consumption  has  increased  in  residential  and  services  sector  and  has  decreased  in 
industry. 

Figure 29: Final gas consumption dynamics through main consuming sectors in the EU-28, 2000-
2015 

)
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i
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s
a
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140

120

113 

100

109 

34 

80

60

40

20

0

97 

87 

45 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry

Residential

Services

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 30: Energy indicators for final gas consumption: gas consumption per capita and gas 
energy intensity30 in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

27.7 

571 

549 

534 

541 

493 

21.2 

20.2 

18.4 

)
p
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(
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E

585

565

545

525

505

485

465

445

425

29

27

25

23

21

19

17

15

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514 

465 

16.0 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Gas consumption per capita

Energy Intensity

Source: Eurostat 

30  GDP values  at  market prices  have  been  considered  to  calculate  the  energy  intensity  values  reported  in  the 

graph. 

28 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In  2015,  the  energy  intensity  of  the  final  gas  consumption  was  16  toe/Euro;  this  value 
represents  the  lowest  level  during  the  analysed  period.  From  2000  to  2015,  the  energy 
intensity  of  the  final  gas  has  gradually  dropped  by  11.7  toe/Euro.  Between  2007  and 
2010,  the  value  remained  stable  at  20.2  toe/Euro.  In  the  period  2000-2015,  gas 
consumption  per  capita  decreased  by  84  koe/cap.  This indicator  reached  a  maximum in 
2004  with  571  koe/cap.  Since  2007  it  has  registered  continuous  fluctuations.  In  2014, 
the per capita gas  consumption registered the  lowest  level over the analysed period.  In 
2015 it increased up to 465 koe/cap.  

29 

 
 
 
3  Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency Trends in the 

Residential Sector 

This  chapter  covers  energy  efficiency  and  energy  consumption  trends  in  the  residential 
sector,  with  a  focus  on  electricity  and  gas  consumption.  Consumption-related  data  are 
presented  together  with  data  regarding  some  main  energy  consumption  drivers  such  as 
economic growth, population growth, weather conditions, and household characteristics.  

3.1  Final energy consumption trends in the residential sector 

This  section  shows  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  trends  for  the  period  2000-
2015. Influencing factors in the energy consumption such as economic development and 
weather  conditions  are  also  qualitatively  analysed.  In  2015,  the  residential  sector 
represented  25.38%  of  the  final  energy  consumption  in  the  European  Union,  being  the 
third  consuming  sector  after  transport  (33.09%),  and  industry  sector  (25.35%).  By 
analysing the data concerning the residential consumption, it is possible to observe that 
the  final  energy  consumption  in  the  residential  sector  followed  a  fluctuating  dynamics, 
with a significant decrease of 11.25% and 11.97% in 2011 and 2014 respectively.  

Figure  31  shows  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  trend  at  European  level  over 
the  period  2000-2015.  It  can  be  observed  that,  after  a  peak  in  2010  (319  Mtoe),  the 
energy  consumption  has  reached  its  minimum  in  2014  (265  Mtoe).  These  two  values 
represent the maximum and minimum respectively for the 26-years period from 1990 to 
2015. During the period 2000-2015, the final residential energy consumption in the EU-
28  has  dropped  overall  by  5.5%,  from  291  Mtoe  to  275  Mtoe.  In  2015,  81.8%  (225 
Mtoe) of the final energy consumption in the residential sector has been consumed in EU-
15,  whereas  NMS-13  have  accounted  for  the  remaining  18.2%  (50  Mtoe).  During  the 
analysed  period  the  group  of  EU-15  has  undergone  a  reduction  of  7%  of  its  residential 
consumption; the group of NMS-13, instead, has maintained its consumption around the 
level of year 2000. 

Figure 31: Final residential energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015.  

)
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291 

242 

50 

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

275 

225 

50 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure  32 and Figure  33 complement the previous figure by providing a more fine-grain 
visualisation  of  the  evolution  of  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  and  a 
visualisation  of  the  yearly  growth  rates  over  the  period  2000-2015.  In  this  way  it  is 

30 

 
 
 
 
 
 
possible  to  have  an  idea  about  the  magnitude  of  the  variation  across  years,  both  in 
absolute and relative terms. It can be observed that from 2003 to 2006 the consumption 
remained  quasi-constant  with  the  highest  change  of  -1.09%  between  2005  and  2006. 
Since  2007  onwards,  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  has  registered  a 
continuous  fluctuation.  To  be  noted  that  annual  decrease  rates  are  generally  higher  in 
absolute value compared to annual increase rates observed in this period. In 2015, there 
has been an increase of 4.02% in final residential energy consumption. 

Figure 32: Final residential energy consumption in the EU-28 (detailed), 2000-2015  

)
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320

310

300

290

280

270

260

309 

319 

291 

286 

283 

300 

275 

265 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 33: Final residential energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

8%

3%

4.92% 

3.31% 

6.89% 

5.02% 

5.13% 

4.02% 

1.00% 

0.04% 

-2%

-1.02% 

-2.05% 

-0.03% 

-1.09% 

-0.81% 

-7%

-12%

-6.36% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

-11.25% 

-11.97% 

Source: Eurostat 

Per  capita  final  energy  consumption  in  the  residential  sector  has  lowered  by  57  koe  at 
European level from 2000 to 2015, this lowering representing a drop of 9.5%. The trend 

31 

 
 
 
 
 
 
of  this  indicator  mainly  follows  that  of  the  final  residential  energy  consumption,  as  the 
changes  in  the  population  growth  rates  have  been  much  less  sharp  than  the  energy 
consumption  changes.  Therefore,  despite  the  fact  that  the  EU-28  population  has  been 
continuously  growing,  its  influence  on  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  annual 
changes is quite limited. 

Figure 34: Final residential energy consumption per capita in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

640 

598 

453 

t
n
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a
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o
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700

650

600

550

500

450

400

557 

541 

481 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 35: Final residential energy consumption per capita by EU-28 Member State, in 2005, 2010 
and 2015 

)
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1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

T
M

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O
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D

T
A

E
B

E
S

K
D

I

U F
L

8
2
U
E

2005

2010

2015

Source: Eurostat 

When analysing the final residential energy per capita by Member State (Figure 35), it is 
observed  that  in  2015  the  countries  with  highest  consumption  are  Finland  with  0.90 
toe/cap,  followed  by  Luxembourg  (0.88  toe/cap)  and  Denmark  (0.75  toe/cap).  In 

32 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
contrast,  Malta,  Portugal  and  Bulgaria  have  the  lowest  values  with  0.18,  0.24  and  0.30 
toe/cap  respectively.  The  average  EU-28  value  has  dropped  by  13.44%  in  the  period 
between 2005 and 2015 (from 0.625 toe/cap to 0.541 toe/cap). 

Almost  half  of  the  Member  States,  i.e.  twelve  countries,  have  registered  a  final  energy 
consumption  per  capita  below  the  average  of  EU-28  (<  0.541  toe/cap)  in  2015.  Out  of 
these  countries,  six  have  mainly  or  solely  Mediterranean  climate.  These  countries  are: 
Malta, Portugal, Spain, Cyprus, Greece, and Italy. This result may indicate that climate is 
an  important  driver  of  residential  energy  consumption  as  mild  winters  lead  generally  to 
lower  energy  consumption.  To  be  noted  that  the  remaining  6  countries  belong  to  the 
group of NMS-13. Rather than by energy efficiency policies in force, this might be caused 
by  factors  such  as  cultural  habits,  economic  development,  or  availability  of  energy 
resources in comparison to other EU-28 countries. 

Figure 36: Share of fuel types to final residential energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000 and 
2015  

2000 

3.5% 

19.7% 

21.2% 

37.4% 

10.3% 

8.0% 

Electrical energy

Renewable Energies Derived Heat Gas

Total Petroleum Products

Solid Fuels

2015 

3.4% 

12.6% 

24.9% 

35.4% 

16.0% 

7.7% 

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 36 shows the share of each energy type to final residential energy consumption. 
In 2015, gas has accounted for 35.4% of the consumption, followed by electrical energy 
(24.9%)  and  renewable  energies  (16.0%).  The  share  of  electricity  includes  electricity 
generated  from  renewable  energy  sources  which  are  integrated  into  the  electrical 
network  (i.e.  wind  power,  photovoltaic  power,  hydro  power  and  tide,  wave  and  ocean 

33 

 
 
 
energy).  Therefore,  the  share  of  renewables  mainly  focuses  on  production  of  heat  from 
renewable resources.  

As  gas  and  electricity  are  the  main  energy  sources  for  the  residential  sector,  their 
consumption trends have been analysed independently later in this chapter. 

Factors influencing residential energy consumption 

When analysing energy consumption, it is important to consider influencing factors such 
as  population  growth,  economic  development  and  weather  conditions.  No  quantitative 
analysis  aiming  to  assess  the  influence  of  these  factors  is  presented  in  this  report. 
Nevertheless,  possible  explanations  for  the  registered  consumption  patterns  are 
proposed, by simply comparing energy consumption trends with the trends registered for 
the  following  variables  in  the  period  2000-2015:  population,  GDP  per  capita,  weather 
conditions  (actual  heating  degree  days),  number  of  dwellings  per  country,  average 
number of persons per household. Considering the influence of these factors can provide 
a better understanding of the relation between energy consumption and efficiency trends 
in the residential sector. 

Figure 37: Population in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

e
l
p
o
e
p
n
o

i
l
l
i

M

487.3 

600

500

400

300

377.6 

109.7 

200

100

0

508.5 

403.8 

104.7 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Between 2000 and 2015 the population in the EU-28 grew by 4.35%. In the same period 
the residential final energy consumption dropped by 5.5%. In the EU-15, the population 
grew by 6.94% between 2000 and 2015. On the other hand the population in the NMS-
13  decreased  by  4.56%  in  the  same  period.  This  means  that  the  constant  level  of  the 
total  residential  energy  consumption  observed  in  the  NMS-13  turns  into  an  increase  in 
the energy consumption per capita, due to the population’s decrease for the period 2000-
2015, as it is possible to understand looking at the same time at  Figure 31, Figure 34 
and Figure 37. 

34 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 38: Gross Domestic Product per capita at current market prices in the EU-28  

35,000

30,000

a
t
i
p
a
c

r
e
p
s
o
r
u
E

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

24,310 

19,802 

4,283 

33,563 

28,964 

11,293 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Other factors that can influence energy consumption are the economic development and 
the economic situation of the  countries. GDP per  capita31 in the EU-28 (Figure 38) has 
been  continuously  increasing  between  2000  and  2015  with  a  single  fall  in  2009  due  to 
the economic and financial crisis worldwide. Between 2009 and 2010 the GDP per capita 
increased  again  by  4%  in  the  EU-28.  The  GDP  per  capita  across  countries  in  the  EU-28 
for the year 2015 results very largely dispersed as illustrated in Figure 39. The GDP per 
capita in Bulgaria was EUR 6,288 whereas GDP in Luxembourg was EUR 92,973 in 2015. 
The average GDP per capita in the EU-28 was EUR 28,964. While GDP per capita over the 
period 2000-2015 increased by 46.27%,  final residential energy consumption per capita 
fell by 9.5% in the same period. Given the large dispersion in GDP per capita in the EU-
28  it  is  of  interest  to  look  at  the  disaggregated  data  per  country  for  what  regards  final 
residential  consumption  (Figure  35).  Finland,  Luxembourg  and  Denmark  which  are  the 
countries with highest consumption per capita also have above average GDP per capita. 
This could suggest that higher GDP levels may indeed lead to buy more energy, by using 
equipment at home resulting in higher energy consumption. 

The  growth  in  GDP  per  capita,  despite  the  population's  increase,  can  be  attributed  to 
important  economic  developments  during  these  years.  A  comparison  between  economic 
growth and energy consumption growth indicates that the observed significant economic 
growth  has  not  been  accompanied  by  an  increase  of  the  same  magnitude  in  energy 
consumption. 

It  is  clear  that  economic  development  is  positively  correlated  with  total  final  energy 
consumption.  However,  especially  in  the  residential  sector,  economic  growth  in  the  EU 
might have been accompanied by a more efficient usage of energy, due to the adoption 
of more energy efficient equipment. In the household sector a development in this sense 
can  result  from  more  efficient  appliances  and  systems  and  better  insulated  buildings  in 
general.  

31 All GDP numbers are given in current prices as of the year 2015 (source: Eurostat). 

35 

 
 
                                           
 
 
 
Figure 39: GDP per capita at current market prices in the EU-28, year 2015  

s
o
r
u
E
d
n
a
s
u
o
h
T

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

6.3 

93.0 

29.0 

G
B

O
R

R
H

U
H

L
P

V
L

T
L

K
S

E
E

Z
C

L
E

T
P

I
S

Y
C

T
M

S
E

T
I

R
F

E
B

E
D

I
F

T
A

K
U

L
N

E
S

K
D

E
I

U
L

8
2
U
E

Source: Eurostat 

Although Gross Domestic Product is largely and traditionally used in energy statistics for 
obtaining  key  indicators  such  as  energy  intensity,  the  disposable  income  of  households, 
or  adjusted  gross  disposable  income,  can  represent  a  more  interesting  economic 
indicator for the analysis of residential energy consumption. 

Disposable income of households may be defined as the net amount they have earned, or 
received  as  social  transfers,  during  the  accounting  period  excluding  exceptional  flows 
linked  to  capital  transfers  or  changes  in  the  volume/value  of  their  assets  minus  current 
transfers  in  cash  (taxes  on  income  and  wealth,  etc.).  It  is  mainly  composed  of  wages 
received,  revenues  of  the  self-employed  and  net  property  income  such  as  interest 
received on deposits minus interest paid on loans and dividends. 

Adjusted gross disposable income also includes social transfers that account for the flows 
of  individual  services  which  are  provided  free  of  charge  by  the  government.  These 
services mainly consist of education, health and social services but also housing, cultural 
and  recreational  services.  They  exclude  collective  services  that  are  provided 
simultaneously  to  all  the  members  of  the  community,  such  as  security  and  defence, 
legislation and regulation. Thus, adjusted disposable income improves the comparison of 
income  levels  across  countries,  by  taking  into  account  the  different  degrees  of 
involvement  of  governments  in  the  provision of  free  services  to  households  [4].  Figure 
40  shows  the  trend-line  comparison  of  both  adjusted  disposable  income  per  capita  and 
GDP per capita for the 11-years period between 2005 and 2015. It can be observed that 
there is a notable difference between these two variables; in 2015 the difference reached 
EUR  7,286.  Thus  the  GDP,  although  largely  used,  if  adopted  in  the  analysis  of  the 
residential  sector  may  turn  into  an  unfavourable  indicator  for  end-users  in  so  far  as  it 
does not reflect the real purchasing power of the inhabitants. 

36 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 40: Adjusted disposable income per capita and GDP per capita at current market prices in 
the EU-28, 2005-2015  

Adjusted disposable income

GDP per capita

s
o
r
u
E

31,000

29,000

27,000

25,000

23,000

21,000

19,000

17,000

15,000

23,435 

17,792 

28,964 

21,678 

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 41 shows the correlation between residential energy consumption per capita and 
GDP per capita, while Figure 42 shows the correlation between energy consumption per 
capita and adjusted disposable income. In the first case it is not possible to trace a clear 
path  for  the  residential  consumption  based  just  on  the  GDP  per  capita,  with  the  only 
exception  of  the  Nordic  countries  where  the  correlation  between  GDP  per  capita  and 
energy  consumption  is  probably  higher.  In  the  case  of  adjusted  disposable  income  the 
correlation  with  energy  consumption  seems  to  be  generally  stronger,  despite  still  very 
weak.  

Figure 41: Correlation between residential energy consumption and GDP per capita (current 
prices) in the EU-28 Member States, 2015  

n
o

i
t
a
l
u
p
p
o
P
/
e
o
t
K

0.001

0.0009

0.0008

0.0007

0.0006

0.0005

0.0004

0.0003

0.0002

0.0001

0

EE 

HU 

HR 
PL 

RO 

BG 

LV 

LT 

SK 

FI 

BE 

SE 

AT 

NL 

DE 

EU28 

CZ 
SI 

FR 

UK 

IT 

EL 

CY 

PT 

ES 

MT 

LU 

DK 

IE 

y = 6E-09x + 0.0004 
R² = 0.4009 

0

10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000

GDP per capita (EURO current prices) 

Source: Eurostat 

37 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 42: Correlation between residential energy consumption and Adjusted disposable income in 
the EU-28 Member States32, 2015  

0.001

0.0009

0.0008

0.0007

0.0006

0.0005

0.0004

0.0003

0.0002

0.0001

n
o
i
t
a
l
u
p
o
P
/
e
o
k
K

0
0.00

FI 

DK 

SE 

AT 

HU 

LV 

EE 

PL 

SI 

LT 

IE 

UK 

IT 

NL 

FR 

DE 

BG 

RO 

SK 

CY 

ES 

PT 

5,000.00

10,000.00

15,000.00

20,000.00

25,000.00

30,000.00

Adjusted disposable income (Euros) 

Source: Eurostat 

Per  capita  residential  energy  consumption  is  also  influenced  by  the  number  of  people 
living  together  in  one  household.  Most  of  the  energy-using  equipment  is  indeed  shared 
(e.g.  heating  and  cooling  equipment,  major  domestic  appliances  and  electronic 
equipment). The average number of persons per household in the EU-28 was 2.3 in the 
year  2015.  Sweden  and  Denmark  have  the  lowest  average  number  of  persons  per 
household  (1.8  and  2)  and  Slovakia  the  highest  (2.8),  as  shown  by  Figure  43.  Notice 
that  Luxembourg  has  the  highest  GDP  per  capita  and  also  an  above  EU-28  average 
household  size.  Looking  at  the  trends  displayed  by  Eurostat  data  it is  possible  to  notice 
that the overall trend in Europe is an increase in population accompanied by an increase 
in the number of smaller households (in terms of persons per household) which seems to 
contribute to a rise in energy consumption per household. 

Figure 43: Average number of people per household in the EU-28 Member States, 2015 

2.3 

2.8 

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.8 

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Source: Eurostat 

32 Data on the adjusted disposable income are not available for LU and MT. 

38 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
In  addition  to  the  number  of  people  per  household,  the  actual  size  in  square  meters  of 
household  dwellings  is  another  interesting  indicator  of  the  households'  energy 
consumption.  Large  dwellings  generally  have  a  higher  heating  and  cooling  demand  and 
higher energy consumption by lighting equipment. Romania is one of the Member States 
with the largest average number  of persons per household (2.7) but it has the smallest 
dwellings  average  size.  Cyprus,  Luxembourg  and  Belgium  are  the  Member  States  with 
the largest average size of dwellings. 

Figure 44: Average size of dwellings for countries with available data in the EU-28, year 201233  

s
r
e
t
e
m
e
r
a
u
q
S

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

43.9 

141.4 

96.0 

Source: Eurostat 

The  average  final  residential  energy  consumption  per  dwelling  in  the  EU-28  in  the  year 
2015 reached 1.10 toe. Finland registered the highest consumption (1.67 toe) and Malta 
(0.32 toe) the lowest. 

Figure 45: Final residential energy consumption per dwelling in the EU-2834, year 2015. 

1.67 

1.10 

)
w
d
/
e
o
t
(
g
n

i
l
l
e
w
d
r
e
p
y
g
r
e
n
e
l
a
n
i
F

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.32 

0.2

0

Source: JRC calculation based on Eurostat data 

33 Data for the following years are not available. 
34 Data for AT, CZ, IE, LU are not available. 

39 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Weather  and  climate  are  environmental  conditions  that  affect  energy  consumption:  for 
instance  severity  of  winter  or  hot  summer  seasons  can  lead  to  occasional  consumption 
peaks.  The  parameters  which  are  related  to  the  heating  and  cooling  needs  are  the  so-
called heating degree days (HDD) and cooling degree days35 (CDD). 

The final residential energy consumption per dwelling has been decreasing during the 11-
years  period  from  2005  to  2015  in  the  EU-28.  In  2005  the  residential  consumption  per 
dwelling  was  1.34  toe.  In  2015,  the  consumption  per  dwelling  is  1.10  toe,  meaning  a 
decrease  of  17.9%.  Part  of  this  decrease  can  be  explained  assuming  an  existing 
correlation  between  the  calculated  energy  consumption  per  dwelling  and  the  changing 
climatic  conditions  (heating  degree  days)  as  shown  in  the  Figure  46.  Variations  in  the 
final  energy  consumption  per  dwelling  follows  the  HDDs  variations  with  exception  of 
variations observed between years 2008 and 2009 and between years 2012-2013. These 
exceptions  might  be  explained  by  the  influence  of  other  factors,  notably  income  levels, 
building  design,  energy  systems  and  occupants  behaviours.  For  instance,  in  2009  the 
impact  of  the  economic  crisis  on  consumption  may  explain  the  negative  correlation 
between  final  energy  consumption  and  HDD,  as  GDP  per  capita  and  disposable  income 
fell that year. 

Figure 44: Final residential energy consumption per dwelling and heating degree days in the EU-
28, 2005-2015  

Final residential energy consumption per dwelling in the EU-28

Heating Degree Days

)
w
d
/
e
o
t
(
g
n

i
l
l
e
w
D
r
e
p
y
g
r
e
n
E

1.4

1.35

1.3

1.25

1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05

1

1.34 

1.31 

1.32 

1.26 

1.24 

1.22 

1.21 

1.22 

1.16 

1.10 

1.06 

3500

3400

3300

3200

3100

3000

2900

2800

2700

y
a
d
s
e
e
r
g
e
d
g
n
i
t
a
e
H

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Source: Eurostat36, Odyssee 

Figure  47  shows  the  correlation  between  energy  consumption  per  m2  and  HDD  in  the 
EU-28  Member  States.  The  first  evidence  is  that,  as  expected,  countries  with  a  colder 
climate  have,  on  average,  higher  levels  of  residential  consumption.  The  second,  and 
more  interesting  evidence,  is  that  countries  with  the  same  climatic  conditions  can 
perform  very  differently  in  terms  of  residential  consumption.  Countries  below  the  trend 
line  can  be  assumed  to  be  more  efficient  countries  in  terms  of  residential  consumption. 

35 A degree-day is defined as the difference in temperature between the outdoor mean temperature over a 24-
hour  period  and  a given  base  temperature.  Per definition,  the  base  temperature  is  18ºC.  Thus,  HDD  and 
CDD are the number of degrees that a day's average temperature is below/above 18ºC which is the outside 
temperature below which buildings need to be heated or cooled [Source: EEA]. 

36  Final  residential  energy  consumption  per  dwelling  has  been  calculated  by  the  report  authors  as  the  ratio 
between  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  and  the  total  stock  of  dwellings  in  the  EU-28  as  made 
available by Odyssee.  

40 

 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Eastern  European  countries  show  higher  level  of  residential  consumption.  Among  the 
countries  with  a  cold  climate  Sweden  and  Finland  provide  an  example  of  relatively  low 
level of residential energy consumption.  

Figure 45: Correlation between HDD and residential energy consumption per floor size, in the EU-
28 Member States37, 2014  

2
m
/
e
o
k

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

IT 

EL 
ES 

CY 

PT 

LV 

EE 

LT 

FI 

SE 

HR 

HU 
SI 

FR 

EU28 

RO 

CZ 
PL 

AT 

DE 

SK 

DK 

UK 
IE 

NL 

BG 

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

HDD 

4,000

5,000

6,000

Source: Eurostat, Odyssee  

Although the number of private households in the EU-28 has been continuously growing 
and the size of houses in terms of persons per household has slightly decreased, the final 
residential energy consumption follows a decreasing trend. 

Figure 46: Number of private households (in thousands) in the EU-2838, 2005-2016  

219.9 

213.4 

208.9 

l

s
d
o
h
e
s
u
o
h
f
o
r
e
b
m
u
N

)
s
t
i
n
u
d
n
a
s
u
o
h
t
(

220

215

210

205

200

195

190

195.1 

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

EU-28

EU-26

Source: Eurostat 

37 Data for BE, LU, and MT are not available. 
38 EU-26 excludes Ireland and Sweden. The complete time series for EU-28 is available starting from year 2009. 

41 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Between  2000  and  2014  the  average  size  of  dwelling  did,  however,  not  considerably 
change  (increase  by  5.2  sqm  in  the  whole  period).  The  decrease  in  consumption  per 
dwelling during the same period can thus not be explained by smaller households, and it 
may  be  result  of  higher  share  of  more  efficient  equipment  and  appliances,  and  other 
improvements in building elements, for example building's envelopes. 

Figure 47: Average energy per unit of area a year and floor size in the EU-28, 2000-2014  

Energy per square meter

Floor average (m2)

r
e
t
e
m
e
r
a
u
q
s

r
e
p
y
g
r
e
n
E

2
m
/
e
o
k

19.8 

21

20

19

18

17

84.5 

16

15

14

89.7 

15.0 

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

84

83

82

81

r
o
o
l
f

f
o
e
z
i
s
e
g
a
r
e
v
A

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: Odyssee 

The  average  energy  per  unit  of  area  at  EU-28  level  was  15  koe/m2  in  2014.  This 
represents  a  drop  by  24.24%  which  sets  the  lowest  value  along  the  analysed  period 
(2000-2014). It can be observed that the increase of average floor area during the same 
period contributed to reduce the value of this indicator.  

The residential energy consumption per unit of area across the EU-28 Member States for 
the  year  2014  is  illustrated  in  Figure  50.  To  be  noted  that  the  average  EU-28  level  is 
very  close  to  the  median.  In  2014,  Member  States  with  the  highest  residential  energy 
consumption per floor area were Latvia and Estonia (24.5 and 23.4 koe/m2), followed by 
Romania  (23.1  koe/m2)  and  Czech  Republic  (21.4  koe/m2).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Member States with the lowest values were Portugal (5.9 koe/m2), Cyprus (6.1 koe/m2) 
and Spain (9.4 koe/m2). 

Figure 48: Residential energy consumption per household floor size in the EU-28 Member States, 
2014 

24.5 

2
m
/
e
o
k

25

20

15

10

5

0

5.9 

15.0 

Source: Odyssee39 

39 Excludes BE, LU, and MT due to incomplete data. 

42 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
following 

figure  establishes  a  relationship  between  the  residential  energy 
The 
consumption  per  capita  and  the  mentioned  influencing  factors  (i.e.  economic  growth, 
climatic conditions and living conditions).  

Figure 49: Residential energy per capita, normalized by HDD, GDP per capita and average floor 
area in the EU-28, 2000-2014 

·

)
D
D
H
n
a
e
M
/
D
D
H
(
[
/
)
p
o
p
/
e
o
t
(

]
2
m

·

)
p
o
p
/
P
D
G
(

0.0000005

0.0000004

0.0000003

0.0000002

0.0000001

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: Eurostat, Odyssee 

During  the  period  2000-2014  the  residential  energy  consumption  adjusted  to  take  into 
account  all  the  aforementioned  factors  shows  a  decreasing  trend  (  -39%).  The  trend  is 
mainly  bound  to  the  growing  trends  of  income  levels  (GDP)  and  the  average  size  of 
households  in  terms  of  square  meter  per  person,  together  with  the  decreasing  trend  in 
the residential energy consumption. The alterations in the trend may be explained by the 
influence  of  these  factors.  For  instance,  in  2007  a  mild  winter  that  led  to  lower  energy 
consumption,  together  with  the  rise  of  GDP  per  capita  that  year,  brought  down  the 
indicator. A different dynamics was registered in 2009, when despite the mild winter, the 
GDP  reduction  due  to  the  impact  of  the  financial  and  economic  crisis  caused  a  rise  by 
2.8% in comparison to the previous year. In the following year (2010), the GDP recovery 
and the higher number of HDD brought the value back to its overall decreasing trend.   

The following figure shows the adjusted final energy consumption per capita per Member 
State. Compared to Figure 35 it is possible to notice that, introducing climatic, economic 
and  dwelling-related  corrections,  the  consumption  ranking  widely  changes.  Luxembourg 
that  was  the  State  with  the  second  highest  level  of  energy  consumption  becomes  the 
State  with  the  lowest  level  of  final  residential  energy  consumption,  followed  by  Ireland 
and  Netherland.  At  the  same  time  countries  that  in  terms  of  absolute  values  of  final 
energy  consumption  performed  very  well,  result  in  the  following  figure  among  the 
countries that consume the most. 

43 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 50: Adjusted final residential energy consumption per capita by EU-28 Member State, 
comparison 2000, 2007 and 2015 

P
D
G
(
*
2
m
[
/
)
p
o
p
/
e
o
t
K
(

]
)
D
D
H
n
a
e
M
/
D
D
H
(
*
)
p
o
p
/

3.5E-09

3E-09

2.5E-09

2E-09

1.5E-09

1E-09

5E-10

0

U
L

E
I

L
N

Y
C

T
P

K
U

S
E

T
A

R
F

E
D

T
I

I
F

K
S

I
S

Z
C

T
L

L
P

R
H

G
B

U
H

E
E

V
L

O
R

K
D

L
E

T
M

E
S

8
2
U
E

2000

2007

2015

Source: Eurostat, Odyssee 

Looking  at  the  growth  rates  of  the  adjusted  final  residential  energy  consumption  per 
capita  over  different  time  horizons  it  is  interesting  to  notice  how,  irrespective  of  the 
period and the State considered and with the exception of Cyprus and Spain, the growth 
rate is negative.  

Figure 51: Adjusted final residential energy per capita consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-
2840; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 

%

s
e
t
a
r
h
t
w
o
r
G

40

20

0

-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

SK LV EE LT BG CZ IE LU PL HR HU NL SI DE AT UK FR FI ES IT CY

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat, Odyssee 

Figure  54  shows  the  correlation  between  residential  energy  consumption  and  GDP  per 
capita,  corrected  to  take  into  account  population,  floor  area  of  dwellings,  and  HDD.  In 
this case it is possible to observe a negative correlation between residential consumption 
and  GDP  per  capita.  This  counterintuitive  result  is  important  in  order  to  show  how  the 
results  change  when  climatic  conditions  are  considered.  In  this  case  Nordic  European 
countries  that  are  more  efficient  in  terms  of  energy  consumption  position  themselves 
below the trend line. 

40 For BE and Mt data are not available. For EU28, DK, EL, PT, RO, SE data are incomplete. 

44 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 52: Correlation between adjusted residential energy consumption and GDP per capita in the 
EU-28 Member States41, 2015 

IT 

CY 

MT 

SI 

ES 

HU 

EE 
CZ 

LV 

LT 

PT 

SK 

FR 

DE 

AT 

UK 

FI 

NL 

DK 

SE 

IE 

LU 

)
p
o
p
*
2
m
*
D
D
H
(
/
e
o
t
K

4E-09

3.5E-09

3E-09

2.5E-09

2E-09

HR 

RO 

PL 

1.5E-09

BG 

1E-09

5E-10

0

0

10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000

GDP per capita (Euros) 

Source: Eurostat 

3.2  Electricity consumption trends in the residential sector 

Electricity accounted for 24.9% of the final residential energy consumption in the EU-28 
in 2015. This is the second highest share after gas consumption share (35.4%). The final 
residential  electricity  consumption  in  the  EU-28  has  grown  by  10.7%  in  the  period 
between 2000 and 2015. The electricity consumption reached 795 TWh in 2015, 87.6% 
of  which  was  consumed  in  EU-15  (696  TWh)  and  the  remaining  12.5%  in  NMS-13  (99 
TWh).  EU-15  and  NMS-13  have  increased  their  final  electricity  consumption  over  the 
same period by 9.43% and 20.73% respectively. 

The  highest  consumption  level  during  the  analysed  period  has  been  registered  in  2010 
when  final  electricity  consumed  grew  up  to  850  TWh.  Between  2000  and  2010  the  final 
electricity  consumption  in  the  residential  sector  was  continuously  increasing  (with  the 
only  exception  of  year  2007).  After  the  peak  in  2010  the  consumption  started  to 
fluctuate, by registering the most significant drops in 2011 (-4.86%) and 2014 (-5.18%). 
In 2015 it increased by 1.21%. 

41 Data on average floor area are not available for EU-28, BE, and EL for year 2015. 

45 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
Figure 53: Final residential electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

)
h
W
T
(
y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

718 

636 

82 

795 

696 

99 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 54: Final residential electrical energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-
2015 

6%

4%

3.40% 

4.58% 

3.73% 

2.96% 

2%

0%

-2%

-4%

-6%

0.59% 

1.09% 

1.42% 

1.42% 

0.89% 

1.18% 

0.25% 

1.21% 

-0.77% 

-0.45% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

-4.86% 

-5.18% 

Source: Eurostat 

The final residential electricity consumption per capita in the EU-28 has grown by 6.18% 
between 2000 and 2015. The average per capita electricity consumption in the residential 
sector  was  1,564  kWh  in  2015.  In  EU-15  the  residential  electricity  consumption  per 
capita registered a value of 1,725 kWh, with an increase of 2.49% over the period 2000-
2015. The consumption was 1.82 times higher than that of NMS-13. To be noted that the 
increase  in  the  final  residential  energy  consumption  (26.6%)  in  NMS-13  has  been 
accompanied by a population's decrease by -4.6% in the same period. 

46 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 55: Final residential electricity consumption per capita in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

1,683 

1,473 

747 

)
h
W
k
(
y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

2,000

1,800

1,600

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

0

1,725 

1,564 

946 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Concerning  final  residential  electricity  consumption  growth  rates  across  the  EU-28 
Member  States  for  period  2000-2015,  it  can  be  observed  that  eleven  MS  registered 
growth rates below the European average (10.85%). 

Figure 56: Final residential electricity consumption growth rates in the EU-28 by Member State; 
2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

-10%

-20%

-30%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

The  Member  State  with  the  lowest  growth  rate  between  2000  and  2015  has  been 
Belgium  with  -20.65%,  followed  by  Slovakia  (-7.09%)  and  United  Kingdom  (-3.29%). 
The Member States with the highest final residential electricity consumption growth rate 
have  been  Spain  (60.61%),  Romania  (58.06%),  and  Lithuania  (50.54%).  Figure  58 
shows the growth rates for three different periods. It can be clearly noticed that there is 

47 

 
 
 
 
 
 
a  dramatic  change  in  the  consumption  pattern  after  the  financial  and  economic  crisis 
which  peaked  in  2008.  For  instance,  Spain  drastically  changed  its  consumption  pattern 
from a growing trend of 56.39% for the period 2000-2007 to a growing trend of 2.70% 
for  the  period  2007-2015.  Ten  countries  have  undergone  a  positive  growth  rate  in  the 
period 2007-2015. The highest growth rate took place in Romania (16.42%). 

Figure 57: Residential electricity consumption per dwelling in the EU-28, 2005-2015  

Residential electricity consumption per dwelling in the EU-28

Heating Degree Days

g
n

i
l
l
e
w
D
r
e
p
y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

3,600

3,500

)
w
d
/
h
W
K
(

3,400

3,300

3,200

3,100

3,000

3,491  3,500 

3,508 

3,434  3,436 

3,413 

3,391 

3,355 

3,315 

3,163  3,180 

3,500

3,400

3,300

3,200

3,100

3,000

2,900

2,800

2,700

s
y
a
D
e
e
r
g
e
D
g
n
i
t
a
e
H

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

The  residential  electricity  consumption  per  dwelling  was  3,180  KWh/dw  in  2015,  the 
second lowest value registered during the whole period after year 2014. Over the period 
2000-2015  this  value  has  been  reduced  by  8.91%  (Figure  59).  The  lowering  trend  is 
observed  along  the  whole  11-years  period  with  the  exception  of  the  years  2006,  2008, 
2010,  2012,  and  2015  when  the  consumption  of  electrical  energy  per  dwelling  grew  in 
comparison  to  the  previous  year.  A  positive  correlation  between  the  consumption  per 
dwelling and the heating degree days can be observed with exception of years 2006 and 
2009. The negative correlation observed in 2009 was probably due to an income effect as 
GDP had a significant drop that year.  

