Figures for the future : sustainable development in our everyday life : a guide for citizens : 2016 edition.
Date: 2017-01-09
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, ecology, regional statistics, sustainable development, user guide

Figures for the future

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN OUR 
EVERYDAY LIFE — A GUIDE FOR CITIZENS

2016 edition

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Figures for the future

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN OUR  
EVERYDAY LIFE — A GUIDE FOR CITIZENS

2016 edition

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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2016

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Foreword

Foreword of Eurostat’s  
Director-General

The aim of sustainable development is to balance 
economic, environmental and social needs and 
thereby improve the quality of life and well-being 
on Earth for present and future generations. 
So, sustainable development is not an abstract 
concept — it affects our everyday lives and 
defines the world we hand on to our children and 
grandchildren. In September 2015, the Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by 
world leaders at the United Nations Sustainable 
Development summit. The SDGs mark an important milestone in the progress towards 
sustainable development. 

Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union, is committed to providing high-
quality statistics on Europe not only for professionals, but for all European citizens. 
In 2012, Eurostat published a citizen’s guide to sustainable development indicators 
by presenting statistical information through the eyes of Anne, a fictional 17-year-
old student. In this first Figures for the Future publication, Anne was learning about 
sustainability by linking statistics to her everyday life. I believe that this new approach 
of bringing to life facts, figures and trends of sustainable development was very 
successful. In this new edition of Figures for the Future, Anne — now 21 years old — is 
therefore again in the leading role.

Figures for the Future combines statistical data with Anne’s narrative about her hopes 
and dreams and the people she cares about. Writing a blog about sustainable 
development as part of her Young Women in Journalism scholarship, Anne refers to 
events in her and her friends’ everyday life and links them to the SDGs. She analyses 
indicators, provided by Eurostat, to understand what the SDGs mean in the context of 
the European Union. 

I wish you an enjoyable reading experience! And may you also discover that statistics 
are a helpful tool that can be used to make important decisions about our future.

////////

Walter Radermacher 
Director-General, Eurostat

Figures for the future  

3

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

Chief editor
Mariana Kotzeva

Executive editor
Mariana Popova (Eurostat, Unit E2 — Environmental statistics and accounts; sustainable 
development)

Editors
Markus Hametner, Rosanne Adelman, Renate Ruech, Anna Dimitrova, Asya Dimitrova 
(WU Vienna)

Co-editors
Nicola Massarelli, Anton Steurer (Eurostat, Unit E2 — Environmental statistics and 
accounts; sustainable development), Carolyn Avery (ENDS, Haymarket Media Group Ltd)

Production:
Production: Carolyn Avery (co-ordinator) and David Young (ENDS, Haymarket Media 
Group Ltd)

Infographics: Renate Ruech, Anna Dimitrova, Markus Hametner (WU Vienna)

Cover artwork and illustrations: Agtel

Comments provided by
Paolo Bolsi, Fanny Dabertrand, Fabienne Lefebvre, Dorota Panczyk-Piquera,  Zoltan 
Rakonczay

Dissemination
Catherine Coyette, Annika Johansson, Pascal Wolff (Eurostat, Unit B4 — Digital 
dissemination)

Data coverage and direct links to Eurostat’s database:
The data presented in this publication were extracted in late October 2016. 

An online data code available under each table/figure can be used to directly access to 
the most recent data on Eurostat’s website, at: 

http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database

For more information please consult
Eurostat 
Bâtiment Joseph Bech 
5, rue Alphonse Weicker  
2721 Luxembourg  
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat 
E-mail: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu

Disclaimer
All characters and their statements appearing in the narrative of this publication are purely 
fictional and do not constitute an official policy position of the European Commission.

4

 Figures for the future

 
Contents

Foreword 

Acknowledgements 

1. Anne revisits sustainable development: Welcome to my blog! 

2. Fewer jobs but higher education for the young? 

3. Poverty, its three dimensions and its impact on health 

4. Inequalities between and within countries 

5. More sustainable use of energy? 

6. How well do we treat nature? 

7. How efficiently do we use our natural resources? 

8. Good governance and security in Europe? 

9. Gender gaps in income, employment and decision-making 

10. Where do Europe’s jobs come from? 

11. A new agreement on global climate change 

12. Quenching our thirst: A water crisis? 

13. Better and longer lives in the EU? 

14. Anne revisits sustainable development: Where do we go from here? 

Abbreviations and acronyms 

Contents

3

4

7

11

15

21

25

29

35

39

43

47

51

55

59

63

67

Figures for the future  

5

Anne revisits 
sustainable 
development: 
Welcome to 
my blog!

1

‘We are pleased to inform you that your application for the Young Women in Journalism scholarship 
has been successful...’

Anne is thrilled as she reads the long-awaited letter from the awards committee to her friend 
and former neighbour Marta. Now she can continue with the research she started in 2012 
when she gave a presentation on sustainable development statistics and how they relate 
to peoples’ everyday lives. Marta, a journalist specialising in environmental issues, had given 
Anne lots of help. 

‘Tell me more about this scholarship,’ suggests Marta. 

‘It’s for investigating current issues and their impact on young people in Europe,’ Anne 
explains. ‘And you can guess what I want to investigate. I imagine a lot has changed 
since 2012.’ 

‘Sustainable development has become even more important,’ says Marta. ‘You can get 
up to speed with a look at Agenda 2030, which the UN adopted in 2015. This is based 
on 17 Sustainable Development Goals or SDGs. The SDGs follow up on the Millennium 

Figures for the Future  

7

1 Anne revisits sustainable development: Welcome to my blog!

Development Goals, which were the UN development agenda from 2000 to 2015. One big 
difference is that the SDGs need to be implemented by developed as well as developing 
countries. The central ethos now is “leave no one behind” ’.

‘Leave no one behind,’ Anne repeats. ‘After my research four years ago, I understood that 
sustainable development means finding a balance between our need for well-being and 
good living standards, and the need to preserve natural resources. But when you talk about 
conservation and cutting back emissions, you can’t tell poor countries simply to do without. 
Mark reminds me about that whenever I get self-righteous.’

‘Ha! Sounds like that boyfriend of yours is a good influence. So how is Mark?’

Marta takes on a satisfied air whenever she mentions Mark. She takes full credit for 
getting them together four years ago when they met at the party after Anne’s triumphant 
presentation. 

‘He’s fine. He says hello.’

‘So when you look back, what did you get out of your presentation besides a boyfriend?’ 
Marta teases. 

‘I learned how to “tell a story with statistics”,’ as you put it, and explain sustainable 
development with incidents from everyday life. Arguing with my dad, breathing in the 
emissions in a traffic jam, visiting my grandpa at work and walking through a devastated 
forest. And thinking about my mum.’ 

Marta nods. ‘And your strength has been your ability to keep a personal focus. Just carry on... 
always try to enrich the data with additional context’.

Anne beams at the compliment though she’s trying not be obvious about it. She’s no longer a 
shy teenager, but words of praise from her former mentor always go down well.

‘Thanks,’ she says at last. ‘So how do we get personal with the SDGs? Maybe I need a different 
format for that. Something more open-ended... a framework that encourages ongoing 
discussion, with space for mixing personal reflection with hard data.’

Marta nods. ‘Sounds like you’re talking about a blog.’

‘Yeah!’ Anne exclaims. ‘A blog is always a work in progress — and sustainable development 
certainly is that. I like it. Once again you’ve given me the winning idea.’

‘It’s not all down to me,’ Marta laughs. She gets up and pushes in her chair. ‘I have to go now, 
but I’ll see you soon. Perhaps we should come here again. They have good coffee.’

‘Yes, it’s a new place, run by a cooperative. It’s the first time I’ve been here.’

After her friend leaves, Anne orders another cup of Fair Trade Chiapas coffee, gets out her 
laptop and begins to write...

8

  Figures for the FutureAnne revisits sustainable development: Welcome to my blog!

1

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | September 29
Hello everybody — this is the first entry in my new blog. My name is Anne and I’m 21. I’m 
studying journalism and political science, with a strong interest in social issues. I share a flat 
with my boyfriend Mark, who studies economics, and another student called Zoe.

Over the next few weeks I’ll be examining statistics on sustainable development and I’ll try to 
make sense of them in terms of people’s lives here in Europe. I’ll be writing about myself and 
my friends and other people I come into contact with.

The statistics I’m going to present will focus on how the EU as a whole — the EU-28 — has 
developed over the past 10 years. I’ll therefore refer to indicators published by Eurostat, such 
as those used to monitor the Europe 2020 strategy (1) or sustainable development (2). I’ll focus 
my analysis on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that were adopted by the United 
Nations in September 2015 (3), but from a European perspective. I’ll not just throw single 
numbers at you but supplement the indicators with additional statistical information, to put 
the data into context and strengthen its explanatory power. 

As you may realise, I’m not new to sustainable development statistics. I first encountered the 
world of statistics when I made a presentation just before the Rio+20 environmental summit 
in 2012 (4). And the first lesson I learned was that statistics represent the lives, struggles and 
dreams of real people... 

(1)  See http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/europe-2020-indicators/europe-2020-strategy/headline-indicators-scoreboard 
(2)  See http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/sdi/indicators 
(3)  United Nations (2015), Transforming our World: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development, A/RES/70/1, 25 September 2015. 
(4)  Eurostat (2012), Figures for the future — 20 years of sustainable development in Europe? A guide for citizens, Luxembourg, 

Publications Office of the European Union.

9

Figures for the Future  2 Fewer jobs but 

higher education 
for the young?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | October 3

My friend Sophia, who comes from Greece, says the employment situation for young people 
there is very tough. But what are her chances of finding better opportunities somewhere 
else in the EU? Her comments have prompted me to investigate work, unemployment and 
education throughout the EU. These issues are covered in SDG 4 ‘Quality education’ and 
SDG 8 ‘Decent work and economic growth’. 

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education 
and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

Goal 4 focuses on the acquisition of foundational and higher-
order skills; greater and more equitable access to technical 
and vocational education and training and higher education; 
training throughout life; and the knowledge, skills and values 
needed to function well and contribute to society.

I invited my friends Judith and Cat over to talk about this one afternoon. I know Judith from 
the university science fiction society. She graduated last year with an arts and library science 
degree, but with cuts to library services she’s still unemployed. Cat had been my teacher at 
school and now teaches in her old inner city neighbourhood.

Figures for the Future  

11

2 Fewer jobs but higher education for the young?

Mark and Zoe were both out, so I enjoyed a bit of solitude as I tidied up the flat. When my 
guests arrived I set my phone to record, just like a real journalist. 

I started by asking Judith about her new course, a design and digital skills programme 
available at low cost for unemployed people.

‘It’s great. I enjoy the classes and soon I’ll start getting my portfolio together.’

This sounded like good news, but Judith seemed worried. Why?

‘The funding for the programme isn’t secure. And you know... sometimes being unemployed 
turns out to be a full-time job — but without the pay. It involves a lot of hassle, which could 
get in the way of finishing the course that’s most likely to get me a job.’  

Cat raised her eyebrows — maybe things were different when she was our age. But anyone 
pursuing their education eventually gains her sympathy. She told us that many kids at her 
school don’t come to class regularly. Some drop out early and most don’t go on to higher 
education. 

Here in the EU, upper secondary education is seen as the minimum educational attainment 
level. People between 18 and 24 with at most lower secondary education and no ongoing 
further education or training are ‘early leavers’. Statistics show that kids who leave the 
education and the training system early are at higher risk of unemployment, poverty and 
general social exclusion (1). I’ve prepared a graph on Employment & Education to illustrate this.

