COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document Proposal for a COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION on Key Competences for LifeLong Learning
Date: 2018-01-17
Institutions: Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, European Commission
Subjects: continuing education, cooperation in the field of education, digital literacy, education policy, innovation, new educational methods, non-formal education, professional qualifications, vocational training

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 17.1.2018 SWD(2018) 14 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document Proposal for a COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION on Key Competences for LifeLong Learning {COM(2018) 24 final}  
 
 
Contents 
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3 

2. The objectives and the impact of the 2006 Recommendation on Key Competences ........................ 6 

2.1 The objectives of the 2006 Recommendation on Key Competences ........................................... 6 

2.2 Impact of the Recommendation on Key Competences ................................................................. 8 

2.3 Key competences in national competence frameworks ............................................................. 10 

2.4 National strategies or reforms in education influenced by the European Framework of Key 
Competences for Lifelong Learning ................................................................................................... 16 

2.5 Comparison of other international frameworks ......................................................................... 19 

3. Results from the stakeholder consultation ....................................................................................... 28 

3.1 Public on-line consultation .......................................................................................................... 28 

Previous experiences with the European Reference Framework ................................................. 29 

Position Papers .............................................................................................................................. 30 

3.2. Main findings during the consultation process .......................................................................... 30 

What are the main strengths of the current Framework as a whole? .......................................... 30 

What are the main weaknesses of the current Framework as a whole? ...................................... 31 

Need for change ............................................................................................................................ 31 

Making the Key Competences approach more operational ......................................................... 31 

3.3 Findings per key competence ...................................................................................................... 32 

Communication competences ....................................................................................................... 33 

Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology ........................... 34 

Digital competence ........................................................................................................................ 34 

Learning to learn ........................................................................................................................... 34 

Social and civic competence .......................................................................................................... 34 

Sense of initiative & entrepreneurship .......................................................................................... 34 

Cultural awareness and expression ............................................................................................... 35 

Transversal elements ..................................................................................................................... 35 

4. The proposal for a Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong learning ........................... 36 

4.1 Recommendations to Member States and Commission ............................................................. 36 

4.2 Changes to the European Reference Framework of Key Competences ..................................... 38 

Underlying concepts ...................................................................................................................... 41 

Literacy .......................................................................................................................................... 44 

Languages competence ................................................................................................................. 46 

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Science, technological, engineering and mathematical competence ........................................... 47 

Digital competence........................................................................................................................ 50 

Personal, Social and Learning Competence .................................................................................. 51 

Civic competence .......................................................................................................................... 55 

Entrepreneurship competence ..................................................................................................... 57 

Cultural awareness and expression ............................................................................................... 59 

5. Good practices to support Key Competences Development ............................................................ 62 

5.1 Challenges for implementation ................................................................................................... 63 

5.2 Competence Frameworks ........................................................................................................... 64 

5.3 Supporting educational staff ....................................................................................................... 65 

5.4 Assessment of learners ............................................................................................................... 67 

Different approaches to and purposes of assessment .................................................................. 67 

International assessment, evaluation and comparison ................................................................ 69 

European Frameworks to support assessment ............................................................................. 71 

National testing ............................................................................................................................. 72 

5.5 Learning environments and learning approaches ....................................................................... 75 

5.6 Monitoring and evaluation of the use of the Recommendation for Key Competences for 
Lifelong Learning ............................................................................................................................... 78 

6. Policies and projects supporting competence development in lifelong learning perspective ......... 83 

6.1 Foundations for lifelong learning: The significance of early childhood for competence 
development ..................................................................................................................................... 83 

Literacy .......................................................................................................................................... 85 

Languages ...................................................................................................................................... 87 

Mathematics, science and technology .......................................................................................... 88 

Digital ............................................................................................................................................. 92 

Personal, Social and Learning ........................................................................................................ 95 

Civic competence .......................................................................................................................... 97 

Entrepreneurship .......................................................................................................................... 99 

Cultural awareness and expression ............................................................................................. 101 

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1. Introduction 

In  2006,  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  adopted  a  Recommendation  on  Key 
Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning1.  In  its  annex,  the  European  Reference  Framework  of 
Key  Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning,  it  defined  the  competences  each  European  citizen 
needs  for  personal  fulfilment  and  development,  employment,  social  inclusion  and  active 
citizenship. It invited Member States to ensure that their education and training systems are 
able to equip people with these competences. 

Since 2006, European societies and economies have experienced significant changes, digital 
and  technological  innovations  as  well  as  labour  market  and  demographic  changes.  Many  of 
today's  jobs  did  not  exist  a  decade  ago  and  many  new  kinds  of  jobs  will  be  created  in  the 
future. Manual operations are vulnerable to automation and changes in work patterns are on 
the  rise.  Increased  mobility  and  cultural  mixity,  new  forms  of  communication  and 
relationships  alter  the  ways  societies  are  organized.  Climate  change  and  the  limits  of 
ecological  resources,  together  with  economic  and  social  inequalities,  mean  that  sustainable 
development is a necessary concern for all human activity.2  

These  developments  change  daily  life,  both  at  work  and  leisure.  Society  and  economy  rely 
heavily on highly competent people while competence requirements are changing; in addition 
to good basic skills (literacy, numeracy and basic digital skills) and civic competences; skills 
such  as  creativity,  critical thinking, initiative taking and problem solving play an increasing 
role  in  coping  with  complexity  and  change  in  today's  society.  The  'Reflection  paper  on  the 
Social  Dimension  of  Europe'3  emphasises  the  importance  of  the  right  set  of  skills  and 
competences to sustain living standards in Europe. Skills such as creativity, critical thinking, 
initiative  taking  and  problem  solving  play  an  important  role  in  coping  with  complexity  and 
change in today's society.  

Likewise,  the  Commission  Communication  on  "Strenthening  European  Identity  through 
Education  and  Culture"4  calls  for  investing  in  people  and  their  education  and  to  make  sure 
that  education and  training  systems help all  learners the knowledge,  skills  and competences 
that are deemed essential in today's world. It also makes a strong link between the a common 
understanding  of  the  competences  all  people  in  Euroope  needs  and  the  establishment  of  a 
European Education Area. 
The 'Reflection Paper on Harnessing Globalisation'5 recognises that "the key to empowerment 
is lifelong learning. Equal access to high-quality education and training is a powerful way of 
redistributing  wealth  in  a  society.  This  should  start  with  a  high  standard  of  basic  education 
and access at all ages to training and skills development. We also need to find new ways of 
learning for a society that is becoming increasingly mobile and digital as well as of providing 
the  right  blend  of  ‘soft’  skills,  notably  entrepreneurship  as  well  as  robust  digital  skills. 
Already 90 % of all jobs require at least some level of digital skills." 

1 Recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for 
lifelong learning (2006/962/EC) 
2 EPSC Strategic Notes (13/2016) The Future of Work; Council Conclusions on education for sustainable 
development from November 2010 
3 European Commission, 2016, Reflection Paper on the Social Dimension in Europe 
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/reflection-paper-social-dimension-europe_en.pdf 
4 COM(2017)673 
5 European Commission, 2017, Reflection Paper on Harnessing Globalisation  
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/publications/reflection-paper-harnessing-globalisation_en 

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Despite these findings, latest OECD PISA data show that one in five pupils in the European 
Union  (EU)  has  insufficient  proficiency  in  reading,  mathematics  and  science6.  Many  young 
people lack appropriate digital competences7. Worryingly, between 2012 and 2015, the trend 
in  underachievement  for  the  EU  as  a  whole  has  worsened.  In  the  countries  involved  in  the 
OECD  Survey  of  Adult  Skills  (PIAAC)  2012,  between  4.9%  and  27.7%  of  adults  are 
proficient  at  only  the  lowest  levels  in  literacy  and  8.1%  to  31.7%  are  proficient  at  only  the 
lowest  levels  in  numeracy.  44%  of  the  EU  population  have  low  or  no  (19%)  digital 
competences.8  

Competence  needs  are  not  static;  they  change  throughout  life  and  across  generations.  It  is 
therefore  important  to  make  sure  that  all  young  people  and  adults  have  the  opportunity  to 
aquire the required competences in initial education and training, higher education, continious 
professional training, adult education or different forms of non-formal and informal learning. 

In response to the current competence gaps in society, the 'Pillar of Social Rights' underlines 
as its first principle that "(e)veryone has the right to quality and inclusive education, training 
and life-long learning in order to maintain  and acquire skills that enable them to participate 
fully in society and manage successfully transitions in the labour market." The Pillar of Social 
Rights  emphasises  the  "relevance  of  education  and  skills  for  successful  participation  in  the 
labour  market  and  for  social  cohesion.  It  emphasises  opportunities  to  maintain  and  acquire 
skills.  This  entails  flexible  opportunities  for  learning  and  re-training  which  should  be 
available at all times throughout a person's life and working career, including early childhood, 
initial, further, higher and adult education and training systems."9  

In  the  Rome  Declaration  of  25  March  2017,  27  Member  States  pledged  to  work  towards  a 
Union  "where  young  people  receive  the  best  education  and  training  and  can  study  and  find 
jobs across the continent."10 Building on the May 2017 Education package11 and contributing 
to  the  'New  Skills  Agenda  for  Europe'12,  the  Review  of  the  2006  Recommendation  on  Key 
competences for Lifelong Learning addresses the opportunities and challenges of the future of 
learning in the context of competence development in lifelong learning perspective.  

The  2006  Recommendation  of  Key  Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning  supported  the 
development  of  competence-oriented  teaching  and  learning  and  related  curricula  reforms. 
Competence-oriented educational concepts and curricula focus on the outcomes of a learning 
process but also on the application of that learning in new or different contexts. Competences 
include more than knowledge and understanding and take into account the ability to apply that 
when performing a task (skill) as well as how – with what mind-set – the learner approaches 
that  task  (attitude).  Competence-oriented  education  is  regarded  as  advantageous  in  a  time 
when the knowledge base of our societies is developing at an immense speed and when the 
skills  required  need  to  be  transferred  to  and  developed  in  many  different  societal  contexts, 
including those unforeseen in the future.  

6 OECD (2016), PISA 2015 Results; European Commission (2016), Pisa 2015: EU performance and initial 
conclusions regarding education policies in Europe 
7 European Commission (2015) Being young in Europe today - digital world 
8 Education and Training Monitor 2016, p. 81 
9 European Commission's Digital Scoreboard 2017, based on Eurostat data for 2016 
10 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/03/25/rome-declaration/ 
11 COM (2017) 248, COM (2017) 247 
12 COM (2016) 381 

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Moving  to  a  competence-oriented  approach  in  education,  training  and  learning  represents  a 
paradigm  shift.  It  impacts  not  only  on  the  structure  of  curricula,  but  also  changes  the 
organisation of learning. Implementing competence-oriented education, training and learning 
requires  often  cross-curricular  approaches,  a  greater  emphasis  on  interactive  learning  and 
teaching styles, combining formal with non-formal and informal learning, more collaboration 
with non-education stakeholders and local community, a new role of the teacher, trainer and 
educator in guiding learning processes as well as new approaches to assessment. 

Eleven years after its adoption, the review of the Recommendation on Key Competences for 
Lifelong  Learning  aimed  to:  a)  evaluate  the  impact  of  the  Recommendation;  b)  look  at  the 
appropriateness  of  the  European  Reference  Framework  with  its  competence  descriptions  in 
relation  to  changing  economic  and  social  contexts;  and,  c)  analyse  the  experiences  made  in 
implementing  competence-oriented  education,  training  and  learning.  It  also  asked  what 
support  the  EU  in  particular  can  provide  to  enhance  competence  development  of  European 
people. 

The proposed Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning repeals 
and  replaces  the  2006  Recommendation.  This  Staff  Working  Document  provides  evidence 
and  additional  background  information  to  the  Proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on 
Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. 

  Chapter  2  summarises  the  objectives  of  the  2006  Council  Recommendation  on  Key 
Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning  in  its  timely  context.  It  also  looks  at  the  ways 
Member States have implemented the Recommendation during the last decade. It analyses 
seven  national  competence  frameworks  used  in  Member  States  to  define  learning 
outcomes, indicating the ways competences are defined in curricula development. It also 
provides a comparison with other international competence frameworks.  

  Chapter 3 summarises the main findings of the consultation process, in general and with 
regard to the individual competences as defined in the European Reference Framework of 
Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. 

  Chapter  4  presents  the  proposed  changes  to  the  Recommendation  providing  evidence  to 
support  both  the  recommendations  to  Member  States  and  Commission,  the  changes 
proposed  for  the  Reference  Framework  on  Key  Competences  and  the  good  practices  to 
support the development of key competences for lifelong learning.  

  Chapter  5  looks  at  ways  to  better  support  the  use  of  the  European  Framework  of  Key 
Competences for Lifelong Learning, looking at the challenges and barriers experienced in 
the  implementation  of  the  2006  Recommendation.  Key  elements  are  the  creation  of  a 
variety  of  learning  approaches,  environments  and  contexts  that  foster  competence 
development,  the  support  to  the  educational  staff,  and  the  development  of  assessment 
methods and strategies that help better assessing and validating key competences. In this 
way, Chapter 5 provides more insight and background information on the good practices 
set out in the annex to the Recommendation.. 

  Chapter 6 presents a range of concrete practice examples which might inspire initiatives to 

foster key competence development in different areas of education and training. 

5 

 
 
 
 
 
2. The objectives and the impact of the 2006 Recommendation on Key 
Competences 

Adapting education and training systems better to the future competence needs is a recurring 
challenge. Already the Lisbon Council in 2000 requested to define the ‘new basic skills’13 and 
the Education and Training 2010 work programme, adopted in 2002, included an objective on 
“developing skills for a knowledge society”14.  

This  chapter  presents  the  objectives  of  the  Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  for 
Lifelong Learning in its political and timely context. It analyses its impact at national levels, 
but also looks at national and international competence framework to demonstrate the variety 
of  competence  definitions  and  to  assess  the  relevance  of  competence  definitions  for  future 
education, training and learning. 

It  confirms  that  there is  a  need  to  up-date  competence  frameworks  regularly  to  better  adapt 
them to societal needs and to better structure education and training curricula. The European 
Reference  Framework  is  here  no  exception.  A  key  finding  is  also  that  while  competence 
frameworks address a comparable set of competences, the terminology and definitions chosen 
show a great variety. This variety depends on the projected use, but also on the target group 
and on the geographical region. 

A  European  Reference  Framework  needs  to  be  sufficiently  broad  to  cover  all  education, 
training and learning sectors, including non-formal learning, and to respond to the variety of 
education  and  training  systems  in  Europe.  It  also  needs  to  be  sufficiently  specific  to  be  of 
added value. As a reference tool for Member States, for education providers, for stakeholders 
and for learners, it needs adaptation to the concrete circumstances in which it is used. 

2.1 The objectives of the 2006 Recommendation on Key Competences 

In the early 2000s, more and more European countries made efforts to shift from knowledge 
solely  to  a  broader  competence  approach  in  national  curricula.  The  adoption  of  the  2006 
Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning  and  its  annexed  European 
Reference Framework of Key Competences for Lifelong Learning was therefore very timely 
to support this process and provide a common reference document.  

The  Recommendation  invited  Member  States  to  ensure  that  initial  education  and  training 
offers all young people the means to develop the key competences to a level that equips them 
for adult life. Adults should be able to develop and update their key competences throughout 
their lives. In addition, the Recommendation underlined the need to provide extra support to 
people  with  educational  disadvantages  caused  by  personal,  social,  cultural  or  economic 
circumstances. 

The Reference Framework formed a key element of the Council Recommendation as it was 
conceptualised as a reference tool for Member States in defining national education, training 
and learning policies. In line with the ambition to better cater for future competence needs and 
in  order  to  respond  to  the  challenges  defined  by  the  Lisbon  Council,  the  Reference 
Framework  included  not  only  traditional  subject  areas,  but  in  addition  defined  also  those 
competences that enable people to pursue learning throughout lives, contribute to democratic 

13 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm 
14 OJ C 142, 14.6.2002 

6 

 
 
 
                                                            
societies and to succeed in today's and tomorrow's world.15  

The  European  Reference  Framework  of  Key  Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning  defined 
eight key competences: 

  Communication in the mother tongue; 
  Communication in foreign languages; 
  Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology; 
  Digital competence; 
  Learning to learn; 
  Social and civic competences; 
  Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship; and 
  Cultural awareness and expression. 

These  key  competences  are  all  considered  equally  important.  They  are  conceptualised  as  a 
combination  of  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  and  the  definition  of  each  key  competence 
states  the  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  relevant  for  it.  This  approach  supported  the 
definition of learning outcomes and its translation into curricula or learning programmes.16 

  Knowledge  –  facts  and  figures,  concepts,  ideas  and  theories  which  are  already 

established und support the understanding of a certain area or subject; 

  Skills – ability and capacity to carry out processes and use the existing knowledge to 

achieve results; 

  Attitudes - disposition and mind-sets to act/ react to ideas, persons or situations17; in 
the  European  Framework  of  Key  Competences  also  including  values,  thoughts  and 
beliefs; 

The definition of the individual competences and their related knowledge, skills and attitudes 
overlap and interlock; they reinforce each other. The original formulation also listed a number 
of 'transversal themes' applied throughout the Reference Framework such as critical thinking, 
creativity,  initiative,  problem  solving,  risk  assessment,  decision  taking,  and  constructive 
management. These 'transversal themes' are regarded as relevant to all key competences. 

With  this  approach,  the  Recommendation  aimed  to  support  the  move  from  a  rather  static 
conception of curricular content (defining what a learner needs to learn) to a more dynamic 
definition  of  the  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  a  learner  needs  to  gain.  Agreeing  on  a 
European  Reference  Framework  was  a  key  step;  the  reference  tool  constituted  a  common 
understanding  among  Member  States.  The  recommendations  to  Member  States  and  to  the 
Commission  remained  rather  general,  inviting  Member  States  to  make  sure  that  especially 
young people have the chance to develop these competences.  

The Recommendation played also an important role in defining the objectives of the Lifelong 
Learning  Programme  (2007-2013),  the  predecessor  programme  of  Erasmus+.  Especially  in 
the  area  of  school  education,  contributing  to  the  acquisition  of  key  competences  was  an 
important priority for the programme.18 

15 Commission SWD (2012)371 
16  European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice 2012, Developing Key Competences at School in Europe: Challenges 
and opportunities in Europe, p. 19  
17 See also OECD (2016) Education 2030: Draft Discussion Paper on the progress of the OECD Learning 
Framework 2030; the OECD approach addresses 'values' as a separate category from attitudes 
18 http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-programme_en 

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The European Commission continued the work on the Reference Framework by setting up an 
ET2010  Working  Group  on  the  Assessment  of  Key  Competences;  the  results  of  this  work 
were  published  in  2012  in  a  SWD  on  the  'Assessment  of  Key  Competences  in  initial 
education and training: Policy Guidance'.19 

2.2 Impact of the Recommendation on Key Competences 

Since its adoption, the European Framework of Key Competences has been accepted and used 
by  many  Member  States  and  stakeholders.  It  has  influenced  reforms  and  strategic 
developments  in  formal  education  and  training,  as  well  as  non-formal  learning,  across 
European Union and even beyond Europe. The Joint Progress Report of the Council and the 
European  Commission  in  2010  recognised  the  Framework  as  a  contributory  factor  in  the 
increasing shift towards competence orientation of European teaching and training systems.20 
The Reference Framework acted as a reference point, but also helped to develop a common 
understanding,  at  a  European  level,  of  the  benefits  of  a  competence-oriented  approach  to 
education. 

Its role in Member States’ implementation of educational reforms is documented in a range of 
studies  and  reports.  This  includes  the  findings  of  KeyCoNet,  a  European  policy  network, 
which  aims  to  support  the  use  of  the  Reference  Framework  in  school  education.  Its 
publication  'Key Competence Development in Europe  -  Catalogue of Initiatives' presents  50 
initiatives  in  European  countries  in  the  last  years  that  are  closely  linked  to  the  European 
Framework  of  Key  Competences  in  Europe.21  A  Eurydice  Report  from  2012  also  looked 
especially  at  the  use  of  the  Reference  Framework  in  school  education,  concluding  that 
Member  States  adopted  different  approaches  to  guide  and  support  competence  oriented 
education  in  schools  with  a  number  of  countries  having  developed  national  strategies  to 
support  competence  development  at  least  in  some  of  the  key  competences  identified  by  the 
European Framework.22  

In  vocational  education  and  training,  key  competences  have  received  increased  attention  in 
curricula  and  standards.  While  evidence  for  this  is  not  as  strong  as  in  the  school  education 
sector, it can be stated that increasingly, countries include basic skills and key competences in 
their VET offers. According to CEDEFOP, more than 50% of countries have included in 2014 
key competences in the level descriptors of their National Qualification Frameworks (NQF23), 

http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/LLp/comenius/comenius_en.php  
19 SWD(2012)371 
20 EC/Council (2010). 2010 Joint progress report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of 
the Education and Training 2020 work programme, 2010/C 117/01. 
21 Key Competence Development in Europe. Catalogue of Initiatives, http://keyconet.eun.org 
22 European Commission/ EACEA/ Eurydice, 2012, Developing Key Competences at School in Europe: Challenges 
and Opportunities for Policy 
23 The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) is a translation tool that helps communication and comparison 
between qualifications systems in Europe. Its eight common European reference levels are described in terms 
of  learning  outcomes:  knowledge,  skills  and  competences.  This  allows  any  national  qualifications  systems, 
national  qualifications  frameworks  (NQFs)  and  qualifications  in  Europe  to  relate  to  the  EQF  levels.  Learners, 
graduates, providers and employers can use these levels to understand and compare qualifications awarded in 
different 
See 
https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/search/site?f%5B0%5D=im_field_entity_type%3A97  

education 

countries 

different 

systems. 

training 

and 

and 

by 

8 

 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                                                          
which signal that they can be developed in the VET programmes. Including key competences 
in NQF level descriptors also means embedding, and, eventually, assessing them.24 

The  Reference  Framework  has  also  been  used  in  adult  education  reforms  across  Member 
States. Some examples of adult education guidelines based on the eight competences include 
the  common  set  of  professional  knowledge  and  competences  (“socle  de  connaissances  et 
compétences  professionnelles”)25  developed  in  France  since  2014;  "White  Paper  on 
Programme Planning"26 used by all Volkshochschulen in Vienna, Austria; rural adult literacy 
programmes in Slovenia; recent reforms in Portugal and Norway.  

With its initial focus on upper secondary level education, the References Framework was less 
influential in the area of higher education. 
In non-formal learning the Youthpass,27 based on the Reference Framework, is the European 
tool  to  improve  the  recognition  of  the  learning  outcomes  of  young  people  and  youth 
workers/leaders from their participation in projects supported by the EU Erasmus+/Youth in 
Action Programme. The Youthpass is also part of a broader European Commission strategy 
which aims to enhance the recognition of non-formal and informal learning and of youth work 
in Europe and beyond to facilitate a better match between skills and labour demand, promote 
the transferability of skills between companies and sectors and help people move around the 
EU to study and work.  

Furthermore,  the  importance  of  the  key  competences  in  regard  to  youth  work  were 
strengthened  in  the  Council  Conclusions28  on  the  role  of  youth  work  in  supporting  young 
people's  development  of  essential  life  skills  that  facilitate  their  successful  transition  to 
adulthood,  active  citizenship  and  working  life  of  May  2017.  The  Council  Conclusions 
underline the importance to promote and support a cross-sectoral approach in helping young 
people acquire and develop the necessary competences to facilitate their successful transition 
to  adulthood,  active  citizenship  and  working  life  and  to  ask  to  ensure  that  these  Council 
Conclusions  contribute  to  the  review  of  the  Recommendation  of  Key  Competences  for 
Lifelong  Learning  with  a  view  to  strengthening  and  being  consistent  with  the  life  skills 
dimension in the European Framework of Key Competences. 

The  EU  Youth  Conference  in  2016  concluded  in  joint  recommendations  of  the  Structured 
Dialogue  on  Youth  and  asked  EU  Institutions  and  the  Member  States  to  develop  or  further 
implement  evidence  based  policy  and  practice  that  aim  to  continually  improve  the  skills  of 
young  people  to  critically  evaluate  and  process  information  through  both  formal  and  non-
formal education. 

However,  it  is  difficult  to  isolate  the  role  of  the  Framework  from  that  of  many  other 
influential  factors,  including  other  international  competence  frameworks.  Most  commonly, 

24 CEDEFOP (2015) Stronger VET for better lives. Cedefop’s monitoring report on vocational education and 
training policies 2010-14, http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/publications/3067. 
See also Excerpts from country reports on “Key competences in vocational education and training”, CEDEFOP 
2016, http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/country-reports/key-competences-in-vet  
25 Journal Officiel de la République Française (2015) Décret n° 2015-172 du 13 février 2015 relatif au socle de 
connaissances et de compétences professionnelles. 
26 Weißbuch Programmplanung (2009) Die Wiener Volkshochschulen GmbH/Institut EDUCON 
27 https://www.youthpass.eu/en/ 
28 Council Conclusions on the role of youth work in supporting young people's development of essential life 
skills that facilitate their successful transition to adulthood, active citizenship and working life - Council 
Conclusions (22 May 2017) - 8033/17 JEUN 46 EDUC 140 SPORT 23 EMPL 190 SOC 250 

9 

 
 
                                                            
evidence  indicates  that  the  Reference  Framework  indirectly  influenced  on  the  overarching 
aims, educational policies, and programmes rather than on the detailed content of legislative 
and associated curricular changes.29  

2.3 Key competences in national competence frameworks 

National  competence  frameworks  exist  in  several  Member  States,  mainly  addressing 
competence development up to secondary education level. They are covering a broad set of 
key  competences  relevant  to  education  and  training.  In  the  context  of  the  review,  a  study 
focused on the following competence frameworks30: 

  Estonia – National Curriculum for basic skills, amended in 2014 
  Finland – National Core Curriculum for Basic Education 2014 
  Belgium  (Flanders)  –  Cross-curricular  final  objectives  in  mainstream  secondary 

education 

  France  –  Décret  no.  2015-372  du  31  mars  2015  relatif  au  socle  commun  de 

 
 

connaissance, de compétence et de culture 
Ireland – Key Skills of Junior Cycle and Senior Cycle Key Skills Framework 
Italy – National Operational Programme 2014-2020 'For the school', competences for 
learning 

  Netherlands – Ons Onderwijs 2032 (January 2016) 
  Portugal - Perfil dos alunos à saída da escolaridade obrigatória 

A comparative analysis of these national competence frameworks confirms that the European 
Framework  of  Key  Competences  has  been  used  as  an  inspiration,  but  that  the  variety  of 
definitions  reflects  also  the  need  to  adapt  competence  definitions  to  national  circumstances 
and the way competence frameworks are supposed to be used. 

  The frameworks tend not to distinguish between communication in the mother tongue 
and in foreign languages, but focus on “communication” in general. Only the Italian 
framework  makes  an  explicit  distinction  between  the  mother  tongue  and  foreign 
languages.  The  Dutch  framework  specifies  that  the  languages  which  the  students 
should master are Dutch and English. 

  The  approach  to  mathematical  competence  and  basic  competences  in  science  and 
technology  is  surprisingly  varied.  Whereas  some  frameworks  tend  to  take  a  similar 
approach  than  the  Reference  Framework  and  define  a  competence  in  the  area  of 
mathematics and science, other look at the languages of mathematics and science.  
  With  respect  to  digital  competence,  several  frameworks  define  a  specific  'digital 
competence'  with  some  variation  in  the  terminology  used  (digital  competence,  ICT 
competence, digital literacy, citizenship and digital creativity). But digital competence 
is  in  others  also  treated  as  part  of  the  language/communication  area.  For  instance, 
France includes digital tools under 'Methods and tools for learning', and also takes a 

29 'Final report on a literature review of reforms related to 2006 European Framework of Key Competences for 
lifelong learning and role of the Framework in these reforms', European Commission, 2017. 
30 For more detailed information on the different frameworks see European Commission (2017), Support of the 
stakeholder Consultation in the context of the Key Competences Review, Report 1: Comparative Analysis of 
national and international competence frameworks 

10 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
language approach, including informatics language under 'Languages for thinking and 
communicating'.  

  Learning  to  learn,  or  methods  and  tools  for  learning,  is  explicitly  included  in  about 
half  the  frameworks.  In  Finland,  learning  skills  are  combined  with  critical  thinking 
into multiliteracy, “the competence to interpret, produce and make a value judgement 
across  a  variety  of  different  texts  which  will  help  the  pupils  to  understand  diverse 
modes of cultural communication and to build their personal identity”.  

  Social  and  civic  competences  are  largely  included  in  all  frameworks,  but  the 
terminology used varies a lot. Some countries take a straight-forward approach similar 
to  the  EU  framework:  social  and  citizen  competence  (Estonia),  personal  and  citizen 
development  (France),  whereas  this  area  in  most  of  the  other  frameworks  is  spread 
over several competences/skills. Generally, the competence covers three main aspects: 

o  “civic”  in  the  sense  of  “citizenship”,  with  concepts  such  as  “participation, 
involvement  and  building  a  sustainable  future”  (Finland),  political-legal 
society/socio-economic 
(Flanders),  active 
citizenship (Italy) 

society/socio-cultural 

society 

o  social  relationships,  including  respect  for  diversity  (Italy);  empathy,  respect, 
working  together,  responsibility,  considerateness  (Flanders),  working  with 
others (Ireland), interpersonal relationships (Portugal) 

o  physical  and  mental  well-being,  including  “taking  care  of  oneself”  (Finland), 

“managing myself” and “staying well” (Ireland)  

  Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship as a separate competence is only present in a 
few of the frameworks – Estonia, Italy, Finland (in the latter combined with “working 
life  competence”).  Initiative  is  a  personal  skill  covered  by  the  “common  trunk”  in 
Flanders, whereas the Irish framework refers to “being personally effective”. 

  Cultural  awareness  and  expression  is  comprehensively  covered  in  all  frameworks, 
except  the  Irish  framework.  Again,  the  terminology  and  the  degree  to  which  this  is 
considered  as  one  competence  or  several,  varies.  The  Estonian  and  Finnish 
frameworks refer to it as “cultural and value competence” and “cultural competence, 
interaction and self-expression”, respectively. In several frameworks, this is linked to 
language in the broader sense (languages of the arts, language and culture), and also to 
representations  of  the  world  and  human  activity  (France),  and  aesthetic  and  artistic 
sensibility (Portugal).  

  Finally, a specific competence which should be mentioned is financial literacy, which 
is not part of the Reference Framework. This is covered under the Finnish framework 
as consumer skills and personal finance skills, while the Italian framework specifically 
mentions financial literacy. 

Transversal  elements  (such  as  those  described  in  the  original  Recommendation)  are  also 
present in Member States frameworks. "Critical and creative thinking" is the most pervasive 
of  these.  It  is  explicitly  mentioned  as  a  skill  or  competence  in  the  frameworks  of  Ireland, 
Netherlands and Portugal, but is generally covered in most of the frameworks (for instance in 
relation  to  learning to  learn). "Reasoning"  and "problem  solving"  are  similarly  quite  widely 
included. "Self-management" in various forms is also included in several frameworks, either 
as a separate skill or as part of social and civic competences. The Dutch framework includes 
"cooperation"  as  an  interdisciplinary  skill,  but  this  aspect  is  also  covered  under  social  and 
civic  competences  in  several  frameworks.  "Initiative"  may  also  be  seen  as  a  transversal 
element which may or may not be linked directly to entrepreneurship.  

11 

 
 
The following table provides an overview of the different definitions of key competences in 
national frameworks; the analysis of the variety of definitions at national level also impacted 
on the results of the review of key competences.  

