Torino Process 2016-17 : South Eastern Europe and Turkey.
Date: 2017-11-02
Institutions: European Training Foundation
Subjects: Central and Eastern Europe, European Union membership, Türkiye, accession to the European Union, administrative transparency, competitiveness, development policy, economic reform, governance, political reform, public administration, public service, rule of law, vocational education, vocational training

SOUTH EASTERN 
EUROPE AND 
TURKEY

1

2016–17TORINO PROCESSSOUTH EASTERN EUROPE 
AND TURKEY

The countries of South Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, Kosovo*, the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia) and Turkey 
share the prospect of EU membership. The accession 
process supports political and economic reforms that help 
the countries address shared challenges of economic 
governance and competitiveness, the rule of law, public 
administration reform, transparency and accountability of 
public services. Policy dialogue and policy development in 
the area of vocational education and training are part of 
this process. 

www.torinoprocess.eu

*This designation is without prejudice to any position on status and is in line with UNSCR 1244 and 
the International Court of Justice’s Opinion on Kosovo’s declaration of independence

Report prepared by Evgenia Petkova, ETF expert

The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of the ETF and do not necessarily 
reflect the views of EU institutions.

PDF ISBN 978-92-9157-681-4 

  doi: 10.2816/341582 

  TA-06-17-173-EN-N

© European Training Foundation, 2017
Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged.

Design: Article10
Photos: ETF/Andrea Guermani

2

Belgrade, Serbia

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 

1. CONTEXT AND OVERVIEW OF VET SYSTEMS 

1.1 Economic context 

1.2 Labour market context 

1.3 Overview of VET systems in the region 

2. MAIN FINDINGS 

A. Visions for VET 

B. Effectiveness and efficiency of VET in addressing economic and labour market demands 

C. Effectiveness and efficiency of VET in addressing demographic, social and inclusion demands 

D. Internal efficiency of the VET systems 

E. Governance and policy practices in the VET systems 

CONCLUSIONS 

ANNEXES 

Annex 1. Labour market, education and contextual indicators 

Annex 2. SEET 2016–17 Torino Process and EU 2020 targets in education and employment 

ACRONYMS 

REFERENCES 

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3

3

4

7

9

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12

18

25

33

35

38

39

41

42

43

1

INTRODUCTION

Inspired by the European Union’s (EU) Copenhagen 
Process – which aims to improve the performance, 
quality and attractiveness of vocational education 
and training (VET) through enhanced cooperation at 
European level – the Torino Process is an evidence-
informed analysis of VET systems promoted by 
the European Training Foundation (ETF). The Torino 
Process is based on country ownership and broad 
participation of stakeholders from the national and 
sub-national authorities, social partners and civil 
society. At its heart lies the periodic monitoring of 
policy progress along the five building blocks of the 
analytical framework.1 The Torino Process enables 
partner countries to monitor the implementation of 
VET reforms and assess the progress and the impact 
on citizens.

The Torino Process was launched in 2010 as a 
biannual review exercise and was carried out for the 
fourth time in 2016–17. It uses a common framework 
to analyse VET policies at both national and cross-
country levels. The objective is twofold: to facilitate 
national policy making, while at the same time 
fostering dialogue and peer learning across borders. 
All ETF partner countries from South Eastern Europe 
and Turkey (SEET) – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
Kosovo,2 the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 
Montenegro, Serbia3 and Turkey – took part in the 
2016−17 Torino Process round and produced national 
reports. Kosovo was the only country in the region 
to choose an ETF-led modality of implementation 
of the exercise in this round, while the rest of the 
countries opted for a country-led modality. Bosnia 
and Herzegovina and the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia conducted their Torino Process self-
assessments for the first time in 2016–17.

The SEE countries and Turkey share the prospect 
of EU membership, and this supports their 
modernisation through political and economic 
reforms in line with the accession criteria. The 

1 Building block A – Overview of the VET system and its socioeconom-
ic context; Building block B – Addressing economic and labour market 
demand; Building block C – Addressing demographic, social and inclusion 
demand; Building block D – Internal efficiency of the VET system; Building 
block E – Governance and policy practices. The five building blocks are 
complemented by four transversal dimensions: gender, local dimension of 
skills, innovation, and social partnerships.

2  This designation is without prejudice to any position on status and is in 
line with UNSCR 1244 and the International Court of Justice’s Opinion on 
Kosovo’s declaration of independence – hereinafter ‘Kosovo’.

3  These countries will be further referred to in the report as the ‘South 
Eastern European’ (SEE) countries.

2

enlargement countries4 face common challenges in 
terms of economic governance and competitiveness, 
the rule of law, public administration reform, and 
the transparency and accountability of public 
services. These challenges shape the context for the 
development of the skills and VET policies in each 
country and provide the basis for policy dialogue at 
regional level.

This report, completed in April 2017, takes a cross-
country approach towards VET developments in SEET, 
aiming to identify the main issues, constraints and 
priorities for the further modernisation of VET policies 
and systems in the region. It is based on an analysis 
of the national 2016−17 Torino Process reports5 and 
on the outcomes of the discussions during the Torino 
Process regional forum (Belgrade, February 2017).

The report also takes into account the evidence of 
policy progress arising from the commitment of 
the EU’s candidate countries – Albania, the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, 
Serbia and Turkey – to the implementation of the Riga 
Conclusions, agreed under the Latvian Presidency of 
the Council of the European Union in June 2015, on a 
new set of medium-term deliverables (MTDs) in the 
field of VET for the 2015–20 period. The Conclusions 
aim to raise the overall quality and status of VET in 
the context of the Copenhagen Process in order 
to meet the Education and Training 2020 (ET 2020) 
strategic objectives and to reaffirm the support for 
the wider European growth and jobs agenda.

A summary of the main findings and conclusions of 
this report is provided in the ETF publication Torino 
Process regional overview: South Eastern Europe and 
Turkey (ETF, 2017).

4  The terms ‘enlargement countries’ and ‘South Eastern European 
 countries and Turkey’ will be used as synonyms in this report.

5 Last accessed 22 September 2017 at: www.torinoprocess.eu/hub

1. CONTEXT AND OVERVIEW 
OF VET SYSTEMS

1.1 ECONOMIC CONTEXT
The economic situation in SEET has improved since 
the previous round of Torino Process in 2014, with 
stronger growth, higher investment and more jobs. 
Despite the unfavourable external context –  
pressures from the precarious global economic 
evolution, slow growth in the EU (the major export 
destination for SEET), the continuing refugee 
crisis – all SEE countries and Turkey experienced 
economic growth in 2015, with annual increases in 
gross domestic product (GDP) ranging from 0.8% in 
Serbia to 4% in Turkey, and at 3% or above in Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia, Montenegro and Kosovo (Albania 2.8%) 
(see FIGURE 1.1). A recent World Bank analysis 
states that the growth in the region has been 
driven by domestic demand (robust investment and 
recovering household consumption) and forecasts 

its further acceleration in 2016–18 (World Bank, 
2016).

The performance of the enlargement countries in 
enhancing their economic productivity has been variable. 
FIGURE 1.2 shows the labour productivity in the region 
in 2014, measured as the output per unit of labour input, 
i.e. GDP divided by total employment in the economy6.

On the one hand, the data in Figure 1.2 speak of 
relatively low labour productivity in SEE in 2014 
(ranging from 25 434$ GDP per unit employment 
in Albania to 44 145$ GDP per unit employment 
in Montenegro). Turkey performed better (56 666$ 
GDP per unit employment), but the productivity in 
all countries remained below the EU average, which 
stood at 76 943$ GDP per unit employment in 2014.

6 Purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP is GDP converted to 2011 constant 
international dollars using PPP rates.

FIGURE 1.1 GDP growth, 2013–15 (annual %)
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

–1.0

–2.0

–3.0

3.7

3.5

3.5

2.8

2.4

3.0

2.9

3.2

2.6

1.8

0.8

1.8

1.1

AL

1.1

BA

4.2

4.0

3.0

3.9

3.4

1.2

XK

MK

ME

RS

TR

–1.8

2013

2014

2015

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2017.

FIGURE 1.2 Labour productivity, 2014 ($)

1.32

0.01

1.56

0.50

1.38

1.45

0.55

25,434

33,497

44,145

37,182

26,574

56,666

76,943

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

EU

Percentage change between 2010 and 2014

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2017.

3

On the other hand, the enlargement countries have 
made progress by increasing their productivity as 
compared to 2010 (see Figure 1.2). Although the 
trend is positive, it is worth noting that owing to the 
indicator used for measuring productivity (GDP per 
person employed in the economy), any decrease 
in employment positively influences the results. 
Thus, at least part of the progress reported can be 
attributed to reduced employment through job losses 
that occurred in the 2010–13 period, when around 
180 000 jobs were shed in SEE (RCC, 2016a).

In terms of competitiveness, as defined and 
measured by the World Economic Forum7, the 
enlargement countries perform relatively poorly, with 
Turkey being the only representative of the region 
that in 2016–17 ranks in the upper half of the 138 
participating countries, at 55th place (the higher the 

7 Competitiveness is defined ‘as the set of institutions, policies, and factors 
that determine the level of productivity of an economy, which in turn sets 
the level of prosperity that the country can achieve’ (WEF, 2016, p. 4).

place occupied, the higher the competitiveness of 
the country). The other countries are in the lower half 
of the ranking.

Serbia has shown a steady trend towards improving 
its competitiveness over recent years (with its 
highest rank since 2012), Turkey and Montenegro 
have experienced an opposite, downward trend (with 
their lowest ranks since 2012), Albania has managed 
to reverse the downward trend in 2016 (with its 
highest rank since 2012), while the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina 
show a mixed performance (with ups and downs over 
the 2012–16 period) (WEF, 2016).

1.2 LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT
Labour markets in SEET continue to be characterised 
by low participation and employment rates and are 
strongly influenced by gender issues. FIGURES 1.3 
and 1.4 show that all enlargement countries lag 
significantly behind the EU averages in key labour 

TABLE 1.1 Global competitiveness index rank, 2012–17

Country 
(out of)

Turkey

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

Albania

Montenegro

Serbia

Bosnia and Herzegovina

2012/13 
(144)

2013/14 
(148)

2014/15 
(144)

2015/16 
(140)

2016/17 
(138)

43

80

89

72

95

88

44

73

95

67

101

87

45

63

97

67

94

m.d.

51

60

93

70

94

111

55

68

80

82

90

107

Note: m.d. – missing data
Source: World Economic Forum, The Global  Competitiveness Report 2016–17, 2016.

FIGURE 1.3 Activity rate of total population (age 20–64) by sex, 2015 (%)

81.8

71.3

61.1

59.2

71.9

68.5

62.1

74.9

70.2

83.8

82.7

76.7

68.1

56.2

59.5

59.9

83.4

77.1

70.8

65.1

46.3

42.8

37.3

20.4

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

XK

EU28

Change since 
2013 (%)

AL

5.5

BA ME MK

0.9

5.2

-0.3

RS

3.0

TR

2.6

XK

-7.8

EU28

0.8

Sources: National statistical offices, Eurostat.

Total Women Men

4

market indicators (activity and employment in the 
20–64 age group). There have been positive trends 
across the region since the previous Torino Process 
round, but large gaps remain.

All countries have increased their activity rates in 
the 20–64 age group compared with 2013, with 
the exception of the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia (decrease by 0.3%) and Kosovo (decrease 
by 7.8%) (see Figure 1.3). Employment rates in the 
same age group (FIGURE 1.4) have also been on the 
rise since 2013 across the region (except in Kosovo), 
with Serbia, Montenegro and Albania performing best 
(increases of 9.2%, 7.8% and 4.6%, respectively). 
Nevertheless, the highest employment rate in 2015 
for the 20–64 age group (Albania) is still around 
11 percentage points below the EU-28 average, 
and could be partly attributed to the relatively high 
proportion of employment of the Albanian workforce 
in subsistence agriculture (41%) (Figure 1.4).

The economic growth – which has supported job 
creation, especially in the private sector – explains 
these positive trends in labour market participation 
in the region. However, the translation of growth into 
more jobs has been modest. As noted in the recent 
report on SEE 2020 implementation (RCC, 2016a), 
SEE countries shed approximately 170 000 jobs in the 
2010–13 period as a result of the economic downturn 
and restructuring. This trend began to reverse in 2014 
and 2015, but the number of jobs created has barely 
offset the jobs lost in the 2010–13 period.

The low labour market participation and inactivity 
rates in SEE are related to the high levels of 

informal employment and the distorting effects of 
large remittances. Low employment rates have 
been accompanied by higher levels of precarious 
employment (comprising non-standard types of 
employment, temporary or seasonal work) and 
informal employment, as documented by the Torino 
Process country reports. ILOSTAT data reveal high 
rates of vulnerable employment in the region (57% 
in Albania, 30% in Kosovo and 28% in Turkey), with 
women disproportionately affected (e.g. 56% of 
women in Albania, 44% of women in the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and 37% of women 
in Turkey are more likely to have vulnerable jobs).

A more detailed analysis of labour market data 
indicates particular challenges for specific population 
groups. Participation rates for women and young 
people remain considerably below those for men 
and the averages for the countries (RCC, 2016a). The 
Torino Process reports clearly suggest that young 
people are more likely than other groups to be 
employed informally or in precarious and insecure 
jobs, regardless of their education and skills. There are 
various reasons behind this: countries lack the ability 
to create jobs that match the available workforce 
(especially in the few countries that still enjoy 
demographic growth and a relatively young population, 
such as Turkey, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia, Kosovo); young people often experience 
a rather protracted and difficult transition from school 
to work (e.g. with insufficient career counselling and 
guidance or other services or incentives); and, not 
least, the educational and skills profiles of young 
people are often poorly related to demand.

FIGURE 1.4 Employment rate of total population (20–64) by sex, 2015 (%)

68.1

59.3

50.7

43.2

32.4

61.9

61.5

63.6

56.7

53.9

51.5

51.9

55.9

48.2

53.9

42.1

75.3

75.9

70.1

64.3

32.5

29.1

44.9

13.2

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

XK

EU28

Change since 
2013 (%)

AL

4.6

BA ME MK

0.9

7.8

3.2

RS

9.2

TR

0.9

XK

EU28

-11.8

2.5

Sources: National statistical offices, Eurostat.

Total Women Men

5

As is evident from Figure 1.4, gender gaps in 
employment are present in all countries and are 
most prominent in Turkey and Kosovo, where the 
female employment rates are considerably lower 
than the male employment rates by 42.8 and 
31.7 percentage points, respectively. The gender 
difference in Montenegro (10.4 percentage points) 
is not only the lowest in the region but also lower 
than the EU-28 difference (11.6 percentage points). 
Deeply embedded cultural traditions, gender-based 
discrimination, lack of appropriate skills, unpaid family 
work (women are over-represented in the category 
of ‘unpaid family workers’ in all countries), caring 
duties for those who are elderly or sick, or who have 
a disability, and for children seem to be the biggest 
barriers to participation for women in the labour 
market. There are no consistent trends discernible in 
any of the countries to close these gender gaps, and 
the overall situation points to the rather precarious 
status of women in the labour market (in terms of 
both participation and job quality).

FIGURE 1.5 shows that unemployment-related (15+) 
indicators for 2015 are high in all countries, with the 
exception of Turkey (which stands close to the EU-28 
average), ranging from 17.1% (Albania) to 32.9% 
(Kosovo). The comparison with the data from 2013 
shows that unemployment rates had increased in 
four of the seven enlargement countries: in Turkey (by 
17%), Kosovo (by 9.7%), Albania (by 7.5%) and Bosnia 

and Herzegovina (by 1.1%). Only three countries – 
Serbia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 
and Montenegro – have witnessed a reduction in 
unemployment since 2013, with Serbia achieving the 
highest decrease of almost 20% (for the percentage 
changes since 2013, see Annex 1).