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable 
economic growth, full and productive 
employment and decent work for all

Continued, inclusive and sustainable economic growth is 
a prerequisite for global prosperity. Goal 8 aims to provide 
opportunities for full and productive employment and 
decent work for all while eradicating forced labour, human 
trafficking and child labour.

In the EU the overall rate of early leavers from education and training fell from 15.7 % in 2005 
to 11.0 % in 2015. This is good news; the bad news is that employment prospects for early 
leavers have worsened. Since 2005 the proportion of early leavers that are not employed 
(including those who want to work and those who do not want to work) rose from 46 % 
to 58 %. 

However, youth unemployment is not limited to early leavers. The economic crisis has 
severely affected the EU’s labour market for people aged 15 to 24. In 2015 they faced an 
unemployment rate of 20.3 %, twice the overall unemployment rate of 9.4 %, which refers 
to 15 to 74 year olds. People unemployed for one year or more are considered long-term 
unemployed — like Judith. Since 2008 the long-term unemployment rate has risen by nearly 
2 percentage points, which might not sound so dramatic. However, the fact that long-term 
unemployment accounts for almost half of all unemployed people is alarming.

(1)  European Commission (2015), Education and Training Monitor 2015.

12

  Figures for the FutureFewer jobs but higher education for the young?

2

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdec410, tsdec430, tsdsc330, lfsa_urgaed, tsdsc410, tsdsc480 and tsdsc440)

13

Figures for the Future  2 Fewer jobs but higher education for the young?

This made me think about how hard it is to find a good job now, and about the prospects 
for my generation and those to come. SDG 8 ‘Decent work and economic growth’ focuses 
on promoting sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive 
employment and decent work for all. And what does ‘decent’ mean? SDG 8 targets include 
equal pay for work of equal value, an end to forced labour, protection of labour rights and 
promotion of safe and secure working environments for all workers — including migrant 
workers and those in precarious employment. These are issues that I will write about in a later 
blog post.

An important element to providing employment for all is education, so it’s no surprise that 
this is a specific target of SDG 8: ‘By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in 
employment, education or training’. And that leads us directly to SDG 4 ‘Quality education’ — 
which aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning 
opportunities for all. But how are we doing on employment and education in the EU?

Before the start of the economic crisis in 2008 employment in the EU had been rising steadily 
and peaked in 2008 at 70.3 %. However, in 2009 the crisis hit the European labour market. 
Between 2008 and 2013 the employment rate dropped by 1.9 percentage points. Fortunately, 
employment has been rising again since 2014 and in 2015 the EU came close to the pre-crisis 
employment level at 70.1 %. 

The higher someone’s education level, the more likely they are to have a job. In 2015 more 
than 80 % of people with tertiary (such as university level) education and 71 % of those with 
at least upper secondary but not tertiary level had a job. In contrast, only 53 % of people with 
lower secondary education or below were employed. 

Let’s take a closer look at the trends for tertiary education and lifelong learning. For tertiary 
level, the situation looks promising. The share of people between 30 and 34 who’ve 
completed a tertiary education has been growing steadily over the past decade, from 28.1 % 
in 2005 to 38.7 % in 2015. 

But nowadays it’s not enough to complete an education, as Judith has discovered. We need 
to keep our knowledge up to date too. For lifelong learning we see that the share of 25 to 64 
year olds participating in education or training (in the last four weeks before the survey) has 
remained relatively stable at about 10 % over the past ten years. 

It’s striking that education seems to draw greater numbers of women. Fewer girls than boys 
drop out of education and training early; more women than men complete tertiary education 
and participate in lifelong learning.

I’d conclude that the employment situation in the EU is not rosy. But I’m hopeful that better 
education — with more young people staying in education and gaining higher degrees — 
will help improve this situation. 

14

  Figures for the Future3 Poverty, its three 

dimensions and its 
impact on health

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | October 10

I’ll tell you about my family now. My father is a banker. We used to argue a lot about social 
and economic issues as well as the usual teenage concerns. But he’s become more aware of 
environmental issues and even took on a new role as green investment officer at his bank. 
In any case, he’s always been a caring father. I’ve never had to go hungry or face material 
obstacles. However, learning about statistics has helped me expand my perspective beyond 
my own privileged circumstances. And volunteering in a soup kitchen also allows me to 
directly help those in need. 

Towards the end of our discussion on education and employment (covered in my last post), 
the soup kitchen rang to say that one of the volunteers was ill. So Cat stepped in to help. I was 
pleased to have her around a little longer. 

During the walk to the soup kitchen, I explained how volunteering shifts in the kitchen were 
organised. I admit that I enjoyed the experience of instructing my former teacher! 

As we began serving, I asked people about their day. We always offer friendly words and a 
warm environment as well as healthy meals, but sometimes it seems like just a drop in the 
bucket. I said this to Cat when we took a break. 

Cat said poor families in her area increasingly used foodbanks and soup kitchens. As a teacher 
she’s seen how food poverty affects life chances. Many pupils have difficulty concentrating 
in school because they’re hungry, so she started a campaign to push for school breakfast 
schemes throughout the city. ‘Perhaps that ‘drop in the bucket’ can turn into a wellspring 
when people work together for change,’ she suggested. 

Figures for the Future  

15

3 Poverty, its three dimensions and its impact on health

I tried to keep that in mind as I served the remaining dinners and looked around the room. 
There’s always a lot of coughing and sneezing. Many of the older people seem to suffer from 
arthritis, which must be worsened by cold and damp conditions. 

So how do the SDGs confront such challenges? The ambitious aim of SDG 1 ‘No poverty’ is 
nothing less than ending all forms of poverty and SDG 3 ‘Good health and well-being’ aims 
to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for everyone at all ages. 

End poverty in all its forms everywhere

Goal 1 calls for an end to poverty in all its manifestations, 
including extreme poverty, over the next 15 years. All people 
everywhere, including the poorest and most vulnerable, 
should enjoy a basic standard of living and social protection 
benefits.

What does poverty mean in a European context? I’ve illustrated my thoughts in an infographic 
on Poverty & Health. It’s not just a lack of money, it also means less access to essential 
resources. That’s why we look at people who are at risk of poverty or social exclusion (1). The 
trend of this indicator is similar to those in my previous entry on employment and education. 
Until the economic crisis, the numbers of people at risk fell steadily. However, from 2009 the 
count rose again and peaked in 2012, since then the number has been decreasing again. In 
2015, 118.8 million people — 23.7 % of the EU population — were at risk of poverty or social 
exclusion, which is only 0.9 % higher than in 2010.

This indicator combines three dimensions of poverty: monetary poverty, material deprivation 
and low work intensity. Monetary poverty means that a person’s income after social transfers 
(benefits provided by national or local governments) is less than 60 % of their country’s 
median disposable income. So this is a relative measure based on comparing individual 
income in relation to middle-income earners in each country. In 2015, 86.7 million people in 
the EU were affected by monetary poverty (this equals 17.3 % of the population), also called 
‘risk of poverty after social transfers’.  

Severe material deprivation, in contrast to monetary poverty, is an absolute measure. People 
are considered severely materially deprived when they cannot afford at least four of nine 
defined items (2). These include balanced meals, a telephone or being able keep a home 
adequately warm. In the EU 40.3 million people (8.1 % of population) were affected by this 
dimension of poverty in 2015.

The third dimension concerns how much work people have done during a year compared 
with how much they could have worked. If the adult members of a household worked less 

(1)  See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jykeoHu1iRA
(2)  Full list of items: 1) (arrears on) mortgage or rent payments, utility bills, hire purchase instalments or other loan payments; 
2) one week’s annual holiday away from home; 3) a meal with meat, chicken, fish (or vegetarian equivalent) every second 
day; 4) unexpected financial expenses; 5) a telephone (including mobile phone); 6) a colour TV; 7) a washing machine;  
8) a car and 9) heating to keep the home adequately warm. 

16

  Figures for the Future 
 
Poverty, its three dimensions and its impact on health

3

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdsc100, tsdsc270, tsdsc310, tsdsc280, ilc_pees01, ilc_peps02, ilc_peps03, ilc_peps04, ilc_
peps06, ilc_peps60, hlth_silc_10, tsdph270 and ilc_pw02)

17

Figures for the Future  3 Poverty, its three dimensions and its impact on health

than 20 % of their working capacities during the past year, all members of this household are 
regarded as living in a household with very low work intensity. In 2015, this has been the case 
for 39.3 million people or 10.5 % of the population younger than 60 in the EU. 

People are counted only once for the ‘risk of poverty or social exclusion’ headline indicator, 
even if they are affected by more than one poverty dimension. In 2015, more than 40 % 
of people affected by monetary poverty also faced material deprivation and/or low work 
intensity. The most indigent people are affected by all three dimensions of poverty or social 
exclusion at the same time. In the EU, 9.2 million were affected by all three dimensions at 
once in 2015.

As I mentioned, poverty is not only about money. My sociology professor says it’s simplistic 
— even crude — to see the experience of poverty as only monetary. Being at risk of poverty 
and social exclusion does not only affect a person’s economic situation. It may also affect   
self-esteem, relationships with other people and health. 

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for  
all at all ages

Goal 3 aims to ensure health and well-being for all at all ages 
by improving reproductive, maternal and child health; ending 
the epidemics of major communicable diseases; reducing non-
communicable and environmental diseases; achieving universal 
health coverage; and ensuring access to safe, affordable and 
effective medicines and vaccines for all.

People in difficult economic circumstances feel in poorer health and have less access to health 
services. When the highest income quintile (20 % of the population with the highest income) 
is compared to the lowest income quintile, we find for 2014 that the lowest income quintile 
was three times likelier to perceive their state of health as ‘bad’ or ‘very bad’ than the highest 
income quintile. In addition, the likelihood of reporting unmet needs for medical care due to 
monetary reasons was 10 times higher for the lowest income quintile than for the highest. 
People with low income are also more likely to have a worse overall life satisfaction. In 2013 
the lowest income quintile rated their life satisfaction as 18 % worse than those in the highest 
income quintile. This difference was most evident in Bulgaria, where the poorest were 44 % 
less satisfied with life compared to the richest. 

Who’s most at risk? It’s no surprise that unemployed people are at risk of poverty or social 
exclusion. In my post about employment and education, I showed that the unemployment 
rate for 15 to 24 year old people is twice as high as the average unemployment rate and early 
leavers face poor job prospects. Those between 18 and 24 are at the highest risk of poverty or 
social exclusion among all age groups. Also at high risk are people with low educational levels. 
It’s worrying that factors leading to poverty or social exclusion (education level, ability to make 

18

  Figures for the FuturePoverty, its three dimensions and its impact on health

3

ends meet and joblessness) continue from one generation to the next (3). And migrants from 
non-EU countries face on average nearly twice as high a risk of poverty or social exclusion 
(40.3 % in 2015) than people born in their country of residence (21.7 % in 2015). For people 
moving to another country within the EU the average risk is slightly higher (25.1 % in 2015).

To sum up, there is a strong link between health and poverty. Therefore, if poverty can be 
reduced the health situation of those affected may improve as well. 

(3)  Eurostat (2016), Intergenerational transmission of disadvantage statistics.

19

Figures for the Future   Inequalities 

between and within 
countries

Sustainable development: 
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | October 17
I mentioned my Greek friend Sophia in an earlier blog post. Well, she invited me and Mark for 
dinner at her place. She also said that Judith would also be dropping by with a ‘surprise guest’, 
which intrigued me.