12 

 
 
 
Comparison of Member States frameworks with the Key Competences Framework 

Key Competences 
Framework 

Communication in 
the mother tongue 

Estonia 

Finland 

Flanders 

France 

Ireland 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Communication 
competence 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Common trunk 
(communicative 
ability), but 
otherwise not 
explicitly covered 

Languages for 
thinking and 
communicating 

Communicating 
(junior and senior 
cycle) 

Information 
processing (senior 
cycle) 

Basic 
competences – 
communication 
in the mother 
tongue 

Language skills 
(Dutch) 

Languages and 
texts 

Information and 
communication 

Communication in 
foreign languages 

Communication 
competence 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Common trunk 
(communicative 
ability), but 
otherwise not 
explicitly covered 

Languages for 
thinking and 
communicating 

Not explicitly 
covered (possibly 
integrated in the 
same categories 
as comm. in 
mother tongue) 

Basic 
competences – 
communication 
in foreign 
languages 

Language skills 
(English) 

Languages and 
texts 

Mathematical 
competence and 
basic competences 
in science and 
technology 

Mathematics, 
natural sciences 
and technology 
competence 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Natural and 
technical systems 

Communicating 
(junior cycle – 
using numbers 
and data), but 
otherwise not 
explicitly covered 

Basic 
competences – 
mathematics 

Basic 
competences – 
scientific field 

Numeracy 

Science 

Languages and 
texts 

Technical 
knowledge and 
technology 

Citizenship and 
digital creativity 

Digital literacy 

Information and 
communication 

Communicating 
(junior cycle – 
using digital 
techn. to 
communicate) 

Languages for 
thinking and 
communicating 
(mathematical, 
scientific and 
informatics 
languages) 

Methods and 
tools for learning 
(digital tools) 

13 

Digital 
competence 

Digital 
competence 

ICT competence 

Not explicitly 
covered 

 
 
Key Competences 
Framework 

Estonia 

Finland 

Flanders 

France 

Ireland 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Managing 
information 
(junior cycle) 

Information 
processing (senior 
cycle) 

Methods and 
tools for learning 

Being creative 
(junior cycle) 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Autonomy and 
personal 
development 

Learning to learn 

Learning to learn 
competence 

Thinking and 
learning to learn 

Social and civic 
competences 

Social and citizen 
competence 

Multiliteracy 
(critical thinking 
and learning skills) 

Participation, 
involvement and 
building a 
sustainable future 

Taking care of 
oneself and 
managing daily life 
(incl. well-being, 
health and safety) 

Common trunk 
(incl. 
perseverance, 
explore, open and 
constructive 
attitude) 

Learning to learn 

Common trunk 
(incl. empathy, 
respect, working 
together, 
responsibility, 
considerateness) 

Physical health 
and safety 

Mental health 

Socio-relational 
development 

Political-legal 
society 

Managing 
information and 
thinking (junior 
cycle) 

Being personally 
effective (senior 
cycle) 

Managing myself 
(junior cycle) 

Staying well 
(junior cycle) 

Working with 
others (junior and 
senior cycle) 

Global 
citizenship – 
Wellbeing, 
correct lifestyle 
and sport 

Global 
citizenship – 
civics, respect 
for diversity and 
active 
citizenship 

Personal and 
citizen 
development 

14 

Social studies  

Citizenship 

Interpersonal 
relationships 

Well-being and 
health 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Key Competences 
Framework 

Estonia 

Finland 

Flanders 

France 

Ireland 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Socio-economic 
society 

Socio-cultural 
society 

Sense of initiative 
and 
entrepreneurship 

Entrepreneurship 
competence 

Working life 
competence and 
entrepreneurship 

Common trunk 
(initiative) 

Not explicitly 
covered 

Being personally 
effective (senior 
cycle – initiative) 

Entrepreneur-
ship education 

Cultural 
awareness and 
expression 

Cultural and 
value competence 

Cultural 
competence, 
interaction and 
self-expression 

Socio-relational 
development 
(cultural and 
artistic 
manifestations) 

Languages for 
thinking and 
communicating 
(languages of the 
arts) 

Representations 
of the world and 
human activity 

Other 
competences/ 

skills 

Self-management 
competence 

Taking care of 
oneself and 
managing daily life 
(incl. using 
technology 
responsibly; 
consumer and 
personal finance 
skills) 

Common trunk 

Political-legal 
society 

Socio-economic 
society 

Socio-cultural 
society 

Working life 
competence 

15 

Not explicitly 
covered  

European 
citizenship 

Language and 
culture 

Languages and 
texts 

Critical and 
creative thinking 
(senior cycle) 

Cultural, artistic 
and landscape 
heritage 

Integration and 
hospitality 

Global 
citizenship:  

Interdisciplinary 
skills: 

Creativity 

Critical thinking 

Problem solving 

Cooperation 

Food education 
and territory 

Environmental 
education 

Economic 
citizenship 
(economic, 
consumer, 
financial 
literacy) 

Aesthetic and 
artistic 
sensibility 

Reasoning and 
problem 
solving 

Critical 
thinking and 
creative 
thinking 

Awareness and 
control of the 
body 

 
 
 
 
 
 
2.4 National strategies or reforms in education influenced by the European 
Framework of Key Competences for Lifelong Learning 

While  not  all  Member  States  developed  national  competence  frameworks,  most  Member 
States  have  national  strategies  or  large-scale  initiatives  to  especially  promote  some  the  key 
competences.  In  2011/2012  nearly  all  Member  States  had  a  strategy  to  promote  digital 
competence,  but  also  literacy,  science  and  entrepreneurship  competences  were  strongly 
supported by targeted initiatives or strategies in Member States.31 

Examples  for  national  reforms  inspired  by  the  Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  for 
Lifelong  Learning  are  almost  solely  found  within  the  school  and  VET  sectors.  Comparable 
reforms in adult education and in higher education are largely missing.  
The European Reference Framework contributed to the development of a 'quality threshold'.32 
The  following  examples  illustrate  this;  Member  States  used  the  European  Reference 
Framework explicitly as a resource and reference for initiatives or reforms: 

  The state educational programmes in Slovakia refer to the European Framework and 
the framework also directly influenced two key polices in Slovakia: Curricular reform 
in  regional  schooling  introduced  by  the  Education  Act  (245/2008);  and  Lifelong 
learning strategies adopted by the government between 2007 and 2011.  

  Spain’s  Organic  Act  on  Education  2/2006  (LOE)  was  also  influenced  by  the 
Framework.  The  term  ‘basic  competence’  was  first  introduced  in  the  Act,  and  was 
defined  in  line  with  the  text  used  in  the  Council’s  Recommendation  on  Key 
Competences.  
In  Poland,  the  Strategy  for  the  Development  of  Education  in  the  years  2007  –  2013 
envisaged  curriculum  changes  with  more  emphasis  on  the  development  of  key 
competences, implemented in 2009. 

 

  Belgium  (Flanders)’s  cross-curricular  final  objectives  for  mainstream  secondary 
education  which  was  implemented  in  2010  was  also  inspired  by  the  EU  Key 
Competences Framework.  

With regard to VET there are references to key competences in a range of recent reforms in 
Member States. Overall, there seems to be increasing attention to career management skills in 
VET to empower young people to make informed decisions and ease transition to the labour 
market;  more  than  20  countries  reported  adjustments  or  new  initiatives  to  introduce  career 
management  skills  in  curricula,  standards  and  qualifications.  Also,  entrepreneurship 
competence seems to be at the core of key competence development in VET.33 The following 
table provides an overview covering a selected number of countries. 

31 European Commission/ EACEA/ Eurydice, 2012, Developing Key Competences at School in Europe: Challenges 
and Opportunities for Policy, p.14 
32 European Commission (2017), Support of the stakeholder Consultation in the context of the Key 
Competences Review, Report 1: Comparative Analysis of national and international competence frameworks, 
p.8. 
33 CEDEFOP (2016), Key competences in Vocational Education and Training 

16 

 
 
 
                                                            
Key competences in vocational education and training34 
Member 
State 

Highlights of Key Competences in VET 

Estonia 

Key competences are defined as general education studies within VET. The key 
competences that are essential to each programme (speciality) in VET are described 
in national VET curricula as modules. For example, language and literature, 
mathematics, foreign language, natural science subjects, social subjects, and 
entrepreneurship are all separate modules within the VET curricula. The key 
competences that are integrated in all vocational specialties are: learning to learn, 
digital competence, civic competence, sense of initiative and entrepreneurship and 
cultural awareness. 

The volume of key competences varies by VET programme.  

Finland 

Key competences for lifelong learning have been fully taken into consideration in 
upper secondary VET provision.  

Upper-secondary VET is made of three components: vocational units, common units 
and free-choice units. Key competences have been nationally adapted and included in 
the common units which can be divided into four categories that are compulsory for 
all VET programmes. The common units are: communication and interaction 
competence, mathematical and natural science competence, social and labour market 
competence, and social and cultural competence.  

The competences are included in the objectives of core subjects and the requirements 
of vocational qualification modules and their assessment criteria. 

Belgium 

In Belgium, key competences are central to compulsory education from age 6 to 18, 
including initial VET. Most of the key competences have been taken into 
consideration in upper secondary VET provision with the exception of learning to 
learn, and cultural awareness and expression. 

In  general,  learning  to  learn  is  seldom  taken  into  account  in  education  policies  in 
Belgium. Cultural awareness and expression competences are not promoted in upper 
secondary VET in Belgium. 

France 

VET programmes consist of vocational and general (e.g. French, history, geography 
and civic education, mathematics, a modern foreign language, etc.) courses. The key 
competences are included in the general courses that are defined (syllabi) and 
examined nationally. 

All  of  the  eight  key  competences  have  been  taken  into  consideration  in  upper 
secondary VET provision. 

34 Source: CEDEFOP (2016) Excerpts from country reports on “Key competences in vocational education and 
training”, http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/country-reports/key-competences-
in-vet 

17 

 
 
                                                            
Member 
State 

Ireland 

The 
Nether-
lands 

Highlights of Key Competences in VET 

The role of key competences in education and training in Ireland is not confined to 
the VET sector alone. All legislation and policy documents deal with key 
competences across a range of levels and programme types (e.g. NFQ levels and 
VET, general or mixed programmes). As a result, the role of key competences in 
VET programmes is implicit rather than explicit: because many of the qualifications 
awarded to those completing further education and training programmes call for 
minimum achievement in most of the eight key competences, the courses will 
inevitably include at least some of the key competences. 

All eight key competences can be found in the initial VET curricula, albeit not under 
a separate heading or in a standardised form.   

Since 2012, English and math have been compulsory subjects in VET at level 4 [the 
highest of the four qualification levels], even if they are not a part of occupational 
profile. Competences in science and technology are included only if mastering of 
these subjects is required by the occupational standards (national qualifications 
framework). The same is true for digital competence. 

VET law states that vocational training has to support occupational career, citizenship 
and further learning, hence, learning-to-learn and interpersonal, intercultural and 
social competences as well as civic competence are compulsory elements of all VET 
curricula since the 1996 VET law. 

Entrepreneurship is also promoted in VET but it is compulsory only for some VET 
programmes, for example in retail. Cultural expression is not a compulsory subject in 
VET, except for programmes preparing for occupations in the cultural sector (for 
example, design, artist, audio-visual productions). 

Portugal  Most key competences, as defined in the 2006 EU framework, are implicitly present 

in VET curricula. Mother tongue, foreign languages, maths, science, technology, 
digital competences are called differently. Other competences such as learning to 
learn, social and civic competences, entrepreneurship, and cultural awareness and 
expression may be considered as partially included in curricula of some VET 
programmes, especially those for young people. 

Upper secondary VET for young people lack national regulations with clear rules for 
implementation  of  the  eight  key  competences.  Nevertheless,  most  of  them  are 
developed through the subjects. Key competences for adults in upper secondary VET 
are  also  part  of  the  curricula.  However,  they  do  not  include  all  eight  key 
competences. 

18 

 
 
 
 
2.5 Comparison of other international frameworks 

There is a range of international competence frameworks which provide additional insight in 
the concepts of competences and ways to define them. 

A  comparison  of  these  competence  frameworks  demonstrates  some  common  features:  All 
competence frameworks refer to the need to adapt to change, to deal with complexity and to 
respond  to  fast  changing  digital  and  technological  environments.  They  highlight  changing 
competences  needs  in  future  and  supporting  the  development  of  these  competences  is  the 
main starting point and justification for the frameworks.  

All frameworks combine a set of different competences, partly within a limited thematic focus 
or  for  a  specific  target  group.  They  all  go  beyond  cognitive  skills  and  emphasise  non-
cognitive skills, attitudes or values. The latter are regarded as having a positive effect on e.g. 
employment  outcomes  and,  at  the  same  time,  can  be  formed  by  education,  training  and 
learning35. Using different terminology, they all define knowledge, skills and attitudes as key 
elements  of  a  competence.  Also,  the  so-called  transversal  skills,  such  as  critical  thinking, 
creativity and problem solving, feature prominently in all competence frameworks. 

The main difference between the cited frameworks can be seen in the fact that some of them 
address  a  limited  range  of  competences  and  do  not  aim  to  form  a  comprehensive  basis  for 
curriculum  development  in  education  and  training.  This  leads  to  different  approaches  in 
structuring the competence frameworks and with emphasising certain skills or attitudes. 

Among the most known international competence frameworks are: 

  The OECD Key Competencies (DeSeCo)36 framework which focuses on three very 
broad  categories  of  competences:  using 
in 
heterogeneous groups and acting autonomously. While not defining cognitive skills or 
knowledge, it highlights reflective thoughts and actions.  

interactively, 

interacting 

tools 

  The  OECD  Global  Competency37  framework  from  2016  which  goes  beyond  the 
DeSeCo  approach  by  looking  at  knowledge  and  understanding  of  global  and 
intercultural  issues,  skills  (analytical  and  critical  thinking,  ability  to  interact 
respectfully,  empathy  and  flexibility)  and  attitudes  (openness,  respect  for  cultural 
otherness, global mindedness and responsibility). It aims to provide a starting point for 
the  PISA  2018  assessment  which  aims  to  add  'global  competence'  to  literacy, 
mathematical and science competences.  

  The  P21  framework  (Partnership  for  21st  century  learning)38,  is  a  US  framework 
which aims to describe in a comprehensive manner the skills, knowledge and expertise 
students must master in work and life. It divides competences in 'key subjects and 21st 
century  themes',  'learning  and  innovation  skills',  'information,  media  and  technology 

35 Cognitive skills are defined as the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the 
environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by 
taking thought. Non-cognitive skills are rather seen as patterns of thought, feelings and behaviours that are 
socially determined and can be developed throughout the lifetime. Non-cognitive skills comprise personal 
traits, attitudes and motivations. UNESCO (2016), Background paper prepared for the 2016 Global Education 
Monitoring Report, Education for people and planet: Creating sustainable futures for all. Non-cognitive skills: 
Definitions, measurement and malleability, p. 2. 
36 www.oecd.org/pisa/35070367.pdf  
37 OECD: Global competency for an inclusive world, 2016 
38 www.p21.org/our-work/p21-framework The Partnership for 21st Century Skills is a public-private 
organisation and members are among others big IT companies such as Apple, CISCO, Microsoft and Dell. The US 
Department for Education is a partner of the organisation.  

19 

 
 
                                                            
skills',  and  'life  and  career  skills'.  Its  ambition  might  be  closest  to  the  European 
Framework  of  Key  Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning,  trying  to  define  a  basis  for 
curriculum  development  especially  in  school  education.  The  presentation  of  the  P21 
Framework  is  also  combined  with  the  presentation  of  a  wide  range  of  tools  and 
guidebooks to help its use by policy makers, teachers and parents. 

  The  World  Economic  Forum  framework39  which  is  clearly  targeted  at  the  skills 
needed  in  a  future  labour  market  –  “the  21st  century  marketplace”.  It  looks  at 
'foundational literacies' such as literacy, numeracy, and ICT, at competencies such as 
critical  thinking  and  creativity,  and  at  'character  qualities'  such  as  curiosity  and 
initiative. 

  The  Council  of  Europe  Competences  for  Democratic  Culture40  which  focuses  on 
competences  needed  to  participate  effectively  in  a  culture  of  democracy,  and  to  live 
peacefully together with others in culturally diverse democratic societies. It describes 
values,  attitudes,  skills  and  knowledge  and  critical  understanding,  covering  a  wide 
range of intercultural, civic, social and transversal competences. 

  The  UNESCO  Intercultural  Competences  Framework41  which  assesses  the 
competences  needed  to  live  in  a  globalised  world.  Intercultural  competences  are 
communicative competences (language,  dialogue,  non-verbal  behaviour) and cultural 
competences  (identity,  values,  attitudes  and  beliefs).  The  framework  underlines  that 
none  of  the  competences  can  stand  alone,  but  must  be  considered  in  relation  to  one 
another. 

  The  UNESCO  Global  Framework  of  Learning  Domains42  which  was  developed 
2012/2013  by  an  international  working  group  aiming  to  define  the  competences  all 
children  and  young  people  need.  In  its  design  it  covers  early  childhood  education, 
primary  and  post-primary  education;  more  specialised  competences  in  secondary 
education are excluded. Being strongly linked to the Sustainable Development Goals, 
the  framework  tries  to  form  the  basis  for  developing  'learning  indicators  for  global 
tracking’.  They  are  supposed  to  measure  fundamental  learning  opportunities 
applicable to all countries worldwide. Equity in access to learning and assessment of 
learning outcomes play a key role in this context. 

Currently,  the  OECD  is  implementing  a  project  on  Future  of  Education  and  Skills 
Education  2030  which  focuses  on  developing  a  new  international  Conceptual  Learning 
Framework on key competences, building on the DeSeCo framework. This new Framework 
shall define knowledge, skills, attitudes and values for the three transformative competences 
(Creating  new  value;  Taking  responsibility;  Coping  with  tensions  and  dilemmas)  which 
OECD regards as essential in 2030. It will focus on secondary school education only. 

Going beyond the concept of 'competence frameworks', UNESCO published in 2014 'Guiding 
Principles  for  Learning  in  the  Twenty-first  Century'.43  These  guiding  principles  address  a 

39 World Economic Form and Boston Consulting Group, New Vision for Education: Unlocking the potential of 
Technology, 2015 
40 Council of Europe, Competences for Democratic Culture: Living together as equals in culturally diverse 
societies, 2016 
41 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002197/219768e.pdf 
42 UNESCO, Centre for Universal Education at Brookings, Towards Universal Learning. Recommendations from 
the Learning Matrix Task Force, September 2013 
43 UNESCO International Bureau of Education, Guiding Principle for Learning in the Twenty-first Century, 
Guiding Principle for Learning in the Twenty-first Century, Geneva 2014 

20 

 
 
                                                            
range of competences and attitudes which are partly also tackled throughout the competence 
frameworks  mentioned  above:  academic  honesty,  information  literacy,  critical  thinking, 
creativity,  STEM  (science,  technology,  engineering  and  mathematics)  learning,  concepts-
focused  learning,  health  and  mindfulness,  service  learning,  learning  support,  assessment. 
Focus of the guiding principles is not so much on the definition of the competence, but rather 
on the approach to  help children and young people to  acquire these  competences. They can 
support the definition of learning outcomes. 

The  following  table  provides  an  overview  of  competence  definitions  in  the  mentioned 
international competence frameworks. 

21 

 
 
 
Comparison of international frameworks with the Key Competences Framework44 

Key 
Competences 
Framework 

OECD Key 
Competencies 

OECD Global 
Competency 

P21 
Partnership 
for 21st 
century 
learning 

WEF 21st 
Century Skills 

Council of 
Europe 
Competences 
for 
Democratic 
Culture 

Communicatio
n in the mother 
tongue 

Ability to use 
language, 
symbols and texts 
interactively 

Ability to interact 
respectfully, 
appropriately and 
effectively 

Linguistic, 
communicative 
and plurilingual 
skills 

Literacy 

Communication 

Knowledge and 
critical 
understanding of 
language and 
communication 

Key subjects: 
English, world 
languages, arts, 
mathematics, 
economics, 
science, 
geography, 
history, 
government and 
civics. 

Communication 
and collaboration 

UNESCO 
Global 
Framework of 
Learning 
Domains 

UNESCO 
Intercultural 
Competences. 
Conceptual 
and 
Operational 
Framework. 
45 

Communicative 
competence 

Language 

Literacy and 
languages 

Communicatio
n in foreign 

Ability to use 
language, 

Ability to interact 
respectfully, 

Linguistic, 
communicative 

Literacy 

English, world 
languages, arts, 

Communicative 
competence 

Literacy and 

44 European Commission (2017), Support of the stakeholder Consultation in the context of the Key Competences Review, Report 1: Comparative Analysis of national and 
international competence frameworks, p. 17 
45 The UNESCO Intercultural Competences Framework provides two broad sets of competences, culture and communication. Each set of competences are made up of 
several concepts. These concepts do no stand alone, rather they should be understood in relation to one another. In the table, we attempted to place as many of the 
concepts as possible.  

22 

 
 
                                                            
Key 
Competences 
Framework 

OECD Key 
Competencies 

OECD Global 
Competency 

P21 
Partnership 
for 21st 
century 
learning 

WEF 21st 
Century Skills 

Council of 
Europe 
Competences 
for 
Democratic 
Culture 

languages 

symbols and texts 
interactively 

appropriately and 
effectively 

and plurilingual 
skills 

Communication 

Knowledge and 
critical 
understanding of 
language and 
communication 

Ability to use 
technology 
interactively 

 -  

 -  

Numeracy 

Scientific literacy 

Mathematical 
competence 
and basic 
competences in 
science and 
technology 

Digital 
competence 

Ability to use 
technology 
interactively 

 -  

 -  

ICT Literacy 

mathematics, 
economics, 
science, 
geography, 
government and 
civics. 

Communication 
and collaboration 

English, world 
languages, arts, 
mathematics, 
economics, 
science, 
geography, 
history, 
government and 
civics. 

Information 
literacy, Media 
Literacy, ICT 
Literacy 

UNESCO 
Global 
Framework of 
Learning 
Domains 

UNESCO 
Intercultural 
Competences. 
Conceptual 
and 
Operational 
Framework. 
45 

Language 

languages 

 -  

Numeracy and 
mathematics 

Science and 
technology 

 -  

 -  

23 

 
 
Key 
Competences 
Framework 

OECD Key 
Competencies 

OECD Global 
Competency 

P21 
Partnership 
for 21st 
century 
learning 

WEF 21st 
Century Skills 

Council of 
Europe 
Competences 
for 
Democratic 
Culture 

UNESCO 
Global 
Framework of 
Learning 
Domains 

UNESCO 
Intercultural 
Competences. 
Conceptual 
and 
Operational 
Framework. 
45 

Learning to 
learn 

Ability to use 
knowledge and 
information 
interactively 

Analytical and 
critical thinking  

Autonomous 
learning skills 

Analytical and 
critical thinking 
skills 

Critical 
thinking/problem 
solving 

Critical thinking 
and problem 
solving 

 -  

Social and civic 
competences 

Ability to relate 
well to others 

The ability to co-
operate and work 
in teams 

The ability to 
manage and 
resolve conflicts 

The ability to 
defend and assert 
rights, interests, 
limits and needs 

Dialogue 

Knowledge and 
understanding of 
global issues 

Ability to interact 
respectfully, 
appropriately and 
effectively 

Global-
mindedness 

Co-operation 
skills 

Cultural and civic 
literacy 

Conflict-
resolution skills 

Social and 
cultural awareness 

Collaboration 

Valuing 
democracy, 
justice, fairness, 
equality and the 
rule of law 

Civic-mindedness 

Knowledge and 
critical 
understanding of 
the world 

Key subjects: 
English, world 
languages, arts, 
mathematics, 
economics, 
science, 
geography, 
history, 
government and 
civics. 

Global awareness 

Civic Literacy 

Communication 
and collaboration 

Social and 
cross-cultural 

24 

Learning 
approaches 
and cognition 

Social and 
emotional 

Physical well 
being 

 
 
Key 
Competences 
Framework 

OECD Key 
Competencies 

OECD Global 
Competency 

P21 
Partnership 
for 21st 
century 
learning 

WEF 21st 
Century Skills 

Council of 
Europe 
Competences 
for 
Democratic 
Culture 

UNESCO 
Global 
Framework of 
Learning 
Domains 

UNESCO 
Intercultural 
Competences. 
Conceptual 
and 
Operational 
Framework. 
45 

Sense of 
initiative and 
entrepreneursh
ip 

Ability to form 
and conduct life 
plans and 
personal projects 

 -  

Self-efficacy 

Creativity  

Leadership 

Creativity 

 -  

skills 

Financial, 
Economic, 
Business and 
Entrepreneurial 
Literacy 

Creativity and 
innovation 

Initiative and 
self-direction 

Leadership and 
responsibility 

Cultural 
awareness and 
expression 

 -  

Curiosity 

Social and 
cultural awareness 

Intercultural 
knowledge and 
understanding 

Openness towards 
people from other 
cultures 

Respect for 
cultural otherness 

Valuing cultural 
diversity 

Openness to 
cultural otherness 
and to other 
beliefs, world 
views and 
practices 

Knowledge and 

25 

Social and cross-
cultural skills 

Intercultural 
citizenship 

Culture and the 
arts 

Intercultural 
competences 

Intercultural 
dialogue 

Intercultural 
literacy 

 
 
Key 
Competences 
Framework 

OECD Key 
Competencies 

OECD Global 
Competency 

P21 
Partnership 
for 21st 
century 
learning 

WEF 21st 
Century Skills 

Council of 
Europe 
Competences 
for 
Democratic 
Culture 

critical 
understanding of 
the world 

Other 
competences/ 

skills 

The ability to act 
within the big 
picture 

Empathy 

Flexibility 

Responsibility 

Flexibility and 
adaptability 

Empathy 

Responsibility 

Respect 

Skills of listening 
and observing 

Valuing human 
dignity and 

Financial literacy  

Persistence/grit 

Adaptability 

Financial, 
Economic, 
Business and 
Entrepreneurial 
Literacy  

Health Literacy 

Environmental 
Literacy 

Flexibility and 
adaptability 

26 

UNESCO 
Global 
Framework of 
Learning 
Domains 

UNESCO 
Intercultural 
Competences. 
Conceptual 
and 
Operational 
Framework. 
45 

Cultural 
shifting: The 
cognitive and 
behavioural 
capacity of an 
interculturally 
competent 
person to shift 
or switch 
language, 
behaviour or 
gestures. 

Values, beliefs 
and attitudes. 

Reflexivity: 
Ability to step 
outside one’s own 
experiences to 
reflect 
consciously upon 
then, considering 
what is 
happening, what it 
means, and how 

 
 
 
Key 
Competences 
Framework 

OECD Key 
Competencies 

OECD Global 
Competency 

UNESCO 
Global 
Framework of 
Learning 
Domains 

P21 
Partnership 
for 21st 
century 
learning 

WEF 21st 
Century Skills 

Productivity and 
accountability 

Leadership and 
responsibility 

Council of 
Europe 
Competences 
for 
Democratic 
Culture 

human rights 

Tolerance of 
ambiguity 

Knowledge and 
critical 
understanding of 
the self 

UNESCO 
Intercultural 
Competences. 
Conceptual 
and 
Operational 
Framework. 
45 

to respond.  

Liquidity: a state 
of near constant 
change, with 
consequences for 
the ability of 
individuals to 
cope with change. 

27 

 
 
3. Results from the stakeholder consultation  

In  2016,  the  Commission  initiated  a  broad  consultation  process  on  the  review  of  the 
Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning.  Starting  with  the  Education, 
Training and Youth Forum in October 2016, a series of dedicated consultation meetings and 
expert  seminars  have  been  held.  The  review  was  broadly  discussed  with  Member  States 
representatives in the ET 2020 High Level Group meeting, the meetings of Director Generals 
for school education, vocational education and training,  and higher education as  well as  the 
Advisory Committee for Vocational Education and Training, the Cultural Affairs Committee 
and the Youthpass advisory group meeting.46  

The consultation process was concluded with a conference on the Key Competences Review 
which took place in Brussels on 14 June 2017. Main findings of this process were that there is 
both  a  need  for  supporting  the  use  of  the  European  Reference  Framework  for  Key 
Competences and to update parts of it in order to make sure that it remains a relevant policy 
tool.  Another  important  conclusion  was  to  strengthen  its  relevance  also  for  vocational 
education and training, higher education, adult learning and non-formal learning in a lifelong 
learning perspective.  

This chapter summarises the key findings of the consultation process. A complete report on 
the consultation process can be found on the consultation website.47 

3.1 Public on-line consultation 

An  online  public  consultation  was  open  from  22  February  till  19  May  2017  resulting  in 
almost 500 responses and 69 position papers. Contributions to the public consultation show a 
good coverage of education ministries and a broad range of non-governmental stakeholders. 
Out of the 489 respondents, 69% answered the questionnaire in their personal capacity, while 
31% answered on behalf of an organisation.48 

46  Meetings  included:  ET  2020  High  Level  Group  on  Education  meeting  (Bratislava,  June  2016),  ETY  Forum 
consultation  (Brussels,  October  2016),  Expert  seminar  of  the  revision  of  the  Key  Competence  Framework 
(Brussels, November 2016), Cultural Affairs Committee (Brussels, November 2016), ET 2020 High Level Group 
on  Education  meeting  (Malta,  November  2016),  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  Citizenship  Education  (Brussels, 
November 2016), ET 2020 Directors General Schools Meeting (Bratislava, December 2016), Youthpass advisory 
group meeting (Brussels, February 2017), two meetings with expert on foresight as part of Study: Prospective 
Platform – Key Competences for the next generation (Brussels, February and April 2017), Directors General HE 
meeting  (March,  2017),  Advisory  Committee  on  VET  meeting    -  covers  both  VET  and  Adult  learning  (April, 
2017),  Conference  of  EU  policy  networks  in  the  field  of  school  education  (Brussels,  April  2017),  Directors 
General  Schools  Meeting  (Malta,  April  2017),  Directors  General  VET  meeting  -  covers  both  VET  and  Adult 
learning (May, 2017), and Conference on the Key Competence Framework (Brussels, 14 June 2017). 
47 https://ec.europa.eu/education/consultations/lifelong-learning-key-competences-2017_en 
48  However,  in  Spain  and  Italy  81% and  89%,  respectively, answered  in  their personal  capacity,  while  for  the 
other countries almost half of the respondents replied on behalf of an organisation. The geographical spread of 
the  respondents  showed  overall  a  high  response  rate  from  Spain  and  Italy;  the  two  countries  are  home  to 
almost  half  of  the  respondents,  most  of  them  answering  in  their  personal  capacity.  Another  large  group  is 
Belgium with 12% of the responses, most likely due to many organisations having their offices there. The rest 
are  divided  unevenly  among  the  remaining  Member  States  and  EEA  countries  with  strong  participation  also 
from  Ireland,  France,  and  Portugal.  These  imbalances  have  been  taken  into  account  when  analysing  the 
responses. 

28 

 
 
                                                            
Data on the background and main area of activity indicate the high level of expertise in the 
field with most respondents working in the area of education, training and learning. 87% of 
respondents stated that their main area of activity was education and training, including non-
formal  learning  and  informal  learning.  Only  5%  indicated  that  their  main  area  was 
employment, while 8% answered “other”.  

44%  of  the  respondents  work  in  education  and  training  institutions,  while  24%  work  for  a 
public authority or government and 11% in NGOs. All geographical levels were represented 
in  the  survey  –  from  local  to  European.  The  biggest  group  were  those  at  the  national  level 
(45%). 

Previous experiences with the European Reference Framework 

Almost  90%  of  respondents  knew  about  the  Reference  Framework  before  the  survey,  and 
most  (85%)  knew  it  as  an  EU  level  instrument.  A  little  more  than  half  of  the  respondents 
(52%) had come into contact with the Reference Framework at work, 22% during education 
or training, and 7% in the context of youth work.  

Two-thirds (67%) had used the framework in their daily work life, and out of these 59% felt it 
added value to their work or life. However, 36% did not respond to this question. Just over a 

29 

 
 
 
 
 
quarter (26%) of the respondents indicated that it had been “a useful guidance tool”, 15% felt 
it had supported curriculum development, and 11% indicated that it had supported teaching. 

Position Papers 

The  on-line  consultation  also  allowed  for  the  submission  of  position  papers.  19  position 
papers were submitted by public authorities including 5 national ministries for education and 
6  governmental  agencies  in  the  areas  of  education,  training,  guidance  and  qualifications. 
Other  position  papers  were  submitted  by  civil  society  organisations,  education  and  training 
institutions, professional organisation or individuals. 

3.2. Main findings during the consultation process 

There  was  general  agreement  among  participants  in  the  consultation  process  that  the 
European Key Competences Framework has been a useful guidance tool in education, training 
and  youth  work,  with  most  take  up  in  the  school  sector,  where  it  supported  and  inspired 
curriculum developments and reforms.  

The results from the on-line consultation also showed some shortcomings with less than 20% 
of the respondents answering that the Reference Framework was easy to use in their context. 

What are the main strengths of the current Framework as a whole? 

30 

 
 
 
 
What are the main weaknesses of the current Framework as a whole? 

Need for change 

Two  thirds  of  the  participants  in  the  on-line  consultation  indicated  that  the  European 
Reference Framework needed only minor changes, and these were mainly in relation to either 
addition  of  competences  currently  missing  in  the  Framework  or  changes  to  definitions  of 
individual competences, rather than changes to the structure of the Framework.  

Many contributors stressed the importance of having a reference framework for all education 
and training sectors – including non-formal and informal learning – and the need to focus on 
the  life-long  learning  perspective.  They  also  underlined  the  need  to  put  more  emphasis  on 
transversal skills throughout the Reference Framework. 

Furthermore,  contributors  pointed  to  a  need  for  more  alignment  and  synergies  with  other 
international  frameworks,  particularly  the  competence  frameworks  of  the  OECD  and  the 
Council  of  Europe,  as  well  as  the  UNESCO  global  citizenship  education  and  the  UN 
Sustainable Development Goals. 

Making the Key Competences approach more operational 

For  supporting  the  future  use  of  the  Reference  Framework,  contributors  highlighted  the 
following themes:  

31 

 
 
 
 
 
  Developing  detailed  reference  frameworks  –  namely  for  competences  that  needed 
more  explanation,  such  as  personal  and  social,  civic,  and  cultural  awareness  and 
expression;  

  Developing  guidelines  to  support  competence  based  teaching  and  learning  in 
educational  practice.  This  in  particular  refers  to  support  for  teachers  in  delivering 
competence based teaching and ways of organizing learning;  

  Assessment – developing practices to assess key competences that may not necessarily 
correspond  to  established  individual  subjects  such  as  those  currently  covered  by  the 
PISA measurements; and 

  Mutual learning and collaboration between policy makers and practitioners on the use 

of the key competence approaches in education, training and learning. 

3.3 Findings per key competence 

Most  participants  in  the  online  consultation  found  that  the  competence  definitions  are  still 
relevant  and  adequate.  Analysing  the  position  papers  as  well  as  the  findings  during  the 
consultation  meetings  alters  this  first  impression  of  an  overall  agreement.  Here  participants 
outlined more precisely the points that require change or adaption to new terminology.  

32 

 
 
 
Communication competences 

The  communication  competences  cover  two  of  the  current  framework’s  competences: 
communication in the mother tongue and communication in foreign languages. In the on-
line consultation, a high proportion of survey respondents agreed with the current definitions 
of the competences (80% for mother tongue, 72% for foreign languages).  

However, an issue that came up frequently during the consultation process was whether the 
distinction  between  the  two  competences  should  be  re-considered.  Input  papers  and 
statements during consultation events pointed especially to the ambiguity of the concepts of 
"mother tongue" and "foreign language" in view of increased mobility, migration, and bi- or 
multilingualism in families across Europe. Participants also stressed that multilingualism and 
cultural  diversity  were  important  issues  that  should  be  considered  in  the  new  reference 
framework.  