Unemployment in SEE is a problem in terms of both 
volume and duration: long-term unemployment as 
a proportion of total unemployment has been in the 
65–80% range in these countries in recent years. The 
consequences of high unemployment and long-term 
unemployment rates in terms of skills erosion and as 
an impetus for external migration (with more people 
leaving their countries to look for better employment 
opportunities elsewhere) are well documented (e.g. 
ILO, 2015) and have been confirmed by the 2016−17 
Torino Process round.

Gender gaps in unemployment are not as 
pronounced as they are in employment. In Albania 
the female unemployment rate in 2015 was equal to 
the male rate, while in Montenegro and in the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia the unemployment 
rate for women was even lower than that for men 
(see Figure 1.5). Higher female unemployment rates 
were discernible in the other four countries, but 
only in Turkey, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina 
were the differences prominent, ranging from 3.3 to 
5 percentage points (compared with a 0.2 percentage 
point gap in the EU-28).

FIGURE 1.5 Unemployment rates of total population (15+), women (15+), men (15+), and young people 
(15–24), 2013 and 2015 (%)
70

62.3

59.1

51.9

49.4

47.3

43.2

41.6

37.6

29.1

27.6

26.7

30.9

27.9

25.9

29.0

29.0

29.0

19.5

18.8

20.1

17.5

17.3

17.7

26.7

26.1

25.1

23.8

22.1

20.8

18.8

17.7

16.8

17.1

18.4

10.6

8.8

8.0

12.6

10.3

9.3

55.9

57.7

36.8

36.3

32.9

31.8

30.0

26.9

23.6

20.4

10.9

10.9

10.8

9.5

9.3

9.4

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

33.2

27.2

17.8

15.9

17.1

17.1

17.1

13.5

2013

2015

2013

2015

2013

2015

2013

2015

2013

2015

2013

2015

2013

2015

2013

2015

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

XK

EU28

Notes: Total unemployment – ME, MK, TR: 15–74; XK: 15–64. Youth unemployment – AL: 15–29. 
Source: National statistical offices, Eurostat.

Total Women Men

Youth

6

In all countries except Turkey, young people (aged 
15–24) are one of the most vulnerable groups in the 
labour market and are subject to very high levels 
of unemployment that are well above the EU-28 
average. Rates ranged from 33.2% in Albania to 
62.3% in Bosnia and Herzegovina (see Figure 1.5). 
The efforts of the enlargement countries to address 
youth unemployment have been yielding results in 
Montenegro, Serbia and the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia, which have registered decreases in 
this indicator since 2013, while youth unemployment 
rates in the rest of the countries have increased, 
with Albania performing worst (22% increase) (see 
Figure 1.5 and Annex 1).

These findings can be supplemented with data on 
the youth unemployment ratio.8 In some countries 
with relatively high youth unemployment rates 
(e.g. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia), the youth 
unemployment ratios in 2015 were relatively low  
(see Annex 1). This could suggest that in these  
countries, most young people actually remain outside 
the labour force and are inactive for reasons other 
than that they are staying longer in education. This  
reasoning has been confirmed by the high proportion  
of young people not in employment, education or 
training (NEETs) in some of these countries (Bosnia  
and Herzegovina, Kosovo and the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia, where rates are at or above  
25%), signalling serious structural problems relating  
to school-to-work transition. 

8  The youth unemployment ratio is calculated by dividing the number of 
unemployed persons aged 15–24 by the total population in the same age 
group. The youth unemployment ratio is, by definition, always smaller than 
the youth unemployment rate, typically less than half of it.

1.3 OVERVIEW OF VET SYSTEMS  
IN THE REGION
Over the past decade, education and training systems 
in SEET have undergone a process of profound 
systemic reforms as part of the overall political, 
economic and social transformations of these nations 
on their way to EU membership. The reforms aim 
to bring educational philosophy, legal frameworks, 
institutional settings, and learning content and 
outcomes into line with the evolving democratic 
values and market orientations in these societies, 
while drawing inspiration from European and broader 
international practice.

The recent public spending on education in SEET 
as a share of GDP is illustrated in FIGURE 1.6. Data 
for Bosnia and Herzegovina go back to 2007, that 
is, to the pre-crisis situation, and are therefore not 
comparable with the data from 2011, 2014 or 2015 for 
the other countries. The proportion of GDP spent on 
education in SEET according to the last available data 
was lowest in Albania (3.1%), while in the rest of the 
region stood at or above 4%, with Turkey having the 
highest spending of 5.1%. As evident from the data 
in Annex 1, expenditure on education has increased 
since 2010 in Turkey and Kosovo (15.8% increase), 
while in Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia and Serbia it has fallen (missing data for 
Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina).

VET in SEET is embedded in diverse national  
systems and specific economic and social contexts. 
Initial VET (IVET) is usually part of upper secondary 
education. The proportion of students enrolled in 
upper secondary VET in all countries except Albania 
is high: around half of all upper secondary education 
students in Turkey (46.4%) and the majority of 

FIGURE 1.6 Public expenditure on education as a share of GDP, 2015 or last 
available year (%)

4

4.3

4.2

5.1

4.4

3.1

AL (2015)

ME (2011)

MK (2014)

RS (2014)

TR (2014)

XK (2014)

Sources: Eurostat; ME: Government of Montenegro (data received); MK: National Statistical Office.

7

FIGURE 1.7 Share of VET enrolment in upper secondary education, last available 
year (%)

74.2

67.2

75.1

58.2

46.4

50.8

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

19.5

AL (2015)

BA (2015)

ME (2015)

MK (2016)

RS (2015)

TR (2014)

XK (2016)

Notes: XK: Only public schools.
Sources: UNESCO Institute for Statistics; MK, XK: national statistical offices; TR: Eurostat.

those in Kosovo, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina 
and Serbia (between 50.7% and 75.1%) chose VET  
streams, while in Albania the share was 19.5%  
(see FIGURE 1.7).

Most of the SEE countries have two different VET 
pathways at upper secondary level (three-year 
vocational and four-year technical programmes). 
Although the overall enrolment in VET has remained 
stable in recent years, it is shifting steadily towards the 
four-year technical option, and this is well evidenced 
by the 2016−17 Torino Process reports (for example, 
for Serbia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 
and Montenegro). One of the main reasons for this 
is that technical pathways allow students to continue 
their studies in higher education. Faced with high 
unemployment and the difficult transition from school 
to work, the vast majority of graduates from four-year 
VET programmes opt to continue their education at 
a higher level. As a consequence, in SEE there are 
increasingly fewer secondary vocational graduates 
directly entering the labour market.

Higher vocational education has been developed in all 
enlargement countries except Kosovo, while post-
secondary non-tertiary VET programmes (ISCED-11 
level 4) currently exist in the whole region.

Continuing VET (CVET) has received less political 
attention than IVET over the past decade in SEE. It is 
focused primarily on functional literacy and low-skills 
training for registered unemployed jobseekers, while 
in-company training for employees is underfunded 
and sporadic. Turkish employers are much more 
engaged with CVET provision, viewing it as important 
for updating and renewing their workers’ knowledge, 

8

skills and competences, and for helping their 
businesses to adapt to fast-changing technological 
and socioeconomic developments. Methodologies 
and practices – sectoral or national – for the validation 
of non-formal and informal learning (VNFIL) have 
been emerging, closely related to the development 
of comprehensive qualification systems in the 
enlargement region.

Up to now, VET reforms have been targeted mainly 
at secondary VET, with much less consideration 
given to post-secondary, higher or continuing VET. 
The main driver behind the reform processes in 
VET, substantially supported by EU pre-accession 
assistance funds, has been the need to develop VET 
systems that are more demand-driven and oriented 
towards a learning-outcome-based logic. The results 
achieved so far have been mixed. New VET legislation 
has been introduced, but either its enforcement has 
been delayed or it has proved ineffective despite 
the new governance institutions and bodies that 
have been set up for its execution, such as VET 
centres and VET and adult education councils. 
Improved curricula, new occupational profiles and 
new qualification standards have been initiated (often 
with the involvement of employers) and piloted, 
but remain at different stages of development and 
implementation. Progress has been made in adjusting 
VET provision to labour market and social needs, 
especially in the business education, information 
technology (IT), construction and tourism sectors. In 
addition, efforts have been made to modernise and 
better equip VET schools, often supplementing scarce 
public funding with donor assistance. However, 
VET systems are not yet fully geared up for the 
preparation of immediately employable graduates.

2. MAIN FINDINGS

A. VISIONS FOR VET
The 2016−17 Torino Process round and developments 
relating to the Riga Conclusions 2015 confirmed 
that VET continues to be perceived as an 
important policy area in SEET, with the potential to 
contribute to improving the economic growth and 
competitiveness of the region, as well as contributing 
to social cohesion and a better quality of life for its 
citizens through rewarding careers and personal 
development.

All countries have adopted policy documents 
articulating their visions for the medium- to long-term 
development of their VET systems (TABLE 2.1) and 
stating clear strategic objectives. VET visions are 
presented in a variety of strategic documents.

 ■ A common practice in SEET is to develop 
separate VET strategies (as is the case in 
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 
Montenegro and Turkey).

 ■ In some countries the current VET perspectives 
have been embedded in broader strategic 
documents to ensure better synergies and 
complementarities across sectors or sub-sectors. 
In Kosovo, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina 
(Republika Srpska), VET priorities are integrated 
into the umbrella education strategies, while in 
Albania the VET vision is part of a comprehensive 
National Employment and Skills Strategy that 
brings together and aims to reconcile the demand 
for and supply of skills in the country at all levels, 
while also taking into account the social inclusion 
and territorial cohesion dimensions.

 ■ The perspectives set out in the VET strategies 
are often supplemented by statements in 
related strategies, such as lifelong learning 
strategies (Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina) or 
entrepreneurial learning strategies (Montenegro, 
Turkey).

Most of the VET visions in SEET express a holistic 
perspective on the development of both IVET and 
CVET. In some countries (e.g. Serbia and Turkey) 
there are separate visions for IVET and CVET, 
formulated either in different sections of the same 
strategy, or in different papers (e.g. in Turkey the VET 
Strategy 2014–18 includes the vision for IVET, and 
the Lifelong Learning Strategy 2014–18 the vision 
for CVET). However, of crucial importance is the fact 

that CVET is no longer overlooked in the process of 
designing VET reforms (as it was some years ago), 
but has regained the attention of policy makers in the 
enlargement region.

VET in SEET is seen as part of the national policies 
for developing human capital. Countries report that 
they have tried to bring their VET visions in line 
with other national strategies, namely those for 
economic development, employment and education. 
All enlargement countries see the main role of VET 
as being to deliver the right skills – that is, those 
required by the labour market – to young people and 
adults. As a consequence, ensuring the relevance of 
VET provision and its responsiveness to employment 
trends remains a priority for VET reform in SEET. 
Furthermore, the current visions of the enlargement 
countries place high expectations on VET as a 
force to enhance inclusion and cohesion in society; 
that is, VET is seen as a vehicle for overcoming 
marginalisation and enabling citizens’ integration 
into the workforce and other spheres of social 
participation.

The visions and strategic objectives for VET in the 
enlargement region are aligned with EU policies 
and the enlargement process priorities. A new 
development is the interface between the VET 
strategic documents and the Economic Reform 
Programmes (ERPs) as a tool for strengthening 
economic dialogue between the EU and the 
enlargement countries, with all ERPs 2017–19 
including priorities and recommendations for VET. 
However, it should be noted that the ERPs 2017–19 
give little attention to human capital development 
issues, thus raising a concern that human capital 
development remains incidental to wider economic 
reform.

The 2016−17 Torino Process round has highlighted 
some positive developments in the process of 
elaboration of VET strategies and VET policy 
documents that are becoming common and well-
established practice across the region.

 ■ Strategies are elaborated following 

interministerial and multi-stakeholder 
consultations (including with non-state actors) 
to ensure the reflection of a broader scope 
of interests and perspectives and enhanced 
ownership of the documents and their 
implementation.

9

TABLE 2.1 Key policy documents relating to the vision for VET development in the national systems of SEET

Country

Albania

Bosnia and 
Herzegovina 

Policy document

National Employment and Skills Strategy (2014–2020) and Action Plan (2014–2020)

Strategic Platform for Adult Education Development 2014–2020 in the Context of Lifelong Learning

Principles and Standards of Adult Education (adopted in 2014)

Action Plan for Developing and Implementing the Qualifications Framework in Bosnia and Herzegovina for 
2014–2020

Priorities for the Development of Higher Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2016–2026

Strategy for the Development of Education in Republika Srpska 2016–2021 (containing specific strategic objectives 
for vocational education)

Development strategies (2015–2018) elaborated by most of the cantons in the Federation of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina and Brčko District, with improving the education system and its links with the labour force feature 
among the key priorities

Strategy for Entrepreneurial Learning in Education Systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2012–2015) – under revision

Kosovo

Kosovo Skills Vision 2020

Plan for Sustainable Development (National Development Strategy) (2016–2021), Government of Kosovo 2016

Kosovo Education Strategic Plan (2011–2016) and Joint Annual Review, preparation of a new Kosovo Education 
Strategic Plan (2017–2021)

Former 
Yugoslav 
Republic of 
Macedonia

VET Strategy (2013–2020) and Action Plan

Draft Comprehensive Strategy for Education for 2016–2020 and Action Plan

Concept Paper on Non-Formal Education and Informal Learning for Adults

Montenegro

Skills Vision 2020

Employment and Social Reform Programme (2015–2020)

VET Development Strategy in Montenegro (2015–2020) and Action Plan for 2016 and 2017

National Employment Strategy (2016–2020)

Strategy for Lifelong Entrepreneurial Learning (2015–2020)

Strategy for Adult Education (2015–2025)

Strategy for Lifelong Career Guidance (2016–2020)

Serbia

Turkey

Strategy for the Development of Education in Serbia (2012–2020) and Action Plan (adopted in January 2015)

Vision 2023, with specific targets for education, training and learning

Tenth Development Plan (2014–2018)

Ministry of National Education Strategic Plan (2015–2019)

Vocational and Technical Education Strategy Paper and Action Plan (2014–2018)

Lifelong Learning Strategy (2014–2018)

National Employment Strategy (2014–2023)

National Entrepreneurship Strategy and Action Plan (2015–2018)

 ■ Countries have been investing serious efforts into 
making sure their VET strategies and perspectives 
are informed by evidence and credible analyses. 
The evidence-based policy-making process has 
improved over recent years. More data are now 
available and collected regularly than at the time 
of the first round of the Torino Process in 2010. 
A recent report prepared by Eurydice on the 
mechanisms for evidence-based policy making 
in education, which covers five enlargement 
countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, 
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 

1 0

Serbia and Turkey), confirms these findings 
(European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017). 
It reveals that all these countries have made 
arrangements with their national statistical offices 
and/or with research departments to provide 
evidence for education policy making. Public 
and/or stakeholder consultations take place in 
all education systems. However, the region still 
faces a number of constraints and challenges 
(e.g. underdeveloped research capacities and 
underdeveloped services and infrastructure for 
knowledge mediation, i.e. the ways in which the 

evidence and knowledge created are transmitted 
to policy makers). Thus, there is room for further 
improvement.

 ■ The elaboration of action plans or roadmaps 

(with allocated financial resources and assigned 
responsibilities) for implementing the countries’ 
VET strategies is currently an accepted practice in 
the region, although the reliability of the costing 
exercises could be further improved to include 
clear allocations from national or donor budgets.

Enlargement countries (Turkey and, to a lesser extent, 
Turkey and Albania) still face substantial challenges in 
managing all phases of the entire policy cycle implied 
by the VET visions adopted.

 ■ Implementation. While the region has witnessed 
improvement in formulating and operationalising 
the national VET visions and strategies, their 
implementation must continue and the delivery 
mechanisms need further strengthening.