Looking at the energy consumption per household in 2015, it is possible to observe that 
Romania  was  the  country  with  lowest  electricity  consumption  per  dwelling  with  1,619 
kWh,  followed  by  Lithuania  (1,998  kWh)  and  Poland  (2,004  kWh).  In  contrast,  Sweden 
(8,429 kWh), Finland (7,976 kWh) and France (5,269 kWh) were the Member States with 
the  highest  residential  electricity  consumption  per  household.  Fourteen  of  the  Member 
States  have  residential  electrical  energy  consumption  per  household  below  the  EU-28 
average.  Only  six  Member  States  have  increased  their  consumption  in  the  11-years 
period  comprised  between  2005  and  2015,  these  are:  Bulgaria,  Estonia,  Latvia, 
Lithuania, Poland and Romania. To be noted that all of them are NMS-13. 

48 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 58: Residential electricity consumption trends per household by Member State in the EU-
28; 2005, 2010 and 2015  

Residential electricity consumption trends per household in the 
EU-28 

)
h
W
k

(
y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

O
R

T
L

L
P

V
L

T
I

U
H

K
S

T
P

L
N

E
E

Z
C

E
D

I

G S
B

S
E

K
U

U
L

L
E

E
B

R
H

K
D

T
M

T
A

E
I

Y
C

R
F

I
F

E
S

8
2
U
E

2005

2010

2015

Source: Eurostat 

As  previously  mentioned,  weather  conditions  have  an  influence  on  energy  consumption. 
Figure 61 shows the mean heating degree days in the EU-28 by Member State between 
1980  and  2015.  The  EU-28  Member  States  with  the  highest  value  of  mean  heating 
degree days are Finland, Sweden and Estonia.  

Figure 59: Mean Heating Degree days (1980-2015) in the EU-2842 by Member State  

5,720 

3,209 

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

535 

0

Source: Eurostat 

42 Values for Croatia are included in the Eurostat database starting from 2013. 

49 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
Figure 60: Electricity prices for household consumers in the EU-28 by semesters, band DC - all 
taxes and levies included, 2007S2-2016S2  

0.2024 

0.2054 

0.22

0.21

0.20

0.19

0.18

0.17

0.16

0.15

0.14

)
h
W
k
/
€
(

e
c
i
r
P

y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

0.1665 

0.1564 

0.1638 

Source: Eurostat 

Electricity  expenses  as  part  of  residential  utilities  are  a  cost  to  consider.  In  2015,  the 
average  EU-28  expenses  per  dwelling  for  electricity  were  EUR  666.6043.  The  electricity 
price for household consumers has continuously grown during the last years (see  Figure 
62).  In  the  second  semester  of  2007  the  average  EU-28  electricity  price  was  EUR 
0.1564/kWh and in the second semester of 2015 the price has reached EUR 0.2103/kWh. 
In  2016,  for  the  first  time  over  the  period  considered,  the  electricity  price  registered  a 
decline  (EUR  0.2054/kWh  in  the  second  semester).  From  2007  to  2016  the  price 
increased by 31.33%.  

Figure 61: Electricity prices for household consumers in the EU-28, band DC, 2015  

Basic Price

Other taxes

VAT

)
h
W
k
/
€
(

t
s
o
C

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

8
2
U
E

K
D

E
D

E
I

T
I

S
E

T
P

E
B

K
U

T
A

L
N

Y
C

E
S

L
E

U
L

R
F

V
L

I
S

I
F

K
S

L
P

Z
C

R
H

O
R

E
E

T
M

T
L

U
H

G
B

Source: Eurostat 

Looking  at  the  electricity  prices  across  the  EU-28  Member  States  for  the  year  2015, 
Denmark has the highest electricity price (EUR 0.3055/kWh) followed by Germany (EUR 
0.2949/kWh)  and  Ireland  (EUR  0.244/kWh).  The  lowest  electricity  prices  are  found  in 
Bulgaria  (EUR  0.0950/kWh),  Hungary  (EUR  0.1136/kWh)  and  Lithuania  (EUR 
0.1250/kWh). To be noted that Denmark has the highest electricity price and 68.41% of 

43  This  value  has  been  calculated  from  the  average  electricity  price  for  household  consumers  (band  DC) 

multiplied by the residential electricity consumption per dwelling as calculated under Figure 59. 

50 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
the price is composed by taxes and levies. This value almost doubles the EU-28 average 
percentage of taxes and levies for the year 2015 (34.34%). 

Figure  64  shows  the  correlation  between  the  electricity  price  and  the  residential 
electricity consumption adjusted to take into account population, floor area of dwellings, 
and HDD. As  expected electricity consumption decreases if price increases, according to 
the basic law of market demand. 

Figure 62: Correlation between adjusted residential electricity consumption and the price of 
electricity in EU-28 Member States44 , 2015 

3E-08

2.5E-08

2E-08

1.5E-08

1E-08

5E-09

)
p
o
P
*
2
m
*
D
D
H
(
/
h
W
G

MT 

BG 

HR 

FI 

HU 

EE 

CZ 

SK 

RO 

CY 

FR 

ES 

PT 

SI 

SE 

AT 

UK 

IT 
IE 

DK 

DE 

LT 

PL 

LV 

LU 

NL 

0
0.0000

0.0500

0.1000

0.1500

0.2000

0.2500

0.3000

0.3500

Euro/KWh 

Source: Eurostat 

The  following  table  provides  an  overview  of  the  final  residential  electricity  consumption 
across  the  EU-28  Member  States.  It  shows  electricity  consumption  in  the  residential 
sector  for  years  2000,  2007  and  2015,  as  well  as  the  growth  rates  over  the  different 
periods. Data have been already used and analysed along the chapter. 

44 Data on average floor area are not available for EU-28, BE, and EL for year 2015. 

51 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
Table 2: Overview of final residential electricity consumption in the EU-28 Member States, 2000-
2015  

Residential Electricity Consumption (GWh) 

Growth Rates (%) 

2000 

2007 

2015 

2000-2015 

2000-2007  2007-2015 

EU-28 

717,561 

807,789 

795,406 

10.85% 

12.57% 

-1.53% 

BE 

BG 

CZ 

DK 

DE 

EE 

IE 

EL 

ES 

FR 

HR 

IT 

CY 

LV 

LT 

LU 

HU 

MT 

NL 

AT 

PL 

PT 

RO 

SI 

SK 

FI 

SE 

23,738 

21,856 

9,858 

13,822 

10,215 

9,376 

14,646 

10,349 

18,835 

10,644 

14,382 

10,177 

130,500 

140,100 

128,700 

1,466 

6,375 

14,207 

43,619 

1,773 

8,063 

17,957 

68,214 

1,728 

7,881 

17,538 

70,056 

-20.65% 

-7.93% 

-13.82% 

7.97% 

4.05% 

-0.37% 

-1.38% 

-4.89% 

13.52% 

5.96% 

-1.80% 

1.31% 

-1.66% 

7.36% 

-8.14% 

17.87% 

20.94% 

-2.54% 

23.62% 

26.48% 

-2.26% 

23.45% 

26.40% 

-2.33% 

60.61% 

56.39% 

2.70% 

7.66% 

128,720 

141,589 

152,441 

18.43% 

10.00% 

5,729 

6,392 

61,112 

67,220 

1,055 

1,189 

1,767 

792 

1,608 

1,794 

2,489 

844 

6,202 

66,187 

1,515 

1,759 

2,660 

900 

8.26% 

8.30% 

11.57% 

-2.97% 

9.99% 

-1.54% 

43.60% 

52.42% 

-5.78% 

47.94% 

50.88% 

-1.95% 

50.54% 

40.86% 

13.64% 

6.57% 

6.87% 

6.64% 

9,792 

11,250 

10,839 

10.69% 

14.89% 

-3.65% 

559 

20,019 

14,962 

21,034 

10,056 

7,652 

2,601 

5,419 

17,441 

42,020 

658 

22,268 

17,723 

26,369 

13,863 

10,389 

3,021 

4,602 

20,662 

39,638 

656 

17.35% 

17.71% 

-0.30% 

22,682 

16,974 

28,280 

11,974 

12,095 

3,205 

5,035 

20,917 

42,987 

13.30% 

11.23% 

1.86% 

13.45% 

18.45% 

-4.23% 

34.45% 

25.36% 

7.25% 

19.07% 

37.86% 

-13.63% 

58.06% 

35.77% 

16.42% 

23.22% 

16.15% 

-7.09% 

-15.08% 

19.93% 

18.47% 

2.30% 

-5.67% 

6.09% 

9.41% 

1.23% 

8.45% 

UK 
Source: Eurostat 

111,842 

123,076 

108,157 

-3.29% 

10.04% 

-12.12% 

3.3  Gas consumption trends in the residential sector 

Gas consumption accounted for 35.4% of the final residential energy consumption in the 
EU-28  in  2015,  confirming  gas  as  the  main  source  of  final  energy.  The  final  residential 
gas consumption in the EU-28 has dropped by 11% in the 16-years period between 2000 
and  2015.  The  gas  consumption  reached  97  Mtoe  in  2015,  out  of  which  87.95%  was 
consumed in EU-15 (86 Mtoe) and 12.05% (12 Mtoe) in the NMS-13. EU-15 and NMS-13 
have both decreased their final gas consumption by 10.42% and 7.69% respectively. 

52 

 
  
  
 
The  highest  consumption  during  the  period  between  2000  and  2015  occurred  in  2010 
when  the  gas  consumption  reached  121.96  Mtoe.  In  contrast,  the  highest  consumption 
drops  occurred  in  2011  and  2014  when  gas  consumption  decreased  by  16.60%  and 
17.72% compared to the previous year.  

Figure 63: Final residential gas consumption trends in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

)
e
o
t
M
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c
y
g
r
e
n
E

140

120

109 

96 

13 

100

80

60

40

20

0

97 

86 

12 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 64: Final residential gas consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

15%

10%

5%

0%

-5%

-10%

-15%

-20%

4.05%  4.63% 

4.21% 

3.83% 

1.43% 

0.96% 

10.02% 

8.16% 

6.61% 

-0.52% 

-1.14% 

-2.72% 

-0.34% 

-6.94% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

-16.60% 

-17.72% 

Source: Eurostat 

The final residential gas consumption per dwelling in the EU-28 has reached 0.39 toe in 
2015,  which  represents  a  drop  by  23.53%  in  comparison  to  year  2005  level.  Between 
2005 and 2009 there was a decreasing trend which was interrupted in 2010 by a rise of 
8.7%.  In  2011,  the  final  residential  gas  consumption  per  dwelling  again  decreased  to 
0.42  toe  and  grew  in  2012  and  2013.  In  2014,  it  has  dropped  again  by  17.78%  in 

53 

 
 
 
 
 
 
comparison  to  the  previous  year,  registering  the  lowest  value  of  the  analysed  11-years 
period. 

Figure 65: Final residential gas consumption per dwelling and heating degree days in the EU-28, 
2005-2015  

Residential gas consumption per dwelling in the EU-28

Heating Degree Days

)
w
d
/
e
o
t
(
g
n

i
l
l
e
w
d
r
e
p
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c

s
a
G

0.55

0.50

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.51 

0.49 

0.50 

0.47 

0.46 

0.46 

0.45  0.45 

0.42 

0.39 

0.37 

3,500

3,400

3,300

3,200

3,100

3,000

2,900

2,800

2,700

s
y
a
D
e
e
r
g
e
D
g
n
i
t
a
e
H

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Source: Eurostat 

Looking  at  the  residential  gas  consumption  per  household  across  the  EU-28  Member 
States, it can be observed that during 2015 seventeen MSs have had below average EU-
28 gas consumption which is 0.44 toe per household (5175.2 kWh/household). 

Figure 66: Residential gas consumption trends per household in the EU-28 Member States, 2005, 
2010 and 2015  

)
e
o
t
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
s
a
G

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

2005

2010

2015

Source: Eurostat 

54 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  MS  with  the  highest  residential  gas  consumption  per  household  has  been 
Luxembourg  (0.98  toe/household),  followed  by  the  Netherlands  (0.89  toe/household) 
and  the  United  Kingdom  (0.80  toe/household).  The  lowest  gas  consumption  per 
household occurred in Sweden (0.006 toe/household), Finland (0.010 toe/household) and 
Bulgaria  (0.017  toe/household).  The  lowest  values  of  gas  consumption  achieved  by 
Sweden  and  Finland  despite  their  high  value  of  mean  heating  degree  days  might  be 
explained  by  the  use  of  other  energy  sources  such  as  electricity,  biomass  or  district 
heating  plants  for  heating  purposes.  It  is  notable  that  all  the  countries  but  Bulgaria, 
Estonia,  Greece  and  Portugal  have  decreased  their  consumption  in  comparison  to  year 
2005.  

Figure 67: Final residential gas consumption growth rates in the EU-28 per Member State; 2000-
2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 

)

%

(
e
t
a
R
h
t
w
o
r
G

215%

165%

115%

65%

15%

-35%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

As already mentioned, the final residential gas consumption has decreased by 10.45% in 
the  period  between  2000  and  2015.  The  MS  with  the  highest  growth  rate  has  been 
Bulgaria with an increase in consumption over this period equal to 25,800%, followed by 
Greece  (7,159%)  and  Portugal  (165%);  whereas  the  highest  reduction  rates  have 
occurred in Sweden (-71%), Slovakia (-36%), and the United Kingdom (-21%). Overall, 
it can be observed a significant change in the consumption trend from 2007 onwards, as 
illustrated in Figure 69. To be noted the cases of Bulgaria, Greece and Portugal, where 
the growth rates sharply changed between the periods 2000-2007 and 2007-2015. 

Since  gas  represents  the  energy  source  with  the  highest  share  at  residential  level,  it  is 
expected to have a considerable cost in the yearly energy bills. In 2015, the average EU-
28  expenses  per  dwelling  for  gas  were  EUR  311.5145.  Despite  its  considerable 
fluctuations the average EU-28 gas price for households has undergone a rise of 24.5% 
between  the  second  semester  of  2007  and  the  second  semester  of  2016,  when  prices 
were  EUR  0.0511/kWh  and  EUR  0.0636/kWh  respectively.  The  highest  price  level  (EUR 
0.0719/kWh) was reached during the second half of 2014. 

45 This value has been calculated from the average gas price for household consumers (band D2) multiplied by 

residential gas consumption per dwelling. 

55 

 
 
                                           
 
 
 
Figure 68: Gas prices for household consumers in the EU-28 by semesters, band D2 - all taxes 
and levies included, 2007S2-2016S2  

6.2 

)
h
W
k
/
€
s
t
n
e
c
(

e
c
i
r
P
s
a
G

7.5

7

6.5

6

5.5

5.11 

5

4.5

7.11 

6.36 

Source: Eurostat 

Looking  at  the  gas  prices  across  the  EU-28  Member  States  for  the  year  2015  (Figure 
71),  it  is  possible  to  notice  that  Sweden  has  the  highest  gas  price  (EUR  0.1152/kWh) 
followed  by  Portugal  (EUR  0.0979/kWh)  and  Spain  (EUR  0.0844/kWh).  The  lowest  gas 
prices are found in Romania (EUR 0.0326/kWh), Hungary (EUR 0.0353/kWh) and Estonia 
(EUR  0.042/kWh).  As  for  electricity  prices,  Denmark  has  the  highest  percentage 
(56.45%) of gas taxes and levies. The EU-28 average percentage of taxes and levies in 
2015 is equal to 23.6%. 

Figure 6946: Gas prices for household consumers in the EU-28, band D2, 2015 

Basic Price

Other taxes

VAT

)
h
W
k
/
€
(

t
s
o
C

0.12

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00

Source: Eurostat 

46 Data are not available for CY, FI, and MT. 

56 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure  72  shows  the  correlation  between  the  price  of  gas  and  the  residential  gas 
consumption adjusted to take into account population, floor area of dwellings, and HDD. 
Looking at the scatter plot it is possible to observe that the points are very dispersed and 
the two variables look like uncorrelated. 

Figure 70: Correlation between adjusted residential gas consumption and the price of gas in EU-
28 Member States47 2015 

1.8E-09

1.6E-09

1.4E-09

1.2E-09

1E-09

8E-10

6E-10

4E-10

2E-10

)
p
o
P
*
2
m
*
D
D
H
(
/
e
o
t
K

0
0.0000

IT 

HU 

RO 

UK 

NL 

LU 

SK 

CZ 

DE 

FR 

HR 

PL 
LV 

LT 

BG 

EE 

AT 
IE 

ES 

DK 

SI 

PT 

SE 

0.0200

0.0400

0.0600

0.0800

0.1000

0.1200

0.1400

Euro/KWh 

Source: Eurostat 

The following table provides an overview of the final residential gas consumption across 
the EU-28 Member States. It summarizes data about gas consumption in the  residential 
sector for years 2000, 2007 and 2015, as well as the growth rates over different periods. 
Data have been already used and analysed along the chapter. 

Table 3: Overview of final residential gas consumption in the EU-28 Member States, 2000-2015  

Residential  Gas 
(ktoe) 

Consumption 

Growth rates (%) 

2000 

2007 

2015 

2000-
2015 

2000-
2007 

2007-
2015 

EU28  108,804.8 

107,120.3  97,436.8 

-10.45% 

-1.55% 

-9.04% 

BE 

3,292.6 

3,278.8 

3,186.7 

-3.22% 

-0.42% 

-2.81% 

BG 

0.2 

32.8 

51.8 

25800.00%  16300.00%  57.93% 

CZ 

2,049.3 

2,036.1 

1,789.4 

-12.68% 

-0.64% 

-12.12% 

DK 

658.5 

634.7 

591.8 

-10.13% 

-3.61% 

-6.76% 

DE 

23,441.0 

21,071.6 

19,738.8 

-15.79% 

-10.11% 

-6.33% 

EE 

41.9 

48.9 

49.3 

17.66% 

16.71% 

0.82% 

IE 

437.8 

591.7 

554.0 

26.54% 

35.15% 

-6.37% 

47 Data on average floor area are not available for EU-28, BE, and EL for year 2015. 

57 

 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
Residential  Gas 
(ktoe) 

Consumption 

Growth rates (%) 

2000 

2007 

2015 

2000-
2015 

2000-
2007 

2007-
2015 

EL 

4.9 

176.6 

355.7 

7159.18% 

3504.08% 

101.42% 

ES 

2,019.9 

3,779.0 

3,018.1 

49.42% 

87.09% 

-20.13% 

FR 

12,661.4 

12,940.5 

10,183.0 

-19.57% 

2.20% 

-21.31% 

HR 

410.2 

513.5 

446.3 

8.80% 

25.18% 

-13.09% 

IT 

14,974.8 

15,942.1 

16,985.6 

13.43% 

6.46% 

6.55% 

LV 

63.5 

109.6 

98.1 

54.49% 

72.60% 

-10.49% 

LT 

104.0 

147.2 

122.7 

17.98% 

41.54% 

-16.64% 

LU 

156.6 

187.8 

225.2 

43.81% 

19.92% 

19.91% 

HU 

3,025.3 

3,174.4 

2,625.8 

-13.21% 

4.93% 

-17.28% 

NL 

8,508.6 

7,393.9 

6,814.0 

-19.92% 

-13.10% 

-7.84% 

AT 

1,134.3 

1,008.0 

1,098.0 

-3.20% 

-11.13% 

8.93% 

PL 

3,051.7 

3,169.6 

3,157.7 

3.47% 

3.86% 

-0.38% 

PT 

99.2 

220.2 

262.9 

165.02% 

121.98% 

19.39% 

RO 

2,216.9 

2,067.4 

2,242.8 

1.17% 

-6.74% 

8.48% 

SI 

58.6 

85.3 

103.5 

76.62% 

45.56% 

21.34% 

SK 

1,642.2 

1,110.3 

1,050.5 

-36.03% 

-32.39% 

-5.39% 

FI 

22.4 

38.9 

SE 

102.9 

54.5 

26.3 

29.9 

17.41% 

73.66% 

-32.39% 

-70.94% 

-47.04% 

-45.14% 

UK 

28,625.8 

27,307.1 

22,629.0 

-20.95% 

-4.61% 

-17.13% 

CY, MT – No available data. 

Source: Eurostat 

58 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.4  Overview – Residential sector 

The residential sector accounted for 25.38% of the EU-28 total final energy consumption 
in 2015 and it is the third energy consuming sector after transport and industry. 

The  final  residential  energy  consumption  in  the  EU-28  shows  a  reduction  of  5.5%  from 
2000 to 2015. The EU-28 average final residential energy per capita for the year 2015 is 
equal  to  0.57  toe;  it  represents  a  fall  of  9.5%  compared  to  the  year  2000.  For  what 
concerns the residential energy mix, the main energy types which contributed to the final 
residential energy consumption in the EU-28 in 2015 were gas (35.4%), electrical energy 
(24.9%) and renewable energies (16%).  

There  are  several  factors  which  must  be  considered,  at  least  qualitatively,  when 
analysing  statistics  related  to  residential  energy  consumption  trends.  These  factors  are 
related to economic growth, population growth, weather conditions and living conditions 
(e.g.  average  number  of  people  per  household).  For  instance,  a  positive  correlation  is 
often observed between the residential energy consumption (final energy, electricity and 
gas  consumptions)  and  heating  degree  days.  Other  factors  such  as  income  levels  may 
also  contribute  to  explain  energy  consumption  data  trends.  The  choice  of  variables 
considered  to  better  understand  energy  consumption  trends  can  affect  significantly  the 
interpretation.  In  the  case  of  the  residential  sector,  energy  consumption  indicators  and 
ratios based on GDP values might be less important than others based on the disposable 
income  of  households  or  the  adjusted  gross  disposable  income  since  these  latter 
variables  are  more  closely  related  to  the  purchasing  power  of  residential  energy 
consumers. 

The  final  residential  electricity  consumption  in  the  EU-28  has  grown  by  10.7%  in  the 
period  2000-2015.  The  increase  has  been  more  pronounced  in  the  NMS-13  (20.73%) 
than  in  the  EU-15  (9.43%).  Differences  across  EU-28  Member  States  are  notable.  The 
lowest  growth  rate  has  been  registered  in  Belgium  (-20.65%)  and  the  highest  growth 
rate in Spain (60.61%). Overall it is possible to observe a break in the growing trend as a 
consequence of the economic and financial crisis which peaked in 2007-2008. 

The  residential  electricity  consumption  per  household  was  3,180  KWh/dw  in  2015,  the 
second lowest value registered during the whole period after year 2014. Over the period 
2000-2015  this  value  has  been  reduced  by  8.91%.  The  average  EU-28  expenses  per 
dwelling for electricity were EUR 666.60 for the same year. 

The electricity price for residential consumers is characterized by an increasing trend; the 
average EU-28 electricity price has risen by 31.33% in the period between 2007-S2 and 
2016-S2.  In  the  second  semester  (S2)  of  2013  the  threshold  of  0.20  EUR/kWh  was 
exceeded and the total price, with levies and taxes included, reached  a value of 0.2024 
EUR/kWh for residential consumers. The electricity price is composed for a large part by 
taxes and levies: the average percentage level of taxes and levies in EU-28 was 34.34% 
of the total price in the year 2015. 

In 2015, the final residential gas consumption in the EU-28 has instead dropped by 11% 
in  comparison  to  year  2000.  It  is  possible  to  observe  a  decreasing  trend  both  in  EU-15 
and  in  NMS-13  with  growth  rates  over  the  period  2000-2015  of  -10.42%  and  -7.69% 
respectively. As pointed out for the final electricity consumption, there was a clear impact 
of the financial and economic crises which have affected the gas consumption during and 
after years 2007-2008. 

The final residential gas consumption per dwelling in the EU-28 has reached 0.39 toe in 
2015,  which  represents  a  drop  by  23.53%  in  comparison  to  year  2005  levels.  The 
differences among the EU-28 Member States are significant. For instance, Luxembourg is 
the  highest  gas  consumer  per  household  (0.98  toe/household)  and  Sweden  the  lowest 
consumer of gas per household (0.006 toe/household). The average EU-28 expenses per 
dwelling for gas consumption were EUR 311.51 in 2015. 

59 

 
The price of gas for household consumers has registered fluctuating growth rates and the 
average EU-28 price has increased by 24.5% between the second semester of 2007 and 
the  second  semester  of  2016.  The  average  percentage  level  of  taxes  and  levies  on  gas 
price in the EU-28 was 23.6% of the total price in the year 2015. 

60 

 
4  Energy Consumption Trends in the Tertiary Sector 

In  this  report  the  definition  of  tertiary  sector  includes  public  sector,  professional, 
scientific  and  technical  activities,  services  and  commerce48.  This  chapter  covers  the 
energy  consumption  trends  in  the  tertiary  sector,  with  a  focus  on  electricity  and  gas 
consumption trends.  

The tertiary sector accounts for a large share of GDP in the European Union. 73.76% of 
the total gross value added was generated by this sector in 2015. It is also expected to 
further  grow  in  importance  during  the  next  years  due  to:  (i)  the  shift  in  end  consumer 
preference  towards  services;  (ii.)  the  demand  for  services  from  services  firms.  These 
factors point to a general tertiarization trend related to labour force and production. 

Figure 71: Percentage of gross value added in current prices by economic sector in the EU-28, 
2015  

1.55% 

54.93% 

19.42% 

Agriculture,forestry
and fishing

Industry

5.28% 

Construction

18.83% 

Public sector

Services

Source: Eurostat 

Also employment rates registered in the recent years show that there have been changes 
which  have  provided  opportunities  for  increased  productivity  in  knowledge-intensive 
sectors, leading to additional possibilities for labour re-allocation and employment growth 
in certain sectors. Manual workers – in particular in manufacturing and agriculture – are 
however replaced in the process of automation (Figure 74)49. 

48  This  category  is  also  known  as  the  "commercial  sector"  and  represents  non-residential  buildings  in  the 

services sector. 

49  Organization  for  Economic  Cooperation  and  Development  (2015),  OECD  Science,  Technology  and  Industry 

Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society, Paris: OECD Publishing. 

61 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
Figure 72: Change in total employment in the EU-28, 2010-2014, absolute numbers 

Source: OECD, 2015. 

Figure  74  shows  indeed  that  employment  in  the  tertiary  sector  (i.e.  professional, 
scientific  and  technical  services,  public  administration  and  health  services,  wholesale, 
retail,  etc.)  has  increased,  while  employment  in  other  sectors  (mostly  manufacturing, 
construction, agriculture, forestry and fishing), has markedly decreased during the recent 
years. 

4.1  Final energy consumption trends in the tertiary sector 

The  tertiary  sector  accounted  for  13.55%  of  total  final  energy  consumption  in  the  year 
2015.  Considering  its  share  in  value  added  this  is  relatively  low  compared  to  e.g.  the 
industry  sector.  This  latter  sector  consumed  25.35%  of  total  final  energy  but  with  a 
contribution of just 19.42%50 to the total value added in 2015. 

The final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28 has risen by 21.5% in the period from 
2000  to  2015.  This  increase  has  been  experienced  by  both  EU-15  and  NMS-13  where 
final  energy  consumption  increased  by  20.95%  and  17.65%  respectively.  In  2015,  the 
final tertiary energy consumption reached 147 Mtoe, out of which 86.4% (127 Mtoe) was 
consumed in EU-15 area and 13.6% (20 Mtoe) was consumed in the NMS-13. The peak 
of consumption was reached in the year 2010 (157.8 Mtoe) as illustrated in Figure 75. 

50 Construction sector is accounted independently – see Figure 103. 

62 

 
 
 
 
                                           
Figure 73: Final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

)
e
o
t
M
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c
y
g
r
e
n
E

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

121 

105 

17 

147 

127 

20 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 74: Final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (detailed)  

157.8 

151.4 

148.3 

150.7 

146.9 

147.4 

141.8 

140.4 

)
e
o
t
M
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c

y
g
r
e
n
E

160

155

150

145

140

135

130

125

120

126.1 

121.4 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

Looking at the growth rates along the same period (Figure 77), a general growing trend 
can be observed between 2000 and 2010 with the exception of the years 2002, 2007 and 
2009. Notably, an increase by around 10% has been registered in 2003 in comparison to 
the previous year. This considerable increase in the energy consumption can be partially 
explained  by  looking  at  the  weather  conditions:  2003  was  a  very  hot  year,  fact  which 
may explain the increase in the energy consumption (e.g. higher use of air-conditioning 
systems). After 2010, the final tertiary energy consumption moved in different directions. 
To  be  noted  that  the  decreases  seen  in  2011  and  2014  have  brought  back  the  final 
tertiary  energy  consumption  to  2007  levels.  A  new  increase  of  3.63%  has  been 
registered in 2015. 

63 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 75: Tertiary final energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

10.02% 

5.87% 

2.16% 1.72% 

2.85% 

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

-2%

-4%

-2.55% 

-1.91% 

-6%

-8%

7.81% 

5.16% 

-0.88% 

3.63% 

1.58% 

0.61% 

-5.32% 

-6.56% 

-5.90% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

As  previously  mentioned,  the  EU-28  final  tertiary  energy  consumption  has  grown  by 
21.5% in the last 16 years. Nevertheless, the growth rates are markedly different before 
and  after  2007  for  the  majority  of  the  Member  States.  The  Member  State  with  the 
highest  reduction  rate  of  final  tertiary  energy  consumption  over  the  entire  period  was 
Slovakia  with  -40.92%,  followed  by  Hungary  (-27.86%)  and  Slovenia  (-13.18%).  In 
contrast, the Member States which have experienced the highest growth rates in energy 
consumption  in  the  service  sector  were  Malta  (191.45%),  Romania  (161.70%)  and 
Cyprus (98.88%), all belonging to NMS-13 group. 

Figure 76: Final tertiary energy consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-28; 2000-2015, 2000-
2007 and 2007-2015 

195%

165%

135%

105%

75%

45%

15%

-15%

-45%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

64 

 
 
 
 
To  be  noted  the  significant  change  in  the  growth  rates  across  different  sub-periods  in 
Romania,  Greece,  Lithuania,  Latvia,  Austria  and  Ireland.  In  Romania,  in  particular,  the 
growth rate passed from +200% in the period 2000-2007, to -12.76% during 2007-2015 
period,  It  is  also  true  that  overall,  the  growth  rates  of  Member  States  do  not  show  as 
significant  differences  between  the  sub-periods  (i.e.  2000-2007  and  2007-2015)  as  in 
other  economic  sectors.  As  remarked  before,  this  might  be  the  result  of  an  on-going 
tertiarization process at European level. 

The final energy mix in the tertiary sector of EU-28 was mainly formed by three energy 
sources  which  accounted  for  more  than  90%  of  the  total  final  energy  consumption  in 
2015.  Electricity  had  the  highest  share  (48.85%),  followed  by  gas  (30.33%)  and  total 
petroleum  products  (10.38%).  Other  contributors  to  the  energy  mix  have  been  derived 
heat  (6.17%),  renewable  energies  (3.36%),  waste  (0.19%)  and  solid  fuels  (0.73%). 
Changes  compared  to  the  scenario  of  year  2000  are  mainly  due  to  a  reduction  in  the 
share  of  petroleum  products  (-8.28%).  Electricity  (+3.89%)  and  gas  (+1.93%)  have 
instead  acquired  larger  shares  together  with  derived  heat  (+0.68)  and  renewable 
energies  (+2.3).  Solid  fuels  and  waste  have  reduced  their  shares  by  0.49%  and  0.02% 
respectively. 

Figure 77: Final energy mix in the tertiary sector in the EU-28, 2000 and 2015  

1.22% 

0.21% 

2000 

18.66% 

44.96% 

28.40% 

5.49% 

1.06% 

Waste (non renewable)

Electricity

Renewable Energies

Derived Heat

Gas

Total Petroleum Products

Solid Fuels

2015 

0.73% 

0.19% 

10.38% 

30.33% 

48.85% 

6.17% 

3.36% 

Source: Eurostat 

65 

 
 
 
 
An  interesting  indicator  to  consider  in  the  analysis  of  the  energy  trends  in  the  tertiary 
sector is the energy consumed per employee. The final average energy consumption per 
employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28 was 0.87 toe per employee in 2015 (Figure 
80).  

In  2015,  the  Member  States  with  the  highest  energy  consumption  per  employee  were 
Finland (1.48 toe/emp.), Luxembourg (1.23 toe/emp.), and Belgium (1.23 toe/emp.). On 
the  other  hand,  Romania  (0.45  toe/emp.),  Bulgaria  (0.52  toe/emp.),  United  Kingdom 
(0.63 toe/emp.) and Greece were the Member States with the lowest final tertiary energy 
consumption per employee. 

Figure 78: Final energy consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2015  

)
.
p
m
e
/
e
o
t
(
e
e
y
o
p
m
e

l

r
e
p
y
g
r
e
n
E

1.7

1.5

1.3

1.1

0.9

0.7

0.45 

0.5

0.3

1.48 

0.87 

O
R

G
B

K
U

L
E

T
P

T
L

S
E

Y
C

R
H

U
H

I
S

T
M

K
D

E
I

L
P

T
I

K
S

T
A

L
N

Z
C

V
L

R
F

E
S

E
D

E
E

E
B

I

U F
L

8
2
U
E

Source: Eurostat 

Looking  at  the  trend  of  this  indicator  over  the  period  2000-2015  (Figure  81)  it  is 
possible  to  notice  that  it  has  registered  the  same  value  (0.85  toe/emp.)  in  both  years 
2000 and 2014. The maximum was reached in 2010 (0.97 toe/emp.). In 2015 its value 
was equal to 0.87 toe/emp. 

66 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 79: Final energy consumption per employee in the tertiary sector and Heating Degree Days 
in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

)
p
m
e
/
e
o
t
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
g
r
e
n
E

1.00

0.98

0.96

0.94

0.92

0.90

0.88

0.86

0.84

0.82

0.80

0.97 

0.94 0.95 0.95 

0.94 

0.93 

0.93 

0.89 

0.86 

0.85 

0.88 

0.92 0.92 

0.91 

0.87 

0.85 

3,600

3,500

3,400

3,300

3,200

3,100

3,000

2,900

2,800

s
y
a
D
e
e
r
g
e
D

g
n
i
t
a
e
H

2000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015

Final Energy per employee

HDD

Source: Eurostat36 

A qualitative analysis of the energy consumption trends per employee can be attempted 
by  considering  some  influencing  factors  such  as  weather  and  climate  conditions  and 
employment  values  in  the  tertiary  sector.  The  tertiary  sector  has  created  26.6  million 
employees  in  the  period  from  2000  to  2015,  with  a  growth  rate  of  18.70%.  There  is  a 
clear  impact  on  the  employment  rate  by  the  recent  financial  and  economic  crisis.  A 
13.98%  growth  rate  was  indeed  registered  during  the  period  2000-2010,  whereas  the 
employment  growth  rate  was  only  4.14%  during  the  period  2010-2015.  Despite  this 
recent slowdown in the growth of number of employees, the tertiary sector continues to 
constantly increase in the European Union. 