In  addition,  stronger  focus  should  be  put  on  literacy  and  on  language  development  overall. 
This may include taking a broader perspective of what, nowadays, constitutes competence in 
languages,  considering  specialised  or  academic  language  or  developments  in  digital 
communication. 

33 

 
 
 
 
Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology 

With  respect  to  mathematical  competence,  66%  of  the  survey  respondents  agreed  that  the 
current  definition  was  adequate.  64%  agreed  also  with  the  current  definition  of  the  science 
and technology competences.  

Input  papers  and  other  consultation  events  pointed  especially  to  the  need  to  stress 
sustainability  issues,  and  to  strengthen  the  environmental  sustainability  and  sustainable 
development  dimension  across  competences  (science  and  technology,  civic,  social  and 
personal  development,  entrepreneurship).  Several  position  papers  also  called  for  more 
prominence to STEM-related competences in general. 

Digital competence 

The  respondents  in  the  public  consultation  felt  the  definition  of  digital  competence  and  its 
related  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  was  in  need  of  an  update.  Only  61%  felt  that  the 
current  definition  was  adequate.  More  than  two-thirds  thought  that  the  definition  should  be 
aligned  with  the  European  Digital  Competence  Framework  (DigComp).  Input  papers  and 
other  consultation  events  also  stressed  the  need  for  alignment  with  DigComp,  and  to 
emphasise digital media literacy and critical thinking. 

Learning to learn  

Learning to learn is seen as a competence in its own right but many participants also focused 
on learning to learn as a transversal element that is linked to all the other competences. Two 
thirds  of  the  survey  respondents  agreed  that  the  current  definition  of  learning  to  learn  was 
adequate.  Input  papers  and  other  consultation  events  point  especially 
to  personal 
development, critical thinking, interpersonal skills, career management skills and 'learning to 
learn' for lifelong learning as important issues to be taken on board. 

Social and civic competence 

Social  and  civic  competences  are  grouped  together  as  one  competence  in  the  current 
framework; many stakeholders felt that this competence area was quite broad. In the survey, 
more  than  two  thirds  of  respondents  agreed  that  the  current  definition  of  social  competence 
and  of  civic  competence  were  both  adequate.  However,  only  40%  agreed  that  European 
values were adequately presented in the definition.  

Many  stakeholders  pointed  out  during  the  consultation  process  that  the  global  and 
intercultural  dimension  should  be  strengthened  in  the  new  reference  framework.  The  civic 
competence received a lot of attention with a high number of input papers, and there is clearly 
a need for this competence to gain more prominence in the new framework. Input papers and 
other  consultation  events  referred  to  the  Paris  Declaration  and  the  Council  of  Europe  and 
UNESCO Frameworks as sources of inspiration. There were also comments about the need to 
strengthen critical thinking, active democratic participation and sustainable development.  

Sense of initiative & entrepreneurship 

Along with digital competence, the entrepreneurship competence had the lowest proportion of 
survey  respondents  that  agreed  that  the  current  definition  was  adequate  (62%),  and  a  small 
majority  agreed  that  the  definition  should  be  aligned  with  the  European  Entrepreneurship 
Competence  Framework,  EntreComp.  Input  papers  stressed  the  need  for  aligning  the  new 
framework with EntreComp, as well as the importance of innovation, creativity, risk-taking, 
teamwork, and of using the term entrepreneurship in its broader sense, i.e. not just focusing on 
commercial entrepreneurship. 

34 

 
 
Cultural awareness and expression 

As  for  most  of  the  other  competences,  two  thirds  of  the  survey  respondents  agreed  that  the 
current definition was adequate, but only 55% agreed that the definition adequately reflected 
the development of different cultural ideas, values and forms and the diverse range of media. 
Input papers and other consultation events pointed to the outcomes of the Working group on 
cultural awareness and expression (2014-2015) and the Council Conclusions on a Work Plan 
for  Culture (2015-2018),  as  well  as the  need  to include  modern  (including  digital)  forms  of 
cultural expression, inter-cultural awareness, and the global perspective. 

Transversal elements 

All  of  the  consultation  activities  generally  pointed  to  the  need  to  strengthen  transversal 
elements. In the survey, 72% agreed that skills such as critical thinking, decision-making and 
problem  solving  should  be  more  prominent  in  the  new  framework.  In  fact,  throughout  the 
various consultation activities, critical thinking was strongly emphasised as perhaps the most 
important skill that should be prominent across the new framework.  

Sustainability was a theme raised by many stakeholders as an aspect that is currently missing; 
they felt it could be included as an element in several of the existing competences, or even as 
new  competence  area.  Other  separate  elements  that  came  up  multiple  times  included  career 
management, financial literacy, and physical literacy.  

35 

 
 
 
 
4. The proposal for a Recommendation on Key Competences for 
Lifelong learning  

According to the main findings of the consultation process, future work on the concept of Key 
Competences for Lifelong Learning needs to focus on the following elements: 

  Supporting learners of all ages and in all education and training sectors, including non-
formal  and  informal  learning,  better  in  developing  key  competences  for  lifelong 
learning; 

  Up-dating  the  Reference  Framework  to  current  and  future  needs  to  make  sure  that 

people can develop the competences they need; 

  Outlining measures to promote competence-oriented education, training and  learning 
in lifelong learning perspective, namely by creation of suitable learning environments, 
support  for  teachers  and  other  educational  staff,  and  assessment  and  validation  of 
competence development.  

During the review it was also highlighted that the scope of the Recommendation needs to span 
clearly  from  early  childhood  education  and  care  to  adult  education,  reflecting  the  need  to 
support competence development in a lifelong learning perspective. This chapter summarises 
the  key  elements  of  the  proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  for 
Lifelong Learning.  

4.1 Recommendations to Member States and Commission 

The  recommendations  to  Member  States  and  Commission  focus  on  initiatives  and  actions 
needed  to  strengthen  competence-oriented  education,  training  and  learning  and  to  support 
learners in their competence development throughout their lives. They are based on the results 
of  the  public  consultation  and  recent  studies  and  literature  reviews.  They  are  written  with  a 
clear understanding of the variety of situations in Member States and in different education, 
training and learning settings. While some Member States work since years with own national 
competence frameworks, others are currently developing or up-dating such frameworks. 

Overall,  Member  States  are  asked  to  support  the  right  to  quality  and  inclusive  education, 
training  and  lifelong  learning  and  to  reinforce  opportunities  for  the  development  of  key 
competences  and  basic  skills  for  all.  Challenges  exist  especially  with  regard  to  the  lifelong 
learning  perspective  and  the  support  of  disadvantaged  learners.  Development  of  key 
competences needs to start at early age and to continue throughout life. Measures to improve 
competence development need to reach all learners, independently from their background and 
individual capacities.  

The  Recommendation  maintains  the  concept  of  a  broad  set  of  key  competences  needed  for 
personal fulfilment, employability and social inclusion. It also refers explicitely to the need to 
increase the level of achievement of basic skills (literacy, numeracy and basic digital skills) 
both as a basis for further learning and to reinforce competence development in other areas. 
Research  shows  that  increasing  basic  skills  and  increasing  competence  levels  overall  are 
mutually  reinforcing  processes;  moreover,  countries  which  have  competence  oriented 
education,  training  and  learning  in  place  perform  better  in  basic  skills49.  It  furthermore 
recommends  that  Member  States  pay  special  attention  to  fostering  the  acquisition  of 

49 OECD (2016), PISA results 2015  

36 

 
 
 
                                                            
competences in sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM); to increasing the 
level  of  digital  competence;  to  fostering  development  of  entrepreneurship  competence 
especially  among  young  people,  including  by  promoting  opportunities  for  entrepreneurial 
experiences;  and  to  increasing  the  level  of  languages  competences  and  support  learners  to 
learn different languages. Member States are in addition recommended to  to mainstream the 
ambitions of the UN Sustainable Development Goals into education, training and learning and 
to  report  on  experiences  and  progress  in  promoting  key  competences  in  all  education  and 
training sectors, including non-formal learning. 

In addition to an up-dated description of the eight key competences, the annex also sets out 
good  practice  examples  including  the  promotion  of  a  variety  of  learning  approaches  and 
contexts; strengthen support to educational staff; support the development of assessment and 
validation  of  key  competences;  reinforce  collaboration  between  education,  training  and 
learning  settings  at  all  levels;  and  reinforce  tools,  resources  and  guidance  in  education, 
training, employment and other learning settings to support people in managing their lifelong 
learning pathway.  

To  illustrate  a  variety  of  learning  approaches  and  contexts  the  annex  provides  examples  of 
innovative  learning  methodologies,  such  as  inquiry  based,  experimental  learning  and  cross-
discipline learning. In addition, it stresses the added-value of cross-sectoral cooperation and 
partnerships between education and training institutions and external actors such as business, 
arts, sport and youth community, higher education or research institutes.  

Most  Member  States  face  challenges  in  implementing  competence  oriented  education, 
training  and  learning,  e.g.  translating  competence  based  curricula  into  teaching  practice.  To 
make  this  happen,  educational  staff  i.e.  teachers,  trainers,  teacher  educators,  leaders  of 
education and training institutes, employees in charge of training colleagues, researchers and 
university lecturers, youth workers and adult educators play a decisive role. Educational staff 
therefore  needs  adequate  support  that  can  be  provided  for  example  in  their  initial  education 
and continuing professional development, peer exchange or via guidance tools and materials 
created to enhance competence oriented education, training and learning. Member States are 
recommended to invest in this as a crucial step to improve competence development. 

Also assessment has a powerful impact on what is taught and learned and which competences 
are  developed.  Recommendations  to  Members  States  in  relation  to  assesment  ask  for 
developing assesment strategies and improving the validation of learning outcomes acquired 
through non-formal learning.  

Member States have the sole competence for the content and structure of their education and 
training  systems.  Commission  initiatives  can  therefore  only  complement  and  support  the 
activities  of  Member  States.  To  provide  targeted  and  useful  support  to  Member  States,  the 
Commission intends to work in close cooperation with Member States and embed this work in 
the Strategic Framework for Cooperation in Education and Training. 

The  Commission  proposes  to  work  in  close  cooperation  with  Member  States  on  targeted 
reference material, guidelines and tools to support competence development. This can include 
also the development of competence frameworks for specific competences, support tools for 
teachers, trainers and educators as well as guiding material on supportive learning approaches 
and  contexts.  Important  work  needs  to  be  done to  further  develop  further  approaches  to  the 

37 

 
 
assessment  of  key  competences  following  up  on  previous  work  on  the  assessment  of  key 
competences in the context of ET202050. 

The  Commission  also  proposes  to  support  initiatives  to  develop  and  promote  education  for 
sustainable  development  with  regards  to  the  UN  Sustainable  Development  Goal  4  on 
inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all51. 

The Commission intends to strengthen the monitoring of the development of key competences 
based  both  on  existing  surveys  on  competence  development  (e.g.  PISA,  PIAAC,  TIMSS, 
PIRLS as well as data collection in language learning, digital competence, civic competence) 
and  structural  indicators  providing  information  on  the  measures  implemented  to  support 
competence development.  

It  will  consider  the  possibility  to  develop  a  scoreboard  on  the  provision  of  competence-
oriented education, training and learning and on competence development in the Union; it will 
be developed in line with next cycle of the strategic framework for European cooperation in 
education and training. 

4.2 Changes to the European Reference Framework of Key Competences 

This chapter presents the changes to the Reference Framework. They reflect the findings of 
the  public  consultation  as  well  as  conclusions  drawn  from  the  comparison  of  national  and 
international frameworks.  

As in 2006, key competences are defined as a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes. 
The proposal for a revised European Reference Framework of Key Competences for Lifelong 
Learning lists now the following key competences: 

  Literacy competence; 
  Languages competence; 
  Science, technological, engineering and mathematical competence; 
  Digital competence; 
  Personal, social and learning competence; 
  Civic competence; 
  Entrepreneurship competence; and 
  Cultural awareness and expression competence. 

Changes to individual competences concern the following points: 

  A  good  level  of  literacy  is  the  basis  for  the  development  of  key  competences. 
However,  underperformance  in  literacy  is  still  a  widespread  phenomenon  in  all  age 
groups in Europe. Literacy can be developed in the mother tongue, in the language of 
schooling and/or the official language of a country or a region. The 'communication in 
the  mother  tongue'  competence  is  changed  into  'Literacy'  competence  to  further 
highlight  the  importance  of  literacy  in  at  least  one  language  and  to  address  literacy 
demands  in  the  context of  today's  globalized  society  with its  migration  and  mobility 
trends.  

50 SWD (2012) 371 
51 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4 

38 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
  Learning  languages  and  being  able  to  communicate  in  more  than  one  language 
remains one of the key competences for lifelong learning. The focus of the 'Languages 
competence' is on improving the development of linguistic competences and stressing 
the importance of learning languages as a tool for communication within multilingual 
societies and work environments.  

  While the description of the necessary key competences in mathematics, science and 
technology reflects well today's requirements, more needs to be done to support their 
acquisition  and  to  motivate  especially  young  people  to  enter  careers  in  science, 
technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). The description stresses the nature 
of science as a process and a way of thinking, underlining the plea that everyone needs 
an  understanding  of  scientific  thinking  to  cope  with  the  wealth  of  information,  data 
and  interpretations  offered.  The  title  of  the  'Mathematical  competence  and  basic 
competences in science and technology' has been aligned with the more prominently 
used 
technological,  engineering  and  mathematical 
terminology  of 
competences (STEM)'. 

'Science, 

  To respond to the fast changing digital and technological environments, the definition 
of digital competence is updated and aligned with the Digital Competence Framework 
developed  by  JRC52.  In  addition,  emerging  issues,  such  as  robotics  and  artificial 
intelligence are included. Media literacy and critical thinking, especially in relation to 
the usage of social media, are strengthened.   

  Personal and interpersonal skills, sometimes referred to as 'life skills', socio-emotional, 
'soft skills', or 'transversal skills', have become more important in today's society. They 
can respond to the growing needs of individuals to deal with uncertainty and change, 
remain  resilient,  develop  personally  and  build  successful  interpersonal  relations. 
Personal,  social  and  learning  competence  encompasses  elements  of  the  previous 
'learning  to  learn'  and  'social  competence'.  The  skills  such  as  critical  thinking, 
teamwork,  intercultural  skills  and  problem  solving  are  further  strengthened  in  the 
Framework overall.  

  The  civic  competence  is  given  more  prominence  and  further  highlights  the  role  of 
citizenship,  democratic  values  and  human  rights  in  today's  increasingly  connected 
global societies. Understanding of the need to support sustainable societies, economies 
and  ecosystems,  as  well  as  practice  sustainable  lifestyles  is  a  key  element  of  this 
competence.  It  is  important  to  empower  individuals  to  act  as  responsible,  active 
citizens able to contribute to peaceful, tolerant, inclusive and secure societies. In this 
context, media literacy and intercultural skills are further strengthened. 

  The  up-dated  definition  of  entrepreneurship  competence  is  aligned  with  the  JRC 
Entrepreneurship  Competence  Framework53.  In  addition,  creativity  and  the  ability  to 
plan  and  manage  processes  are  highlighted  as  essential  dimensions  of  an 
entrepreneurial mind-set.  

  Cultural awareness and expression competence is revised to take into account a wider 
range of contemporary forms of cultural expression and also to more clearly describe 
how this competence is a crucial element in understanding, developing and expressing 
ideas and one’s place or role in society – in other words, a fundamental part of being 

52 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/digital-competence-framework 
53 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/entrecomp 

39 

 
 
                                                            
able to view and shape the world with a sense of identity that is constructed in relation 
to  others.  Positive  and  open-minded  attitudes  towards  other  cultures  and  cultural 
differences are highlighted. 

40 

 
 
 
 
 
Underlying concepts 

The descriptions of these key competences follow concepts such as sustainability, European 
common  values,  including  gender  equality  and  equal  opportunities,  openness  to  cultural 
diversity,  creativity  and  innovation,  and  media  literacy.  The  paragraphs  below  clarify  the 
understanding used here. 

  Sustainability 

Following the  UN  Decade  of  Education  for  Sustainable  Development  (2005  –  2014)  and  in 
line  with  the  UN  Sustainable  Development  Goals54,  the  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes 
"needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for 
sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion 
of  a  culture  of  peace  and  non-violence,  global  citizenship  and  appreciation  of  cultural 
diversity  and  of  culture’s  contribution  to  sustainable  development"  are  further  stressed 
throughout the reference framework.  

The  knowledge  needed  to  understand  the  requirements  of  sustainable  development  can  be 
mainly covered by competences in science, civic competences and entrepreneurship, whereas 
relevant skills  form part  of all  competences. They include interdisciplinary  and intercultural 
understanding;  participatory  and  collaborative  skills;  the  ability  to  reflect  on  one's  own 
position  and  take  different  perspectives;  effective  communication;  critical  reflection; 
initiative-taking  and  problem-solving;  taking  responsibility;  empathy,  compassion  and 
solidarity.  A  related  description  of  attitudes  can  also  be  found  across  the  whole  Reference 
Framework, notably within science and technologies, civic competence, and entrepreneurship.  

  European common values, including gender equality and equal opportunities  

As  expressed  in  the  article  2  of the  Treaty  on European  Union55,  European  common  values 
are respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for 
human  rights,  including  the  rights  of  persons  belonging  to  minorities,  pluralism,  non-
discrimination,  tolerance,  justice,  solidarity  and  equality  between  women  and  men.  These 
values  are  further  strengthened  by  the  Charter  of  Fundamental  Rights  of  the  European 
Union56.  

In  the  field  of  education,  the  Paris  Declaration  on  Promoting  citizenship  and  the  common 
values  of  freedom,  tolerance  and  non-discrimination57  calls  for  promotion  of  inclusion  and 
fundamental values in education, training and learning through continued cooperation at EU-
level.  The  Strategic  engagement  for  gender  equality  2016-201958,  preceded  by  the 
Commission  Strategy  for  equality  between  women  and  men  2010-2015,  sets  the  framework 
for  the  Commission's  future  work  towards  improving  gender  equality.  Recent  Council 

54 United Nations, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, Transforming our 
world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 
http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E ; 
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4 
55 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12012M%2FTXT  
56 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT  
57 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/news/2015/documents/citizenship-
education-declaration_en.pdf  
58 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/document/files/strategic_engagement_en.pdf  

41 

 
 
 
                                                            
Conclusions on Inclusion in Diversity to achieve a High Quality Education For All59 promote 
equal opportunities for all learners throughout education, training and learning.  

References  to  common  European  values  appear  in  civic  competences,  but  also  cultural 
awareness and expression. 

  Openness to cultural diversity 

The Paris Declaration on Promoting citizenship and the common values of freedom, tolerance 
and  non-discrimination  through  education60  and  the  ET  2020  Joint  Report  of  November 
201561  have  underscored  the  need  to  deepen  the  role  of  education  to  ensure  that  learners 
acquire solid social, civic and intercultural competences. 

Openness  to  cultural  diversity  and  intercultural  understanding  includes  an  understanding  of 
one's own cultural identity within local and national contexts, where the languages, traditions 
and  social  relations  may  be  the  same,  similar  or  different  to  one's  own  heritage  and 
experiences. This understanding of one's own cultural identity is also situated within a world 
of cultural diversity, whether or not those cultures are directly interacted with. 

The Reference Framework uses the phrases 'intercultural' and 'cultural understanding' to refer 
to  the  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  an  individual  has  that  influences their  respect  for  and 
engagement with the cultures of others, including their value systems. The Council of Europe 
White  Paper  on  Intercultural  Dialogue  (2008)62  states  that  it  is  an  open  and  respectful 
exchange of views between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures that leads 
to a deeper understanding of the other’s global perception. 

'Intercultural' is also used with the understanding that cultural heritage is rarely isolated from 
other cultures and that, over time, languages, traditions and cultural products have influenced 
each other's development. Understanding the cultural diversity of European societies and how 
national cultural identity contributes to the European identity is part of this. 

References to intercultural understanding and cultural diversity appear in the competences of: 
languages; personal, social and learning; civic; and cultural awareness and expression. 

  Creativity and innovation 

It  is  important  to  equip  current  and  future  generations  –  regardless  of  social  and  cultural 
background  –  with  the  characteristics  of  successful  innovators  –  including  curiosity  (or 
inquisitiveness),  use  of  imagination,  critical  thinking,  problem-solving,  and  perseverance 
(resilience or persistence) which includes positive risk-taking.  

These characteristics are associated with 'creativity', which is a process typically of imagining 
possibilities,  creating  something  new,  and  reflecting  upon  and  modifying  what  is  being 
created. In a broader sense it is a way of interpreting and acting upon the world. 

'Innovation' means to create something new within a particular context or strive towards a 
goal in a new way. The process of innovation will involve reflecting upon the impact that 
the new artefact or approach has had in that context.  

59 http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-5741-2017-INIT/en/pdf  
60 COM 2015/C 417/04 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/news/2015/documents/citizenship-
education-declaration_en.pdf  
61 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.C_.2015.417.01.0025.01.ENG&toc=OJ:C:2015:417:TOC  
62 https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/intercultural/source/white%20paper_final_revised_en.pdf  

42 

 
 
                                                            
The  Reference  Framework  uses  the  phrase  'creativity  and  innovation'  to  describe  where 
specific knowledge, skills and attitudes may contribute to the development of new ideas, 
approaches  or  things.  The  Framework  definitions  also  refer  to  specific  skills  –  such  as 
critical thinking - and attitudes – such as curiosity - that comprise creativity. 

Supporting the early and lifelong development of a range of competences that contribute 
to an innovative capacity can expect to have wider benefits to society beyond innovation, 
equipping  the  next  generation  with  a  fundamental  basis  for  employability,  personal 
fulfilment and development, social inclusion, and active citizenship.63 

Education research has found that in learning experiences that embrace creativity, there is 
evidence  of  accepted  failure,  reworking,  perseverance,  ambiguity  and  imagination.  This 
challenges the myth that creativity is undisciplined but rather demonstrates that in order to 
better fulfil their potential to turn ideas into action, people need to operate within a culture 
of disciplined resilience and engagement with possibilities.64 

'Creativity and innovation' appear in the competences of: literacy; mathematical, science 
and technology; digital; entrepreneurship; and cultural awareness and expression. 

  Media literacy 

With growing access to different news media and with the opening up of communication 
channels for sources of different facts and opinions, it has become vital to strengthen the 
capacity  of  people  –  particularly  children  and  young  people  -  to  think  critically  and 
exercise judgement so that, especially in the context of the internet and social media, they 
are able to grasp realities, to distinguish fact from opinion, to recognise propaganda and to 
resist all forms of indoctrination and hate speech.65 

Media  literacy  does  not  only  relate  to  the  exchange  of  news  and  current  affairs  and 
evaluating  the  quality  (accuracy,  relevance,  currency,  reliability,  and  completeness)  of 
information,  distinguishing 
timing 
(new/news/obsolete).  It  also  requires  a  broader  understanding  of  underlining  ideologies 
and values, and of how social, economic, political, professional, and technological forces 
can shape media content66 - both what is produced and how it reaches us.   

from  opinion,  and  being  aware  of 

facts 

Media  production  –  the  creating  of  written,  drawn,  audio-  or  video-recorded  and  other 
content  –  provides  a  way  for  individuals  to  document  and  share  knowledge  and  their 
perspective  of  the  world.  It  is  also  a  way  for  them  to  shape  the  ideas  and  opinions  of 
others  and  thereby  have  potential  to  change  the  world  around  them.  It  is  important  that 
this  is  done  in  an  ethical  and  responsible  manner  and  with  respect  for  the  intellectual 
property of others. 

The knowledge, skills and attitudes relating to media literacy appear in the competences 
of: literacy; languages; digital; personal, social, and learning; civic; and cultural awareness 
and expression.  

63 See the Council conclusions on the role of early childhood education and primary education in fostering 
creativity, innovation and digital competence, 2015 
64 Jefferson, Miranda and Anderson, Michael (2017) Transforming Schools, London: Bloomsbury  
65 Council Conclusions on Developing media literacy and critical thinking through education and training, June 
2016 
66 See UNESCO Media and Information Literacy online pages and resources including policy and strategy 
guidelines 

43 

 
 
 
                                                            
Literacy  

A good level of literacy is the basis for the development of key competences67. It represents 
the  basis  for  any  further  learning,  it  is  the  greatest  predictor  of  school  achievement68  and  a 
prerequisite for cognitive progress across the curriculum. 

In  the  2006  Reference  Framework,  literacy  is  addressed  under  the  'Communication  in  the 
mother  tongue'  competence.  Nevertheless,  the  title  'Communication  in  the  mother  tongue' 
created an ambiguous situation in  which 'mother  tongue' is  regarded as being identical with 
the language of schooling, not taking into account the fact that for many children in Europe 
language  of  schooling  and  mother  tongue  might  not  be  the  same.  A  footnote  to  the  2006 
'Communication  in  the  mother  tongue'  addressed  this  issue  by  stating:  “It  is  important  to 
recognise  that  many  Europeans  live  in  bilingual  or  multilingual  families  and  communities, 
and  that  the  official  language  of  the  country  in  which  they  live  may  not  be  their  mother 
tongue.” It continued stating that "(m)easures to address such cases, and apply the definition 
accordingly, are a matter for individual Member States in accordance with their specific needs 
and circumstances." 

Defining  literacy  as  a  key  competence  has  to  take  note  of  the  fact  that  literacy  can  be 
developed in the mother tongue, in the language of schooling and/or the official language in a 
country  or  region  and  that  these  languages  can  be  different.  The  key  element  here  is  that  a 
good  level  of  literacy  needs  to  be  ensured  in  at  least  one  of  these  languages  to  allow  for 
further competences development. 
Underperformance in literacy is still a widespread phenomenon in all age groups in Europe.69 
When  it  comes  to  progress  towards  the  Education  and  Training  2020  benchmark  for  basic 
skills70, the EU as a whole is lagging behind. According to latest PISA data, 17.8% of five 15-
year-olds71 lack basic literacy skills. This proportion has remained more or less stable since 
2009, and even slightly dropped in 2015 as compared to 2012 (from 19.7% in 2012). In 2015, 
there were 64 million people, more than a quarter of the Union population aged 25-64, who 
had left initial education and training with at most a lower secondary education qualification. 
While there are no means to measure the basic skill levels of those people, the Organisation 
for  Economic  Co-operation  and  Development  (OECD)  Survey  of  Adult  Skills  (‘PIAAC’), 
which 
technology-rich 
environments,  indicates  that  similar  proportions  of  adults  aged  16  to  65  performed  at  the 
lowest level of proficiency in 20 Member States.72 This limits opportunities for employment 
and civic participation, and increases risks of social exclusion. By defining literacy as a key 
competence, the Reference Framework emphasises the importance of literacy achievement for 
all. 

literacy,  numeracy  and  problem-solving 

levels  of 

tested 

in 

Council  conclusions  in  2010  on  increasing  the  level  of  basic  skills  (literacy,  numeracy  and 
basic  digital  skills)  called  on  both  the  Commission  and  Member  States  to  take  concerted 

67 COM(2009)640 final  
68 PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do - Student Performance in Reading, Mathematics and 
Science https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48852548.pdf 
69 Education and Training Monitor 2016 : 
https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/monitor2016_en.pdf 
70 The Education and Training 2020 Framework set the benchmark that by 2020 less than 15% of 15-year-olds 
should be classed as 'low-achieving' in those basic skills, as measured by PISA. 
71 This proportion has remained stable since 2009. Source: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-
focus.pdf   
72 Council Recommendation on Upskilling Pathways: New Opportunities for Adults; 2016/C 484/01 

44 

 
 
                                                            
action in order to improve reading literacy73. In its follow-up, a High Level Group of Experts 
on  Literacy  was  established  in  2011  by  the  Commission,  bringing  together  European 
academics and policy-makers to map Europe's literacy landscape, identifying changing needs 
and  requirements,  as  well  as  to  examine  the  most  effective  and  efficient  ways  to  improve 
reading  skills  in  Europe.  The  final  report74  of  the  High  Level  Group  underscores  the 
importance of literacy in the 21st  century, as  well as the need to  ensure political ownership 
and  cooperation  to  ensure  genuine  improvement.  Council  conclusions  in  2012  on  literacy75 
highlighted the broader personal, economic, cultural and social dimension of literacy, besides 
a sole educational purpose, and called for creating a broad ownership of a range of players in 
society  in  order  to  improve  literacy  levels.  As  a  follow-up,  the  Commission  funded  a 
European  network  of  literacy  organisations76  (ELINET)  to  facilitate  the  sharing  of  good 
practices  and  policy  initiatives,  and  promote  transnational  cooperation  aimed  at  improving 
literacy performance across the European Union. 

Literacy and Migration 

Socio-economic status as well as student's migrant and/or minority background play a strong 
role  in  low  achievement  in  literacy.  An  increasing  number  of  young  people  in  European 
school  systems  speak  a  different  language  at  home  than  in  the  classroom.  It  raises  specific 
challenges  for  their  literacy  attainment.  In  2015  -  according  to  latest  PISA  data  –  the 
proportion of 15-year-old pupils with a migrant background varied from 52% in Luxemburg 
(the  highest  in  Europe),  to  17  %  in  Sweden  and  Germany,  14  %  in  France  and  11%  in  the 
Netherlands, and to less than 1% in Romania or Poland. 
A recent study on multilingual classrooms77 conducted by the European Commission proved 
that  children  with  migration  background  or  being  part  of  a  national  minority  develop  better 
literacy in the language of schooling if they also develop literacy in their mother tongue, or if 
at least their mother tongue is taken into account and valued in school78.  

Schools and teachers need to be better prepared to support bilingual learners. Teachers need 
specific training and support for working with children who are learning the language of the 
school as an additional language, or who are bilinguals. Moreover, teaching in a multilingual 
classroom  requires  a  different  set  of  competences79.  In  the  latest  TALIS  survey80  (2013), 
teaching  in  a  cultural  and  linguistic  diverse  classroom  appeared  as  one  of  the  areas  where 
teachers  needed  most  help  for  professional  development.  The  2017  Eurydice  report81  on 
'Teaching languages at school in Europe' indicated that only in two countries future teachers 
were trained to work with students with a migrant background. 

73 OJ C 323, 30.11.2010 
74 Final Report, EU High level group on literacy, 2012 
75 OJ C 393, 19.12.2012 
76 http://www.eli-net.eu/ 
77 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/languages/library/studies/multilingual-
classroom_en.pdf 
78 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/policy/school/doc/literacy-report_en.pdf 
79 https://ec.europa.eu/education/news/20170510-diversity-teaching-report_en 
80 http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/education/talis-2013-results_9789264196261-en 
81 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/0/06/KDL_2017_internet.pdf 

45 

 
 
 
                                                            
Languages competence 

European integration includes the principle of freedom of movement and linguistic diversity 
as  a  fundamental  component  of  European  culture.  Learning  languages  and  being  able  to 
communicate  in  more  than  one  language  remains  one  of  the  key  competences  for  lifelong 
learning, as defined in the 2006 Reference Framework.  

The 2006 Reference Framework referred to 'Communication in a foreign language', however 
the concept of 'foreign language' can cause ambiguity when trying to define what is foreign 
and to whom82. It also excludes sign languages which could hardly be described as foreign. 
Therefore,  it  is  proposed  to  refer  to  'Languages  competence'  in  a  revised  Reference 
Framework,  stressing  the  importance  of  learning  languages  as  a  tool  for  communication 
within multilingual societies and work environments. 

Learning  languages  remains  one  of  the  key  competences  for  lifelong  learning.  Focus  is  on 
improving the development of linguistic competences and on helping people to communicate 
across  borders,  to  make  use  of  mobility  within  Europe  and  in  a  globalised  economy.  The 
public consultation as well as a study on cross-border cooperation in Europe83, completed by 
European Commission's Directorate general for regional policy in 2016, showed that language 
barriers (i.e. lack of knowledge of a neighbouring country’s language) was the most important 
obstacle  to  cross-border  cooperation.  Language  differences  have  been  also  identified  as  a 
barrier and risk factor to increase fragmentation in the context of the Digital Single Market84. 
Successive  Council  conclusions  in  2008  and  201185  called  on  EU  Member  States  to  work 
together to enhance European cooperation on multilingualism and to take appropriate steps to 
improve  effective  language  teaching  and  strengthening  linguistic  competence.  A  good 
command of  more than one language is  essential to  making one's way in  the modern world 
and  labour  market.  The  New  Skills  Agenda  for  Europe86  (2016)  recalled  the  importance  of 
formal education and  training  in  equipping every citizen with  a broad range of skills  which 
open  doors  to  personal  fulfilment  and  development,  social  inclusion,  active  citizenship  and 
employment, which includes foreign languages.  

The Barcelona European Council of 2002 already called for action “to improve the mastery of 
basic skills, in particular by teaching at least two foreign languages from an early age”87. This 
goal has  led  most  of the EU-level and national policies  aimed  at monitoring and promoting 
the development of language competences across Member States, including discussion about 
the establishment of a linguistic competence indicator.88 

In  May  2014  Council  conclusions  on  multilingualism  and  the  development  of  language 
competences  highlighted  that  the  level  of  language  skills  of  many  young  people  in  Europe 

82 UNESCO defines ‘foreign languages’ either as a “language that is not spoken in the immediate environment 
of the learner” or “a language that a person is unfamiliar with and that she/he does not master”. ( 
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002122/212270e.pdf)  
83 http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/newsroom/consultations/overcoming-obstacles-border-regions/ 
84 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/commissioners/2014-2019/ansip/blog/how-multilingual-europes-digital-
single-market_en 
85 OJ C 140, 6.6.2008; OJ C 372, 20.12.2011,  
86 COM(2016) 381 final 
87 Presidency conclusions, Barcelona European council, 15-16 March 2002; available at 
http://ec.europa.eu/invest-in-research/pdf/download_en/barcelona_european_council.pdf , accessed on 
6.11.207 
88 COM/2005/0356 final  

46 

 
 
 
                                                            
could  be  improved  and  that,  despite  some  progress  in  recent  decades,  there  is  still 
considerable  variation  across  countries  in  terms  of  access  to  language  learning.  Indeed,  the 
First  European  Survey  on  Language  Competences  (2012)89,  which  provided  the  first-ever 
European  scale  comparison  of  the  foreign  language  proficiency  of  pupils  in  secondary 
education,  revealed,  on  average,  a  low  level  of  competence.  Only  42%  of  the  tested  pupils 
overall  reached  the  level  of  independent  user  in  the  first  foreign  language,  and  merely  a 
quarter of pupils did so in the second foreign language. This means that after several years of 
studying  a  language  in  school,  a  majority  of  young  Europeans  cannot  have  a  simple 
conversation in the languages they have studied. 