 ■ Improving efficiency and systematic 

monitoring. The efficiency and monitoring of 
the process of implementing the countries’ VET 
visions need to be improved. Examples of good 
practice in that regard come from Turkey, with 
monitoring mechanisms and procedures that 
have been put in place and tested for a number of 
years. In addition, there is the recently established 
Integrated Policy Management Group in Albania, 
which includes representatives from key 
ministries and agencies, the social partners and 
donors, and which conducts strategic oversight 
of policies and measures against the objectives 
and targets of the National Employment and Skills 
Strategy 2020. Furthermore, new monitoring 
mechanisms, procedures and tools have been 
developed to strengthen the implementation of 
VET policies in most countries: preparations have 
been made for collecting integrated work-based 
learning (WBL) statistics by the Turkish Statistical 
Institute; tracer systems are being introduced 
in Albania, are being prepared in Montenegro 
and are planned in the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia, aimed at improving the data on 
transitions and employability of VET graduates to 
provide a feedback loop in designing and updating 
qualifications, occupational profiles, standards, 
programmes and curricula; and preparations are 
being made to establish systems for tracking 

VET students in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina 
(the Agency for Pre-School, Primary and 
Secondary Education initiated the development 
of a VET information system – VETIS) in order to 
identify and support low performers and students 
at risk of leaving VET. Nevertheless, more could 
be done in this regard to integrate and incorporate 
these tools into a compatible and harmonious 
mechanism for the systematic monitoring of 
VET policy. Systematic monitoring, as illustrated 
in a recent Eurydice publication (European 
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2016), refers to 
the process of systematic ‘gathering, analysis 
and use of data to inform policy’. Such monitoring 
aims to capture how the VET system operates and 
whether it is reaching its objectives and targets; 
it takes place at various stages – from entry to a 
VET programme, during learning (participation and 
progression in VET), at graduation (completion 
rates) and after graduation (graduate destinations: 
employment or further study).

 ■ Conducting systematic VET policy evaluations. 

While the enlargement countries regularly 
follow up their strategic policy documents 
(adopting new strategies upon the expiry of the 
old ones, as is clear from Table 2.1), the Torino 
Process reports refer only occasionally to any 
final assessments of the implementation and 
impact of previous strategies (e.g. Information 
on Implementation of the VET Development 
Strategy in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007–2013, 
Information on Implementation of the Strategy for 
Entrepreneurial Learning in Education Systems 
in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2012–2015, evaluation 
report of the Kosovo Education Strategic Plan 
2011–16).

 ■ Improving capacities for ex-ante impact 

assessments and ex-post evaluations. The 
support provided by the ETF to the candidate 
countries in 2016 for carrying out ex-ante impact 
assessments of the policy options under the priority 
Riga MTDs has been helpful not only in enabling 
the countries to make better decisions about the 
process of implementation of the Riga Conclusions, 
but also in enhancing respective national capacities.

 ■ Providing more room for VET visions and 
priorities in the ERPs. The inclusion of VET 

11

priorities and visions in the national ERPs 2017–19 
remains limited. Their more prominent presence 
will not only serve as an acknowledgement of the 
role of VET in contributing to economic growth and 
competitiveness (e.g. on-the-job training within 
businesses with growth potential, which will 
leverage competitiveness and employment), but 
also enable their implementation to a greater extent.

Riga Conclusions’ follow-up in the 
candidate countries

On 22 June 2015 the ministers in charge of VET in 
the candidate countries, along with the respective 
ministers from the EU Member States and the 
European Economic Area countries, met in Riga to 
renew efforts to raise the overall quality and status 
of VET in the context of the Copenhagen Process, in 
order to meet the ET 2020 strategic objectives and to 
reaffirm their support for the wider European growth 
and jobs agenda.

Following the Riga Conclusions, the ETF committed 
itself to support the implementation of the MTDs 
and help the candidate countries to choose relevant 
policy options in line with their own priorities and 
capacities. Furthermore, in 2016 the participating 
countries underwent the first round of monitoring of 
their progress in each of the five MTDs. The results of 
the monitoring are embedded in the 2016−17 Torino 
Process country reports.

The candidate countries opted to carry out an ex-
ante impact assessment of the Riga MTDs. As a first 
step in this exercise, each country had to identify the 
MTD(s) that is/are of highest priority and in need of 
urgent action. The ETF supported the countries during 
this process.

From the prioritisation of MTDs, the following trends 
can be extracted.

 ■ MTD1. Work-based learning – is a high priority.

 ■ MTD2. Quality assurance and feedback loops –  
is considered a medium-level priority for two 
(Montenegro and Serbia) and a low-level priority 
for the other three countries.

 ■ MTD3. Access to VET and qualifications for all – is 

a medium priority.

 ■ MTD4. Key competences – appears as a low 

priority for all candidate countries.

1 2

 ■ MTD5. Professional development for teachers, 
trainers and mentors – is a high priority for two 
countries (Albania and Turkey) and a medium 
priority for the rest.

TABLE 2.2 Implementation of policy choices 
extracted from the ex-ante impact assessment

Policy choices for implementation 
(supported by the ETF)

Institutionalising the role of school–
enterprise liaison persons in VET 
institutions

Establishment and support to the 
National Working Group on WBL

Country

Albania

Former 
Yugoslav 
Republic of 
Macedonia

Montenegro Design and implementation of an 

Serbia

Turkey

information system for WBL

Survey on the quality of internships 
in VET

Development of a quality assurance 
framework for internships

B. EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF 
VET IN ADDRESSING ECONOMIC AND 
LABOUR MARKET DEMANDS
The SEE countries share similar economic 
development patterns and labour market trends as 
a result of their transition from centrally planned 
command economies to market-based systems. They 
have had to increase their share of tertiary (service) 
sector activities at the expense of the primary 
(agriculture) and secondary (manufacturing) sectors. 
Turkey has a functioning market economy with better 
performance and growth dynamics. The shared EU 
perspective, however, creates a number of common 
features in the economic development paradigms 
in all enlargement countries, such as EU-oriented 
exports and imports, foreign direct investment and 
migration outflows.

As illustrated by FIGURE 2.1, all enlargement 
economies are service-oriented, with services 
representing 50% or more of GDP (value added) in 
all countries. However, these figures were still lower 
than the average for the EU-28 countries in 2015 
(73.8%). Industry ranks second in all countries, while 
agriculture accounts for a higher share (from 7.6% in 

FIGURE 2.1 Employment and GDP (added value, % of GDP) by sector, 2015

Emp

GDP

52.4

40.2

41.3

22.1

25.4

18.6

69.5

74.8

65.1

52.5

62.7

51.6

60.5

56.1

65.0

52.2

66.8

69.2

73.8

71.6

27.3

17.9

7.6

29.5

20.3

17.5

10.2

7.7

26.1

30.5

11.2

17.9

31.4

24.5

19.4

8.2

26.5

20.6 27.2

8.5

19.8

28.5

13.5

2.3

24.6

24.2

4.2

1.5

Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv Agr Ind Serv

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

XK

EU28

Sources: World Bank, Eurostat, national statistical offices.

Bosnia and Herzegovina to 22.1% in Albania) than the 
EU average of 1.5%. The service sector is also the 
largest provider of employment in all countries except 
Albania, where the largest share is in agriculture, 
mainly subsistence agriculture in the form of 
vulnerable employment.

The private sector in the enlargement region is 
dominated by micro, small and medium-sized 
businesses, which means that skills that are relevant 
for SMEs are in high demand. For example, over 90% 
of active enterprises in Albania employ up to four 
workers, primarily in the service sector (Albania Torino 
Process report, 2016). In Montenegro, SMEs represent 
99% of the total number of enterprises, 67% of total 
employment and 60% of GDP. The SME sector in the 
country shows a tendency towards growth in terms of 
the number of both companies and staff. The number 
of SMEs in 2015 was 10.2% higher than in 2014, while 
the number of people employed was 10.5% higher 
(Montenegro Torino Process report, 2016).

The 2016−17 Torino Process country reports highlight 
the low rate of job creation and low labour market 
demand in the formal sector, referring to the fact that 
the number of jobs created in recent years in the 
private sector is ‘less than those lost during the crisis’ 
(former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) or ‘less than 
the [number of] jobseekers’ (Kosovo). One of the 
consequences is that a great part of the economic 
activity and employment in the region remains in the 
grey area of informality. All Torino Process country 
reports highlight the sizeable share of informal 
employment (22.0% in Serbia and 36.7% in Turkey 
in 2014) and its negative impact, including on the 
identification of the demand for skills.

Furthermore, as might be expected from the 
analysis in the previous chapter on the relatively low 
competitiveness and productivity of these economies, 
the prevailing demand for skills in SEE has been for 
low to medium skills (ISCED 3 or below). According 
to the 2016−17 Torino Process country report, 
approximately 53% of the newly created jobs in the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia are connected 
to secondary vocational education and 34% to lower 
levels of education. The 2016−17 Torino Process 
country reports for Serbia and Montenegro make 
similar findings about the lack of vacancies, especially 
for individuals who are more qualified. Recent 
International Labour Organisation (ILO) studies on 
school-to-work transitions in Serbia and Montenegro 
confirm these results (ILO, 2016a and 2016b).

The analysis of the demand for skills in SEET 
conducted in the 2016−17 Torino Process round 
highlighted another important characteristic, namely 
the gender gaps and gender stereotypes that exist in 
employment. Not only do labour market conditions 
remain unfavourable for women in all countries, but 
also in most of these countries, gender stereotypes 
exist for the different occupations. Thus, the Kosovo 
country report refers to the fact that 52% of working 
women are employed mainly in the education, 
trade and healthcare sectors, while almost half of 
employed men (45%) work in the manufacturing, 
construction and trade sectors.

The Torino Process reports also highlight some 
regional commonalities on the skills supply side. The 
education profile of the active population (15+) in 
the region has improved overall, but the proportion 
of individuals with lower levels of education (lower 

1 3

secondary or less) is still substantial, ranging, in 2015, 
from around 17% in Serbia to over 44% in Albania 
and 58% in Turkey (see Annex 1), compared with the 
EU average of 19.9%.

These data have been confirmed by the latest 
results of the OECD Programme for International 
Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) 
conducted in Turkey in 2014–15 showing that a large 
proportion of adults (aged 16–65) in the country 
have poor literacy, numeracy and problem-solving 
skills. Nearly 46% of adults attained only Level 1 or 
below in literacy (well above the OECD average of 
19%) and half attained Level 1 or below in numeracy 
(the OECD average is 28%). Some 38% of adults 
in Turkey (compared with about 15% of adults in all 
participating countries/economies) indicated that they 
had no prior experience with computers or lacked 
basic computer skills, while about 35% scored at 
or below Level 1 in problem solving in technology-
rich environments. Substantially more adults than 
the OECD average either were unable to take the 
computer-based assessment or opted out of it (17.7%, 
compared with the OECD 9.9%). This means that 
considerably fewer adults with limited information and 
communication technology (ICT) skills from Turkey 
took the computer-based assessment compared to 
similarly proficient adults from other OECD countries.

In 2015 the proportion of the working-age population 
(15+) with at least upper secondary education (ISCED 3) 
exceeded 50% in Albania. In Montenegro and the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia it was over 70%, 
while in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Kosovo 

it exceeded 80%. The figure was the lowest in Turkey 
(41.4%, 2015 data)9; while in the EU in 2015 it was 
80.1%. All countries have improved their performance 
on this indicator as compared to 2013 owing to the 
significant increase in the number of young people 
achieving higher levels of education and increased 
economic demand for a better-educated workforce.

Despite the continuous and rapid expansion of the 
access to higher education, SEET lags behind the 
EU in tertiary educational attainment in the 30–34 
age group(see FIGURE 2.2 and Annex 2). It is worth 
noting that all enlargement countries have made 
progress with this indicator since 2013.10 A remaining 
source of concern, however, is the quality assurance 
of the new higher education programmes and 
institutions that have been mushrooming following 
the higher demand from students and their parents.

The share of highly qualified people with an 
educational background in mathematics, science and 
technology is low across the region (RCC, 2016a). 
The Torino Process reports highlight the fact that 
the expansion of the higher education system in 
the region has primarily been in the fields of social 
sciences and humanities.

Another worrying finding when discussing the 
education profile of the active population (15+) in 
the region is the high proportions (reaching extreme 

9 Source: National statistical offices; the former Yugoslav Republic of Mace-
donia and Turkey – Eurostat. See Annex 1.

10 Conclusions about progress in Kosovo cannot be made because the data 
on tertiary attainment of individuals aged 30–34 were collected for the first 
time in 2014.

FIGURE 2.2 Tertiary educational attainment (30–34), 2013 and 2015 (%)
Percentage of the population aged 30–34 who have successfully completed tertiary studies

38.7

37.1

31.0

28.0

28.6

28.9

25.3

23.1

23.6

19.5

22.1

15.7

17.2

15.7

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

EU

Sources: Eurostat; ME, RS: national statistical office (data received).

2013

2015

1 4

peaks in Kosovo and the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia) of 15-year-olds who perform poorly 
in reading, mathematics and science, as measured 
by the OECD Programme for International Student 
Assessment (PISA)11 in 2015 (see FIGURE 2.3). On 
a more positive note, most SEET countries have 
progressed in reducing the proportion of underachievers 
since 2012 (albeit from very high levels, see Annex 1). 
However, in view of the rapid transformation of the SEE 
economies from industrial to service-based systems, 
on the one hand, and given the post-crisis difficulties in 
forecasting specific skills needs, on the other hand, it is 
important that the workforce possesses a broader skill 
set that will support flexibility and the transferability of 
competences in order to maximise the employability 
of individuals entering the workforce. This indicator is 
also one of the EU 2020 benchmarks. The acquisition of 
modern key competences that can be used in different 
economic sectors becomes increasingly important. 
Learning that is focused on acquiring key competences 
and soft skills must start in early and primary education 
and continue in secondary schools and throughout adult 
learning. The data in Figure 2.3 imply that VET systems 
in the enlargement countries need to do a lot in the 
area of key competences in order to compensate for 
respective gaps.

The regional skills supply analysis needs to take 
into account two further considerations that were 
highlighted in the Torino Process reports.

11 The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a triennial 
international survey which aims to evaluate education systems worldwide 
by testing the skills and knowledge of 15-year-old students.

 ■ High incidence of long-term unemployment 
in SEE that relates to skills erosion and 
obsolescence (especially given the underfunded 
active labour market policies (ALMPs) and the low 
rates of lifelong learning participation) – according 
to data for 2015 from the national statistical 
offices (LFS), 76% of jobseekers in Montenegro 
and 81% of jobseekers in Bosnia and 
Herzegovina and the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia were long-term unemployed.

 ■ Relatively high propensity for external migration in 
SEE – especially young, highly skilled individuals 
find that there are few job opportunities matching 
their skills and wage expectations within their 
home countries.

Overall, businesses in the region are not fully 
satisfied with the skills provided by their national 
education systems. Respondents of the World 
Economic Forum Executive Opinion Survey 2016 
cited the ‘inadequately educated workforce’ as being 
among the greatest impediments to doing business 
in the enlargement countries (featuring among the 
top five most problematic factors for businesses in 
Turkey (the top factor in Turkey), Albania, the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Montenegro, 
and among the top ten factors in Serbia and Bosnia 
and Herzegovina) (WEF, 2016).

A similar, though more nuanced, picture is provided 
by the Balkan Barometer 2016 Business Opinion 
Survey. Businesses in SEE report varying levels of 
satisfaction with their respective education systems. 

FIGURE 2.3 Low achievers in PISA, 2015 (%)

70.7

70.2

62.9

76.9

77.7

67.7

53.3

50.3

51.9

51.0

41.7

41.9

51.4

44.5

38.9

35.0

33.1

40.0

22.2

20.6

19.7

AL

ME

MK

RS*

TR

XK

EU28

Reading

Maths

Science

EU2020

Note: Bosnia and Herzegovina did not take part in PISA in 2015.
Source: OECD; * RS: 2012 results.

1 5

At the regional level, more than half of businesses 
(53%) in SEE are satisfied with the education system 
with regard to meeting the needs of their enterprise. 
In contrast, 31% consider the present education 
system to be unsatisfactory. However, companies 
that export their products or services and mature 
companies (established before 2004) – that is, those 
that are export-, innovation- and growth-oriented –  
together with companies in the manufacturing 
sectors, are significantly less satisfied with the 
knowledge and skills acquired in their respective 
education systems (RCC, 2016b).