Given  the  nature  of  the  tertiary  sector  which  includes  public  sector,  professional, 
scientific  and  technical  activities,  service  and  commerce;  comfort  conditions  (e.g. 
temperature  or  humidity  levels)  are  important  and  can  be  considered  as  key  factors  in 
the  evaluation  of  energy  consumption  in  the  tertiary  sector.  Therefore,  it  is  also  of 
interest  comparing  qualitatively  the  heating  degree  days  with  the  trends  in  energy 
consumption and employment. 

Figure  81  shows  the  heating  degree  days  together  with  the  final  energy  consumption 
per employee. A certain degree of correlation between the two trends can be inferred by 
this figure. 

Figure 82 shows the trend of employment together with the final energy consumption in 
the  tertiary  sector.  This  graph,  as  the  previous  one,  helps  in  analysing  the  influence  of 
external factors, related to weather and population dynamics, on energy consumption. By 
looking  at  the  graphics  it  can  be  stated  that  weather  conditions  had  a  greater  influence 
on  per  capita  consumption  than  the  employment  rate.  For  instance,  during  the  period 
2000-2008  when  the  employment  rates  were  increasing  continuously;  an  expected 
negative correlation between consumption and employment should have made decrease 
the  values  of  final  energy  consumption  per  employee.  In  contrast,  consumption 
augmented as was the case for heating degree days (HDD), as illustrated in Figure 81. 

67 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 80: Final energy consumption and employment rates in the tertiary sector in the EU-28, 
2000-2015  

)
e
o
t
k
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
g
r
e
n
E

160,000

155,000

150,000

145,000

140,000

135,000

130,000

125,000

120,000

115,000

110,000

170,000

165,000

160,000

155,000

150,000

145,000

140,000

135,000

130,000

)
0
0
0
1
x
1
(

s
e
e
y
o
p
m
E

l

Final energy

Employment of tertiary

Source: Eurostat 

The following table provides an overview of the final energy consumption in the tertiary 
sector with a breakdown by Member States. 

Table 4: Final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28 Member States  

Final Tertiary Energy Consumption in the EU-28 MS (ktoe) 

Growth 
Rate 

2000-
2015 

2000 

2005 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2013 

2014 

2015 

(% year) 

EU28  121,420  144,160  157,770  147,425  149,759  150,674  141,784  146,924 

21.01% 

BE 

BG 

CZ 

DK 

DE 

EE 

IE 

EL 

ES 

FR 

HR 

IT 

CY 

LV 

LT 

3,476 

4,152 

5,027 

4,449 

4,540 

4,904 

4,225 

4,558 

31.11% 

648 

824 

989 

1,047 

1,023 

965 

926 

992 

53.10% 

2,973 

3,105 

3,154 

3,032 

2,936 

2,885 

2,799 

2,852 

-4.06% 

1,843 

2,002 

2,128 

1,948 

1,979 

1,965 

1,815 

1,867 

1.27% 

25,793 

33,193 

35,356 

31,910 

33,250 

34,489 

33,043 

34,716 

34.59% 

289 

389 

424 

402 

424 

418 

458 

466 

61.25% 

1,367 

1,644 

1,523 

1,331 

1,333 

1,305 

1,237 

1,245 

-8.93% 

1,311 

1,946 

1,952 

1,868 

1,938 

1,818 

1,712 

1,873 

42.79% 

6,710 

8,415 

9,797 

10,203 

10,046 

9,615 

8,845 

10,037 

49.59% 

18,359 

20,760 

23,176 

21,712 

22,882 

23,245 

22,159 

22,542 

22.78% 

492 

692 

775 

761 

731 

711 

676 

742 

50.73% 

11,542 

15,053 

16,979 

15,751 

15,931 

15,847 

14,667 

15,392 

33.35% 

108 

473 

464 

161 

595 

562 

248 

598 

603 

237 

557 

587 

223 

623 

614 

203 

600 

597 

203 

609 

594 

214 

586 

577 

98.88% 

24.08% 

24.49% 

68 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Final Tertiary Energy Consumption in the EU-28 MS (ktoe) 

Growth 
Rate 

2000-
2015 

2000 

2005 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2013 

2014 

2015 

(% year) 

EU28  121,420  144,160  157,770  147,425  149,759  150,674  141,784  146,924 

21.01% 

LU 

HU 

MT 

NL 

AT 

PL 

PT 

RO 

SI 

SK 

FI 

SE 

365 

368 

426 

371 

397 

413 

362 

399 

9.55% 

3,027 

3,511 

3,049 

3,053 

2,354 

2,337 

2,115 

2,184 

-27.86% 

43 

48 

92 

88 

100 

109 

120 

126 

191.45% 

6,241 

6,932 

7,803 

6,937 

7,175 

7,194 

6,327 

6,553 

5.00% 

2,549 

3,325 

3,335 

3,012 

2,989 

2,882 

2,801 

2,725 

6.92% 

4,965 

6,728 

8,832 

8,425 

8,357 

8,071 

7,794 

7,814 

57.39% 

1,396 

2,195 

1,883 

1,855 

1,843 

1,787 

1,901 

1,960 

40.41% 

673 

527 

1,670 

1,881 

1,774 

1,763 

1,785 

1,768 

1,762 

161.70% 

475 

533 

532 

453 

468 

427 

457 

-13.18% 

2,200 

1,751 

2,106 

1,603 

1,452 

1,711 

1,234 

1,300 

-40.92% 

2,324 

2,618 

3,078 

2,844 

3,008 

2,886 

2,869 

2,714 

16.80% 

4,405 

4,297 

4,550 

4,025 

4,085 

3,962 

4,034 

3,999 

-9.22% 

UK 

16,860 

16,750 

17,475 

17,112 

17,311 

17,504 

16,067 

16,275 

-3.47% 

Source: Eurostat 

4.2  Electricity consumption trends in the tertiary sector 

In  2015,  the  service  sector  accounted  for  30.45%  of  the  final  electrical  energy 
consumption. It had the largest share of consumption after the industry sector (36.35%), 
as reported in Figure 24. 

Turning  to  the  tertiary  sector  energy  mix,  electricity  accounted  for  48.85%  in  2015, 
representing the highest share among the different energy types. 

The total final electricity consumption increased by 31.43% during the period from 2000 
to 2015. In 2015, the EU-28 electricity consumption reached 834.6 TWh, 86.6% of which 
were consumed by EU-15 Member States. A continuous increase with an average growth 
rate above 3% per year can be observed between 2000 and 2010 in the EU-28.  In this 
year electricity consumption in the sector reached its maximum level (848.6 TWh). Since 
2011 a decreasing trend has been  registered.  In 2011, a fall by 2.63% occurred due to 
the reduction in the consumption of EU-15 area (-3.23%), while NMS-13 increased their 
consumption  by  1.22%  in  the  same  period.  After  a  new  decrease  in  2014,  in  2015 it is 
possible to observe an increase of 2.79% in the final tertiary electricity consumption. 

The  overall  raise  in  the  final  tertiary  electricity  consumption  has  been  more  relevant  in 
the  NMS-13  area  than  in  the  EU-15.  NMS-13  experienced  a  raise  by  51.01%,  whereas 
EU-15 increased their electricity consumption by 28.86%. 

69 

 
 
 
 
Figure 81: Final tertiary electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

)
h
W
T
(
n
o

i
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p
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s
n
o
c
y
g
r
e
n
E

900

800

700

600

635.0 

500

560.9 

400

300

200

100

0

74.1 

834.6 

722.8 

111.9 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 82: Tertiary electricity consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28,  
2000-2015 

5.78% 

5.37% 

3.69% 

4.35% 

2.26% 

2.39% 2.54% 

3.35% 

3.75% 

2.79% 

1.53% 

0.28% 

1.21% 

-0.95% 

-1.98% 

-2.63% 

7%

5%

3%

1%

-1%

-3%

-5%

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

As already mentioned, the final tertiary electricity consumption has increased by 31.43% 
in  the  period  2000-2015.  Looking  at  the  growth  rates  of  the  different  Member  States 
(Figure 85), it is observed that twelve MSs have registered a growth rate below the EU-
28  average.  During  the  previously  mentioned  period,  the  MSs  with  the  highest  growth 
rates have been Romania (115.12%), Estonia (100.79%) and Malta (98.81%).  

70 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In  contrast,  the  MSs  with  the  lowest  growth  rates  have  been  Hungary  (-10.62%), 
Denmark  (0.09%)  and  the  United  Kingdom  (3.53%).  All  the  MSs,  without  exceptions, 
show a positive growth rate in the period from 2000 to 2007.  The highest growth  rates 
were found in Latvia (74.90%), Estonia (68.31%) and Croatia (66.54%) during this latter 
time  period.  In  the  period  from  2007  to  2015,  ten  EU-28  countries  have  reversed  their 
growth  rate  trends  and  turned  them  into  negative  ones.  The  highest  growth  rates 
occurred  in  Malta  (51.13%),  Romania  (46.95%),  and  Slovenia  (25.27%);  while  the 
lowest  growth  rates  took  place  in  Hungary  (-26.87%),  Ireland  (-22.55%)  and  Denmark 
(-9.50%). 

Figure 83: Final tertiary electricity consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-28;  
2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  

105%

85%

65%

45%

25%

5%

-15%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

The average annual electricity consumption per employee was 4,949 kWh/emp in the EU-
28  in  2015.  Fourteen  Member  States  had  above  EU-28  average  electricity  consumption 
per  employee  as  illustrated  in  Figure  86.  The  MSs  with  the  highest  consumptions  per 
employee were Finland (9,502 kWh/emp), Sweden (7,474 kWh/emp) and Estonia (6,775 
kWh/emp). On the other hand, the countries with the lowest electricity consumptions per 
employee  were  Romania  (2,147  kWh/emp),  Hungary  (2,726  kWh/emp)  and  Lithuania 
(3,536 kWh/emp). 

Weather  and  climatic  conditions  cannot  explain  the  large  differences  in  per  capita 
electricity  consumption  observed  e.g.  between  Finland  and  Lithuania.  The  climatic 
conditions may not explain this difference as both countries are ranked as first and fifth 
respectively in  the  value  of  Mean  Heating  Degree  days  (see  Figure  61).  The  difference 
may be explained not even by referring only to GDP influence, as again, United Kingdom 
and Finland have e.g. similar values of GDP per capita (see Figure 39). Among the other 
factors that might explain this difference in electricity per employee it is possible to find: 
installation of more energy efficient technologies in the tertiary sector, cultural and social 
habits,  energy  consumption  patterns  of  different  energy  types,  structural  differences  in 
the national economies and/or the combination of all these factors. 

For instance, analysing the general energy consumption values per employee of Sweden 
and  Finland,  it  is  observed  that  these  countries  rely  more  on  electricity  than  on  gas  as 

71 

 
 
energy  type  (see  Figure  91).  Other  States,  such  as  Lithuania  or  Latvia,  have 
consumption  levels  per  employee  below  the  average  of  EU-28  both  for  electricity  and 
gas. In these countries a high percentage of citizens is served by District Heating and the 
energy mix seems more balanced. 

Figure 84: Annual electricity consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28, 2015  

l

)
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p
m
e
/
h
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k
(
e
e
y
o
p
m
e
r
e
p
y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,147 

2,000

0

9,502 

4,949 

O
R

U
H

T
L

K
U

T
A

G
B

K
D

E
I

V
L

K
S

E
D

Z
C

L
N

L
P

8
2
U
E

S
E

T
I

R
H

I
S

T
P

E
B

L
E

U
L

Y
C

T
M

R
F

E
E

E
S

I
F

Source: Eurostat 

The  average  European  electricity  consumption  per  employee  has  risen  by  11.2%  in  the 
period  from  2000  to  2015.  An  overall  growing  trend  has  been  experienced  as  shown  in 
Figure 87. The maximum in the analysed time series was registered in 2010, when the 
electricity  consumption  per  employee  reached  5,240  kWh/emp.  The  highest  values  of 
electricity  consumptions  per  employee  have  been  registered  in  the  period  from  2008-
2013, when the consumption remained steadily above 5,000 KWh/emp. In 2014, a fall by 
3.3%  was  registered  and  the  electricity  consumption  per  employee  declined  to  4,892 
kWh/emp.  In  2015  the  consumption  level  increased  by  1.2%,  standing  at  4,949 
kWh/emp, still below the threshold of 5,000 kWh/emp. 

72 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 85: Annual electricity consumption per employee in the EU-28 tertiary sector, 2000-2015  

5,240 

5,066 

5,033 

5,123 

5,073 

5,059 

4,979 

4,943 

4,838 

4,791 

4,752 

4,949 

4,892 

4,606 

4,570 

4,469 

n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
t
i
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

)
a
·
p
m
e
/
h
W
k
(

5,300

5,200

5,100

5,000

4,900

4,800

4,700

4,600

4,500

4,400

4,300

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

Table  5  provides  an  overview  of  the  final  electrical  energy  consumption  in  the  tertiary 
sector with a breakdown by Member States. 

73 

 
 
 
 
 
Table 5: Final tertiary electricity consumption in the EU-28 Member States  

Source: Eurostat 

4.3  Gas consumption trends in the tertiary sector 

In 2015, 18.86% of the total final gas energy consumption of the EU-28 was generated 
in  the  service  sector,  this  being  the  third  highest  share  after  those  of  the  residential 
sector  (41.24%)  and  the  industry  sector  (36.67%),  as  shown  in  Figure  28.  When 
focusing  on  the  tertiary  sector  energy  mix,  gas  accounted  for  30.33%  of  total  final 
consumption in 2015, representing the second highest share among the different energy 
types after electricity. 

74 

Final Tertiary Energy Consumption in the EU-28 MS (ktoe)Growth Rate2000-201520002005201020112012201320142015(% year)EU28634,955737,672848,611826,258836,282828,336811,952834,64231.45%BE12,23612,70322,18221,65321,95422,26221,42121,75577.80%BG5,0626,1438,1018,4378,1707,9547,8318,16361.26%CZ11,55912,53014,85114,47114,46914,80914,46414,87528.69%DK9,95410,47210,83510,65610,48110,22710,0399,945-0.09%DE125,453137,235154,075146,990150,511150,947142,868149,87219.46%EE1,4011,9292,5112,3782,5362,5302,7952,813100.79%IE5,5908,4657,1666,5016,2796,3666,4396,74620.68%EL12,26016,47918,00016,83918,47017,00816,80217,92646.22%ES50,02363,82383,89281,30080,21275,56970,30972,00143.94%FR106,313125,188144,664136,494141,622140,556142,574146,26937.58%HR2,9264,4135,3855,5165,5135,3875,2155,40584.72%IT56,59573,87585,61986,91290,27988,98288,48992,08562.71%CY1,2511,7862,2562,1382,0001,7861,8381,88650.76%LV1,5462,1422,4202,4872,7982,7032,8822,72576.26%LT1,8722,6862,8392,9533,1143,1303,2183,11066.13%LU1,6471,7501,9941,8811,9461,9991,9742,00021.43%HU8,8809,93111,35511,4667,8177,5077,6477,937-10.62%MT5045637978298888969431,00298.81%NL28,79633,69836,76636,91136,10636,23835,50635,75224.16%AT11,58610,98911,95312,05112,63613,26512,02512,3856.90%PL27,75633,35743,66944,19044,37843,13045,17245,44363.72%PT11,28814,40716,39716,27016,00715,70716,75617,19352.31%RO3,9084,0007,5817,8697,8977,9618,2238,407115.12%SI2,1262,4213,0663,2613,1683,2183,1413,23252.02%SK5,2686,1518,0148,2326,4507,5496,1456,86630.33%FI13,28715,52317,84617,26317,85717,50517,45917,43331.20%SE25,38326,13527,18724,63625,74125,50426,34727,7369.27%UK90,48598,87897,19095,67496,98397,64193,43093,6803.53% 
 
 
Figure 86: Final tertiary gas consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

44.6 

38.8 

5.8 

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

60

50

40

34.5 

30

20

10

0

28.9 

5.6 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

The  final  tertiary  gas  consumption  in  the  EU-28  has  grown  by  29.3%  in  the  period 
between  2000  and  2015,  mainly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  EU-15  area  where  it  has 
increased by 34.3%. NMS-13 area has raised its tertiary gas consumption by only 3.6%. 
In 2015, the EU-28 tertiary gas consumption reached 44.6 Mtoe, out of which 87% was 
consumed  by  EU-15.  The  tertiary  gas  consumption  of  the  NMS-13  was  5.8  Mtoe.  From 
2000 to 2010 an increasing trend in the consumption has been registered (leading to an 
overall  increase  of  43.5%)  with  the  exception  of  2002,  2007  and  2009.  The  maximum 
consumption  was  reached  in  2010  (49.5  Mtoe).  After  an  annual  decrease  by  -10.79% 
occurred in 2011, there has been a rise by 9.1% in the period 2011-2013. In 2014, the 
tertiary gas  consumption has been  reduced by  -13.19% in comparison to 2013 and has 
approximately  returned  to  the  levels  of  2007.  A  new  increase  (6.57%)  has  been 
registered in 2015.  

Figure 87: Annual tertiary gas consumption growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

-5%

-10%

-15%

-20%

18.88% 

13.07% 

5.28% 

4.79% 

3.45%  3.73% 

7.97% 

4.20%  4.73% 

6.57% 

-5.50% 

-1.81% 

-10.64% 

-10.01% 

-10.79% 

-13.19% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

There  are  notable  differences  across  the  EU-28  Member  States  regarding  the  final 
tertiary gas consumption growth rates during the period 2000-2015. It can be observed 
that countries such as Greece, Bulgaria or Estonia have experienced a very large increase 

75 

 
 
 
 
 
in  their  tertiary  gas  consumption  over  this  period.  This  may  be  the  result  of  a  gradual 
development  of  gas  networks  and  a  consequent  boost  in  the  consumption  of  this  fuel 
type  by  those  States.  Individual  case  studies  and  further  research  would  however  be 
needed in order to explain these growth rates. Eleven Member States have registered a 
growth rate below the European average growth rate (29.21%) for the same period. The 
recent  financial  and  economic  crisis  has  impacted  less  on  total  EU-28  tertiary  gas 
consumption  compared  to  the  impact  on  gas  consumption  in  other  economic  sectors, 
although it has totally reversed the tendencies in countries such as Austria (it went from 
an  increase  of  34.67%  between  2000-2007  to  a  decrease  of  41.97%  in  2007-2015)  or 
Denmark (passed from 43.52% in 2000-2007 to -23.81% in 2007-2015) as illustrated in 
Figure 90. 

Figure 88: Final tertiary gas consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-28; 2000-2015, 2000-
2007 and 2007-2015  

1240.00%

1140.00%

1040.00%

940.00%

840.00%

740.00%

640.00%

540.00%

440.00%

340.00%

240.00%

140.00%

40.00%

-60.00%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

76 

 
 
Figure 89: Annual final gas consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2015 

)
.
p
m
e
/
e
o
k
(
e
e
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o
p
m
e

l

r
e
p
s
a
G

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

15 

454 

264 

Source: Eurostat51 

The average gas consumption per employee in the EU-28 in the tertiary sector was 264 
koe/emp.  in  the  year  2015.  Differences  among  the  EU-28  Member  States  are 
remarkable.  The  European  country  with  the  lowest  gas  consumption  per  employee  was 
Finland  which  registered  15  koe/emp.,  followed  by  Sweden  (26  koe/emp.)  and  Bulgaria 
(46 koe/emp.). On the other hand, the Member State with the highest consumption was 
Belgium  (454  koe/emp.).  The  second  was  Hungary  (433  koe/emp)  and  the  third  the 
Netherlands  (412  koe/emp).  Nine  countries  registered  consumption  levels  above  EU-28 
level as illustrated in Figure 91. 

Figure 90: Annual final gas consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28, 2000-
2015  

)
p
m
e
/
e
o
k
(
n
o

i
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p
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u
s
n
o
C
s
a
G

320

310

300

290

280

270

260

250

240

230

220

252 

243 

235 

294 

290 

288 

284 

285 

276 

259 

306 

294 

282 

271 

3,600

3,500

3,400

3,300

252 

264 

3,200

3,100

3,000

2,900

2,800

s
y
a
D
e
e
r
g
e
D
g
n
i
t
a
e
H

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

51 Data for Cyprus and Malta equal zero. 

koe/employee

HDD

Source: Eurostat 

77 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Unlike electricity which can be used for other purposes, gas has heating as major usage. 
Therefore,  the  qualitative  correlation  between  gas  consumption  per  employee  in  the 
tertiary  sector  and  the  weather  conditions  (heating  degree  days)  is  of  great  interest  in 
this case. Figure 92 shows degree days and gas consumption per  employee in the EU-
28 for the 16-years period from 2000 to 2015. During this period, the gas consumption 
per  employee  in  the  EU-28  has  raised  by  8.6%  (from  243  koe/emp  in  2000  to  264 
koe/emp in 2015). The maximum value was achieved in 2010 (306 koe/emp) when the 
highest HDD value (3,484) was also achieved. 

Table  6  provides  an  overview  of  the  final  gas energy  consumption  in the  tertiary  sector 
with a breakdown by Member States. 

Table 6: Final tertiary gas consumption in the EU-28 Member States  

Final tertiary gas energy consumption, EU-28 

(ktoe) 

2000 

2005 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2013 

2014 

2015 

2000-
2015 

(% year) 

EU28  34,485.7  44,215.7  49,478.7  44,138.2  45,989.8  48,165.8  41,813.3  44,558.5 

29.21% 

BE 

BG 

CZ 

DK 

DE 

EE 

IE 

EL 

ES 

FR 

HR 

IT 

LV 

LT 

LU 

1,545.3 

1,770.9 

1,945.4 

1,589.0 

1,700.1 

1,937.1 

1,513.2 

1,687.4 

9.20% 

12.3 

43.6 

80.1 

82.6 

81.7 

78.0 

83.2 

89.1 

624.39% 

1,103.7 

1,273.6 

1,200.2 

1,145.6 

1,052.3 

1,013.4 

987.6 

982.1 

-11.02% 

160.4 

221.3 

227.6 

177.8 

198.4 

207.4 

153.4 

175.4 

9.35% 

5,806.5 

9,228.1 

9,953.1 

8,961.6 

9,135.4 

10,696.8 

9,969.7 

10,436.5 

79.74% 

10.7 

46.2 

29.7 

31.0 

34.9 

43.3 

66.8 

70.0 

554.21% 

292.7 

297.9 

439.3 

365.6 

400.2 

406.0 

400.5 

398.4 

36.11% 

8.6 

73.8 

139.0 

164.8 

138.0 

124.7 

125.3 

165.7 

1826.74% 

632.4 

706.4 

1,064.6 

1,755.6 

1,617.7 

1,497.2 

1,450.5 

2,640.1 

317.47% 

4,518.3 

5,579.0 

6,691.1 

5,615.7 

6,764.4 

7,213.4 

6,129.8 

6,116.1 

35.36% 

80.9 

124.4 

157.7 

141.9 

132.3 

136.1 

132.5 

169.4 

109.39% 

5,571.8 

7,434.4 

8,613.8 

7,254.5 

7,276.4 

7,259.0 

6,012.1 

6,499.2 

16.64% 

44.2 

31.1 

148.5 

93.7 

50.6 

97.7 

115.6 

104.4 

66.4 

136.4 

60.1 

81.7 

98.0 

63.3 

83.6 

63.2 

120.6 

117.4 

90.6 

58.4 

95.2 

85.6 

93.67% 

61.5 

97.75% 

98.0 

-34.01% 

HU 

1,773.1 

2,280.9 

1,715.2 

1,725.8 

1,387.1 

1,407.9 

1,243.2 

1,261.1 

-28.88% 

NL 

AT 

PL 

PT 

RO 

SI 

SK 

FI 

SE 

3,227.3 

3,523.1 

4,035.1 

3,221.7 

3,633.4 

3,646.4 

2,887.5 

3,019.6 

-6.44% 

597.0 

915.2 

784.5 

646.2 

640.2 

546.5 

543.5 

466.6 

-21.84% 

921.3 

1,634.0 

1,993.2 

1,870.1 

1,932.3 

1,827.4 

1,610.6 

1,715.5 

86.20% 

73.0 

136.3 

196.3 

217.6 

217.9 

218.9 

215.9 

225.1 

208.36% 

234.6 

781.6 

935.6 

756.0 

764.0 

784.6 

775.8 

750.6 

219.95% 

18.7 

25.5 

23.6 

39.4 

13.2 

31.8 

36.7 

50.1 

167.91% 

1,360.1 

900.6 

843.0 

356.8 

644.2 

771.9 

493.4 

526.1 

-61.32% 

27.0 

35.9 

31.5 

95.2 

30.6 

107.1 

37.1 

96.4 

33.5 

34.8 

123.8 

108.1 

29.9 

98.5 

27.9 

3.33% 

97.2 

170.75% 

UK 

6,250.3 

6,849.9 

7,954.7 

7,639.3 

7,786.5 

7,910.9 

6,609.7 

6,744.4 

7.91% 

Source: Eurostat 

78 

 
 
4.4  Overview – Tertiary sector 

The  tertiary  sector  represented  73.76%  of  the  EU-28  GDP  in  the  year  2015.  Tertiary 
sector is related to activities such as professional, scientific and technical services, public 
administration,  wholesale,  retail,  etc.  These  activities  have  caused  an  increase  in 
employment  by  3,409  thousand  units  across  the  EU-28  during  the  period  from  2010  to 
2015. 

In  2015,  the  tertiary  sector  accounted  for  13.55%  of  total  European  final  energy 
consumption. The final energy consumption of the sector has increased by 21.5% (from 
121  Mtoe  to  147  Mtoe)  in  the  period  from  2000  to  2015.  A  similar  increase  has  been 
followed by EU-15 and NMS-13 areas which have increased their consumption by 20.95% 
and 17.65% respectively. The sector registered a final energy consumption of 147 Mtoe 
in  2015,  out  of  which  86.4%  (127  Mtoe)  was  generated  by  EU-15  area.  The  maximum 
level  of  consumption  was  reached  in  the  year  2010  (157.8  Mtoe).  Consumption's 
decreases registered in 2011 and 2014 have led the final tertiary energy consumption to 
2007 levels. A new increase of 3.63% has been observed in 2015. 

Very different growth rates have been registered across the EU-28 Member States. In the 
period  from  2000  to  2015,  the  MSs  with  the  highest  reduction  rates  of  final  tertiary 
energy  consumption  were  Slovakia  (-40.92%),  Hungary  (-27.86%)  and  Slovenia  (-
13.18%).  The  Member  States  with  the  highest  consumption  growth  rates  were  Malta 
(191.45%), Romania (161.70%) and Cyprus (98.88%), all of them belonging to NMS-13. 

Compared  to  the  period  2000-2007,  a  significant  change  in  the  growth  rates  occurred 
over the period 2007-2015 in Romania, Greece, Lithuania, Latvia, Austria and Ireland. A 
positive  growth  rate  during  the  first  sub  period  made  way  for  a  negative  one  in  the 
second sub period.  However the growth rates variations between these two sub periods 
are  not  as  significant  as  the  variations  occurred  in  other  economic  sectors.  This  can  be 
the result of an on-going tertiarization process at European level. 

The  energy  mix  in  the  final  energy  consumption  in  the  EU-28  in  the  tertiary  sector  in 
2015 was mainly composed by three energy types which accounted for above 90% of the 
total.  Electricity  had  the  highest  share  (48.85%),  followed  by  gas  (30.33%)  and  total 
petroleum  products  (10.38%).  Changes  compared  to  the  scenario  of  year  2000  are 
mainly  due  to  a  reduction  in  the  share  of  petroleum  products  (-8.28%).  Electricity 
(+3.89%) and gas (+1.93%) have instead acquired larger shares together  with derived 
heat  (+0.68)  and  renewable  energies  (+2.3).  Solid  fuels  and  waste  have  reduced  their 
shares by 0.49% and 0.02% respectively. 

Weather and climate conditions as well as economic growth and employment growth can 
be energy consumption influencing factors in the tertiary sector. Given the nature of the 
tertiary  sector  which  includes  public  sector,  professional,  scientific  and  technical 
activities,  service  and  commerce;  comfort  conditions  (e.g.  temperature  or  humidity 
levels)  are  important  and  can  be  considered  as  key  factors  in  the  evaluation  of  energy 
consumption  in  the  tertiary  sector.  With  regard  to  the  employment  creation  during  the 
period  2000-2015,  the sector  has  increased  by  21.7%  (by  creating  about  30  millions  of 
new  employees).  Despite  this  favourable  trend,  there  is  a  clear  impact  of  the  economic 
crisis: from 2010 to 2015 it is possible to observe a slowdown in the job creation. In this 
direction  an  interesting  indicator  to  consider  in  the  analysis  of  the  energy  trends  in  the 
tertiary  sector  is  the  energy  consumed  per  employee.  The  final  average  energy 
consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28 was 0.87 toe per employee 
in  2015.  The  Member  States  with  the  highest  energy  consumption  per  employee  were 
Finland (1.48 toe/emp.), Luxembourg (1.23 toe/emp.), and Belgium (1.23 toe/emp.). On 
the  other  hand,  Romania  (0.45  toe/emp.),  Bulgaria  (0.52  toe/emp.),  United  Kingdom 
(0.63 toe/emp.) and Greece were the Member States with the lowest final tertiary energy 
consumption per employee. 

With  regard  the  weather  conditions  it  is  possible  to  observe  a  correlation  between  the 
final energy consumption per employee and the value of HDD. The influence of weather 

79 

 
conditions on per capita consumption has proved to be greater than the influence of the 
employment rate. 

The total final electricity consumption in the service sector accounted for 30.45% of the 
final  electrical  energy  consumption.  It  had  the  largest  share  of  consumption  after  the 
industry sector (36.35%). Regarding the tertiary sector energy mix, electricity accounted 
for 48.85% of the total final energy consumption in the same year, confirming electricity 
as the main consumed fuel type. 

The  final  electricity  consumption  trend  in  the  service  sector  shows  an  increase  in  the 
consumption  by  31.43%  (from  635  TWh  to  834.6  TWh)  during  the  16-year  period  from 
2000  to  2015.  The  raise  in  the  consumption  has  been  more  relevant  in  the  NMS-13 
countries  (51.01%)  than  in  the  EU-15  (28.86%).  Concerning  the  growth  rates  of  the 
different Member States over this period, it is observed that twelve MSs have registered 
a growth rate below the EU-28 average (31.45%) during the period 2000-2015. The MSs 
with  the  highest  growth  rates  have  been  Romania  (115.12%),  Estonia  (100.79%)  and 
Malta  (98.81%).  The  lowest  growth  rates  have  been  registered  in  Hungary  (-10.62%), 
Denmark (-0.09%) and the United Kingdom (3.53%); these last two values might be the 
result of energy efficiency actions. To be noted that all the MSs without exceptions show 
a positive growth rate in the period from 2000 to 2007. Nevertheless, this trend changed 
in  the  period  from  2007  to  2015  during  which  ten  EU-28  countries  have  reversed  their 
growth rates turning them into negative ones. 

The  electricity  consumption  per  employee  in  the  EU-28  for  the  year  2015  was  4,949 
kWh/emp.  Fourteen  Member  States  had  above  EU-28  average  electricity  consumption 
per employee. The MSs with the highest consumption per employee were Finland (9,502 
kWh/emp.),  Sweden  (7,474  kWh/emp.)  and  Estonia  (6,775  kWh/emp.).  On  the  other 
hand, the countries with the lowest electricity consumptions per employee were Romania 
(2,147 kWh/emp.), Hungary (2,726 kWh/emp.) and Lithuania (3,536 kWh/emp.). 

The average European  electricity consumption per employee has increased by 11.2% in 
the  period  from  2000  to  2015.  The  maximum  registered  value  occurred  in  2010  (5,240 
kWh/emp.).  The  highest  electricity  consumption  per  employee  has  been  experienced  in 
the period 2008-2013. In 2014, electricity consumption per employee declined by 3.3%. 
In  2015  the  consumption  level  increased  by  1.2%  (4,949  kWh/emp.),  but  remained 
below the level reached in 2013. 

The  final  gas  consumption  in  the  service  sector  accounted  for  18.86%  of  the  total  final 
gas  consumption  of  the  EU-28  in  2015.  This  sector  was  the  third  highest  gas  consumer 
after  the  residential  sector  (41.24%)  and  the  industry  sector  (36.67%).  Regarding  the 
tertiary  sector  energy  mix,  gas  accounted  for  30.33%  of  the  total  final  energy 
consumption,  representing  the  second  highest  share  among  the  different  energy  types 
after electricity. 

Over the period 2000-2015 the consumption of final gas increased by 29.3% (from 34.5 
to  44.6  Mtoe).  This  raise  has  been  mainly  due  to  the  EU-15  MSs  which  have  increased 
their  consumption  by  34.3%.  NMS-13  areas  have  instead  only  raised  their  tertiary  gas 
consumption by 3.6%. 

There  are  notable  differences  across  the  EU-28  Member  States  regarding  the  final 
tertiary gas consumption growth rates during the period 2000-2015. It can be observed 
that countries such as Greece, Bulgaria or Estonia have experienced a very large increase 
in  their  tertiary  gas  consumption  over  this  period.  This  may  be  the  result  of  a  gradual 
development  of  gas  networks  and  a  consequent  boost  in  the  consumption  of  this  fuel 
type  by  those  States.  Individual  case  studies  and  further  research  would  however  be 
needed in order to explain these growth rates. Eleven Member States have registered a 
growth rate below the European average growth rate (29.21%) for the same period. The 
recent  financial  and  economic  crisis  has  impacted  less  on  total  EU-28  tertiary  gas 
consumption  compared  to  the  impact  on  gas  consumption  in  other  economic  sectors, 
although it has totally reversed the tendencies in countries such as Austria (it went from 

80 

 
an  increase  of  34.67%  between  2000-2007  to  a  decrease  of  41.97%  in  2007-2015)  or 
Denmark (passed from 43.52% in 2000-2007 to -23.81% in 2007-2015).  

The average gas consumption per employee in the EU-28 in the tertiary sector was 264 
koe/emp. in the year 2015. The European country with the lowest gas consumption per 
employee was Finland which registered 15 koe/emp., followed by Sweden (26 koe/emp.) 
and  Bulgaria  (46  koe/emp.).  On  the  other  hand,  the  Member  State  with  the  highest 
consumption was Belgium (454 koe/emp.). The second was Hungary (433 koe/emp.) and 
the third the Netherlands (412 koe/emp.).  

Gas  as  energy  fuel  has  its  major  application  in  heating  applications.  Therefore  it  is  of 
interest  to  analyse  gas  consumption  correlation  with  the  weather  conditions  (Heating 
Degree Days). From 2000 to 2015 the gas consumption per employee in the EU-28 has 
raised  by  8.6%  (from  243  koe/emp.  to  264  koe/emp.).  The  maximum  value  was 
achieved  in  2010  (306  koe/emp.)  when  the  highest  HDD  value  (3,484)  was  also 
achieved. 