The  Key  Data  on  Teaching  Languages  at  School  in  Europe90  (Eurydice,  2017)  Report 
gives an overview on what languages students are learning in schools across Europe, at what 
age they begin studying their first and second foreign language, and what level of proficiency 
they  are  expected  to  reach  by  the  end  of  compulsory  education.  The  2017  edition  also 
includes data on how the language skills of newly arrived language pupils are being assessed 
and what type of language support is available to them.  
Highlights of the 4th edition of the Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe:  

  Students are learning a foreign language from a younger age, compared with a decade 

ago;  

  More  lower  secondary  students  are  now  learning  two  foreign  languages  compared 

with 10 years ago;  

  Learning a second language is not compulsory in all countries;  
  English  is  the  most  studies  foreign  language,  and  many  more  primary  education 

students learn English compared with 10 years ago; 

  French, German, Spanish are popular choices for the second foreign language;  
  Foreign languages other than English, French, German or Spanish are rarely studied;  
  The  students  are  expected  to  reach  'independent  user  level'  in  their  first  foreign 

language by the time they finish school; 

  VET  students  learn  fewer  foreign  languages  than  their  counterparts  in  general 

education; 

  Only around half of all foreign language teachers in Europe have travelled abroad for 

professional reasons; 

  The  majority  of  European  countries  provide  language  support  for  newly  arrived 
migrant  students,  but  only  in  two  countries  are  all  prospective  teachers  prepared  to 
work with migrant students.   

Science, technological, engineering and mathematical competence 

Competences in mathematics, science and technology are increasingly important. With their 
emphasis on critical questioning and problem solving they are prerequisite for the functioning 

89 European Commission (2012), First European Survey on Language competences – available at 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/languages/policy/strategic-
framework/documents/language-survey-final-report_en.pdf, accessed on 13-12-2017 
90 Eurydice, Key Data on Languages 2017, available at 
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/0/06/KDL_2017_internet.pdf, accessed on 
6.11.2017 

47 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
of  technologically  advanced,  knowledge  based  societies  and  economies.  Challenges  like 
climate change, energy supply, healthy aging and digitalisation further increase the imminent 
need for competences in mathematics, science and technologies. 

The  Reference  Framework  already  provided  a  good  and  comprehensive  definition  of  these 
competences. This is also confirmed by the results of the consultation process dedicated to the 
review of the Recommendation on Key Competences. They indicate that the descriptions of 
these two competences correspond to the commonly accepted understanding among education 
experts and the Member States' authorities.  Looking at it more than a decade later might lead 
only  to  minor  changes,  adapting  the  title  of  this  competence  to  current  terminology, 
strengthening the understanding of science as a process and way of thinking, and including a 
reference to the increasing need of financial literacy. 

However,  about  20%  of  Europe's  15-year  olds  do  not  reach  a  minimum  level  of  skills  in 
mathematics  and  science91.  Furthermore,  a  number  of  countries  experience  shortages  of 
highly  qualified  graduates  in  the  so-called  STEM  disciplines  (science,  technology, 
engineering and mathematics); the share of STEM graduates compared to the total number of 
graduates  in  the  European  Union  is  further  decreasing92.  Therefore,  in  the  context  of  the 
review of the Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning it is important to 
address the challenge of helping learners to develop competences in mathematics, science and 
technology. 

Mathematics is an instrument; mathematical reasoning is essential for a wide range of daily 
activities, tasks and professions. It is also key to academic areas of study such as sociology, 
psychology, history, geography, economics or politics. Together with literacy, a basic level of 
mathematical reasoning is a basic skill that is a pre-requisite for the development of other key 
competences93.  

The  ability  to  understand  and  use  different  financial  instruments  and  statistical  data  has 
become  an  increasingly  important  skill  in  the  modern  economy.  The  2008  financial  crisis 
exposed the lack of understanding of financial products by European consumers94. PISA 2015 
is  the  latest  international  study  to  assess  the  financial  literacy  of  young  people95.  Its  results 
indicate that around one in four students in the 15 countries and economies that took part are 
unable  to  make  even  simple  decisions  on  everyday  spending,  while  only  one  in  ten  can 
understand  complex  issues,  such  as  income  tax96.  The  latest  OECD  financial  literacy  study 
among  adults  point  that  the  “overall  levels  of  financial  literacy  -  indicated  by  combining 
scores on knowledge, attitudes and behaviour - are relatively low”97. Mathematical reasoning 
is  the  key  to  financial  education98.  Financial  literacy  skills  are  positively  correlated  with 
mathematics  and  reading  skills99.  The  expectation  is  that  “students  who  have  a  better 
understanding  of  mathematical  concepts  will  also  be  able  to  apply  that  understanding  to 

91http://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2015-results-volume-i-9789264266490-en.htm; 
https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/pisa-2015-eu-policy-note_en.pdf  
92 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/145en.pdf  
93 https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/117853.pdf  
94 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/557020/EPRS_BRI(2015)557020_EN.pdf  
95 http://www.oecd.org/finance/financial-education/pisa-2015-results-volume-iv-9789264270282-en.htm  
96 http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/many-teenagers-struggle-to-understand-money-matters.htm  
97http://www.oecd.org/finance/oecd-financial-literacy-study-finds-many-adults-struggle-with-money-
matters.htm  
98 http://www.oecd.org/finance/financial-education/PISA2012FrameworkLiteracy.pdf  
99 https://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf  

48 

 
 
                                                            
financial  contexts”.  Furthermore,  the  financial  aspect  provides  the  much-needed  context  in 
mathematics education that should help with the development of mathematical skills100.  

The  science  and  technology  competence  refers  to  the  natural  and  material  world.  This 
competence  is  essential  for  understanding  the  natural  environment  and  for  acting  in  a 
responsible way vis-á-vis our planetary resources. 
The  UN  Decade  of  Education  for  Sustainable  Development  (2005-2014)101  emphasised  the 
need  to  shed  more  light  on  the  need  for  sustainable  development,  the  responsibility  of  all 
people and the role of education to motivate children and young people to support sustainable 
development.  Sustainability  education  draws  on  numerous  academic  areas  and  provides  the 
crucial comprehension of the inter-connectedness and inter-dependence of nature and human 
activities102. In addition, the environmental aspects of science provide a powerful vehicle for 
teaching  science  and  understanding  scientific  and  technological  developments  in  their 
cultural, economic, social, and political contexts103. 

It is more and more relevant to foster the understanding of science not only as knowledge but 
also as a process for investigation of the living and non-living matter. The work of scientists 
constantly  refines,  and  extends  this  knowledge104  which  is  based  on  the  consensus  of  the 
science practitioners who study professionally a specific natural phenomenon. In order to help 
educators  and  policy  makers,  the  updated  Reference  Framework  offers  a  more  concrete 
description of the science competence.  

Scholars  have  identified  some  essential  characteristics  of  science  as  a  process  which  (i) 
involves the use of the experimental method in controlled conditions105; (ii) develops a way of 
thinking  which  does  not  come  naturally  to  most  people106;  and  (iii)  follows  the  strictly 
hierarchical structure of its knowledge development107. The ever-evolving comprehension of 
the material world based on newly accumulated, reproducible evidence sits at the core of the 
scientific  endeavour.  “Scientific  knowledge  is  simultaneously  reliable  and  tentative”108. 
Therefore, the science classroom and the laboratory experiments provide an important tool for 
the  development  of  the  general  ability  to  change  one’s  mind  when  presented  with  evidence 
that contradicts one’s previous convictions.  

Modern  science  has  evolved  to  an  extent,  which  makes  it  rarely  distinguishable  from 
technology, engineering or applied science109. Today’s technology-rich environment expects 
from  every  citizen  to  comprehend  the  connection  between a  technological  application  or  an 
engineering  solution  and  their  respective  underlying  scientific  principles.  Therefore, 
technology and engineering are intrinsically linked to the science competence and rely heavily 
on the mathematical reasoning competence.  

100https://www.pfeg.org/resources/details/maths-matters-using-financial-contexts-secondary-mathematics; 
https://www.theguardian.com/education/teacher-blog/2013/mar/04/financial-education-teaching-resources  
101 http://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainable-development/what-is-esd/un-decade-of-esd  
102 http://www.humansandnature.org/humans-nature-the-right-relationship  
103 https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/undergraduate/chemistryincontext.html  
104 http://ngss.nsta.org/NSforCC.aspx?id=5  
105 Losee, J. 2001. A historical introduction to the philosophy of science. Oxford University Press. Fourth edition. 
106 Cromer, A. 1995 Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science, Oxford University Press.  
107 Silver, B. 2000.  The Ascent of Science, Oxford University Press. 
108 http://www.nsta.org/about/positions/natureofscience.aspx  
109 McClellan J.E. and Dorn H. 2006 Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. The Johns 
Hopkins University Press; 2nd edition; 

49 

 
 
 
                                                            
Digital competence 

The  understanding  and  relevance  of  digital  competences  has  experienced  a  dramatic  boost 
since  2006.  In  revising  the  2006  Reference  Framework,  these  developments  need  to  be 
reflected  leading  not  to  a  redefinition  of  digital  competences,  but  to  an  alignment  with  the 
Digital  Competence  Framework110,  its  associated  tools,  such  as  frameworks  specifically  for 
consumers, educators or organisations as well as other existing national frameworks. This was 
a particularly strong point that was expressed during the review and consultation process. 

The  terminology  used  in  the  competence  definition  also  needs  to  be  updated  to  reflect 
language  used  by  the  sector.  Instead  of  'IST'  (Information  Society  Technology)  and  'ICT' 
(Information  Communication  Technology)  that  were  used  in  the  2006  definition,  'digital 
technologies'  is  considered  the  most  appropriate  term  to  refer  to  the  full  range  of  devices, 
software  or  infrastructure.  With  the  increased,  varied  and  embedded  use  of  mobile  devices 
and applications, references to 'computers' and the 'Internet' are removed, but are still classed 
under the broad term of 'digital technologies'. 

The  2015  Joint  Report  of  the  Council  and  the  Commission  on  the  implementation  of  the 
strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020)111 stressed 
both the need for digital competences and the positive contribution of digital technologies in 
teaching  and  learning  as  well  as  education  governance.  The  Communications  "Rethinking 
Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes" (2012)112 and "Opening up 
Education" (2013)113 were also dedicated to digital and innovative education and stressed the 
relevance  of  digital  skills  and  competences  and  the  role  of  Open  Educational  Resources 
(OER). 

More  recent  Communications  on  education,  such  as  on  the  Modernisation  of  Higher 
Education  (2011)114  and  Improving  and  Modernising  Education  (2016)115,  and  A  Digital 
Single Market Strategy for Europe (2015)116, highlighted the importance of developing digital 
competence and  noted the potential for innovation  in education to include the use of digital 
tools. The New Skills Agenda for Europe (2016)117 placed the need for digital competence as 
a priority, and called on Member States to ensure they have comprehensive strategies in place 
for  improving  the  digital  competence  of  people.  Beyond  the  European  level,  a  number  of 
national coalitions118 have also been set up, and while structure and activity vary by country, 
some of these are closely linked to national education policy. 

110 The Digital Competence Framework has proven useful at European level – in the revision of Europass and 
Measurement of Digital Skills (Digital Skills Indicator of Digital Agenda Scoreboard)  - and at Member State level 
-  by  14  Member  States  and  5  regions  in  Spain  for  curricula  review,  teacher  education  (including  continuous 
professional  development),  student  self-assessment,  policies  regarding  digital  skills  and  strategies,  and  for 
employment, such as jobseekers self-assessment, and the development of training offers and certification for 
employees and jobseekers. 
111 COM 2015/C 417/04 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/news/2015/documents/citizenship-
education-declaration_en.pdf 
112 COM(2012) 669 final 
113 COM/2013/0654 final  
114 COM(2017) 247  
115 COM/2016/0941 final  
116 COM/2015/0192 final 
117 COM(2016) 381 final 
118 https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/national-local-coalitions 

50 

 
 
                                                            
First  published in  2013 and since updated, the widely used Digital Competence Framework 
describes 21 learning outcomes in 5 areas:  

1)  Information and data literacy, including management of content;  
2)  Communication and collaboration, and participation in society;  
3)  Digital content creation, including ethical principles;  
4)  Safety; and  
5)  Problem solving.  

Aligning the definition of digital competence in the European Reference Framework on Key 
Competences  reflects  these  five  areas  whilst  retaining  the  basic  format  of  knowledge,  skills 
and attitudes. 

A revised description should try to be sufficiently flexible to be relevant in today's society and 
in the future, recognising the embedding of social media and the emergence of technologies 
such  as  Artificial  Intelligence,  robots,  virtual  and  augmented  reality.  It  needs  to  enhance 
references to digital safety by including the management of one’s own digital identities in a 
way that positively encourages engagement in a responsible and critical manner. The phrase 
'digital identities' has two meanings in this context: one about data protection (such as email 
accounts) and one about the perception of self in online environments (such as behaviour on 
social  media).  An  ethical,  safe  and  responsible  approach  is  strengthened  with  an  added 
reference under 'attitude'. 

Personal, Social and Learning Competence 

Most children entering primary school today will end up working in completely new job types 
that do not yet exist, and half of today's work activities could be automated by 2055. Cross-
disciplinary  competences  and  creative  skills  will  become  crucial  in  performing  the  non-
automated  tasks.  To  boost  resilience  and  resist  increasing  levels  of  uncertainty  and  stress, 
future generations need to develop strong personal, social and learning competences in order 
to successfully navigate their personal and social lives and careers.  

The 2006 definition of the competence 'learning to learn' focussed on personal development 
through  learning  strategies  and  management  of  learning  and  career,  while  omitting  broader 
personal development and social interrelations. Having in mind the new challenges described 
'personal,  social  and  learning  competence'  is  able  to  encompass  a 
above,  a  new 
comprehensive approach to personal development, learning strategies and social competences. 
The competence includes three specific aspects:  

  Personal, including self-awareness, physical and mental well-being;  

  Social, covering interpersonal interactions and working with others; and  

  Learning, with focus on lifelong learning strategies and career management skills. 

Personal, social and learning competence addresses also a number of transversal skills from 
the  2006  Framework  as  well  as  some  new  ones  such  as  resilience,  ability  to  deal  with 
uncertainty and complexity. 
Various  international  documents  have  stressed  the  importance  of  'life  skills'119,  'soft',  'non-
cognitive', 'social and emotional' or '21st century skills'120. Their definitions vary, but include a 

119 Partners in Life Skills Education: Conclusions from a United Nations inter-agency meeting, WHO, 1999; 

51 

 
 
 
                                                            
 
range  of  cognitive  (critical  thinking  and  responsible  decision-making),  personal  (awareness, 
drive,  self-management)  and  interpersonal  skills  (communication,  negotiation,  cooperation 
and teamwork, inclusion, empathy and advocacy). 

A  number  of  EU  Member  States'  national  competence  frameworks  include  personal 
competences on 'well-being', 'health', 'personal development', 'taking care/managing oneself', 
'managing  information',  '(critical  and  creative)  thinking',  'learning  to  learn',  as  well  as 
interpersonal, social competences such as 'working with others', 'interpersonal relationships', 
'empathy,  respect,  responsibility'  or  'socio-relational  development'.  Similarly,  different 
international  organisations'  competence  frameworks  (OECD,  Council  of  Europe,  WEF, 
UNESCO)  include  among  other  competences:  analytical  and  critical  thinking,  autonomous 
learning skills, understanding of the self, problem-solving, team working, conflict resolution, 
global  awareness,  collaboration,  empathy, 
flexibility  and  adaptability,  persistence, 
responsibility, respect, tolerance of ambiguity121.  
An overview122 of recent and on-going projects funded by the EU European Commission and 
academic  literature  reviews123  shows  the  interest  and  the  need  to  integrate  this  set  of 
competences and skills into the curricula of European education systems.  

The  impact  of  social  and  emotional  skills  on  education,  labour  market  and  social  outcomes 
has  been  proven  by  research124.  From  an  economic  point  of  view,  non-cognitive  skills  have 
important  effects  both  on  school  attainment  and  on  labour  market  outcomes,  including 
education  and  earnings.  These  effects  are  often  as  important  as  the  effects  of  cognitive 
skills125. Evidence shows the associations between early social, emotional and cognitive skills 
(looking at pre-school age) and a range of later outcomes, including educational attainment, 
employment,  income,  health,  and  wellbeing126.  Self-regulation  and  self-awareness  have 

Global Evaluation of Life Skills Education Programmes, Final Report, UNICEF, 2012; see 
http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/30.pdf 
Council Conclusions on the role of youth work in supporting young people's development of essential life skills 
that facilitate their successful transition to adulthood, active citizenship and working life, 22 May 2017 
120 The World Bank has reviewed literature from different disciplines in order to understand how these terms 
are currently used. 'Soft skills' is often used in business contexts to describe skills such as creativity, critical 
thinking, teamwork, whereas 'socio-emotional skills' is used in psychology literature, particularly in reference to 
learning. 'Non-cognitive' tends to be used by economists. '21st century skills' tends to refer to creativity and 
innovation, ICT, critical appreciation of a range of media (including 'new media'), and a kind of independence or 
sense of initiative. See: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/24737  
121 Inception Report and Comparative Analysis (2017), Support of the stakeholder consultation in the context of 
the Key Competences Review, European Commission 
122 WORK IN PROGRESS Carmel C.; Bartolo P. A.; Cavioni V.; Downes, P.; 2017, Integrating Social and Emotional 
Education (SEE) in the School Curriculum across the EU, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the 
European Union 
123 Siarova, H.; Sternadel, D.; Mašidlauskaitė, R. (forthcoming). Re-thinking assessment practices for the 21st 
century learning. NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 
124 OECD (2015), Skills for Social Progress: The Power of Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264226159-en  
Cefai, C., Bartolo P. A.; Cavioni V.; Downes, P.; 2017, Integrating Social and Emotional Education (SEE) in the 
School Curriculum across the EU, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 
forthcoming 
125 Brunello, G. and Schlotter, M., Non Cognitive Skills and Personality Traits: Labour Market Relevance and 
their Development in E&T Systems, 2011, EENEE Analytical Report No. 8 
126 Schoon, I. et al., 2015, The Impact of Early Life Skills on Later Outcomes, Final Report, OECD; 
Study on the effective use of early childhood education and care in preventing early school leaving, 2014, 
European Commission, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union 

52 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                                          
significant  influence  over  a  range  of  outcomes  later  in  life,  independently  of  the  cognitive 
ability of the child.  

Research also indicates that achievement tests do not adequately capture non-cognitive skills, 
personality traits, goals, character, motivations, and preferences that are valued in the labour 
market,  in  school,  and  in  other  domains.  An  analysis  of  skills  enhancement  programmes127 
from  the  pre-school  to  the  adult  age  shows  that  many  effective  programmes  work  because 
they  foster  non-cognitive  skills.  Development  of  social  and  emotional  competences  is 
indicated as one of the key aspects of inclusion in schools and school systems128.  

The  evidence  furthermore  shows  that  academic  learning  and  social  and  emotional  learning 
support  one  another.  Social  and  emotional  education  enables  students  to  regulate  their 
emotions  and  deal  with  stress,  cope  with  school  requirements,  solve  problems  more 
effectively, have healthier relationships, and work more collaboratively with others, providing 
thus a foundation for effective learning and academic success129. A meta-analysis of over 200 
studies130 reported that students who participated in social and emotional learning programs, 
scored  significantly  higher  on  standardized  achievement  tests  when  compared  to  peers  who 
did not participate. 

One  of  the  most  commonly  used  frameworks  of  social  and  emotional  competences  across 
different countries has been developed by the Collaborative for Social and Emotional learning 
(CASEL)131.  It  identifies  five  interrelated  sets  of  socio  emotional  competences  that  can  be 
taught 
in  schools  and  other  contexts,  namely  self-awareness  and  self-management 
(intrapersonal),  social  awareness  and  relationship  skills  (interpersonal),  and  responsible 
decision making (cognitive). Recent psychological research132 into the ‘character strengths’ of 
school  students  proposes  a  three-partite  taxonomy:  intrapersonal  competencies  (which 
facilitate  the  regulation  of  behaviour,  thoughts,  and  emotions  in  seeking  to  achieve  one’s 
goals),  interpersonal  competencies  (which  enable  children  to  develop  harmonious,  positive 
relationships  with  other  people),  and  intellectual  competencies  (which  support  active 
engagement in learning)133.  

Taking  into  account  the  plethora  of  definitions  concerning  social  and  emotional,  non-
cognitive,  life,  soft  or  21st  century  skills,  as  well  as  the  variety  of  their scope,  the  personal, 
social  and  learning  competence  has  been  defined  to  encompass  personal  (intrapersonal), 
social (interpersonal) and learning (intellectual) aspects. The link between the personal, social 
and learning aspects reflects also current neuroscientific evidence underlying the foundational 

127 Kautz, T. et al., 2014, Fostering and Measuring Skills: Improving Cognitive and Non-cognitive Skills to 
Promote Lifetime Success, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 110, OECD Publishing, Paris 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxsr7vr78f7-en  
128 Downes, P.; Nairz-Wirth, E.; Rusinaitė, V., Structural Indicators for Inclusive Systems in and around Schools, 
NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2017 
129 Cefai, C.; Cavioni, V. (2014) Social and emotional education in primary school: integrating theory and 
research into practice. NY, USA: Springer 
130 Durlak, J. A.; Weissberg, R. P.; Dymnicki, A. B.; Taylor, R. D. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social 
and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82 (1), 
474-501 
131 http://www.casel.org/core-competencies/  
132 Park, D.; Tsukayama, E.; Goodwin, G. P.; Patrick, S.; Duckworth, A. E. (2017). A tripartite taxonomy of 
character: Evidence for intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intellectual competencies in children. Contemporary 
Educational Psychology, 48, 16-27. 
133 Similar to the UK Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning (SEAL) framework 

53 

 
 
                                                            
role  of  emotions  and  relationships  in  academic  learning  as  well  as  scientific  evidence  that 
social and emotional education contributes to academic learning134. 
Looking  at  the  situation  in  education  systems,  international  reports135  show  that  most 
countries  include  fostering  of  social  and  emotional  skills  as  part  of  general  objectives  of 
education  or  curricula  frameworks,  usually  within  physical  (and  health)  education,  civic  / 
citizenship and moral / religious education. Some countries, such as England or Ireland, have 
dedicated  schools  subjects  for  development  of  social  and  emotional  skills  (personal,  social 
and  health  education),  whereas  other  countries  adopt  curriculum-wide  approaches  to  these 
skills.  Findings  from  rigorous  evaluations  of  more  than  80  programmes  show  that  most 
programmes to develop socio-emotional skills are embedded within innovative education and 
training  curricula,  as  well  as  pedagogical  and  classroom  practices.  Evidence  shows  that 
programmes are particularly effective when targeted to highly vulnerable populations and, in 
particular,  to  young  children.  High-quality  programmes  for  young  children  tend  to  foster 
cognitive  abilities  in  the  short  run  and  to  impact  socio-emotional  skills  over  the  long  run. 
Programmes that take a whole-school approach and those integrated into the school day are 
more  successful.  Studies  also  show  that  universal  interventions  (programmes  implemented 
throughout the schools for all pupils) have positive social, emotional, as well as cognitive and 
academic  impact  on  all  children  at  school,  including  children  at  risk  such  as  children  from 
ethnic  and  cultural  minorities,  children  from  low  socio-economic  background  and  children 
experiencing social, emotional and mental health difficulties136.  

Career management is part of the personal, social and learning competences, which includes 
the  knowledge  of  one's  capacities  and  interests,  self-evaluation,  social  skills,  planning, 
engagement  with  learning,  capacity  to  analyse  information  about  learning  and  work 
opportunities  in  relation  to  one's  self-knowledge  and  the  capacity  to  make  career  decisions 
and successful transitions137. Since the 2008 Council Resolution on better integrating lifelong 
guidance into lifelong learning strategies138, there has been an awareness of the need to equip 
the  individuals  with  the  right  skills  to  better  cope  in  the  world  of  fast  changing  jobs, 
education,  training  pathways,  and  in  general  to  manage  their  life  effectively.  Mobility, 
including international experiences, is a valuable way of gaining career relevant competences 
and skills, such as problem solving, tolerance and self-confidence139. 

Career  education  has  already  been  introduced  in  most  EU  countries  with  the  objective  to 
enhance  career  management  skills:  12  countries  integrate  Career  Management  Skills  as  a 
learning  outcome  in  their  curricula  as  a  separate  subject  with  specific  time  allocation;  7 

134 Cefai C.; Bartolo P. A.; Cavioni V.; Downes, P.; 2017, Integrating Social and Emotional Education (SEE) in the 
School Curriculum across the EU, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 
forthcoming 
135 OECD (2015), Skills for Social Progress: The Power of Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264226159-en;  
Sánchez Puerta, Maria Laura; Valerio, Alexandria; Gutiérrez Bernal, Marcela. 2016. Taking Stock of Programs to 
Develop Socio-Emotional Skills: A Systematic Review of Program Evidence. Directions in Development--Human 
Development;. Washington, DC: World Bank 
136 Cefai C.; Bartolo P. A.; Cavioni V.; Downes, P.; 2017, Integrating Social and Emotional Education (SEE) in the 
School Curriculum across the EU, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union 
137 Guidelines for Policies and Systems Development for Lifelong Guidance:  A reference framework for the EU 
and for the Commission, 2015, ELGPN Tools 6   
138 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:42008X1213(02)  
139 The Euroguidance Network Position Paper on the Review of the Key Competences Recommendation 

54 

 
 
                                                            
countries  integrate  them  in  other  school  subjects  or  give  the  schools  autonomy  to  allocate 
specific hours140.  

Mental, emotional and physical well-being depend to a large extent on one's physical fitness. 
Evidence  shows  that  physical  activity  is  associated  with  improvement  of  brain  functioning, 
cognition  and  school  results.  The  annex  to  the  Report  of  the  expert  group  on  "health-
enhancing  physical  activity"  (2015)"141  gathers  scientific  evidence  on  the  links  between 
children’s level of physical activity vs. sedentarity and their school results.  
The  current  physical  activity  recommendations  for  health142  indicate  that  children  and 
adolescents should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical 
activity every day, with  preferably at  least three sessions  of vigorous-intensity activity each 
week. Adults and seniors should undertake at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity or 75 
minutes  of  vigorous-intensity  aerobic  physical  activity,  and  at  least  two  sessions  of  muscle 
strengthening activities, each week. 

Civic competence 

The 2006 Reference Framework included social and civic competences as a dual competence, 
including both a personal and a societal perspective. Some aspects of the social competence 
were  more  interlinked  with  personal  elements,  as  specified  in  the  learning  to  learn 
competence. Other aspects of the social competence were interlinked with civic, in the sense 
of knowledge of societies and respect of diversity.  

Civic  (citizenship)  competence  as  a  concept  has  recently  been  developed  further  through 
several  international  frameworks  and  surveys.  This  calls  for  giving  "civic  competence"  a 
separate  place  in  the  framework.  In  addition,  the  requirement  to  create  sustainable  societies 
and economies needs stronger reflection within a Reference Framework of Key Competences 
for lifelong learning.  

European  societies  are  experiencing  changing  traditional  bonds,  shifts  towards  individual 
values and new issues of tolerance and respect for others; more people globally are moving 
across  the  countries,  pushed  by  instability,  climate  change  and  population  surge,  which  can 
have  an  impact  on  the  composition  of  future  European  populations143.  New  forms  of 
solidarity,  social  engagement  and  civic  participation  are  emerging  as  a  response144.  As  a 
result,  citizenship  has  been  a  prominent  issue  in  European  and  international  discussions 
related to education.  

Sustainability  of  ecosystems,  as  well  as  of  societies  and  economies  has  become  a  crucial 
element  in  understanding  future  social,  economic  and  climate  trends,  as  well  as  developing 
innovative  solutions  to  unforeseen  problems.  As  part  of  global  citizenship,  sustainable 
development  goes  beyond  environmental  protection  and 
the  (individual) 
responsibility  for  building  a  sustainable  future, including  values  and choices.  It requires  the 

includes 

140 Kraatz, S.,Vuorinen, R.,2016, Key competence “Career management skills”: Taking up ongoing national 
policy developments at EU level  
141 http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regexpert/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetailDoc&id=19860&no=1  
142 World Health Organization, 2010, Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva, World 
Health Organization. 
143 European Commission, 2017, Reflection Paper on Harnessing Globalisation  
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/publications/reflection-paper-harnessing-globalisation_en 
144 European Commission, 2016, Reflection Paper on the Social Dimension in Europe 
https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/reflection-paper-social-dimension-europe_en.pdf 

55 

 
 
 
                                                            
knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  to  be  able  to  manage  change  and  uncertainty,  think  and  act 
critically,  deal  with  complexity,  be  creative  and  able  to  assess  and  take  risks.  In  this  sense, 
sustainability  cuts  across  several  other  key  competences:  based  on  scientific  thinking,  it 
includes a number of personal and social competences, entrepreneurship, as well as cultural 
awareness. Sustainability  is  linked with  the  civic  competence  in  order  to  stress  the learner's 
role  in  deciding  and  contributing  to  the  development  of  peaceful,  inclusive  and  sustainable 
world.  

Citizenship has been an important topic for education in the EU, in particular following the 
Paris Declaration145 of 17 March 2015. Also the Working Group on promoting citizenship and 
the common values of freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination through education146, set up 
under the Framework for European cooperation in education and training, has been working 
on  topics  such  as  media  literacy  and  critical  thinking,  social  and  civic  competences,  social 
inclusion. In 2018 the Group will deliver an online compendium of good practices and the key 
elements of a policy framework to support citizenship and inclusive education. 

The Council of Europe has recently developed a broad Reference Framework of Competences 
for  Democratic  Culture147  for  use  in  primary  and  secondary  schools,  higher  education  and 
vocational  education  institutions  throughout  Europe,  as  well  as  in  national  curricula  and 
teaching  programmes.  The  competences  cover  a  range  of  values,  attitudes,  skills  and 
knowledge and critical understanding, centred on the concept of citizenship: 

  Values: 

o  Valuing  human  dignity  and  rights;  valuing  cultural  diversity;  valuing 

democracy, justice, fairness, equality and the rule of law 

  Attitudes: 

o  Openness to cultural otherness; respect; civic mindedness; responsibility; self-

efficacy; tolerance and ambiguity 

  Skills:   

o  Autonomous learning; analytical and critical thinking skills; skills of listening 
and observing; empathy; flexibility and adaptability; linguistic, communicative 
and plurilingual skills; co-operation skills; conflict resolution 

  Knowledge and critical understanding 

o  Knowledge  and  critical  understanding  of  the  self;  knowledge  and  critical 
understanding  of  language  and  communication;  knowledge  and  critical 
understanding of the world 

Accompanying descriptors were piloted in the Council of Europe member states and guidance 
on  curriculum  development,  teaching  and  learning  strategies  and  appropriate  assessment 
methods  has  been  prepared  in  dialogue  with  European  governments  and  the  education 
community.  The  full  Council  of  Europe  Reference  Framework  will  be  published  at  the 
beginning of 2018148.  
UNESCO  has  developed  Global  Citizenship  Education  (GCED)149,  linked  to  Education  for 
Sustainable Development and guided by Target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Goals150. 

145 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/news/2015/documents/citizenship-
education-declaration_en.pdf  
146 http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/expert-groups/citizenship-common-values_en  
147http://www.coe.int/en/web/education/competences-for-democratic-culture  
148 www.coe.int/competences  
149 http://en.unesco.org/gced 

56 

 
 
                                                            
GCED aims to empower learners to assume active roles to face and resolve global challenges 
and to become proactive contributors to a more peaceful, tolerant, inclusive and secure world. 
Key learning outcomes, key learner attributes and topics for 5-18+ year-olds are divided into 
cognitive,  socio-emotional  and  behavioural  domains.  Learning  objectives  are  cover  four 
levels of education151.  

In order to influence the formation of attitudes and values, early childhood is the best place to 
start  with  global  citizenship  education,  where  early  learners  acquire  the  right  mindsets  for 
global citizenship. Information and knowledge about global citizenship have to be combined 
with practice, actual experiences and opportunities for learners to develop, test and build their 
own views, values and attitudes and to learn how to take actions responsibly. Participation in 
community activities and opportunities to interact with populations of different backgrounds 
or of different views are necessary152. 
The  Eurydice  report  on  citizenship  education153  also  stresses  the  importance  of  a  variety  of 
teaching  and  learning  approaches  in  citizenship  education,  from  active,  interactive,  critical, 
collaborative  and  participative  learning  to  whole  school  approaches  and  learning  through 
extra-curricular activities. Student participation in school governance and parents' engagement 
are however crucial in sending a strong message about democracy and inclusion in the school 
as a whole.  

Critical  thinking,  understanding,  and  critical  use  of  all  forms  of  media  are  part  of  civic 
competences and citizenship education154 and at the same time linked to literacy, digital and 
cultural  awareness  competences.  Encouraging  open  discussions  among  learners,  supporting 
teachers  and  school  leaders  in  the  use  of  new  technologies  and  open  educational  resources, 
engaging with parents and other actors in society, are all part of developing critical thinking 
and civic competence, as a critical ability for navigating the digitalised world155.  