We had a 40-minute walk from the nearest train station to get there. It was a nice autumn 
evening, so we were happy to enjoy a stroll. As we went from my ‘edgy’ but comfortable part 
of town to Sophia’s neighbourhood the contrast struck me. Buildings were in bad repair, there 
was rubbish on the street and little in the way of shops or amenities. I recognised the reek of 
several kinds of pollution.

I was talking about this with Mark 
when a pale and tired-looking 
woman approached us. ‘Hi there, 
how you doing?’ She reached out to 
clasp my hand but I pulled away, not 
comfortable with a stranger being so 
familiar. 

‘Sorry, I don’t think we’ve met,’ I said.

‘Oh yes we have! You just don’t want 
to know me unless I’m holding my 
plate out.’ She stalked off , clearly 
off ended. Then I realised that she 
came regularly to the soup kitchen.

Figures for the Future  

21

4 Inequalities between and within countries

‘Maybe you should look up more when you’re serving out the dinners,’ Mark suggested.

I was shaken by this encounter, but it inspired me to think more about inequalities in our 
society. SDG 10 ‘Reduced inequalities’ is about lessening inequality within and among 
countries. It is linked with SDG 11 ‘Sustainable cities and communities’, which strives to 
make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

Reduce inequality within and among countries

Goal 10 calls for reducing inequalities in income, as well as 
those based on sex, age, disability, race, class, ethnicity, 
religion and opportunity—both within and among countries. 
It also aims to ensure safe, orderly and regular migration and 
addresses issues related to representation of developing 
countries in global decision-making and development 
assistance.

It may be no surprise that income is not distributed evenly within the EU. In fact, the richest 
20 % of the population earn about five times more than the poorest 20 %. In 2015 the richest 
quintile earned 38.8 % of the total income in the EU, while the poorest only earned 7.7 %. This 
situation hasn’t changed much over the past six years.

There are other forms of inequality besides those related to individual income, such as 
inequalities between countries. One way to measure these is to look at the gross domestic 
product (GDP), which calculates the amount of goods and services produced by an economy. 
It is also often used as a marker for economic health. However, comparisons based on GDP per 
capita are tricky due to different currencies and pricing levels between countries. PPS, which 
stands for ‘purchasing power standards’, is an artificial currency unit adjusted by currency and 
pricing level differences. In theory, one PPS can buy the same amount of goods and services 
in each country. In 2015 the EU-28 average of GDP per capita was 28 800 PPS.

Make cities and human settlements inclusive,  
safe, resilient and sustainable

Goal 11 aims to renew and plan cities and other human 
settlements in a way that fosters community cohesion 
and personal security while stimulating innovation and 
employment.

There’s great variation among different EU Member States in how GDP per capita is 
distributed. In 2015 Luxembourg had by far the highest GDP per capita among Member 
States, with 76 400 PPS, which was 2.7 times above the EU average. This is partly because 
many cross-border workers contribute to Luxembourg’s GDP but are not part of its resident 
population. Bulgaria had the lowest GDP per capita of 13 600 PPS, which is less than half of the 
EU average.

As I’ve said, inequalities do not only exist between Member States but also within them. In 
2014 the biggest difference between regions existed in the United Kingdom. ‘West Wales and 

22

  Figures for the FutureInequalities between and within countries

4

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdsc260, ilc_di01, nama_10r_2gdp, nama_10_pc, ilc_hcmp06 and hlth_silc_21)

23

Figures for the Future  4 Inequalities between and within countries

the Valleys’ had the lowest GDP per capita of 18 900 PPS, while the region with the highest 
GDP per capita, ‘Inner London — West’, had nearly eight times more with an amount of 
148 000 PPS. The country with the lowest difference between its regions was Finland, where 
the regions with the highest and the lowest GDP are just 1.6 times apart. For my analyses I 
excluded countries with just one or two regions because the ratio there would not give a 
meaningful indication about inequalities in these countries.

Access to public transport is another facet of inequality among EU Member States. We 
experienced this directly when we made our journey to Sophia’s neighbourhood. When 
we checked the map for metro or bus connections we found that we couldn’t go directly 
to her place by public transport without that 40-minute walk. A viable public transport 
system allows people to commute and travel. Therefore, it can expand labour markets, 
offer more opportunities and improve our quality of life. It is a crucial part of the solution to 
environmental challenges faced by cities. 

On average, 79.6 % of the EU population reported ‘low’ or ‘very low’ levels of difficulty in accessing 
public transport, and only 5.7 % reported ‘very high’ in 2012. Finland and Ireland had the highest 
shares of population reporting very high difficulty levels, at 14.8 % and 11.9 %, respectively. In 
contrast the countries with the lowest share of people reporting very high difficulty in accessing 
public transport were Spain at 2.2 % and Hungary as well as Slovakia at 2.3 %. 

It’s not surprising that in nearly all countries, people living in rural areas are more likely to report 
that they experience ‘very high’ difficulty in accessing public transport than those living in 
cities or towns. Therefore, having access to public transport is not so much about living in the 
‘right’ country but more about living in cities or in the countryside. At EU level only 2.3 % of the 
population living in cities reported a ‘very high’ level of difficulty in accessing public transport. 
People residing in towns and suburbs reported 5.6 %, while those based in rural areas faced the 
most obstacles as 11.9 % reported very high difficulties.

In my last post about poverty and health I learned that poor people are ten times more 
likely to have unmet needs for medical care due to monetary reasons than rich people. I also 
wondered if the variation in unmet medical needs depends on the degree of urbanisation. 
Looking at the data, it turned out that differences are quite small: in 2014, 93.3 % of people 
living in cities reported no unmet medical needs. In towns and suburbs the share was slightly 
higher with 93.5 %, while it was somewhat lower for people living in rural areas, with 92.7 %. 
Aside from the cost aspect, people in rural areas reported more often that they would have to 
travel too far for medical treatment or that they would hope to recover without treatment.

After writing this entry, I realise that inequalities can be found just around the corner as well as 
‘over there’. They are not only about money and economy but touch on many other facets of 
life. Who knows — it’s possible that these ‘facets’ could be a cause of income and economic 
inequalities and not only their result. 

So I’ll repeat what my sociology professor said: it is simplistic to focus only on income issues. 
The world is far more complicated...

24

  Figures for the Future5 More sustainable 

use of energy?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | October 23
In my last entry Mark and I were on our way to Sophia’s place, if you recall. So we eventually 
arrived and we were relaxing around the table, looking forward to some tasty Greek food. 
Then the doorbell rang and in came Judith with her mystery guest. It was Maria, a Brazilian 
woman who had challenged and ultimately inspired me during my presentation on 
sustainable development indicators back in 2012. 

What a surprise! Maria said she was in town to promote her first novel at an international 
science fiction convention, which is where she met Judith. Maria added that she also had a 
‘day job’ at a community-based solar energy project in the favelas of Rio, since few people 
can live entirely from writing. And soon we were all chatting over dinner and a bottle of 
Brazilian wine. 

Suddenly the lights went off and the music stopped. In the tense silence that followed, Sophia 
checked the fuse box but found everything in order. She returned with some candles and 
explained they were part of her ‘apocalypse survival kit’, since she experienced a power cut in 
2014 when electricity workers went on strike.

I tend to think that energy is available all time, and avoid thinking about what would happen 
if we faced a serious energy shortage. That’s why SDG 7 ‘Affordable and clean energy’ is 
so relevant. It’s not only concerned with ensuring access to affordable and reliable energy 
for all but also about using renewable and clean energy sources. So we were fascinated by 
Maria’s account of how her organisation worked to bring renewable energy to the poorest 
neighbourhoods. She also hoped to visit community-based energy projects in Europe and 
asked if we had any recommendations. 

Figures for the Future  

25

5 More sustainable use of energy?

In contrast to fossil energy sources that needed millions of years to accumulate but are being 
used up in only a few generations, renewable energy sources tap into constant energy flows 
such as sunlight or the flow of air or water. Other renewable energy sources, such as biomass, 
can be replenished within a reasonable timeframe. Many of these emit little or no greenhouse 
gases during production or use, such as solar, wind or hydro (1). However, the picture is not 
that straightforward, especially with bioenergy. Burning of biomass such as wood, straw or 
other plant material emits as much or more greenhouse gas as fossil fuels, so its benefits 
cannot be taken for granted (2).

Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable 
and modern energy for all

Goal 7 seeks to promote broader energy access and increased 
use of renewable energy, including through enhanced 
international cooperation and expanded infrastructure and 
technology for clean energy.

The EU has progressed in this area, with the share of renewable energy in gross final energy 
consumption rising from 9 % in 2005 to 16 % in 2014. What’s more, all Member States 
increased their renewable energy share during that period. From the 14 countries that were 
below the EU-28 average in 2014, 11 have more than doubled their share since 2005. Aside 
from promoting and developing renewable energy sources, encouraging economical use of 
energy is another way to make affordable and reliable energy accessible for all. 

First, we have to be aware that energy consumption is not fixed. Since 2005 total consumption 
has been falling. Energy use is often measured in million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe). One 
tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is equivalent to about 42 GJ (gigajoules), and an average EU 
citizen uses little more than 3 toe of energy a year. In the EU gross inland energy consumption 
fell from 1 831 Mtoe in 2005 to 1 606 Mtoe in 2014, this equals a drop of 12 %. At first glance 
this looks like a promising sign that energy is being used more efficiently in the EU. But aside 
from energy efficiency policies, this drop can also be attributed to reduced economic output 
and mild winters that resulted in less energy needed for heating (3). 

So it’s useful to look into the relationship between energy consumption and economic 
output. This is called energy productivity and measures the value of economic output 
produced per unit of energy used. The energy productivity of the EU Member States rose 
from EUR 6.7 per kilogram (kg) of oil equivalent in 2005 to EUR 8.2 per kg of oil equivalent in 

(1)  It still takes some fossil energy to build the capacities for renewable energy use and maintain their operations (for example, 

to produce the steel to build the windmill), but that is relatively minor compared to the energy produced.

(2)  When biomass comes from the right source, its emissions in use are compensated by gains elsewhere. For example, if the 
biomass is a waste or residue that would be burnt anyway just to get rid of it, using it for energy avoids the emissions from 
disposal, making the overall impact very little or even less than zero (i.e. more emissions are avoided than caused by using 
the biomass).   

(3)  European Environment Agency (2015), Trends and Projections in Europe 2015 — Tracking progress towards Europe’s climate and 

energy targets.

26

  Figures for the FutureMore sustainable use of energy?

5

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: t2020_31, tsdcc320, t2020_rd310, tsdpc320 and ilc_mdes01)

27

Figures for the Future  5 More sustainable use of energy?

2014, which equals a gain of 22 %. This improvement can also be interpreted as meaning that 
less energy is needed to produce one unit of economic output, which suggests that energy is 
now being used more efficiently in the EU.

However, it’s not enough to look into renewables, energy consumption and energy 
productivity. A critical question is whether all people have sufficient access to energy. The 
(self-reported) inability to keep one’s home adequately warm can be seen as an indicator of 
‘fuel poverty’, which means lack of access to fuel supply due to factors such as low household 
income, high energy costs and low energy efficiency. In 2015, 9.4 % of the EU population was 
affected by fuel poverty. 