The results from these surveys, as well as from the 
2016−17 Torino Process country reports, provide clear 
evidence of the skills mismatches that exist in the 
enlargement region. Skills mismatches are viewed 
as an obstacle to the growth and competitiveness of 
enterprises and to the advancement of the workforce 
in the labour market. The term ‘mismatch’ denotes 
different types of skills gaps and imbalances, such as 
over- or undereducation, over- or underqualification, 
overskilling, skills shortages and surpluses, and skills 
obsolescence (ETF, 2016b).

The 2016−17 Torino Process reports in all countries 
discuss the issue of skills mismatches, defining 
them as widespread or even ‘ubiquitous’ (Albania), 
and emphasising in particular the phenomenon 
of overeducation. More than a third of employed 
graduates in Albania are overeducated, while the 
proportion in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia and Serbia is close to 20%, and is around 
11% in Montenegro (2016−17 Torino Process country 
reports; ILO, 2016a and 2016b).

Overall, the 2016−17 Torino Process round has 
demonstrated that skills mismatches persist in the 
labour markets of the region. The SEE countries 
and Turkey are making efforts to address the issue 
by improving their policies and practices for skills 
identification and matching, and for facilitating the 
transition to work. The key objective of these efforts 
is to make VET provision and skills development 
systems in general more responsive to current and 
future demand.

The 2016−17 Torino Process country reports provide 
information on recent national developments in 
the area of skills identification that make use of 
instruments of varying degrees of sophistication, 
from regular surveys to collecting administrative data 

1 6

on education, vacancies, labour market policies and 
unemployment issues.

All countries have a basic structure that contains 
the available labour market data, such as the labour 
force surveys (LFS) and job vacancy data, although 
employers are not obliged to communicate their 
vacancies to the public employment services (PES). 
In many countries (e.g. Albania), employers tend 
to rely on their own networks for identifying job 
candidates or turn to private employment agencies for 
job mediation services, at least for the higher-skilled 
categories of people. As noted by a recent ETF study, 
while neither LFS nor the vacancy monitor is forward-
looking, they do provide a basis for labour market 
information and provide the necessary background to 
support and adjust any anticipation exercise related to 
the current labour market situation (ETF, 2016b).

The tools most frequently employed by the 
enlargement countries for skills needs identification 
are the employer surveys that ask about current 
and future (with a time horizon up to one year) skills 
needs. The PES in all countries carry out these 
surveys regularly among employers from different 
geographic regions and economic sectors, usually 
with high coverage (36.4% of the total registered 
employers in 2015 in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia). The results of such surveys can easily 
be transformed into policy actions (2016−17 Torino 
Process country reports; ETF, 2016b).

In some enlargement countries, employer surveys 
are supplemented by data and research conducted 
by the employers’ organisations and the chambers 
of economy. For example, since 2010 the Chambers 
of Commerce, the Chambers of Crafts and other 
employers’ organisations in the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia have regularly provided skills 
needs data to the PES; in Montenegro, biannual skills 
needs analyses have been undertaken by the major 
employers’ association, the Montenegrin Employers’ 
Federation.

Sector studies and sector skills needs analyses are 
carried out on rather an ad hoc basis and with the 
involvement of donors, as the countries seem to lack 
the resources and capacities for this type of exercise. 
The Swiss-funded RISI project in Albania carried 
out skills needs analyses covering three sectors (IT; 
hotel, catering and tourism; agriculture and food 
processing). Nevertheless, the Torino Process reports 

provide interesting evidence of skills analyses carried 
out at sector level within the ongoing work on the 
national qualification frameworks (NQFs). In Albania 
the National Agency for VET and Qualifications, 
together with employers’ representatives and experts, 
identifies skills, designs qualifications and adjusts 
framework curricula to the skills needs identified. 
Employers’ involvement with the NQF in Montenegro 
brings additional insights on skills needs identification 
through the sector commissions, boards and councils.

In Montenegro the sector commissions play a key 
role in NQF development. The Serbian Torino Process 
report sets out the intention to reactivate and ensure 
continued operation of the sector skill councils 
(SSCs) for all industrial activities in the country, make 
the SSCs operational to ensure the participation 
of businesses in the programming, development 
and provision of VET, and include at least 30% of 
employers in the work of the SSCs.

Another instrument that is regularly used across 
the region to identify the demand for skills is the 
analysis of job vacancies, while tools such as tracer 
studies and qualitative and quantitative forecasts 
are conducted sporadically (except in Turkey, where 
the E-graduate project systematically monitors 
the transition from VET to work), and often rely 
on external support. Some positive developments 
reported by the Torino Process country reports in 
this regard are the tracer system being introduced 
in Albania, which will cover both VET school and 
vocational training centre (VTC) graduates, and the 
preparations for the introduction of a tracer study 
system and for monitoring students upon completion 
of their VET studies in Montenegro. In Serbia work 
is ongoing on the design and implementation of an 
Education Information System and a system for the 
monitoring and evaluation of vocational education.

In October 2015 the Ministry of Education of the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the World 
Bank launched the Skills Observatory. This should 
contribute to the better identification of the skills that 
are in demand on the labour market. Within the same 
project, in 2016 a tracer survey of university and VET 
graduates was carried out, with the methodological 
support of the ETF.

The main purpose of skills assessments is to inform 
VET provision and ALMPs. The national authorities 
in Albania are taking steps to adjust the enrolment 

levels and offers of public VET providers in line with 
the needs identified, by closing small, inefficient 
schools and IVET programmes that are not in 
demand, and offering new ones; and by establishing 
multi-functional VET centres by merging or clustering 
VET institutions in pilot regions. New vocations in 
the Western Herzegovina Canton in Bosnia and 
Herzegovina – agricultural tourism technician and 
mechatronics technician, with modular curricula 
and syllabuses – were introduced following a skills 
needs analysis. The Ministry of National Education 
in Turkey determines the supply from VET schools 
based on the labour market needs provided by the 
Provincial Employment and Vocational Education 
Boards established in all 81 provinces of the country. 
Similarly, training for occupations in demand on 
the labour market is conducted – in line with the 
resources available – by the PES in the whole 
region. The exception is Kosovo, where VET’s role 
in facilitating the transition from unemployment 
and inactivity to work is limited because the full 
operationalisation of the Employment Agency has 
been protracted (completed in April 2017) and the 
Agency for Vocational Education and Training and 
Adult Education is still in the process of consolidation 
(pilot phase ended in September 2016).

The 2016−17 Torino Process round has demonstrated 
that various initiatives have been used to map the 
future demand for skills in the enlargement region. 
The 2016 report assessing the implementation of 
the Small Business Act (SBA) for Europe in the 
enlargement region highlights a systemic problem 
with skills intelligence: data is scattered across 
many different institutions and there is little effort 
to coordinate and conduct synthesis for more 
comprehensive policy assessment purposes (OECD/
EU/EBRD/ETF/SEECEL, 2016). In SEE, multi-sectoral 
mechanisms for the assessment and anticipation of 
skills needs are yet to be completely embedded into 
the countries’ skills development systems. The main 
bottlenecks and difficulties are caused by a shortage 
of specialised expertise, a lack of robust and regularly 
updated evidence (including long-term data series) 
and inadequate financial resources. Turkey, however, 
is further advanced in this area, having the support 
of a more dynamic and resourceful private sector 
and a better-established tradition of using long-term 
anticipatory exercises for planning policies  
(e.g. Vision 2023).

1 7

A positive trend revealed by the 2016−17 Torino 
Process round is that the unemployment rates of 
those aged 15+ with medium educational levels 
(ISCED 3–4, i.e. including the secondary and post-
secondary vocational education levels) remained the 
same or were lower in 2015 than they were in 2013 in 
all enlargement countries except Albania and Turkey 
(see FIGURE 2.4).

In recent years the VET systems in SEET have been 
actively promoting entrepreneurship as both a key 
competence and a specific business skill. In Bosnia 
and Herzegovina an entrepreneurial learning strategy 
covering all levels of education has been adopted 
at state level, while the Ministry of Education 
and Science in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia has developed a Comprehensive Strategy 
and Action Plan for Entrepreneurial Learning (2014–
2020). The Montenegrin government has adopted 
a new Lifelong Entrepreneurial Learning Strategy 
(2015–2020). Entrepreneurship has thus been 
embraced as an important subject and integrated 
into VET curricula. Teachers in all countries have been 
trained in the delivery of ‘entrepreneurial’ subjects. 
In Turkey and Montenegro teachers also benefit from 
assistance provided by businesspeople and experts 
from the world of work. Innovative learning methods, 
including simulated business experience, have been 
widely used in SEE.

C. EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF 
VET IN ADDRESSING DEMOGRAPHIC, 
SOCIAL AND INCLUSION DEMANDS
Decreasing working-age populations, outward 
migration, socioeconomic inequalities, territorial 
disparities and poverty, and the requirements of 
groups with special needs are among the major social 
factors that impact on the demand for and provision 
of VET in the region.

The population in most of the enlargement countries 
has been decreasing as a result of low fertility 
rates (except in Turkey) and/or outward migration 
(see Annex 1). Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
Kosovo, Serbia and Turkey have been experiencing 
population decline since 2010 (since 2013 in Turkey), 
with Montenegro and the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia being the only exceptions to this 
downward trend in the region.

Furthermore, data show a trend for decreasing youth 
cohorts aged 15–24 in all countries since 2010 (2013 
in Kosovo), with the exception of the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia12 (see Annex 1), falling below 
20% in four of the countries in 2015, as illustrated 
in FIGURE 2.5. The share of young people in the 
working-age population in 2015 was higher than 20% 

12 Missing data for 2010, an increase of 7% in 2015 as compared to 2013.

FIGURE 2.4 Unemployment rates (15+) by educational level, 2013 and 2015 (%)

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

14.1
13.4

w
o
L

30.0
30.0

28.2
27.3

31.3

26.3

16.9
18.4

19.2
17.4

34.2

29.7

28.7

26.6

18.9 14.9

20.4

19.4

9.8
10.2

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

AL

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

BA

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

ME

45.6
47.0

39.0

33.7

23.5

24.4

21.1

19.7

19.4

18.3

15.0

15.3

10.2 9.3
11.3

10.9

8.1
9.7

19.9 19.2

18.9

17.4

i

m
u
d
e
M

MK

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

RS

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

TR

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

i

m
u
d
e
M

XK

h
g
H

i

w
o
L

2013

2015

6.4

5.6

h
g
H

i

10.0
8.7

i

m
u
d
e
M

EU28

Notes: TR, EU: 15–74; XK: 15–64.
National educational levels – Low: ISCED 0–2; Medium: ISCED 3–4; High: ISCED 5–8 (Those not mentioned fulfil the standard definition). BA 
– Low: primary school or less; Medium: secondary school; High: tertiary. ME – Low: less than primary, primary and vocational education after 
primary; Medium: secondary; High: tertiary. RS – Low: No formal education, incomplete primary, primary; Medium: secondary; High: higher school, 
university. XK – Low: no school, I–VII/IX classes; Medium: secondary; High: tertiary.
Sources: National statistical offices, Eurostat.

1 8

FIGURE 2.5 Relative size of youth population (15–24) in the working-age population, 2015 (%)

18.1

15.3

19.6

21.5

21.3

16.7

28.6

14.5

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

XK

EU

Notes: AL, ME: 2016; RS: 2014.
Sources: National statistical offices, Eurostat.

only in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 
Turkey and Kosovo (nearly 30%).

performance indicators. The interim 2015 level of 5.5% 
is a step to reach the target set.

The decrease in total population numbers and the 
decline in the relative size of youth cohorts pose a 
number of education, labour market and social policy 
challenges in a medium- to long-term perspective. 
Boosting labour force participation (both total and 
female activity rates), reducing informal work 
patterns, and increasing labour productivity are policy 
options that the enlargement countries need to 
embrace if they are not to jeopardise their economic 
growth and competitiveness.

In the context of increasing old-age cohorts, older 
workers will increasingly be called upon to update and 
broaden their skills and competences through CVET. To 
meet the increased need for lifelong learning, the SEE 
countries and Turkey will need to plan for and develop 
flexible modes of adult learning delivery, with tailored 
training offers and well-established VNFIL systems. 
At present, however, the enlargement countries 
seriously underperform in terms of adult participation 
in lifelong learning. Three of them – Albania, Bosnia 
and Herzegovina and the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia – show negative progress in that regard 
since 2013, while Montenegro demonstrates a lack 
of progress. Only Serbia and Turkey have witnessed 
improvement (an increase of 20–22% for the 2013–15 
period) (see FIGURE 2.6). Turkey has set a national 
target to increase the proportion of adults aged 25–64 
taking part in lifelong learning from the 2013 level of 
4% to 8% by 2018. The new strategic framework 
on lifelong learning provides for an integrated and 
transparent monitoring and evaluation system, where 
relevance and satisfaction rates, as well as good 
labour market outcomes for learners, are the key 

In addition to ageing, socioeconomic inequalities, 
territorial disparities and poverty are among the 
major social factors that impact on the demand 
for and provision of VET in the region. In the post-
crisis period, the modest economic recovery and 
the unfavourable labour market situation in SEE 
have pushed up poverty rates in the region (see 
FIGURE 2.7).

The proportion of the population below the national 
poverty line13 ranged from 14.3% (Albania, 2012) to 
29.7% (Kosovo, 2011). In Montenegro the ‘at-risk-
of-poverty’ rate remained at moderate levels (below 
10% in 2013). The highest rates were measured 
in Serbia (25.4% in 2014) and Kosovo (nearly 30% 
in 2011), where every fourth or almost every third 
person in these countries, respectively, was living 
below the national poverty line. In contrast, in Turkey, 
which enjoyed higher economic growth and lower 
unemployment rates, poverty is not a serious issue: 
the ‘at-risk-of-poverty’ rate was 1.6% in 2014, although 
this rate was measured before the overwhelming 
influx of refugees in the country, which must have 
changed the poverty mapping. Poverty in SEE, as 
evidenced by the 2016−17 Torino Process reports, 
correlates with factors such as low educational 
attainment and joblessness, health problems and 
disabilities, ethnicity (particularly in the case of the 
Roma population), and living in rural or disadvantaged 
areas. Such factors need to be taken into consideration 
when formulating education and employment policies.

13 National estimates are based on population-weighted sub-group 
estimates from household surveys. Source of data: World Bank, World 
Development Indicators.

19

FIGURE 2.6 Participation in lifelong learning (25–64), 2013 and 2015 (%)

10.7

10.7

2.5

2.3

3.0

3.0

3.7

2.6

1.5

1.0

4.8

4.0

5.5

4.5

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

EU

Notes: XK – missing data. 
Sources: Eurostat; AL, ME: national statistical offices (data received).

2013

2015

FIGURE 2.7 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of 
population), 2014

29.7

25.4

22.1

17.9

14.3

8.6

AL

BA
Notes: BA, XK: 2011: AL: 2012: ME: 2013.
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators.

ME

MK

1.6

TR

RS

XK

Another important characteristic of poverty in SEE 
is that it is not evenly spread across countries, but 
has more of an effect on rural areas and the suburbs 
of bigger cities. Regions with slower socioeconomic 
development are generally more affected. The 
2016−17 Torino Process reports provide evidence 
of the existing rural–urban divides and regional 
disparities in the countries that impact, among other 
things, access to and participation in VET.

The contribution of education and of VET to social 
inclusion has been widely explored and evidenced, 
in particular its role in facilitating initial access to or 
re-entry into work (Preston and Green, 2008). It is 
well known that VET might play a role in facilitating 
inclusion, for example by helping individuals to stay in 

school, equipping them with the right skills, offering 
second chances to those who have dropped out, 
better preparing individuals for transitions between 
training and work, and addressing the needs of 
migrants, older workers and other vulnerable groups.