Entrepreneurship competence 

Already  the  2006  Reference  Framework  listed  'Sense  of  initiative  and  entrepreneurship' 
among the eight key competences for lifelong learning. But since then, the understanding of 
entrepreneurship  competence  has  developed  further  and  consequently  also  the  public 
consultation  called  for  better  alignment  between  the  Reference  Framework  and  the  recently 
developed Entrepreneurship Competence Framework156. 

Entrepreneurship competence has become a priority in policy agendas of modern economies 
and societies with the belief that this is a vital competence within the labour market and for 
people in their daily lives, even for those who are not classed as 'entrepreneurs' in the sense of 

150 Target 4.7. calls on countries to "ensure that all learners are provided with the knowledge and skills to 
promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development 
and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, 
global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable 
development”. 
151 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002329/232993e.pdf  
152 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002482/248232E.pdf  
153 Eurydice (2017) Citizenship Education at School in Europe, 
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/9/97/Citizenship_Study_EN_2017.pdf  
154 http://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/literacy-thinking-preventing-radicalisation_en.pdf  
155 Council conclusions on developing media literacy and critical thinking through education and training, 2016 
156 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/entrecomp 

57 

 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                                                          
creating  new  business  opportunities.  The  2013  Communication  'Entrepreneurship  2020 
Action Plan'157 states that "investing in entrepreneurship education is one of the highest return 
investments  Europe  can  make"  and  that  the  benefits  include  essential  knowledge,  skills  and 
attitudes  that  help  transform  ideas  into  action  and  also  significantly  increase  an  individual's 
employability. 

Most  Member  States  have  engaged  in  promoting  and  developing  entrepreneurship 
competence in their respective countries in some way with the understanding that education, 
training  and  learning  (formal  and  non-formal)  plays  a  key  role  in  developing  an 
entrepreneurial mind-set and skills. Many aspects of this competence are present in education 
reforms that have taken place across Europe since 2006158. The 2014 Final Report from the 
Thematic Working Group on Entrepreneurship159 noted many differences between definitions 
of entrepreneurship competence, which were judged to be detrimental to effective or coherent 
policies and practices. The Report also urged national policy makers to take further steps to 
embed  entrepreneurship  competence  in  education.  As  highlighted  in  the  2016  Eurydice 
Report on ‘Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe’160, about half of the countries in 
Europe  have  made  use  of  the  Key  Competence  Framework  definition  of  entrepreneurship 
competence. A recent study on Youth Work and Youth Entrepreneurship161 has also found the 
use of the Key Competence definition in non-formal learning. 

The  Entrepreneurship  Competence  Framework  has  been  created  as  a  reference  tool  to  help 
improve  the  entrepreneurial  capacity  of  European  people  and  organisations.  The  framework 
aims to build consensus around a common understanding of entrepreneurship competence by 
defining 3 competence areas and a list of 15 competences, learning outcomes and proficiency 
levels.  

'Sense  of  initiative',  which  was  addressed  separately  in  the  title  of  the  entrepreneurship 
competence, describes only one of many 'attitudes' that are part of the competence. Aligning 
the  definition  with  the  Entrepreneurship  Competence  Framework  and  other  European 
initiatives  makes  a  strong  case  for  not  placing  this  phrase  in  the  title  of  the  competence.  A 
number of projects and guidance documents developed since 2006 use ‘entrepreneurial’ as a 
way of referring to a state of being (processes) and mind-set (attitude).  

Emphasis  in  the  definition  of  entrepreneurship  competence  remains  on  the  broad 
understanding of turning ideas into action and creating value, both as something that happens 
over  time  and  that  involves  people  and  things  (resources).  Social,  commercial  and  cultural 
processes  and  outcomes  refer  to  activity  that  makes  a  positive  contribution  to  individuals' 
lives  and  to  the  sustainable  development  of  society  as  a  whole.  This  contribution  is  also 
reflected in the skill of 'negotiating with others with empathy' and the attitude of 'taking care 
of  people  and  the  world'.  Whereas  'creativity'  and  'innovation'  are  sometimes  thought  of  as 

157 Entrepreneurship 2020 Action Plan http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0795 
158 'Entrepreneurship Competence: An Overview of Existing Concepts, Policies and Initiatives', European 
Commission 2015; and 'Final report on a literature review of reforms related to 2006 European Framework of Key 
Competences for lifelong learning and role of the Framework in these reforms', European Commission, 2017. 
159 2014 Final Report from the Thematic Working Group on Entrepreneurship 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/policy/strategic-
framework/archive/documents/entrepreneurship-report-2014_en.pdf 
160 European Commission (2016) Entrepreneurship Education at School in Europe 
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/4/45/195EN.pdf 
161 European Commission 2017 Youth Work and Youth Entrepreneurship https://publications.europa.eu/fr/publication-
detail/-/publication/8f5910d8-6b64-11e7-b2f2-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-36638558 

58 

 
 
                                                            
discrete  skills  (alongside  risk-taking)  within  entrepreneurship  competence,  they  are  more 
accurately understood as processes that entrepreneurship skills play a part in.  

A strong call was made  in  the consultation process to be clear  about risk as  part of  making 
informed  decisions,  rather  than  including  'risk-taking'  as  a  discrete  skill,  as  well  as 
highlighting  the  important  skill  of  coping  with  uncertainty  and  ambiguity.  This  is 
strengthened in the 'attitudes' of perseverance and a sense of initiative and agency – the latter 
referring to a confidence in one's capabilities. 

There  are  recognised  challenges  with  the  perceived  meaning  and  translation  of  the  term 
‘entrepreneurship competence’ to be too narrowly focused on the creation and management of 
business  opportunities.  Promoting  a  broad  definition  should  help  to  support  a  more 
appropriate understanding of the broad nature of the knowledge, skills and attitudes, as well 
as  opportunities  for  the  development  of  the  competence  in  a  range  of  contexts  –  including 
through cross-sectoral cooperation. 

Cultural awareness and expression 

The OMC  Working Group on Cultural Awareness and  Expression (2014-15)  both  reviewed 
the  2006  definition  of  cultural  awareness  and  expression  competence  and  generated  a 
collection  of  examples  from  education,  training  and  learning  together  with  policy 
recommendations.  Whilst  not  a  discrete  Framework,  the  work  represents  a  strong  desire 
across Member States to ensure a broad and common understanding of how the competence 
refers  not  merely  to  passive  appreciation  but  a  more  active  and  engaged  participation  in 
cultural development and the sustainability of society.162  

Like ‘entrepreneurship competence’, the benefits of the competence of cultural awareness and 
expression  can  be  of  socio-economic  value.  The  Council  Conclusions  on  a  Work  Plan  for 
Culture (2015-2018)163 recall the substantial contribution of the cultural and creative sectors 
to  economic,  social  and  regional  development,  and  the  importance  of  these  sectors  to  the 
Europe 2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. 

'Cultural  awareness  and  expression  competence'  means  both  actually  having  a  voice  and  a 
way (tools/processes) to view and shape the world. This also relies on an awareness of how 
culture,  as  a  collective  social  construct,  shapes  the  views  of  the  individual  in  return.  It  is 
important to highlight the crucial process of developing a sense of one’s own place or role in 
society – which may be understood as one's 'socio-cultural identity' - as well as a sense of the 
identity  of  others  with  positive  open-minded  attitudes  towards  diverse  cultural  differences. 
This understanding of culture, based on the individual existing within particular contexts and 
communities  implies  interaction,  inclusion  and  mobility  as  key  issues  and  opportunities  in 
society. Whilst this has strong links to the competences of personal, social and learning, and 
of civic, the distinction is made though the tools and processes; in other words the forms of 
cultural expression. 

Consultation  with  experts  highlighted  that  'culture'  is  less  static  as  a  concept  –  a  sum  of  its 
products  -  but  more  dynamic.  Again  this  refers  to  the  way  of  being  as  individual  or 

162 European Commission (2016) Open method of coordination (OMC) working group of EU Member States’ 
experts on ‘cultural awareness and expression - Study https://publications.europa.eu/fr/publication-detail/-
/publication/6066c082-e68a-11e5-8a50-01aa75ed71a1 
163 Council Conclusions on a Work Plan for Culture (2015-2018) http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.C_.2014.463.01.0004.01.ENG 

59 

 
 
 
                                                            
community  and  how  we  as  individuals  or  communities  interact  with  our  environment, 
influencing both how we construct it, and how we understand it.164 Cultural ideas, values and 
products  also  transcend  cultural  borders,  and  influence  other  cultures.  In  this  way  cultural 
ideas  and products are mobile  across  cultural  borders. Equally,  the 'ideas' that  an individual 
might  possess  are  also  not  always  predetermined  or  fixed  but  can  be  influenced  by  cultural 
expression, expressed in the revised definition.  

The phrase 'creatively expressed' remains important, in recognition of how cultural products 
are formed by seeing and showing the world in new ways. Research literature contains many 
varied  definitions  of  creativity  but  broadly  along  a  similar  understanding  of  the  ability  to 
foresee needs and problems, and respond imaginatively, innovatively, and flexibly to them.165 
The ability to work both individually and collectively is also an important part of the creative 
process, aligned with entrepreneurship competence. 

Recognising  the  increased  opportunity  and  ease  with  which  to  share  cultural  products, 
particularly  through  digital  means,  and  it  is  important  to  recognise  the  legal  and  ethical 
principles  relating  to  intellectual  property  as  a  crucial  attitude  of  respect  within  this 
competence. 

A  contemporary  understanding  of  cultural  forms  is  broader  than  works  of  art.  'Forms'  of 
expression166  should  include  a  broader  reference  to  languages  and  cultural  heritage  and 
traditions, including architecture, rituals and games. Such forms can also include digital texts 
and interdisciplinary and hybrid forms that have emerged in recent years thanks to new tools 
and  practices,  as  highlighted  in  the  Working  Group  Handbook.167  Engagement  with  these 
forms  is  not  merely  figurative  but  offers  a  particular  opportunity  to  also  engage  in  abstract 
thought and expression; an important element of creativity and innovation. 

Having in mind a broad understanding of culture makes it difficult to refer to a non-specific 
'canon'  of  'major  works'.  The  difficulties  with  such  a  concept  include  the  tricky  action  of 
dictating of what is 'important' or 'worth preserving' from far outside of the group of people 
required  to  experience  such  works.168  Other  difficulties  are  that  they  are  normative  claims 
when such works are not of value in themselves and that it sets up an unquestioning reverence 
when  modern  pedagogy  -  and  the  Framework  itself  -  places  such  importance  on  critical 
reflection169.  However,  the  concept  of  appreciation  is  still  a  relevant  element  of  the 
competence,  in  that  it  'requires  knowledge'  of  other  cultures  and  expressions,  but  should  be 
left  open  for  users  of  the  Framework  to  specify  the  level  of  detail  as  appropriate  to  their 

164 Aneas, María Assumpta & Sandín, María Paz (2009). Intercultural and Cross-Cultural Communication 
Research: Some Reflections about Culture and Qualitative Methods [57 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative 
Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(1), Art. 51, http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-
fqs0901519. 
165 O'Toole, J. in Sinclair et al, 2009, In Education in the arts: teaching and learning in the contemporary 
curriculum., eds. C. Sinclair N. Jeanneret and J. O'Toole. Melbourne, Vic.: Oxford University Press. p. xxiii 
166 The short list in the 2006 definition was incorrectly referred to as 'a range of media' (which are instruments, 
theatre performance, books, paintings,etc.). It was also a limited list compared to a list of Traditional Cultural 
Expression (stories, thought forms, rituals, architecture, etc.) 
167 European Commission (2016) Open method of coordination (OMC) working group of EU Member States’ 
experts on ‘cultural awareness and expression - Study  
168 Fleming, M. (2007). The Literary Canon: reflections from a school curriculum perspective. In The Literary 
Canon: Approaches to Teaching Literature in Different Contexts. Samihaihan, T. Bucharest: Bucharest: 
University of Bucharest. 
169 Ibid. 

60 

 
 
                                                            
context. This is important for education and training systems in supporting access to a range 
of cultural experiences by all. 
It is important not to retract from references to elements of the more intangible kind170 within 
creative  processes.  'Empathy'  –  the  ability  to  understand  the  world  from  the  perspective  of 
another - is recognised an important part of the skill set of cultural awareness and expression. 
To  be  able  to  appreciate  and  value  the  contexts  and  actions  –  past  and  present  -  of  diverse 
cultures, groups and nations, requires empathy171 as a kind of inter-personal problem solving.  

'Curiosity',  'imagining  new  possibilities'  and  'participation'  are  also  crucial  elements  to 
recognise in this competence as part of generating a sense of engagement, active citizenship, 
and contribution to the sustainability of society.  

170 'Intangible' referring to what might be observed without the use of complex technology. However, there are 
indeed recent developments in neuroscience that can identify brain activity related to these functions. See, for 
example, Damasio, A. (2011) The Brain: Creativity, Imagination, & Innovation, talk delivered at Ross Institute 
Summar Academy 2011, East Hampton, NY. Accessed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EF--dEGzh-g  
[23/4/14]  
171 Nussbaum, Martha C. (2010) Not For Profit: Why Democracy Needs The Humanities. Princeton: Princeton 
University Press 

61 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
5. Good practices to support Key Competences Development  

How  to  make  better  use  of  the  European  Reference  Framework  of  Key  Competences  for 
lifelong learning was the most important question during the public consultation. 44% of the 
respondents stated that practitioners needed more support and training to use the Framework. 
This  leads  to  the  question  how  possible  initiatives  at  EU  level  can  support  the  use  of  the 
Reference  Framework  and,  more  broadly,  help  to  further  develop  competence-oriented 
education, training and learning. 

Respondents  highlighted  the  need  to  create  detailed  reference  material  for  each  key 
competence,  making  better  use  of  existing  practical  tools  and  guidance  on  assessment  and 
validation and developing new ones, supporting mutual learning on understanding and use of 
the  Framework  among  Member  States  and  practitioners  and  finally  raising  awareness  about 
the Reference Framework.172  

Competence-oriented  teaching  and  learning  requires  a  significant  shift  from  "traditional" 
content based approaches towards learning through real world situations, with new forms of 
assessment.  They  have  implications  for  teaching,  learning  and  assessment,  and  call  for 
comprehensive  and  coherent  policies  at  national,  regional,  local  level  and  within  education, 
training and learning settings.  

This  chapter  will  therefore  look  at  the  challenges  identified  in  implementing  the  2006 
Recommendation  on  Key  Competences  for  lifelong  learning  and  the  possible  initiatives  to 
better  support  its  implementation.  It  will  especially  then  focus  on  a)  support  for  teachers, 
trainers  and  educators  in  changing  their  practice,  b)  the  assessment  of  key  competences  by 
developing  coherent  assessment,  evaluation  systems,  including  testing  and  using  new 
assessment  methods,  as  well  as  approaches  for  validating  competences  and  c)  learning 
approaches, environments and contexts, including innovative partnerships between education 
institutions  and  external  stakeholders  that  can  provide  more  opportunities  for  "real  life" 
learning173. 

172 Report on the results of the stakeholder consultation - Study, p.30 
https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/0ce06c4a-8b9d-11e7-b5c6-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en Report on the results of the stakeholder consultation - Study , p.30 
173 Looney, J., Michel, A., 2014: KeyCoNet's Conclusions and recommendations for strengthening Key 
Competence development in policy and practice 

62 

 
 
                                                            
Initial 
education and 
professional 
development 
of educators 
and trainers 

Learning  
approaches, 
environments 
and contexts 

Key 
Competence 
development 

Assessment 
(formative and 
summative) and 
validation 

Competence 
Frameworks: 
defining learning 
outcomes to 
support 
approaches and 
assessment 

5.1 Challenges for implementation 

In  2012,  a  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  on  the  assessment  of  key  competences  in 
initial education and training took note of the main challenges in implementing the European 
Framework of key competences. It analysed that the main challenges for its wider use are the 
insufficient  support  to  teachers'  and  trainers'  competence  development,  the  development  of 
suitable assessment methods and the introduction of new ways to organise learning.174  

This  analysis  has  been  confirmed  by  a  recent  literature  review  on  the  use  of  the  European 
Framework of Key Competences. It sees a key barrier in the challenges faced by individual 
learning institutions (e.g. schools and colleges) in adapting teaching and learning to develop 
the defined competences. For example, teachers in Slovakia, during the initial implementation 
phase found the competences “unclear and difficult to operationalise”. They also struggled to 
assess  key  competences.  No  standard  approaches  or  national  guidelines  on  how  to  assess 
learner  achievements  were  made  available;  hence  some  schools  had  to  develop  their  own 
assessment procedures.175  

CEDEFOP  reported  that  the  implementation  of  key  competences  in  VET  faced  similar 
challenges.  Countries  made  the  experience  that  key  competences  in  initial  vocational 
education  and  training  can  be  integrated  through  work  based  learning  and  other  learning 

174 European Commission (2012) Assessment of Key Competences in initial education and training: Policy 
Guidance, SWD(2012)371 
175 'Final report on a literature review of reforms related to 2006 European Framework of Key Competences for 
lifelong learning and role of the Framework in these reforms', European Commission, 2017. 

63 

 
 
 
                                                            
 
methods.  But  "whether  they  are  assessed  in  VET  or  not,  and  in  what  way,  depends  on  the 
specific  key  competence,  the  type  of  programme  and  the  end  qualification.  In  VET 
programmes  that  give  access  to  higher  education,  maths,  mother  tongue  and  foreign 
languages, have traditionally formed part of upper secondary school-leaving exams. In other 
cases,  key  competences,  in  particular  soft  skills,  may  be  assessed  in  a  cross-curriculum 
manner, for example in the context of occupational skills demonstrations, within training firm 
or  projects  learners  carry  out  jointly  with  or  for  enterprises."176  Evidence  suggests  also  that 
teacher  and  trainer  training  on  key  competences  in  VET  is  organised  when  curricula  are 
revised,  but  countries  do  not  report  if  it  is  provided  regularly,  once  the  curricula  are 
introduced.177 

The  experiences  in  VET  also  point  to  another  key  challenge:  the  implementation  of 
competence  oriented  education,  training  and  learning  depends  strongly  on  the  institutional 
setting of the education institution or the learning provider. For VET it was stated that, "form 
and  extent  depend  on  type  and  level  of  programmes  and  the  degree  of  autonomy  that  VET 
institutions  have  in  shaping  or  adjusting  programmes  and  curricula.  In  many  countries,  key 
competences  have  been  part  of  VET  for  a  long  time;  school-based  VET  usually  includes 
mother tongue, maths and science and often foreign language learning. In several cases, the 
recommendation  gave  a  new  impetus  to  reinforce  them  in  line  with  the  EU  framework.  In 
recent  years,  the  emphasis  on  learning  outcomes,  the  work  on  educational  and  vocational 
standards, and the revision of curricula has drawn more attention to key competences."178  

5.2 Competence Frameworks 

Translating key competences into learning outcomes is a major step to overcome difficulties 
in  implementation.  They  can  guide  day-to-day  teaching  and  learning  and  pre-define  also 
assessment.  Translating  key  competences  into  learning  outcomes  can  be  done  at  different 
levels,  by  policy  makers,  but  also  teachers  and  learners  within  their  individual  education 
systems,  institutions  and  programmes  of  learning.  The  JRC  Competence  Frameworks  for 
Entrepreneurship and for Digital Competences can be regarded as examples at EU level which 
can support work at national, regional or institutional level179. The most prominent example is 
probably  the  Common  European  Framework  of  Reference  for  Languages  developed  by  the 
Council of Europe.180 

Policy  makers  can  ensure  that  these  learning  outcomes  are  consistently  specified  across 
curricula, syllabi, specifications, standards or similar framework documents. Teachers have a 
crucial role to  play  in  interpreting  these  documents.  Importantly, they can  identify and  plan 
opportunities  for  learners  to  develop  their  key  competences  within  their  specific  subjects, 
across  several  subjects  in  collaboration  with  other  teachers  or  beyond  subjects  as,  for 
example, in whole school projects.  

176 Cedefop (2012). Curriculum reform in Europe. The impact of learning outcomes. Luxembourg: Publications 
Office of the European Union. 

177 COUNTRY REPORTS ON “KEY COMPETENCES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING”, Cedefop 2016, 
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/country-reports/key-competences-in-vet 
178 Cedefop (2012). Curriculum reform in Europe. The impact of learning outcomes. Luxembourg: Publications 
Office of the European Union. 
179 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/entrecomp; https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/digital-competence-
framework  
180 http://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages 

64 

 
 
 
                                                            
In  2012,  the  SWD  on  Assessment  of  Key  Competences  presented  some  examples  how  key 
competences can be translated into learning outcomes. For example, an EU funded project in 
Lithuania at that time identified four elements within the 'Learning-to-learn' competence for 
learners in the age groups 11-12 and 13-14 years: 1) attitude towards learning and willingness 
to  learn,  2)  setting  objectives  and  planning  activities,  3)  organisation  and  management  of 
activities  and  4)  reflection  on  learning  activities  and  outcomes  and  self-assessment.  These 
elements  were  then  described  in  more  detail,  including  the  definition  of  different  levels 
towards development of the competence.181 

Building  on  the  experiences  with  Competence  Frameworks  for  Entrepreneurship  and  for 
Digital Competences, a key task in the next years will be to develop similar approaches also 
for  the  other  competences  within  the  Reference  Framework  and  work  on  related  guidance 
tools. 

5.3 Supporting educational staff  

Educational staff has a decisive impact on learners' achievement and motivation. The student-
centred  and  inquiry-based  approaches  typically  associated  with  the  concept  of  key 
competences put even more emphasis on the qualities and competences required of effective 
educators. Educational staff includes teachers, trainers, teacher educators, leaders of education 
and training institutes, employees in charge of training colleagues, researchers and university 
lecturers, youth workers and adult educators. 

Educational  staff  also  plays  a  key  role  in  implementing  changes  in  education.  Effective 
reforms  of  curricula,  learner  assessment  or  the  organisation  of  learning  depend  on  their 
capacity,  ability  and  willingness  to  successfully  adapt  teaching  practice.  Moving  towards 
competence-based  learning  therefore  requires  appropriate  and  sustained  support  to  these 
professionals and their work environment.  

 

Involve staff in the design and implementation of changes 

Practitioners  should  be  considered  as  important  stakeholders  in  moves  towards  competence 
oriented  education.  Involving  them,  from  the  outset,  in  the  formulation,  monitoring  and 
evaluation  of  policy  and  curricular  reforms  can  add  valuable  expertise  and  feedback  from 
practice to the process. It also increases the chances of broad acceptance among practitioners 
and a vision of education that is shared across different stakeholders.  

  Support educational staff with guidance, tools and material to enhance teaching  

At  the  same  time  teaching  staff  need  clear  guidelines,  access  to  appropriate  tools  and 
materials,  and  exemplars  of  effective  practice.  This  is  particularly  the  case  for  key 
competence approaches that a majority of teachers may not be familiar with.  

  Encourage collaboration within and beyond educational institutions 

Developing  key  competences  across  curricula  and  programmes  may  require  staff  to  work 
together in new, unfamiliar ways (including across departments and with external partners). It 
is  therefore  crucial  that  both  staff  and  leaders  have  a  shared  understanding  of  the  key 
competences to be developed and the responsibilities and roles of each member of the school 
community in how key competences are taught, learned and assessed. Effective cooperation 
and  collaboration  between  teaching  and  leadership  staff  will  enable  learners  to  make 

181 SWD(2012)371 

65 

 
 
 
                                                            
connections across their learning and develop broader perspectives that prepare them for life 
and work.182 Collaboration with researchers, through action research or controlled studies, can 
help  staff  improve  their  practice  and  can  provide  institutions  (and  education  systems)  with 
valuable feedback. 

The  EU-funded  CO-LAB  project183  tests  the  collaborative  learning  and  teaching 
approaches,  including  project-  and  problem-based  learning,  at  the  national  and  school 
level, including the use of a range of adapted assessment methods. The implementation of 
collaborative  approaches  in  national  education  systems  is  discussed  among  practitioners 
and policy makers in an evidence-informed dialogue. 

  Consider the role of educational leadership 

In  most  education  systems,  institutional  leadership  extends  beyond  management  or 
administrative functions and plays an important role in defining and shaping instruction and 
the organisation of learning. Where institutions introduce competence-based teaching, leaders 
need to accompany the process of change by ensuring that all staff receives sufficient time to 
develop  their  practice  and  that  the  work  environment  encourages  collaboration  and 
innovation.  Creating  a  vision  that  is  shared  across  the  institution,  and  responds  to  external 
expectations,  leaders  may  need  to  address  scepticism  and  create  links  with  external 
stakeholders. 

 

Invest in the education and professional development of staff 

Implementing  competence-based  education  may  require  fundamental  changes  to  teaching 
practice.  Some  staff  may  need  to  update  or  develop  additional  competences  through 
Continuing  Professional  Development  (CPD),  others  may  benefit  from  mentoring  schemes. 
The  effectiveness,  and  cost,  of  CPD  have  come  to  the  focus  of  education  policies  and  gain 
particular importance where major reforms need to be supported. At the same time, reforming 
the  initial  education  of  educational  staff  in  line  with  competence-based  approaches,  is 
becoming  a  priority  to  ensure  sustainability.  Both  areas  have  been  found  to  lag  behind 
curricular reforms.   

According to the Eurydice reports on mathematics and science education, in many countries, 
while  there  are  policies  addressing  raising  achievement  in  literacy,  little  is  done  for 
achievement in mathematics and science184. A large proportion of primary teachers appears to 
have had little training in teaching science and may sometimes lack confidence in teaching the 
subject185. This is less the case for mathematics186.  
The  DigCompEdu  framework187  aims  to  capture  educator-specific  digital  competences.  The 
framework  is  directed  towards  educators  at  all  levels  of  education,  from  early  childhood  to 
higher and adult education, including general and vocational training, special needs education, 
and non-formal learning contexts. 

182 SWD(2012)371 
183 http://colab.eun.org/  
184 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/133EN.pdf  
185 Ibid 
186 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/132EN.pdf  
187 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/jrcsh/files/digcompedu_leaflet_final.pdf 

66 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
The  'SELFIE'  tool  (piloted  in  2017)  is  designed  to  give  schools  a  holistic  view  of  how 
students, teachers and administration perceive the digital status quo of their organisation. The 
aim  is  not  to  bring  schools  to  a  fixed  level  of  digital  readiness,  but  rather  to  help  schools 
develop a plan to integrate digital technologies effectively, decide the concrete next steps and 
continuously measure progress and improve further. 188 Possibilities for adapting this tool for 
Higher Education institutions is being explored.  

'SELFIE' tool is based on the Digitally-Competent Educational Organisations (DigCompOrg) 
conceptual  framework189  that  offers  a  detailed  description  of  what  it  takes  to  educational 
organisations of any kind to be digitally competent. 

5.4 Assessment of learners 

Assessment  influences  individuals  and  their  progress  in  learning  and  education  and training 
systems in  general. For learners, assessment shows what is valued in a learning outcome; it 
can  increase  awareness  of  one's  learning  process  and  learning  needs,  and  help  overcome 
obstacles  in  order  to  learn  more  effectively.  Assessment  can  help  people  learn  to  gain, 
assimilate  and  process  new  knowledge  and  skills,  help  them  understand  their  preferred 
learning  styles  and  become  autonomous  and  confident  learners.  Assessment  leading  to 
qualifications may also help (or hinder) the learner to communicate his/her real competences 
when seeking further learning opportunities or employment.  

Having this in mind, it is key for the development of competence oriented education, training 
and learning to develop approaches and tools which capture in how far a learner succeeds in 
developing  certain  competences.  But  assessment  is  not  only  important  for  the  learner,  it 
shapes the whole learning process, the way education, training and learning is organised and 
governed. 

For  the  teacher  or  facilitator  of  the  learning  process,  assessment  has  a  powerful  impact  on 
what and how is taught. This can be both beneficial, using assessment as a tool for clarifying 
learning  outcomes  and  future  goals,  and  detrimental,  narrowing  learning  to  the  content  and 
methods  likely  to  be  tested  ("teaching  to  the  test").  Teaching,  learning  and  assessment  are 
closely intertwined and any policy or strategy which impacts on one of these elements, will 
also affect the others. This means that decisions made in relation to assessment have a major 
influence on how the key competences are taught, and therefore, on what learners learn.190  

Its  relevance  in  the  context  of  key  competence  development  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Working on key competence assessment will therefore be an important task in supporting the 
use of the Reference Framework. 

Different approaches to and purposes of assessment 

Assessment methods most often include the following elements: 

  Formative  assessment  to  assist  learning.  Such  assessment  is  designed  to  provide 

diagnostic feedback to teachers and learners during the learning process.  

  Summative  assessment  for  use  at  the  classroom,  institution,  or  regional  level  to 
determine learner attainment levels. Such assessment includes tests, given at the end 

188 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomporg/selfie-tool 
189 http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC98209/jrc98209_r_digcomporg_final.pdf 
190 Background Paper for the Belgian Presidency meeting for Directors General for school education in 2010; 
see also SWD(2012)371 

67 

 
 
 
                                                            
of a module, course or academic year, and are designed to determine what individual 
learners have achieved. 

  Assessment  for  programme  evaluation,  used  in  making  comparisons  across 
classrooms,  institutions,  regions,  or  nations.  Such  assessment  often  includes 
standardized  tests  designed  to  measure  variation  in  the  outcomes  of  different 
instructional programs.  

To provide useful assessment both in a formative and a summative perspective, any European 
Reference  Framework  may  need  to  be  translated  into  more  detailed  learning  outcomes.  The 
amount of detail varies according to the purposes of the assessment. For example, high stakes 
summative  assessments  need  to  be  highly  detailed  in  their  rubric  to  ensure  that  the  data  is 
comparable and the consequences are fair.  

Defining learning outcomes in excessive detail risks having a negative effect on pedagogical 
approaches,  reducing  learning  to  sequences  of  isolated  tasks.  It  can  also  restrict  learners’ 
opportunities to demonstrate the range of their competences. A balance therefore needs to be 
struck between specification in policy documents and scope for interpretation by teachers and 
learners  themselves  in  practice.  This  impacts  equally  on  the  learning  process  and  the 
assessment. 

Overview of different assessment purposes191 

Context 

Function 

Use 

System 

Institution 

Learner 

International comparisons; National 
standards; Accountability. 
Monitoring against national standards; 
Internal quality assurance; 
Developing internal policies and procedures 

Monitor achievement against national 
standards and curriculum objectives; 
diagnose strengths and weaknesses; track 
progress 

Policy development, system monitoring 

Feed into national data-gathering processes; 
Feedback to tutors, trainers, teachers, learners, 
parents. 
Feedback to learner on progress; feedback to 
tutors and teachers on success of teaching 
approach. 

A  Commission  Communication  from  2009  on  "Key  Competences  for  a  changing  world" 
analysed that "(…)  most  current  assessment  methods have a strong emphasis on knowledge 
and  recall  and  do  not  sufficiently  capture  the  crucial  skills  and  attitudes  dimension  of  key 
competences.  (…)  The  experience  of  those  countries  using  complementary  methodologies 
such  as  peer assessment, portfolios,  individual  learning and/or school  assessment plans,  and 
project-based assessment should be further examined and built upon."192 
The 2013 European Commission Youthpass Impact Study193 put a specific focus on the use of 
an  guided  self-assessment  tool  to  increase  the  young  people's  ownership  of  the  learning 
process,  the  improvement  of  the  learning  process  through  the  use  of  self-assessment,  the 
ability to better identify and describe learning outcomes and raising the young people's self-
confidence which enables them to better participate in education and employment. 

191 SWD(2012)371 
192 COM (2009) 640  
193 European Commission, Youthpass Impact Study – Young people's personal development and employability 
and the recognition of youth work, 2013 

68 

 
 
 
                                                            
In  2010  a  Thematic  Working  Group  within  ET2020  started  to  work  on  Assessment  of  Key 
Competences; their findings were summarised in a Staff Working Document on "Assessment 
of  key  competences  in  initial  education  and  training:  Policy  Guidance"  in  2012.  Member 
States  identified  key  principles  to  be  taken  into  account  in  developing  and  implementing 
assessment policies: assessment should be fair, reliable, valid and learner-centred.194 

Since then, a number of literacy reviews and studies have been published:  

  Thematic  Working  Group  'Assessment  of  Key  Competences',  Literature  Review, 

Glossary and Examples (2012) 

  KeyCoNet 2013 Literature Review; Assessment for Key Competences 
  NESET: Rethinking Assessment practices for the 21st century (2017) 

During  the  public  consultation  on  the  review  of  the  2006  Recommendation  on  Key 
Competences,  the  general  conclusion  was  that  important  areas  of  development  are  the 
development of assessment tools to support the  development of key competences as well as 
including tools to support the validation of competences. 

Responses  highlighted  the  need  to  develop  new  forms  of  assessment  that  fully  take  into 
consideration  the  different  approaches  and  aims  of  formal,  non-formal  learning  and  of 
informal  learning.  The  competence  model  should  clearly  refer  to  the  holistic  character  of 
learning with the aim to contribute to the shaping of impact oriented learning processes. 

Moreover, the balance towards assessment should be shifted in a way that allows increasing 
flexibility,  creativity  and  innovation  and  the  European  Commission  is  recommended  to 
provide further support to Member States in the implementation process. 

However, not all respondents agreed with an increased focus on assessment. Some argued that 
recent EU initiatives in the area of education policies put too much value on tests and studies 
about  learning  outputs  rather  than  showing  how  and  to  what  extent  key  competencies  are 
promoted. 