81 

 
 
5  Energy Consumption Trends and Environmental 

Performances of the Transport Sector 

This  chapter  covers  the  energy  consumption  trends  in  the  transport  sector  and  in  the 
main  subsectors  such  as  rail,  road,  international  and  domestic  aviation  and  domestic 
navigation.  In  order  to  complement  the  analysis  of  energy  consumption,  some  insight 
about  the  road  sector,  passenger  and  freight  transport  and  carbon  dioxide  emissions  is 
also provided. 

5.1  Final  energy  consumption  and  energy  mix  of  the  transport 

sector 

The transport sector proved to be the main consuming sector, accounting for 33.09% of 
total final energy consumption in the year 2015 (Figure 9). 

The  final  energy  consumption  in  the  EU-28  transport  sector  has  increased  by  4.04%  in 
the 16-year period from 2000 to 2015. This increase has not been followed in the same 
way by both EU-15 and NMS-13 areas. The EU-15 area has reduced its consumption by 
1.05%, whereas NMS-13 have increased their final energy demand by 55.66%. In 2015, 
the final energy consumption reached 358.6 Mtoe. 86.59% (310.5 Mtoe) was  accounted 
by  EU-15  area  and  the  other  13.41%  (45.5  Mtoe)  was  consumed  in  the  NMS-13.  The 
maximum consumption during the analysed period took place in the year 2007 when the 
EU-28  consumption  reached  383.5  Mtoe,  while  the  minimum  occurred  in  the  year  2000 
(344.7 Mtoe). As it is possible to see from Figure 93 and Figure 94 there is a reversing 
trend before and after 2007.  

Over  the  period  2000-2007,  it  is  possible  to  observe  an  increasing  trend  (the  average 
growth rate was equal to 1.4%). In contrast, from 2007 to 2013 there has been a fall in 
the final energy consumption with an average reduction of 1.6% per year. In 2014, this 
trend was interrupted and the final energy consumption in the transport sector grew by 
1.34%. The increase in energy consumption in the sector was confirmed by the positive 
growth rate of 1.72% registered in 2015.  

Figure 91: Final energy consumption in the transport sector in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

344.7 

313.8 

30.9 

358.6 

310.5 

48.1 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

82 

 
 
 
 
Figure 92: Final energy consumption in the transport sector in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (detailed)  

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

390

380

370

360

350

344.7 

340

330

383.5 

366.1 

365.5 

362.3 

358.6 

347.9 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

During  the  period  2000-2007  (Figure  95),  the  highest  growth  rate  occurred  in  2004 
when there  was an increase by 2.7% compared to the previous year. In  contrast, 2009 
registered  the  lowest  growth  rate,  -3.2%.  The  reduction  of  the  energy  consumption  in 
the  transport  sector  in  the  years  following  2007  could  be  explained,  among  others,  by 
the impact of the financial and economic crisis. 

Figure 93: Annual energy consumption growth rates in the EU-28 transport sector, 2000-2015  

3%

2%

1%

0%

-1%

-2%

-3%

-4%

2.71% 

1.55% 

2.10% 

1.71% 

0.97% 

0.85% 

0.88% 

0.34% 

1.72% 

1.34% 

-0.34% 

-0.54% 

-1.04% 

-1.52% 

-3.23% 

-2.95% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

83 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 94: Energy intensity of transport sector in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

0.0329 

)
5
0
0
2
€
/
e
o
k
(
y
t
i
s
n
e
t
n
I
y
g
r
e
n
E

0.035

0.034

0.033

0.032

0.031

0.03

0.029

0.028

0.027

0.0310 

0.0306 

0.0284 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Odyssee 

During the period from 2000 to 2015 (Figure 96), the energy intensity in the transport 
sector has decreased by 13.7% until registering the value of 0.0284 koe/€2005 in 2015. 
The  decreasing  trend  along  the  whole  period  was  interrupted  only  in  2009  by  a  rise  of 
1.3% due to the impact of the financial and economic crisis on GDP. 

In  2015,  the  Member  State  with  the  highest  consumption  in  the  transport  sector  was 
Germany  (63.2  Mtoe),  followed  by  the  United  Kingdom  (51.8  Mtoe)  and  France  (50.1 
Mtoe). It is worth noticing that in 2000 these three countries occupied the same positions 
in the ranking of the most final energy consumers for transport (see Figure 97). 

The mentioned three Member States together with Italy accounted for more than 57% of 
the  final  energy  consumption  in  the  sector.  If  also  Spain  is  added,  the  share  reaches 
more than 66% of the final energy consumption. Fourteen Member States accounted for 
less than 10% of the final energy consumption in 2015 (see Figure 98). 

84 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 95: Final energy consumption in the transport sector in the EU-28 Member States, 2000, 
2007 and 2015  

2000

2007

2015

)
e
o
t
K
(
y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
n
i
F

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

DE UK FR IT ES PL NL BE AT SE PT EL CZ RO DK FI IE HU BG LU SK HR LT SI LV CY EE MT

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 96: Share of EU-28 Member States final energy consumption in the transport sector (2015) 

9.93% 

9.46% 

5.42% 

8.79% 

9.37% 

57.04% 

DE, UK, FR, IT

ES

PL, NL

BE, AT

SE, PT, EL, CZ, RO

OTHERS

Source: Eurostat  

Figure  99  shows  the  growth  rates  of  the  final  energy  consumption  by  Member  State 
during  different  time  horizons.  The  States  with  the  highest  growth  rates  in  the  final 
energy  consumption  in  the  transport  sector  between  2000  and  2015  have  been  Poland 
(73.82%), Lithuania (73.37%) and Bulgaria (69.05%), while the Member States with the 
lowest growth rates were Greece (-9.87%), Italy (-7.01%) and Germany (-5.39%). Ten 
EU-28  countries  registered  consumption  values  below  the  European  average  (4.4%).  In 
the  period  2000-2007,  all  the  Member  States  with  the  exception  of  Germany  and  Malta 
registered  an  increase  in  their  final  energy  consumption.  The  average  European  growth 
rate  was  11.25%  during  the  same  period.  The  trends  were  significantly  different  in  the 
period  from  2007  to  2015  when  seven  Member  States  recorded  a  positive  growth  rate. 
This latest sub-period reflects the energy consumption decline produced by the financial 
and  economic  crisis  which  can  be  clearly  observed  in  the  overall  European  final  energy 
consumption trends. 

85 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 97: Final energy consumption growth rates at transport sector in the EU-28 Member 
States; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  

90%

70%

50%

30%

10%

-10%

-30%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

The  final  energy  mix  in  the  transport  sector  in  mainly  provided  by  petroleum  products. 
Petroleum  products  represented  93.65%  (335,867  ktoe)  in  2015.  This  represents  a 
reduction in the share in comparison to 2000 (97.81%; 337,134 ktoe) (see Figure 100). 

Figure 98: Final energy mix in the transport sector in the EU-28 (absolute numbers), 2000 and 
2015  

)
e
o
t
k
(
y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
n
i
F

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

Oil-Gasoline

Oil-Diesel

Oil-LPG

Oil-Jet fuel

Oil-Heavy fuel

Gas

Biofuels

Electricity

Solids fuels

2015

77449.40

200266.10

5889.80

51236.00

1025.30

3226.10

14157.90

5367.60

10.30

2000

134042.70

153117.40

3652.60

44772.50

1549.20

813.50

709.30

6024.20

9.80

Source: Eurostat 

86 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Among  the  petroleum  products,  diesel  and  gasoline  stand  out.  In  2015,  oil-diesel 
accounted  for  55.84%  (200,266.1  ktoe)  and  gasoline  for  21.60%  (77,449.4  ktoe).  The 
remaining  shares  were  completed  by  jet  fuel  (14.29%;  51,236  ktoe),  biofuels  (3.95%; 
14,157.9  ktoe),  LPG  (1.64%;  5,889.8  ktoe),  electricity  (1.5%;  5,367.6  ktoe),  gas 
(0.90%; 3,226.1 ktoe), and heavy fuel (0.29%; 1025.3 ktoe). Solid fuels represented a 
negligible share in the final energy mix (0.003%; 10.3 ktoe). 

A reduction of the gasoline share by 17.29% (56.6 Mtoe), together with an increase by 
11.0%  (47.1  Mtoe)  and  3.74%  (13.4  Mtoe)  in  the  shares  of  diesel  and  biofuels 
respectively  constituted  the  most  significant  changes  in  the  final  energy  mix  in 
comparison to the year 2000 scenario. 

Figure 99: Final energy mix in the transport sector in the EU-28 (shares), 2000 and 2015 

2000 

38.89% 

44.42% 

0.45% 

12.99% 

1.06% 

1.75% 

0.21% 
0.24% 

Oil-Heavy fuel Oil-Jet fuel Oil-LPG Oil-Diesel Oil-Gasoline

Electricity

Biofuels Gas

2015 

21.60% 

55.84% 

0.29% 

14.29% 

1.64% 

Source: Eurostat 

1.50% 

3.95% 

0.90% 

From  2000  to  2015,  the  petroleum  products  consumption  has  dropped  by  0.38%  (1.3 
Mtoe).  During  this  period  the  diesel  has  gradually  increased  its  presence;  diesel's 
consumption has increased by 30.79%, while gasoline’s has declined by 42.22%. Heavy 
fuel  has  registered  a  significant  fall  by  33.82%  (-523.9  ktoe)  in  the  same  period.  The 

87 

 
 
 
 
changes  in  the  petroleum  products  consumption  have  occurred  gradually  during  the 
analysed 16-years period as illustrated in Figure 103. 

Figure 100: Final energy consumption of oil products in the EU-28 transport sector, 2000-2015  

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

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0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Oil-Heavy fuel

Oil-Jet fuel

Oil-LPG

Oil-Diesel

Oil-Gasoline

Source: Eurostat 

Despite petroleum products being the main fuel type in the transport sector, the increase 
in renewable energies (biofuels) in the energy mix is a fact to consider, as the production 
of transport fuels from biomass, in either liquid or gaseous form, holds the promise of a 
low  net  fossil-energy  requirement  and  low  life-cycle  greenhouse  gas  (GHG)  emissions 
[5]. 

Figure 101: Final energy consumption of biofuels in the EU-28 transport sector,  
2000-2015 

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

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0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Biogasoline

Biodiesel

Biogas

Solid biofuels

Other liquid biofuels

Source: Eurostat 

88 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The biofuels have highly developed during the period from 2000 to 2015. The increase in 
the  consumption  took  place  especially  between  2005  and  2010  when  the  consumption 
rose by four times (from 3,199 ktoe to 13,140 ktoe). The increase was mainly bound to 
the  growth  of  biodiesels  that  represent  the  highest  consumed  renewable  fuel  type  (see 
Figure 103). In 2013 a drop by 10% (1.1 Mtoe) in the biodiesel consumption occurred. 
In 2014 the consumption returned to the levels of 2012 and remained stable at this level 
also in 2015. 

Biogasoline is the second highest consumed biofuel. Its growth started after 2004. Since 
2010  the  energy  consumption  of  this  fuel  type  has  remained  stable.  The  biogas  started 
being  consumed  in  2008  (19.1  ktoe).  Since  then,  an  increase  by  570%  has  been 
registered  until  2015.  The  energy  consumption  of  other  liquid  biofuels52  was  observed 
between  2005  and  2010.  In  the  recent  years  solid  biofuels  have  had  a  negligible 
consumption (below 1 ktoe a year).  

Fuel prices 

Automotive diesel oil and gasoline prices increased from 2005 onwards. From mid-2008 
to  mid-2009  a  significant  drop  took  place.  Afterwards,  the  prices  continued  rising  until 
September-October 2012 where  the maximum of the period 2000-2015 were registered 
(gasoline 95 Ron: 1.693 Euro/litre; automotive diesel oil: 1.536 Euro/litre). Since then, a 
progressive  reduction  in  the  prices  has  been  occurring  as  illustrated  in  Figure  104. 
Between  the  4th  quarter  of  2014  and  the  1st  quarter  of  2015  a  significant  drop  was 
registered. That drop in the consumer prices was linked to the sharp decline in the price 
of crude oil barrels. 

The decline in oil prices was driven by a number of factors: several years of increase in 
the production of unconventional oil; a weakening of global demand; a significant shift in 
OPEC  policy;  an  unwinding  of  some  geopolitical  risks;  an  appreciation of  the  U.S.  dollar 
[6], [7]. 

Figure 102: Consumer prices of petroleum products inclusive of duties and taxes - Eurozone 
weighted average, January 2005 – February 2016  

Automotive diesel oil
LPG - motor fuel
Residual Fuel Oil - HS

Heating gasoil
Premium unleaded gaso,95 Ron
Residual Fuel Oil - LS

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Source: EC DG-ENER 

52  This  category  includes  liquid  biofuels,  used  directly  as  fuel,  not  included  in  the  definitions  of  biogasoline, 
biodiesel  or  bio  jet  kerosene  and  liquid  biofuels  consumption  that  cannot  be  reported  under  the  right 
category because of missing information. Source: Eurostat. 

89 

 
 
                                           
From mid-2015 to January 2016, the overall prices registered a decreasing trend before 
starting to increase again until the first quarter of 2017.  

In  October  2017  the  average  consumer  prices  of  petroleum  products  in  the  Eurozone 
were: gasoline 95 Ron (1.343 Euro/litre), automotive diesel oil (1.224 Euro/litre), heating 
gasoil (0.690Euro/litre), LPG – motor fuel (0.568 Euro/litre), residual fuel oil – LS (0.417 
Euro/litre), and residual fuel oil – HS (0.356 Euro/litre). 

5.2  Transport subsectors 

In  this  section,  final  energy  consumption  in  the  transport  sector  is  broken  down  into 
different  transport  subsectors:  road,  rail,  international  aviation,  domestic  aviation, 
domestic navigation, pipeline transport, and other transports53. Consumption trends and 
changes in these transport subsectors over the period 2000-2015 are analysed. 

Figure 103: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 transport subsectors, 2000 and 2015 

)
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400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

Non-specified (Transport)

Pipeline (Transport)

Domestic navigation

Domestic aviation

International aviation

Rail

Road

2000

1,367.0

533.8

6,027.2

6,357.3

38,558.3

8,082.7

283,764.8

Source: Eurostat 

2015

1,077.4

1,506.5

4,540.3

5,539.8

45,756.1

6,220.5

293,988.1

Road  transport  is  extensively  the  main  energy  consuming  subsector.  It  consumed 
81.98%  (294  Mtoe)  of  the  final  energy  share  in  2015.  In  the  same  year,  the  second 
consuming  subsector  was  international  aviation  (12.76%;  45.8  Mtoe),  followed  by  rail 
(1.73%;  6.2  Mtoe),  domestic  aviation  (1.54%;  5.5  Mtoe),  domestic  navigation  (1.27%; 
4.5  Mtoe),  pipeline  transport  (0.42%;  1.5  Mtoe)  and  other  non-specified  transport 
(0.30%; 1.1 Mtoe). The most remarkable change compared to the year 2000 scenario is 
the  energy  consumption  of  pipeline  transport  that  has  increased  by  nearly  three  times 
(from  534  ktoe  to  1,501  ktoe).  In  comparison  to  the  year  2000,  rail,  domestic 

53 It includes fuels used by airlines for their road vehicles and fuels used in ports for ships' unloaders, various 
types of cranes. Source: Eurostat. 

90 

 
 
                                           
 
 
 
navigation,  domestic  aviation,  and  non-specified  transport  have  reduced  their  shares, 
while  the  rest  of  transport  subsectors  (i.e.  road,  international  aviation,  and  pipeline 
transport) have increased their shares as illustrated in Figure 106 and Figure 107. 

Figure 104: Share of transport subsector to final energy consumption, 2000 and 2015  

2000 

1.75% 

1.84% 

0.15% 

0.40% 

2.34% 

11.19% 

82.32% 

Road

Rail

International aviation

Domestic aviation

Domestic navigation

Pipeline (Transport)

Non-specified (Transport)

1.27% 

2015 

0.42% 

0.30% 

1.54% 

1.73% 

12.76% 

81.98% 

Source: Eurostat 

The contribution of the different subsectors to the aggregate energy consumption for the 
period  2000-2015  is  shown  in  Figure  107.  During  this  period,  the  total  final  energy 
consumption in the sector has increased by 4.04%. However, this increase has not been 
followed  by  all  the  subsectors.  Domestic  navigation  has  been  the  sector  where 
consumption  declined  the  most  (by  24.67%).  Rail,  domestic  aviation  and  non-specified 
transport  have  decreased  their  energy  consumption  by  23.04%,  12.86%,  and  21.19% 
respectively. In contrast, pipeline transport, international aviation, and road transport are 
the subsectors which have registered an increase in their consumption in comparison to 
the year 2000 by 182.22%, 18.66%, and 3.60% respectively. 

91 

 
 
 
Figure 105: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 transport subsectors, 2000-2015 

)
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390

370

350

330

310

290

270

250

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Road

Rail

International aviation

Domestic aviation

Domestic navigation

Pipeline (Transport)

Non-specified (Transport)

Source: Eurostat 

Table 7 provides an overview of the final energy consumption and growth rates occurred 
in the transport subsectors from 2000 to 2015. 

Table 7: Growth rates of energy consumption transport subsectors, 2000 and 2015 

Source: Eurostat 

Figure  108  and  Figure  109  show  the  energy  mix  in  the  different  subsectors  for  the 
year  2015  in  both  absolute  numbers  and  percentage  of  the  total  final  energy 
consumption per subsector. It can be observed how oil (petroleum products) is the only 
fuel  type  in  the  domestic  and  international  aviation  and  it  is  the  main  contributor  in 
domestic navigation (99.9%) and in the road transport (94.46%). 

92 

Growth Rate (%)Change of shares200020152000-2015200020152000-2015Transport344,691358,6294.04%Rail8,0836,221-23.04%2.34%1.73%-0.61%Road283,765293,9883.60%82.32%81.98%-0.35%International aviation38,55845,75618.67%11.19%12.76%1.57%Domestic aviation6,3575,540-12.86%1.84%1.54%-0.30%Domestic Navigation6,0274,540-24.67%1.75%1.27%-0.48%Consumption in Pipeline 5341,507182.22%0.15%0.42%0.27%Other transports1,3671,077-21.19%0.40%0.30%-0.10%Final Energy (ktoe)Share in % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 106: Final energy per fuel type and transport subsector in the EU-28, 2015  

)
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350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Solid fuels

Electricity

Biofuels

Gas

Oil

Road

Rail

Int.
aviation

Dom.
aviation

Dom.
navigation

Pipeline
(Transport)

Other

Source: Eurostat 

In  2015,  electricity  represented  the  main  consuming  fuel  in  rail  (66.47%)  and  other 
transports  (67.65%).  Gas  was  the  major  fuel  type  used  in  pipeline  transport  (93.65%). 
With  regard  to  renewable  energies,  biofuels  occupied  a  share  in  road  (4.8%),  rail 
(0.43%), other transports (0.45%), and domestic navigation (0.10%). 

Figure 107: Share of fuel type and transport subsector in the EU-28, 2015 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Road

Rail

Int. aviation

Dom. aviation

Dom. navigation

Pipeline (Transport)

Other

Oil

Gas

Biofuels

Electricity

Solid Fuels

Source: Eurostat 

It  can  be  observed  that  road  transport  clearly  outstands  among  the  rest  subsectors  in 
terms of final energy consumption. Thus, it can be assumed that overall transport sector 
trends are mainly influenced by the road transport changes. 

93 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.3  Road sector 

In this section a specific analysis of the road sector energy consumption trends is carried 
out. This insight is interesting due to the fact that the road sector accounted for 81.98% 
of total final energy consumed in the transport sector in 2015.  

The final energy consumption in the road transport has increased by 3.6% (10.2 Mtoe) in 
the  period  from  2000  to  2015.  The  increase  has  not  been  the  same  in  EU-15  area  and 
NMS-13  area.  NMS-13  have  increased  their  final  energy  consumption  by  62.1%,  while 
EU-15 have registered a drop by 2.6%. In 2015, 85.1% (250.3 Mtoe) was consumed in 
the EU-15 area as illustrated by Figure 110. 

Figure 108: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 road transport, 2000-2015  

350

300

283.8 

256.9 

)
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250

200

150

100

50

26.9 

0

294.0 

250.3 

43.6 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 109: Final energy consumption in road transport per Member State in the EU-28 2000, 
2007 and 2015 

)
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60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

2000

2007

2015

DE FR UK IT ES PL NL BE AT SE CZ PT RO EL HU FI DK IE BG SK LU HR SI LT LV EE CY MT

Source: Eurostat 

94 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 110: Accumulated share in the EU-28 for final energy consumption in road transport 
(2015) 

2.62% 

9.78% 

10.22% 

11.68% 

9.15% 

56.55% 

DE, FR, UK, IT

ES

PL, NL, BE

AT

SE, CZ, PT, RO, EL

OTHERS

Source: Eurostat 

Across  the  EU-28  Member  States  there  are  remarkable  differences  in  the  final  energy 
consumption.  In  2015,  the  countries  with  the  highest  road  energy  consumption  were 
Germany (52.4 Mtoe),  France (42.0  Mtoe), United kingdom (38.2 Mtoe) and  Italy (33.6 
Mtoe).  These  four  countries  accounted  for  more  than  56%  of  the  total  final  energy 
consumption in the road transport. In the same year, fourteen Member States consumed 
less than 10% of the final energy consumption in the road transport. 

With  regard  to  the  energy  mix  in  the  road  transport,  petroleum  products  (i.e.  diesel, 
gasoline, LPG and gas) are the major consumed fuel types. In 2015, diesel was the most 
consumed  fuel  type  (66.29%),  followed  by  gasoline  (26.23%),  biofuels  (4.80%),  LPG 
(1.94%),  gas  (0.60%)  and  electricity,  which  accounted  for  a  residual  share  (0.14%)  of 
the final energy consumption. 

Figure  113  shows  the  final  energy  mix  for  four  different  years  (i.e.  2000,  2005,  2010 
and  2015).  It  can  be  observed  the  gradual  reduction  of  gasoline  consumption  and  the 
increase  in  the  final  energy  consumption  of  diesel  and  biofuels.  Oil-LPG,  gas  and 
electricity have slightly increased their energy consumption shares. In the last five years 
considered, electricity has almost doubled its share, although it remains non-significant.  

The increase in the share of biofuels is noteworthy as this trend shows the development 
towards  a  more  sustainable  way  of  road  transport.  Biodiesel  has  been  the  main  biofuel 
along  the  entire  analysed  period  (2000-2015).  Already  in  2000,  biodiesel  accounted  for 
89.76%  of  the  total  consumption  of  biofuels  in  the  road  sector,  followed  by  biogasoline 
(8.21%) and other liquid biofuels (2.03%). After 16 years, in 2015, biodiesel was still the 
major  renewable  fuel  type  with  a  share  of  80.1%  of  the  total  consumption  of  biofuels. 
Biogasoline was the second with a share of 18.97%. The consumption of biogas started 
after  2008  and  reached  a  1%  share  in  the  renewable  energy  mix  in  2015.  The 
consumption  of  other  liquid  biofuels  have  largely  reduced  over  the  period,  until 
registering  0.03%  in  2015.  Solid  biofuels  has  totally  disappeared  from  the  final  energy 
consumption of road transport in the last 16 years, as shown in Figure 114. 

95 

 
 
 
 
90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Figure 111: Final energy mix in the EU-28 road transport, years 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015  

100%

0.13% 

0.05% 
1.26% 

0.25% 

0.19% 

0.07% 
1.56% 

1.06% 

0.08% 
4.38% 
1.75% 

0.38% 

0.14% 
4.80% 
0.60% 
1.94% 

26.23% 

47.13% 

38.11% 

30.52% 

51.17% 

59.01% 

62.89% 

66.29% 

2000

2005

2010

2015

Oil - Diesel

Oil- Gasoline

Oil - LPG

Oil - Gas

Biofuels

Electricity

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 112: Renewable final energy mix in the EU-28 road transport, years 2000, 2005, 2010 and 
2015 

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Renewable Final Energy Mix in the EU-28 road transport 

2.03% 
8.21% 

4.85% 

17.99% 

0.29% 
0.27% 

21.37% 

0.03% 
0.90% 

18.97% 

89.76% 

77.16% 

78.07% 

80.10% 

2000

2005

2010

2015

Biodiesel

Biogasoline

Biogas

Other liquid biofuels

Solid biofuels

Source: Eurostat 

96 

 
 
 
Among  the  different  vehicle  types,  cars  outstand  as  the  main  energy  consumers  in  the 
road  transport.  In  2014,  cars  accounted  for  56.64%  (162.9  Mtoe)  of  the  road  final 
energy consumption, followed by trucks and light vehicles (38.21%; 109.9 Mtoe), buses 
(3.75%;  10.8  Mtoe)  and  two  wheels  vehicles  (1.39%;  4  Mtoe).  There  have  not  been 
remarkable  differences  between  2000  and  2014.  Nevertheless,  during  this  period 
increases  in  the  consumption  have  been  registered  (e.g.  in  2007  when  the  highest 
energy  consumption  in the  road  transport  was  registered),  due  to  the  increased  energy 
demand coming from cars and trucks and light vehicles, as illustrated in Figure 115. 

Figure 113: Road energy consumption per vehicle type in the EU-28, 2000, 2007 and 2014  

)
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350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

8.8 

106.8 

3.4 

10.3 

124.5 

4.1 

163.9 

171.3 

10.8 

109.9 

4.0 

162.9 

2000

2007

2014

Cars

Two wheels

Trucks and light vehicles

Buses

Source: Odyssee 

The  stock  of  vehicles  in  the  EU-28  was  mainly  composed  by  cars  (77.61%  in  2014).  In 
2014,  there  were  registered  243.2  millions  of  cars  in  Europe.  Trucks  and  light  vehicles 
have been the second vehicle type according to the stock size with over 36.4 millions of 
units,  followed  by  two  wheels  vehicles  (32.9  million  units)  and  buses  (851  thousand 
units).  In  comparison  with  the  year  2000,  the  total  stock  of  vehicles  has  increased  by 
65.5  million  units,  representing  an  increase  by  26.4%.  All  the  vehicle  types  have 
increased  their  stock.  Trucks  and  light  vehicles  are  the  vehicle  types  which  have 
experienced  the  highest  stock  growth,  with  an  increase  by  33.5%  (9.1  million  units). 
Two-wheel  vehicles  have  enlarged  their  stock  in  a  similar  range  (33.1%;  8.2  million 
units).  Cars  and  buses  have  incremented  their  stock  numbers  by  24.7%  and  2.1% 
respectively (Figure 116). 

97 

 
 
 
 
 
 
s
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U
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o

i
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l
i

M

Figure 114: Number of vehicles in the EU-28, 2000 and 2014  

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Two wheels

Trucks and light vehicles

Buses

Cars

2000

24.6991

27.2867

0.8344

194.9959

Source: Odyssee 

2014

32.8629

36.4184

0.8516

243.1678

Buses have the largest energy consumption per vehicle. This is easily understandable due 
to  the  average  size  of  this  kind  of  vehicles.  In  2014,  the  average  European  energy 
consumption for buses was 12.67 toe/vehicle. In the same year trucks and light vehicles 
consumed 3.02 toe/veh, cars 0.67 toe/veh and two wheels 0.12 toe/veh. In comparison 
to the year 2000 scenario, cars' energy consumption decreased by 20.2%, two wheels by 
14.3%  and  trucks  and  light  vehicles  by  22.8%.  In  contrast,  buses  have  registered  an 
increase by 20.3%.  

To be noted that buses are the only vehicle type that has experienced an increase in its 
energy consumption per unit during the period 2000-2014 (Figure 117). This might be 
the result of an increase in the usage of buses as transportation mode, for instance, city 
buses. A higher number of kilometres per year driven by bus would lead to higher energy 
consumption  per  vehicle.  Also,  it  might  be  ancillary  increased  by  the  incorporation  of 
additional  built-in  services  to  enhance  the  comfort  of  the  passengers  such  as  air-
conditioning,  reading-lights,  display  screens,  or  internet-related  services  (i.e.  Wi-Fi). 
Most  of  these  services  are  largely  spread  nowadays  among  the  buses  fleet  in  many 
Europeans regions in both private and publicly operated buses. 

98 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 115: Energy consumption per vehicle type (toe/veh) in the EU-28, 2000-2014  

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Buses, left-hand axis

Cars, right-hand axis

Truck and light vehicles, left-hand axis

Two wheels, right-hand axis

Source: Eurostat 

5.3.1  Road sector – Cars 

Cars  represented  77.61%  of  the  stock  of  vehicles  and  56.64%  of  the  final  road  energy 
consumption in 2014. Therefore a specific analysis of the car, intended as a  subsector of 
the  road  sector,  can  provide  a  better  understanding  of  how  energy  consumption  in  the 
road transport, and consequently in the transport sector is evolving. 

In  2000,  the  average  energy  consumption  per  car  in  the  EU-28  registered  the  value  of 
0.84 toe per vehicle. During the period from 2000 to 2014, a gradual lowering trend has 
been observed which led to a drop by 20.2% in 2014. 

Figure  118  shows  the  energy  consumption  per  car,  together  with  the  average  annual 
distance travelled by car in the EU-28 during the same period (2000-2014). It is possible 
to  notice  that  the  average  annual  distance  travelled  by  car  has  decreased  by  1,065  km 
along  the  15-years  period  (from  13,165  km  to  12,100  km).  The  minimum  of  the  time 
series was registered in 2012 (11,878 km). Overall, the average annual distance per car 
shows a gradual lowering trend similar to that shown by the annual energy consumption. 
Therefore,  a  possible  explanation  for  the  decrease  in  the  average  annual  energy 
consumption  per  car  is  not  only  related  to  the  improvements  of  vehicles  in  terms  of 
energy  efficiency  performance,  but  also  bound  to  a  lowering  trend  in  the  usage  of  the 
vehicles in terms of distance travelled per year. A further and more throughout research 
should  be  done  regarding  this  topic  in  order  to  estimate  quantitatively  the  influence  of 
this factor. 

99 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 116: Annual energy consumption and annual distance travelled per car in the EU-28, 2000-
2014  

)
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(
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i
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e
v

r
e
p
y
g
r
e
n
E

13,165 

0.9

0.85

0.8

0.75

0.84 

0.7

0.65

13,500

13,300

13,100

12,900

12,700

12,500

12,300

12,100

11,900

11,700

11,500

)
m
k
(

e
c
n
a
t
s
i
d

l
a
u
n
n
A

12,100 

0.67 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Energy per vehicle

Annual distance

Source: Odyssee 

Figure  119  shows  the  total  car  energy  consumption  adjusted  for  the  stock  of  vehicles 
and  the  average  annual  distance  travelled  by  cars  in  the  EU-28.  From  2000  to  2015, 
there  has  been  a  total  reduction  of  13.35%  in  this  indicator.  This  reduction  could  have 
been  influenced  by  multiple  factors  such  as:  cars  driving  in  speeds  with  the  highest 
efficiency  performance  ratios,  less  traffic  congestion,  usage  of  smaller  or  more  efficient 
car models. 

Figure 117: Car energy consumption per vehicle adjusted for the stock of cars and the annual 
distance travelled by cars in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

0.066

0.064

)
s
r
a
c

0.0644 

f
o
n
o

i
l
l
i

M
*
m
k
(
/
e
o
t
K

0.062

0.06

0.058

0.056

0.054

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

0.0558 

Source: Odyssee 

100 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure  120  shows  the  energy  consumption  per  vehicle  differing  by  engine  technology. 
Diesel-fuelled  vehicles  are  the  vehicles  type  with  the  highest  unitary  energy 
consumption.  The  reduction  in  total  average  energy  consumption  per  vehicle  registered 
during the period 2000-2014 (-20.2%) is the result of a reduction by 33.3% in gasoline-
fuelled  cars,  a  reduction  by  24.8%  in  diesel  fuelled  cars  and  a  reduction  by  43%  in  the 
LPG-fuelled cars. Overall, a lowering trend has been experienced by the cars despite the 
engine  technologies  adopted.  This  is  mainly  due  to  energy  efficiency  performance 
improvements.  The  only  exception  was  registered  for  LPG  cars  during  the  period  2000-
2004  when  the  energy  consumption  yearly  increased.  Since  2004,  LPG  cars'  trend  has 
followed the others. 

Figure 118: Average energy consumption per car engine technology in the EU-28, 2000-201454 

)
h
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r
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E

1.2

1.05

1.09 

0.9

0.84 

0.81 

0.75

0.78 

0.6

0.45

0.3

0.82 

0.67 

0.52 

0.47 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Gasoline

Diesel

LPG

Total average

Source: Odyssee 

The average specific consumption of cars shows the consumption of one vehicle in litres 
per  100  km.  It  is  calculated  from  the  total  consumption  of  cars,  stock  of  cars  and 
average  distance  travelled  by  car  per  year.  The  average  consumption  of  new  cars  is 
calculated  from  fuel  consumption  tests55.  Figure  121  shows  that  in  both  cases  (i.e. 
average  consumption  calculated  from  data  and  from  test  values)  and  for  the  two  main 
engine technologies (i.e. gasoline and diesel) there is an ongoing decline since 2000. In 
total, the average consumption of cars in the market has declined by 13.32%, while the 
consumption of new cars entering the market (tagged as 'test') is even larger at 27.5%. 
Comparing  the  average  specific  consumptions  per  engine  technology,  gasoline-fuelled 
cars consumed more fuel than any other engine technology. In the period from 2000 to 
2014,  gasoline  and  diesel  cars  already  in  the  market  have  registered  a  reduction  by 

54 The series 'Total Average' also includes the energy consumption per vehicle of biofuel-fuelled vehicles. 
55 Refer to Odyssee database for details. 

101 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
10.07% (from 8.1 litres/100 km in 2000 to 7.3 litres/100 km in 2014) and 8.1% (from 
6.9 litres/100 km in 2000 to 6.4 litres/100 km in 2014) respectively. In the same period, 
the  new  cars  gasoline  and  diesel-fuelled  entering  into  the  market  have  also  registered 
reductions in their specific consumption values.  

To be noted that after 2007 the rate of decline in the consumption of new cars increased. 
These observed lowering trends in the average specific consumption values might be the 
result of the reaction of the automotive industry to the implementation of policies related 
to the CO2 emissions of light-duty vehicles. 

Figure 119: Average specific consumption per car engine technology in the EU-28, 
2000-2014  

)
m
k
0
0
1
/
s
e
r
t
i
l
(
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i
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r
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p
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g
r
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E

8.5

8

7.5

7

6.5

6

5.5

5

4.5

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Total Average

Total Average Test

Gasoline

Gasoline Test

Diesel

Diesel Test

Source: Odyssee 

In  March  2014,  the  European  Regulation  No  333/2014  amended  the  Regulation  No 
443/2009 which defined the emission performance  standards  for new passenger cars to 
reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles. 

The Regulation No 333/2014 sets a target of 95 g CO2/km for the average emissions of 
the  new  car  fleet  from  2020  onwards  as  measured  in  accordance  with  Regulation  No 
715/2007  (Euro  5  and  Euro  6  emission  standards)  and  the  annex  XII  to  Regulation  No 
692/2008. 