When I investigated poverty earlier I learned that 86.7 million people in the EU were affected 
by monetary poverty in 2015, with 22.8 % of them also affected by fuel poverty. I also 
discovered that single-parent households are most at risk of poverty and social exclusion 
among all household types. This is also true when it comes to fuel poverty. In 2015, 14.5 % 
of single-parent households were affected by fuel poverty, again more than any other 
household type. Geographically, fuel poverty is severe in many eastern, southern and central 
European countries. Within the EU, Bulgaria had the greatest number of people not able to 
warm their homes adequately (39.2 %), followed by Lithuania (31.1 %) and Greece (29.2 %).

While keeping this challenge in mind, the rising share of renewable energy use as well as 
improved energy productivity makes me think we’re on a good path towards affordable and 
clean energy. 

As we were talking about this over our candle-lit dinner, the lights came back on.

28

  Figures for the Future6 How well do we 

treat nature?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | October 30
My grandpa Robert is a ranger at the national park and a dedicated ‘ecowarrior’. He was 
holding a small remembrance for my mother — his daughter — at the tree he planted when 
she was born. She died from a severe asthma attack when I was seven. I’ve come to realise 
that much of my passion for the environment comes from this experience, since the rise in 
asthma has a major environmental component. A lot of what I do is dedicated to her memory. 
I want to help prevent further loss of life and contribute to creating a better future for all. This 
is much more important to me than making lots of money. 

End hunger, achieve food security and improved 
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture

Goal 2 seeks to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition and 
to achieve sustainable food production by 2030. It is premised 
on the idea that everyone should have access to sufficient 
nutritious food, which will require widespread promotion of 
sustainable agriculture, a doubling of agricultural productivity, 
increased investments and properly functioning food markets.

I went there a day earlier to help with the preparations and spend some time alone 
with Grandpa. We took a long walk and talked about many things — family matters, my 
scholarship, his somewhat obsessive interest in obscure bands. But soon our conversation 

Figures for the Future  

29

6 How well do we treat nature?

came to our mutual concern: the importance of protecting natural resources and how this can 
be balanced along with the need to produce food and build housing.

I don’t think anyone will argue about the importance of pursuing SDG 2 ‘Zero hunger’, 
which means an end to hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition and 
promoting sustainable agriculture. However, if we don’t take steps to preserve intact 
ecosystems on land and water, we won’t survive in the long term anyway. So we come to 
two crucial sustainable development goals. SDG 14 ‘Life below water’ aims to conserve and 
thoughtfully use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. And 
SDG 15 ‘Life on land’ strives to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial 
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, stop and reverse land 
degradation and halt biodiversity loss. 

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and 
marine resources for sustainable development

Goal 14 seeks to promote the conservation and sustainable 
use of marine and coastal ecosystems, prevent marine 
pollution and increase the economic benefits to small island 
developing states and least developed countries (LDCs) from 
the sustainable use of marine resources.

Healthy ecosystems provide food, water and fuel and regulate the environment through 
services such as carbon storage, flood control and water purification. To gauge the healthiness 
of an ecosystem, we look at biodiversity. The common bird index, which integrates the 
population abundance and diversity of a selection of common bird species associated with 
specific habitats, is considered a good indicator of overall biodiversity. Birds quickly reflect 
environmental change in ecosystems because they are near the top of the food chain. Since 
bird populations fluctuate from year to year due to interactions with other species and 
environmental factors such as food supply and climatic conditions, we need to look at the 
long-term trend. 

Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of 
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, 
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land 
degradation and halt biodiversity loss

Goal 15 focuses on managing forests sustainably, restoring 
degraded lands and successfully combating desertification, 
reducing degraded natural habitats and ending biodiversity loss.

I will analyse three indices: the index of all common birds, which includes 167 bird species and 
two subgroups of more specialised birds, common farmland birds and common forest birds. 
Between 1990 and 2014 the index for all common birds in the EU fell by 12.6 % to 87.4 %. The 
common forest bird population fell by 12.1 % over the same period and is slightly above the 

30

  Figures for the FutureHow well do we treat nature?

6

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdnr100, fish_ca_main, env_bio1 and tsdnr510)

31

Figures for the Future  6 How well do we treat nature?

index for all common birds. In contrast, 
the common farmland bird population 
experienced a dramatic plunge of 
31.5 %, falling to 68.5 % in 2014. Much 
of this decline has been attributed 
to changes in agricultural methods, 
intensiﬁ cation and specialisation (1) 
such as hedgerow loss, land drainage, 
increased fertiliser and pesticide use 
and loss of farm diversity (2). 

Grandpa showed me a public allotment where local people learned about organic cultivation 
methods. So we discussed how organic farming can help to protect farmland biodiversity. It 
is a method of production that prohibits or restricts the use of chemical-synthetic pesticides, 
chemical fertilisers, growth hormones, antibiotics and genetic modiﬁ cations. This leads to 
enhanced soil health, natural fertility and reduces energy and water inputs, although it is 
often less productive than conventional agricultural practices. Organic farming also creates 
jobs in rural communities and meets the growing consumer demand for natural and healthy 
products (3). The share of total agricultural area under organic cultivation in the EU rose from 
3.6 % in 2005 to 6.2 % in 2015 (4), when about 11 million hectares were fully organically farmed, 
or areas in the process of conversion.

The gross nutrient balance provides insights into agricultural sustainability. The amounts 
of nitrogen and phosphorus added to an agricultural system, in particular through animal 
manure and mineral fertilisers, are balanced against the harvested biomass. In areas of 
intensive meat production, surpluses of manure often lead to surpluses of nitrogen in the 
landscape with nutrient leaching resulting in surface water and groundwater pollution and 
eutrophication (5). At the same time, deﬁ cits of phosphorus can indicate loss of soil fertility 
from soil degradation and erosion. In the EU the nutrient balance is disturbed, mostly because 
of the surplus of nitrogen, which declined slightly between 2005 and 2013. Since 2010 it is 
stabilising around 51 kilograms (kg) per 
hectare. The phosphorus surplus was 
considerably lower and fell from 4 kg per 
hectare in 2005 to 1 kg per hectare in 2009 
and settled at 2 kg per hectare since 2010.

We walked through rolling pastureland where 
cows were grazing. I used to think this was an 
idyllic scene, but now that I’ve investigated 
I’m not so sure! For a more detailed picture 
of how livestock farming aﬀ ects the 
environment we can examine the livestock 

(1)  Donald, P. F., Green, R. E. and Heath, M. F. (2001), Agricultural intensiﬁ cation and the collapse of Europe’s farmland bird 

populations, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 268, pp. 25–29.

(2)  European Environment Agency (2015), State of nature in the EU. Results from reporting under the nature directives 2007–2012, 

Technical report No 02/2015, Copenhagen.

(3)  See http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/organic-farming/what-is-organic-farming_en; Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., 

Hanson, J., Seidel, R. and Douds, D. (2005), Organic and Conventional Farming Systems, Environmental and Economic Issues, 
pp. 26–27; European Commission (2016), Agriculture and Rural Development – Organic Farming.

(4)  2005 data refer to EU-27, 2015 data to EU-28.
(5)  A kind of pollution that occurs when a water body becomes over-rich in plant nutrients. As a result it becomes overgrown 
with algae and other aquatic plants. When the plants die and decompose they rob the water of oxygen and the water 
body becomes lifeless. 

32

 Figures for the Future

 
How well do we treat nature?

6

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdpc440, org_cropar_h1, tsdpc450 and t2020_rn310)

33

Figures for the Future  6 How well do we treat nature?

density index. This index provides the number of livestock units (LSU) per hectare of utilised 
agricultural area. The LSU is a reference unit that aids the aggregation of livestock of different 
species and ages. Livestock density indicates the intensiveness of meat production. Intensive 
meat production is associated with damaging environmental impacts such as high greenhouse 
gas emissions, nutrient surpluses and eutrophication, the spread of antibiotic-resistant microbes 
and animal welfare issues. It also depends on imported feed shipped over long distances, which 
is often produced with synthetic fertilisers and plant protection chemicals that negatively affect 
biodiversity, water quality and soil health. Feed production is also a major cause of deforestation. 

In the EU, the livestock density index varies widely between Member States. In 2013 most 
countries reported livestock densities below 1.6 LSU/ha. Only Belgium (2.7 LSU/ha), Malta 
(3.2 LSU/ha) and the Netherlands (3.6 LSU/ha) were above. The highest livestock densities 
are found in the smaller Member States, but not all small Member States have high livestock 
densities. For example, Slovakia and Estonia are among those with the lowest livestock 
densities.

Natural habitats are not only changed for agricultural purposes but are also turned into 
built-up areas (buildings and greenhouses) and artificial non-built-up areas (car parks, roads 
and railways). This ‘artificial land cover’ leads to the sealing of soils and large-scale ecosystem 
fragmentation. Artificial areas typically have a lower value for biodiversity. The share of artificial 
land cover on average comprised 4.1 % of land area in the EU-27 in 2012. Malta stands out 
from other Member States with a higher share of artificial land cover (32.6 %). All other EU 
Member States have shares of artificial land cover below 13 %. In all EU Member States except 
Malta, artificial non-built-up areas make up more of the artificial land cover than built-up areas.

Areas protected to preserve biodiversity are proposed by the EU Member States under the 
Habitats Directive (6). The sufficiency index measures the degree to which Member States 
have proposed sites that are considered sufficient to protect the habitats and species 
mentioned in the Habitats Directive. In protected areas created under the Habitats Directive, 
development and activities that pose a threat to protected species or ecosystems are limited 
in order to support sustainable use of ecosystems and prevent biodiversity loss. The average 
sufficiency index rating in 2013 was 92 % for terrestrial areas and 55 % for marine areas.

In relation to protecting marine habitats, I want to address overfishing. It not only affects the 
health and productivity of marine ecosystems but also the food security of millions of people 
who rely on fish as an essential source of protein. The indicator total fish catches from major 
fishing areas is not directly related to sustainable fishing, but provides a picture of the amount 
and origin of fishing yields in the EU and its Member States which contribute to the availability 
of food supplies. In 2015, about 5.1 million tonnes of fish were caught by EU Member State 
fleets. In comparison, Norway had the highest catch of the European Free Trade Association 
(EFTA), with about 2.1 million tonnes. 

In a nutshell, preserving the environment and using natural resources are not opposing aims if 
we use our resources sustainably and protect our environment as well.

(6)  European Commission (2016), Environment — The Habitats Directive.

34

  Figures for the Future7 How efficiently do 

we use our natural 
resources?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | November 7
Every time Grandpa Robert and my father meet, sooner or later they start to argue. This 
happened after the gathering for my mother two weeks ago. Grandpa Robert castigated my 
father and other bankers for only looking at profits and not caring about the damage done 
to the environment. I think Grandpa really blames these priorities for the death of my mother. 
Even when Dad began working in the sustainable investment division of his bank, Grandpa 
called it ‘greenwashing’ that didn’t get to the heart of the problem. 

This time, they argued whether economic growth is good or bad. My father insisted that 
growth is needed to ensure employment and to reduce poverty. In contrast Grandpa Robert 
claimed continued growth is not possible in a finite world. Listening to this discussion made 
me think about economic growth and resource use.

Ensure sustainable consumption and  
production patterns

Goal 12 aims to promote sustainable consumption and 
production patterns through measures such as specific 
policies and international agreements on the management 
of materials that are toxic to the environment.

Figures for the Future  

35

7 How effi  ciently do we use our natural resources?

I investigated SDG 12 ‘Responsible consumption and production’, which is about making 
sure our consumption and production patterns are sustainable. I also looked again into 
SDG 11 ‘Sustainable cities and communities’. This time I focused on municipal waste 
treatment because this is also related to resource use.