The contribution of VET to employability is also 
evidenced by the 2016−17 Torino Process reports. 
Turkey’s report, for example, states that in 2015, 
59.3% of graduates from VET programmes were 
employed (compared with only 47.4% of graduates 
from general upper secondary programmes). 
This is a significant difference of 11.9 percentage 
points in favour of VET graduates, although it is still 
relatively low compared to the EU average of 73%. 
The breakdown by gender showed that male VET 

2 0

graduates in Turkey had even better employment 
prospects (71.4%, which is close to the EU average 
of 75% in 2015) than female VET graduates (47.5%, 
EU average 70.6%). This example from Turkey 
illustrates the potential of VET to act as a vehicle for 
enhancing inclusion in the labour market and other 
spheres of social participation, while also showing 
why ensuring equal and equitable access to, and 
participation in, VET is of great importance.

As illustrated in Figure 1.7 and discussed earlier, 
VET enrolment as a proportion of upper secondary 
education is high in most of the enlargement 
countries; only in Turkey and Albania are the shares 
below 50%, but these have increased steadily since 
2010. Data suggest that VET is a viable education 
option for large number of young people throughout 
the region. However, access to and participation in 
VET vary for different groups in the population and for 
those living in more disadvantaged areas.

The 2016−17 Torino Process country reports (e.g. for 
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Serbia) 
stress that in rural areas, as well as in mountainous 
and isolated areas, either VET provision is completely 
absent or the delivery is not regular, is of more 
limited scope and/or is of lower quality than in the 
cities. Young people and adults living in the villages 
need to travel in order to gain access to VET, but 
they cannot always afford to do this. For example, 
VTCs exist only in seven major towns in Kosovo, plus 
another one in the north of the country. Capacities of 
the VTCs are very limited in relation to the number of 

unskilled and unemployed young people and adults 
(Kosovo Torino Process report, 2016).

Another challenge for participation in VET in SEET 
are the gender gaps in some of the countries. 
FIGURE 2.8 shows that Albania has the most 
prominent gender gap in upper secondary VET 
enrolments, with only a fifth of those enrolments 
being female students. While the UNESCO Institute 
for Statistics does not have data on Kosovo, the 
2016−17 Torino Process report for Kosovo provides 
information on the relatively low and declining 
participation of girls in VET: in 2015/16, 39% of the 
entire upper secondary VET enrolment were female 
students (whereas in 2010/11, female enrolment 
stood at 46%). The best performer is Serbia (46.8% 
female enrolment), with the female shares in the rest 
of the countries ranging from 43% to 45%.

A study on the low participation rate of Albanian 
girls in VET suggests that the key discouraging 
factors include gender norms and perceptions of 
gender roles in society, deeply gender-stereotyped 
occupational profiles and courses, the location 
of vocational schools in the towns, the lack of 
transportation, unsafe dormitories, and the overall 
social climate in vocational schools (GIZ, 2011). 
Among actions to counteract the effect of these 
factors, the government is running a major public 
campaign to attract young people into VET, including 
TV advertising and skills and job fairs. Since 2015, 
an EU-funded project in Turkey, KEP II (Technical 
Assistance for Increasing the Enrolment Rates 

FIGURE 2.8 Share of females in upper secondary VET enrolments, last available 
year (%)

45.4

44.2

43.2

46.8

45.3

20.8

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

Notes: last available year is 2015, except for MK (2014) and TR (2013); data missing for XK.
Source: ETF calculations based on UNESCO Institute for Statistics data.

21

Especially for Girls), has been aiming to increase 
school attendance rates, especially for girls, as 
evidenced by the Torino Process country report.

A common objective for the enlargement countries’ 
VET visions and strategies is to enable all learners 
to progress and graduate with a proper qualification. 
Working towards the achievement of this objective 
is in line with the ET 2020 benchmark of reducing 
early leaving from education and training to 10% or 
less. Early leaving has a negative impact on young 
peoples’ opportunities in the labour market and 
therefore entails high costs for the individual, as well 
as for society and the economy more generally. In 
contrast, completing education can lead to a series of 
more rewarding employment opportunities and better 
health outcomes for the individual, not to mention 
benefits for the country, including higher productivity 
rates, lower public and social welfare expenditure, 
economic growth and social cohesion (European 
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Cedefop, 2014).

The performance of the enlargement countries 
regarding early leaving from education varies widely 
(FIGURE 2.9). Montenegro and Serbia are already 
below the EU 2020 benchmark of 10%, scoring 
5.7% and 7.4%, respectively (2015 data). Early 
school leaving in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia in 2015 (11.4%) is close to the EU average 
(11%), Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania 
lag far behind, recording rates of 36.4%, 26.3% 
and 21.3%, respectively. Bosnia and Herzegovina 

and Montenegro are the countries that recorded an 
increase in the proportion of early leavers from 2013 
to 2015 (which is particularly worrying in the case 
of Bosnia and Herzegovina as its level in 2013 was 
already high), while the rates in the rest of the region 
have been decreasing (remaining at the same level 
in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia). The 
relatively high rates of early leaving from education 
in Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania, 
coupled with the relatively low rates of participation 
in lifelong learning in these countries, are conducive 
to creating low-skill traps for large numbers of people 
in these countries; this, in turn, generates risks for 
their employability and for their exposure to social 
exclusion and marginalisation.

The NEETs indicator is generally linked to vulnerable 
and often inactive young people, such as early school 
leavers, unemployed or discouraged young people, 
and those outside the labour force for various reasons 
(family carers, individuals who are sick or who have 
a disability) (ETF, 2015). As shown in FIGURE 2.10, 
in 2015 the shares of NEETs (aged 15–24) in the 
enlargement countries were high, ranging from 19.1% 
(Montenegro) to 32.8% (Albania, 15–29 age group), that 
is, significantly exceeding the EU-28 average of 12%. 
Another worrying finding is that in four of the seven 
enlargement countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro 
and Serbia), NEET rates have further increased since 
2013, signalling serious problems with young graduates 
entering the labour market and finding jobs.

FIGURE 2.9 Early leavers from education and training, 2013 and 2015 (%)
Percentage of the population aged 18–24 with at most lower secondary education who were not in further 
education or training

37.5

36.4

30.6

21.3

25.9

26.3

11.4

11.4

8.7

7.4

5.1

5.7

11.9

11.0

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

EU

Notes: Missing data for Kosovo.
Source: Eurostat; ME, RS – National statistical offices (data received).

2013

2015

2 2

FIGURE 2.10 NEET rates (age 15–24), 2015 (%)

36.6

32.8

29.4

29.2

27.7

26.0

24.9

24.7

24.5

23.9

19.9

19.6

20.2

19.1

18.3

19.9

33.7

34.9

31.4

28.3

14.1

12.3

12.0

11.7

AL

BA

ME

MK

RS

TR

XK

EU28

Total

Female Male

Change since 
2013 (%)

AL

-1.8

BA ME MK

7.4

7.3

2.1

RS

2.1

TR

-6.4

XK

EU28

-11.0

-7.7

Notes: AL: age 15–29.
Sources: National statistical offices, Eurostat.

Not only were the NEET rates in Albania (32.8%) and 
Kosovo (31.4% for 15–29 age group) the highest in the 
region, but – together with those in Turkey and Bosnia 
and Herzegovina – they also demonstrated the most 
prominent gender differences, with the female NEET 
rate exceeding the male one in all four countries (see 
Figure 2.10). These data suggest that in 2015 a large 
proportion of young people in the region as a whole, 
and particularly of young females (who were most 
probably engaged with family care work) in Turkey, 
Albania, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina, were at 
risk of being marginalised from the labour market and 
society. Efforts by the countries to mitigate this risk 
have yielded mixed results. While the share of NEETs 
in Albania, Kosovo and Turkey had decreased in 2015 
from the level in 2013, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
Montenegro, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia and Serbia it increased over the same time 
period, with Bosnia and Herzegovina registering the 
highest increase (see Figure 2.10).

According to the 2016−17 Torino Process country 
reports, most of the improvement in NEET rates 
in Turkey has come from rising enrolment rates in 
education over the past decade (Turkey has increased 
compulsory schooling from 8 to 12 years) and 
from young people’s propensity to continue their 
education longer than they did in the past. In Albania 
the improvement could be linked to increasing 
VET enrolments and the Employment Promotion 
Programme measures that have also been targeting 
NEETs. These examples illustrate that while the 

NEET label puts (potential) vulnerable young people 
under one heading and one indicator, it needs to 
be disaggregated into sub-groups (unemployed, 
discouraged, family carers, inactive) in order to 
understand the reasons behind individual situations 
and to design targeted policies to address them, as 
highlighted in a recent ETF study (ETF, 2015).

Vulnerable groups in SEET that present specific 
challenges in terms of social inclusion and education 
and training are identified at national level according 
to the socioeconomic specificities in each country. 
They include those who are economically inactive and 
long-term unemployed, vulnerable minorities such as 
Roma, those who are poor, NEETs and persons with 
disabilities. Access to and progression in education 
and training of persons with disabilities continue to 
pose challenges to all enlargement countries, Roma 
(and Ashkali and Egyptian) communities are the 
focus of attention for policy makers in SEE, while 
Syrian refugees represent a new and very specific 
vulnerable group in Turkey.

The 2016−17 Torino Process round has revealed that 
the enlargement countries do not have sufficient 
complete and up-to-date data on the vulnerable groups 
and their specific education and training needs to 
inform the relevant policy actions. Most countries 
have administrative data on the most disadvantaged 
groups that is collected and kept by the respective 
line ministries (e.g. Ministry of Health, Ministry of 
Social Affairs and Ministry of Education) or by non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) working in the 

2 3

field. However, there is a lack of an integrated national 
system to allow the comprehensive collection, 
processing and use of data for policy purposes, as 
rightly highlighted by the Kosovo Torino Process report.

Access to education and training for the two most 
disadvantaged groups – Roma communities and 
persons with disabilities – continues to be an issue 
in SEET. The Torino Process reports state that a 
significant proportion of the children from these 
vulnerable groups are either not enrolled at all or 
drop out early from education. In Serbia, for example, 
only 64% of children from Roma settlements have 
completed primary school and just 22% of them 
attend secondary school. Only 4.1% of school 
buildings in Albania are wheelchair accessible and 
many children with mental or physical disabilities stay 
at home, where they receive no, or only a few hours 
of, tuition.

The enlargement countries have continued to invest 
efforts in addressing the issue. The Torino Process 
reports indicate that new strategies have been 
adopted to replace expiring ones or to complement 
existing ones, such as Strategic Plan for the 
Organisation of Education for Children with Special 
Educational Needs 2016–2020 in Kosovo; revision of 
the National Strategy for Equal Rights of People with 
Disabilities 2010–2018 in the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia; and the Strategy for Social Inclusion 
of Roma and Egyptians (2016–2020) and an Action 
Plan in Montenegro. New strategies for the main 
vulnerable groups that include sections on lifelong 
learning have been approved or are being prepared at 
the level of the entities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but 
all these have yet to be put into practice.

The implementation effort behind the strategic 
documents has been variable, and the range 
of measures used to enhance access to and 
participation of vulnerable groups in (vocational) 
education and training is considerable. It is important 
to note that most of the actions applied have targeted 
formal rather than non-formal education, and the 
pre-primary and primary education levels more than 
the secondary and IVET levels. Another common 
trend that stands out from the Torino Process round 
is that while the education of children with special 
educational needs currently takes place in both 
specialised and regular schools, all countries aim to 
close down the specialised schools and integrate 

2 4

students with special needs into the mainstream 
system by enhancing its inclusiveness and capacity 
to cater for students of all abilities.

Montenegro’s 2016−17 Torino Process report 
describes a comprehensive approach introduced 
to identify the educational needs of children and 
address them in an inclusive way: 18 commissions 
for inclusive education at local level have been 
established to guide children into the education 
system. The commissions propose the educational 
programme, additional expert assistance and 
staff required, and the spatial, material and other 
conditions needed for the provision of an adequate 
educational process. Based on the commissions’ 
recommendations, the educational institutions 
develop individual developmental and educational 
plans for every child. Individual transition plan forms, 
in terms of professional orientation and preparation 
for employment and independent life, were also 
introduced in 2015 (now binding) and are prepared 
for every future graduate with a disability. A similar 
approach is followed in the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia (following an amendment to the Law 
on Secondary Education), where a team composed of 
a pedagogue or psychologist, the student’s teacher, 
the student’s parent or custodian, a specialist in 
disabilities and, if necessary, the student’s physician 
develop an individual education plan for each student 
with special needs.

Within regular VET schools, as evidenced by the 
2016−17 Torino Process country reports for Bosnia 
and Herzegovina and the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia, among others, students with special 
needs are usually educated following modular 
curricula and syllabi adapting the programmes for 
certain occupations to the abilities and interests of 
the learners. The regular teachers are supported by 
mobile teams (mostly special education teachers, 
pedagogues and psychologists) who visit schools and 
provide assistance to students with special needs, 
and to their teachers and parents (Republika Srpska) 
or by resource centres (in Montenegro and Kosovo, 
special schools have been transformed into resource 
centres to sustain inclusive education).

Many enlargement countries report that projects or 
programmes have been implemented for inclusive 
education in VET, some of them supported by donors. 
Examples include the Social Inclusion in Vocational 

Education and Training (SIVET) project in Kosovo 
(with support from the Austrian Federal Ministry 
for Education), and the USAID’s Youth Employability 
Skills (YES) project in the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia. The Vocational Skills Development 
(MESGEP) project in Turkey started in 2013 and is 
expanding its coverage to become a country-wide 
activity in all 81 provinces in 2017. In addition, all 
SEE countries took part in the Regional Support for 
Inclusive Education project, which was funded by 
the EU and implemented by Council of Europe, that 
promoted inclusive education in eight pilot schools in 
each country, two of them being VET schools (project 
completed in December 2015).

Turkey’s education and training system has been 
faced with a huge challenge: the Torino Process 
report states that 2 730 485 Syrians have arrived 
in the country as a result of the refugee crisis. The 
Turkish authorities have taken measures to ensure 
that all refugee children will receive access to schools 
and have taken steps to remove administrative 
barriers to enrolment. ‘Temporary education centres’ 
were established to enable Syrian refugee children 
to continue their education. All refugees are given 
the opportunity to enrol in free Turkish language and 
vocational training courses offered by the Ministry of 
National Education’s Public Education Centres.

The participation of vulnerable groups in CVET is 
promoted mainly through the ALMPs implemented 
by the PES. These focus on the registered jobseekers 
and offer them training, free of charge. The Torino 
Process report for Serbia indicates that vulnerable 
groups that received such training have included 
young people, redundant employees, people with 
disabilities, individuals without qualifications, low-
skilled persons and long-term unemployed persons. 
In Albania, a new ALMP for people with disabilities 
was implemented for the first time in 2015; training 
for individuals with visual and auditory difficulties 
for occupations in demand in the labour market 
was delivered in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia.

In summary, the 2016−17 Torino Process round 
records the continuing efforts of the enlargement 
countries to develop VET systems that provide equal 
opportunities for all, regardless of existing personal 
circumstances (e.g. age, gender or ethnicity) or 
socioeconomic and territorial disparities, and that 

are capable of reaching out to the weakest and most 
excluded segments of the population. The measures 
undertaken by the enlargement countries in recent 
years have also been targeted at groups such as 
Roma communities and persons with disabilities. 
A considerable number of measures have been 
implemented, although the performance has been 
varied, depending largely on the national capacities 
and the resources allocated to implement these 
activities. As noted in a relevant ETF regional study, 
further efforts are needed to attract marginalised 
groups of students to vocational education, including 
students with disabilities and learning difficulties, 
students from rural areas and students from ethnic 
minorities (ETF, 2014).

D. INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF THE VET 
SYSTEMS
Since the previous round of the Torino Process in 
2014, the progress achieved by the enlargement 
countries in improving the internal efficiency of VET 
has been limited, yet most of the countries have 
taken important decisions and actions that pave the 
way for the achievement of more visible positive 
changes in the years to come.