Figure  122 shows the  average  carbon dioxide emissions of new passenger cars for the 
period from 2000 to 2015. The average EU level of carbon dioxide emissions was 119.5 g 
CO2/km in 2015; it represents a drop by 30.6% in comparison with the year 2000. It is 
possible  to  observe  that  there  are  not  remarkable  differences  in  the  average  CO2 
emissions  of  petrol  and  diesel  fuelled  passenger  cars  in  the  recent  years  (from  2009 
onwards). Passenger cars fuelled by gasoline (petrol) registered an average level of CO2 
emissions of 122.5 g CO2/km in 2015; while passenger cars diesel-fuelled registered 1.3 

102 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
g CO2/km more (124.5 g CO2/km) in the same year. Those registers represent reductions 
of 29.8% and 23.1% for petrol and diesel-fuelled vehicles respectively. 

Figure 120: European average CO2 emissions per kilometre of new passenger cars (gCO2/km), 
2000-2015 

177.4 

180

172.2 

160.3 

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

122.5 

119.5 

119.2 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

All fuels

Petrol

Diesel

Source: EEA 

Across  the  EU-28  Member  States,  Estonia  (137.2  g  CO2/km),  Latvia  (137.1  g  CO2/km) 
and Bulgaria (130.3 g CO2/km) were the countries with the highest average emissions of 
the  new  car  fleet  in  2015.  In  contrast,  the  Netherlands  (101.2  g  CO2/km),  Portugal 
(105.7  g  CO2/km),  and  Denmark  (106.2  g  CO2/km)  registered  the  lowest  average 
emissions of new cars in the same year (see Figure 123). 

103 

 
 
Figure 121: Average CO2 emissions per kilometre of new passenger cars in the EU-28, 2015 
(gCO2/km)  

150

140

130

120

110

100

Source: EEA 

Across  the  EU-28  Member  States  in  2015,  the  countries  with  the  highest  percentage  of 
petrol  (gasoline)  fuelled  passenger  cars  were  the  United  Kingdom  (92.58%),  Cyprus 
(87.57%), and Finland (75.59%). The States with the  highest presence of diesel-fuelled 
passenger cars were France (69.75%), Luxembourg (65.28%), and Lithuania (62.99%). 
Poland  (16.01%),  Latvia  (8%),  Italy  (7.78%),  and  Sweden  (5.91%)  were  the  European 
countries  where  alternative-fuelled  engines56  have  reached  the  largest  shares  (see 
Figure 124). 

56 Types of motor energy other than the conventional fuels, petrol and diesel are considered. Alternative fuels 
include  electricity,  LPG,  natural  gas  (NGL  or  CNG),  alcohols,  mixtures  of  alcohols  with  other  fuels,  hydrogen, 
bio-fuels (such as biodiesel), etc. (this list is not exhaustive). Alternative fuels do not include unleaded petrol, 
reformulated petrol or city (low-sulphur) diesel. 

104 

 
 
                                           
Figure 122: Passenger cars by type of engine fuel, 2015 (% of all passenger cars)57  

UK

CY

FI

HU

MT

DE

SE

CZ

EE

RO

SI

PL

IE

HR

IT (2)

PT (2)

ES

AT

LV

BE

LT

LU

FR

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90% 100%

Petrol

Diesel

Alternative fuel

Source: Eurostat 

The age of the vehicles fleet is a matter of interest in order to better understand energy 
consumptions  and  emissions  in  the  near  future.  Looking  at the  energy  consumption  per 
vehicle, which follows a decreasing trend year by year, it is possible to see that the lower 
the age of the vehicles, the lower the energy consumption per vehicle. In 2015, the EU-
28 Member State with the newest fleet of passenger cars was Luxembourg with 33.34% 
of  its  passenger  cars  below  or  equal  2  years  old,  followed  by  Belgium  (20.91%)  and 
Ireland  (20.77%).  In  contrast,  the  oldest  fleet  of  passenger  cars  (older  than  10  years) 
were  registered  in  Lithuania  (79.03%),  Latvia  (72.86%)  and  Poland  (72.39%)  as 
illustrated in Figure 125. The highest share of passenger cars between 2 and 5 years old 
is  found  in  Luxembourg  (25.73%),  Belgium  (23.38),  and  Austria  (19.94%),  while  the 
highest  number  of  passenger  cars  between  5  and  10  years  was  registered  in  Ireland 
(37.21%), France (35.32%), and the United Kingdom (35.5%). 

Overall,  Luxembourg,  Ireland,  Belgium  and  Austria  have  the  newest  fleet  of  passenger 
cars  (these  MSs  have  the  lowest  share  of  above  10  years  old  passenger  cars).  Despite 
this positive fact that, as already mentioned, could lead to lower energy consumption in 
the  road  transport  in  the  short-term  or  mid-term  future,  there  are  multiple  factors  to 
consider  regarding  the  rest  of  characteristics  of  the  vehicles  which  could  instead  not 
cause  any  energy  savings.  Also,  this  scenario  could  completely  change  if  a  slow 
renovation rate of the fleet of vehicles would occur as the newer cars would age turning 
into old cars and the old cars would be replaced by new models in the countries with the 
oldest car fleet. 

57 (1) BG, DK, EL, NL and SK: Data not available; (2) 2014 data. 

105 

 
 
                                           
Figure 123: Passenger cars by age, 2015 (% of all passenger cars)58 

LU

BE

IE

AT

SE

UK

DE

FR

NL (3)

CZ

ES

SI

MT

FI

EE

HR

HU

PT (2)

PL

CY

LV

RO

LT

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Age ≤ 2 years 

2 years < Age ≤ 5 years 

5 years < Age ≤ 10 years 

Age>10 years

Source: Eurostat 

The Member State with the highest number of passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants was 
Luxembourg  (661  cars)  in  2015;  the  second  State  was  Malta  (634  cars)  and  the  third 
Italy  (610  cars).  In  contrast,  the  lowest  number  of  passenger  cars  per  thousand 
inhabitants  was  registered  in  Romania  (261  cars),  Hungary  (325  cars)  and  Latvia  (345 
cars) for the same year as illustrated in Figure 126. 

58 (1) BG, DK, EL, IT and SK: data not available; (2) 2014 data; (3) 2013 data. 

106 

Figure 124: Number of passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants, 201559 

661 

634 

610 

700

600

500

400

345 

325 

300

261 

200

100

0

RO HU LV HR SK BG
(2)

LT IE PT
(2)

UK NL
(3)

EL SE ES FR CZ BE EE SI AT PL DE CY FI

MT LU

IT
(2)

Source: Eurostat 

5.4  Passenger and freight transport 

Most of the energy used in the transport sector is for domestic transportation, which can 
be  divided  into  passenger  and  freight  transport.  Passenger  transport  accounted  for  the 
61.39%  of  the  domestic  transport  and  freight  transport  for  38.61%  in  2014.  Overall, 
domestic transport has remained stable between 2000 and 2014 (303 Mtoe). 

Figure 125: Final energy consumption by passenger and freight domestic transport in the EU-28, 
2000, 2007 and 2014 

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
n
i
F

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

186 

117 

2000

196 

136 

2007

186 

117 

2014

Freight transport

Passenger transport

Source: Odyssee 

59 (1) DK: data not available; (2) 2014 data; (3) 2013 data. 

107 

 
 
 
5.4.1  Passenger traffic 

The passenger transport volume has risen by 11.97% in the period from 2000 to 2015. 
In  2015,  the  value  registered  6,602  billion  pkm,  the  maximum  passenger  volume 
registered during the period 2000-2015. 

Figure 126: Passenger transport volume and modal split in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

Passenger cars

Powered 2-wheelers

Buses and Coaches

Railway

Tram and Metro

Air

Sea

)
m
k
p
(
m
k
r
e
g
n
e
s
s
a
p
n
o

i
l
l
i

B

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: EC DG-MOVE 

Distinguishing  by  conveyance,  passenger  cars  are  the  transportation  with  the  highest 
volume of passengers. Passenger cars registered 4,719 billion pkm (71.48% of the total) 
in 2015 which corresponds to an increase by 9.7% in comparison with 2000. Between the 
years 2000 and 2015 and regarding the rest of conveyances, air transport has increased 
by 41.09%, tram and metro by 27.5%, powered 2-wheelers by 20.19% and railways by 
18.82%.  In  contrast  the  volume  of  passengers  during  the  same  period  dropped  by 
24.14% and by 1.45% in sea transportation and buses and coaches. 

Analysing the inland passenger transport in the EU-28 Member States, it can be observed 
that  Portugal  was  the  European  country  with  the  highest  volume  of  passenger  cars 
(89.8%) in 2014, followed by Lithuania (88.2%) and the Netherlands (87%). In contrast, 
in the same year, Hungary (67.5%), Czech Republic (73.1%) and Belgium (76.8%) were 
the Member States with the lowest percentage of inland passenger transport. Seventeen 
Member  States  registered  a  passenger  cars'  percentage  in  2014  below  the  European 
average  (<83.4%).  The  relative  importance  of  motor  coaches,  buses  and  trolley  buses 
exceeded  one  fifth  of  inland  passenger  transport  only  in  Hungary  (22.6%).  This  share 
was  between  10.0%  and  20.0%  in  19  other  Member  States  while  the  lowest  share  for 
motor  coaches,  buses  and  trolley  buses  was  registered  in  the  Netherlands  (3.3%). 
Regarding  to  railways,  the  highest  share  of  train  transport  were  recorded  in  Austria 
(12.1%),  Denmark  (10.1%),  and  Hungary  (9.9%).  According  to  the  data,  Hungary 
seems  to  have  the  most  balanced  inland  passenger  transport  among  the  EU-28  MSs 
considering passenger cars, trains and motor coaches, buses and trolley buses in 2014. 

108 

 
 
 
 
Figure 127: Modal split of inland passenger transport in the EU-28, 201460 

)
m
k
-
r
e
g
n
e
s
s
a
p
d
n
a
l
n

i

l
a
t
o
t

f
o
%

(

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

T
P

T
L

L
N

I
S

K
U

E
D

I
F

R
F

R
H

E
S

U
L

S
E

T
M

Y
C

O
R

E
E

L
E

V
L

T
I

G
B

K
D

L
P

E
I

T
A

K
S

E
B

Z
C

U
H

8
2
U
E

Passenger cars

Motor coaches, buses and trolley buses

Train

Source: Eurostat 

In  2015,  Austria  registered  the  highest  passenger  volume  in  rail  transport  at  national 
level with the value 1,282 passenger-km per inhabitant. The second was Sweden (1,253) 
and the third France (1,209). In terms of international rail travel, only Luxembourg (206) 
and  France  (169)  reported  averages  of  more  than  100  passenger-kilometres  per 
inhabitant in 2015, as illustrated in Figure 130. 

Figure 128: Rail passenger transport (passenger-km per inhabitant) in the EU-28, 201561 

National, left hand axis

International, right hand axis

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

250

200

150

100

50

0

AT SE FR DK DE UK IT HU FI CZ SK ES LU PL IE PT SI LV RO HR BG EE EL LT

Source: Eurostat 

60 Note: Provisional data are included. The railway in Liechtenstein is owned and operated by the Austrian ÖBB 

and included in their statistics. 

61  Note:  data  not  applicable  for  CY  and  MT  and  not  available  for  BE  and  NL.    The  railway  in  Liechtenstein  is 
owned and operated by the Austrian ÖBB and included in their statistics. 

109 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
With  regard  to  air  passenger  transport,  Malta  was  the  Member  State  with  the  highest 
rate of passengers per inhabitant in the year 2015 with 10.8 passengers per inhabitant; 
the second was Cyprus (9). Eighteen countries registered higher values than the average 
European rate for 2015 which was 1.8 passengers per inhabitant (see Figure 131).  

Figure 129: Air passenger transport (passengers per inhabitant) in the EU-28, 201562  

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Source: Eurostat 

The  average  EU-28  number  of  passengers  per  inhabitant  in  2015  in  sea  transport  was 
equal  to  0.8  passengers  per  inhabitant.  Eight  Member  States  registered  higher  values 
than  the  European  average.  The  importance  of  maritime  passenger  transport  was 
particularly high in Malta (23.08), followed by Estonia (10.77), Denmark (7.36), Croatia 
(6.45), and Greece (6.05). 

Figure 130: Sea passenger transport (passengers per inhabitant) in the EU-28 Member States, 
201563  

25

20

15

10

5

0

Source: Eurostat 

62  Total  passengers  carried  (arrivals  and  departures  for  national  and  international);  aggregates  exclude  the 
double-counting  impact  of passengers flying  between  countries  belonging  to  the  same  aggregate. If both 
the  port  of  embarkation  and  disembarkation  report  data  to  Eurostat,  then  these  passengers  are  counted 
twice. 

63  Figures  refer  to  the  number  of  passengers  'handled  in  ports'  (the  sum  of  passengers  embarked  and  then 
disembarked  in  ports).  If both  the  port  of  embarkation  and  disembarkation  report  data  to  Eurostat,  then 
these passengers are counted twice. AT, CZ, HU, LU, and SK: not applicable. 

110 

 
 
 
                                           
5.4.2  Freight traffic 

Total inland freight transport in the EU-28, including also pipelines, was estimated to be 
3,516 billion tonne-kilometres (tkm) in 2015. In the period from 2008 to 2015, the total 
freight  traffic  has  declined  by  4.59%  (169  billion  tkm).  Road  is  the  mode  of  transport 
which  dropped  the  most  during  these  years  (by  6.62%).  Inland  waterways  and  air 
transport slightly increased over the considered period.  

Figure 131: Freight transport traffic (billion tkm) breakdown into conveyances in the EU-28, 2008-
201564  

)
m
k
t
(
m
k
e
n
n
o
t
n
o

i
l
l
i

B

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Road

Rail

Inland Water-ways

Sea

Air (million tonnes km)

Source: EC DG-MOVE 

Figure 132: Freight transport in the EU-28: modal split of inland transport modes (% of total 
tonne-kilometres), 2008-201565  

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

76.3 

77.5 

76.2 

75.6 

75.3 

75.5 

75.5 

75.8 

5.9 

17.9 

6 

16.6 

6.7 

17.1 

6.2 

6.7 

18.3 

18.1 

6.7 

17.8 

6.6 

18 

6.3 

17.9 

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Rail

Inland waterways

Road

Source: Eurostat 

64 Air and maritime cover only intra-EU transport (transport to/from countries of the EU) and exclude extra-EU 

transport. 

65 Note: EU aggregates contain estimated data for rail for 2012-2013 (BE, LU), inland waterways for 2008 (BG, 

RO) and exclude road freight transport for MT (negligible). 

111 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
Analysing  the  inland  transport  modes,  road  registered  75.8%  of  the  freight  traffic  in 
2015,  confirming  this  mode  of  transport  as  the  major  freight  transport.  Rail  was  the 
second  freight  transport  with  the  highest  presence  in  the  EU-28  freight  traffic  (17.9%). 
During the period from 2008 to 2015, the shares of the different inland transport modes 
have not experienced significant changes. 

Transportation  of  loads  between  25.6-30.5  tonnes  was  the  most  common  in  the 
European  road  conveyance  in  the  year  2015  (557,373  Mtkm).  Road  transport  with 
capacity between 9.6-15.5 tonnes has reduced the most (-18%) during the period 2010-
2015.  During  the  same  period  the  presence  of  freight  traffic  between  20.6-25.5  tonnes 
and above 30.5 tonnes has augmented (12.47% and 24.44% respectively). 

Figure 133: Evolution of EU-28 road transport by load capacity, 2010 and 2015 (million tonne-
kilometres) 

2010

2015

700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0

0 - 3.5
tonnes

3.6 - 9.5
tonnes

9.6 - 15.5
tonnes

15.6 - 20.5
tonnes

20.6 - 25.5
tonnes

25.6 - 30.5
tonnes

> 30.5
tonnes

Source: Eurostat 

The  total  road  transport  traffic  declined  by  0.5%  during  the  last  5  years,  from  1,756 
billion tkm in 2010 to 1,765 billion tkm in 2015. 

Regarding the fleet's age of the road goods transport, it is observed that over 50% of the 
vehicles fleet had 4 years or below in 2015 (Figure 136). In the same year, the vehicles 
of  age  below  2  years  were  the  majority  (19.28%).  There  is  a  decreasing  presence  of 
vehicles as the age of the vehicles rises. This trend is interrupted for vehicles of 7 years 
old;  vehicles  that  might  correspond  to  the  newest  ones  from  the  year  2010  which have 
experienced  a  gradual  aging.  In  comparison  to  the  year  2010,  the  share  of  good 
transport of age below 2 years has increased by 8.75%. Overall, the fleet of vehicles up 
to 3 years of age have remained nearly the same (44.04% in 2010 vs 43.53% in 2015). 
Nevertheless, a general gradual aging of the fleet has been registered as vehicles up to 5 
years old accounted for 67.13% in 2010, whereas in 2015 accounted for 58.93%. 

112 

 
 
 
Figure 134: Road goods transport in the EU-28 by age of vehicle, 2010 and 2015 (% of total 
tonne-kilometres) 

2010

2015

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

< 2
years

2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years 7 years 8 years 9 years 10 to 14

years

≥ 15 
years 

Source: Eurostat 

Analysing  the  age  in  road  goods  transport  across  the  EU-28  Member  States  (Figure 
137), it is found that the vehicles between 2 and 5 years were the majority in 2015. In 
2015, the average EU-28 shares of goods transport vehicles by age have been: less than 
2 years (17.89%); between 2 and 5 years (38.11%); between 6 and 9 years (26.61%); 
between  10  and  14  years  (12.7%)  and  15  years  and  over  (4.68%).  With  42.6%  of  its 
fleet with less than 2 years, Germany was the European country with the newest fleet of 
vehicles  dedicated  to  goods  transport;  it  has  more  than  doubled  the  European  average 
value  for  that  year.  Also  taking  into  consideration  all  goods  transport  vehicles  up  to  5 
years  old  Germany  was  the  State  with  the  newest  vehicles'  fleet  (79.95%  of  total 
vehicles);  closely  followed  by  Luxembourg  (73.58%),  France  (67.44%)  and  the  United 
Kingdom  (66.92%).  Ireland  registered  the  highest  share  of  vehicles  between  6  and  9 
years (47.09%), while Greece had the oldest fleet of goods transport vehicles with 63% 
of  the  vehicles  older  than  10  years.  Distinguishing  by  age  ranges,  Greece  was  also  the 
European  country  with  the  oldest  fleet  of  vehicles  dedicated  to  road  goods  transport  in 
the range between 10 and 14 years and in the range  of 15 and over years (33.5% and 
29.5% respectively).  

113 

 
 
 
Figure 135: Share of age categories in road goods transport, 2015 (% in vehicle-kilometres) 

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

EU28

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

HR

IT

CY

LV

LT

LU

HU

NL

AT

PL

PT

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Less than 2 years

Between 2 and 5 years

Between 6 and 9 years

Between 10 and 14 years

15 years and over

Source: Eurostat 

114 

 
 
Figure 136: Road freight transport by economic activity, 2015 (million tonne-kilometres) 

Source: Eurostat 

Sixteen  reporting  countries  have  supplied  data  about  the  economic  activity  of  the 
companies  undertaking  road  transport  (Figure  138). Transportation  and  storage  of 
goods was the main economic activity related  to freight traffic in the  EU-28 in 2015.  In 
the  State  with  the  least  share  this  activity  even  accounted  for  a  large  representative 
share. On average, the second main economic activity was wholesale and retail trade and 
repair  of  motor  vehicles  and  motorcycles,  followed  by  freight  transport  related  to 
manufacturing and, finally, from road freight transport related to construction. 

115 

 
 
 
5.5  Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions 

With  regard  to  the  greenhouse  gas  emissions,  it  is  of  relevance  to  follow  the  trend-line 
starting  from  1990  as  the  European  targets  (the  cut  of  40%  in  greenhouse  gas 
emissions)  are  set  according  to  the  levels  of  that  year.  Among  the  economic  sectors 
analysed  in  this  report,  the  transport  sector  is  the  major  contributor  to  carbon  dioxide 
emissions,  excluding  the  emissions  derived  from  fuel  combustions  which  mainly  take 
place in the energy sector. In 2015, the transport sector (including international aviation) 
was responsible of 23% of the CO2 equivalent emissions66. 

Figure 137: Greenhouse gas emissions by source sector in the EU-28, 2015 (percentage of total) 

Waste 
management 
3% 

2015 

Agriculture 
10% 

Fuel combustion 
and fugitive 
emissions from 
fuels (without 
transport) 
56% 

Industrial 
processes and 
product use 
8% 

Transport (incl. 
International 
aviation) 
23% 

Source: EEA 

The following figure shows the aggregated emissions generated by the transport sector in 
the last 11 years by sort of transport. The highest emissions’ share has been registered 
in  the  road  transport.  In  2015  the  road  transport  accounted  for  72.88%  of  total 
emissions  in  the  transport  sectors.  International  aviation  sector  registered  its  maximum 
value  in  2008  (142.6  Mtoe  of  CO2  equivalent),  and  international  bunkers-maritime 
transport  in  2007  (181.3  Mtoe  of  CO2  equivalent).  Other  transports  category,  which  is 
formed  by  domestic  aviation,  domestic  navigation,  rail,  non-specified  and  pipeline 
transport,  have  been  responsible  of  5-8%  of  the  emissions  per  year  in  the  transport 
sector along the period from 1990 to 2015. 

66  The  air  pollutants  are  quantified  in  CO2  equivalent  emissions,  a  metric  measure  used  to  compare  the 
emissions from  various greenhouse  gases on  the  basis of their global-warming  potential.  Pollutant  include  
carbon  dioxide  (CO2),  methane  (CH4),  nitrous  oxide  (N2O),  hydrofluorocarbons  (HFCs),  perfluorocarbons 
(PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). 

116 

 
 
                                           
Figure 138: Greenhouse gas emissions by sort of transport in the EU-28, 2005-2015  

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

.
v
q
e
2
O
C
s
e
n
n
o
t
n
o

i
l
l
i

M

0
2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Road transport

International aviation

International bunkers-Maritime Transport

Other sorts of transports

Source: EEA 

Overall, the greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector have followed the trend of 
the energy consumption in the sector as per its direct causation. From 2000 to 2015 the 
CO2 equivalent emissions have declined by 1.3% (12 MtCO2e). The maximum in the time 
series  took  place  in  2007  when  the  value  of  988  MtCO2e  was  reached,  year  which 
coincides with the maximum in the final energy consumption in the sector. From 2007 to 
2013, a total reduction by 10.53% has been registered. In 2013, the minimum value for 
the analysed period was recorded (884 MtCO2e), reaching the emissions’ levels of years 
1997-1998.  In  2014  and  2015  greenhouse  gas  emissions  started  to  increase  up  to  906 
MtCO2e in 2015. 

Figure 139: Greenhouse gas emissions in transport sector in the EU-28  

.
v
q
e
2
O
C
s
e
n
n
o
t
n
o

i
l
l
i

M

1,000

980

960

940

920

900

880

860

988 

971 

918 

937 

919 

906 

884 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: EEA 

117 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  following  table  provides  an  overview  of  the  values  of  greenhouse  gas  emissions  in 
the  transport  sector  and  its  main  subsectors,  together  with  the  growth  rates  in  two 
different periods, i.e. 1990-2015 and 2000-2015. 

Table 8: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the EU-28 transport sector  

Total 
Transport 

Road 
Transport 

International 
Aviation 

International 
maritime 

Other 
Transports 

1990  961.4 

723.3 

69.3 

110.3 

2015  1182.9 

862.1 

142.2 

134.8 

2014  1165.2 

848.4 

137.3 

136.4 

Greenhouse 
Gas 
Emissions 
(kilotonnes 
of 
CO2 
equivalent) 

2013  1158.8 

838.2 

135.2 

139.7 

2012  1172.6 

842.5 

134.0 

147.9 

2011  1216.4 

868.7 

136.6 

160.6 

2010  1222.3 

878.1 

132.3 

158.7 

2005  1263.3 

911.9 

131.7 

161.0 

2000  1168.6 

859.8 

115.9 

134.7 

58.5 

43.8 

43.1 

45.7 

48.2 

50.5 

53.2 

58.7 

58.2 

1990-
2015 

23.0 

2000-
2015 

1.3 

Growth 
Rates (%) 

Source: EEA 

19.2 

105.2 

22.2 

-25.1 

0.3 

22.7 

0.1 

-24.7 

118 

 
 
 
Figure 140: Greenhouse gas emissions growth rate in the transport sector (excluding international 
aviation and international maritime transport) in the EU-28 Member States; 1990-2015, 2000-
2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015

e
g
a
t
n
e
c
r
e
P

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

-20

-40

T
L

I
F

E
E

E
S

E
D

K
S

K
U

T
I

V
L

R
F

L
N

K
D

L
E

O
R

E
B

U
H

S
E

G
B

R
H

Y
C

T
P

T
A

I
S

T
M

U
L

L
P

E
I

Z
C

8
2
U
E

1990-2015

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: EEA 

Across the EU-28 Member States (Figure 142), the countries with the highest reduction 
rates  during  the  period  from  2000  to  2015  were  Portugal  (-15.5%),  Italy  (-14.6%), 
Germany (-12%), Greece (-9.3%) and Finland (-8.4%). In contrast, the Member States 
with  the  highest  increase  of  greenhouse  gas  emissions  during  the  same  period  were 
Bulgaria  (69.8%),  Poland  (67.7%),  Lithuania  (59.5%),  Romania  (58.7%)  and  Czech 
Republic  (48.7%).  Ten  Member  States  have  registered  higher  reduction  rates  of 
emissions  than  the  average  European  level  (<-1.3%)  for  that  period.  To  be  noted  that 
Germany  was  the  only  State  that  registered  a  reduction  of  CO2  emissions  in  the  period 
from 2000 to 2007. On the contrary from 2007 to 2015, only six countries registered an 
increase  in  the  emissions:  Bulgaria  (14.8%),  Romania  (14.6%),  Malta  (9.1%),  Poland 
(8.1%), Germany (4.3%), and Slovenia (2.5%). The reduction rates in the period 2007-
2015  might  indicate  the  consequences  of  the  impact  produced  by  the  financial  and 
economic  crisis  on  the  sector,  in  particular  on  freight  transport.  Regarding  the  growth 
rates of GHG emissions for the period 1990-2015 it is possible to observe that the EU-28 
GHG emissions increased by 15.9%. Lithuania (-12.4%), Finland (-8.2%), and Estonia (-
6.2%)  are  the  European  States  with  the  highest  reduction  rates.  The  MSs  with  the 
highest  increases  over  the  period  are  Czech  Republic  (143.7%),  Ireland  (130.3%),  and 
Poland (127.5%). 

Distinguishing  by  air  pollutants  and  transport  subsectors  (Figure  143),  road  transport 
was the main contributor to CO (89%), NMVOC (63.9%) and NOx (56.4%)  emissions in 
2015.  In  the  same  year,  international  shipping  was  the  main  responsible  for  SOx 
emissions (89.8%),  PM2.5 (42.2%) and PM10 (34.4%). Road transport would also be the 
main  polluter  of  PM10  and  PM2.5  if  road  transport  non-exhaust  emissions  (28.2%  and 
16.2%  respectively)  from  fuel  evaporation,  tyre  and  brake  wear  emissions,  were 

119 

 
 
 
 
accounted.  NOx  was  the  most  emitted  pollutant  in  railways,  domestic  shipping, 
international aviation, and domestic aviation, as illustrated in the following figure. 

Figure 141: Contribution of the transport sector to emissions of the main air pollutants in the EEA-
33, 2015 

Road transport exhaust

Road transport non-exhaust

Railways

Domestic shipping

International shipping

Domestic aviation

International aviation

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

CO

NMVOC

NOx

PM10

PM2.5

SOx

Source: EEA 

5.6  Overview – Transport sector 

The transport sector accounted for 33.09% of total final energy consumption in the year 
2015,  resulting  as  the  main  consuming  sector.  The  final  energy  consumption  in  the 
sector  has  increased  by  4.04%  at  an  European  level  between  2000  and  2015.  The 
increase in the final energy consumption has been the result of a reduction by 1.05% in 
the EU-15 area and an increase by 55.66% in NMS-13 area.  

The  maximum  consumption  during  this  period  (2000-2015)  was  registered  in  the  year 
2007  (383.5  Mtoe),  while  the  minimum  during  the  analysed  period  corresponds  to  the 
year 2000 (344.7 Mtoe). There is a reversing (from growing to falling) trend before and 
after the year 2007 as a consequence of the financial and economic crisis. 

In  2015,  the  final  energy  consumption  in  the  transport  sector  grew  by  1.72%  (up  to 
358.6 Mtoe; out of which 86.59% was consumed by EU-15). 

The  energy  intensity  in  the  transport  sector  has  decreased  by  13.7%  during  the  period 
from  2000  to  2015,  registering  the  value  of  0.0284  koe/€2005  in  2015.  The  lowering 
trend  along  the  whole  period  was  interrupted  in  2009  by  a  rise  of  1.3%  as  per  the 
consequence crisis in the GDP values. 

There  are  significant  differences  of  final  energy  consumption  in  the  transport  sector 
among  the  Member  States  as  fourteen  States  accumulated  less  than  10%  of  the  final 
energy  consumption  in  2015.  Germany  (63.2  Mtoe),  the  United  Kingdom  (51.8  Mtoe), 
France (50.1 Mtoe) and Italy (39.5 Mtoe) are the highest final energy consumers of the 
sectors; they accounted for more than 57% of the final energy consumption in the sector 
in 2015. 

Between  2000  and  2015,  Poland  (73.82%),  Lithuania  (73.37%)  and  Bulgaria  (69.05%) 
are the EU-28 MSs with the highest growth rates in the final energy consumption in the 

120 

 
 
 
transport  sector.  In  contrast,  Greece  (-9.87%),  Italy  (-7.01%)  and  Germany  (-5.39%) 
registered  the  lowest  growth  rates  over  the  period.  Ten  EU-28  countries  (i.e.  Greece, 
Italy,  Germany,  United  Kingdom,  France,  Portugal,  the  Netherlands,  Cyprus,  Spain,  and 
Denmark) registered consumption values below the European average (4.4%).  

In  the  period  2000-2007,  all  the  Member  States  with  the  exception  of  Germany  and 
Malta  registered  an  increase  in  their  final  energy  consumption.  The  average  European 
growth  rate  in  that  period  was  11.25%.  The  trends  were  significantly  different  in  the 
period  from  2007  to  2015  when  only  seven  Member  States  recorded  a  positive  growth 
rate.  The  period  2007-2015  reflects  the  energy  consumption  decline  produced  by  the 
financial  and  economic  crisis  (after  2007)  which  is  clearly  observed  in  the  overall 
European final energy consumption trend. 

The  final  energy  mix  in  the  transport  sector  in  mainly  provided  by  petroleum  products. 
Petroleum  products  represented  93.65%  (335,867  ktoe)  in  2015.  This  represents  a 
reduction in the share in comparison to 2000 (97.81%; 337,134 ktoe). 

Among  the  petroleum  products  stand  out  diesel  and  gasoline.  In  2015,  oil-diesel 
accounted  for  55.84%  (200,266.1  ktoe)  and  gasoline  for  21.60%  (77,449.4  ktoe).  The 
remaining  shares  were  completed  by  jet  fuel  (14.29%;  51,236  ktoe),  biofuels  (3.95%; 
14,157.9  ktoe),  LPG  (1.64%;  5,889.8  ktoe),  electricity  (1.5%;  5,367.6  ktoe),  gas 
(0.90%; 3,226.1 ktoe), and heavy fuel (0.29%; 1025.3 ktoe). Solid fuels represented a 
negligible share in the final energy mix (0.003%; 10.3 ktoe). 

A reduction of the gasoline share by 17.29% (56.6 Mtoe), together with an increases by 
11.0%  (47.1  Mtoe)  and  3.74%  (13.4  Mtoe)  in  the  shares  of  diesel  and  biofuels 
respectively  constituted  the  most  significant  changes  in  the  final  energy  mix  in 
comparison to year 2000 scenario. 

From  2000  to  2015,  the  petroleum  products  consumption  has  dropped  by  0.38%  (1.3 
Mtoe).  During  this  period  the  diesel  has  gradually  increased  its  presence;  diesel's 
consumption  has  increased  by  30.79%,  while  gasoline  has  declined  by  42.22%.  Heavy 
fuel has registered a significant fall by 33.82% (-523.9 ktoe) in the same period.  

Automotive diesel oil and gasoline prices increased from 2005 onwards. From mid-2008 
to  mid-2009  a  significant  drop  took  place.  Afterwards,  the  prices  continued  rising  until 
September-October 2012 where the maximum of the period 2000-2015 were registered 
(gasoline 95 Ron: 1.693 Euro/litre; automotive diesel oil: 1.536 Euro/litre). Since then, a 
progressive reduction in the prices has been taking as illustrated in Figure 104. Between 
4th quarter of 2014 and 1st quarter of 2015 a significant drop was registered. That drop in 
the consumer prices was linked to the sharp decline in the price of crude oil barrels. 

Analysing the renewable energies, it is noted that biofuels have highly developed during 
the  period  from  2000  to  2015.  Their  energy  consumption  rose  by  four  times  between 
2005  and  2010  (from  3,199  ktoe  to  13,140  ktoe),  mainly  due  to  biodiesels  and 
biogasoline  usage.  Since  2010  the  energy  consumption  of  biofuels  type  has  remained 
nearly constant. 

The analysis of transport subsectors can lead to a better understanding of how the final 
energy  is  consumed  in  the  transport  sector.  The  subsectors  studied  are:  road;  rail; 
international  aviation;  domestic  aviation;  domestic  navigation;  pipeline  transport;  and 
other transports. 

Road  transport  is  extensively  the  main  energy  consuming  subsector.  It  consumed 
81.98%  (294  Mtoe)  of  the  final  energy  share  in  2015.  In  the  same  year,  the  second 
consuming  subsector  was  international  aviation  (12.76%;  45.8  Mtoe),  followed  by  rail 
(1.73%;  6.2  Mtoe),  domestic  aviation  (1.54%;  5.5  Mtoe),  domestic  navigation  (1.27%; 
4.5  Mtoe),  pipeline  transport  (0.42%;  1.5  Mtoe)  and  other  non-specified  transport 
(0.30%; 1.1 Mtoe). The most remarkable change compared to year 2000 scenario is the 
energy consumption of pipeline transport that has increased by nearly times three (from 
534 ktoe to 1,501 ktoe).  

121 

 
During  this  period,  the  total  final  energy  consumption  in  the  sector  has  increased  by 
4.04%.  However,  this  increase  has  not  been  followed  by  all  the  subsectors.  Domestic 
navigation has been the sector where consumption declined the most (by 24.67%). Rail, 
domestic aviation and non-specified transport  have decreased their energy consumption 
by  23.04%,  12.86%,  and  21.19%  respectively.  In  contrast,  pipeline  transport, 
international  aviation,  and  road  transport  are  the  subsectors  which  have  registered  an 
increase in their consumption in comparison to the year 2000 by 182.22%, 18.66%, and 
3.60% respectively.  

In  2015  oil  (petroleum  products)  is  the  only  fuel  type  in  the  domestic  and  international 
aviation  and  it  is  the  main  contributor  in  domestic  navigation  (99.9%)  and  in  the  road 
transport  (94.46%).  In  2015,  electricity  represented  the  main  consuming  fuel  in  rail 
(66.47%)  and  other  transports  (67.65%).  Gas  was  the  major  fuel  type  used  in  pipeline 
transport (93.65%). With regard to renewable energies, biofuels occupied a share in road 
(4.8%), rail (0.43%), other transports (0.45%), and domestic navigation (0.10%). 