Make cities and human settlements inclusive, 
safe, resilient and sustainable

Goal 11 aims to renew and plan cities and other human 
settlements in a way that fosters community cohesion 
and personal security while stimulating innovation and 
employment.

An important measure for resource use is the ‘domestic material consumption’ (DMC) 
indicator, which refers to the overall amount of materials directly used within an economy. 
The average domestic material consumption in the EU Member States fell from 7 858 million 
tonnes in 2005 to 6 708 million tonnes in 2015, which refl ects a reduction of 14.6 %. To make 
it more concrete, in theory every EU citizen consumed 15.9 tonnes of material in 2005 and 
13.2 tonnes in 2015.

Sustainable consumption and production aims at ‘making more from less’. By ‘more’, we 
usually mean economic growth or GDP. And ‘less’ refers to resources and environmental 
degradation. This is what is usually described as ‘decoupling’. Resource productivity refers to 
this relation between economic output (GDP) and resources used in the production process 
(DMC). The EU’s resource productivity in 2015 was at EUR 2.00 per kilogram (kg), which was 
28 % higher than the value in 2005 of EUR 1.56 per kg. At fi rst glance this might indicate a 
decoupling of GDP and material consumption. And indeed, the gain in resource productivity 
was mainly driven by the drop in DMC (– 20 % from 2007 to 2013), which was much more than 
the drop in GDP during the economic downturn. However, it is very likely that the economic 
crisis infl uenced the plunge in DMC, especially when DMC has been rising again (slowly) since 

36

 Figures for the Future

 
How efficiently do we use our natural resources?

7

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdpc230, tsdpc100, t2020_rt120 and tsdpc210)

37

Figures for the Future  7 How efficiently do we use our natural resources?

2014. It is therefore too early to conclude that a decoupling between economic growth and 
resource use has actually taken place.

Waste represents a loss of resources in the form of materials and energy. Waste can be 
reduced by changing to less material-intensive production and consumption patterns that 
allow natural resources to be used more efficiently. The volume of materials or products 
that enter the waste stream before recycling, composting, landfilling or combustion can 
be referred to as waste generation. In the long term, the amount of waste (excluding major 
mineral wastes) generated for each inhabitant in the EU-28 declined from 1 907 kg in 2004 to 
1 806 kg in 2014. The amount dropped between 2004 and 2010 by 7.1 %. This was most likely 
affected by the slowdown in economic activity during the crisis. However, the decline was 
reversed in 2012. In 2014 the amount of waste generated was 2.0 % higher than in 2010. Major 
mineral wastes are excluded from these statistics because of the strong fluctuations in waste 
generation in the mining and construction sector. This way the indicator reflects the general 
trend in waste generation better.

Of course it would be best to avoid generating waste at all. At the same time, there are still 
responsible ways to handle it. Recycling methods include material recycling, composting 
and anaerobic digestion. In addition to cutting the amount of waste entering landfills, higher 
levels of recycling can also create employment. Municipal waste consists mainly of waste 
generated by households, but may also include similar wastes generated by small firms and 
public institutions and collected by the municipality. The recycling rate refers to the amount 
of recycled waste divided by the total waste accrued in a municipality. In the EU, 34.9 % of the 
municipal waste was recycled in 2007. This rate had improved to 43.5 % by 2014.

So it seems the EU has moved towards more sustainable resource use over the past few years. 
However, we still have to see if all these developments are truly sustainable or if they merely 
reflect the short-term impact of the economic crisis.

Dad and Grandpa did not come to any conclusions, though we agreed we all can contribute 
by using resources responsibly. Since he began working in green investment, Dad might 
sometimes agree with Grandpa. 

38

  Figures for the Future8 Good governance 

and security in 
Europe?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | November 16
Last Friday I went to a concert with Grandpa Robert to see one of his favourite bands, a British 
reggae group from the 1980s that had reunited. Mark joined us when he found out that a  
‘ska-punk’ band from south-eastern Europe was sharing the bill — one of his favourites.

I was nervous about Mark and Grandpa meeting for the first time, but they got on well. 
Perhaps too well, especially when Mark said he just loved psychedelic bands of the 1970s. I 
even started to feel a little left out while the guys got deep into their music-geekery. But then 
we ran into more friends and I enjoyed introducing them to Grandpa.

However, any musical differences paled in significance when I checked my phone on the way 
home with Mark. Zoe had rung several times. Could something be wrong?

I rang her back and she told me about the attacks in Paris just a few hours ago. Gunmen and 
suicide bombers hit a concert hall, a major stadium, restaurants and bars and left people dead 
and hundreds wounded. I was stunned. All these people were only enjoying themselves, just 
like the three of us. 

Until now I was not so sure how to approach SDG 16 ‘Peace, justice and strong 
institutions’. It’s too easy to take stability for granted in the EU. SDG 16 aims to promote 
peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all 
and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. So where do we stand?

Trust in institutions and government is an important factor for sustainable development. The 
level of trust a society has in its institutions can be seen as a measure of a state’s stability, 
functionality and efficacy. In 2013, inhabitants of the EU Member States had the highest 
confidence in the police with a rating of 5.9 out of 10 possible points. This was followed 

Figures for the Future  

39

8 Good governance and security in Europe?

by the legal system, which showed an average trust rate of 4.6 out of 10, while the poorest 
performance in institutional confidence could be found for the political system (3.5 out 
of 10 points). There seems to be a link between education and trust in institutions. People 
with at most lower secondary education rated all institutions lower than people with upper 
secondary or tertiary education levels. The differences were less for trust in the police 
(0.5 points) than for trust in the legal and political system (1.3 points).

Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for 
sustainable development, provide access to 
justice for all and build effective, accountable 
and inclusive institutions at all levels

Goal 16 envisages peaceful and inclusive societies 
based on respect for human rights, the rule of law, good 
governance at all levels, and transparent, effective and 
accountable institutions.

Confidence in political institutions is important for effective democracies. People who trust 
the political system are more likely to vote in democratic elections, while politicians and 
political parties are only in a position to make decisions that are accepted in society when 
they are trusted. Voter turnout is a major indicator of the degree of citizen participation in 
public affairs. In the EU, voter turnout in national parliamentary elections fell between 2005 
and 2012, from 71 % to 68 %, and has remained at this level since then. The recent erosion of 
voter turnout may be associated especially with younger people not voting in elections (1).

I did feel vulnerable after the terror attacks in Paris. I know that I’m not in more danger today 
than last week, but I no longer feel safe and confident in the same way. That’s why I wanted to 
find out more about safety and security. To give an indication of the crime level and provide 
guidance on safety, homicide offences can be used as a proxy. These are acts resulting in the 
death of another person such as murder and manslaughter. Among the EU Member States, 
the highest homicide rates in 2014 could be observed in the three Baltic Member States, 
headed by Lithuania with a homicide rate of 5.4 per 100 000 inhabitants and followed by 
Latvia (3.2 per 100 000 inhabitants) and Estonia (3.1 per 100 000 inhabitants). Homicide rates 
in the remaining Member States varied between 1.6 per 100 000 inhabitants in Finland and 
0.7 per 100 000 inhabitants in the Czech Republic.  

Criminal statistics don’t always reflect whether an individual feels safe. When asked if they feel 
safe walking alone in their area at night in 2013, 74.7 % of the EU-28 population felt ‘very safe’ 
or ‘fairly safe’; only 6.8 % felt ‘very unsafe’. This sense of physical safety is partly associated 
with age. Perceived insecurity rose with each age group, starting from the age of 50. In 2013, 
40.5 % of people older than 75 felt ‘a bit unsafe’ or ‘very unsafe’. This is almost twice the value 

(1)  Delwit, P. (2013), The End of Voters in Europe? Electoral Turnout in Europe since WWII, Open Journal of Political Science, vol. 3 (1), 

pp. 44–52.

40

  Figures for the FutureGood governance and security in Europe?

8

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: ilc_pw03, tsdgo310, crim_hom_soff, ilc_mddw03, Quality of life — Data — Economic and 
physical safety and Quality of life in Europe  — facts and views — economic and physical safety)

41

Figures for the Future  8 Good governance and security in Europe?

of the age group 35 to 49 years, in which only 20.7 % felt this way. There are also huge gender 
differences when it comes to physical safety. While 85.5 % of men reported feeling very or 
fairly safe, only 65.2 % of women had the same perception.

I also learned that between 2010 and 2015 the number of people reporting crime, violence 
or vandalism in their area has been to some degree stable around 14 % on average in the 
EU. However, people with an income lower than 60 % of the median income, who are 
considered at risk of monetary poverty, report higher rates than people with a higher income. 
In 2015, 16.5 % of people at risk of monetary poverty reported experiencing crime, violence 
or vandalism in their neighbourhoods, while only 13.0 % of people with higher incomes 
reported these problems.

As we walked home I saw that many people were still out on the street in our trendy 
neighbourhood, drinking in bars or walking home. Nothing appeared amiss.

Zoe opened the door before we put the key in the lock — as if she’d been watching out for 
our return. This made me think about another important aspect of a secure and safe society: 
people looking after each other.

42

  Figures for the Future9 Gender gaps 

in income, 
employment and 
decision-making

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | November 20
Last Thursday I left university early and ran back home to slip into my smartest dress. 
That evening I was attending the award ceremony for my ‘Young Women in Journalism’ 
scholarship. I arrived just in time to collect my badge and meet the rest of the winners. I was 
also able to bring a friend, so Sophia came with me. 

During the ceremony women activists and journalists talked about their work. We heard 
about different forms of discrimination and violence against girls and women but also about 
ways to empower and support them. One woman talked about her organising work with 
a union of mainly female precarious workers that is pressing for living wages, benefits and 
security. Sophia was very interested in this because she often did casual hotel cleaning work. 

The speaker said the success of their campaigns owed much to ‘crusading’ citizen journalists 
spreading the word on social media. That gave me pause for thought: is that what I’d like 
to do? 

Another speaker, representing the UN, focused on sustainability and especially SDG 5, which 
sets the objective of achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls. She 
wanted to discuss the issues women in the EU are facing in their everyday lives.

The UN representative mentioned that an objective of SDG 5 ‘Gender equality’ is to ‘end 
all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere’. Women often face 
discrimination in the labour market, where they are often confronted with a gender pay gap 
and a gender employment gap. 

The ‘gender pay gap’ is the difference between what men and women earn for each hour 
spent at work. Reasons for this gap include direct discrimination in the labour market, the 

Figures for the Future  

43

9 Gender gaps in income, employment and decision-making

stereotyping of women and the unequal distribution of family responsibilities such as 
childcare (1). Women’s lower earnings also affect their future pension rights and may result in 
more women than men experiencing poverty in old age.

The gender pay gap in the EU was about 16 % in 2014, which means that for every hour 
worked, women earned only 84 % of what men earned. The situation gets even worse as 
women age. There are wide differences in the gender pay gap across the EU. In Malta and 
Slovenia, women earned almost as much as men for each hour spent at work (the difference 
was less than 5 %), while in Estonia, Austria, Czech Republic, Germany and Slovakia women 
earned less than 80 % of what men earned. 

Achieve gender equality and empower all women 
and girls

Goal 5 aims to empower women and girls to reach their full 
potential, which requires eliminating all forms of discrimination 
and violence against them. It seeks to ensure that they all 
have the opportunity for sexual and reproductive health and 
reproductive rights; receive due recognition for their unpaid 
work; have full access to productive resources; and enjoy equal 
participation with men in political, economic and public life.