Policies for teachers and trainers

There is a wide consensus among researchers, 
policy makers and practitioners that teachers are 
the key determinants of the quality of education. 
In their VET strategies and vision documents, the 
enlargement countries highlight the importance of 
high-quality teaching and school leadership for raising 
educational achievement and training a workforce 
with relevant and flexible skills.

The policies relating to VET teachers, trainers and 
directors encompass a wide and complex set of 
topics, from initial preparation for teaching and 
managing staff through recruitment, working 
conditions and salaries, to continuing professional 
development (CPD) and career progression 
opportunities. Activities targeting these issues have 
been ongoing in all countries, yet the results have 
been mixed and the progress modest.

The 2016−17 Torino Process round and the 2016 
Riga reporting (on MTD5. Professional development 
of teachers, trainers and mentors) of the candidate 
countries have provided information and ideas 

2 5

regarding the competences and roles of teachers and 
trainers primarily in IVET, and to a much lesser extent in 
CVET. The focus has been on developments conducted 
or under way in the field of in-service rather than in 
pre-service teacher training, as well as in the field of 
professional development of VET teachers, trainers and 
mentors in schools rather than in enterprises.

One of the main findings is that the status and 
attractiveness of the teaching profession in SEE 
remain relatively low, with some recent improvement 
seen in Montenegro, as indicated by the Torino 
Process country report.

Teacher salaries in SEE are reported to be slightly 
lower than those for other jobs in the public sector. 
In Turkey teacher salaries remain below the OECD 
average. Albania’s Torino Process report highlights 
the fact that VET teachers have so far received lower 
salaries than gymnasium teachers and that trainers 
and lecturers at VTCs are even worse off, being 
paid on an hourly basis. The Albanian government 
has announced an increase in salaries, including for 
teachers, effective from 1 March 2017.

There is an alarming trend towards smaller numbers 
entering the profession. Consequently, the profile of 
the teaching staff in the formal education systems as 
a whole, and in VET in particular, is ageing, and might 
result in teacher shortages in a medium- to long-
term perspective (the risks signalled in Montenegro’s 
Torino Process report).

The country reports show that most countries have 
established systems for the recruitment of teachers. 
There are general competence standards for teachers 
and trainers, but no specific ones for VET or the 
various vocational profiles. Serbia and Montenegro 
have teacher licensing procedures in place, and 
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia plans 
to introduce them. VET teachers typically have a 
university degree or (advanced) diploma in a technical 
field, and so do some trainers for practical classes. 
For the latter category of staff, however, a university 
diploma is not obligatory. A major issue relating to the 
pre-service preparation of VET subject teachers and 
VET trainers in vocational schools in SEE continues 
to be the poor quality of their pedagogical skills. 
The Torino Process report for the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia stresses the lack of or 
insufficient andragogic preparedness of the trainers in 
adult training institutions.

2 6

As regards trainers in companies, there are no 
commonly accepted specific requirements for 
becoming a trainer or mentor. Some criteria or 
standards exist, but are developed and valid only 
within individual companies.

Most enlargement countries have introduced 
induction programmes for newly qualified teachers 
who are entering classrooms for the first time. 
During the induction period, which lasts from 
three months (Serbia) to one year (Montenegro, 
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), 
newly qualified teachers have the status of 
teacher-trainees and are supported in their work 
by a more experienced colleague who plays the 
role of induction mentor. Upon completion of the 
induction programme and one year of teaching, 
teacher-trainees become independent teachers. In 
Serbia and Montenegro they also need to pass the 
licensing examination.

The Torino Process reports provide evidence that 
while in some enlargement countries there are no 
well-established mechanisms for the evaluation of 
teachers and trainers in VET, and no clear career 
progression tracks (e.g. Kosovo), others – including 
Montenegro, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia and Serbia – have introduced systems of 
teacher titles and career advancement paths through 
promoted posts for all teachers in formal education, 
including VET. The titles used – Teacher, Teacher-
mentor, Teacher-counsellor/adviser, Teacher-researcher 
in the teaching process – are regulated by secondary 
legislation (usually rulebooks of the ministries 
of education) and are awarded by specialised 
commissions following a set of criteria. Promotion 
of teachers to higher titles is also reflected in their 
salary coefficients, and this serves as an incentive for 
professional development.

The professional development of teachers is a career-
wide process that starts at university and ends on 
retirement. Teachers have an ongoing commitment 
to maintaining and expanding their professional 
expertise, and to revising and enhancing their 
knowledge and skills and their teaching and learning 
approaches continually in ways that are relevant 
to their own individual needs and those of their 
students. The CPD of teachers is a legal requirement 
in many enlargement countries, including Serbia, the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Albania.

In 2015 the ETF supported all SEE countries and 
Turkey to conduct analyses of their national systems 
for CPD of VET teachers and trainers based on 
empirical surveys. TABLE 2.3 presents the results 
from these surveys, which relate to the participation 
of VET teachers in CPD activities in 2014−15.

At a first glance, the figures in Table 2.3 show a 
relatively high rate of participation of VET teachers 
in CPD. For example, in Serbia 96% of vocational 
teachers participated in some kind of professional 
development in the 12 months before the survey 
(OECD countries’ average: 90%) and only 4% had no 
CPD at all; Montenegro, the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia and the rest of the countries also 
performed relatively well. However, the problem with 
the CPD activities offered in SEE is that most of them 
are of a general nature, being more adapted to the 
needs of teachers in general education than to the 
needs of vocational teachers. The specialised CPD 
allowing for the upgrading and further development 
of the vocational specialism of VET teachers is much 
less available, and therefore, fewer VET teachers 
participated in it, their share ranging from 23% 
(Albania) to 54% (Serbia) (ETF, 2016a).

The data in Table 2.3 demonstrate that the 
participation of VET teachers in professional 
development on business premises is weaker in SEE 
than in Turkey, the best performer being Serbia (31%). 
Of all enlargement countries, Turkey has the highest 
share of VET teachers participating in CPD activities 

at businesses: almost half of them (49%) have 
access to training within companies (ETF, 2016a).

These findings were confirmed by the 2016−17 Torino 
Process country reports. The training of teachers in 
Albania, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina relies 
primarily on donors and EU projects, and there 
have been difficulties in sustaining innovation and 
good practice once projects have been completed. 
In Albania, Serbia, the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia and Montenegro there is a dual system of 
oversight for the in-service training of teachers in VET 
schools: by institutions in charge of CPD in general 
secondary education, for teachers of general subjects 
in VET schools; and by specialised bodies (usually the 
VET centres), for the CPD of VET subject teachers.

The national education agencies in Serbia, the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Montenegro 
compile and publish annual lists of upcoming 
opportunities for in-service teacher training in the 
form of ‘training catalogues’, with courses provided by 
accredited public or private providers. The catalogues 
are usually aimed at general secondary education 
teachers as a whole and are more likely to reflect 
the (limited) capacities of in-service teacher-training 
providers than the needs of VET teachers to update 
their knowledge of industrial or commercial practice. 
On-the-job and in-company teacher training continues 
to be occasional and donor-driven, rather than 
common practice. Thus, the professional development 
opportunities for VET teachers not only are few in 

TABLE 2.3  Vocational teachers participating in different forms of professional development, 2014/15 (%)

Country

Albania

Bosnia and 
Herzegovina

Kosovo

Former Yugoslav 
Republic of 
Macedonia

Montenegro

Serbia

Turkey

In-service 
training

Professional 
development 
in vocational 
specialism

Conferences/ 
seminars

Observation 
visits to 
schools

CPD at 
businesses

No CPD

56

54

56

65

76

92

47

23

32

36

34

40

54

37

17

13

27

35

37

35

47

31

15

18

24

19

38

30

29

32

16

24

27

31

49

35

40

35

27

21

4

19

Note: Surveys were conducted in 2015 and concern the opinion of vocational teachers about the CPD activities that have taken place in the preceding  
12 months. 
Source: ETF (2016a).

2 7

number, but also match only loosely the actual needs 
and have limited relevance to vocational specialisms.

in Montenegro and the British Council trained 
instructors from companies for VET students.

The main reason for this gap in CPD in SEE, as 
evidenced by the 2016−17 Torino Process reports, 
is that most of the organisations providing CPD 
have limited know-how and capacity to design or 
deliver CPD that addresses the vocationally specific 
needs of VET teachers and trainers, such as up-
to-date knowledge of current industrial practice, 
and an understanding of how to develop practical 
skills. Companies (with very few exceptions) are not 
involved in the CPD of VET teachers.

To address this issue, the VET Centre in Skopje has 
recently developed programmes for company-based 
training of teachers who teach vocational-theoretical 
subjects and practical training; the programme 
is currently being piloted and is expected to be 
mainstreamed. In 2016 Montenegro also piloted a 
small project to train teachers of vocational subjects 
and teachers of practical training in enterprises 
(implemented by the Ministry for Education in 
cooperation with the VET Centre and the Chamber of 
Commerce, with the support of ETF), and trained 20 
teachers.

In-service training of teachers and managers in Turkey 
is planned and implemented at the central and local 
levels. In-service training for teachers of vocational 
and technical education is also carried out within the 
scope of the protocols of cooperation with national 
and international projects. The Directorate General 
for VET in the Ministry of National Education has 
protocols signed with the business sector directly for 
the in-service training of teachers in different fields 
and on different topics.

The enlargement countries do not provide structural 
training for VET trainers and mentors working in 
VET schools or in companies (with apprentices 
or regular staff). In Turkey, becoming a mentor to 
others depends mainly on experience gained within 
the company. Riga 2016 reporting revealed that in 
2015, training was offered to trainers in companies 
in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and 
Montenegro under two donor projects: YES project 
(supported by USAID) trained employees to become 
on-the-job trainers/mentors of VET students (154 
trainers from 110 companies in the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia were trained in 2015), 
and a joint project of the Ministry of Education 

2 8

Riga 2016 reporting for the candidate countries 
highlighted some new developments and trends in 
VET teacher training.

 ■ Greater focus is placed on distance and online 
course for VET teachers in Turkey: two distance-
learning platforms for teachers are currently 
operational, run by the Ministry of National 
Education together with four universities and 
Turk Telekom. While these platforms provide 
learning modules that are targeted more towards 
the needs of teachers in general education, the 
Ministry of National Education has launched 
preparations for the establishment of a third 
distance-learning platform to cater for the needs 
of vocational teachers in particular.

 ■ More flexibility in recognising and rewarding 
different forms of CPD was created in Serbia 
through the introduction in 2015 of a new Rulebook. 
This also provides opportunities for companies to 
develop programmes for VET teachers.

 ■ New Guidelines on CPD were adopted in October 
2016 and a new Strategy for Teacher Training 
2017–24 was agreed in Montenegro. The results 
from their implementation remain to be seen and 
analysed.

Teaching and learning environment

As a result of long-standing low levels of public 
investment in infrastructure, the 2016−17 Torino 
Process reports judge the teaching and learning 
conditions in most VET schools in SEE to be 
unsatisfactory, while Turkey’s country report is 
more positive about the teaching and learning 
environment.

Issues with the physical infrastructure in VET are 
mostly related to old or inappropriate buildings and 
facilities, overcrowded classes (up to 32–34 students, 
or even 40 in Albania) in urban schools (which means 
having to operate in shifts), and schools in rural areas 
that have few students. The Torino Process report 
for the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, for 
example, notes that many of the school buildings in 
the country (almost 25%) are more than 50 years old, 
are in need of renovation, have heating problems and 
operate in energy-inefficient conditions.

An important aspect of the teaching and learning 
conditions in VET schools is their IT infrastructure (e.g. 
libraries, ICT equipment and school workshops), which 
is often characterised as poor or obsolete. According 
to the Torino Process reports, the most alarming 
situation continues to be that relating to the school 
workshops where students can acquire the necessary 
practical skills. The equipment of the workshops 
is either missing or is insufficient for all students 
enrolled in the trade area (Albania), or is out-of-date 
and therefore useless (50% of all equipment in VET 
schools in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 
is over 30 years old). The Montenegro’s 2016−17 Torino 
Process report is the only one to describe recently 
improved facilities in workshops in a great number of 
schools, particularly those with programmes in the 
areas of hospitality, car mechatronics, civil engineering 
and agriculture, while Albania’s report notes that the 
VTCs in the country are somewhat better equipped 
and more oriented towards practical skills training than 
the vocational schools.

Improvements in SEE are often achieved as a 
result of EU funds and projects that have invested 
in the refurbishment of existing VET schools, in 
new equipment and in the modernisation of VET 
provision. Other donors have also been assisting 
countries with the upgrading of facilities, notably the 
Swiss, German, Italian and Austrian governments. 
GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale 
Zusammenarbeit), for example, has installed four IT 
labs and provided other technical equipment for the 
multi-functional VTC Kamza in Albania (Albania Torino 
Process report, 2016).

In Turkey, the Ministry of National Education has an 
ongoing commitment to improve the learning and 
training environments of VET schools. Infrastructure 
problems and teacher shortages are reported by 
schools to the ministry, and the procedures for 
responding and taking action have been streamlined, 
as noted in the country’s 2016−17 Torino Process 
report. The Ministry of National Education is backed in 
its efforts by the private sector: cooperation protocols 
have regularly been signed with the Chambers of 
Industry and Trade, the organised industrial zones and 
the private sector for student internships, laboratory 
facilities and the preparation of updated modules.

The enlargement countries are aware of the 
importance of workplace training for enhancing the 

relevance and quality of learners’ skills, and have 
been trying to boost cooperation between VET 
institutions and enterprises. However, these efforts 
are taking place in two very different institutional and 
cultural contexts, one that has well-developed crafts 
and trades with a strong WBL tradition (in Turkey), and 
the other characterised by state-led, school-based 
vocational education, with elements of workplace 
training (in the SEE countries).

WBL takes place in all its forms14 on a country-wide 
and regular basis in Turkey. From the second year 
of tuition, Turkish students in secondary vocational 
and technical schools start to gain practical work 
experience through internships, usually spending 
two days per week in the school and three days 
in the company. For learners who are outside the 
formal education system, the VET system in Turkey 
offers apprenticeship schemes that combine practical 
training in companies with theoretical instruction 
(usually one day per week) at VTCs, while the 
learners have the status of employees.

In contrast, in SEE the provision of practical skills 
takes place predominantly in school workshops. 
Although some good examples of learning 
opportunities at the workplace have been reported in 
well-performing sectors of the national economies, 
such as catering, tourism, construction and 
transportation, these still have limited coverage in the 
VET systems as a whole.

The current WBL modalities in SEE treat the learner 
predominantly as a student and take the following 
forms.

 ■ Work practice and internships in companies. 
While these forms of WBL are allowed for by 
the national legislations, they remain scarce 
owing to the lack of willingness and/or capacity 
of employers to engage with VET learners. The 
2016−17 Torino Process reports indicate that 
Albania is piloting internships in the tourism/
catering sectors. VET schools in Montenegro  
have a well-established tradition of internships  

14 According to the European Commission’s report from 2013 (Work-based 
learning in Europe: Practices and policy pointers), there are three forms 
of WBL: (1) alternance schemes or apprenticeships, typically known as 
the ‘dual system’; (2) WBL as school-based VET, which includes on-the-job 
training periods in companies; and (3) WBL integrated into a school-based 
programme, through on-site laboratories, workshops, kitchens, restau-
rants, junior or practice firms, simulations or real business/industry project 
assignments.

2 9

 
in the tourism and health sectors, while this 
model exists in Serbia in medical schools, where 
practical training for certain profiles is organised 
exclusively in healthcare institutions. In most 
cases schools take the initiative to approach 
employers as potential partners in the practical 
learning process for their students. VET schools 
in Montenegro and Serbia have established 
positions for so-called ‘organisers of practical 
education’, who establish and maintain contacts 
with eligible employers but also monitor the 
practical training of students in companies. 
Albania is planning to hire such school–business 
liaison staff in all major VET providers, with the 
task of organising and supervising students’ 
internships.