Focusing  on  road  transport,  the  final  energy  consumption  has  increased  by  3.6%  (10.2 
Mtoe) in the period from 2000 to 2015. NMS-13 areas have increased their final energy 
consumption by 62.1%, while EU-15 have registered a drop by 2.6%. 

In the transport sector, 14 Member States consumed less than 10% of the final energy of 
the  sector  in  2015.  Germany  (52.4  Mtoe),  France  (42.0  Mtoe),  United  kingdom  (38.2 
Mtoe)  and  Italy  (33.6  Mtoe)  accounted  for  more  than  56%  of  the  total  final  energy 
consumption in the road transport. 

The  energy  mix  in  the  road  transport  is  chiefly  associated  to  petroleum  products  (i.e. 
diesel,  gasoline,  LPG  and  gas).  In  2015,  diesel  was  the  most  consumed  fuel  type 
(66.29%), followed by gasoline (26.23%), biofuels (4.80%), LPG (1.94%), gas (0.60%) 
and  electricity,  which  accounted  for  a  residual  share  (0.14%)  of  the  final  energy 
consumption. Diesel is slightly substituting part of the gasoline oil. 

During this 16-year period (2000-2015), it is to be highlighted a shift from fossil fuels to 
renewable energy sources representing the pathway towards a more sustainable mode of 
road transport; biofuels have increased its share by 4.6%. 

In 2015, biodiesels were the major renewable fuel type with 80.1%. Biogasoline was the 
second  with  18.97%.  Biogas  started  to  account  in  the  final  energy  consumptions  after 
2008 and reached about 1% share of the renewable energy mix in 2015. 

Analysing the vehicle types within the road transport, cars outstand as the main energy 
consumers  in  the  road  transport.  There  have  not  been  remarkable  differences  between 
2000  and  2014.  In  2014,  cars  accounted  for  56.64%  (162.9  Mtoe)  of  the  road  final 
energy consumption, followed by trucks and light vehicles (38.21%; 109.9 Mtoe), buses 
(3.75%; 10.8 Mtoe) and two wheels vehicles (1.39%; 4 Mtoe). 

The  stock  of  vehicles  in  the  EU-28  was  mainly  composed  by  cars  (77.61%  in  2014).  In 
2014,  there  were  registered  243.2  millions  of  cars  in  Europe.  Trucks  and  light  vehicles 
have been the second vehicle type according to the stock size with over 36.4 millions of 
units,  followed  by  two  wheels  vehicles  (32.9  million  units)  and  buses  (851  thousand 
units).  All  the  vehicle  types  have  increased  their  stocks.  In  comparison  with  year  2000, 
the  total  stock  of  vehicles  has  increased  by  65.5  million  units,  representing  an increase 
by 26.4%. All the vehicle types have increased their stock. Trucks and light vehicles are 
the vehicle types which have experienced the highest stock growth, with an increase by 
33.5%  (9.1  million  units).  Two  wheels  vehicles  have  enlarged  in  a  similar  range  their 
stock (33.1%; 8.2 million units). Cars and buses have incremented their stock numbers 
by 24.7% and 2.1% respectively. 

Analysing the energy consumption per vehicle, buses have the higher consumption value. 
In  2014,  the  average  European  energy  consumption  per  bus  was  12.67  toe/veh.  In  the 
same  year trucks and light vehicles consumed  3.02 toe/veh, cars 0.67 toe/veh and two 
wheels  0.12  toe/veh.  In  comparison  to  year  2000  scenario,  cars'  energy  consumption 
decreased  by  20.2%,  two  wheels  by  14.3%  and  trucks  and  light  vehicles  by  22.8%.  In 

122 

 
contrast,  buses  have  registered  an  increase  by  20.3%.  This  last  finding  might  be  the 
result  of  the  increase  of  usage  of  buses  in  the  cities;  reporting  a  positive  effect  as  the 
number of cars on the road decreases. 

Cars  represented  77.61%  of  the  stock  of  vehicles  and  56.64%  of  the  final  road  energy 
consumption  in  2014.  In  2000,  the  average  energy  consumption  per  car  in  the  EU-28 
registered  the  value  of  0.84  toe  per  vehicle.  During  the  period  from  2000  to  2014,  a 
gradual  lowering  trend  has  been  observed  which  led  to  a  drop  by  20.2%  in  2014.  This 
drop  might  be  the  result  of  an  increase  in  the  energy  efficiency  performance  of  the 
vehicles  but  also  of  the  reduction  in  the  annual  distance  travelled  by  car  which  has 
decreased  by  1,065  km  along  the  15-years  period  (from  13,165  km  in  2000  to  12,100 
km in 2014).  

Diesel-fuelled vehicles are the vehicles type with the highest unitary energy consumption 
(0.82  toe/veh  in  2014).  The  reduction  in  total  average  energy  consumption  per  vehicle 
registered during the period 2000-2014 (-20.2%) is the result of a reduction by 33.3% in 
gasoline-fuelled cars, a reduction by 24.8% in diesel fuelled cars and a reduction by 43% 
in the LPG-fuelled cars. 

From 2000 to 2014 In the period from 2000 to 2014, gasoline and diesel cars already in 
the  market  have  registered  a  reduction  by  10.07%  (from  8.1  litres/100  km  in  2000  to 
7.3  litres/100  km  in  2014)  and  8.1%  (from  6.9  litres/100  km  in  2000  to  6.4  litres/100 
km  in  2014)  respectively.  In  the  same  period,  the  new  cars  gasoline  and  diesel-fuelled 
entering  into  the  market  have  also  registered  reductions  in  their  specific  consumption 
values.  

With  regard  to  the  EU  average  level  of  CO2  emissions  from  new  passenger  cars,  there 
has been registered a reduction by 30.6%% (from 172.2 g CO2/km to 119.5 g CO2/km) 
during  the  period  between  2000  and  2015.  Both  average  specific  fuel  consumption  and 
average  CO2  emissions  per  kilometre  have  declined  from  2007  onwards.  These  trends 
may be the result of the implementation of EU regulations in the automotive sector (i.e. 
Regulation  No  443/2009  and  Regulation  No  333/2014  on  CO2  emissions  of  new 
passenger cars). 

The  countries  with  the  highest  percentage  of  petrol  (gasoline)  fuelled  passenger  cars 
were  the  United  Kingdom  (92.58%),  Cyprus  (87.57%),  and  Finland  (75.59%).  The 
States with the highest presence of diesel-fuelled passenger cars were France (69.75%), 
Luxembourg  (65.28%),  and  Lithuania  (62.99%).  Poland  (16.01%),  Latvia  (8%),  Italy 
(7.78%),  and  Sweden  (5.91%)  were  the  European  countries  where  alternative-fuelled 
engines have reached the largest shares. 

A  lower  age  of  the  vehicles  fleet  can  help  reducing  the  energy  consumption  and  GHG 
emissions in the future as the energy consumption trends have decreased. In 2015, the 
highest  share  of  newest  passenger  cars  (below  or  equal  2  years)  were  found  in 
Luxembourg (33.34%), Belgium (20.91%) and Ireland (20.77%). In contrast, the  oldest 
fleet  of  passenger  cars  (older  than  10  years)  were  registered  in  Lithuania  (79.03%), 
Latvia  (72.86%)  and  Poland  (72.39%).  Luxembourg  was  the  Member  State  with  the 
highest number of passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants in 2015 (661 cars); the second 
State  was  Malta  (634  cars)  and  the  third,  Italy  (610  cars).  In  contrast,  the  lowest 
number  of  passenger  cars  per  thousand  inhabitants  was  registered  in  Romania  (261 
cars), Hungary (325 cars), and Latvia (345 cars). 

Domestic  transportation  which  can  be  differentiated  by  passenger  and  freight  transport 
was  the  major  final  energy  consumer  in  2014.  Passenger  transport  accounted  for  the 
61.39%  and  freight  transport  for  the  remainder  38.61%.  Overall,  the  scenario  of 
domestic transport has not largely changed compared to 2000 (constant consumption of 
303 Mtoe). 

The passenger transport volume has risen by 11.97% in the period from 2000 to 2015. 
In  2015,  the  value  registered  6,602  billion  pkm,  the  maximum  passenger  volume 
registered during the period 2000-2015. 

123 

 
Distinguishing  by  conveyance,  passenger  cars  are  the  transportation  with  the  highest 
volume of passengers. Passenger cars registered 4,719 billion pkm (71.48% of the total) 
in 2015 which corresponds to an increase of 9.7% in comparison with 2000. Between the 
years 2000 and 2015 and regarding the rest of conveyances, air transport has increased 
by 41.09%, tram and metro by 27.5%, powered 2-wheelers by 20.19% and railways by 
18.82%.  In  contrast  the  volume  of  passengers  during  the  same  period  dropped  by 
24.14% and by 1.45% in sea transportation and buses and coaches. 

In  2014,  Portugal  was  the  EU-28  Member  State  with  the  highest  volume  of  passenger 
cars  (89.8%),  followed  by  Lithuania  (88.2%),  and  the  Netherlands  (87%).  In  contrast, 
Hungary  (67.5%),  Czech  Republic  (73.1%)  and  Belgium  (76.8%)  were  the  Member 
States with the lowest percentage  of inland passenger transport. The  average  European 
passenger  cars  value  was  83.4%.  Hungary  was  the  only  State  where  motor  coaches, 
buses  and  trolley  buses  exceeded  one  fifth  of  inland  passenger  transport  (22.6%). 
Regarding  to  railways,  the  highest  share  of  trains  transport  were  recorded  in  Austria 
(12.1%),  Denmark  (10.1%),  and  Hungary  (9.9%).  According  to  the  data  reported, 
Hungary presented the most balanced inland passenger transport among the EU-28 MSs 
in 2014. 

In  2015,  Austria  registered  the  highest  passenger  volume  in  rail  transport  at  national 
level with the value 1,282 passenger-km per inhabitant. The second was Sweden (1,253) 
and the third France (1,209). In terms of international rail travel, only Luxembourg (206) 
and  France  (169)  reported  averages  of  more  than  100  passenger-kilometres  per 
inhabitant in 2015. 

In 2015, air passenger transport was especially representative in Malta and Cyprus which 
registered  10.8  and  9  passengers  per  inhabitant  respectively.  Eighteen  countries 
registered  higher  values  than  the  average  European  rate  for  2015  which  was  1.8 
passengers per inhabitant.  

In  the  same  year,  for  sea  transport  EU-28  registered  an  average  of  0.8  passengers  per 
inhabitant.  Eight  Member  States  registered  higher  values  than  the  European  average. 
The  importance  of  maritime  passenger  transport  was  particularly  high  in  Malta  (23.08), 
followed by Estonia (10.77), Denmark (7.36), Croatia (6.45), and Greece (6.05). 

Total inland freight transport in the EU-28, including also pipelines, was estimated to be 
3,516 billion tonne-kilometres (tkm) in 2015. In the period from 2008 to 2015, the total 
freight  traffic  has  declined  by  4.59%  (169  billion  tkm).  Road  is  the  mode  of  transport 
which  dropped  the  most  during  these  years  (by  6.62%).  Inland  waterways  and  air 
transport slightly increased over the considered period.  

Road registered 75.8% of the freight traffic in 2015, confirming this mode of transport as 
the  major  freight  transport.  Rail  was  the  second  freight  transport  with  the  highest 
presence in the EU-28 freight traffic (17.9%). During the period from 2008 to 2015, the 
shares of the different inland transport modes have not experienced significant changes. 

Transportation  of  loads  between  25.6-30.5  tonnes  was  the  most  common  in  the 
European  road  conveyance  in  the  year  2015  (557,373  Mtkm).  Road  transport  with 
capacity between 9.6-15.5 tonnes has reduced the most (-18%) during the period 2010-
2015.  During  the  same  period  the  presence  of  freight  traffic  between  20.6-25.5  tonnes 
and  above  30.5  tonnes  has  augmented  (12.47%  and  24.44%  respectively).  This  might 
indicate a gradual trend to transportation of larger loads in the road transport. 

As for the passenger cars, the fleet's age of the road goods transport is a factor affecting 
future energy consumption and emissions values. In 2015, over 50% of the vehicles fleet 
had  4  years  or  below  in  the  EU-28.  Vehicles  of  age  below  2  years  were  the  majority 
(19.28%).  In comparison to the  year 2010, the  share  of good transport  of age below 2 
years  has  increased  by  8.75%.  Overall,  the  fleet  of  vehicles  up  to  3  years  of  age  have 
remained nearly the same (44.04% in 2010 vs 43.53% in 2015). Nevertheless, a general 
gradual aging of the fleet has been registered as vehicles up to 5 years old accounted for 
67.13% in 2010, whereas accounted for 58.93% in 2015. 

124 

 
In 2015, Germany was the European country with the newest fleet of vehicles (less than 
2  years  and)  dedicated  to  goods  transport  (42.6%).  Also  taking  into  consideration  all 
goods  transport  vehicles  up  to  5  years  old  Germany  was  the  State  with  the  newest 
vehicles'  fleet  (79.95%  of  total  vehicles);  closely  followed  by  Luxembourg  (73.58%), 
France  (67.44%)  and  the  United  Kingdom  (66.92%)  In  the  same  year,  Greece  had  the 
oldest fleet of goods transport vehicles with 63% of the vehicles older than 10 years.  

Transportation  and  storage  of  goods  was  the  main  economic  activity  related  to  freight 
traffic  in  the  EU-28  in  2015.  On  average,  the  second  main  economic  activity  was 
wholesale  and  retail  trade  and  repair  of  motor  vehicles  and  motorcycles,  followed  by 
freight transport related to manufacturing and, finally, from road freight transport related 
to construction. 

The transport sector, including international aviation, was responsible of 23% of the CO2 
equivalent  emissions  in  2015.  From  2000  to  2015  the  CO2  equivalent  emissions  have 
declined by 1.3% (12 MtCO2e).  The maximum GHG emissions record took place in 2007 
(988 MtCO2e), year which coincides with the maximum in the final energy consumption in 
the  transport  sector.  From  2007  to  2013,  a  total  reduction  by  10.53%  has  been 
registered.  In  2014  and  2015  greenhouse  gas  emissions  started  to  increase  up  to  906 
MtCO2e in 2015. However, the EU-28 GHG emissions have increased by 23% if compared 
to  year  1990  (reference  year  for  European  GHG  emissions  targets).  Overall,  the 
greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector have followed the trend of the energy 
consumption in the sector as per its direct causation. 

Excluding international aviation and international maritime transport, from 2000 to 2015, 
the  Member  States  with  the  highest  reduction  emissions  rates  were  Portugal  (-15.5%), 
Italy (-14.6%), Germany (-12%), Greece (-9.3%) and Finland (-8.4%). In contrast, the 
Member  States  with  the  highest  increase  of  greenhouse  gas  emissions  during  the  same 
period  were  Bulgaria  (69.8%),  Poland  (67.7%),  Lithuania  (59.5%),  Romania  (58.7%) 
and Czech Republic (48.7%). 

To  be  noted  that  Germany  was  the  only  State  that  registered  a  reduction  of  CO2 
emissions in the period from 2000 to 2007. On the contrary from 2007 to 2015, only six 
countries  registered  an  increase  in  the  emissions:  Bulgaria  (14.8%),  Romania  (14.6%), 
Malta  (9.1%),  Poland  (8.1%),  Germany  (4.3%),  and  Slovenia  (2.5%).  The  reduction 
rates in the period 2007-2015 might be the consequences of the impact produced by the 
financial and economic crisis in the sectors such as freight transportation. 

From 1990 to 2015, the Member States with the highest reduction emissions rates have 
been  Lithuania  (-12.4%),  Finland  (-8.2%),  and  Estonia  (-6.2%)  while  the  highest 
increases  have  been  registered  in  Czech  Republic  (143.7%),  Ireland  (130.3%),  and 
Poland (127.5%). 

Distinguishing  by  air  pollutants  and  transport  subsectors,  road  transport  was  the  main 
contributor  to  CO  (89%),  NMVOC  (63.9%)  and  NOx  (56.4%)  emissions  in  2015.  In  the 
same  year,  international  shipping  was  the  main  responsible  for  SOx  emissions  (89.8%), 
PM2.5 (42.2%) and PM10 (34.4%). Road transport would also be the main polluter of PM10 
and PM2.5 if road transport non-exhaust emissions (28.2% and 16.2% respectively) from 
fuel  evaporation,  tyre  and  brake  wear  emissions,  were  accounted.  NOx  was  the  most 
emitted  pollutant  in  railways,  domestic  shipping,  international  aviation,  and  domestic 
aviation. 

125 

 
 
6  Energy Consumption and Energy Efficiency Trends in the 

Industry Sector 

This  chapter  covers  the  energy  consumption  and  the  energy  efficiency  trends  in  the 
industry sector, which includes construction, mining and manufacturing industries. 

6.1  Final  energy  consumption  and  energy  mix  of  the  industrial 

sector 

The industry sector accounted for 25.35% of the EU-28 total final energy consumption in 
the year 2015. This sets the industry sector at the second place after the transport sector 
(33.09%) in the ranking of the most  energy  consuming economy sectors.  Industry final 
energy consumption in the EU-28 has fallen by 17.6% in the period 2000-2015. A similar 
decrease has been observed both in EU-15 and NMS-13 areas which have reduced their 
consumptions  by  17.5%  and  18%  respectively.  In  2015,  industry  final  energy 
consumption  reached  274.7  Mtoe,  out  of  which  83.5%  (229.5  Mtoe)  was  generated  by 
EU-15 area. The maximum annual consumption of this period took place in the year 2003 
when it reached 335.6 Mtoe, while the minimum occurred in 2009 when the final energy 
consumption  decreased  to  267  Mtoe,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  142.  2009  is  the  year  with 
the lowest consumption not only during the analysed period but also considering the 26-
years  period  comprised  between  1990  and  2015.  This  has  probably  been  due  to  the 
impact of the financial and economic crisis [54]. 

Figure 142: Industry sector: final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

400

350

333.4 

300

278.3 

250

200

150

100

50

0

55.1 

274.7 

229.5 

45.2 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

126 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 143: Industry sector: final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (detailed)  

333.4 

335.6 

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

350

340

330

320

310

300

290

280

270

260

250

312.5 

287.0 

266.8 

274.7 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

A  decreasing  trend  in  the  final  energy  consumption  has  been  registered  during  the  last 
16-years period with the exception of year 2003 when a 2.3% rise occurred and the year 
2010 when the consumption rebounded  from the dramatic drop by 14.6% in year 2009 
(Figure 146). Since 2010, the decreasing trend has been continued reaching in 2014 the 
second  lowest  value  over  the  1990-2015  period.  In  2015  a  slight increase  (0.28%)  has 
been  registered  but  energy  consumption  in  industry  in  EU  is  expected  to  keep  a 
decreasing trend in the future due to the ongoing industry reallocation to countries where 
the cost of inputs is lower. This could lead to a permanently smaller manufacturing sector 
and to a larger services sector. 

Figure 144: Industry sector: final energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-
2015 

8%

4%

2.65% 

2.30% 

7.57% 

0.83% 

0.28% 

0%

-4%

-8%

-12%

-16%

-0.38% 

-1.23% 

-0.54% 

-1.70% -1.76% 

-3.85% 

-0.13% 

-1.32% -1.86% 

-1.31% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

-14.61% 

Source: Eurostat 

127 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
By  looking  at  the  final  energy  consumption  growth  rates  across  the  EU-28  Member 
States, it can be observed that only six MSs have registered a positive growth rate from 
2000  to  2015.  These  are:  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Austria,  Hungary,  Germany  and  Malta.  The 
highest growth rate has been observed in Latvia (36.75%), Lithuania (26%) and Austria 
(24.91%). Fourteen EU-28 MSs have consumption growth rates below the EU-28 average 
(-17.59%). The impact of the crisis on the industry manufacturing and production rates 
is  evident.    Only  four  Member  States  have  increased  their  consumption  in  the  period 
2007-2015. However, the existence of negative growth rates before 2007 indicates that 
there are probably other factors for the observed trends besides the economic crisis. The 
lowest  growth  rates  over  the  period  2000-2015  have  been  observed  in  Cyprus  (-
54.73%), followed by Italy (-34.51%) and United Kingdom (-33.03%). 

Figure 145: Industry sector: final energy consumption growth rates in the EU-28 Member States; 
2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

-10%

-20%

-30%

-40%

-50%

-60%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

In  2015,  the  Member  State  with  the  highest  consumption  in  the  industry  sector  was 
Germany (60.95 Mtoe), followed by France (28.64 Mtoe) and Italy (26.02 Mtoe). In 2000 
and 2007, German industry was already the first energy consumer, followed by Italy and 
France which swapped their ranking positions in 2015. 

Four Member States consumed more than 50% of the total final energy consumption in 
the  industry  sector  in  Europe.  These  are:  Germany,  France,  Italy  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  Half  of  the  EU-28  Member  States  (14  countries)  generated  less  than  10%  of 
EU-28 industry final energy consumption in 2015 (Figure 148). 

The European global energy consumption trend in the industry sector is therefore highly 
influenced by the consumption of a limited number of countries. 

128 

Figure 146: Final energy consumption in the industry sector in the EU-28 Member States, 2000, 
2007 and 2015 

2000

2007

2015

)
e
o
t
k
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
n
i
F

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

DE FR IT UK ES PL NL BE SE FI AT CZ RO PT SK HU EL BG IE DK SI HR LT LV LU EE CY MT

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 147: Share of EU-28 Member States final energy consumption in the industry sector 
(2015) 

10.01% 

8.09% 

9.52% 

8.93% 

12.36% 

51.08% 

Source: Eurostat 

DE, FR, IT, UK

ES, PL

NL, BE

SE, FI

AT, CZ, RO, PT

OTHERS

In 2015, gas and electricity were the main contributors to the energy mix in the industry 
sector with 86.6 Mtoe and 85.7 Mtoe respectively. These fuels represented over 60% of 
the  energy  mix;  gas  accounted  for  31.53%  and  electricity  for  31.18%  of  the  total 
consumption.  The  rest  of  the  energy  mix  was  constituted  by  solid  fuels  (12.70%), 
petroleum  products  (10.14%),  renewable  energies  (7.78%),  derived  heat  (5.51%)  and 
non-renewable waste (1.16%). 

While the ranking of the energy fuels contribution did not change compared to the year 
2000,  there  are  several  differences  to  be  noted.  The  usage  of  petroleum  products  has 
been reduced by 47.4% (above 25 Mtoe). Non-renewable waste, renewable energies and 
derived  heat  have  enlarged  their  contributions  in  absolute  value.  On  the  other  hand, 
petroleum  products,  electrical  energy,  gas  and  solid  fuels  have  reduced  the  absolute 

129 

 
 
 
 
value  of  their  contributions  as  illustrated  in  Figure  150.  Overall,  electricity,  renewable 
energy sources67, derived heat and waste have grown in percentage, whilst the share of 
solid fuels, gas and petroleum products has decreased. 

Figure 148: Industry sector: final energy mix, 2000 and 2015 

)
e
o
t
k
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
n
i
F

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

Waste (non-renewable)

Electrical energy

Renewable energies

Derived heat

Gas

Total petroleum

Solid fuels

2000

754.2

91,205.0

15,772.7

11,115.5

112,638.7

52,959.1

48,926.5

Source: Eurostat 

2015

3,174.7

85,671.8

21,380.0

15,131.9

86,634.3

27,847.7

34,896.9

67 Renewable  energy  sources  other  than  Hydro  power,  Wind  power,  Tide,  Wave  and  Ocean  and  Solar 
photovoltaic. These sources are accounted under the contribution generated by electricity consumption. 

130 

 
 
 
 
Figure 149: Industry sector: final energy mix by percentage, 2000 and 2015 

Solid fuels

2000 
Total petroleum

Gas

Derived heat

Renewable energies

Electrical energy

Waste (non-renewable)

0.23% 

27.36% 

14.68% 

15.89% 

4.73% 

3.33% 

33.79% 

2015 

Solid fuels

Total petroleum

Gas

Derived heat

Renewable energies

Electrical energy

Waste (non-renewable)

1.16% 

12.70% 

10.14% 

31.18% 

31.53% 

7.78% 

5.51% 

Source: Eurostat 

6.2  Electricity consumption trend in the industry sector 

The industry sector consumed 36.35% of the final electricity consumption of the EU-28 in 
2015,  this  confirming  industry  as  the  main  electricity  consumer  sector  in  Europe  (see 
Figure 23).  

131 

Figure 150: Industry sector: final electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015

1,060.7 

940.0 

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

)
h
W
T
(

y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

200

120.8 

0

996.4 

850.2 

146.2 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

The  final  industrial  electricity  consumption  in  the  EU-28  has  fallen  by  6.1%  in  the  16-
years  period  from  2000  to  2015.  This  decrease  has  been  caused  by  the  overall  trend 
registered  in  the  EU-15  area  (-9.6%).  In  contrast,  the  total  electricity  consumption  of 
NMS-13 area has increased by 21%. In 2015, the final electricity consumption amounted 
to  996.4  TWh,  out  of  which  85.3%  (850.2  TWh)  was  generated  in  EU-15  area.  The 
maximum  consumption  over  the  period  considered  took  place  in  the  year  2007  (1,141 
TWh)  which  set  the  maximum  also  for  the  26-years  period  from  1990  to  2015.  The 
minimum  value  in  the  period  2000-2015  occurred  in  2009  when  the  final  electricity 
dropped to 964.8 TWh. 

Figure 151: Industry sector: final industrial electricity consumption in the EU-28, 
2000-2015 (detailed)  

)
h
W
T
(

y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
c
i
r
t
c
e
l
E

1,200

1,150

1,100

1,141.0 

1,050

1,060.7 

1,034.9 

1,000

950

900

996.4 

964.8 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

132 

 
 
 
 
 
 
A  continuous  growth  in  the  industry  final  electricity  consumption  can  be  substantially 
observed until 2007 except for the minor reduction registered in the year 2006 (-0.17% 
in  comparison  to  the  previous  year).  During  years  2008  and  2009  the  industry  sector 
reduced  its  final  electricity  consumption  (and  its  total  final  energy  consumption)  mainly 
for  the  impact  of  the  financial  and  economic  crisis  on  the  sector's  activity.  The  two 
following years (2010 and 2011) reported an increase in the consumption in comparison 
to  the  previous  years  (by  6.5%  and  0.7%  respectively).  Since  2011  a  decreasing  trend 
has  been  registered,  although  the  negative  annual  growth  rate  was  smaller  year  after 
year and the annual electricity consumption registered a positive growth rate  in 2015 as 
shown in Figure 149. 

Figure 152: Industry sector: annual final electricity consumption growth rates, 
2000-2015 

8%

6.50% 

4%

3.08% 

2.85% 

1.28% 

0.63%  0.72% 

1.07% 

0.97% 

0.73% 

0.41% 

0%

-4%

-8%

-12%

-16%

-0.17% 

-2.04% 

-0.41% 

-1.43% 

-2.32% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

-13.69% 

133 

Figure 153: Industry sector: annual final electricity consumption growth rates (%) in the EU-28 ; 
2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 

75%

60%

45%

30%

15%

0%

-15%

-30%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

Analysing  the  growth  rates  in  the  final  electricity  consumption  in  the  EU-28  Member 
States, it can be observed that the countries with the highest growth rates in the period 
between  2000  and  2015  were  Hungary  (74.91%),  Lithuania  (44.42%)  and  Austria 
(31.64%).  In  the  same  period,  the  Member  States  with  the  lowest  growth  rates  were 
Italy  (-20.57%),  France  (-20.52%)  and  the  United  Kingdom  (-19.27%).  Only  nine 
Member States have registered a growth rate lower than the EU-28 average growth rate 
(-6.7%)  during  the  mentioned  16-years  period.  In  the  period  from  2000  to  2007,  only 
three states underwent a negative growth rate. In the period 2007-2015 the influence of 
the economic crisis has instead led most of the Member States (23 countries) to register 
a negative growth rate. The five Member States with a positive growth rate in that period 
were:  Hungary  (62.5%),  Ireland  (16.11%),  Poland  (9.11%),  Lithuania  (7.53%),  and 
Austria (4.58%). 

6.3  Gas consumption trend in the industry sector 

The  industry  sector  consumed  36.67%  of  the  final  gas  consumption  of  the  EU-28  in 
2015,  representing  the  second  gas  consumer  after  the  residential  sector  (41.24%),  see 
Figure 26.  

When focusing on the industrial sector energy mix, gas accounted for 31.53% of the total 
final energy consumption in 2015, confirming as the main final energy type consumed in 
the industry sector. 

Industry final gas consumption has fallen by 23.1% in the EU-28 during the period from 
2000  to  2015.  A  similar  decrease  has  been  registered  both  in  the  EU-15  and  NMS-13 
areas  which  have  declined  their  consumptions  by  23.4%  and  21.4%  respectively.  In 
2015,  the  final  total  gas  consumption  amounted  to  86.6  Mtoe,  out  of  which  84.3%  (73 
Mtoe)  was  generated  in  EU-15  area.  The  maximum  consumption  over  the  analysed 
period took place in the year 2003 (112.9 Mtoe). The minimum value in the period 2000-

134 

2015 occurred in 2009 when the final gas consumption dropped to 82 Mtoe as illustrated 
in Figure 156. Since 2009, the European Union has been registering the lowest values of 
industry final gas consumption for the 26-years period between 1990 and 2015. 

Figure 154: Industry sector: final gas consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

120

112.6 

100

95.3 

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

80

60

40

20

0

17.3 

86.6 

73.0 

13.6 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

EU-28

EU-15

NMS-13

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 155: Industry sector: final gas consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (detailed) 

)
e
o
t
M
(
y
g
r
e
n
E

115

110

105

100

95

90

85

80

112.6 

112.9 

90.0 

82.0 

87.8 

86.6 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Eurostat 

135 

 
 
 
 
It can be observed that an overall decreasing trend has been followed during the whole 
analysed period. Until 2009 the growth rates are constantly negative with the exception 
of  years  2003  and  2007  when  rises  by  less  than  1%  occurred  in  comparison  to  the 
previous  years.  In  2009  (when  the  minimum  value  over  the  period  1990-2015  was 
registered) a drop by 15.93% has been observed in comparison to year 2008. From 2010 
to  2015,  the  values  have  been  fluctuating  within  a  range  between  86.6-91  Mtoe.  In 
2015, there was a fall by 1.54% in comparison to year 2014. The gas consumption in this 
year represents the second lowest consumption value over the period 1990-2015. 

Figure 156: Industry sector: annual final gas consumption growth rates, 2000-2015 

14%

10%

6%

4.90% 

9.79% 

2%

-2%

-6%

-10%

-14%

-18%

0.06% 

0.93% 

0.59% 

3.11% 

0.42% 

-0.75% 

-2.77% -2.18%

-5.67% 

-4.33% 

-2.37% 

-1.54% 

-3.27% 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

-15.93% 

Source: Eurostat 

Figure 157: Industry sector: final gas consumption growth rates in the EU-28; 2000-2015, 2000-
2007 and 2007-2015 

85%

65%

45%

25%

5%

-15%

-35%

-55%

2000-2015

2000-2007

2007-2015

Source: Eurostat 

136 

From  2000  to  2015,  the  industry  final  gas  consumption  has  dropped  by  23.09%  in  the 
EU-28.  Eight  Member  States  have  registered  a  decrease  rate  below  the  average 
European decrease rate (23.09%). The Member States with the highest growth rates are 
Greece (76.95%), Ireland (62.91%) and Portugal (62.67%). On the other hand, the EU-
28  countries  with  the  lowest  growth  rates  are:  Italy  (-50.26%),  the  United  Kingdom  (-
48.36%), and Romania (-45.45). 

Across  the  EU-28  MSs,  decreasing  trends  have  been  registered  by  19  countries  in  the 
period 2007-2015. The countries with lowest growth rates over this period are: Latvia (-
57.28%), Estonia (-48.36%) and Croatia (-38.70%). 

6.4  Industry subsectors 

In  this  section,  the  final  energy  consumption in  the  industry  sector  is  broken-down  into 
different  industry  subsectors.  The  industry  subsectors  can  be  mainly  divided  into 
Construction,  Mining  and  Quarrying  and  Manufacturing.  Manufacturing,  in  turn,  can  be 
split  into  eleven  subsectors:  Iron  and  Steel;  Non-Ferrous  Metals;  Chemical  and 
petrochemical;  Non-Metallic  Minerals;  Food  and  Tobacco;  Textile  and  Leather;  Paper, 
Pulp  and  Print;  Transport  Equipment;  Machinery;  Wood  and  Wood  Products;  and  Other 
Industries68.  

The  industry  final  energy  consumption  per  subsector  is  reported  in  Figure  160  and 
Figure 161. 

Figure 158: Industry sector: final energy consumption by subsectors, 2000 and 2015 

350,000

300,000

)
e
o
t
k
(
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
C
y
g
r
e
n
E
l
a
n
i
F

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

6,603.6 

3,689.7 

27,846.8 

6,491.4 

19,594.6 

9,470.3 

35,196.2 

10,846.3 

30,877.1 

44,593.7 

59,467.1 

11,477.9 

67,217.0 

6,767.8 

3,368.6 

18,345.3 

7,925.8 

18,449.9 

8,080.6 

33,384.9 

4,469.2 

29,178.5 

33,844.5 

51,816.9 

9,352.7 

49,752.7 

Construction

Mining and Quarrying

Other industries (Rubber, Plastics)

Wood and Wood Products

Machinery

Transport Equipment

Paper, Pulp and Print

Textile and Leather

Food and Tobacco

Non-Metallic Minerals

Chemical and Petrochemical

Non-Ferrous Metals

Iron and Steel

2000

2015

Source: Eurostat 

68 Energy consumption data regarding industry subsectors are provided by Eurostat. 

137 

 
 
 
 
In  2015,  the  industry  subsector  with  the  highest  energy  consumption  was  the  Chemical 
and  Petrochemical  subsector  which  accounted  for  18.86%  (51,816.9  ktoe)  of  the  total 
final industrial energy consumption, followed by Iron and Steel (18.11%; 49,752.7 ktoe) 
and  Non-metallic  Minerals  (12.32%;  33,844.5  ktoe).  The  layout  is  completed  by  Paper, 
Pulp  and  Print  (12.15%;  33,384.9  ktoe),  Food  and  Tobacco  (10.62%;  29,178.5  ktoe), 
Machinery (6.72%; 18,449.9 ktoe), Other Industries such as rubber and plastics (6.68%; 
18,345.3  ktoe),  Non-Ferrous  Metals  (3.40%;  9,352.7  ktoe),  Transport  Equipment 
(2.94%;  8,080.6  ktoe),  Wood  and  Wood  Products  (2.88%;  7,925.8  ktoe),  Construction 
(2.46%;  6,767.8  ktoe),  Textile  and  Leather  (1.63%;  4,469.2  ktoe)  and  Mining  and 
Quarrying (1,23%; 3,368.6 ktoe). 