International assessment, evaluation and comparison 

All  Member  States  have  systems  in  place  to  assess  literacy,  numeracy  and  science.  PISA, 
PIAAC, TIMSS and PIRLS are used in many Member States to allow also for international 
and national comparison - PISA since 2000, on a 3 years basis, and PIRLS since 2001, on a 5 
years basis, and PIAAC since 2013. 
OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)195 and the Survey for Adult 
Skills (PIAAC) evaluate education systems worldwide by testing the skills and knowledge of 
15-year-old  students,  or  adult  population  respectively,  and  established  an  international 
comparison  basis.  The  PISA  assessment  is  the  basis  for  the  Education  and  Training  2020 
benchmark for basic skills. 
The  International  Association  for  the  Evaluation  of  Educational  Achievement  (IEA)196  has 
been  conducting 
in 
mathematics, science, and reading in more than 60 countries and runs the PIRLS (the Progress 

international  comparative  assessments  of  student  achievement 

194 SWD(2012)371 
195 www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/ 
196 IEA (www.iea.nl) is a non-profit and independent organization of national research institutions, government 
research agencies, scholars, and analysts working to evaluate, understand and improve education worldwide. 

69 

 
 
 
                                                            
in International Reading Literacy Study) and TIMSS (the Trends in International Mathematics 
and Science Study) 

Both  PISA  and  PIRLS  surveys  are  based  on  an  expanded  notion  of  reading,  i.e.  'reading 
literacy' rather than simply 'reading'. This construct includes not only the processes and skills 
of reading comprehension, but also the uses of, and attitudes toward reading that characterise 
proficient readers. Both PIRLS and PISA view reading as an interactive, constructive process 
and emphasise the importance of students’ ability to reflect on reading and to use reading for 
different purposes. 

PISA  does  not  include a  foreign  language  assessment  component.  However,  plans  to  assess 
Global competence197 in 2018 include assessing the 'ability to communicate in more than one 
language'198, as being an important asset for employability in an interconnected world. Global 
Competence includes the acquisition of in-depth knowledge and understanding of global and 
intercultural issues; the ability to learn from and live with people from diverse backgrounds; 
and the attitudes and values necessary to interact respectfully with others. 
PISA  and  TIMSS  are  internationally  recognised  and  statistically  validated  tools199  which 
allow  for  evaluation  of  individual  students,  schools,  regions  as  well  as  the  policy  measures 
taken to improve performance in mathematics, science and technologies. 

PISA 2015 also introduced a test on social (interpersonal) competences which focused on the 
assessment  of  collaborative  problem-solving,  considering  the  types  of  problems  and 
collaborative interactions that 15-year-old students face in and out of the classroom, as well as 
a consideration for their “preparedness for life” in the workplace and in further studies. Three 
main  competences:  establishing  and  maintaining  shared  understanding;  taking  appropriate 
action  to  solve  the  problem  and;  establishing  and  maintaining  group  organisation  are  at  the 
core of 12 specific skills measured200.  

Health  Behaviour  in  School-aged  Children  (HBSC)  is  a  study  coordinated  by  the  World 
Health Organisation which provides information about health, well-being, social environment 
and health behaviour of 11-, 13- and 15-year-old boys and girls in 42 countries and regions in 
Europe  and  North  America.  It  includes  social  context  (relations  with  family,  peers  and 
school),  health  outcomes  (subjective  health,  injuries,  obesity  and  mental  health),  health 
behaviour (patterns of eating, tooth brushing and physical activity) and risk behaviours (use of 
tobacco, alcohol and cannabis, sexual behaviour, fighting and bullying) of young people. It is 
a useful tool for international comparison and detecting national trends in youth's health and 
general well-being.  
The project 'Assessing progression in creative and critical thinking skills in education'201, led 
by  the  Centre  for  Educational  Research  and  Innovation  at  OECD,  is  aiming  to  produce  an 
international  rubric  to  assess  creativity  and  critical  thinking  and  may  contribute  to  the 
development of a possible module on creativity for PISA 2021. The project is aligned with the 
long-standing  interest  of  the  PISA  Governing  Board  in  higher  order  skills  and  the  plan  to 
expand the learning outcomes that PISA assesses internationally. It should be noted that this 

197Global  Competence  includes  the  acquisition  of  in-depth  knowledge  and  understanding  of  global  and 
intercultural  issues;  the  ability  to  learn from  and  live  with  people  from  diverse backgrounds; and  the  attitudes 
and values necessary to interact respectfully with others. 
198 https://www.oecd.org/education/Global-competency-for-an-inclusive-world.pdf 
199 http://www.oecd.org/pisa/; https://nces.ed.gov/timss/  
200http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/Draft%20PISA%202015%20Collaborative%20Problem%20Solving%
20Framework%20.pdf  
201 'Assessing progression in creative and critical thinking skills in education'  

70 

 
 
                                                            
does  not  cover  all  elements  of  the  Cultural  Awareness  and  Expression  competence.  It  is, 
however, examining assessment in some art forms and in interdisciplinary contexts. 

European Frameworks to support assessment 

An important tool that has shaped language and literacy assessment is the Common European 
Framework for Reference for Languages (CEFR). The CEFR was published by the Council of 
Europe in 2001 (the European Year of Languages) to promote transparency and coherence in 
language  learning  and teaching  in  Europe.  It includes  a  descriptive  scheme  of  language  use 
and scales of proficiency by the different parameters of this scheme. The Framework is  not 
language specific. It is a tool for reflecting on what is involved not only in language use, but 
also in language learning and teaching, and it provides a basis and common language for the 
elaboration  of  guidelines, 
training  programme,  and  for  relating 
teacher 
examinations  to  one  another.  Since  its  inception,  the  Framework  has  been  widely  used  for 
developing  coherence  in  provision  across  different  languages,  including  for  designing  the 
PISA Reading Literacy survey. The CEFR introduced the notion of 'communicative language 
competences'  and  described  the  individual  learner  as  'social  agent'  who  develops  a  range  of 
competences, therefore it introduced a competence based approach to teaching and assessing 
language competence. As such, it represented the main tool that many countries have used to 
stimulate curriculum and examination reforms in different educational sectors. 

textbooks, 

In terms of self-assessment tools, the CEFR inspired the European Language Portfolio, which 
has been widely used in Europe and also incorporated into Europass.  

  The  European  Language  Portfolio  (ELP)  is  a  document  in  which  those  who  are 
learning or have learned a language - whether at school or outside school - can record 
and reflect on their language learning and cultural experiences. The ELP is composed 
of  three  parts:  a  Language  passport  which  its  owner  regularly  updates.  A  grid  is 
provided where his/her language competences can be described according to common 
criteria  accepted  throughout  Europe  and  which  can  serve  as  a  complement  to 
customary certificates. 

  The  Europass  Language  Passport,  an  electronic  version  of  the  standard  Language 
Passport for adults, was jointly developed by the Council of Europe and the European 
Union. It can be completed on line or downloaded. 

The  ELP  also  contains  a  detailed  language  biography  describing  the  owner's  experiences  in 
each language and which is designed to guide the learner in planning and assessing progress. 
Finally,  there  is  a  dossier  where  examples  of  personal  work  can  be  kept  to  illustrate  one's 
language competences. Portfolio models vary according to countries and educational contexts. 
They are all examined by a European Validation Committee which accords an accreditation 
number. Note: Models are not available from the Council of Europe. 

As part of its plans to promote learning languages on the continent, the European Commission 
organised a first European Survey on Language Competences202 in 2011, providing the first-
ever  European  scale  comparison  of  the  foreign  language  proficiency  of  pupils  in  secondary 
education.   

202 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/languages/policy/strategic-
framework/documents/language-survey-final-report_en.pdf 

71 

 
 
 
                                                            
While  the  CEFR  represents  an  established  good  practice  and  model  of  how  to  work  with 
competence  frameworks,  a  substantial  amount  of  investment  has  been  made  during  the  last 
years to support also the development and assessment of the digital competence of people, as 
well  as  educators  and  organisations  (see  5.2  above).  The  report  DigComp  2.0:  The  'Digital 
Competence  Framework  for  Citizens'203  presents  the  DigComp  conceptual  reference  model 
together  with  'DigComp  2.1:  The  Digital  Competence  Framework  for  Citizens  with  eight 
proficiency levels and examples of use' (published 2017)204. It offers people a tool to improve 
citizen's  digital  competence  for  work  and  employability,  learning,  leisure,  consumption  and 
participation  in  society. It  also  offers  policy  makers  a  way  to  monitor  citizen's  digital  skills 
and support in curricula development. It has already been used and adapted by many countries 
and implemented in many ways across Europe205. 

Based  on  the  positive  response  to  tool  development  derived  from  the  Digital  Competence 
Framework,  similar  work  was  undertaken  to  support  Member  States  in  promoting  the 
development  of  entrepreneurship.  The  'Entrepreneurship  Competence  Framework'206  was 
published in 2016.  Extensive research was undertaken as part of its development in order to 
understand  the  most  recent  policy  and  practice  developments  in  different  countries.  Its  first 
version  consists  of  3  interrelated  and  interconnected  competence  areas:  ‘Ideas  and 
opportunities’,  ‘Resources’  and  ‘Into  action’  and  each  of  the  areas  is  made  up  of  5 
competences  which  are  described  in  terms  of  what  the  individual  "is  able  to  do".  The  15 
competences are also placed in a progression model, describing a spectrum from Foundation 
to Expert: relying on support from others; to building independence; to taking responsibility; 
and  finally  at  the  level  of  driving  transformation,  innovation  and  growth.  The  European 
Commission is exploring further development of this framework to support to countries and 
individuals working in education, training and learning.  

National testing 

A  Eurydice  study  from  2009207  on  national  testing  in  school  education  emphasises  that 
national  level  tests  –  in  addition  to  their  function  of  awarding  grades  or  certificates  -  have 
become an  increasingly important tool  for Member  States to  monitor  their  school education 
systems. However, evaluation policies vary in subject coverage, frequency of assessment, use 
of sampling or universal assessment, and how the results are used to feed back to schools and 
the systems as a whole. Also, the study concludes that out of the eight key competences set 
out  by  the  European  Framework  three,  namely  'communication  in  the  mother  tongue', 
'communication in foreign languages', and 'mathematical competences and basic competences 
in science and technology', are the most commonly assessed in national tests.  

By  contrast,  in  many  European  countries  the  key  competences  such  as  'learning  to  learn'  or 
'social  and  civic  competences',  which  usually  relate  to  more  than  one  subject,  are  not 
generally assessed in national evaluations. This was also confirmed by a later Eurydice report 

203 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/digcomp-20-digital-
competence-framework-citizens-update-phase-1-conceptual-reference-model  
204 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/digcomp-21-digital-
competence-framework-citizens-eight-proficiency-levels-and-examples-use  
205 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/implementation  
206 https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/entrecomp  
207 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/109EN.pdf 

72 

 
 
 
                                                            
from 2011/2012 which looked at 6 out of the eight Key Competences and the ways they are 
addressed in national testing.208 

To improve this situation, comprehensive assessment strategies are recommended that should 
be constructed around four main steps:  

1)  analysing which of the key competences are covered by national tests and other forms 

of summative assessment;  

2)  how key competences can be turned into more detailed learning outcomes that can be 

accurately and meaningfully assessed;  

3)  how broadening the scope of assessment can reveal, report and develop more of those 

competences and, finally,  

4)  how  reforms  of  assessment  can  be  implemented  and  what  other  policy  areas  are 

needed to support implementation. 

Assessment strategies differ with regard to the different key competences; while this is due to 
the specific character of the different competences, there is also a considerable difference with 
regard to experiences in assessing competences. 

Literacy:  All  Member  States  have  systems  in  place  to  assess  reading  literacy.  The  national 
information collected by Eurydice for the 2016209 update on basic skills shows that almost all 
European  education  systems  organise  nationally  standardised  tests  in  compulsory  education 
and the majority of European countries publish national reports on achievement in each of the 
basic  skills  based  on  national  performance  data.  In  many  cases,  these  reports  are 
complemented  by  reports  based  on  the  country  results  from  international  surveys  such  as 
PISA and PIRLS. 

Bilingual learners and migrant children  

Literacy  assessment  usually  takes  place  in  the  language  of  instruction  of  schools,  which  is 
also  the  first  language  for  most  children  living  in  Europe.  However,  for  many  children, 
usually  those  with  a  migrant  background,  the  language  of  instruction  is  not  their  mother 
tongue. Numerous studies show that migrant pupils tend to perform less well in reading than 
children of the host country. How to teach and assess reading skills to children whose mother 
tongue is not the language of instruction is, therefore, a crucial issue. A problematic situation 
arises,  for  example,  when  bilingual  learners  are  assessed  by  using  monolingual  assessment 
tools. New ways of assessment should be considered including assessments that take place in 
different  modes  of  observation  and  appraisal.  ‘Systemic  and  learning-oriented  approaches’, 
such  as  the  Learning  Oriented  Assessment210  developed  by  Cambridge  English  learning 
assessment, aim to promote informal and formal assessments to comprehensively understand 
learners’  progress.  This  field  is  subject  to  current  research,  since  the  number  of  bilingual 
children in Europe's schools (and who do not speak the language of schooling at home) is on the 
rise. 

Mathematics,  science  and  technology:  The  competences  of  mathematics,  science  and 
technologies have always been included in EU Member States' curricula albeit not necessarily 
as competences which cover not only knowledge and skills but also attitudes, i.e. attitudes and 

208 Eurydice (2012) Developing Key Competences at school, 
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/145en.pdf 
209 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/1/1b/Achievement_in_Basic_Skills_.pdf 
210 http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/research-and-validation/fitness-for-purpose/loa/ 

73 

 
 
 
                                                            
understanding of science as a process and the scientific way of reasoning as a pre-requisite for 
critical thinking and global awareness. Students achievement levels in mathematical reasoning 
are  normally  included  in  national  and  international  assessment  frameworks211.  As  the  EU 
working  group  on  raising  achievement  in  mathematics,  science  and  technologies212  and  the 
Eurydice213 reports revealed, the science competence is not always considered as a basic skill 
and is not assessed as universally as the literacy and mathematics competences214. It may be 
concluded  that  the  competence  in  science/technology  represents  a  somewhat  more 
challenging  task  in  terms  of  its  implementation  and  assessment  than  its  mathematics 
counterpart215.  

Personal, social  and learning competences:  Taking  into account the interconnectedness and 
broadness  of  personal,  social  and  learning  competences,  their  development  is  bound  to  be 
cross-curricular and involve new learning and assessment approaches. Many countries already 
have  guidelines  for  schools  to  assess  student  social  and  emotional  skills,  which  tend  to  be 
administered in a formative manner, but also make part of end-of-term student reports. Some 
countries  advocate  self-assessment,  complementing  it  with  peer  assessments  based  on  fixed 
criteria. National surveys of pupil well-being at school, such as in Norway, also help analyse 
and improve the engagement and learning environment at school216.  

Civic competence: The IEA International Civic and Citizenship Study (ICCS), which will be 
published  in  November  2017  and  which  concerns  14  EU  Member  States,  will  provide 
important  data  for  policy-makers  and  stakeholders  on 
the  development  of  civic 
competence217.  Concerning  student  assessment,  the  forthcoming  Eurydice  report  on 
Citizenship  education  in  schools  in  Europe  finds  that  only  in  a  slight  majority  of  European 
countries, student assessment in the classroom is framed by official guidelines through basic 
principles, including general aims and sometimes a range of recommended approaches and/or 
methods.  Only  twelve  education  systems  in  the  EU  organize  such  tests  for  certification 
purposes,  to  summarise  students'  achievements,  while  five  administer  standardised  tests  in 
citizenship education with the purpose of evaluating and monitoring the education system as a 
whole  and/or  of  individual  schools218.  These  assessments  concern  citizenship  education, 
mainly  knowledge-based  and  not  including  all  the  aspects  of  the  civic  competence,  which 
indicates the difficulty of grasping civic competence development in student assessment. 

Entrepreneurship: Learning outcomes linked to entrepreneurship education are fragmented in 
most European countries; they are not comprehensive and lack progression between education 
levels. Most importantly, the penetration  rate is still low.  The assessment of entrepreneurial 
competences  in  schools  and  Higher  Education  is  underdeveloped.  More  than  half  of  the 
Member States have few or no guidelines for teaching methods.   

Cultural awareness and expression: Research looks at suitable approaches to assessment that 
can support progression in the development of cultural awareness and expression and provide 
data  for  monitoring.  Whilst  there  are  several  examples  within  and  outside  Europe  of 

211 http://www.oecd.org/pisa/; https://nces.ed.gov/timss/  
212 http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/archive/documents/wg-mst-final-report_en.pdf  
213 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/1/1b/Achievement_in_Basic_Skills_.pdf  
214 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/1/1b/Achievement_in_Basic_Skills_.pdf  
215 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/1/1b/Achievement_in_Basic_Skills_.pdf  
216 OECD (2015), Skills for Social Progress: The Power of Social and Emotional Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264226159-en 
217 http://iccs.iea.nl/  
218 Eurydice (2017) Citizenship Education at School in Europe, 
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/9/97/Citizenship_Study_EN_2017.pdf 

74 

 
 
                                                            
frameworks to (self)assess intercultural competence219, and with varying definitions, there are 
relatively  few  concerning  cultural  expression  that  are  not  tied  to  specific  formal  education 
curricula, even in the rare cases where these exist. 

Compared  to  other  competences,  there  are  comparatively  few  examples  of  policy 
development  or  research  literature  on  the  assessment  of  a)  the  creative  process  or  b)  the 
quality  of  learners'  creative  products220.  This  is  believed  to  reflect  the  lack  of  reference 
standards  and  teachers'  either  reluctance  or  barriers  (time,  curricula,  different  testing 
demands) to judge learners' efforts and products.221 Nevertheless, examples are emerging of 
models and approaches that may contribute to competence assessment and development.  
The integration of digital technologies222 and the approaches to assessment of arts education 
practitioners  –  over  several  decades  -  are  making  a  strong  contribution  to  ways  in  which 
framing the self-reflection and critical analysis by the learner can become an effect and robust 
approach  to  assessment.  Not  only  are  these  shared  experiences  shifting  the  educator-learner 
relationship  in  the  learning  process  but  are  also  proven  to  enhance  the  development  of  the 
competence itself with the focus on the personal within a socio-cultural context.  

This has implications across the Key Competence Framework, where  creativity, including a 
sense of curiosity and initiative, problem solving, and critical thinking, are an integral part of 
many competences.  

5.5 Learning environments and learning approaches  

Competence-oriented learning is part of a movement in education to move away from merely 
factual knowledge and understanding to strategic thinking and decision-making coupled with 
the skills and sense of agency to make changes in the world – in other words to become more 
responsible  and  active  people.  It  also  signals  a  shift  in  pedagogical  approach  based  on  the 
understanding that learners have different strengths and needs. 

It requires a flexible approach to teaching and learning that moves away from the concept of 
educator  as  the  single  'knowledge  authority'  and  allows  the  use  of  a  variety  of  learning 
approaches to scaffold the progression and growing independence of each learner – of any age 
-  according to to their strengths, needs and interests. As competences comprise knowledge, 
skills and attitudes, and are not strictly confined to traditional subject domains or industries, 
the  educator-facilitator  is  required  to  structure  multi-dimensional  learning  processes  and 
content.  At  the  same  time,  these  learner-centred  environments  and  approaches  have  the 
potential to increase the motivation and engagement of learners in the learning process, and 
their sense of responsibility for learning outcomes.  

219 See, for example, the INCA project (2009) https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/librarydoc/the-inca-
project-intercultural-competence-assessment 
220 An accompanying document to 'Rethinking Education (2012), 'Assessment of Key Competences in initial 
education and training' makes reference to an example from the Malta national framework but no others. 
221 Collard, Paul and Looney, Janet, Nurturing Creativity in Education, European Journal of Education, Volume 
49, Issue 3,  September 2014, Pages 348–364 
222 See for example, Flanagan, Eilis and Hall, Tony, Digital Ensemble: The ENaCT design-based research 
framework for technology-enhanced embodied assessment in English education, English in Education, Volume 
51, Issue 1,  Spring 2017, Pages 76–99 

75 

 
 
 
                                                            
According  to  research  evidence223,  there  are  particular  approaches  that  can  have  a  positive 
impact  on  competence  development  as  a  mutli-dimensional,  inter-disciplinary  way  of 
learning. These include: 

  Role of the learner in the lifelong development of competences 

In order to provide each learner with equal opportunities for development of all competences, 
learners  need  to  have  an  active  and  equal  role  in  the  creation  of  the  learning  process.  This 
calls for  more participatory  methods in  learning, where  the learner  is  active  in  a task rather 
than  passively  receiving  information,  and  may  even  be  involved  themselves  in  decision-
making on the learning content, approaches and organisation.  

For this to be effective, a sense of autonomy within learners should be fostered from an early 
age  through  self-reflection  and  self-assessment.  Peer  learning  and  peer  assessment  also 
contribute to the autonomy and personal, social and learning competences, and underpin the 
continuous development of learner involvement and responsibility for learning pathways and   
career management.  

Learning  environments  that  provide  solutions  for  the  varying  needs  of  different  learners 
achieve  better  results.  Diversity  of  learners  should  be  matched  by  a  diversity  of  learning 
approaches and differentiated learning support systems, to provide targeted and individualised 
learning when necessary.  

  Social learning environments 

Learning is not always a transaction between one educator and one learner – such as lecturing 
followed by individual question and answer or set assignment. Learning is often organised in 
groups  where  learners  are  dependent  on  each  other  and  learn  with  or  from  each  other.  The 
nature  of  competences  also  means  that  attitudes  –  often  socially-constructed  –  are  being 
developed  alongside  knowledge  and  skills.  In  order  to  support  competence  development, 
learning environments needs to be safe and respectful, with a concern for the well-being of all 
educators  and  learners.  Therefore  the  personal,  social  and  learning  competence  itself  is 
important in competence-based learning, required from an early age. 

This  social  and  often  collaborative  nature  of  learning  also  presents  an  added  challenge  or 
complexity to the assessment of individual learner progression, meaning that the ability of a 
learner to self-reflect as part of team work is even more crucial. 

  Problem-solving and project-based learning 

Inquiry-based  and  project-based  learning  can  support  competence  development  as  they  take 
the  fundamental  approach  of  setting up  an  open  inquiry  based  on  a  problem.  The  learner is 
then  required  to  draw  on  a  broad  range  of  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes,  and  follow  a 
particular cyclical process of design, creation, reflection, and adaptation, complementing this 
with the input of other individuals.  

Similarly, game-based learning environments - working toward a goal, choosing actions and 
experiencing the consequences of those actions along the way – provide a complex, social and 
personally engaging way to draw on and develop a range of competences simultaneously. 

223 For example, Cörvers et al (2016) Problem-Based and Project-Based Learning for Sustainable Development. 
In: Heinrichs H., Martens P., Michelsen G., Wiek A. (eds) Sustainability Science. Springer, Dordrecht 

76 

 
 
                                                            
This  kind  of  learning  process  –  ideally  situated  in  the  context  of  real-world  problems  and 
solutions  –  is  particularly  well-defined  in  Entrepreneurial  Learning  as  well  as  recent 
approaches to Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) learning. In these 
approaches, the process ideally begins by stimulating the curiosity and sense of agency of the 
learner  which  has  the  added  positive  effect  of  increasing  motivation  and  engagement  in  the 
learning  process.  Support  to  competence  development  would  therefore  be  particularly 
enhanced  by  including  opportunities  for  entrepreneurial  experiences,  especially  for  young 
people  during  their  initial  education  and  training,  but  also  for  adults  during  up-skilling 
processes. 

Again,  the  often  collaborative  nature  of  learning  also  presents  an  added  challenge  or 
complexity to the assessment of individual learner progression 

 

 Experiential  learning 

Experiential learning is not merely 'learning about' content in theory but a process of thinking-
in-action,  doing  and  reflecting  on  a  personal  level  to  those  processes  necessary  for  a  task. 
Important to the learning process – and the transferability of competences life-wide and life-
long  –  is  that  the  initial  experience  is  captured  by  the  learner  in  abstract  thought  and 
transferred to new situations224. This transfer is also fundamental to the way innovation arises 
from creativity, combining problem-solving with reflection-in-action. Again, entrepreneurial 
learning is a prime example of an approach that creates this context. 

An  even  deeper  and  potentially  more  meaningful  learning  experience  can  be  facilitated  by 
process drama or in-role learning of arts-based education225, including 'play' and some virtual 
world  learning.  What  typically  happens  through  these  approaches  is  that  the  learner  is 
imagining  that  they  are  acting  as  someone  else  would.  This  might  be  a  generic  person  in 
society (e.g. a worker in-role as a manager), an 'expert' (e.g. a child being an adult scientist), 
or  a  historical  figure.  The  learner  is  not  totally  removed  from  their  own  consciousness  but 
draws on their own experience in order to make decisions as their second persona would, i.e. 
with empathy. Decision-making and reflection therefore still happen at the same time but in 
two  realms:  the  fictional  and  the  real.  Here  there  is  a  dual  creative  process,  offering  an 
enhanced learning context for this important set of skills and attitudes and adding a sense of 
empowerment within a safe environment. 

  Cross-discipline collaboration and cross-sectoral partnerships  

Collaboration  inside  the  education,  training  and  learning  settings,  as  well  as  outside  with  a 
variety of partners is essential for quality competence development. Collaborative and cross-
discipline teaching and learning within learning settings, for example through projects, team 
teaching and learner-led activities, improves engagement and learning outcomes in a range of 
competences. This calls for a more distributed leadership226 and management where education 
and  non-education  staff,  learners  and  others  are  more  involved  in  the  learning  process  and 
may propose, coordinate or lead activities and projects.  

224 Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 
225 See, for example, Winston, J. and Stinson, M. (2013) Drama education and second language learning, 
Routledge 
226 Distributed leadership in schools aims to better share tasks and responsibilities across the entire school 
community, encouraging teachers, non-teaching staff, learners or other stakeholders to take on leading roles in 
a particular area of expertise, assume responsibility and take initiatives as individuals or groups. It promotes 
teamwork, multi-disciplinarity and professional collaboration and enhances a variety of competences in all 
participants. 

77 

 
 
                                                            
This approach not only requires different education, training and learning settings to network 
and  create  partnerships  with  each  other  but  also  establish  cross-sectoral  cooperation  with 
external  actors  such  as  business,  arts,  sport  and  youth  community,  higher  education  or 
research  institutes227.  Such  broad  partnerships  and  networks  can  provide  rich  learning 
environments, but need to be built through a long-term strategy based on trust and common 
objectives.  

In  order to ensure quality competence development,  monitoring  and evaluation mechanisms 
should  be  established,  allowing  for  continuous  feedback  and  improvement  not  only  on  the 
learner  progression  but  also  on  the  relationship  between  those  facilitating  the  learning 
experiences and the resources they can draw on228. 

  Making optimal use of digital technologies 

Digital  technologies  have  the  capacity  to  challenge  and  change  the  relationships  between 
educator and learner and between learner and the learning process and content229. Digital tools 
can  enable  flipped  classrooms  and  blended  learning,  actually  increasing  the  contact  time 
between educator-facilitator and learner whilst also promoting a consciousness and increased 
responsibility  in  the  learner  of  their  own  progression.  Other  tools  can  capture  competence 
development in innovative ways, allowing for variables within and between learners, and help 
educators,  trainers  and  policy  makers  generate,  analyse  and  respond  to  a  range  of  data, 
helping  to  build  a  more  rounded  understanding  of  individual  and  groups  of  learners' 
competence development. 

Improving the digital capacity of education, training and learning providers by supporting the 
use  of  self-assessment  tools230  can  help  them  make  best  educational  use  of  digital 
technologies  to  enhance  teaching  and  learning,  but  also  support  the  development  of  digital 
competence specifically. 

Digital  technologies  and  web-based  opportunities,  such  as  MOOCs,  can  also  open  up 
education and training to more learners, creating a more equitable provision for competence 
development. 

5.6 Monitoring and evaluation of the use of the Recommendation for Key 
Competences for Lifelong Learning 

The public consultation showed also overall agreement to better monitor and evaluate the use 
of  the  Reference  Framework.  To  be  effective,  monitoring  should  focus  strongly  on  aspects 
which can help and support implementation of the Recommendation overall. Key elements to 
be monitored are: 

  policy reforms in Member States 

  support provided to educational staff 

  competence development of learners 

227 European Commission, 2015, Science Education for Responsible Citizenship, Report of the expert group on 
science education 
228 European Commission, 2015, A whole school approach to tackling early school leaving, Policy messages  
229 Cameroon, L. and and Tanti, M. (2011)  Students as learning designers: Using social media to scaffold the 
experience https://www.openeducationeuropa.eu/sites/default/files/legacy_files/asset/papers_27_InD_3.pdf  
230 E.g. SELFIE tool, https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomporg/selfie-tool, or HEInnovate, https://heinnovate.eu/  

78 

 
 
 
                                                            
 

the development of assessment tools 

  experiences with competence frameworks 

Monitoring  will  focus  on  developments  in  formal  education  and  training,  but  also  take 
account of non-formal learning and experiences. 

Monitoring of policy reforms in Member States 

Monitoring policy reforms in Member States will support the identification of strengths and 
weaknesses  in  different  approaches,  their  relevance  for  specific  education,  training  and 
learning  sectors  or  within  specific  education  systems.  It  will  include  policy  reform  that 
specifically  supports  educational  staff,  as  well  as  the  development  of  approaches  to 
assessment  that  can  generate  useful  data  for  the  development  of  education,  training  and 
learning directed towards competence development. 

A  particular  example  is  in  establishing  and  maintaining  a  high-quality  approach  to 
entrepreneurship education EU-wide. This is believed to require reform involving a range of 
policy  tools,  for  example:  the  possibility  of  defining  stronger  benchmarks  and  setting 
European  targets  for  participation  in  entrepreneurship  education  (%  of  schools  and  %  of 
students);  adopting  a  clear  definition  of  and  developing  effective  recognition 
in 
entrepreneurship education; providing more stable and coherent funding for entrepreneurship 
education,  training  and  learning;  and  developing  and  introducing  appropriate  assessment 
methods  in  entrepreneurship  education,  training  and  learning,  including  self-assessment  of 
individuals and institutions. 

Monitoring of support provided to educational staff 

While  the  Commission  proposes  to  support  the  further  development  of  reference  material, 
guidelines  and  tools  in  cooperation  with  Member  States,  monitoring  the  development  of 
competence  frameworks  for  specific  competences,  support  tools  for  teachers,  trainers  and 
educators  as  well  as  guiding  material  on  supportive  learning  approaches  and  contexts  will 
help to get an impression on the use of the Reference Framework. Another important indicator 
is the development in the area of teacher education, such as training courses, MOOCs, support 
of peer learning and exchange for educational staff. 

Monitoring the competence of learners 

The  Commission  intends  to  strengthen  monitoring  competence  development  using  existing 
surveys  on  competence  development  (e.g.  PISA,  PIAAC,  TIMSS,  PIRLS  as  well  as  data 
collection  in  language  learning,  digital  competence,  civic  and  sustanabiliy  competence).  A 
main  tool  for  this  could  be  the  Education  and  Training  Monitor  which  is  published  on  an 
annual basis and compiles evidence on the development of education and training systems as 
well as competence development. The work of Eurydice will also be of crucial importance in 
this context. 

Competence  development  is  also  measured  at  national  level  and  although  the  results  of 
national  tests  are  usually  not  comparable,  they  can  hint  at  progression  of  the  support  to 
competence development. However, overall comparability might not be realistic or desirable 
as experiences in the area of language learning demonstrate. 

Council conclusions on multilingualism in May 2014, agreed that the “assessment of language 
competences could help to promote multilingualism and the effective teaching and learning of 
languages  in  school”  and  invited  the  Commission  to  “explore  the  feasibility  of  assessing 
language competences in the Member States, including by using national data.” Two studies 

79 

 
 
 
were  launched,  providing  a  mapping  of  national  tests  and  a  comparison  of  the  tests  used 
across  Europe  to  assess  the  language  competences  of  secondary  school  pupils.  The 
"Languages  in  Secondary  Education  –  An  overview  of  national  tests  in  Europe  2014/15"231 
provided a detailed inventory of the approaches adopted to test the language competences of 
secondary  school  pupils  in  the  Member  States  of  the  European  Union,  while  the  "Study  on 
Comparability of Language Testing in Europe"232 aimed to explore the possibility to compare 
the  language  competences  of  pupils  in  secondary  education.  However,  these  studies 
concluded that the data available at national level were not comparable, although new avenues 
could be tried to make them comparable ex post, through an evaluation of test tasks and items.  

Monitoring the development of assessment tools 

Important  work  needs  to  be  done  to  further  develop  the  assessment  of  key  competences 
following  up  on  previous  work  on  the  assessment  of  key  competences  in  the  context  of 
ET2020233.  

This can be achieved through the proposed working group and complemented by research and 
ongoing policy support work in the different competence areas to gain a deeper understanding 
of the technical nature of these tools and the specific contexts in which they are developed. 

As described above (see 5.3), these tools can be developed with different functions in mind: 
summative  and  formative  of  learner  competence,  and  evaluative  of  initiatives.  It  should  be 
noted that there may be some overlap, for example where a self-assessment questionnaire on 
teacher competence might also contribute to an evaluation of a schools programme. 

There  are  a  number  of  existing  bodies  who  are  well-placed  to  contribute  to  the  ongoing 
monitoring  of  assessment  tools.  One  example  is  the  Joint  Research  Centre  of  the  European 
Commission who have developed the Digital Competence Framework for Educators based on 
the  analysis,  mapping  and  clustering  of  the  elements  of  educators'  digital  competence,  as 
detailed  in  existing  national  and  international  frameworks,  self-assessment  tools  and 
certification  schemes.  Another  example  is  SEECEL234  (see  box  below)  who    support 
participating countries in their efforts to accommodate EU recommendations for promotion of 
entrepreneurship as a key competence. 

The South East European Centre for Entrepreneurial Learning (SEECEL) is governed by an 
International Steering Committee and a Mangement Support Team. It is based in Croatia and 
co-funded by the European Union. 