 ■ Simulated WBL. The virtual companies supported 
by KulturKontakt and GIZ exist in business, law 
and administration programmes of VET business 
schools in all countries, and continue to be the 
most widespread form of WBL in VET in SEE. 
They allow students to gain practical skills through 
running businesses in a simulated economic 
environment. Furthermore, in some countries 
(e.g. Serbia) some VET schools have real firms 
attached to them (primarily in tourism and 
agricultural schools with school lands and farms), 
where practical training for pupils is organised.

Formal apprenticeships, as ‘dual’ programmes that 
allow students to obtain a job in an enterprise and to 
alternate periods of studying in a school environment 
with periods of work in the company, as mentioned 
above, exist in a structured, country-wide format 
only in Turkey. The Serbia’s 2016−17 Torino Process 
report elaborates on a project of cooperative 
education, supported by GIZ and a mix of Serbian and 
international companies, in three profiles (mechanical 
technician, electrical technician and blacksmith) that 
draws on elements of the dual education model. The 
introduction of formal apprenticeships is envisaged 
in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (as 
stipulated in the VET Strategy 2013–2020) and in 
Albania (National Employment and Skills Strategy 
2014–2020).

Inspired by the Riga Conclusions, and by MTD1 in 
particular, the candidate countries have prioritised 
WBL and since 2015 have launched a number of 
activities and measures in that field.

3 0

1.  New/amended legislation to provide for formal 
apprenticeship schemes in SEE or to further 
reinforce them in Turkey

The Law on Crafts was adopted in December 
2015 in the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia, providing a legal basis for 
apprenticeships for unemployed individuals. 
A new Law on Crafts (June 2016) and a new 
VET law were adopted in Albania, regulating 
apprenticeships and containing provisions for 
dual education. Intentions to draft legislation 
to provide for WBL in school-based VET were 
expressed by Serbia, and a Memorandum of 
Understanding was signed in 2016 between the 
Minister of education and the Presidents of the 
Chambers of Commerce of Serbia and Austria on 
the experimental introduction of dual education in 
Serbia.

In Turkey an amendment to an existing Active 
Labour Market Services Regulation was enacted 
(February 2016), increasing the duration and 
access to publicly funded WBL; changes were 
made to the Apprenticeship Law (December 
2016), with the aim of including apprenticeships 
in compulsory education and better meeting the 
apprentice needs of small businesses and craft 
enterprises.

2. 

Implementation arrangements put in place 
that pave the way for or reinforce formal 
apprenticeships

Further to the improvement of the legal 
framework, the candidate countries have 
recently undertaken concrete practical steps 
towards the introduction, or enhancement, of 
formal apprenticeships. Thus, in 2015 an analysis 
of the state of WBL in the whole system of 
secondary and post-secondary VET in Albania 
was conducted, and was complemented by the 
development of a feasibility study and a roadmap 
for the implementation of a dual vocational 
education scheme.

Programmes and measures for unemployed 
people, including apprenticeships, have been 
implemented by the Employment Agency in the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and in 
2015 these measures targeted young, female 
and long-term unemployed individuals. With the 

support of the USAID-funded project YES, over 
150 mentors from different companies were 
trained to work with students, and standards for 
mentoring in companies were developed.

Turkey intends to improve the access to and 
the quality of apprenticeships, as well as the 
quality of all forms of WBL. Turkish authorities 
have agreed to develop a more structured 
apprenticeship system for all companies, 
regardless of their location, sector or size. 
This focuses on the establishment of shared 
training centres for SMEs with the help of the 
Chambers of Commerce and/or Industry or 
the Ministry of National Education’s vocational 
education centres, and establishing an 
umbrella monitoring mechanism to oversee 
all apprenticeships. In 2016 the Ministry of 
National Education and its related partners, with 
the support of the ETF, started working on (i) 
establishing national data collection, regulations 
and legal framework regarding vocational and 
technical education and the provision of WBL; 
(ii) supporting the Turkish Statistical Institute to 
generate and collect integrated WBL statistics 
to monitor achievements. These options will be 
elaborated upon in more detail in the upcoming 
assessment exercise that will be implemented 
by the European Bank for Reconstruction and 
Development (EBRD) and the ETF.

The EU candidate countries have joined 
the European Alliance for Apprenticeships. 
Managed by the European Commission, in close 
cooperation with EU social partners, the European 
Alliance involves a wide range of stakeholders 
working together to strengthen the quality, 
supply, image and mobility of apprenticeships.

Overall, the Torino Process consultations and 
discussions during the Torino Process regional 
forum in Belgrade in February 2017 have shown 
that learning environments and study forms for VET 
have not changed substantially in the enlargement 
countries over the recent years. New learning 
environments are needed that are more flexible and 
go beyond traditional school settings, hierarchies and 
rigidities, but grant teachers more freedom and allow 
for digital and online learning, entrepreneurship, and 
learning that benefits from the mix of school and 
workplace settings.

Quality assurance

Quality remains a common concern and an 
overarching goal of VET reforms in the enlargement 
region. National definitions of quality in VET are not 
always explicit, but countries’ understandings of the 
concept can be easily inferred from the measures 
taken. All national approaches to quality in VET 
share an emphasis on achieving the employability of 
learners, with the relevance to the labour market of 
the skills acquired seen as the ultimate indicator of 
good-quality VET provision.

In recent years the SEE countries and Turkey have 
been making efforts to improve their mechanisms 
for managing quality in VET provision at both system 
and provider level. In so doing, the region and the 
candidate countries in particular have increasingly 
been using the European Quality Assurance in VET 
(EQAVET) Recommendation as a point of reference 
and a framework to guide domestic reforms. To date 
there are many examples of progress in this area. 
Some initiatives are systemic in nature, while others 
are still at the pilot stage.

The Torino Process reports show that quality 
assurance of VET in Bosnia and Herzegovina remains 
an issue, with quality assurance mechanisms varying 
between and within the entities, and between 
the various responsible authorities (ministries and 
other major bodies). Albania is currently focused 
on defining a national model for quality assurance 
and the accreditation of public and private VET 
providers. Kosovo has adopted a National Quality 
Assurance Framework in VET (inspired by EQAVET). 
In 2015 Turkey adopted a National Education Quality 
Framework, while Montenegro, Serbia and the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia have been trying to 
improve some of the tools and procedures of their 
quality assurance mechanisms.

The national approaches to quality assurance in 
VET in the enlargement region are based on regular 
external and internal evaluations. The external 
assessments of quality in IVET institutions are 
conducted by formal education bodies and agencies 
(e.g. education inspectorates, education services 
bureaus and (pedagogical) institutes, VET centres), 
which formulate recommendations for improving 
quality in each school. Recently these have been 
complemented by internal evaluations (self-
assessments), which are a well-established practice 

3 1

in Montenegro, Serbia and the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia. In Turkey self-assessments 
are not obligatory, yet many schools conduct them. 
Republika Srpska in Bosnia and Herzegovina plans to 
introduce them in all schools by 2022.

Both the internal and external evaluations of quality 
adhere to nationally developed methodologies 
that are in a process of constant revision and 
improvement. Montenegro, Turkey and Serbia 
have been attempting to harmonise their national 
indicators for assessing quality in VET with the 
EQAVET standards. The newly adopted National 
Education Quality Framework in Turkey includes 14 
basic evaluation and monitoring areas and 80 sub-
domains that have been previously piloted in selected 
sectors. All countries need to continue their work 
on improving their indicators for assessing quality in 
VET and aligning them with the EQAVET standards, 
as well as to involve a wider range of stakeholders 
(social partners in particular) in the VET quality 
assurance processes.

Learning outcomes

The learning outcomes principle has been 
systematically promoted in VET policy in SEET. 
Its implementation in the enlargement countries 
over recent years has focused primarily on the 
development of NQFs. The advancement of NQFs 
in all countries has continued, with most reaching 
intermediate or advanced stages. All have legislation 
and designated lead institutions, and most have 
stakeholder platforms.

In Albania authorities are updating NQF legislation, 
vocational qualifications are already outcomes-based, 
and stakeholder input is established in an Albanian 
Qualifications Framework (AQF) Taskforce (set up in 
2015). The outputs to date of the AQF Taskforce are a 
revision of the AQF Law of 2010, which is now ready 
for adoption, an AQF Handbook and an inventory 
and analysis of vocational qualifications. The AQF 
Taskforce is preparing the referencing of the AQF to 
the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), which 
is foreseen in 2018. In Bosnia and Herzegovina a 
law is in place, but progress has been slow owing 
to weak institutional coordination. With ETF support 
since mid-2016, the country has been working on 
an inventory of VET qualifications to support the 
implementation of decisions on quality criteria. Serbia 

3 2

has made progress since 2015 in unifying its two 
pre-existing NQFs, in higher education and VET, into 
one comprehensive NQF, which is now in the final 
stage of development. A new law on the NQF is in 
preparation, and this will regulate implementation. 
The country established an expert group to carry out 
technical development of the NQF. Serbia joined the 
EQF Advisory Group in autumn 2015.

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia has a 
range of outcomes-based qualifications. The country 
established the NQF Board and an NQF Unit in the 
Ministry of Education, launched an NQF website 
(http://mrk.mk), and initiated its qualifications 
database. Its NQF database now includes virtually all 
formal qualifications (all levels) and quality-assured 
adult learning qualifications.

Turkey, Kosovo and Montenegro have relatively 
settled systems, hold registers or databases of 
outcomes-based qualifications, have prescribed 
quality assurance criteria, and have already moved 
beyond planning VNFIL to actually implementing it. 
Turkey adopted its Turkish Qualifications Framework 
Regulation in 2015. Its management and governance 
structures are well established, including broad 
stakeholder and social partner engagement in the 
design and implementation of all aspects of the 
qualification system. The Vocational Qualifications 
Authority had, by mid-2016, published 327 
qualifications across 13 sectors in its qualification 
database.

Most countries in the region are referenced to the 
EQF. The referencing of the NQFs of Montenegro and 
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia with the 
EQF were successfully accomplished in November 
2014 and February 2016, respectively; the NQFs in 
Kosovo followed in December 2016 and in Turkey 
in March 2017, while the referencing for Serbia is 
planned for late 2017. Countries now need to deepen 
the implementation by producing more outcomes-
based qualifications, defining quality assurance 
criteria and formalising stakeholder dialogue in sector 
councils or similar bodies.

With regard to VNFIL, most countries are in the early 
stages of developing these systems, while some 
are further advanced, implementing pilot actions in 
selected occupations and qualifications. In Albania 
and Bosnia and Herzegovina there is no specific 
legislation and the countries are still reflecting on 

their conceptual approaches. In Serbia VNFIL was 
highlighted in the recent Law on Adult Education 
(adopted in June 2013). Concrete VNFIL procedures 
remain to be developed by a bylaw based on a 
concept for recognition of prior learning (this term is 
used synonymously with VNFIL in the country) that 
has been prepared by the NQF expert group. The 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia developed 
a VNFIL concept paper in 2014 with the support of 
the ETF, as well as a roadmap for its implementation, 
and is piloting VNFIL. Turkey, Kosovo and Montenegro 
have already moved beyond planning VNFIL to actually 
implementing it. The National Qualifications Authority 
(NQA) in Kosovo has published a set of guidelines on 
recognition of prior learning policies and procedures, 
and these describe the possible routes and the main 
requirements for awarding credits, or for entry to a 
programme or course leading to an NQA-approved 
qualification. Turkey and Montenegro have some 
procedures and practices already in place. Both these 
countries have adopted relevant legislation, and on the 
basis of this have developed procedures and identified 
institutions to conduct VNFIL for qualification levels 
1–5 (validation for higher education degrees is not 
currently possible). Turkey already has a functioning 
VNFIL system; to date, 85 000 certificates for VET 
qualifications have been issued.

E. GOVERNANCE AND POLICY 
PRACTICES IN THE VET SYSTEMS
Countries in SEE and Turkey have continued to devote 
a great deal of effort and resources to improving 
the governance of their VET systems to ensure 
multi-stakeholder engagement and participatory 
approaches in the design, implementation and 
monitoring of VET policies.

The governance of the VET systems remains 
centralised, with the main governance structures 
functioning at national level (sub-national governance 
bodies existing only in Turkey). The leading actors in 
VET governance at national level are the ministries 
in charge of education and/or labour, which assume 
overall responsibility for the formulation, enforcement 
and review of IVET and CVET policies15 in the  

15 In Bosnia and Herzegovina these are the ministries at the level of Repub-
lika Srpska, the cantons of the Federation and the Education Department 
of the Brčko District, while the state-level Ministry of Civil Affairs plays a 
monitoring and coordination role and controls the implementation of the 
Framework Law on Secondary Vocational Education and Training.

countries. The ministries are supported by state 
executive VET agencies (e.g. the National Agency for 
VET and Qualifications in Albania, VET centres in the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro 
and Serbia, the VQA in Turkey), which are responsible 
for implementing the policies and related measures, 
and which play an important role in governance. The 
most recently established of these – the Agency  
for Vocational Education and Training and Adult 
Education – was set up in March 2014 in Kosovo and 
is still in the process of consolidation (its pilot stage 
expired in September 2016).

The coordination of state and non-state actors 
in defining and implementing national VET vision 
and policy is usually implemented through the 
activities of VET councils. All enlargement countries 
except Bosnia and Herzegovina have established 
national multi-stakeholder councils as statutory 
bodies intended to assist the line ministries and 
VET agencies in the delivery of their functions and 
to enhance the efficiency and quality of the policy-
making cycle. These are:

 ■ Integrated Policy Management Group, set up in 

September 2015 (Albania);

 ■ Council for Vocational and Adult Education and 

Training (Kosovo);

 ■ VET Council and Council of Adult Education 
(former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia);

 ■ National Council for Education and the Council for 

Qualifications (Montenegro);

 ■ Council for Vocational and Adult Education and 

National Education Council (Serbia);

 ■ Vocational Education Council (Turkey).

These councils have a tripartite composition (drawn 
from government institutions, employers and trade 
unions), but may also include representatives of 
other stakeholders (e.g. VET teachers or civil society 
organisations or donors, as is the case in Albania) and 
experts in the field (VET researchers and specialists), 
thus providing a core mechanism for horizontal 
coordination, consultation and structured participation 
of stakeholders in VET governance and policy making 
at national level16. Turkey is the only country that also  

16 Tripartite advisory councils are not yet established at state level in Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, but they exist in some cantons and in Brčko District.

3 3

 
 
VET providers’ financial autonomy is limited, and 
there is a lack of institutionalised financial incentives 
for public–private VET financing. In Albania, however, 
since January 2014 all major VET providers have an 
accountant and their own bank account, which was 
not the case for most institutions beforehand.

As regards the funding of VET, public spending on 
VET is not sufficient to provide high-quality VET in the 
enlargement countries. The Torino Process reports 
indicate clearly that the funds provided through 
government budgets for the public VET institutions in 
most countries cover the teachers’ salaries and most 
of the operational costs of the institutions. Other 
costs, including for renovation of the equipment for 
school workshops, consumables for the practical 
training of students, and teacher training and 
professional development, have to be borne by 
schools’ own income or to be supplemented by donor 
funding.

The key governance issue in SEE is to find options 
and modalities for more efficient engagement 
of employers and businesses in VET policy 
implementation. A firm commitment on the part of 
employers is needed if the region wants to make 
progress with WBL and VET funding. In financing 
secondary vocational education, it is important to 
strive to achieve increased school autonomy and to 
boost non-budgetary contributions to the financing of 
school activities.

has VET councils at the sub-national or regional level: 
each province has a Board of Vocational Education.

SSCs involving the active participation of employers 
have been functioning in some countries within the 
framework of NQF activities. Comparable bodies 
have been set up as part of efforts to develop NQFs 
in Turkey and Montenegro, are currently in the 
process of being established in the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia, and are planned in Albania.