In 2000, the most energy consuming subsector was iron and steel (20.16%), followed by 
chemical  and  petrochemical  (17.84%).  The  rest  of  the  industry  subsectors  have  kept 
their  ranking  positions  with  regard  to  their  final  energy  consumption  with the  exception 
of  four  subsectors,  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  position,  which  have  swapped  their 
ranks.  In  2000  the  ranking  of  these  subsectors  was:  Textile  and  Leather,  Transport 
Equipment,  Construction,  and  Wood  and  Wood  Products.  In  2015  the  ranking  among 
these  same  four  subsectors  was:  Transport  Equipment,  Wood  and  Wood  Products, 
Construction, Textile and Leather.   

138 

Figure 159: Industry sector: final energy consumption percentage by subsectors, 2000 and 2015 

1.11%  1.98% 

8.35% 

20.16% 

1.95% 

5.88% 

2.84% 

10.56% 

9.26% 

13.38% 

3.25% 

2000 

Iron and Steel

Non-Ferrous Metals

Chemical and Petrochemical

Non-Metallic Minerals

17.84% 

3.44% 

Food and Tobacco

Textile and Leather

Paper, Pulp and Print

Transport Equipment

Machinery

Wood and Wood Products

Other industries (Rubber, Plastics)

Mining and Quarrying

Construction

2015 

Iron and Steel

6.68% 

2.88% 

1.23% 

2.46% 

18.11% 

Non-Ferrous Metals

Chemical and Petrochemical

Non-Metallic Minerals

2.94% 

6.72% 

12.15% 

3.40% 

Food and Tobacco

Textile and Leather

18.86% 

Paper, Pulp and Print

10.62% 

12.32% 

1.63% 

Transport Equipment

Machinery

Wood and Wood Products

Other industries (Rubber, Plastics)

Mining and Quarrying

Construction

Source: Eurostat 

Table  9  provides  an  overview  of  the  variations  in  the  final  energy  consumption  in  the 
different  energy  subsectors  between  years  2000  and  2015.  Absolute  values  of  the  final 
energy  consumption  and  associated  shares  are  presented  for  both  years.  Among  the 
three  main  industry  subsectors  (i.e.  Manufacturing,  Mining  and  Quarrying,  and 
Construction),  manufacturing  has  registered  the  highest  final  energy  consumption  drop 
(by 18.10%). The Mining and Quarrying subsector has also undergone a fall by 8.7% in 
the period 2000-2015. In contrast, construction has increased its demand of final energy 
by 2.49%. Among the manufacturing subsectors, the only positive growth rate is found in 
Wood  and  Wood  Products  (by  22.10%).  The  rest  of  the  manufacturing  subsectors  has 
registered negative growth rates. The lowest growth rates have been observed in Textile 
and Leather (-58.80%), Other Industries (-34.12%) and Iron and Steel (-25.98%). 

139 

Table 9: Growth rates and energy consumption shares in industry subsectors, 2000 and 2015 

Final Energy (ktoe) 

2000 

2015 

Growth 
Rate 
(%) 

2000-
2015 

Manufacturing 

323,078  264,601 

-18.10% 

Share in % 

2000 

2015 

96.91
% 

20.16
% 

96.31
% 

18.11
% 

Change 
of 
shares 

2000-
2015 

-0.60% 

-2.05% 

Iron and Steel 

Non-Ferrous 
Metals 

67,217.
0 

11,477.
9 

49,752.7 

-25.98% 

9,352.7 

-18.52% 

3.44% 

3.40% 

-0.04% 

Chemical 
Petrochemical 

and 

59,467.
1 

51,816.9 

-12.86% 

17.84
% 

18.86
% 

1.02% 

Non-Metallic 
Minerals 

44593.7  33,844.5 

-24.10% 

13.38
% 

12.32
% 

-1.06% 

Food and Tobacco 

30,877.
1 

29,178.5 

-5.50% 

9.26% 

10.62
% 

1.36% 

Textile 
Leather 

and 

10,846.
3 

4,469.2 

-58.80% 

3.25% 

1.63% 

-1.63% 

Paper,  Pulp  and 
Print 

35,196.
2 

33,384.9 

-5.15% 

10.56
% 

12.15
% 

1.59% 

Transport 
Equipment 

Machinery 

9,470.3 

8,080.6 

19,594.
6 

18,449.9 

-14.67% 

2.84% 

2.94% 

0.10% 

-5.84% 

5.88% 

6.72% 

0.84% 

Wood  and  Wood  
Products 

6,491.4 

7,925.8 

22.10% 

1.95% 

2.88% 

0.94% 

Other 
(Rubber, Plastics) 

industries 

27,846.
8 

18,345.3 

-34.12% 

8.35% 

6.68% 

-1.68% 

Mining 
Quarrying 

and 

3,689.7 

3,368.6 

-8.70% 

1.11% 

1.23% 

0.12% 

Construction 

6,603.6 

6,767.8 

2.49% 

1.98% 

2.46% 

0.48% 

Industry Total 

Source: Eurostat 

333,37
2 

274,737.4
0 

-17.59% 

140 

Figure  162  and  Figure  163  analyse  electricity  and  gas  consumptions  in  the  different 
industry  subsectors.  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  registered  the  highest  electricity 
consumption  in  2015  with  a  consumption  of  180.5  TWh  accounting  for  18.1%  of  the 
industry final electricity consumption. It was followed by Machinery (117.9 TWh; 11.8%), 
Paper,  Pulp  and  Print  (117.1  TWh;  11.8),  and  Food  and  Tobacco  (116.1  TWh;  11.7%). 
In  2000,  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  was  the  main  electricity  consumer  (199.9  TWh), 
followed by Paper, Pulp and Print (131.8 TWh), and Iron and Steel (130.4 TWh). 

In  2015,  the  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  manufacturing  subsector  was  the  main  gas 
consumer with 20.5% (17,762.7 ktoe) of the share over the total final gas consumption. 
Iron  and  Steel  was  the  second  gas  consuming  subsector  (18.01%;  15,606.1  ktoe) 
followed  by  Food  and  Tobacco  (15.94%;  13,610.9  ktoe),  and  Non-Metallic  Minerals 
(14.80%; 12,820 ktoe). 

Figure 160: Industry sector: share of electricity consumption by industry subsectors, 2000 and 
2015 

18.8% 

18.1% 

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

12.4% 

12.3% 

11.8%  11.8%  11.7% 

9.0% 

10.3% 

10.1% 

9.3% 

9.5% 

7.5% 

6.7% 

7.0% 

6.4% 

5.0% 

5.4% 

3.8% 

2.1% 

2.4% 

2.1% 

1.9% 

1.2% 

1.8% 

1.5% 

2000

2015

Source: Eurostat 

141 

Figure 161: Industry sector: share of gas consumption by industry subsectors, 2000 and 2015 

20.5% 

19.6% 

20.5% 

18.0%  15.9% 

15.3% 

12.1% 

14.8% 

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

8.7% 

7.1% 

8.1% 

7.5% 

2.5% 

4.7% 

4.6% 

3.1% 

3.6% 

3.2% 

2.8% 

2.5% 

0.8%  0.6% 

2.0% 

0.6% 

0.4% 

0.6% 

2000

2015

Source: Eurostat 

Table  10  provides  an  overview  of  the  changes  between  years  2000  and  2015  regarding 
the  final  electricity  and  gas  consumption  in  the  different  energy  subsectors.  Absolute 
values of final gas and electricity consumption are also presented for both years. 

Manufacturing,  among  the  three  main  subsectors,  is  the  one  which  has  registered  the 
lowest  electricity  consumption  growth  rate  (-7.06%)  and  the  lowest  gas  consumption 
growth  rate  (-24.03%)  over  the  period  2000-2015.  Among  the  manufacturing 
subsectors, Textile and Leather has registered the lowest growth rates for electricity and 
gas (-47.81% and -58.06% respectively). To be noted the increase by 82.90% in the gas 
consumption in the Construction subsector during the period 2000-2015. 

Table 10: Growth rates of final electricity and gas consumptions in industry subsectors, 2000 and 
2015 

Final Electricity (GWh) 

2000 

2015 

Growth 
Rate 
(%) 

2000-
2015 

Final Gas (ktoe) 

2000 

2015 

Manufacturing  1,032,149.7  959,238.9  -7.06%  111,079.1  84,391.2 

Iron and Steel 

130,373.5 

102,853.4 

-
21.11%  22,059.1 

15,606.1 

Growth 
Rate 
(%) 

2000-
2015 

-
24.03% 

-
29.25% 

Non-Ferrous 
Metals 

73,814.4 

64,059.2 

-
13.22%  2,827.4 

3,087.6 

9.20% 

Chemical 
Petrochemical 

and  

199,880.2 

180,508.1 

-9.69% 

23,106.0 

17,762.7 

-
23.13% 

142 

Non-Metallic 
Minerals 

(Cement, Glass) 

Food 
Tobacco 

Textile 
Leather 

and 

and 

Paper,  Pulp  and 
Print 

Transport 
Equipment 

79,808.5 

67,186.5 

-
15.82% 

17,288.8 

12,820.0 

99,119.0 

116,082.5 

17.11% 

13,610.9 

13,810.3 

40,157.2 

20,958.4 

-
47.81%  5,125.5 

2,149.8 

131,759.8 

117,122.2 

-
11.11%  9,776.2 

7,003.3 

52,552.5 

53,730.6 

2.24% 

3,479.0 

2,407.1 

Machinery 

95,007.8 

117,917.7 

24.11% 

7,999.3 

6,467.2 

Wood and Wood 
Products 

Other Industries 

(Rubber, 
Plastics) 

22,397.1 

23,674.0 

5.70% 

477.2 

493.5 

107,279.8 

95,146.2 

-
11.31% 

5,329.7 

2,783.6 

Mining 
Quarrying 

and 

15,777.3 

18,168.4 

15.16% 

634.8 

551.4 

-
25.85% 

1.47% 

-
58.06% 

-
28.36% 

-
30.81% 

-
19.15% 

3.42% 

-
47.77% 

-
13.14% 

Construction 

12,787.2 

18,956.9 

48.25%  924.9 

1,691.6 

82.90% 

Industry Total 

1,060,714.
2 

996,364.
2 

-
6.07% 

112,638.
8 

86,634.
2 

-
23.09
% 

Source: Eurostat 

An interesting indicator used as benchmark for the analysis of the energy efficiency levels 
in the manufacturing industry is the average energy consumption per unit of production. 
This ratio is shown for three main industrial products in EU-28: steel, cement and paper. 
Overall,  this  parameter  shows  stable  values  over  the  period  2000-2014.  In  2014,  the 
amount  of  energy  consumed  in  order  to  produce  a  ton  of  paper  was  0.3446  toe/t, 
representing  a  drop  by  11.66%  in  comparison  to  year  2000.  Among  the  three  analysed 
products  paper  showed  the  highest  ratio  over  the  whole  period,  as  illustrated  in  Figure 
164.  In  2014,  the  production  of  one  tonne  of  crude  steel  consumed  0.2830  toe/t  on 
average in EU-28. Crude steel is the product which has reduced its energy consumption 
per unit of production the most (by -18.28%). Cement has instead increased its ratio of 
energy consumed per unit of production by 3.23% during the analysed period, reaching 
0.081 toe/t in 2014. 

143 

Figure 164: Average energy consumption per tonne of produced crude steel, cement and paper in 
EU-28, 2000-2014  

t
i
n
u
r
e
p
n
o

i
t
p
m
u
s
n
o
c
y
g
r
e
n
E

)
t
/
e
o
t
(
n
o

i
t
c
u
d
o
r
p
f
o

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Crude Steel

Cement

Paper

Source: Odyssee 

Industrial  Production  Indexes69  (IPIs)  allow  measuring  changes in the industry's  output, 
as  shown  in  Figure  165.  This  figure  shows  the  value  of  this  economic  indicator  for  the 
different  analysed  manufacturing  subsectors.  It  is  observed  that  the  most  notable 
variations in the IPIs occurred after the financial crisis. All the manufacturing subsectors 
experienced a significant drop in their productions in 2009. Noticeably, the IPI of Textile 
and  Leather  has  been  continuously  decreasing  since  2000  and  has  accumulated  a  50% 
drop till 2015. The most stable manufacturing subsector is Food and Tobacco. 

Figure 162: Industrial Production Indices of Manufacturing Industries (2005=100%), 2000-2015 

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Chemical and Petrochemical

Iron and steel

Wood and Wood Products

Non-Metallic Minerals

Food and Tobacco

Textile and Leather

Paper, Pulp and Print

Transport Equipment

Machinery

Other industries

Source: Odyssee 

69  The industrial  production  index (abbreviated  IPI  and  sometimes  also  called  industrial  output  index  or 
industrial  volume  index)  is  a business  cycle  indicator  which  measures  monthly  changes  in  the  price-
adjusted output of industry.  

144 

 
 
 
                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 163: Added value70 per industrial subsector in the EU-28, 2000-201571 

3,000,000

2,500,000

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

5
0
0
2
€
M

500,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry (total)

Manufacturing Industries

Mining and Quarrying

Construction

Source: Odyssee 

Figure 164: Added value per manufacturing subsector in the EU-28, 2000-2015 

700,000

600,000

500,000

5
0
0
2
€
M

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Iron and steel

Chemical and Petrochemical

Non-Metallic Minerals

Food and Tobacco

Textile and Leather

Paper, Pulp and Print

Transport Equipment

Machinery

Wood and Wood Products

Other industries

Source: Odyssee 

The  industry  sector  added  value  to  GDP  has  risen  by  10.2%  in  the  period  2000-2015. 
Among the industry subsectors, Manufacturing and Mining and Quarrying industries have 
increased their added value by 19.81% and 13.67% respectively, while Construction has 
decreased  its  contribution  by  6.32%  in  the  previously  mentioned  time  period.  Within 

70 The contribution of industry sector or industry subsector to overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP). 
71 Total industry includes also energy industries. 

145 

 
 
 
 
 
                                           
 
 
manufacturing  industries  the  highest  growth  rates  in  the  value  added  are  found  in 
Transport  Equipment  (51.82%),  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  (34.76%),  and  Machinery 
(26.8%).  On the other  hand, the manufacturing industries with the lowest growth rates 
are  Textile and Leather (-29.86%) and Wood  and Wood Products (-11.81%). Machinery 
subsector  is  the  largest  contributor  to  the  GDP  added  value  among  the  manufacturing 
industries,  its  contribution  (592,044  M€)  is  more  than  double  than  the  second  ranked 
industry subsector (Transport Equipment) which contributes with 262,976 M€. 

Table  11  provides  an  overview  of  the  industrial  production  indices  and  value  added  to 
GDP for the different industry subsectors for years 2000 and 2015. 

Table 11: Industrial Production Indices and Value Added to GDP for Industry Subsectors, 2000 and 
2015  

Industrial 
Production 
Index 

Change of  Value Added to GDP  

Change 
of  

(2005=100%) 

2000 

2015 

Productio
n Index 

2000-
2015 

2000 

2015 

(M€2005) 

shares 

2000-
2015 

18.42
% 

Manufacturing  96.287  99.433  3.27% 

1,575,608  1,865,856 

Iron and Steel 

97.785  87.919 

-10.09% 

72247.3 

77034.7 

6.63% 

Chemical and  

Petrochemical 

Non-Metallic 
Minerals 

      (Cement, 
Glass) 

86.793 

108.62
6 

25.16% 

175,506 

236,505 

34.76
% 

99.642  74.637 

-25.09% 

70,949 

65,447 

-7.75% 

Food 
Tobacco 

and 

94.659 

102.92
5 

8.73% 

211339 

227246.616
1 

7.53% 

Textile 
Leather 

and 

140.37
8 

71.299 

-49.21% 

82831.3 

58099.2622 

-
29.86
% 

Paper,  Pulp  and 
Print 

97.288  89.783 

-7.71% 

90836.7 

87608.3802 

-3.55% 

Transport 
Equipment 

92.462 

Machinery 

97.83 

108.42
1 

100.48
2 

17.26% 

173218.7 

2.71% 

466923.9 

262976.085
1 

51.82
% 

592044.012
6 

26.80
% 

146 

 
 
 
 
 
Industrial 
Production 
Index 

Change of  Value Added to GDP  

Change 
of  

(2005=100%) 

2000 

2015 

Productio
n Index 

2000-
2015 

2000 

2015 

(M€2005) 

shares 

2000-
2015 

-
11.81
% 

15.95
% 

13.67
% 

Wood and Wood  

Products 

Other industries 

      (Rubber, 
Plastics) 

Mining 
Quarrying 

and 

98.274  81.453 

-17.12% 

35,375 

31,196 

98.524  96.567 

-1.99% 

196,381 

227,699 

96.287  99.433  3.27% 

83697.7 

95138.3 

Construction 

93.346  83.533 

-10.51% 

598566 

560708.1 

-6.32% 

Industry Total  95.244  94.763  -0.51% 

2,257,87
1 

2,521,702 

11.68
% 

Source: Odyssee 

Table  11  shows  that  the  Textile  and  Leather  manufacturing  subsector  is  the  subsector 
with the highest decrease in the industrial production index (-49.21%). This is probably 
mostly  due  to  the  European  textiles  and  clothing  industry  location  decisions  concerning 
where  to  set  the  production  in  the  last  years.  A  high  degree  of  outsourcing  and 
competition  from  low-wage  environments,  as  well  as  high  proportion  of  entry-level  jobs 
for  unskilled  personnel,  ease  of  transport  and  relatively  low  investment  costs  are 
probably  the  main  factors  that  have  influenced  these  decisions.  Near-shore  outsourcing 
to  countries  in  the  European  Union  and  offshore  outsourcing  to  non-EU  countries  are  a 
well-known  phenomenon  particularly  in  the  textiles  and  clothing  industry.  Overall,  the 
European  textiles  and  clothing  companies  respond  to  pressures  for  change  by  pursuing 
the following two business strategies [9]: 

●  Relocation of production and activities to low-cost countries; 

●  Development of added-value activities in the higher end of the value chain. 

147 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 165: Energy intensity per industry subsector in the EU-28 (GDP at purchasing power 
parities), 2000-2015  

p
5
0
0
2
€
/
e
o
k

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry (total)

Iron and steel

Manifacturing Industries

Chemical and Petrochemical

Non-Metallic Minerals

Food and Tobacco

Textile and Leather

Paper Industry

Transport Equipment

Machinery

Source: Odyssee 

Figure 166: Energy intensity per industry subsector in the EU-28 (GDP at purchasing power 
parities), 2000-2015 (expanded) 

p
5
0
0
2
€
/
e
o
k

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Industry (total)

Manifacturing Industries

Food and Tobacco

Textile and Leather

Transport Equipment

Machinery

Source: Odyssee 

148 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Energy  Intensity  of  the  industry  sector  was  0.0962  koe/€2005  in  2015,  representing  a 
drop by 26.11% in the period 2000-2015. The overall trend is a decreasing trend for all 
the industry subsectors during the mentioned period.  It  can be  observed that Transport 
Equipment  and  Textile  and  Leather  are  the  subsectors  where  the  biggest  changes  have 
taken  place  as  they  have  reduced  their  energy  intensity  by  43.88%  (from  0.0547 
koe/€2005 in 2000 to 0.0307 koe/€2005 in 2015) and 41.25% (from 0.1309 koe/€2005 
in 2000 to 0.0769 koe/€2005 in 2015) respectively. 

6.5  Overview – Industry sector 

The industry sector accounted for 25.35% of the EU-28 total final energy consumption in 
the year 2015. It was the second energy consuming sector after transport (33.09%). 

In  2015,  industry  final  energy  consumption  reached  274.7  Mtoe,  out  of  which  83.5% 
(229.5 Mtoe) was generated by EU-15. Industry's final energy consumption in the EU-28 
has fallen by 17.6% in the period 2000-2015. A similar decrease has been observed both 
in EU-15 and NMS-13 areas which have reduced their consumptions by 17.5% and 18% 
respectively.  The  maximum  annual  consumption  of  this  period  took  place  in  the  year 
2003  when  it  reached  335.6  Mtoe,  while  the  minimum  occurred  in  2009  when  the  final 
energy  consumption  decreased  to  267  Mtoe.  2009  is  the  year  with  the  lowest 
consumption over the period 1990-2015.  

The  highest  growth  rates  have  been  observed  in  Latvia  (36.75%),  Lithuania  (26%)  and 
Austria  (24.91%).  The  lowest  growth  rates  over  the  period  2000-2015  have  been 
observed  in  Cyprus  (-54.73%),  followed  by  Italy  (-34.51%),  and  United  Kingdom  (-
33.03%). 

In  2015,  the  Member  State  with  the  highest  consumption  in  the  industry  sector  was 
Germany (60.95 Mtoe), followed by France (28.64 Mtoe) and Italy (26.02 Mtoe).  These 
three States together with the United Kingdom accounted for more than 50% of the total 
European  final  energy  consumption  in  the  sector.  Half  of  the  EU-28  Member  States  (14 
countries)  consumed  less  than  10%  of  the  EU-28  industry  final  energy  consumption  in 
the same year. 

Concerning the energy mix in industry sector, gas (86.6 Mtoe) and electricity (85.7 Mtoe) 
were  the  main  energy  types  consumed  in  2015.  These  two  fuel  types  represented 
together  over  60%  of  the  total  final  energy  consumption  in  the  EU-28  (gas:  31.53%; 
electricity: 31.18%). The energy mix in the same year was also composed by solid fuels 
(12.70%),  petroleum  products  (10.14%),  renewable  energies  (7.78%),  derived  heat 
(5.51%)  and  non-renewable  waste  (1.16%).  Compared  to  year  2000,  the  usage  of 
petroleum products has registered the highest reduction (by 47.4% - more than 25 Mtoe 
from  2000  to  2015).  Non-renewable  waste,  renewable  energies  and  derived  heat  have 
enlarged  their  contributions  in  absolute  value.  On  the  other  hand,  petroleum  products, 
electrical  energy,  gas  and  solid  fuels  have  reduced  the  absolute  value  of  their 
contributions 

Industry  sector  consumed  36.86%  of  the  final  electricity  consumption  of  the  EU-28  in 
2015, confirming that this sector is the main electricity consumer. 

The industry electricity consumption has fallen by 6.1% in the EU-28 from 2000 to 2015. 
This decrease has been mostly caused by the EU-15 area (-9.6%), whereas NMS-13 area 
has  increased  its  electricity  demand  by  21%.  Since  2011  a  decreasing  trend  has  been 
registered  every  year,  although  the  negative  growth  rate  has  been  smoother  year  after 
year,  until  2015  when  the  electricity  consumption  has  increased  compared  to  the 
previous  year.  The  highest  electricity  consumption  growth  rates  over  the  period  2000-
2015  have  been  experienced  by  Hungary  (74.91%),  Lithuania  (44.42%)  and  Austria 
(31.64%). The Member States with the lowest growth rates were Italy (-20.57%), France 
(-20.52%)  and  the  United  Kingdom  (-19.27%).  Twenty-three  Member  States  have 
registered  a  negative  growth  rate  over  the  period  2007-2015.  The  only  states  with  a 

149 

 
positive  growth  rate  in  that  period  were:  Hungary  (62.5%),  Ireland  (16.11%),  Poland 
(9.11%), Lithuania (7.53%), and Austria (4.58%). 

The  industry  sector  consumed  36.67%  of  the  final  gas  consumption  of  the  EU-28  in 
2015, ranking as the second gas consuming sector after the residential sector (41.24%). 

EU-28  gas  consumption  in  industry  has  fallen  by  23.1%  in  the  period  2000-2015.  This 
decrease  has  been  registered  in  both  EU-15  and  NMS-13  areas  which  have  decreased 
their consumptions by 23.4% and 21.4% respectively. 

In 2015, the final total gas consumption amounted to 86.6 Mtoe, out of which 84.3% (73 
Mtoe)  was  generated  in  EU-15  area.  The  maximum  consumption  over  the  analysed 
period took place in the year 2003 (112.9 Mtoe). The minimum value in the period 2000-
2015 occurred in 2009 when the final gas consumption dropped to 82 Mtoe. Since 2009, 
the  European  Union  has  been  registering  the  lowest  values  of  industry  final  gas 
consumption for the 26-years period between 1990 and 2015. 

  Eight  Member  States  have  registered  a  decrease  rate  below  the  average  European 
decrease rate (23.09%) over the period 2000-2015. The Member States with the highest 
growth  rates  are  Greece  (76.95%),  Ireland  (62.91%)  and  Portugal  (62.67%).  On  the 
other  hand,  the  EU-28  countries  with  the lowest  growth  rates  are:  Italy  (-50.26%),  the 
United Kingdom (-48.36%), and Romania (-45.45). 

The  industry  sector  can  be  broken-down  into  subsectors  for  a  deeper  analysis. 
Construction,  Mining  and  Quarrying,  and  Manufacturing  industries  are  the  main 
subsectors. 

Manufacturing, in turn, can be split into eleven subsectors: Iron and Steel; Non-Ferrous 
Metals;  Chemical  and  petrochemical;  Non-Metallic  Minerals;  Food  and  Tobacco;  Textile 
and  Leather;  Paper,  Pulp  and  Print;  Transport  Equipment;  Machinery;  Wood  and  Wood 
Products; and Other Industries.  

Manufacturing has registered the highest final energy consumption drop (-18.10%) over 
the  period  2000-2015.  Mining  and  Quarrying  subsector  has  also  undergone  a  fall  by 
8.70%.  An  opposite  trend  has  been  registered  in  the  Construction  subsector  which  has 
increased its demand of final energy by 2.49%.  

Among the Manufacturing subsectors, the highest final energy consumption in 2015 has 
been  registered  in  the  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  subsector  which  accounted  for 
18.86% (51,816.9 ktoe) of the total final industrial energy consumption, followed by Iron 
and Steel (18.11%; 49,752.7 ktoe) and Non-metallic Minerals (12.32%; 33,844.5 ktoe).  

Among the manufacturing subsectors, the only positive growth rate is found in Wood and 
Wood  Products  (by  22.10%).  The  rest  of  the  manufacturing  subsectors  has  registered 
negative  growth  rates.  The  lowest  growth  rates  have  been  observed  in  Textile  and 
Leather (-58.80%), Other Industries (-34.12%) and Iron and Steel (-25.98%). 

In 2015, chemical and petrochemical manufacturing industry was the industry subsector 
with  the  highest  electricity  (180.5  TWh;  18.12%  on 
final  electricity 
consumption) and gas consumptions (17,762.7 ktoe; 20.5%).  

industry 

The  manufacturing  subsectors  which  follow  in  the  electricity  consumption  ranking  are 
Machinery  (117.9  TWh;  11.83%),  Paper,  Pulp  and  Print  (117.1  TWh;  11.75),  and  Food 
and Tobacco (116.1 TWh; 11.65%). In 2000, Chemical and Petrochemical was the main 
electricity  consumer  (199.9  TWh),  followed  by  Paper,  Pulp  and  Print  (131.8  TWh),  and 
Iron and Steel (130.4 TWh). 

In  the  case  of  gas  consumption,  the  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  manufacturing 
subsector  is  followed  by  Iron  and  Steel  (18.01%;  15,606.1  ktoe),  by  Food  and  Tobacco 
(15.94%; 13,610.9 ktoe) and by Non-Metallic Minerals (14.80%; 12,820 ktoe). 

When  analysing  the  Industrial  Production  Indexes  (IPIs)  of  the  different  manufacturing 
industries  for  the  period  from  2000  to  2015,  it  can  be  observed  that  the  most  notable 
variations in the IPIs occurred after the financial crisis. All the manufacturing subsectors 

150 

 
experienced a significant drop in their productions in 2009.  Noticeably, the IPI of Textile 
and  Leather  has  been  continuously  decreasing  since  2000  and  has  accumulated  a  50% 
drop  till  2015.  The  most  stable  manufacturing  subsector  is  Food  and  Tobacco  which 
keeps IPI's variations within a 10% range. 

The  industry  sector  added  value  to  GDP  has  risen  by  10.2%  in  the  period  2000-2015. 
Among  the  industry  subsectors,  in  the  same  period,  Manufacturing  and  Mining  and 
Quarrying  industries  have  increased  their  added  value  by  19.81%  and  13.67% 
respectively, while Construction has decreased its contribution by 6.32%.  

Regarding the economic contribution of manufacturing industries to the GDP, Machinery 
subsector  is  the  largest  contributor  (592,044  M€).  The  second  one  is  Transport 
Equipment which contributes with 262,976 M€. 

The  Energy  Intensity  (EI)  of  the  industry  sector  has  instead  dropped  by  26.11%  in  the 
period  2000-2015.  In  2015,  the  EI  was  0.0962  koe/€2005.  The  overall  trend  is  a 
decreasing  trend  for  all  the  industry  subsectors  during  the  mentioned  period.  It  can  be 
observed that Transport Equipment and Textile and Leather are the subsectors where the 
biggest changes have taken place as they have reduced their energy intensity by 43.88% 
(from  0.0547  koe/€2005  in  2000  to  0.0307  koe/€2005  in  2015)  and  41.25%  (from 
0.1309 koe/€2005 in 2000 to 0.0769 koe/€2005 in 2015) respectively. 

151 

 
 
7  Conclusions 

This  report  describes  and  analyses  the  energy  consumption72  patterns  in  the  EU-28  for 
the period 2000-2015. Such analysis is important in order to obtain some insights about 
the impact and effectiveness of policies aimed at promoting energy efficiency in the EU. 
The  sectors  covered  by  the  report  are  the  residential,  tertiary,  transport  and  industry 
sectors. 

The results show that EU inland gross energy consumption, primary energy consumption, 
and final energy consumption have declined from 200073 by 5.93%, 5.46%, and 4.31% 
respectively.  The  breakdown  into  sectors  shows  that:  the largest  decline  of  final  energy 
consumption  has  been  registered  in  the  industry  sector  (-17.59%);  in  the  residential 
sector there has been  a decrease (-5.51%), the transport sector has registered a  slight 
increase  (4.04%),  and  the  tertiary  sector  has  experienced  the  highest  positive  growth 
rate (+16.48%). 

Energy  indicators  such  as  energy  intensity  of  final  energy  and  final  energy  per  capita 
have been reduced during the analysed period, by 37.32% and 8.32% respectively. This 
can be interpreted as a sign of a higher competitiveness of the European Union as global 
actor. 

Table 12: Overview of energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015  

Inland 
Consumption (Mtoe) 

Gross 

Energy 

Primary  Energy  Consumption 
(Mtoe) 

Total  Primary  Energy  Supply 
per capita (toe/cap) 

Energy 
Energy (toe/1,000 Euro) 

Intensity 

-  Primary 

Final 
(Mtoe) 

Energy 

Consumption 

Final  Energy  Supply  per  capita 
(toe/cap) 

Energy  Intensity  -  Final  Energy 
(toe/1,000 Euro) 

2000 

2007 

2015 

Growt
h Rate 

2000-
2015 
(%) 

1,730.1 

1,809.9 

1,627.5 

-5.93% 

1,617.9 

1,693.8 

1,529.6 

-5.46% 

3.5507 

3.6322 

3.2005 

-9.86% 

0.1549 

0.1385 

0.1204 

-
22.27% 

1,132.8 

1,174.5 

1,083.96  -4.31% 

2.3250 

2.3570 

2.1317 

-8.32% 

0.1174 

0.0905 

0.0736 

2000 

2015 

-
37.32% 

Growt
h Rate 

2000-

72 The focus is on the final energy consumption. 
73 All growth rates refer to changes from 2000 to 2015, unless another period is specified. 

152 

 
 
  
                                           
FEC (ktoe) 

Share 
(%) 

FEC 
(ktoe) 

Share 
(%) 

2015 
(%) 

Residential Sector 

291,201 

Tertiary Sector 

121,420 

Transport Sector 

344,691 

Industry Sector 

333,372 

Source: EC DG-JRC 

25.70
% 

10.72
% 

30.43
% 

29.43
% 

275,15
5 

146,92
4 

358,62
9 

274,73
7 

25.38% 

-5.51% 

13.55% 

21.01% 

33.09% 

4.04% 

25.35% 

-
17.59% 

The main findings and results of the report for the period from 2000 to 2015 are: 

● 

● 

In 2015 the EU-28 final energy consumption increases by 2.01%, compared to the 
previous year, by registering a value of 1,084 Mtoe. Despite this increase the final 
energy consumption remains below the 2020 target (1,086 Mtoe) with a gap of  -
0.18%.  

In 2015 primary energy consumption increases by 1.5% compared to the previous 
year,  registering  a  value  of  1,530  Mtoe.  This  increase  interrupts  the  decreasing 
trend started in 2010 and the primary energy consumption moves away from the 
2020 target (1,483 Mtoe). The 2015 gap to accomplish the target is 3.2% versus 
a gap of 1.5% in 2014. In 2014 primary energy registered the lowest value since 
1990. 

●  The  transport  and  the  tertiary  sector  have  increased  their  final  energy 
consumption over the analysed period while in the residential and industry sectors 
the final energy consumption has declined.  

●  European Union has reduced its energy intensity by 41.7% over the period 2000-
2015  by  reaching  a  value  0.07  toe/thousand  Euro  in  2015.  Energy  consumption 
per  capita  increases  in  2015,  by  reflecting  the  dynamics  of  final  energy 
consumption. 

●  Overall,  the  current  final  energy  consumption  trends  show  that  the  financial  and 
economic crisis (which started in 2007 and peaked in 2008) has strongly affected 
dynamics and growth rates of the different economic sectors and Member States. 

●  The financial and economic crisis, paradoxically, has contributed to get the energy 
consumption back on track to reach the EU energy and environmental targets for 
2020. 

●  84.3% of final energy was consumed in EU-15 and 15.7% in NMS-13. The EU-15 
shows a decrease of 6% for the period 2000-2015. In contrast, NMS-13 increased 
their consumption by 6%. 

●  Different  energy  consumption  growth  rates  by  Member  States  reflect  national-

specific energy-related scenarios and national policy efforts. 

●  Four  Member  States  (i.e.  Germany,  France,  the  United  Kingdom  and  Italy) 
consumed over 50% of the final energy consumption and fourteen Member States 

153 

 
  
 
(half  of  the  European  Union  States)  consumed  less  than  10%  of  the  total  final 
energy consumption in 2015. 

●  Greece  (-25.19%),  Spain  (-18%)  and  Ireland  (-15.58%)  are  the  countries  which 
have  registered  a  highest  final  energy  consumption  reduction  across  the  EU-28 
Member States from 2007 to 2015.  

Figure 167: Energy consumption trends with 2020 EU-28 energy targets, 2000-2015  

1,800

1,700

1,600

1,500

1,400

1,300

1,200

1,100

1,000

1,618 

1,133 

1,722 

1,483.0 

1,194 

1,086.0 

1,530 

1,084 

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Primary Energy

Final Energy

Primary Energy 2020 Target

Final Energy 2020 Target

Source: Eurostat 

Specific  findings  and  insights  can  be  individually  addressed  for  each  of  the  analysed 
economic sectors: 

Residential Sector 

The residential sector registered a decrease in  the final energy consumption by 5.5% in 
the period from 2000 to 2015.  

The  residential  energy  consumption  depends  on  many  variables:  heating  degree  days, 
population,  GDP,  number  of  dwellings,  total  floor  area.  Different  combinations  of  these 
variables were used in order to assess whether the decreasing trend in residential energy 
consumption  and  the  increase  in  2015  are  still  there  after  correcting  for  these  factors. 
Energy  consumption analysis carried out considering the effect  of  GDP per capita, HDD, 
and  population;  energy  consumption  analysis  per  dwelling  (per  square  meter);  and 
energy  consumption  analysis  per  household,  all  return  similar  results:  the  EU  has 
registered  a  very  gradual  decline  in  the  residential  energy  consumption  from  2000 
onwards. 