Women are disadvantaged in the labour market, not only in earnings but also in terms of 
finding employment in the first place. The ‘gender employment gap’ represents the difference 
in employment rates between men and women. Although nowadays more women get paid 
work, their share is still lower compared to men. In addition, women are more likely to work 
part-time and under time-limited contracts than men. In 2015 the gender employment gap 
was particularly high for people in their early 30s (13.9 percentage points) and for people 
between 55 and 64 years (13.2 percentage points). In contrast, women in their early 20s face 
the least discrimination in the labour market (the gender employment gap in this age group 
was 6.1 percentage points).

What’s the reason behind these differences? Looking at the issue intuitively, women are 
at a disadvantage in their early 30s because of motherhood and childcare responsibilities. 
The longer a person has been unemployed, the harder it becomes to find a job, so this 
disadvantage can transfer to later years in life as well. The large gender gap for older women 
could be the result of women not participating in the labour force when they were young or 
reflect the lack of care facilities for grandchildren or dependent parents (2).

Still, the gender employment gap is narrowing at all ages, supported by changes in social 
values and attitudes, as well as policies enabling women to reconcile paid work with 
household responsibilities such as childcare and flexible working hours (3). 

(1)  European Commission (2014), Tackling the gender pay gap in the European Union, Publications Office of the European Union.
(2)  European Commission (2015), Labour market participation of women, European Semester Thematical Fiche.
(3)  European Commission (2016), Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2015, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the 

European Union, p. 22.

44

  Figures for the FutureGender gaps in income, employment and decision-making

9

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdsc340, lfsa_ergan, tsdsc410, tsdsc480, lfsa_etpga, lfsa_eppga and European Commission 
services)

45

Figures for the Future  9 Gender gaps in income, employment and decision-making

When I think about the generations of women in my family, I realise that I take a lot for 
granted. My granny dropped out of school early to help with the household chores. My 
mother was the first girl in her family to go to university. Going to university was a natural step 
for me. I didn’t have to think much about it. In many parts of the world, however, girls still face 
barriers to education. 

In Europe the situation is different. In fact, girls nowadays are less likely to drop out of school 
and more likely to gain university education than boys. In 2015 only 9.5 % of girls aged 18 to 24 
left school early compared to 12.4 % of boys in the same age group. More and more girls are 
enrolling in university. While in 2002 less than 25 % of both girls and boys aged 30 to 34 had 
studied at university, today this share is 43.4 % for girls and only 34 % for boys.

The UN representative concluded that to achieve greater gender equality, we also need to 
ensure that more women take leadership positions. SDG 5 calls for women’s full and effective 
participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in 
political, economic and public life. Although comprising about 50 % of the world’s population, 
women continue to be underrepresented as elected officials. In 2015, 29 % of seats in national 
parliaments in the EU were held by women. This was somewhat higher than in 2005 when 
only 23 % of seats were occupied by women, but still far from the level that SDG 5 strives 
to attain.

So will I be a crusading journalist or run for office at some point? Perhaps I could set my sights 
on both. 

46

  Figures for the Future10 Where do Europe’s 

jobs come from?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | November 25
A few days ago, I went to see my dad. He was sitting on the old couch with a cup of coffee 
and a financial journal. He showed me an article about the increase in shares of electric cars 
and said I should read it, given my interest in sustainable development. I told him I probably 
won’t understand half of the financial concepts in the article, thinking of next semester’s 
economics course with a shudder.

Since you’ve heard my grandfather’s opinions, it’s only fair that my dad has a chance to 
talk about his work. I told him I’m recording the conversation since I wanted to feature his 
comments in my blog. Unlike some of my friends, who get self-conscious about being 
recorded, my dad looked pleased. No doubt he’ll ham it up.

‘So exactly what are you doing at your job as a green investor’? I asked. 

Dad said he helps people invest in green businesses and infrastructure that have a minimal or 
positive impact on the environment. I recalled conversations from four years ago, when he’d 
go on about stocks and bonds for ages. He’s undergone a complete transformation... well, not 
that complete.

‘Dad, you really should stop heating the whole house now that I’m not living here anymore,’ 
I told him. ‘And when are you going to install those solar panels you bought last summer? You 
should start making green investments in your own home.’

Figures for the Future  

47

10 Where do Europe’s jobs come from?

‘Yes, but much bigger investments are needed if we want to make a visible difference. 
Upgrading technologies will be crucial for making industries more sustainable,’ Dad explained.

‘What about jobs though?’ I asked. ‘I’ve heard a lot about technologies destroying jobs, 
especially for less skilled workers.’ My dad explained that manufacturing is still the largest 
employment sector in the EU. It also drives economic growth, which in turn creates more 
jobs. The high and medium-tech industry sectors in particular boost economic growth and 
productivity, and generally provide high value-added and well-paid employment.

This brings me to SDG 9 ‘Industry, innovation and infrastructure’, which calls for 
substantial increases in industry’s share of employment and GDP along with upgrading 
technologies to make industries more sustainable. Although shrinking, manufacturing is still 
the biggest sector when it comes to employment. The share of workers employed in the 
manufacturing sector gives an indication of its contribution to the economy and the labour 
market, and is thus directly related to the aspects of the goal mentioned above.

Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive 
and sustainable industrialisation and foster 
innovation

Goal 9 focuses on the promotion of infrastructure 
development, industrialisation and innovation. This 
can be accomplished through enhanced international 
and domestic financial, technological and technical 
support, research and innovation, and increased access to 
information and communication technology.

In 2015, 33 million people aged 20 to 64 were employed in the manufacturing sector which 
equals 15.6 % of all people employed in the EU. Currently 5.7 % of EU workers are employed 
in the high and medium-high technology manufacturing sectors. This is close to the share 
observed in 2008 (5.9 %). 

Growth in jobs is unequally distributed across economic sectors and depends on general 
economic conditions as well as developments in these sectors. Between 2008 and 2015, the 
number of employed people, aged 20 to 64, grew most in the professional, scientific and 
technical sector (by 14.9 %) and the administrative sector (by 14.5 %). At the other end of the 
spectrum, employment declined most in the construction (– 19.9 %) and agricultural sectors 
(– 11.5 %). Employment in the manufacturing sector decreased by 10.7 %. 

I thought about Zoe’s brother: he left school early and worked on building sites. He lost his 
job during the economic crisis and had to move back with his parents. He found a new job a 
few weeks ago, so he hopes to be able to move out again if this employment continues. That 
would be cause for celebration because he was treated like a teenager while living with his 
parents... Zoe would be pleased too because we won’t have him regularly sleeping on our 
sofa after a night out.

According to my dad, the fact Zoe’s brother found a new job is a sign that the economy is 
recovering. But I replied that his new job is only temporary so far. I was thinking again about 
SDG 8 ‘Decent work and economic growth’ and the union activist’s speech at my awards 
ceremony: we also need to consider the quality of the new jobs on offer.

48

  Figures for the FutureWhere do Europe’s jobs come from?

10

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsc00011, lfsa_enewasn, lfsa_egan2, tsdec100, lfsa_pganws and lfsa_ergan)

49

Figures for the Future  10 Where do Europe’s jobs come from?

The number of newly employed people reflects the link between economic growth and 
employment growth. The share of newly employed people as a share of total employment 
dropped in 2009 after the economic contraction in the same year. In 2014, following the 
slight recovery in GDP and employment, the share of newly employed people rose to 13.1 % 
and continued to 13.6 % in 2015. I also found this pattern for the relationship between the 
total employment rate and GDP, which I investigated in my blog entries on education and 
employment. I now want to come back to that and look more closely at employment.

Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable 
economic growth, full and productive 
employment and decent work for all

Continued, inclusive and sustainable economic 
growth is a prerequisite for global prosperity. Goal 8 
aims to provide opportunities for full and productive 
employment and decent work for all while eradicating 
forced labour, human trafficking and child labour.

The chances of finding a job are not equal for all. Younger and older people have lower 
employment rates than people aged 30 to 54. In 2015 their employment rate was 9.1 
percentage points higher than the total employment rate of 70.0 % for people in working age 
(20 to 64). The employment rate of people in their 20s was 8.6 percentage points lower than 
the total employment rate. The lowest employment rate was faced by the group aged 55 to 
64 years — only 53.3 % of them had a job in 2015.

Also an individual’s country of origin can affect opportunities in the labour market, although 
economic migration is increasingly important to the EU’s ability to deal with a shrinking 
labour force and expected skills shortages (1). In 2015, the employment rate for third-country 
nationals was 56.7 %, 13.3 percentage points lower than the total employment rate in the EU. 

One explanation for the gap in employment rates between EU citizens and third-country 
nationals might be that a large proportion of non-EU citizens have lower levels of education. 
However, analysis shows this is not the norm and the share of third-country migrants with at 
least upper secondary education who work in low-skilled occupations is higher than for the 
native population. Also, in many Member States a large share of non-EU citizens migrated 
not for economic reasons but to join family members, for education and training or to seek 
international protection (2).

At the end of the discussion I thanked Dad. And I told him that I looked forward to a rematch 
between him and Grandpa at the next family gathering.

(1)  European Commission (2010), An Agenda for new skills and jobs: A European contribution towards full employment, COM(2010) 

682 final, p. 9.

(2)  European Commission (2016), Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2015, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the 

European Union, p. 14.

50

  Figures for the Future11 A new agreement 

on global climate 
change

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | November 30
I was so excited when the opportunity to cover the Paris climate summit as part of my 
scholarship came up. But first let’s give the summit its proper title: the United Nations 
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21). 

This would be my second visit to Paris this year — I’d been to Paris last spring when Mark 
was running in the international Paris marathon. I was aware that the aftermath of the terror 
attacks weighed heavily on the city, but an event like this seemed a good way to get back to a 
secure and positive footing.

On this trip to Paris I aim to look at how the summit tackles the SDGs and what it 
accomplishes, especially in terms of SDG 13 ‘Climate action’. This sets out the need for 
taking action to combat climate change as well as for strengthening resilience and adaptive 
capacity to its impacts.

Take urgent action to combat climate change 
and its impacts

Climate change presents the single biggest threat to 
development. Its widespread, unprecedented effects 
disproportionately burden the poorest and the most 
vulnerable. Urgent action is needed not only to combat 
climate change and its impacts, but also to build resilience in 
responding to climate-related hazards and natural disasters.

Figures for the Future  

51

11 A new agreement on global climate change

Scientists agree that the dominant cause of climate change, a rise in the Earth’s temperature, 
is the human-made increase of greenhouse gas emissions over the past 250 years (1). The 
indicator greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions provides information on the development of these 
emissions in each country and insights into progress towards SDG 13 in relation to action to 
combat climate change.

The use of energy (through fuel combustion in energy industries, transport and 
manufacturing and construction) is the main source of GHG emissions in the EU, accounting 
for 78 % of total emissions in 2014. This is followed by emissions from animals and soils 
in agriculture (10 %), industrial processes (9 %) and waste management (3 %). Additional 
emissions are caused by land use changes, like ploughing up grasslands and the loss of forests 
(for example, when trees are cut down to make room for new construction). At the same time, 
European forests grow much faster than they are harvested and the difference is big enough 
for them to absorb as much as 10 % of all other carbon dioxide emissions combined.

The European Union has reduced its GHG emissions by 23 % between 1990, which is the 
base year of the Kyoto Protocol (2), and 2014, mainly due to reductions in the energy sector. 
Emissions have also been cut in all other sectors with the exception of transport (+ 13 %) and 
international aviation (+ 97 %). Emissions in these two areas have actually fallen since 2007 but 
are still above their 1990 levels because of fast growth during the 1990s.