In  2010,  SEECEL  began  structured  cooperation  of  eight  EU  preaccession  countries  for  the 
development of a common Entrepreneurial Learning: a Key Competence Approach (ELKCA) 
instrument.  Their  2013  publication  'Entrepreneurial  Learning:  School  Professional  Toolkit' 
presents the results of the strategic piloting of the ELKCA instrument in 31 schools in eight 
countries during the school year 2011/2012. The factorial analysis of the school professionals' 
questionnaire  resulted  in  scales  in  affective  and  cognitive  learning  domain.  In  addition,  the 
quantitative section of the study addressed the question on entrepreneurial learning activities 
impact  on  the  teachers’and  school  management  staff’s  entrepreneurship-related  learning 
outcomes. 

231 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/facts_and_figures/187EN_HI.pdf 
232 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/languages/library/documents/edl-report_en.pdf 
233 SWD (2012) 371 
234 http://seecel.hr/  

80 

 
 
 
                                                            
Results obtained with this exhaustive research and the implemented practical solution serve as 
an example  not  only  on how this competence can be taught  effectively  in different national 
systems, and how the tool itself can serve as the foundation for future planning, but also add 
to a broader understanding of approaches to the assessment of key competences. 

Monitoring of experiences with competence frameworks 

Monitoring  the  use  of  both  national  and  European  frameworks  can  enhance  designers'  and 
users' understanding of priorities – both of policy makers and education, training and learning 
professionals – and identify areas for improvement. This has certainly been the case with the 
development of the Digital Competence Framework, which was influenced by national uses 
of  the  original  version  in  creating  DigComp  2.0235.  The  Joint  Research  Centre  was  able  to 
map the use of the framework across Member States, as well as engage experts in dialogue. 
This can both serve as an example for monitoring of the European Reference Framework and 
provide additional insight in the challenges of implementation. 

The  stakeholders  range  from  policy  makers,  educational  and  employment  authorities  at 
national  and  regional  levels  to  public  and  private  training  institutions  and  the  third  sector 
bodies, which provide education, training and learning opportunities.  

In  an  attempt  to  share  practices  and  offer  opportunities  for  peer  learning  around  the 
implementation of DigComp, in 2015 an “Implementation Gallery” was launched on the JRC 
Science Hub website. The Implementation Gallery works on the self-reporting principal and 
presents snapshots of the implementations at a given moment in time. The goal is to display 
examples of use across Europe. These should not be regarded, by definition, as best practices, 
but provides another channel for monitoring. 

235 DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens 
http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC101254/jrc101254_digcomp%202.0%20the%20di
gital%20competence%20framework%20for%20citizens.%20update%20phase%201.pdf  

81 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
First uses of the Digital Competence Framework as mapped by the Joint Research Centre 

Additional investigation 

In addition, two years after the Recommendation has entered into force, the Commission will 
report  back  to  the  Council  on  the  implementation  of  the  Recommendation  in  line  with 
reporting  modalities  of  the  Strategic  Framework  of  European  cooperation  on  education  and 
training.  

With  regard  to  the  next  cycle  of  the  strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in 
education and training, the Commission  will  investigate in how far it is possible to propose 
European benchmarks in competence development. These benchmarks could either focus on 
competence development or on structural indicators. 

82 

 
 
 
 
 
 
6. Policies and projects supporting competence development in 
lifelong learning perspective 

The following chapter presents a collection of good practice examples. While they might be 
inspiring, their main claim is that variety of approaches to support competence development 
are already tested in practice and can inform further policy development in this area.  

The chapter also starts with looking at the relevance of early childhood education and care as 
a key foundation for future competence development. 

6.1 Foundations for lifelong learning: The significance of early childhood for 
competence development  
As recognized by both policy236 and science237 it is in the early years238 that children create 
the basic foundation and the capacity to learn new competences throughout life. Development 
of competences is an incremental process, building a strong foundation in the early years is a 
pre-condition for higher level skill acquisitions. 

While learning and physical well-being are connected at all ages, physical development in the 
first  six  years  of  life  is  critical  for  competence  development.  This  is  due  to  the  high  brain 
plasticity in this  period.  In  interactions with  the genetic dispositions early experiences build 
the  basic  architecture  of  the  brain.  "Just  as  a  weak  foundation  compromises  the  quality  and 
strength  of  a  house,  adverse  experiences  early  in  life  can  impair  brain  architecture,  with 
negative  effects  lasting  into  adulthood."239  In  order  to  be  able  to  develop  a  strong  brain 
architecture,  children  need  good  nutrition,  stimulating  environment,  secure  attachment  and 
warm  responsive  relationships.  Also  as  part  of  physical  development  gross  and  fine  motor 
skills as well as visual motor and spatial skills are important prerequisites for skill acquisition 
and school readiness. 

Looking  at  learning  processes  the  importance  of  early  years  is  two-fold.  Firstly,  a  range  of 
pre-academic  knowledge  and  skills  -  such  as  early  numeracy,  literacy  and  science  –  is 
necessary  for  children  to  develop  to  be  successful  in  school.  Secondly,  and  with  equal 
importance,  there  is  a  range  of  social,  emotional  and  cognitive  skills  that  children  need  as 
enablers of lifelong learning, health and well-being.  
Different  studies  have  demonstrated  that  early  literacy  and  numeracy  skills240  and  basic 
knowledge  about  natural  and  social  science241  have  great  influence  on  future  competence 
development. Early verbal abilities of very young children also impact on their later numeracy 
skills  and  mathematical  performance.242  Early  literacy  skills  (children’s  early  oral  and 

236 European Commission, COM(2016) 941, Improving and Modernizing Education; and COM (2016) 381, A New 
Skills Agenda for Europe 
237 Bertenthal, B. and Campos, J. (1987). New directions in the study of early experience. Child Development, 
238 Definition of early years is from birth to usually the age of 6 or 7 
239 Center of the Developing Child, Harvard university (2017) 
240 Joint Research Center, Soto-Calvo E. et al. (2016) Technical Report: The Influence of Early Literacy 
Competences on Later Mathematical Attainment 
241Paul L. Morgan et al. (2016) Science Achievement Gaps Begin Very Early, Persist,and Are Largely Explained by 
Modifiable Factors 
242 LeFevre, J. A., et al. (2010) Pathways to mathematics: Longitudinal predictors of performance. Child 
development, 81(6), 1753-1767. 

83 

 
 
 
                                                            
phonological  awareness  and  processing  skills  as  well  as  letter  print  knowledge)  have  been 
found to play a crucial role in reading development and also in mathematical achievement.  

At  school  entry  there  are  large  differences  in  the  level  of  numeracy  skills  among  children. 
These  differences  tend  to  increase  during  school  years243,  suggesting  that  early  numeracy 
practices before school entry are likely to improve children’s later mathematical attainment.  

Early transversal skills, or as sometimes referred to as life skills, have also been identified as 
both having an impact on later competence as well as having a long reach into adulthood and 
influence health, employability, earnings and life-satisfaction.244 Most important early socio-
emotional  competences  include  self-awareness,  self-regulation245,  emotional  stability,  pro-
social  behaviour  and  empathy.  The  importance  of  early  self-regulatory  skill  has  seen 
increased focus in the applied research given the implications of these skills for early school 
success.  

Furthermore, education from early  age  plays an essential role in  learning to  live together in 
heterogeneous societies. Before children can understand abstract social concepts (democracy, 
responsibility, rule of law, human rights), they need to experience real life situations in which 
these concepts come into play, and practice the requisite social skills. 246 Therefore in order to 
develop  civic  competence  early  social  leaning  needs  to  take  place.  Later  in  life these  social 
skills  also  play  crucial  role  in  the  development  of  entrepreneurial  competence  and 
intentions.247 

Cognitive  and  social  emotional  developments  are  ultimately  intertwined.  While  social  and 
emotional  learning  in  early  childhood  education  prepares  students  with  transversal  skills 
necessary to live a successful adult life, it is important to consider how it may interact with 
academic instruction. Emerging evidence suggests that social and emotional learning is not an 
add-on, but acts more like a catalyst for academic growth.  

This  leads  to  relevant  policy  conclusions.  Parents'  socio-economic  and  educational 
background  and  the  learning  environment  at  home  influence  strongly  on  children's' 
competence development in the early years. The second most influential factor is the quality 
of any  form of  non-parental  care children receive. "Going  to  a high  quality early childhood 
education  and  care  setting  was  especially  important  when  starting  school  and  remained  so 
beyond the age of 16. It influences both attainment and progress in early school careers and 
set children on particularly beneficial learning trajectories".248 This is true for all children249 
and  especially  for  those  coming  from  more  disadvantaged  backgrounds.  In  short,  ECEC 
participation can compensate, to a degree, for inequalities in family background.  

There is a strong positive correlation between participation in ECEC and performance in some 
of the PISA 2015 domains across Member States. The highest effect could be found for three 
or  more  years  of  ECEC  participation.  This  can  amount  to  the  equivalent  of  a  learning 

243 Aunola, K. et al. (2007) Developmental dynamics of math performance from preschool to grade 2. 
244 Carneiro P., Crawford C. and Goodman A (2007) The Impact of Early Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Skills on 
Later Outcomes 
245 Referring to constructs such as self-control, delay of gratification, good conduct and conscientiousness 
246 Kristen M. Kemple, (2016) Social Studies, Social Competence and Citizenship in Early Childhood Education 
247 Schoon, I. and K. Duckworth (2012), “Who Becomes an Entrepreneur? Early Life Experiences as Predictors of 
Entrepreneurship”, Developmental Psychology, Vol. 48, No. 6, pp. 1719-1726. 
248 Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Blatchford, I.-S., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-
School Education [EPPE] Project (Project Final Report). 
249 Melhuish E. et al., (2016) CARE Project: A review of research on the effects of Early Childhood Education and 
Care upon child development 

84 

 
 
                                                            
advantage  of  about  three  school  years.  For  students  who  had  not  attended  pre-primary 
education the chances of being low performers are three times greater than for those who had 
attended for more than one year. 

To recapitulate, there are considerable advantages  in  providing high  quality interventions to 
improve  cognitive  and  social,  emotional  skills  in  early  childhood.  There  is  not  one  silver 
measure  that  can  address  positive  adjustment  across  competences  or  regarding  one  specific 
competence.  It  is  necessary  to  support  the  development  of  different  skill  sets  to  enable 
children reach their full potential. Finally, the results of policies that simultaneously develop 
multiple skills are likely to be greater than policies concentrating on single skills only.250 

Focus areas: supporting strong competence foundation for all children 

As  established  by  Principle  11  of  the  Social  Pillar  all  children  need  to  have  access  to  high 
quality early childhood education and care. 

Providing  children  with  high  quality,  stimulating  learning  environment,  surround  them  with 
warm responsive climate.  

Provide  a  balanced  program,  curriculum  of  pre-academic  and  social-emotional  learning  in 
high quality ECEC settings. Treat children as active learners by placing self-directed problem-
solving at the heart of children’s early learning and development. 

Scaffolding  children's'  learning  regardless  whether  they  are  spending  their  early  years  in 
formal or informal care.  

Literacy 

Following the Council conclusions of 2010, a High Level Group of Experts on Literacy was 
established in 2011 bringing together European academics and policy-makers to map Europe's 
literacy  landscape,  identifying  changing  needs  and  requirements,  as  well  as  to  examine  the 
most effective and efficient ways to improve reading skills in Europe.  

ACT NOW – the Final report251 of the EU High level group of experts on literacy (September 
2012).  

The final report of the High Level Group underscores the importance of literacy in the  21st 
century, as well as the need to ensure political ownership and cooperation to ensure genuine 
improvement, and continued economic growth. 

It contains a series of concrete proposals and recommendations intended to help EU Member 
States make their own policies more coherent, efficient and successful. These include: sharing 
of  knowledge  and  practice;  improving  access  to  education;  stimulating  partnerships; 
embedding  competence  development  in  school  education;  and  improving  the  professional 
development of teachers, trainers and non-formal learning practitioners. 

Some examples of good practice from this report:  

• 
In  Sweden,  a  'Swedish  as  a  Second  Language'  has  been  developed  for  immigrant  or 
minority  children,  stressing  the  right  for  these  children  to  have  their  language  development 

250 European Commission, COM(2017) 250;  Communication on the European Pillar of Social rights 
251 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/policy/school/doc/literacy-report_en.pdf 

85 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
fully supported in both Swedish and their mother tongue.  

• 
In Cyprus, the Zones of Educational Priority was launched in 2003, aiming to tackle 
school  underachievement  mainly  in  literacy.  Students  at  risk  were  provided  with  tailored 
support in literacy and help in facing social problems. In 2011, afternoon courses were added, 
including  Greek  language  learning  and  mother  tongue  teaching  for  children  with  a  migrant 
background.  

In the Netherlands, 'Stichting Lezen & Schrijven' was established in 2004 with the aim 
• 
to  raise  awareness,  based  around  the  'literacy  chain'  notion.  High  profile  campaigns  and 
activities  involve  a  broad  range  of  players  –  from  formerly  illiterate  people  who  serve  as 
literacy ambassadors to business and group of 28 celebrities.  

The Portuguese National Reading Plan (2006) focuses not only on children though a 
• 
childhood-wide approach but also on the entire lifespan. It introduced one compulsory hour of 
reading  per  day  in  early  childhood  and  in  primary  education.  The  Plan  provides  CPD 
programmes  in  literacy  instruction  for  teachers  and  puts  strong  emphasis  on  family  literacy 
and inter-generational approaches.  

• 
The  Hungarian  Reading  Association  organises  a  'National  Day  of  Folk  Tales'  in 
hundreds  of  libraries  around  the  country,  and  also  in  theatres,  museums,  teacher  training 
institutions and kindergartens, with storytellers, puppet shows, lectures about the meaning of 
folk tales and the role of teachers and parents. In 2012, the focus was on Roma folk tales.  

• 
In  Estonia,  the  project  'Stories'  and  'Poems'  were  developed  by  the  Tallinn  Central 
Library Children's Page. Children write stories and poems that are competitively selected and 
then published online on the library website.  

In Berlin, Germany, about 2000 'Lesenpaten', adult volunteers, go regularly to schools 

• 
in social problem areas and read to and with children to cultivate the joy of reading. 

• 
The French nationwide programme 'Coup de Pouce Clé' provides small reading groups 
for  children  who  are  fragile  in  reading  in  primary  classes.  The  programme  mobilises  the 
whole  school  during  each  school  year  to  identify  children  at  risk  of  falling  behind  in  their 
reading.  Children  join  an  after-school  club  for  1.5  h  per  day,  led  by  a  reading  specialist. 
Parents are fully involved in the clubs: upon entry to the clubs, parents sign up to following 
the progress of their child.  

Subsequently,  the  European  Commission  launched  a  European  Policy  Network  of  National 
Literacy  Organizations,  ELINET,  in  February  2014.  This  network  had  the  purpose  to, 
amongst  others,  raise  awareness,  and  exchange  good  practices,  policies,  campaigns  and 
initiatives  promoting  literacy.  The  network  issued  a  European  Declaration  on  the  Right  to 
Literacy  which  aims  to  harness  a  collective  effort  from  both  Member  States  authorities  and 
civil society in order to turn literacy from a right into a reality for every European. 

ELINET - a European Policy Network of National Literacy Organizations 

In  February  2014,  the  European  Commission  launched  a  European  Policy  Network  of 
National  Literacy  Organizations252,  ELINET.  This  network  had  the  purpose  to,  amongst 

252 http://www.eli-net.eu/ 

86 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
others,  raise  awareness,  and  exchange  good  practices,  policies,  campaigns  and  initiatives 
promoting literacy. The network issued a European Declaration on the Right to Literacy253  
which aims to harness a collective effort from both member states authorities and civil society 
in order to turn literacy from a right into a reality for every European. 

Languages  

The  mandate  of  the  Thematic  Working  Group  on  Languages  in  Education  and  Training 
(2012–2014)  included  exploring  new  approaches  to  language  learning  and  teaching  for 
mobility and employability throughout the life span. Two documents outline the results: 
  Languages in Education and Training: Final Country Comparative Analysis254; 

 

Improving  the  effectiveness  of  language  learning:  Content  and  Language  Integrated 
Learning (CLIL) and Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)255. 

For several decades, language learning in Europe has benefitted greatly from EU funding, in 
particular from the Erasmus+  programme, Horizon 2020 and European Social and Regional 
Development Funds. For example, since 2014, over 50% of the Erasmus+ mobility projects in 
the  school  education  sector  have  the  topic  “teaching  and  learning  of  foreign  languages”  as 
their  main  topic.  Nearly  3,000  projects  have  been  funded,  for  a  budget  of  57  million  €, 
allowing more than 12,000 teachers or school staff to train or teach abroad on a topic related 
to  languages.  Funding  helped  to  acquire  or  develop  linguistic  skills  of  school’s  staff,  either 
language teachers, or any other staff who may for instance participate in a European project; 

  Learn new methodologies to teach languages, e.g. through an enhanced use of ICT in 
the classroom or experimenting with new methods such as drama, or to teach students 
with special needs; 

  Develop  linguistic  and  professional  skills  to  teach  in  a  CLIL  environment  (Content 
and Language Integrated Learning, i.e. teaching subjects such as science, history and 
geography through a foreign language); 

  Learn  to  teach  in  multicultural  classrooms,  and  make  the  most  of  this  linguistic 

diversity, etc. 

European Language Label256  

The  European  Language  Label  (ELL)  is  awarded  annually  or  biannually  to  especially 
relevant, innovative and well-run projects that promote excellence in language education and 
help  raise  awareness  of  multilingualism  issues  in  the  wider  society.  An  initiative  of  the 
European Commission since 1995, the ELL is implemented by Erasmus+ National Agencies 
in Member States. Every year, the label is awarded to the most innovative language learning 
project  in  each  country  participating  in  the  scheme.  By  supporting  these  projects,  at  a  local 
and national level, the label seeks to raise the standards of language teaching across Europe. 
The  label  can  also  be  awarded  to  the  individual  having  made  the  most  progress  in  foreign 
language learning, or the best language teacher. 

253 http://www.eli-net.eu/about-us/literacy-declaration/ 
254 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/languages/library/studies/lang-eat_en.pdf 
255 http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/languages/library/studies/clil-call_en.pdf 
256 http://ec.europa.eu/education/initiatives/language-label_en 

87 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
Relevant  to  the  development  of  language  teaching  is  especially  the  work  of  the  Council  of 
Europe’s  and  its  European  Centre  for  Modern  Languages  (ECML)  in  Graz,  Austria.  The 
ECML was founded in 1994257. It aims to promote quality language education in Europe and 
offers  support  (training,  consultancy,  guidelines  and  toolkits)  to  teacher  educators  and 
provides training and professional development opportunities for other multipliers.  

The 'Supporting Multilingual Classrooms' Project enables participants to understand better the 
challenges  and  opportunities  for  students  with  mixed  linguistic  backgrounds,  and  explore 
ways  to  maximise  the  learning  potential  of  these  students  and  to  bridge  the  attainment  gap 
between them and the rest of the students. 

The  goal  of  the  RELANG  project  is  to  help  educational  authorities  relate  their  language 
examinations  and  curricula  to  the  levels  of  proficiency  defined  in  the  Common  European 
Framework  of  Reference  (CEFR).  This  initiative  aims  to  ensure  the  valid  assessment  of 
learners throughout participating states, and the correct reporting and interpretation of exam 
results according to the CEFR levels in ways which encourage validity and transparency for 
all stakeholders. 

Mathematics, science and technology  

In addition the approaches to support competence development in general, the development of 
the  competences  in  mathematics,  science  and  technologies  can  involve  a  variety  of  actions 
and policy measures: 

  development  of  national  and/or  regional  strategies  for  promotion  of  STEM  (science, 

 

technology, engineering, and mathematics) education; 
inquiry-based  pedagogy  (i.e.  inductive,  discovery-like,  student-centred  approach  to 
education) including experiential, hands-on opportunities; 

  multidisciplinary  education  including  project-based  learning  across  different  subject 
areas (e.g. science in context - environmental, political, social, economic, cultural and 
artistic); 

  building  partnerships  with  outside  actors  to  ensure  relevance  to  real-life  situations, 
possible  career  choices,  and  jobs  (e.g.  partnerships  of  schools  with  the  industry  or 
research 
science-education  centres,  between-schools 
partnerships, etc.). 

setting  up 

institutions, 

Some countries  created national STEM platforms that  promote  a wide variety of innovative 
education,  training  and  learning  practices  based  on  the  close  cooperation  of  business, 
education  and  government.  An  example  of  such  an  initiative  is  Jet-Net  (Youth  and 
Technology  Network)  in  the  Netherlands258.  Jet-Net  is  a  joint  initiative  of  the  Dutch 
government,  leading  technology  companies  and  secondary  schools.  Together  the  partners 
provide students with experiences that show the challenging, meaningful and socially relevant 
nature of technology. Jet-Net is funded by both industry and government. After the success in 

257 http://www.ecml.at/ECML has now 30 member states. It was founded in 1994 by Austria, France, Greece, 
Liechtenstein, Malta, the Netherlands, Slovenia and Switzerland. The European Commission cooperates with 
the ECML and offer support on selected projects. 
258 http://www.jet-net.nl/english  

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the  Netherlands,  the  Jet-Net  best  practice  has  been  successfully  introduced  in  Denmark  as 
"Jet-Net.dk."259  
The  STEM  Learning260  is  the  largest  provider  of  STEM  education  and  careers  support  to 
schools, colleges and other groups working with young people across the UK. It is funded by 
a partnership of government, charitable trusts and employers. The Network provides subject-
specific,  career-long  professional  development;  access  to  free  of  charge,  curated  curriculum 
resources,  STEM  ambassadors;  STEM  Clubs  support;  competitions,  recognition  and  awards 
with  proven  impact  on  outcomes  for  young  people.  For  example,  STEM  Ambassadors  are 
volunteers  from  a  wide  range  of  STEM-related jobs  and  disciplines  across  the  UK  -  people 
from all disciplines and backgrounds including engineers, designers, architects, scientists and 
technicians.  They  offer  their  time  and  enthusiasm  to  help  bring  STEM  subjects  to  life  and 
demonstrate their value in life and careers. 

After the initial success of transferring initiatives like Jet-Net as well as the STEM platform 
model  to  Denmark  and  Estonia,  the  national  STEM  platforms  of  Denmark,  the  Netherlands 
and  Estonia  have  joined  forces  in  the  EU  STEM  Coalition261  which  has  received  initial 
financial  support  through  an  Erasmus+  grant.  Its  mission  is  to  create  momentum  for  the 
development and implementation of national STEM strategies across Europe. The two main 
goals  of  the  EU  STEM  Coalition  are:  (i)  to  facilitate  and  promote  the  exchange  of  best 
practices  between  national  STEM  platforms  through  peer  learning  activities;  and  (ii)  to 
support other Member States in the establishing a STEM platform through targeted taskforce 
meetings.   
The Science on Stage Europe262 is a network of and for STEM teachers of all school levels. 
It  provides  a  European  platform  for  science  teachers  to  exchange  teaching  concepts  and  to 
share  ideas.  Since  its  launch  in  2000,  Science  on  Stage  has  reached  about  100,000  teachers 
and  teacher  trainers  in  30  countries.  A  network  of  National  Steering  Committees  in  these 
countries provides the interface to their national science teaching communities.  

Every  two  years,  Science  on  Stage  Europe  organises  Europe's  biggest  educational  festival 
from and for STEM teachers. Each time hosted by a different European country, the festival 
brings together up to 400 STEM teachers to share and exchange their ideas and concepts for a 
successful  science  education  from  primary  to  secondary  school.  The  network  produces 
teaching  materials,  offers  travel  scholarships  for  teachers  and  organises  workshops  and 
teacher-training  courses.  Surveys  among  participating  teachers  indicate  that  79%  of  them 
teachers implement teaching ideas seen at the festivals, 69% state that the festivals have given 
them back more motivation and joy in their profession, and 50% share long-lasting contacts 
and have spread ideas seen at Science on Stage activities in teacher trainings. 

The  Scientix  network  promotes  and  supports  a  Europe-wide  collaboration  among  STEM 
(science,  technology,  engineering  and  maths)  teachers,  education  researchers,  policymakers 
and other STEM education professionals.  

259 http://www.nvhus.dk/jet-netdk/  
260 https://www.stem.org.uk/about-us  
261 http://www.stemcoalition.eu/  
262 http://www.science-on-stage.eu/  

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In its first stage (2009-2012), the project built an online portal to collect and present European 
STEM  education  projects  and  their  results,  and  organised  several  teacher  workshops.  The 
main networking event was the Scientix conference, held in May 2011 in Brussels. 

The  goal  of  the  second  phase  of  the  Scientix  project  (2013  –  2015)  was  to  expand  this 
community  to  the  national  level.  Through  a  network  of  National  Contact  Points  (NCPs), 
Scientix reached out to national teacher communities, and contributed to the development of 
national  strategies  for  wider  uptake  of  inquiry-based  and  other  innovative  approaches  to 
science and maths education. 

This activity is continued in the third stage of Scientix (2016-2019), which is funded by the 
Horizon 2020 programme of  the European Union for research and innovation. Scientix  was 
originally born at the initiative of the European Commission and has, since its inception, been 
coordinated  by  European  Schoolnet,  a  Brussels-based  consortium  of  thirty  ministries  of 
education, which is a driving factor for innovation in teaching and learning and fosters pan-
European collaboration of schools and teachers. 

Students cannot fully understand scientific ideas without personally  engaging in inquiry and 
discussing ideas. They cannot comprehend scientific practices, nor fully appreciate the nature 
of scientific knowledge itself, without directly experiencing those practices for themselves263 
through (i) asking questions; (ii) planning and carrying out investigations; (iii) analysing and 
interpreting data; (iv) engaging in argument from evidence; and (v) obtaining, evaluating, and 
communicating information. 
UniSchooLabS264: remote access for schools to university science labs 

The project produced a tool-kit which supports the teachers in selecting a remote or virtual lab 
and  developing  a  lab  activity  based  on  an  inquiry  model  template.  The  UniSchooLabs 
activities are composed of a number of pages and associated folders that facilitate the teacher 
in organizing experiments for the students using remote or virtual labs. The use of internet-
based services and mobile technologies allows access to science experiments that would not 
otherwise be possible, because of the difficult or fragmented access to science laboratories in 
most  schools,  especially  for  those  based  in  rural  areas.  The  pedagogical  approaches  and 
scenarios developed within the project rely upon inquiry-based learning and problem-solving 
approaches, where learners learn by doing and through inquiry (science experiments) both in 
real and in virtual settings. These approaches foster creativity, analytical skills and motivate 
learners to learn through the pleasure of discovery. 

There  is  a  myriad  of  innovative,  excellent  projects  and  initiatives  in  which  Member  States 
have  joined  forces  in  applying  many  of  the  above-listed  ways  for  the  promotion  of 
competence-based  learning.  265  Those  projects  are  usually  multidisciplinary  and/or  inquiry-
based and include different partnerships.  

One  major  such  approach  is  context-based  science  teaching.  This  approach  emphasises  the 
philosophical, historical or societal aspects of science and technology, as well as connecting 
scientific  understanding  with  students'  everyday  experiences.  It  is  also  referred  to  as  the 
science-technology-society (STS) approach266. From a sociological perspective, this includes 

263 https://www.nap.edu/read/13165/chapter/1#vi  
264 http://unischoolabs.eun.org/ 
265 http://keyconet.eun.org/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=212b151d-92a5-4031-a5f4-
329eb616a177&groupId=11028  
266 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/133EN.pdf  

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examining and questioning the values implicit in scientific practices and knowledge; looking 
at the social conditions as well as the consequences of scientific knowledge and its changes; 
and  studying  the  structure  and  process  of  scientific  activity.  From  a  historical  perspective, 
changes in the development of science and scientific ideas are studied. From a philosophical 
perspective, context-based science teaching raises questions regarding the nature of scientific 
inquiry  and  evaluates  the  grounds  of  its  validity.  It  also  recognises  science  as  a  'human 
endeavour' where imagination and creativity play a role. 

Science  and  the  environment/sustainability  addresses  the  environmental  implications  of 
scientific  activity  and  is  recommended  for  inclusion  in  science  teaching  by  the  steering 
documents of almost all European countries267 both at primary and at lower secondary levels; 
it usually applies to all science subjects (biology, chemistry and physics). 

Pollution! Find a STEM solution! 

This is a project which presents 5 future classroom scenarios about investigating, measuring 
air,  light  and  noise  pollution  as  well  as  analysing  the  measurements  and  with  the 
accompanying  digital  content  (worksheets,  instructions  how  to  assemble  the  measuring 
devices  and  program  the  LEGO  robot).  Activities  are  focused  on  building  the  devices  for 
measuring  air,  light  and  noise  pollution  in  students’  schools  and  homes,  analysing  the  data 
and comparing the results with their peers to find a solution.  

The project includes a step by step guide how to build an apparatus for measuring air quality, 
a worksheet-table suggestion for measuring noise pollution, an instructional video on how to 
make  a  solar  panel  model:  (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkSaq7EOMak)  ,  and  an 
instructional 
model: 
to 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y0gyomo7IOU.  

windmill 

video 

make 

how 

on 

a 

http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/projects/eplus-project-details-
page/?nodeRef=workspace://SpacesStore/81a56dcb-743e-4a4d-9280-c9d7d037a583 

Science  education  centres  are  an  effective  vehicle  for  fostering  competence-oriented  STEM 
education as the examples below show. 
Setting up science education centres268 

In  Finland,  the  national  LUMA  centre  (LU  stands  for  luonnontieteet,  natural  science  in 
Finnish, and MA for mathematics) is an umbrella organisation for the cooperation of schools, 
universities,  business  and  industry,  coordinated  by  the  Faculty  of  Science,  University  of 
Helsinki.  The  main  activities  are  CPD  activities  for  teachers  including  an  annual  LUMA 
science  day;  the  national  LUMA  activation  week  for  schools;  MST  camps  for  children; 
resource  centres  for  mathematics  and  science.  The  LUMA  Centre  is  governed  by  a 
management  team  comprising  representatives  of  various  institutions:  the  Ministry  of 
Education,  the  National  Board  of  Education,  the  Faculties  of  Biosciences,  Behavioural 
Sciences and Science, the Helsinki University of Technology as well as the City of Helsinki 
Education  Department,  as  well  as  a  representative  of  Finnish  municipalities  and  various 
Finnish Industry associations. 

The  Norwegian  Centre  for  Science  Education  at  the  University  of  Oslo’s  Faculty  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Sciences,  is  a  national  resource  centre  for  all  education  levels. 
Beside schools, the Centre has various collaborators from universities and university colleges 

267 Ibid 
268 Ibid 

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to  museums  and  industry.  The  Centre  develops  working  methods  and  teaching  materials 
which help to  make  natural  science teaching more varied, as  well as  lively  and exciting for 
pupils  and  students.  The  centre  contributes  to  the  development  and  the  testing  of  computer 
based learning materials and the organisation of web-based learning environments in natural 
science. It also provides teacher professional development activities.. 

The main challenge at this point is about scaling up of the well-known, proven-to-be-effective 
approaches  to  competence-based  education  in  mathematics,  science  and  technology  at  all 
levels of intervention: teachers and school leaders, the learner, school organisation, national 
(regional)  system  level,  and  at  EU  level.  Those  approaches  should  also  include  continuous 
monitoring  of  the  progress  made  including  quality-assurance  mechanisms  for  further 
development of the MST educational practices and policies. 
inGenius269  is  the  European  Coordinating  Body  in  Science,  Technology,  Engineering  and 
Mathematics (STEM) Education. It is a joint initiative launched by European Schoolnet and 
the  European  Roundtable  of  Industrialists  (ERT)  aiming  to  reinforce  young  European's 
interest in science education and careers and thus address anticipated future skills gaps within 
the European Union. 

Through  a  strategic  partnership  between  major  industries  and  Ministries  of  Education, 
inGenious has the objective of increasing the links between science education and careers, by 
involving up to 1,000 classrooms throughout Europe. 
PRIMAS270  is  an  international  project  within  the  Seventh  Framework  Program  of  the 
European Union. Fourteen universities from twelve different countries have worked together 
over  four  years  to  promote  the  implementation  and  use  of  inquiry-based  learning  in 
mathematics  and  science.  PRIMAS  has  developed  materials  for  direct  use  in  class  and  for 
professional  development.  In  addition,  we  have  run  professional  development  activities  and 
have  supported  professional  networks  in  each  of  the  partner  countries.  PRIMAS  has  also 
worked  with  stakeholders  such  as  policymakers,  school  leaders  and  parents  to  create  a 
supportive environment for inquiry-based learning. 

Digital  

Support for the development of digital competence has benefitted greatly from EU funding, in 
particular from the Erasmus+  programme, Horizon 2020 and European Social and Regional 
Development Funds.  

Erasmus+ supports projects focusing on the integration of digital technologies in education or 
supporting  the  development  of  digital  competence.  The  project  theme  of  ICT,  new 
technologies and digital competence features across different actions of the programme. From 
2014 to 2016, 1576 projects on these themes, with more than 8000 beneficiary organisations, 
were funded in the education, training and youth fields. 

MOTech – Motivating new technologies for adult education in rural areas 271 

The  purpose  of  the  MOTech  project  was  to  encourage  and  guide  adult  learners  in  various 
parts  of  Europe  to  participate  in  creative  learning  and  activities  using  new  information 

269 http://www.ingenious-science.eu/web/guest/home 
270 http://www.primas-project.eu/en/index.do;jsessionid=96A210FB933D5A31A6245AE841749A18 
271 http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/projects/eplus-project-details-
page/?nodeRef=workspace://SpacesStore/625123e7-b4c7-464c-a614-190f8ecf3be5 

92 

 
 
 
                                                            
technology tools. The objective was to develop adult learners’ skills in computer literacy and 
foreign  languages  using  creative  education  and  e-learning  methods.  The  project  created  a 
European-wide  forum  across  6  countries  and  a  sustainable  platform  for  the  future 
development of creative education with a range of resources. 
Safe Internet For All – Supporting school teachers and pupils272 

"Safe Internet for all" (SIFA) was a two year (2014-16) Erasmus+ project aiming to increase 
the awareness and knowledge about the risks and possible consequences in connection with 
the  use  of  internet  as  well  as  to  help  pupils  and  teachers  to  handle  such  negative 
consequences.  School  partners  from  Greece,  Austria,  Poland,  Norway  and  Sweden  each 
hosted an international project meeting on a different theme related to Internet use: Addiction, 
Health, Security, Ethics and Safety. Each school partner developed guidelines for safe Internet 
use, in order to prevent negative consequences but also to actively promote critical analysis of 
digital material. 