154 

 
 
 
 
 
The  main  findings  and  conclusions  regarding  the  residential  energy  consumption  trends 
are: 

● 

In  2015,  the  residential  sector  represented  25.38%  of  the  final  energy 
consumption  in  the  European  Union,  being  the  third  consuming  sector  after 
transport and industry sector. 

●  After  the  lowest  value  (over  the  period  1990-2015)  registered  in  2014,  in  2015 
final  residential  energy  consumption  increased  by  4.02%  compared  to  the 
previous year. 

●  The  energy  mix  in  the  residential  sector  is  mainly  formed  by  gas  (35.4%)  and 

electricity (24.9%) consumption. 

●  The  final  residential  electricity  consumption  increased  by  10.7%  in  the  EU-28 

during the 16-years period 2000-2015. 

●  The final residential gas consumption dropped by 11% between 2000 and 2015. 

●  The  residential  sector  was  the  third  electricity  consumer  (29.02%)  and  the  main 

gas consumer (41.34%) among the analysed sectors in 2015. 

●  The  weather  and  climatic  conditions  impact  on  residential  energy  consumption. 
The  results  show  that  the  colder  the  year  the  higher  the  energy  consumption. 
There  has  been  observed  a  positive  correlation  between  the  final  energy 
consumption (also in the electricity and gas consumption) and the Heating Degree 
Days.  Nevertheless,  establishing  a  direct  impact  of  climatic  conditions  on 
residential  energy  consumption  is  not  easy  given  that  several  other  factors  such 
as  building  characteristics  (i.e.  building  envelope,  insulation level,  location,  etc.), 
social  and  cultural  reasons  (lifestyle,  habits,  etc.),  and  economic  performance, 
among others, affect energy consumption.  

● 

In the EU, there has been observed a lowering trend in the size of the households 
in  terms  of  persons  per  household  over  the  period  2000-2015,  which  might  lead 
to a future increase in the residential energy consumption per capita values.  

●  Energy consumption per household and energy consumption per dwelling may be 
considered  as  reference  variables  to  compare  and  analyse  the  energy 
consumption trends at residential level. 

●  Energy  prices  went  up  in  the  European  Union.  Electricity  has  grown  by  31.33% 
(up  to  EUR  0.2054/kWh)  and  gas  by  24.5%74  (up  to  EUR  0.0636/kWh)  between 
the second semester of 2007 and the second semester of 2016. 

●  The  disposable  income  of  households  or  adjusted  gross  disposable  income  can 
represent  a  more  interesting  economic  indicator  in  the  analysis  of  the  residential 
energy consumption compared to the GDP per capita. 

Tertiary Sector 

The tertiary sector has registered an increase in the final energy consumption by 21.5% 
in the period from 2000 to 2015.The main findings and conclusions regarding the tertiary 
energy consumption trends are: 

●  The  final  energy  consumption  increased  by  3.63%  in  2015  compared  to  2014. 
However, the sector is registering the highest energy consumption numbers in the 
25-years period from 1990 to 2015 during the recent years (2008 onwards) with 
the exception of year 2014. 

74 It refers to the average European price for domestic consumers. Band DC (electricity) and band D2 (gas).  

155 

 
 
 
                                           
●  The  energy  mix  in  the  tertiary  sector  is  mainly  formed  by  electricity  (48.85%), 

gas (30.33%) and petroleum products (10.38%) consumption. 

●  The  final  tertiary  electricity  consumption  has  grown  (by  31.43%)  in  the  EU-28 

during the 16-years period 2000-2015. 

●  The  final  tertiary  gas  consumption  has  dropped  (by  29.3%)  between  2000  and 

2015. 

●  The  tertiary  sector  was  the  second  electricity  consumer  (30.45%)  and  the  third 

gas consumer (18.86%) among the analysed sectors in 2015. 

●  The  tertiary  energy  consumption  in  the  tertiary  sector  is  expected  to  increase  in 

the following years as per the on-going EU tertiarization trend. 

●  Weather  and  climate  conditions  are  an  influencing  factor  in  the  tertiary  energy 
consumption  as  comfort  conditions  (e.g.  temperature  or  humidity  levels)  play  a 
key role within the sector. 

●  Weather  conditions  (heating  and  cooling  degree  days)  and  the  final  energy 
consumption (especially the gas consumption) present a positive correlation which 
may be influenced by comfort conditions.  

●  Energy  per  employee  may  be  considered  a  reference  parameter  to  compare  and 

analyse the energy consumption trends at tertiary level. 

Transport Sector 

The transport sector registered an increase in the final energy consumption by 4.04% in 
the period from 2000 to 2015. 

The  main  findings  and  conclusions  regarding  the  transport  energy  consumption  trends 
are: 

●  The  transport  sector  proved  to  be  the  main  consuming  sector,  accounting  for 

33.09% of total final energy consumption in the year 2015. 

●  Since  2008  onwards,  the  transport  sector  is  registering  the  lowest  energy 

consumption numbers in the 26-years period from 1990 to 2015. 

●  There  has  been  a  complete  reverse  in  the  energy  consumption  dynamics  from 
2008 onwards for the period 2000-2015.  It may be  result of the impact financial 
and economic crisis as well as higher fuel prices and more efficient vehicles. 

● 

In 2015 the final energy consumption in the transport sector increased by 1.72% 
compared to the previous year. 

●  The  energy  mix  in  the  transport  sector  in  mainly  formed  by  petroleum  products 

(93.65% in 2015). 

●  The transport sector was the least electricity (2.28%) and gas (1.37%) consumer 

among the analysed economic sectors in 2015. 

●  Road  transport  is  clearly  the  main  final  energy  consumer  among  the  transport 

subsectors (81.98% in 2015). 

●  Diesel  and  gasoline  consumption  stand  out  among  the  petroleum  products  and 

diesel is the most consumed fuel in the road transport (66.29% in 2015). 

●  Biofuels  have  highly  developed  from  2000  to  2015  mainly  due  to  biodiesels  and 
biogasoline usage. Biodiesels were the major renewable fuel type (80.13% of the 
total biofuel consumption in 2015), followed by biogasoline (18.93%). 

156 

 
 
 
●  Cars  represented  77.61%  of  the  stock  of  vehicles  and  56.64%  of  the  final  road 

energy consumption in 2015.  

●  The  average  consumption  of  cars  in  the  market  has  declined  by  13.32%  from 
2000  to  2014.  Gasoline  and  diesel  cars  already  in  the  market  have  registered  a 
reduction by 10.07% and 8.1% in their average consumption. 

●  The impact of energy and environmental policy actions in the automotive industry 
(e.g.  CO2  emission  regulation  for  new  passenger  cars)  may  be  reflected  in  the 
decrease  of  parameters  such  as  the  average  specific  consumption,  as  the  initial 
decline  of  those  parameters  coincides  with  the  implementation  dates  of  the 
mentioned standards.  

●  A lower age of the vehicles fleet can help in reducing the energy consumption and 
GHG  emissions  in  the  future  as  the  energy  consumption  of  the  vehicles  has 
decreased in the recent years. 

●  Passenger  transport  and  in  detail  passenger  cars  represent  the  highest  energy 

consumer modes of transport. 

●  Transportation  and  storage  of  goods  was  the  main  economic  activity  related  to 

freight traffic in the EU-28 in 2015. 

●  The  transport  was  the  main  responsible  GHG  emitter  among  the  analysed 

economic sectors (it accounted for 23% of the CO2 equivalent emissions in 2015).    

●  The  GHG  emissions  in  the  transport  sector,  including  international  aviation  and 

international maritime transport, have increased (by 23%) from 1990-2015. 

●  The road transport is the main responsible of GHG emissions.  

Industry Sector 

The  industry  sector  registered  a  decrease  in  the  final  energy  consumption  by  17.6%  in 
the period from 2000 to 2015. 

The  main  findings  and  conclusions  regarding  the  industry  energy  consumption  trends 
are: 

●  The industry is the second in the ranking of the most energy consuming economy 
sectors, by accounting for 25.35% of the EU-28 total final energy consumption in 
the year 2015.  

●  Since  2008  onwards,  the  industry  sector  is  registering  the  lowest  energy 

consumption numbers in the 26-years period from 1990 to 2015. 

●  2015 registered a slight increase in the final energy consumption. 

●  The  industry  sector  was  the  main  electricity  consumer  (36.35%)  and  the  second 

gas consumer (36.67%) among the analysed economic sectors in 2015. 

●  The  energy  mix  in  the  industry  sector  was  mainly  and  evenly  formed  by  gas 

(31.53%) and electricity (31.18%) in 2015. 

●  Overall,  the  industry  sector  has  reduced  its  final  energy  consumption  due  to  a 
contraction  of  production.  For  instance,  Iron  and  Steel  (the  highest  energy 
consumption  manufacturing  subsector  in  2000)  decreased  its  final  energy 
consumption  by  25.98%,  and  its  industrial  production  index  (IPI)  by  10.09% 
during the period 2000-2015.  

●  The  financial  and  economic  crisis  has  further  reduced  the  production  output  and 

has boosted the decrease of final energy consumption. 

157 

 
 
 
●  Despite the IPI reduction (by 0.51%) from 2000 to 2015, the sector has enlarged 

the value added to GDP (by 11.68%) in the same period.  

●  The  IPI  reduction  has  not  been  evenly  registered  across  the  industry  subsectors. 
For instance, Textile and Leather subsector's IPI has been continuously decreasing 
since  2000  and  has  accumulated  a  50%  drop  till  2015.  The  most  stable 
manufacturing subsector in terms of IPI was Food and Tobacco.  

●  Among  the  manufacturing  subsectors  Chemical  and  Petrochemical  was  the  main 
final energy, electricity and gas consumer in 2015. Despite a negative growth rate 
(-12.86%)  it  registered  an  increase  in  IPI  (25.16%)  and  in  the  share  of  value 
added to GDP (34.76) over the period 2000-2015. 

●  The Machinery subsector has been the largest  contributor to the GDP  among the 

manufacturing subsector during the period from 2000 to 2015. 

158 

 
 
 
References 

[1] P. Bertoldi, “Analysis of the Recent Trends in Residential Energy Consumption in the 

EU,” in EEDAL'15, Lucerne (CH), 2015. 

 [2]  N.  Labanca,  P.  Bertoldi  and  B.  Hirl,  “The  electricity  consumption  of  household 
appliances in the European Union and the effects of existing EU energy efficiency policies 
on its evolution,” European Commission, Joint Research Center, Institute for Energy and 
Transport (IET), Luxembourg, 2013 

 [3] European Commission - Eurostat, “Eurostat Database on Energy Statistics,” [Online]. 
Available: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy. [Accessed October 2017]. 

[4] Eurostat, “Eurostat RAMON - Reference And Management Of Nomenclatures,” 

[Online]. Available: ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/. [Accessed October 2017]. 

[5]  International  Energy  Agency  (IEA),  Technology  Roadmap  -  Biofuels  for  Transport, 
Paris (FR): OECD/IEA, 2011. 

[6]  John  Baffes,  M.  Ayhan  Kose,  Franziska  Ohnsorge,  and  Marc  Stocker  -  World  Bank 
Group.  PRN/15/01,  The  Great  Plunge  in  Oil  Prices:  Causes,  Consequences,  and  Policy 
Responses, Development Economics - World Bank Group, March 2015. 

 [7]  International  Energy  Agency  (IEA),  “Medium-term  Oil  Market  Report  2015,” 
OECD/IEA, Paris (FR), 2015. 

 [8] Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “Impact of the current 

economic and financial crisis on potential output,” European Commission, Brussels 

(BE), 2009. doi: 10.2765/44883. 

[9] European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, EU 

textiles and clothing sector: Location decisions, Dublin (IE), 2008. 

European  Commission,  "Statistical  Pocketbook  2017.  Eu  Transport 
Luxembourg, 2017. 

in 

figures", 

Eurostat, "Energy, transport and environment indicators", Luxembourg, 2016. 

Organization  for  Economic  Cooperation  and  Development  (2015),  OECD  Science, 
Technology  and  Industry  Scoreboard  2015:  Innovation  for  growth  and  society,  Paris: 
OECD Publishing. 

Odyssee  Database  [Online].  Available:    http://www.odyssee-mure.eu/  .  [Accessed 
October 2017] 

159 

 
 
List of abbreviations and definitions 

AE 

BAT 

CDD 

CO 

CO2 

DC 

DH 

EC 

EE 

EEA 

EEAP(s) 

EED 

EEI 

EEOS(s) 

EER 

EFTA 

EI 

EPBD 

ErP(s) 

ESD 

ETS 

EU 

EU15 

EU28 

EuP(s) 

GDP 

GWh 

HHD 

Annual Energy consumption 

Best Available Techniques 

Cooling Degree Day 

Carbon monoxide 

Carbon dioxide 

District Cooling 

District Heating 

European Commission 

Energy Efficiency 

European Environment Agency 

Energy Efficiency Action Plan(s) 

Energy Efficiency Directive (2012/27/EU) 

Energy Efficiency Index 

Energy Efficiency Obligations Scheme(s) 

Energy Efficiency Ratio 

European Free Trade Association 

Energy Intensity 

Energy  Performance  of  Buildings  Directive 
(2010/31/EU) 

Energy related Product(s) 

Energy  End-use  Efficiency  and  Energy  Services 
Directive (2006/32/EC) 

Emissions Trading System 

European Union 

The  EU15  includes  the  following  15  countries: 
Austria,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Finland,  France, 
Germany,  Greece,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxembourg, 
Netherlands,  Portugal,  Spain,  Sweden,  and 
United Kingdom. 

Group of countries which includes all the Member 
States  of  the  European  Union.  These  are: 
Austria,  Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Croatia,  Cyprus, 
Czech  Republic,  Denmark,  Estonia,  Finland, 
France,  Germany,  Greece,  Hungary,  Ireland, 
Italy,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Luxembourg,  Malta, 
Netherlands, 
Romania, 
Slovakia,  Slovenia,  Spain,  Sweden,  and  United 
Kingdom.   

Portugal, 

Poland, 

Energy using Product(s) 

Gross Domestic Product 

Gigawatt-hour 

Heating Degree Day 

160 

 
HRE 

ICT 

IPI 

JRC 

Ktoe 

LED 

LPG 

LV 

MDA 

MEPS 

MS(s) 

MtCO2e 

Mtoe 

MW 

MWh 

NEEAP 

NH3 

NMHC 

NMS 

NMS13 

NMVOC 

NO2 

NOx 

NZeB 

PPP 

PPS 

Heat Roadmap Europe 

Information and Communication Technologies 

Industrial Production Index 

Joint Research Centre 

Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (1,000 toe) 

Lighting Emitting Diode 

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Liquid Petroleum Gas  

Low Voltage 

Major Domestic Appliances 

Minimum Energy Performance Standards 

Member State(s) 

Million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent 

Million tonnes of oil equivalent (1,000,000 toe) 

Megawatt 

Megawatt-hour 

National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 

Ammonia or Azane 

Non-Methane Hydrocarbons 

New Member State 

The  NMS13  includes  the  following  13  countries: 
Bulgaria,  Croatia,  Cyprus,  Czech  Republic, 
Estonia,  Hungary,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Malta, 
Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. 

Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 

Nitrogen Dioxide 

Nitrogen Oxides 

Nearly Zero-energy Building(s) 

Purchasing Power Parity 

Purchasing Power Standard 

PRODCOM 

Production Communautaire Statistics 

SME 

SOx 

sqm 

TFP 

THC 

toe 

TWh 

VA 

Small and Medium Enterprise 

Sulphur Oxides 

Square metres 

Total Factor Productivity 

Total Hydrocarbons 

tonnes of oil equivalent. Unit of measurement of 
energy 
:  
consumption 
1 TOE = 41.868 GJ = 11.63 MWh. 

Terawatt-hour 

Voluntary Agreement 

161 

 
List of figures 

Figure 1: Final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 .................................... 3 

Figure 2: Gross inland energy consumption – Final energy consumption in the EU-28, 
2000-2015 ........................................................................................................... 8 

Figure 3: Gross inland consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 .................................... 9 

Figure 4: Gross inland energy consumption breakdown in the EU-28, 2000 and 2015 ..10 

Figure 5: Primary energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ...............................11 

Figure 6: Primary energy consumption breakdown in the EU-28, 2015 .......................12 

Figure 7: Energy indicators for primary energy consumption: energy per capita and 
energy intensity in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ...............................................................12 

Figure 8: Final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015. ..................................13 

Figure 9: Final energy consumption breakdown into sectors in the EU-28, 2015. .........13 

Figure 10: Final energy consumption shares by sector in the EU-28, 2000, 2004, 2007, 
2010 and 2015 .....................................................................................................14 

Figure 11: Final energy consumption dynamics through main sectors in the EU-28, 
2000-2015 ..........................................................................................................14 

Figure 12: Final energy consumption growth rate by EU-28 Member State; 2000-2015, 
2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ....................................................................................15 

Figure 13: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 Member States 2000, 2007 and 2015
 ..........................................................................................................................15 

Figure 14: Share of EU-28 Member States final energy consumption in 2015 ..............16 

Figure 15: Final Energy Consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (Detailed) ..................16 

Figure 16: Energy indicators for final energy consumption: energy per capita and energy 
intensity in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ..........................................................................17 

Figure 17: Final Energy intensity in the EU-28 (GDP at Current prices, Purchasing Power 
Standards), 2000, 2006, 2011 and 2015 .................................................................17 

Figure 18: Final energy consumption by energy types in the EU-28, 2000 and 2015 ....20 

Figure 19: Share of energy source to final energy consumption in the EU-28,  2000 and 
2015 ...................................................................................................................21 

Figure 20: Final electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 .............................22 

Figure 21: Electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 .....................................23 

Figure 22: Final electricity per capita consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ..............23 

Figure 23: Electricity consumption breakdown into sectors in the EU-28, 2015 ...........24 

Figure 24: Final electricity consumption dynamics through main consuming sectors in 
the EU-28, 2000-2015 ..........................................................................................25 

Figure 25: Energy indicators for final electricity consumption: electricity per capita and 
electrical energy intensity in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ..................................................25 

Figure 26: Final gas consumption trends in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ............................26 

Figure 27: Final gas per capita consumption trend in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ...............27 

Figure 28: Gas consumption breakdown into sectors in the EU-28, 2015 ....................27 

Figure 29: Final gas consumption dynamics through main consuming sectors in the EU-
28, 2000-2015 .....................................................................................................28 

162 

 
Figure 30: Energy indicators for final gas consumption: gas consumption per capita and 
gas energy intensity in the EU-28, 2000-2015..........................................................28 

Figure 31: Final residential energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015. .................30 

Figure 32: Final residential energy consumption in the EU-28 (detailed), 2000-2015 ...31 

Figure 33: Final residential energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 
2000-2015 ..........................................................................................................31 

Figure 34: Final residential energy consumption per capita in the EU-28, 2000-2015  ..32 

Figure 35: Final residential energy consumption per capita by EU-28 Member State, in 
2005, 2010 and 2015  ...........................................................................................32 

Figure 36: Share of fuel types to final residential energy consumption in the EU-28, 
2000 and 2015 .....................................................................................................33 

Figure 37: Population in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ......................................................34 

Figure 38: Gross Domestic Product per capita at current market prices in the EU-28 ...35 

Figure 39: GDP per capita at current market prices in the EU-28, year 2015 ..............36 

Figure 40: Adjusted disposable income per capita and GDP per capita at current market 
prices in the EU-28, 2005-2015 ..............................................................................37 

Figure 41: Correlation between residential energy consumption and GDP per capita 
(current prices) in the EU-28 Member States, 2015 ..................................................37 

Figure 42: Correlation between residential energy consumption and Adjusted disposable 
income in the EU-28 Member States, 2015 ..............................................................38 

Figure 43: Average number of people per household in the EU-28 Member States, 2015 
 ..........................................................................................................................38 

Figure 44: Average size of dwellings for countries with available data in the EU-28, year 
2012 ...................................................................................................................39 

Figure 45: Final residential energy consumption per dwelling in the EU-28, year 2015. 
 ..........................................................................................................................39 

Figure 46: Final residential energy consumption per dwelling and heating degree days in 
the EU-28, 2005-2015 ..........................................................................................40 

Figure 47: Correlation between HDD and residential energy consumption per floor size, 
in the EU-28 Member States, 2014 .........................................................................41 

Figure 48: Number of private households (in thousands) in the EU-28, 2005-2016 ......41 

Figure 49: Average energy per unit of area a year and floor size in the EU-28, 2000-
2014 ...................................................................................................................42 

Figure 50: Residential energy consumption per household floor size in the EU-28 
Member States, 2014  ...........................................................................................42 

Figure 51: Residential energy per capita, normalized by HDD, GDP per capita and 
average floor area in the EU-28, 2000-2014 ............................................................43 

Figure 52: Adjusted final residential energy consumption per capita by EU-28 Member 
State, comparison 2000, 2007 and 2015 .................................................................44 

Figure 53: Adjusted final residential energy per capita consumption growth rates by MS 
in the EU-28; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ...............................................44 

Figure 54: Correlation between adjusted residential energy consumption and GDP per 
capita in the EU-28 Member States, 2015 ................................................................45 

Figure 55: Final residential electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ..............46 

163 

 
Figure 56: Final residential electrical energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-
28, 2000-2015  ....................................................................................................46 

Figure 57: Final residential electricity consumption per capita in the EU-28, 2000-2015
 ..........................................................................................................................47 

Figure 58: Final residential electricity consumption growth rates in the EU-28 by 
Member State; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 .............................................47 

Figure 59: Residential electricity consumption per dwelling in the EU-28, 2005-2015 ...48 

Figure 60: Residential electricity consumption trends per household by Member State in 
the EU-28; 2005, 2010 and 2015 ...........................................................................49 

Figure 61: Mean Heating Degree days (1980-2015) in the EU-28 by Member State .....49 

Figure 62: Electricity prices for household consumers in the EU-28 by semesters, band 
DC - all taxes and levies included, 2007S2-2016S2 ...................................................50 

Figure 63: Electricity prices for household consumers in the EU-28, band DC, 2015.....50 

Figure 64: Correlation between adjusted residential electricity consumption and the 
price of electricity in EU-28 Member States , 2015 ....................................................51 

Figure 65: Final residential gas consumption trends in the EU-28, 2000-2015  ............53 

Figure 66: Final residential gas consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-
2015 ...................................................................................................................53 

Figure 67: Final residential gas consumption per dwelling and heating degree days in 
the EU-28, 2005-2015 ..........................................................................................54 

Figure 68: Residential gas consumption trends per household in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2005, 2010 and 2015 .................................................................................54 

Figure 69: Final residential gas consumption growth rates in the EU-28 per Member 
State; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  ........................................................55 

Figure 70: Gas prices for household consumers in the EU-28 by semesters, band D2 - all 
taxes and levies included, 2007S2-2016S2 ..............................................................56 

Figure 71: Gas prices for household consumers in the EU-28, band D2, 2015  ............56 

Figure 72: Correlation between adjusted residential gas consumption and the price of 
gas in EU-28 Member States 2015 ..........................................................................57 

Figure 73: Percentage of gross value added in current prices by economic sector in the 
EU-28, 2015 ........................................................................................................61 

Figure 74: Change in total employment in the EU-28, 2010-2014, absolute numbers ..62 

Figure 75: Final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ......................63 

Figure 76: Final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (detailed) .......63 

Figure 77: Tertiary final energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-
2015 ...................................................................................................................64 

Figure 78: Final tertiary energy consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-28; 2000-
2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ...........................................................................64 

Figure 79: Final energy mix in the tertiary sector in the EU-28, 2000 and 2015 ..........65 

Figure 80: Final energy consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-28 
Member States, 2015 ............................................................................................66 

Figure 81: Final energy consumption per employee in the tertiary sector and Heating 
Degree Days in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ....................................................................67 

164 

 
Figure 82: Final energy consumption and employment rates in the tertiary sector in the 
EU-28, 2000-2015 ................................................................................................68 

Figure 83: Final tertiary electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ..................70 

Figure 84: Tertiary electricity consumption annual growth rates in the EU-28,  2000-
2015 ...................................................................................................................70 

Figure 85: Final tertiary electricity consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-28;  
2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ...................................................................71 

Figure 86: Annual electricity consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-
28, 2015 .............................................................................................................72 

Figure 87: Annual electricity consumption per employee in the EU-28 tertiary sector, 
2000-2015 ..........................................................................................................73 

Figure 88: Final tertiary gas consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ...........................75 

Figure 89: Annual tertiary gas consumption growth rates in the EU-28, 2000-2015 .....75 

Figure 90: Final tertiary gas consumption growth rates by MS in the EU-28; 2000-2015, 
2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ....................................................................................76 

Figure 91: Annual final gas consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-
28 Member States, 2015  ......................................................................................77 

Figure 92: Annual final gas consumption per employee in the tertiary sector in the EU-
28, 2000-2015 .....................................................................................................77 

Figure 93: Final energy consumption in the transport sector in the EU-28, 2000-2015 .82 

Figure 94: Final energy consumption in the transport sector in the EU-28, 2000-2015 
(detailed) ............................................................................................................83 

Figure 95: Annual energy consumption growth rates in the EU-28 transport sector, 
2000-2015 ..........................................................................................................83 

Figure 96: Energy intensity of transport sector in the EU-28, 2000-2015   .................84 

Figure 97: Final energy consumption in the transport sector in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2000, 2007 and 2015 .................................................................................85 

Figure 98: Share of EU-28 Member States final energy consumption in the transport 
sector (2015)  ......................................................................................................85 

Figure 99: Final energy consumption growth rates at transport sector in the EU-28 
Member States; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ...........................................86 

Figure 100: Final energy mix in the transport sector in the EU-28 (absolute numbers), 
2000 and 2015 .....................................................................................................86 

Figure 101: Final energy mix in the transport sector in the EU-28 (shares), 2000 and 
2015  ..................................................................................................................87 

Figure 102: Final energy consumption of oil products in the EU-28 transport sector, 
2000-2015 ..........................................................................................................88 

Figure 103: Final energy consumption of biofuels in the EU-28 transport sector,  2000-
2015  ..................................................................................................................88 

Figure 104: Consumer prices of petroleum products inclusive of duties and taxes - 
Eurozone weighted average, January 2005 – February 2016 ......................................89 

Figure 105: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 transport subsectors, 2000 and 
2015 ...................................................................................................................90 

Figure 106: Share of transport subsector to final energy consumption, 2000 and 2015 91 

Figure 107: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 transport subsectors, 2000-2015  92 

165 

 
Figure 108: Final energy per fuel type and transport subsector in the EU-28, 2015 .....93 

Figure 109: Share of fuel type and transport subsector in the EU-28, 2015 ................93 

Figure 110: Final energy consumption in the EU-28 road transport, 2000-2015 ..........94 

Figure 111: Final energy consumption in road transport per Member State in the EU-28 
2000, 2007 and 2015 ............................................................................................94 

Figure 112: Accumulated share in the EU-28 for final energy consumption in road 
transport (2015)  .................................................................................................95 

Figure 113: Final energy mix in the EU-28 road transport, years 2000, 2005, 2010 and 
2015 ...................................................................................................................96 

Figure 114: Renewable final energy mix in the EU-28 road transport, years 2000, 2005, 
2010 and 2015  ....................................................................................................96 

Figure 115: Road energy consumption per vehicle type in the EU-28, 2000, 2007 and 
2014 ...................................................................................................................97 

Figure 116: Number of vehicles in the EU-28, 2000 and 2014 ..................................98 

Figure 117: Energy consumption per vehicle type (toe/veh) in the EU-28, 2000-2014  
 ..........................................................................................................................99 

Figure 118: Annual energy consumption and annual distance travelled per car in the EU-
28, 2000-2014 ................................................................................................... 100 

Figure 119: Car energy consumption per vehicle adjusted for the stock of cars and the 
annual distance travelled by cars in the EU-28, 2000-2015  ..................................... 100 

Figure 120: Average energy consumption per car engine technology in the EU-28, 2000-
2014  ................................................................................................................ 101 

Figure 121: Average specific consumption per car engine technology in the EU-28, 
2000-2014 ........................................................................................................ 102 

Figure 122: European average CO2 emissions per kilometre of new passenger cars 
(gCO2/km), 2000-2015  ...................................................................................... 103 

Figure 123: Average CO2 emissions per kilometre of new passenger cars in the EU-28, 
2015 (gCO2/km) ................................................................................................ 104 

Figure 124: Passenger cars by type of engine fuel, 2015 (% of all passenger cars) ... 105 

Figure 125: Passenger cars by age, 2015 (% of all passenger cars)  ....................... 106 

Figure 126: Number of passenger cars per 1,000 inhabitants, 2015 ........................ 107 

Figure 127: Final energy consumption by passenger and freight domestic transport in 
the EU-28, 2000, 2007 and 2014  ......................................................................... 107 

Figure 128: Passenger transport volume and modal split in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ... 108 

Figure 129: Modal split of inland passenger transport in the EU-28, 2014  ............... 109 

Figure 130: Rail passenger transport (passenger-km per inhabitant) in the EU-28, 2015 
 ........................................................................................................................ 109 

Figure 131: Air passenger transport (passengers per inhabitant) in the EU-28, 2015 . 110 

Figure 132: Sea passenger transport (passengers per inhabitant) in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2015 ...................................................................................................... 110 

Figure 133: Freight transport traffic (billion tkm) breakdown into conveyances in the 
EU-28, 2008-2015 .............................................................................................. 111 

Figure 134: Freight transport in the EU-28: modal split of inland transport modes (% of 
total tonne-kilometres), 2008-2015 ...................................................................... 111 

166 

 
Figure 135: Evolution of EU-28 road transport by load capacity, 2010 and 2015 (million 
tonne-kilometres)  .............................................................................................. 112 

Figure 136: Road goods transport in the EU-28 by age of vehicle, 2010 and 2015 (% of 
total tonne-kilometres) ....................................................................................... 113 

Figure 137: Share of age categories in road goods transport, 2015 (% in vehicle-
kilometres) ........................................................................................................ 114 

Figure 138: Road freight transport by economic activity, 2015 (million tonne-kilometres) 
 ........................................................................................................................ 115 

Figure 139: Greenhouse gas emissions by source sector in the EU-28, 2015 (percentage 
of total)  ............................................................................................................ 116 

Figure 140: Greenhouse gas emissions by sort of transport in the EU-28, 2005-2015 117 

Figure 141: Greenhouse gas emissions in transport sector in the EU-28 .................. 117 

Figure 142: Greenhouse gas emissions growth rate in the transport sector (excluding 
international aviation and international maritime transport) in the EU-28 Member States; 
1990-2015, 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015 ............................................... 119 

Figure 143: Contribution of the transport sector to emissions of the main air pollutants 
in the EEA-33, 2015  ........................................................................................... 120 

Figure 144: Industry sector: final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ...... 126 

Figure 145: Industry sector: final energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 
(detailed) .......................................................................................................... 127 

Figure 146: Industry sector: final energy consumption annual growth rates in the EU-
28, 2000-2015  .................................................................................................. 127 

Figure 147: Industry sector: final energy consumption growth rates in the EU-28 
Member States; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  ........................................ 128 

Figure 148: Final energy consumption in the industry sector in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2000, 2007 and 2015  .............................................................................. 129 

Figure 149: Share of EU-28 Member States final energy consumption in the industry 
sector (2015)  .................................................................................................... 129 

Figure 150: Industry sector: final energy mix, 2000 and 2015  ............................... 130 

Figure 151: Industry sector: final energy mix by percentage, 2000 and 2015  .......... 131 

Figure 152: Industry sector: final electricity consumption in the EU-28, 2000-
2015Source: Eurostat ......................................................................................... 132 

Figure 153: Industry sector: final industrial electricity consumption in the EU-28,  2000-
2015 (detailed) .................................................................................................. 132 

Figure 154: Industry sector: annual final electricity consumption growth rates, 2000-
2015  ................................................................................................................ 133 

Figure 155: Industry sector: annual final electricity consumption growth rates (%) in 
the EU-28 ; 2000-2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  .............................................. 134 

Figure 156: Industry sector: final gas consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015  .......... 135 

Figure 157: Industry sector: final gas consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 (detailed)
 ........................................................................................................................ 135 

Figure 158: Industry sector: annual final gas consumption growth rates, 2000-2015 136 

Figure 159: Industry sector: final gas consumption growth rates in the EU-28; 2000-
2015, 2000-2007 and 2007-2015  ........................................................................ 136 

167 

 
Figure 160: Industry sector: final energy consumption by subsectors, 2000 and 2015
 ........................................................................................................................ 137 

Figure 161: Industry sector: final energy consumption percentage by subsectors, 2000 
and 2015  .......................................................................................................... 139 

Figure 162: Industry sector: share of electricity consumption by industry subsectors, 
2000 and 2015  .................................................................................................. 141 

Figure 163: Industry sector: share of gas consumption by industry subsectors, 2000 
and 2015 ........................................................................................................... 142 

Figure 164: Average energy consumption per tonne of produced crude steel, cement 
and paper in EU-28, 2000-2014 ........................................................................... 144 

Figure 165: Industrial Production Indices of Manufacturing Industries (2005=100%), 
2000-2015  ....................................................................................................... 144 

Figure 166: Added value per industrial subsector in the EU-28, 2000-2015  ............. 145 

Figure 167: Added value per manufacturing subsector in the EU-28, 2000-2015  ...... 145 

Figure 167: Energy intensity per industry subsector in the EU-28 (GDP at purchasing 
power parities), 2000-2015 ................................................................................. 148 

Figure 168: Energy intensity per industry subsector in the EU-28 (GDP at purchasing 
power parities), 2000-2015 (expanded)  ............................................................... 148 

Figure 169: Energy consumption trends with 2020 EU-28 energy targets, 2000-2015  
 ........................................................................................................................ 154 

168 

 
 
List of tables 

Table 1: Overview of final energy consumption changes for different sub-sectors, EU-28
 ..........................................................................................................................19 

Table 2: Overview of final residential electricity consumption in the EU-28 Member 
States, 2000-2015 ................................................................................................52 

Table 3: Overview of final residential gas consumption in the EU-28 Member States, 
2000-2015 ..........................................................................................................57 

Table 4: Final tertiary energy consumption in the EU-28 Member States.....................68 

Table 5: Final tertiary electricity consumption in the EU-28 Member States .................74 

Table 6: Final tertiary gas consumption in the EU-28 Member States .........................78 

Table 7: Growth rates of energy consumption transport subsectors, 2000 and 2015 ....92 

Table 8: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the EU-28 transport sector ........................... 118 

Table 9: Growth rates and energy consumption shares in industry subsectors, 2000 and 
2015 ................................................................................................................. 140 

Table 10: Growth rates of final electricity and gas consumptions in industry subsectors, 
2000 and 2015 ................................................................................................... 142 

Table 11: Industrial Production Indices and Value Added to GDP for Industry Subsectors, 
2000 and 2015 ................................................................................................... 146 

Table 12: Overview of energy consumption in the EU-28, 2000-2015 ...................... 152 

169 

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doi:10.2760/6684 

ISBN 978-92-79-79372-1