Compared with other industrialised countries (Annex I of the Kyoto Protocol), the EU is leading 
in GHG emission reductions after the Russian Federation (– 29 % in 2014 compared to 1990). 
Most other industrialised countries have increased their emissions over the same period of 
time, including Australia (+ 25 %), New Zealand (+ 23 %), Canada (+ 20 %) as well as Japan and 
the United States (both + 7 %) (3).

The rise in surface temperature is the most obvious indication of a changing climate and is 
presented in the indicator on global surface temperature change. Records show that surface 
temperature is related to the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, with a 
certain time lag between emission and temperature rise. 

The global community agreed to limit the temperature rise to well below 2 °C above  
pre-industrial times and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above 
pre-industrial levels, as the temperature rise is the main reason for experienced and expected 
climate-related hazards. This agreement was signed at COP 21 in Paris (4).

Globally, the average surface temperature has increased significantly since the beginning 
of the 20th century, with new heat records observed. Over the period 2006 to 2015, global 
surface average temperature was 0.84 °C above ‘pre-industrial’ levels, which refers to the

(1)  IPCC (2014), Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report, Geneva, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, p. 4.
(2)  The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that includes legally binding greenhouse gas emission targets for the 
industrialised countries and aims for an overall reduction of at least 5 % on the 1990 level by the period 2008–2012. The 
protocol defined individual targets per country. The EU agreed to reduce its GHG emissions by 8 % and redistributed this 
target among its then 15 Member States under a burden-sharing agreement.

(3)  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2016), National Inventory Submissions 2016.
(4)  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2015), Paris Agreement, Paris, United Nations.

52

  Figures for the FutureA new agreement on global climate change

11

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdcc210, tsdcc100 and European Environment Agency)

53

Figures for the Future  11 A new agreement on global climate change

average temperature of the period 1850 to 1899 (5). This means that almost half of the 
warming towards the 2 °C threshold has already taken place. And the average global surface 
temperature continues to rise: 2015 was the warmest year on record.

The situation in Europe is similar: this decade is the hottest on record at 1.5 °C above  
pre-industrial times. The years 2014 and 2015 were the warmest on record in Europe, 
respectively, at 2.2 °C and 1.9 °C above pre-industrial levels.

I remember the discussions during my presentation on sustainable development, which 
highlighted preparations for the Rio climate summit four years ago. That was exciting, of 
course, but I was only observing from afar. Now I’m in the middle of it.

(5)  In line with the European Environment Agency, global average annual temperature deviations, ‘anomalies’, are discussed 
relative to a ‘pre-industrial’ period between 1850 and 1899 (the beginning of instrumental temperature records). During 
this time, anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1850) are considered to 
have a relatively small influence on the climate compared to natural influences. However, it should be noted that owing to 
earlier climate changes due to internal and forced natural variability, there was not one single pre-industrial climate and it 
is not clear that there is a rigorous scientific definition of the term ‘pre-industrial climate’. See http://www.eea.europa.eu/
data-and-maps/indicators/global-and-european-temperature-3 

54

  Figures for the Future12 Quenching our 

thirst: A water 
crisis?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | December 13
Let’s go back a moment to my visit to Paris last spring. While I was standing on the sidelines 
cheering Mark on in the marathon, I noticed something very different. An African woman in 
traditional dress was walking among the racers with a regular marathon number and a big 
plastic barrel of water on her head. She carried a placard that said in French: ‘In Africa, women 
walk this distance every day to collect water. Help us shorten the distance’.

But water scarcity may also become an issue here in Europe. When I go on walks with 
Grandpa Robert through the national park we usually pass a small river that has dried out. And 
when I visited southern Italy last summer I found that this region is challenged by droughts. 

So SDG 6 ‘Clean water and sanitation’ is very relevant in the EU as well as Africa. It aims to 
ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

Ensure availability and sustainable management 
of water and sanitation for all

Goal 6 goes beyond drinking water, sanitation and 
hygiene to also address the quality and sustainability of 
water resources. Achieving this Goal, which is critical to 
the survival of people and the planet, means expanding 
international cooperation and garnering the support 
of local communities in improving water and sanitation 
management.

Figures for the Future  

55

12 Quenching our thirst: A water crisis?

My starting point was the water quality of European rivers. Biochemical oxygen demand 
(BOD) shows how much dissolved oxygen is needed to decompose organic matter. Therefore, 
a high level of BOD is usually a sign of organic pollution. The cleanest rivers have a five-day 
BOD of less than 1 milligrams per litre (mg/l). Moderately polluted rivers show values ranging 
from 2 to 8 mg/l. BOD values are especially high when wastewater such as urban or industrial 
sewage or agricultural run-off water reaches surface water bodies without any treatment. The 
BOD in European rivers fell from 2.95 mg/l in 2000 to 2.19 mg/l in 2012, indicating that river 
water quality improved. This is good news!

However, enhancing water quality doesn’t help much if water is wasted. The water 
exploitation index (WEI) measures the extent of sustainable use of available water resources. 
The warning threshold of 20 % distinguishes a non-stressed from a water-scarce region, while 
severe scarcity occurs where the WEI exceeds 40 %. Among the 14 countries with available 
data in 2013, Cyprus (79.6 %) and Malta (48.2 %) showed severe water scarcity. These two 
countries also reported the highest increases in water exploitation between 2005 and 2013 — 
6.5 percentage points for Cyprus and 13.7 percentage points for Malta. Spain had a WEI of 
33.6 % in 2012, so it is considered a water-scarce region.

Back home I googled the African woman walking in the Paris marathon. She’s from Gambia, 
and she represented a non-profit organisation that was building boreholes in her village. 
Through her walk she aimed to raise awareness about the difficulties African women face in 
accessing clean drinking water. So what are the figures on this issue for Europe and globally? 

The share of the world population with access to an improved water source rose from 86 % 
in 2005 to 91 % in 2015. Improved water source refers to a piped household water connection 
inside a dwelling, plot or yard. It includes public taps or standpipes, tube wells or boreholes, 
protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collection. 

In the European Union nearly 100 % of the population do have access to an improved water 
source. In poorer countries it is more difficult for people to access water but their situation is 
improving. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa the share of people with access to an improved 
water source rose from 59 % in 2005 to 68 % 2015.

SDG 6 is about access to sanitation as well as access to water. To me it is natural to drink tap 
water, take a bath or shower if I feel like it. An indoor flushing toilet is simply a given. Their 
availability plays an important role in healthy livelihoods and our well-being. In the majority 
of EU countries, bath, shower and indoor flushing toilet are present in most households. On 
average only 2.4 % had no access to at least one of these sanitary installations in 2015. The 
highest share was reported in Romania, with 30.5 % of the Romanian population having no 
access to these basic facilities. Also in Latvia (12.3 %), Bulgaria (11.1 %) and Lithuania (10.6 %) the 
share of the population without access to bath, shower and an indoor flush toilet was quite high.

So I was excited when the Paris Pact on Water and Adaptation to Climate Change was 
presented to the conference on 2 December. There were many discussions about water 
at this summit, much more than at previous UN climate meetings. Did pressure from non-
governmental organisations — plus the action of a lone woman carrying a container of water 
on her head — play a part in this?

56

  Figures for the FutureQuenching our thirst: A water crisis?

12

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdnr310, tsdnr330, ilc_mdho05 and WorldBank)

57

Figures for the Future  13 Better and longer 

lives in the EU?

Sustainable development:  
A blog from everyday life

#sustainabledevelopment #employment #environment 
#SDGs #poverty #young #eurostat

Anne @SustainableAnne | December 16
On 5 December I went to the Global Village of Alternatives in Montreuil, eastern Paris. This 
was part of a more informal ‘citizen’s climate summit’ running alongside COP 21. Grandpa had 
urged me to go there and report back. Though it wasn’t really part of my official scholarship 
duties I was still interested in finding out more.

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being  
for all at all ages

Goal 3 aims to ensure health and well-being for all at all 
ages by improving reproductive, maternal and child health; 
ending the epidemics of major communicable diseases; 
reducing non-communicable and environmental diseases; 
achieving universal health coverage; and ensuring access to 
safe, affordable and effective medicines and vaccines for all.

There was a festive atmosphere with theatre, music, discussions and stalls. While I found 
some common ground with what I’ve written about so far, the emphasis here was on living 
very different lives — themes included work and wealth distribution and grassroots urban 
planning. Not all of these alternatives were my cup of tea but it did make me think. And this all 
made me wonder about what ways we have to determine happiness and well-being beyond 
income indicators.

Figures for the Future  

59

13 Better and longer lives in the EU?

This brings me back to SDG 3 ‘Good health and well-being’. I wrote about this in a previous 
posting, focusing on healthy lives. Now I want to concentrate on life expectancy, healthy life 
years and life satisfaction in the European Union. By ‘healthy life years’ I mean years without 
disabilities or limitations in functioning.

Girls born in the EU in 2005 could expect to live 81.5 years. This was 6.1 years longer than boys 
born in the same year (75.4 years). Between 2005 and 2014 life expectancy for both women 
and men rose respectively by 2.1 and 2.7 years. The bigger gain for men indicates that the life 
expectancy gender gap is closing.

In contrast to overall life expectancy, healthy life years do not show a gender gap or an 
improvement over time. During the last 10 years it has been relatively stable at around 62 
years for women and 61.5 years for men. Between 2005 and 2014 it fell by 0.7 years for women 
and grew by 0.3 years for men (1). This means people get older but do not spend the life years 
they gained in a healthy condition; they have to live with some kind of activity limitation. As 
women’s overall life expectancy is higher than men’s they spend a greater share of their lives 
with a disability or disease.

So longer life expectancy does not necessarily mean healthier life. In this regard, how much 
do we enjoy our longer lives? On a scale of 0 (‘not satisfied at all’) to 10 (‘fully satisfied’), 
European residents on average rated their overall life satisfaction at 7.1 in 2013. Women and 
men were equally satisfied. Education has a positive impact on the perception of life. In 2013, 
on average people with lower secondary education at most rated their overall life satisfaction 
at 6.6, which was 0.5 points less than among holders of upper secondary education (7.1) and 
1.0 less than among tertiary graduates (7.6). 

In a magazine I read about the ‘U-bend of life’; people get unhappier with their lives until 
their middle age and then happier again when they become older. According to what I found 
in the data this is not true for Europe. Here, life satisfaction declines with age; while people 
between 16 and 24 years old rated their life satisfaction as 7.6 on average, people aged 75 
and older on average rated it 6.8. People with tertiary education are not as strongly affected 
by declining life satisfaction with age as people with lower educational levels. Another factor 
related to life satisfaction is income. People in the lowest income quintile had the lowest 
average score (6.3) while people in the highest quintile rated 7.7.

However, when talking to my friends and also thinking about myself, I think there must be 
more to life than being able to pay bills. I think life is about trying out new things and finding 
out who I am. That’s why I’m taking a deeper look into the statistics on non-monetary aspects 
of life satisfaction.

Time is a precious commodity and being able to spend time on our own areas of interest 
contributes to our overall life satisfaction. In 2013, the majority of EU residents (49.2 %) 
reported medium satisfaction with their time use, 28.1 % reported low satisfaction and 22.7 % 
high satisfaction. On a scale of 0 to 10 this equals a mean satisfaction with time use of 6.7 for 
the EU as a whole. The older (65+) and the youngest (16 to 24 year olds) age groups were the 
most satisfied with figures between 7.2 and 7.6, while the age groups in between rated their 

(1)  2005 data refer to EU-27, 2014 data to EU-28.