Horizon  2020  has  supported  projects  concerning  digital  technologies  in  education,  for 
example,  I-LINC,  which  is  an  online  platform  that  supports  youth  employability  and 
entrepreneurship  through  the  use  of  digital  tools.  It  also  funds  the  European  Institute  of 
Innovation  and  Technology  (EIT),  which  has  a  dedicated  Knowledge  and  Innovation 
Community  (KIC)  for  digital  issues:  'EIT  Digital'.  This  particular  KIC  brings  together 
entrepreneurs  from  a  partnership  of  over  130  European  corporations,  SMEs,  start-ups, 
universities  and  research  institutes  and  has  over  1500  students  in  digital  education 
programmes. 

The  European  Social  Fund  provides  vouchers  for  digital  skills  trainings.  The  European 
Regional  Development  Fund  supports 
including  smart 
specialisation  strategies.  The  Connecting  Europe  Facility  supports  broadband  infrastructure 
and the provision of digital services. 

infrastructure  development, 

In  addition  to  the  Digital  Competence  Framework  for  Citizens,  the  OpenEducationEuropa 
(OEE) online platform, originally launched in 2013, was redesigned and re-launched in early 
2017.  OEE  aims  to  be  a  central  access  point  for  information  and  discussion  on  innovative 
education, with a focus on digital technologies.  

European-level research supports Member States in addressing the development of the digital 
competence of its people. The Commission  has  undertaken or  contracted various  studies  on 
digital education and digital competence themes in order to better understand current practices 
in  education, training  and learning,  for example  research on the  use  of learning  analytics  in 
Europe  or  an  overview  of  research  and  initiatives  on  computational  thinking.  The 
Commission  has  also  recently  contracted  a  new  version  of  the  ICT  in  Schools  Survey 
(ESSIE).  The  aim  is  to  collect  data  on  the  availability  and  use  of  digital  devices  in  schools 
across  Europe.  Results  are  expected  by  mid-2018.  This  complements  the  work  of  the  ICT 
Indicators Expert Group which has proposed three dimensions for a cross national comparable 
statistical 'ICT in Education' Indicator: 1) Uptake in schools; 2) Teachers´ use of ICT; and 3) 
Students´  digital  competence.  The  Expert  Group  works  on  identifying  credible  data  sources 
that covers all three dimensions. 

European  working  groups  and  experts  groups  play  an  important  role  in  knowledge-sharing 
and in discussing and developing key messages that support national policy-making. Within 

272 https://www.sifaplus.eu/en/ 

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the  ET2020  framework  six  working  groups are currently  engaged273  in  this  open  method  of 
coordination  (OMC).274  The  ET2020  Working  Group  on  Digital  Skills  and  Competences 
discusses  both  digital  education  and  digital  skills  and  competences.  Specific  areas  have 
included: coding and computational thinking, teacher skill and training, the gender gap, open 
educational  resources  (OER),  device  provision  (such  as  Bring  Your  Own  Device,  BYOD), 
infrastructure, the use of data in education (learning analytics) or digital assessment and aims 
to  touch  on  upcoming  technologies  and  approaches,  such  as  open  badges,  blockchain  or 
makerspaces.275 

One area of work for the Working Group on Promoting Citizenship and Common Values 
(following the Paris Declaration) has focused on digital and media literacy. A peer learning 
activity  on  critical  thinking  and  media  literacy  was  held  in  the  Hague  in  April  2016, 
producing a set of key messages which served as input for the Council conclusions on media 
literacy adopted by Education Ministers in May 2016. 

A  dedicated  Expert  Group  on  Digitalisation  and  Youth,  Youth  Work  and  Youth  Policy, 
(2016-2017) discusses the changes in working methods and aims of youth work in a context 
of increasing digitalisation.  
The Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition276 (launched 1 December 2016) extends the work of the 
previous Grand Coalition for Digital Jobs to focus more on skills and education. It encourages 
organisations  to  pledge  concrete  actions  to  improve  the  digital  skills  of  the  population. 
Beyond  the  European  level,  a  number  of  national  coalitions  have  also  been  set  up,  while 
structure and activity vary by country, some of these are closely linked to national education 
policy.  
The  Commission's  work  on  the  Digital  Single  Market  Strategy277  is  accompanied  by  the 
Digital Single Market Steering Committee, including a dedicated Sub-Group on Digital Skills 
with representatives of telecoms, education or employment ministries discussing digital both 
in and beyond formal education. It supports the implementation of the Digital Skills and Jobs 
Coalition and developed a 'shared concept' of issues and potential solutions around the 'digital 
skills  gap'.  The  European  Digital  Skills  Award  recognises  outstanding  projects  that  develop 
the digital competences of Europeans for work, education and life in general. 

EU  Code  Week  is  a  grass-roots  movement  that  motivates  all  individuals  –  from  young 
children to the elderly – to explore the potential and fun of coding and build their confidence 

273 The cycle at the time of the Review of the Key Competence Framework is 2016 to June 2018. The next cycle 
will run until June 2020. 
274 All ET2020 WGs have a membership of representatives – usually from education ministries – of the EU 
Member States, the EFTA and candidate countries usually education ministries), as well as social partners and 
stakeholders selected through an open call for interest In 2017, the Working Group on Vocational Education 
and Training examined trainers' skills, including holding a special thematic workshop on digital in 2017, whilst 
the Working Group on the Modernisation of Higher Education held a Peer Learning Activity on 'Transforming 
higher education: how we teach in the digital age.' Their work has covered: teacher education in a digital 
environment; opening up higher education; future skills; and the bridging of the knowledge triangle 
(innovation, higher education and research). This is further supported by the May 2017 Communication on a 
renewed EU agenda for higher education in which the Commission commits to develop and roll out a digital 
readiness model to help HEIs, their staff and students implement digital learning strategies and exploit the 
potential of state-of-the-art technology, including learning analytics. Similarly, the Commission 
communications on school education  
275 https://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/expert-groups/digital-skills-competences_de 
276 https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/digital-skills-jobs-coalition 
277 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/digital-single-market_en 

94 

 
 
                                                            
in using and creating with digital technologies. It covers 46 countries and more than 23.000 
events. While led and implemented by volunteers, it is funded by the European Union and the 
Commission provides logistical and communication support. 

Personal, Social and Learning 

A  number  of  EU  funded  projects  aim  to  develop  social  and  emotional  competences,  for 
example through an European assessment protocol for children’s social and emotional skills 
(EAP  SEL278),  by  improving  students’  emotional  skills  (I-YES279),  through  a  European 
masters  in  resilience  education  (ENRETE280),  by  developing  teacher  training  such  as 
ENRETE,  HOPEs281,  and  EMPAQT282.  Various  EU  reports  also  collect  evidence  and 
examples  of  competences  needed  to  prevent  bullying  and  violence  in  school283,  improve 
social inclusion284, and foster social cohesion and interculturalism285. 

The  EU-funded  ENABLE  project  (European  Network  Against  Bullying  in  Learning  and 
Leisure Environments), for example, aims to tackle bullying in a holistic way, helping young 
people exercise their fundamental rights in the home, school, class and community (i.e. peer 
group).  Using  a  unique  approach  that  combines  social  and  emotional  learning  with  Peer 
Support, the ENABLE project provides school staff with the skills, knowledge and confidence 
that  can  help  them  establish  an  effective  student  Peer  Support  scheme  in  their  schools  and 
develop their students’ social and emotional skills. enabling students deal with bullying286.  
Another EU-funded project RESCUR287 has developed a resilience curriculum for early and 
primary  education  in  Europe  through  intercultural  and  transnational  collaboration.  The 
curriculum  was  developed  on  the  basis  of  the  current  social,  economic  and  technological 
needs  and  challenges  of  the  partners  involved.  It  aims  to  develop  in  learners  the  requisite 
knowledge and skills needed to overcome such challenges in their lives to achieve academic 
success and social and emotional wellbeing as young people in the EU. It addresses the needs 
of  vulnerable  children  such  as  Roma  children,  children  with  disability,  gifted  children,  and 
children  of  refugees,  immigrants  and  ethnic  minorities.  The  curriculum  was  piloted  in  a 
number  of  schools  in  each  partner  country  and  final  products  include  manuals  for  school 
teachers and parents. 

278 http://www.eap-sel.eu/ 
279 http://www.iyes-project.eu/index.php 
280 http://www.enrete.eu 
281 http://www.icepe.eu/currentprojects/Erasmus-HOPEs_Project 
282 http://empaqt.eu/ 
283 Downes, P.; Cefai, C. (2016). How to Tackle Bullying and Prevent School Violence in Europe: Strategies for 
Inclusive and Safe Schools. NESET II – AR2. Luxembourg: Office of the European Commission 
284 Budginaitė, I.; Siarova, H.; Sternadel, D.; Mackonytė, G.; Spurga, S. A. (2016) Policies and practices for 
equality and inclusion in and through education. NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the 
European Union 
285 Van Driel, B.; Darmody, M.; Kerzil, J. (2016). Education Policies and Practices to foster Tolerance, Respect for 
Diversity and Civic Responsibility in Children and young People in the EU. NESET II report, Luxembourg: 
Publications Office of the European Union 
286 http://enable.eun.org/  
287 http://www.rescur.eu  

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Social and emotional learning in Ireland288 

Social  and  emotional  learning  is  compulsory  and  a  core  aspect  of  the  school  curriculum  in 
Ireland.  Social  and  emotional  competences  are  taught  as  part  of  the  ‘Relationship  and 
Sexuality Education’ within the comprehensive programme of  Social, Personal and Health 
education  (SPHE)289  at  both  primary  and  secondary  school  levels,  since  1997,  when 
guidelines were published and in-service training provided. The content varies over education 
levels,  but  includes  mental  health,  gender  studies,  substance  use,  relationships  and  sexual 
education,  and  physical  activity  and  nutrition.  The  aim  is  to  enable  students  to  talk  about 
themselves, their feelings, their relationships with others, resolving conflict, developing self-
awareness,  self-esteem  and  coping  skills.  It  also  aims  to  develop  students'  skills  for  self-
fulfilment and living in communities; to promote self-esteem and self-confidence; to develop 
responsible decision-making skills and critical thinking and to promote physical, mental and 
emotional health and well-being.  

A number of social and emotional education programmes are currently implemented in Irish 
schools. One of them, Incredible Years, has been developed over the last 30 years to cover 
Parent, Teacher and Child Training Series and specifically designed to prevent and deal with 
emotional  and  behavioural  difficulties  during  childhood.  The  implementation  of  this  school 
based  program  in  Ireland  started  in  2004.  A  2012  report290  describes  findings  from  two 
separate long-term (12-month) follow-up studies on the effectiveness of the Incredible Years 
Basic  Parent  Training  programme  and  Incredible  Years  Teacher  Classroom  Management 
programme  in  Ireland.  Longer-term  benefits  revealed  a  significant  reduction  in  children’s 
conduct  disorders  and hyperactive  behaviours and  improvements  in  prosocial  skills.  Parents 
who  participated  in  the  program  described  significantly  progress  in  the  parent-child 
relationship  and  in  sibling  relationships.  Notably,  findings  indicated  a  decreasing  use  over 
time of health, special educational and social care services. Long-term outcomes for teachers 
included  an  increase  in  positive  classroom  climate  and  improvements  in  their  classroom 
management  skills.  Teachers  were  more  confident  to  deal  with  students  with  behavioural 
problems,  more  able  to  build  and  support  relationships  with  the  students  and  to  encourage 
prosocial and positive social development. Teacher well-being was also improved. 

Several EU-funded projects link education, youth work and sports with the aim of promoting 
a variety of competences and well-being of learners, for instance as education in and through 
sport  with  special  focus  on  skills  development.  Erasmus+  project  'Promoting  National 
Implementation for Sports Club for Health (SCforH) Programmes in EU Member States' has 
produced  guidelines  for  health-enhancing  sports  activities  in  a  club  setting291,  which  also 
presents evidence of benefits of physical activity on physical and mental health, as well as on 
social well-being (including social networks, interactions, participation).  

288 Cefai C.; Bartolo P. A.; Cavioni V.; Downes, P.; 2017, Integrating Social and Emotional Education (SEE) in the 
School Curriculum across the EU, NESET II report, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 
forthcoming 
289 http://www.curriculumonline.ie/Primary/Curriculum-Areas/Social-Personal-and-Health-Education-
Curriculum  
290 http://www.incredibleyears.com/article/the-incredible-years-ireland-study-parents-teachers-and-early-
childhood-intervention-long-term-outcomes-of-the-incredible-years-parent-and-teacher-classroom-
management-training-programs-combined-1/ 
291 https://www.scforh.info/content/uploads/2017/03/scfh2017_verkko.pdf  

96 

 
 
 
                                                            
Competences  for  career  management  may  be  separately  defined  in  national  and  regional 
curricula292, such as for example the Scottish Career Education Standard293. It includes four 
areas of competences: 1. Self - competences that enable individuals to develop their sense of 
self within society, 2. Strengths - competences that enable individuals to acquire and build on 
their  strengths  and  to  pursue  rewarding  learning  and  work  opportunities,  3.  Horizons  - 
competences  that  enable  individuals  to  visualise,  plan  and  achieve  their  career  aspirations 
throughout  life,  4.  Networks  -  competences  that  enable  individuals  to  develop  relations  and 
networks of support. Placing the individual at the centre stage of all interventions, the related 
career education standards formulate the learning outcomes as “I can” statements for different 
educational levels. 

Civic competence 

European  countries  have  recently  been  updating  their  curricula  with  policies  related  to 
development  of  social,  civic  and  intercultural  competences,  critical  thinking  and  media 
literacy  or  promoting  intercultural  dialogue.  Eurydice  reported  in  2016294  that  two  thirds  of 
countries  introduced  new  initiatives  only  in  the  year  after  the  adoption  of  the  Paris 
Declaration. Initiatives targeted mostly (pre-)school education and included notably teaching 
and learning content and student assessment; enhanced student participation within or outside 
school and initial teacher education and continuing professional development. 
The  Norwegian  Government  suggested  in  a  recent  White  Paper295  (April  2016)  that  three 
interdisciplinary  themes  are  prioritized  when  revising  the  curriculum.  These  are  Democracy 
and citizenship, Sustainable development (which includes both environmental challenges and 
technological  changes),  as  well  as  Public  health  and  Life  skills.  It  is  underlined  that  these 
interdisciplinary  topics  will  be  emphasized  within  the  existing  subjects'  scope.  They  should 
not be at the expense of existing subjects in school. The Norwegian Parliament supports the 
development of a guide to the curriculum that provides support for the teachers' planning and 
implementation of these themes. 

Following  the  reform  on  compulsory  education  and  the  public  demand  for  a  change  in  the 
education  system  with  an  emphasis  on  democracy,  critical  thinking  and  morality,  a  new 
curriculum  was  introduced  for  pre-schools,  compulsory  and  upper  secondary  schools  in 
Iceland.  Six  fundamental  pillars  of  the  curriculum  include  democracy  and  human  rights, 
equality,  sustainability  and  well-being.  The  long-term  objective  is  to  promote  change  in 
school practices and educational outcomes, strengthening democratic values, critical thinking 
and  moral  education.  This  includes  development  of  teacher  competences  in  working  with 
democracy both as a subject and as a teaching method. Broad information and dissemination 
activities  included  education  providers,  parents,  partners  in  the  labour  market,  school  staff; 
local  educational  authorities,  teacher  education  providers,  teachers’  associations  etc.  Six 
booklets  were  published  with  the  aim  of  explaining  the  six  pillars,  while  courses  were 
developed by teacher education institutions. 

292 See Kraatz, S. 2017,Skills development and employment: the role of Career management skills, Briefing for 
the EMPL Committee, European Parliament, Policy Department for Economic and Scientific Policy, Brussels 
293 https://www.education.gov.scot/Documents/dyw2-career-education-standard-0915.pdf  
294 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/images/1/14/Leaflet_Paris_Declaration.pdf  
295Meld St.28 (2015-2016) Fag,- Fordypning – Forståelse – En fornyelse av Kunnskapsløftet  
https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/meld.-st.-28-20152016/id2483955/sec1  

97 

 
 
 
                                                            
In  Austria,  the  Alpen-Adria  University  provides  a  three-year  Masters  programme  in  Global 
Citizenship Education (GCED), a specialised programme for educationalists, teacher trainers, 
NGO associates and teachers. The programme aims to create specialists in the field of GCED, 
who can serve as resource multipliers for other teachers and educators, as well as schools. In 
addition,  the  Centre  for  Citizenship  Education  in  Schools  (Zentrum  Polis)296  is  the  central 
education service institution for citizenship education in schools in Austria. The organisation 
helps teachers to bring citizenship and human rights education into the classroom, serves as an 
information  platform and advisory centre, develops new materials for the classroom, carries 
out  initial  and  ongoing  teacher  education,  and  organises  events  for  students.  As  part  of  its 
activities,  Polis  publishes  a  magazine  for  teachers,  coordinates  the  annual  Austrian 
Citizenship Days, and has  developed a manual to  help teachers to integrate social and civic 
competences in the new Austrian curriculum (implemented since Autumn 2016).  

In  Belgium,  a  Committee  on  Society  and  Education  was  established  within  the  Flemish 
Education Council (Vlor), as teachers report that they do not always feel adequately trained to 
teach citizenship education and schools still struggle to develop clear policies and strategies to 
implement  cross-curricular  competencies  in  this  field.  The  Committee  on  Society  and 
Education has been created with the aim of bringing together all actors involved in citizenship 
and  health  education  to  exchange  information  and  expertise,  facilitate  and  promote 
implementation of activities in schools and stimulate whole school approaches. In addition, a 
Special  Committee  on  Remembrance  Education  was  established  in  the  Flanders  in  2008  to 
support teaching teams and supervise the development of didactic materials and a database of 
good  practices.  The  main  tool  developed  by  the  committee  is  Touchstone  Remembrance 
Education297, a manual including suggestions for all those working with collective memories 
to  ensure  the  quality  of  remembrance  education  projects.  The  tool  has  been  translated  in 
French  and  English  and  is  transferable  to  other  contexts.  Another  initiative  -  Knowledge 
Centre ‘Kleur Bekennen - Confessing colours298’ was established with the aim to provide a 
link  between  educational  policy,  practice  and  research  in  the  field  of  global  citizenship 
education. It connects the main actors in this  field  and helps them build new initiatives and 
innovative practices, such as innovation labs organised around specific topics. 

Looking  specifically  at  the  sustainability  in  school  curricula,  the  UN  Decade  of  Education 
for  Sustainable  Development  had  a  significant  impact  on  raising  awareness  and  developing 
curricula,  teaching  material  and  partnerships  for  learning  on  sustainable  development,  from 
early childhood learning through to private sector training299. 

As  an  example,  the  German  Conference  of  Ministers  of  Education  and  Cultural  Affairs 
already  addressed  Education  for  Sustainable  Development  with  decisions  on  "Environment 
and  Education"  of  1980  and  "One  World/Third  World  School"  of  1998.  In  2007  the 
Conference presented a comprehensive "Guidance Framework for the Learning Area Global 
Development", developed together with the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and 
Development, which can be used as a basis for the development of curricula, offers concrete 
recommendations  and  offers  material  for  teaching.  The  Federal  government's  report  on 
education  for  sustainable  development  from  2013,  as  well  as  the  current  report  "On  the 
Situation  and  Perspectives  of  Education  for  Sustainable  Development,  provides  a 
comprehensive overview of activities in the German Länder. 

296 http://www.politik-lernen.at/  
297 http://herinneringseducatie.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Touchstone-Remembrance-Education.pdf  
298 http://www.kleurbekennen.be/  
299 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002301/230171e.pdf  

98 

 
 
                                                            
EU-funded programmes have extensively supported development of teaching material, as well 
as creative approaches to teaching and promoting active citizenship and sustainability, as well 
as  raising  intercultural  awareness.  Erasmus+  has  funded  a  number  of  projects  which 
produced  innovative  and  useful  resources  on  raising  intercultural  awareness  and  social 
understanding  among  learners  of  different  ages,  valuing  cultural  diversity  and  combating 
discrimination,  teaching  citizenship  education  and  developing  appropriate  teaching  tools.  A 
recent  compendium  of  project  outcomes  can 
teachers,  non-governmental 
organisations, project applicants and policymakers to develop their professional practice300.  

inspire 

Some of successful Erasmus+ projects promoting sustainability include: raising awareness on 
environmental  sustainability  and  climate  change  among  elementary  school  children  through 
on-line  simulation  and  demonstrations  and  blended  learning301;  environmental  awareness 
through outdoor learning activities302; motivating students, parents and teachers to learn more 
about  solar  energy  and  current  energy  revolution303;  and  developing  STEM  and  ICT  skills 
through learning about clean energy and ecology304. 

Entrepreneurship 

While some Member States demonstrate effective entrepreneurship education approaches, in 
most  Member  States  this  is  not  the  case.  The  result  is  that  many  people  leave  education  or 
training  without  having  benefitted  from  opportunities  to  develop  their  entrepreneurship 
competence.  They  and  Europe  as  a  whole  pay  the  price  of  lost  opportunities.  Defining 
stronger  benchmarks  and  setting  European  targets  for  participation  in  entrepreneurship 
education (% of schools and % of students) could help the Member States to recognise their 
challenges and take action. Another way to tackle this challenge is to promote more effective 
forms  of  exchanging  practices  in  entrepreneurship  education  and  training  that  support  a 
culture of collaboration within institutions, between them, and across the Member States.  
There  are  efforts  to  link  and  share  practice  in  education,  training  and  learning  between 
experts,  project  leaders,  and  policy  makers  –  particularly  through  online  networks  and 
platforms – and extending this support could help improve competence development.  
The  E360  project305  was  a  joint  initiative  between  the  European  Commission  and  the 
to  examine 
Organisation 
entrepreneurial learning in primary and secondary education and in vocational education and 
training.  Experts  and  representatives  from  across  Europe  shared  examples  of  good  practice 
and  helped  to  create  guiding  notes  for  policy  makers  and  educators  to  help  encourage  and 
improve  the  practice  of  entrepreneurial  leadership,  culture,  teaching  and  learning  in  schools 
and  VET  institutions.  Individual  country  fiches  were  created  with  examples  of  successful 
entrepreneurship education initiatives. 

for  Economic  Co-operation  and  Development 

(OECD) 

300 https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/253a1b4b-8c65-11e7-b5c6-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en  
301 ENVKIDS http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/projects/eplus-project-details-
page/?nodeRef=workspace://SpacesStore/e6396039-c1a6-465c-bdf2-67e9b8f93fa5 
302 Sustainable Outdoor Activities https://erasmusoutdoor.weebly.com/ 
303 http://www.erasmus-sun.eu/the-project/  
304 Pollution! Find a STEM solution! https://twinspace.etwinning.net/654/home 
305 E360 project https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/e360---successful-
entrepreneur.htm 

99 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
The  European  Commission  supports  the  sharing  of  good  practices  in  Higher  Education 
through platforms and networking opportunities such as the University Business Forum306 and 
HEInnovate307.  

The  prerequisites  for  successfully  realising  entrepreneurial  education  are  managing  and 
developing an entrepreneurial culture, entrepreneurial pedagogy and teaching and making use 
of learning environments that support this. Cooperation between different levels of education 
is  important  as  is  cooperation  with  businesses  and  organisations. 
  The  ideal  for 
entrepreneurship  education  is  that  education  and  business  life  are  engaged  in  an  active 
dialogue, where educational institutions operate in an entrepreneurial manner, and above all, 
young people receive adequate training during their studies to enter working life. 
The  European  Entrepreneurship  Education  NETwork  (EE-HUB)308  is  a  focal  point  for 
entrepreneurship  education  in  Europe  bringing  together  organizations  and  individuals  from 
both the public and private sectors with strong records of accomplishment in entrepreneurship 
education  at  regional,  national  and  European  level.  The  EE-HUB  is  an  online  space  where 
these  stakeholders  can  work  collectively  to  increase  levels  of  entrepreneurial  activities  in 
schools across Europe.  

It  comprises  a  network  of  individual  experts  are  committed  to  entrepreneurial  learning  and 
engaged  with  organisations  or  sister  networks  in  the  field  and/or  with  national  or  regional 
governments.  In  addition,  MEP  Ambassadors  endorse  and promote  recommendations  of  the 
EE-HUB through their policy work. 

A particular contribution to this key competence development has been made by the regional 
organisation  South-East  European  Centre  for  Entrepreneurial  Learning  (SEECEL)309,  which 
has  developed  definitions  of  learning  outcomes,  teacher  support  tools  and  dissemination 
networks. 

Understanding  further  possibilities  in  school  education  are  supported  by  the  Erasmus+ 
programme, for example in the case of “Innovation Cluster for Entrepreneurship Education” 
(ICEE)310  -  analysing 
impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  having  practical 
entrepreneurial experience before leaving school. 

the 

Entrepreneurship  as  a  tool  to  tackle  societal  challenges  and  solving  community  problems  is 
present  in  many  youth  work  activities  and  has  the  potential  to  be  explored  and  developed 
further.  

The European Commission supports youth entrepreneurship initiatives through the Erasmus+ 
programme such as "Youth Start – entrepreneurial challenges"311 There are other independent 
initiatives,  such  as  JADE-  the  European  Confederation  of  Junior  Enterprises312".  The  recent 
study ‘Taking the future into their own hand - Youth work and entrepreneurial learning’ has 
found out that youth work and non-formal learning contribute implicitly to the development 
of transversal skills as part of entrepreneurial competence. Evaluation finds that this learning 

306 University Business Forum http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/higher-education/university-business-
cooperation_en 
307 HEInnovate https://heinnovate.eu/en 
308 European Entrepreneurship Education NETwork (EE-HUB) http://www.ee-hub.eu/ 
309 South-East European Centre for Entrepreneurial Learning http://www.seecel.hr/ 
310 Innovation Cluster for Entrepreneurship Education http://icee-eu.eu/ 
311 Youth Start – entrepreneurial challenges http://www.youthstartproject.eu/ 
312 JADE- the European Confederation of Junior Enterprises http://www.jadenet.org/ 

100 

 
 
                                                            
could  be  made  more  explicit  through  raising  awareness  among  youth  workers  what 
entrepreneurial learning encompasses.  

In  the  field  of  adult  learning,  Erasmus  for  Young  Entrepreneurs313is  a  cross-border 
programme  facilitating  the  exchange  of  entrepreneurial  and  management  experience.  The 
exchange sees a newly established or potential entrepreneur make a one to six month visit to 
an experienced entrepreneur running an SME in another country. In the last five years, more 
than 2 500 pairs of entrepreneurs have benefitted from the programme.  

The European Institute of Technology aims to create a favourable environment in Europe for 
talent  and  entrepreneurship  driven  innovation.  Together  with  its  five  Knowledge  and 
Innovation Communities (KICs), the EIT supports the development of entrepreneurial talent 
and encourages and supports individuals and companies to develop innovative ideas and take 
them  to  the  market.  The  EIT  KICs  education  programmes  support  the  development  of 
entrepreneurs and promote an entrepreneurial attitude and culture. KICs programmes combine 
excellent  science  and  multidisciplinary  curricula  with  entrepreneurship  education,  business 
creation services and mobility and outreach schemes, all designed and implemented together 
with business across boundaries. 

Cultural awareness and expression  
The Council Conclusions on a Work Plan for Culture (2015-2018)314 make a commitment to 
take into account the intrinsic value of culture and the arts to enhance cultural diversity and to 
encourage cross-sectorial cooperation. Its four priorities are: 

i.  Accessible and inclusive culture; 

ii.  Cultural heritage; 

iii.  Cultural and creative sectors: creative economy and innovation; 

iv. 
Promotion of cultural diversity, culture in EU external relations and mobility. 
The Cultural Agenda contributes to both the Europe 2020 strategy for growth and jobs315 and 
satisfying  Europe's  commitments  to  international  agreements,  such  as  the  United  Nations 
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.316 
Also  in  2015,  Council  conclusions  on  cultural  and  creative  crossovers317  to  stimulate 
innovation,  economic  sustainability  and  social  inclusion,  focused  on  the  potential  of 
collaborative approaches and noted the benefits, such as:  

- 

for  school  education,  increasing  pupils'  attendance  and  achievements,  and  fostering 
creative learning and pupils' well-being; 

313 Erasmus for Young Entrepreneurs https://www.erasmus-entrepreneurs.eu/index.php 
314 The Official Journal of the European Union, OJ C 463, 23.12.2014, p. 4–14  
315 https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/european-semester/framework/europe-2020-strategy_en  
316 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=31038&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html  
317 The Official Journal of the European Union, OJ C 172, 27.5.2015, p. 13–16 

101 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
- 

- 

the  potential  of  combining  arts,  culture  and  creativity  with  technology,  science  and 
business,  as  well  as  insufficient  exchange  of  good  practices,  which  is  still 
underestimated and thereby underused; and, 

the  development  of  creative  skills  and  critical  thinking  throughout  formal  education 
and non-formal and informal learning that allows individuals to better meet the needs 
of an increasingly diverse and knowledge-based society as well as of a demanding and 
rapidly changing labour market. 

This is supported by the 2015 Council conclusions on the role of early childhood education 
and  primary  education  in  fostering  creativity,  innovation  and  digital  competence318,  which 
note  that  "Education  and  training  systems,  together  with  non-formal  and  informal  learning, 
have a fundamental role to play in developing creative … capacities from an early age as key 
factors  …  in  promoting  personal  fulfilment  and  development,  social  inclusion  and  active 
citizenship." 

In  2016,  a  Joint  Communication  proposed  an  EU  Strategy  for  International  Cultural 
Relations319  that  focuses  on  advancing  cultural  cooperation  across  three  main  strands: 
supporting culture as an engine for sustainable social and economic development; promoting 
culture  and  intercultural  dialogue  for  peaceful  inter-community  relations;  and  reinforcing 
cooperation on cultural heritage. 
Following the successful implementation of the EU's Culture320 and MEDIA321 programmes, 
in 2014 the Commission launched Creative Europe322; a consolidated framework programme 
in support of Europe's cultural and creative sectors. Programme funding is complemented by 
peer learning activities between EU Member State governments (through the Open Method of 
Coordination323)  and between  cities and regions324, as  well as regular reports and studies325, 
and data-gathering326.  

The OMC Working Group on Cultural Awareness and Expression (2014-15) brought together 
experts  from  ministries  of  culture  and  national  cultural  institutions  to  meet  over  18  months 
and to exchange evidence of good practice, with over 40 examples from across Europe. They 
produced  a  Handbook327  that  makes  a  number  of  clear  recommendations  which  would 
improve  implementation  and  development  of  this  competence.  They  span  cultural  and 
educational  policy,  but  also  require  a  connection  between  the  two.  Whilst  the  Handbook 
expands on each with actions points, the main Recommendations are to: 

In policy: 

1.  Connect  different  policy  areas/sectors  within  Member  States,  supported  by  cross-

sectoral infrastructure, in order to achieve better access and sustainability. 

2.  Improve the knowledge base for policy making in the field of cultural awareness and 

expression through the exchange of projects and research findings. 

318 The Official Journal of the European Union, OJ C 172, 27.5.2015, p. 17–21 
319 JOIN/2016/029 final 
320 https://ec.europa.eu/culture/node_en  
321 https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-europe/media_en  
322 https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-europe/  
323 https://ec.europa.eu/culture/policy/strategic-framework/european-coop_en  
324 https://ec.europa.eu/culture/news/2014/0616-call-cities-regions_en  
325 https://ec.europa.eu/culture/library_en  
326 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/culture/overview  
327 http://bookshop.europa.eu/en/cultural-awareness-and-expression-handbook-pbNC0116125/  

102 

 
 
                                                            
3.  Support  policy  development  in  cultural  awareness  and  expression  by  developing 

appropriate modes of monitoring that ensure high quality. 

In improving access to and participation in cultural experiences: 

4.  Make cultural experiences as accessible as possible to all people. 

5.  Stimulate  cultural  participation  of  all  people,  with  specific  attention  to  children, 
starting  from  an  early  age,  and  to  people  from  underprivileged  socio-economic 
backgrounds. 

6.  Raise  awareness  of  the  importance  of  cultural  institutions  and  products  through 

emphasising their connection to the challenges of society. 

7.  Give  particular  attention  to  lifelong,  intergenerational  and  intercultural  learning  of 

cultural awareness and expression with the goal of stimulating social cohesion. 

In education: 

8.  Integrate  cultural  awareness  and  expression  into  mainstream  primary  and  secondary 
education, in a way that is of high quality, and appropriately assessed and monitored. 

9.  Develop  Initial  Teacher  Education  and  Continuing  Professional  Development  (CPD) 
for all educators (teachers, school leaders, early childhood education and care (ECEC) 
and  vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  professionals,  higher  education  (HE) 
lecturers  and  support  staff,  and  culture  education  professionals)  in  order  to  improve 
skills  and  understanding  necessary for  developing  cultural  awareness  and  expression 
in learners and their institutions. 

10. Design, implement and evaluate programmes and instruments stimulating projects or 
institutions to build up sustainable cooperation with schools. Consider connecting this 
policy with the public funding of cultural institutions. 

11. Take measures to raise the standards and maintain the high quality of arts education, in 

both formal and non-formal learning environments. 

103