The 2016−17 Torino Process reports highlight 
concerns that not all statutory councils operate 
effectively owing to the limitations in terms of the 
capacity and funding of the institutions involved. 
All SEE countries express a dissatisfaction with the 
level of commitment of businesses to VET system 
governance and state their willingness to change 
the situation. ‘The involvement of social partners 
has mainly been in the education planning phase 
and through participation in advisory and expert 
structures […], but to a much lesser extent in the 
decision-making process and financing of VET’, states 
the Montenegro Torino Process report. Turkey also 
aims to improve the involvement of enterprises in 
VET governance and has been working on a new 
vocational and technical education management 
model to ensure the participation of the business 
world in the decision-making processes for vocational 
and technical education.

As regards governance at provider level, the efforts 
made are aimed at providing increased autonomy. The 
2016−17 Torino Process country reports acknowledge 
that VET schools have little autonomy and limited 
opportunities to respond to local needs. Usually 
framework curricula are centrally developed, while 
VET providers are free to adjust a part of them (up 
to 20–30%) to their conditions and local needs. 
Advisory councils have been formed in a large 
number of secondary vocational schools in Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, and their role is indispensable when 
it comes to the content of the curricula: they advise 
the school on all training-related issues and help to 
strengthen ties between the school and the local 
labour market.

3 4

CONCLUSIONS

The 2016−17 Torino Process round has confirmed 
VET as an important area of public policy making in 
SEET. All countries in the region have adopted policy 
documents that articulate the visions for the medium- 
to long-term development of their VET systems and 
that include clear strategic objectives.

Driven by national demands, supported by EU pre-
accession funds and inspired by EU cooperation 
in VET, and by the Riga Conclusions in particular, 
all countries have continued to dedicate efforts to 
reforming their VET systems. Progress since the 
previous round of the Torino Process in 2014 and 
the main achievements can be seen in the following 
areas.

 ■ All countries have made progress with the 
development of comprehensive NQFs that 
encompass all types and levels of qualifications 
in general, vocational and higher education, 
based on learning outcomes and referring to 
the EQF levels. The NQF in Turkey has been 
fully developed and officially adopted. Most 
countries – Montenegro, the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo and Turkey – have 
successfully completed the EQF referencing 
process, thereby enabling international 
comparison of their qualifications. Albania, 
Kosovo, Serbia and the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia have made conceptual reflections 
and launched preparations to introduce VNFIL 
systems, while VNFIL procedures are being 
implemented in Turkey and Montenegro.

 ■ The issue of WBL has received considerable 
political attention over recent years in the 
enlargement countries, and these countries 
have undertaken actions to increase its scope, 
forms and quality. Turkey amended its legislation 
to increase the duration and access to publicly 
funded WBL schemes (which are also open to 
VET students) and to allow apprenticeships to be 
included in compulsory education. Albania and 
Serbia launched preparations for dual education 
with the design of a legal framework in Albania 
(new crafts law and new VET law) and the 
piloting of cooperative education programmes 
in VET schools in Serbia (supported by GIZ). In 
the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia the 
Law on Crafts was adopted in December 2015, 
providing a legal basis for apprenticeships for 

unemployed individuals. WBL became more 
accessible not only for VET students, but also 
for VET teachers, with opportunities provided 
for teacher training at businesses in Bosnia and 
Herzegovina and Montenegro and preparations 
for it under way in the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia. All candidate countries have 
prioritised WBL within the framework of the Riga 
Conclusions and have committed themselves to 
its further promotion up to 2020.

 ■ Improved monitoring mechanisms, procedures 
and tools have been put in place to strengthen 
the implementation of VET policies. A multi-
stakeholder Integrated Policy Management 
Group has been established in Albania to monitor 
the National Employment and Skills Strategy, 
including representatives from key ministries 
and agencies, the social partners and donors. 
Preparations for collecting integrated WBL 
statistics by the Turkish Statistical Institute have 
been made. Tracer systems are being introduced 
in Albania, are in preparation in Montenegro 
and are planned in the former Yugoslav Republic 
of Macedonia. These systems are aimed at 
improving the data on the transitions and 
employability of VET graduates to provide 
a feedback loop in designing and updating 
qualifications, occupational profiles, standards, 
programmes and curricula. Preparations have 
been launched to establish systems for tracking 
students within VET in the former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Bosnia and 
Herzegovina in order to detect and support 
poorly performing students and those at risk of 
leaving VET.

Alongside these positive developments, the 2016−17 
Torino Process consultations and analyses have also 
highlighted areas in which the SEE countries and, to a 
lesser extent, Turkey still face substantial challenges.

 ■ The region has seen improvements in using 
evidence and in operationalising VET visions 
and strategies, but the discrepancies between 
ideas and realities remain. The capacities 
for implementation across the region need 
strengthening through more accurate and reliable 
costing with clear allocations from the national 
and donor budgets, as well as through systematic 
monitoring and systematic VET policy evaluation.

3 5

 ■ Despite the efforts of the enlargement countries 
to improve the procedures and tools for skills 
identification and anticipation, skills mismatches 
persist in the region, and in SEE in particular. 
More concerted actions are needed to adjust 
enrolments and offers of public VET providers in 
line with the needs identified and to ensure the 
delivery of skills that are relevant and required 
by the labour markets and economies. The 
importance of this challenge was emphasised 
in the 2016 Joint Conclusions of the Economic 
and Financial Dialogue between the EU and 
the Western Balkans and Turkey, as well as 
in the 2016 Communication of the European 
Commission on EU Enlargement Policy. 
Furthermore, the skills formation systems in the 
region need to become more forward-looking 
and to address challenges that are emerging at 
EU level (European Commission, 2016), such 
as the digital transformation of the economy 
(digital skills needed for all jobs, development of 
robotics and artificial intelligence with a potential 
to transform lives and work practices, etc.) and 
demographic changes (increased life expectancy, 
ageing and shrinking workforce, etc).

 ■ The enlargement countries continue to face 

challenges in their efforts to improve the external 
social efficiency of VET by building equitable and 

accessible VET systems, and developing adult 
learning and VNFIL. The sizeable rates of early 
leavers from education and training and of NEETs 
in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey and 
Kosovo call for immediate action.

 ■ The governance of VET systems remains 

centralised, with the main governance structures 
functioning at national level, and sub-national 
governance bodies existing only in Turkey. Efforts 
to ensure more autonomy at provider level should 
continue. The efficient engagement of employers 
and businesses in VET policy implementation 
in SEE needs to be further strengthened. The 
breaking down of walls between VET schools 
and companies has begun in SEE and needs to 
continue.

Based on the analysis conducted, the 2016−17 Torino 
Process country reports have identified a set of 
priorities to be addressed in a short-term perspective. 
While the level of detail in formulating the priorities 
varies widely across the countries – from identifying 
the priority area and the objective to indicating the 
actions that need to be undertaken – their thematic 
clustering along the building blocks of the Torino 
Process analytical framework at cross-national, 
regional level provides interesting results and food for 
thought, as illustrated in the graph below.

NUMBER OF SEET PRIORITIES by Torino Process building block, 2016 (regional 
averages)

4.14

2

1.57

0.71

0.29

BB.A

BB.B

BB.C

BB.D

BB.E

Torino Process  building blocks

Notes: BB – Building block; BB.A – Overview of the VET system and its socioeconomic context; BB.B – 
Addressing economic and labour market demand; BB.C – Addressing demographic, social and inclusion 
demand; BB.D – Internal efficiency of the VET system; BB.E – Governance and policy practices. 

Source: ETF calculations based on 2016 SEET Torino Process country reports.

3 6

The graph shows that the internal efficiency of the 
VET systems is considered a priority by the highest 
number of enlargement countries (4.14 as a regional 
average). This thematic block deals with the policies 
for VET teachers and trainers, for arranging optimal 
learning and training conditions and quality assurance 
mechanisms, and for putting the learning outcomes 
principle into practice. Its prioritisation by the 
enlargement countries has to do mainly with their 
commitment to enhance WBL modalities, especially 
in the context of the Riga Conclusions, and the 
continuing work on the NQFs.

In the second and third places, with regional averages 
of 2 and 1.57, respectively, come the priorities relating 
to VET governance and to the capacity of the VET 
systems to address economic and labour market 
demands. These priorities are fully in line with two 
of the challenges highlighted above: improving 
the relevance of VET outcomes to labour market 
needs and involving businesses in a more effective 
way in VET policy making and implementation. 
Their weight is, to a great extent, logical, since the 
two issues are intrinsically linked: the more that 
employers are involved in the design and delivery of 
VET programmes, the more that the skills gained by 

VET learners are ‘the right ones’, that is, in line with 
technological and business requirements.

It is worth noting that, despite the high expectations 
placed on VET to enhance inclusion and cohesion 
in society expressed in most of VET visions, the 
enlargement countries have not foreseen many 
priority actions in that thematic area (BB.C), and it 
scores relatively low. Further efforts are needed to 
ensure that the region recognises the importance 
of ensuring broader access to and participation in 
VET and sees the potential of VET to overcome 
social marginalisation and enable citizens’ integration 
into the workforce and other spheres of social 
participation. IVET and CVET share the dual objective 
of contributing to employability and economic 
growth, and responding to the needs and aspirations 
of individual learners, as well as to broader societal 
challenges, in particular promoting social inclusion. 
Both should help young people and adults from 
the enlargement region to follow attractive and 
challenging career opportunities, and should appeal 
equally to women and men, to individuals with high 
potential and to those who, for whatever reason, face 
the risk of exclusion from the labour market.

3 7

ANNEXES

3 8

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4 1

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ACRONYMS

ALMP 

Active labour market policy

PISA 

AQF 

CPD 

CVET 

Albanian Qualifications Framework

Continuing professional development

 Continuing vocational education and 
training

 Programme for International Student 
Assessment

SEE 

South Eastern Europe

SEET 

South Eastern Europe and Turkey

SME 

Small and medium-sized enterprise

EQAVET 

 European Quality Assurance in Vocational 
Education and Training

USAID 

 United States Agency for International 
Development

European Qualifications Framework

VET 

Vocational education and training

EQF 

ERP 

ET 2020 

Economic Reform Programme

VNFIL 

 Education and Training 2020 – Strategic 
framework for European cooperation in 
education and training

 Validation of non-formal and informal 
learning

VTC 

WBL 

Vocational training centre

Work-based learning

COUNTRY CODES

AL 

BA 

ME 

MK* 

RS 

TR 

XK* 

Albania

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Montenegro

 the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia

Serbia

Turkey

Kosovo

* Two-letter code yet to be defined. The provisional code MK does not 
affect the definitive denomination of the country to be attributed after 
the conclusion of the negotiations currently taking place in the United 
Nations. XK is the provisional code used by Eurostat.

ETF 

EU 

European Training Foundation

European Union

EU-28 

European Union Member States

GDP 

GIZ 

ICT 

ISCED 

IT 

IVET 

LFS 

Gross domestic product

 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale 
Zusammenarbeit (German Technical 
Assistance Agency)

 Information and communication 
technology

 International Standard Classification of 
Education

Information technology

Initial vocational education and training

Labour force survey

MTD 

Medium-term deliverable

NEET 

NQA 

NQF 

OECD 

 Young people not in employment, 
education or training

National Qualifications Authority (Kosovo)

National qualifications framework

 Organisation for Economic Cooperation 
and Development

4 2

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
REFERENCES

2016−17 TORINO PROCESS COUNTRY REPORTS

European Training Foundation, Torino Process 2016−17: Albania and Kosovo, ETF, Turin, 2017.

European Training Foundation, National experts, Torino Process 2016−17: Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey, ETF, Turin, 2017.

ETF (European Training Foundation), Bartlett, W., Cino Pagliarello, M., Gordon, C. and Milio, S., South Eastern 
Europe, Israel and Turkey: Trends, perspectives and challenges in strengthening vocational education for social 
inclusion and social cohesion, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2014.

ETF (European Training Foundation), Bardak, U., Rubal Maseda, M. and Rosso, F., Young people not in 
employment, education or training (NEET): An overview in ETF partner countries, ETF, Turin, 2015. Last 
accessed March 2016 at: www.etf.europa.eu/web.nsf/pages/NEET_ETF_partner_countries 

ETF (European Training Foundation), Continuing professional development for vocational teachers: South 
Eastern Europe, ETF, Turin, 2016a. Last accessed March 2016 at: www.etf.europa.eu/web.nsf/pages/CPD_
South_Eastern_Europe 

ETF (European Training Foundation), Skills needs identification and skills matching in South Eastern Europe, 
ETF, Turin, 2016b. Last accessed March 2016 at: www.etf.europa.eu/web.nsf/pages/Skills_needs_identification_
and_skills_matching_SEE  

ETF (European Training Foundation), Torino Process regional overview: South Eastern Europe and Turkey, ETF, 
Turin, 2017. Last accessed 22 September 2017 at: www.etf.europa.eu/web.nsf/pages/TRP_SEET_overview 

European Commission, Work-based learning in Europe: Practices and policy pointers, June 2013. Last 
accessed March 2017 at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/policy/vocational-
policy/doc/alliance/work-based-learning-in-europe_en.pdf

European Commission, A New Skills Agenda for Europe: Working together to strengthen human capital, 
employability and competitiveness, COM(2016) 381 final, Brussels, 2016.

European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, Structural indicators for monitoring education and training systems 
in Europe – 2016: Eurydice background report to the Education and Training Monitor 2016, Eurydice report, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2016.

European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, Support Mechanisms for evidence-based policy-making in education, 
Eurydice report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2017.

European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Cedefop, Tackling early leaving from education and training in Europe: 
Strategies, policies and measures, Eurydice and Cedefop report, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg, 2014.

GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit), Gender analysis of the GIZ Human Resource 
Development Programme and the VET sector in Albania, GIZ, Tirana, 2011.

ILO (International Labour Organisation), Elder, S., Barcucci, V., Gurbuzer, Y., Perardel, Y. and Principi, M., Labour 
market transitions of young women and men in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, International Labour Office, 
Youth Employment Programme, Employment Policy Department, ILO, Geneva, 2015.

ILO (International Labour Organisation), Djuric, D., Labour market transitions of young women and men in 
Montenegro, International Labour Office, Youth Employment Programme, Employment Policy Department, 
ILO, Geneva, 2016a.

ILO (International Labour Organisation), Marjanovic,D., Labour market transitions of young women and men 
in the Republic of Serbia, International Labour Office, Youth Employment Programme, Employment Policy 
Department, ILO, Geneva, 2016b.

4 3

OECD/EU/EBRD/ETF/SEECEL, SME Policy Index: Western Balkans and Turkey 2016: Assessing the 
implementation of the Small Business Act for Europe, SME Policy Index, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2016.

Preston, J. and Green, A., Cedefop, ‘The role of vocational education and training in enhancing social inclusion 
and cohesion’, in Cedefop, Modernising vocational education and training, fourth report on vocational training 
research in Europe, background report, volume 1 (Cedefop Reference series: 69), Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg, 2008.

RCC (Regional Cooperation Council), South East Europe 2020: 2016 annual report on implementation, 2016a. 
Last accessed March 2017 at: www.rcc.int/pages/119/annual-report-on-implementation-of-the-see-2020-
strategy

RCC (Regional Cooperation Council), Balkan Barometer 2016: Business Opinion Survey, 2016b. Last accessed 
March 2017 at: www.rcc.int/seeds/files/RCC_BalkanBarometer_BusinessOpinion_2016.pdf

WEF (World Economic Forum), The global competitiveness report 2016–17, Geneva, 2016.

World Bank, South East Europe regular economic report No 10: Resilient growth amid rising risks, World Bank, 
Fall 2016.

4 4

T
A
-
0
6
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1
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1
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N

-

The ETF is an EU agency that helps transition  
and developing countries to harness the potential  
of their human capital through the reform of 
education, training and labour market systems  
in the context of the EU’s external relations policy.

www.etf.europa.eu
www.twitter.com/etfeuropa
www.youtube.com/user/etfeuropa 
www.facebook.com/etfeuropa

www.torinoprocess.eu

#ETFTRP

4 6