60

  Figures for the FutureBetter and longer lives in the EU?

13

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tsdph100, ilc_pw01, ilc_pw02, ilc_pw05, hlth_silc_02 and Quality of life in Europe — facts and 
views — overall life satisfaction)

61

Figures for the Future  13 Better and longer lives in the EU?

satisfaction with time use only between 6.2 and 6.7. Maybe this is because people between 
25 and 64 who are working do have less time to spend on leisure activities. Another element 
is responsibility for children. Households with dependent children where less satisfied with 
their time use (6.3) than households without kids (7.0). Among all household types the least 
satisfied with time use were single parents (6.1) and the most satisfied were single people 
aged over 65 (7.7).

Supportive personal relationships are another notable factor for life satisfaction. In 2013, 
44.8 % of people who couldn’t count on friends or family when they needed help had a 
low level of life satisfaction, while only 9.4 % of this group had a high level of life satisfaction. 
On the other hand, of the people who had help available, only 19.0 % reported low life 
satisfaction while 22.7 % reported a high level of life satisfaction. The good thing is that the 
share of those without supportive personal relationships was quite small. Only 6.7 % reported 
that they did not have someone to rely on for help and the share of people who had no one 
to discuss personal matters with was only 7.1 %.

In one of my first blog entries I looked into self-perceived health but this was related to 
income. This time I wanted to look at it in light of life satisfaction. 

In 2013, 67.7 % of the EU population reported good or very good health, while 9.5 % felt 
in bad or very bad health. Within the group reporting very good health, 36.9 % showed 
high life satisfaction. However, 7.1 % within the group with very bad heath reported high 
life satisfaction. Therefore, it may be possible to have a satisfying life even in very bad 
health — although this is more than five times more likely if the health status is very good. 

So overall, it seems that we are living longer but not necessarily better. Our extended life span 
does not include an extension of health. Life satisfaction is something we have partly in our 
hands but many factors affect it and some are beyond our control. What they are and how 
the situation could be improved is a complex question. I don’t know the answers, so I’d like to 
throw this open to my readers. What do you think?

62

  Figures for the FutureAnne revisits 
sustainable 
development: 
Where do we go 
from here?

1

When Anne returns from Paris she meets up with Marta again at Beans International, the 
cooperative café. They start chatting and Anne talks about her experiences in Paris.

‘Your stories bring back fond memories of 2012 when I covered the Rio+20 climate summit,’ 
Marta says. She adds that she went on holiday in Costa Rica afterwards. ‘People are very 
poor there... but did you know Costa Rica has one of the highest rates of self-reported life 
satisfaction and very high life expectancy?’  

‘That’s fascinating, given the issues I looked at in my post on life satisfaction,’ Anne says. 

‘So tell me about these issues,’ Marta suggests. ‘How would you see them in relation to your 
recent fi ndings?’

Anne takes her tablet out of her bag. ‘Good thing I have my notes with me. I know by now to 
always bring notes when I meet you.’ She clears her throat, imagining she’s addressing a room 
full of people.

‘Sustainable development can be described in three dimensions: economic, social and 
environmental. Environmental trends over the last years look good for the European Union. 
Member States have improved water quality in rivers, cut greenhouse gas emissions, increased 

Figures for the Future  

63

14 Anne revisits sustainable development: Where do we go from here?

the share of organically farmed agricultural areas and boosted the share of renewable energy. 
We only see negative developments for preserving biodiversity, as shown by the continuing 
decline in bird indices.

Anne pauses as she considers how she’ll move onto the next two dimensions of sustainable 
development. Her prolific notes are a kind of jumbled here, so it’s hard to tell where one 
dimension finishes and another one starts. That gives her a clue. 

‘Due to the cross-cutting nature of several SDGs it’s hard to analyse social and economic 
trends separately,’ Anne continues. ‘But I can tell you about combined social and economic 
aspects. This has been ambiguous and to be honest, partly negative. The number of people 
at risk of poverty or social exclusion is declining but still at a high level. Also, the employment 
rate is close to the pre-crisis employment level. On the other hand, long-term unemployed 
account for almost half of all unemployed people. The economic crisis had a huge impact on 
many of these developments. GDP per capita has just started to grow again and we have to 
see if economic growth will enhance the situation.

Marta nods. ‘Does anything stand out in your research?’

Anne sighs. ‘Where do I start? With inequalities! With income there’s the five-fold gap 
between the richest and the poorest 20 % of the population, but there are also persisting 
gaps between women and men in earnings, employment and seats held as elected officials. 

‘The high youth unemployment rate comes to mind, which is twice the overall 
unemployment rate. And I also think about the declining job prospects for early school 
leavers, although the share of early leavers is falling and more and more people complete 
tertiary education. This is promising because the higher the educational level, the higher the 
chances of having a job.

‘I’ve also discovered that life expectancy is rising but not healthy life years. This brings me back 
to the relationship between health and income, as people in the lowest income quintile felt in 
worse health and had more unmet needs for medical care due to monetary reasons than the 
highest income quintile.

‘At the same time, income statistics don’t reflect all factors affecting health and well-being. 
Your point about Costa Rica made me think. Although many European countries are 
much better off than Costa Rica economically, they ranked lower in life satisfaction and life 
expectancy. Now, I don’t want to fall into romantic stereotypes about life outside of Europe. 
I’m sure that Costa Ricans face plenty of challenges, but it’s still worth asking why European 
life scores are lower. Do we have less access to fresh healthy food? Do we face more pressure 
to work long hours? There is also the question of whether we live in communities where 
friends and neighbours look out for each other.’

64

  Figures for the FutureAnne revisits sustainable development: Where do we go from here?

14

‘I was wondering if you looked into organised crime in Europe,’ Marta says. ‘That would also 
have an impact. I was thinking about figures on illicit financial flows, maybe seized arms... and 
what about protection of children from violence?’

‘Well, I tried to. Those issues relate to SDG 16 — the one about peace, justice and strong 
institutions. But there’s not always enough data, and we really need more information to 
evaluate these areas effectively. Statisticians are still working on better indicators to monitor 
everything related to the SDGs. In relation to SDG 16 especially, widening the range of data 
could strengthen our capacity to protect and empower all members of our society. I tried to 
do that in my post on life satisfaction, where I presented statistics on how people viewed their 
use of time and whether they felt they could count on friends and family.’ 

As she speaks, Anne recalls her relief when Zoe met her and Mark at the door after the reggae 
gig. Social bonds and solidarity do make such a big difference to the quality of life. 

‘But that’s just a beginning in our approach to non-monetary indicators,’ she adds. ‘We’ll 
definitely need more of them to meet the challenges that take us far beyond income. So how 
can we expand our statistical awareness to keep up with the world around us? I think we need 
to be open to new ideas. That’s why I found the Global Village of Alternatives in Montreuil so 
interesting...’   

Marta smiles. ‘I agree. Finding the frameworks and the figures that will help us make the SDGs 
a reality will be a big challenge for statisticians — and ultimately a challenge for us all.’

65

Figures for the Future  Abbreviations  
and acronyms

GEOGRAPHICAL AGGREGATES AND COUNTRIES

EU-28 

EU-27 

 The 28 Member States of the European Union from 1 July 2013 (BE, BG, 
CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, HR, IT, CY, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, AT, PL, PT, RO, 
SI, SK, FI, SE, UK)

 The 27 Member States of the European Union from 1 January 2007 to 30 
June 2013 (BE, BG, CZ, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, CY, LV, LT, LU, HU, MT, NL, 
AT, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK, FI, SE, UK)

EU-15 

 The 15 Member States of the European Union from 1 January 1995 to 30 
April 2004 (BE, DK, DE, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, LU, NL, AT, PT, FI, SE, UK)

Note that EU aggregates are back-calculated when enough information is available 
— for example, data relating to the EU-28 aggregate is presented when possible 
for periods before Croatia joined the EU in 2013 and the accession of Bulgaria and 
Romania in 2007, as if all 28 Member States had always been members of the EU. 
The label is changed if the data refer to another aggregate (EU-27 or EU-15).

EUROPEAN UNION MEMBER STATES

BE 

BG 

CZ 

DK 

DE 

EE 

IE 

EL 

ES 

FR 

HR 

Belgium

Bulgaria

Czech Republic

Denmark

Germany

Estonia

Ireland

Greece

Spain

France

Croatia

Figures for the future  

67

Abbreviations and acronyms

IT 

CY 

LV 

LT 

LU 

HU 

MT 

NL 

AT 

PL 

PT 

RO 

SI 

SK 

FI 

SE 

UK 

Italy

Cyprus

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Hungary

Malta

Netherlands

Austria

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Slovenia

Slovakia

Finland

Sweden

United Kingdom

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)

IS 

LI 

NO 

CH 

Iceland

Liechtenstein 

Norway 

Switzerland 

EU CANDIDATE COUNTRIES

ME 

MK 

AL 

RS 

TR 

Montenegro

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1)

Albania

Serbia

Turkey

(1)  The name of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is shown in tables as “FYR Macedonia”. This does 
not prejudge in any way the definitive nomenclature for this country, which is to be agreed following the 
conclusion of negotiations currently taking place on this subject at the United Nations.

68

  Figures for the futureAbbreviations and acronyms

POTENTIAL CANDIDATES

BA 

XK 

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Kosovo (2)

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

% 

°C 

Percent

Degree Celsius

EUR 

Euro

GJ 

ha 

kg 

l 

LSU 

mg 

Gigajoule

Hectare

Kilogram

litre

Livestock units

Milligram

Mtoe  Million tonnes of oil equivalent

toe 

Tonne of oil equivalent

ABBREVIATIONS

BOD 

Biochemical oxygen demand

CO2 

Carbon dioxide

DMC 

Domestic material consumption

EFTA 

European Free Trade Association

EU 

European Union

GDP 

Gross domestic product

GHG 

Greenhouse gas

IPCC 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

LDCs 

Least developed countries

PPS 

Purchasing power standards

SDGs 

Sustainable Development Goals

UN 

United Nations

UNFCCC  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

WEI 

Water exploitation index

(2)   This designation is without prejudice to position or status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244 and the ICJ 

Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence.

69

Figures for the future  HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS

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—  from the European Union’s representations  
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(http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/index_en.htm); 

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(*) The information given is free, as are most calls (though some operators, phone 
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Figures for the future
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN OUR 
EVERYDAY LIFE — A GUIDE FOR CITIZENS

‘Leave no one behind’, the central ethos of the Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs), guides Anne through her new 
project on sustainable development. Once again she is 
investigating whether the EU has moved towards sustainable 
development over the past 10 years, this time in the context of 
the SDGs. Based on indicators provided by Eurostat, she tries 
to ﬁ nd out how relevant the SDGs are in the European context.

Figures for the future is a statistical guide to the EU sustainable 
development indicators in the context of the SDGs. It 
communicates statistical ﬁ gures as seen through the eyes of a 
ﬁ ctional 21-year-old student, Anne. Anne aims to ﬁ nd answers 
to many questions that relate to our everyday lives and our 
future. What does it mean to be poor in Europe? How do we 
treat nature and our natural resources? Will there be job s for 
young people like her? What about quality of life?

These and many other questions are answered while Anne 
is writing a blog on sustainable development as part of her 
Young Women in Journalism scholarship. She links events 
in her everyday life to the SDGs, and looks into the statistics 
behind them. 

This book is a summary of all her blog entries. 

For more informations
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/

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