Culture, cities and identity in Europe : executive summary.
Date: 2016-09-16
Institutions: European Economic and Social Committee
Subjects: Europe, European citizenship, European identity, cultural pluralism, cultural transmission, culture industry, economic and social cohesion, economic growth, governance, social integration, town, urban area

Culture, Cities and
Identity in Europe

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

European Economic and Social Committee

Culture, Cities and Identity in Europe 

Executive summary 

This study was carried out by Culture Action Europe and Agenda 21 for Culture – UCLG following a call 
for tenders launched by the European Economic and Social Committee. The information and views set 
out in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the 
European Economic and Social Committee. The European Economic and Social Committee does not 
guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this study.  
Neither the European Economic and Social Committee nor any person acting on the European Economic 
and Social Committee’s behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information 
contained therein. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Contributors 

For Culture Action Europe 

Managing Editor 
Katherine Heid 

Research 
Mehdi Arfaoui 
Katherine Heid 

Advisor 
Luca Bergamo 

Layout 
Natalie Giorgadze 

For Agenda 21 for Culture – UCLG 

Research 
Carina Lopes 
Jordi Baltà Portolés 

Advisor 
Jordi Pascual 

Supporting editor 
Simon Mundy 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Executive Summary 

This study was commissioned by EESC from Culture Action Europe and Agenda 21 for Culture. It 
provides  an  overview  of  the  factors  in  EU  city  development  linked  to  culture  and  identity  through 
selective qualitative and quantitative analysis of research in the public domain. Culture is examined 
thematically in terms of its use as a vehicle for economic growth, a tool for reconverting cities, for 
integration and inclusiveness, and as a pillar of European identity within Europe and beyond.  

The methodology for the compilation of the report included a literature review of these four themes. A 
public call was issued to cities and other stakeholders to supply supporting evidence and examples of 
best practice. These were then analysed by the research team as case studies. 

The introduction notes the political and economic context at the current time: the rise of nationalist 
parties antagonistic towards the EU, the pressure on European cities and societies caused by the influx 
of people fleeing war and deprivation in  the Middle-East, Africa and other zones of unrest, and the 
continuing effects of the 2008 recession. For the first time in a generation the key values of European 
integration are under serious challenge. It is observed that there is a symbiosis between the inherited 
culture of the city space and the people who live, work and pass through; a process which influences 
the identity of each. 

It is noted that cities are increasing in population both in absolute terms and in relation to rural areas. 
Within this rise there is also an increase in city districts with multicultural characteristics and with a 
diversity of inhabitants in stark contrast to smaller towns and villages.  

The combination of identities within a city (and within its individual neighbourhoods) is crucial to the 
image and prosperity of the city itself. The inevitable exchange of ideas and cultural attitudes within 
cities has a strong and positive impact on their creative energy and innovation. A concern is flagged 
up that public spaces essential to this exchange are under threat from a combination of commercial 
and security pressures. 

The social and economic climate of the study was put into context by a miscellany of facts and figures 
that  tie  culture  into  the  issues  that  govern  European  activity.  These  were  extracted  from  Eurostat 
sources,  UNCTAD,  Ernst  and  Young  (EY)  and  a  study  on  regional  cultural  diversity  by 
WWWforEurope. 

These  demonstrated  that  cultural  diversity  is  unevenly  spread  across  European  cities,  with  greater 
concentrations in large urban conglomerations, and in Western and Middle Europe. Culture – defined 
as arts, literature, traditions, languages, values and beliefs – is almost universally thought of as being 
important to tolerance and integration, while the expressive activities that derive from it are important 
to at least three-quarters of Europe's population, with a higher percentage still among those with good 
educational attainment. 

Cultural participation is reasonably constant across the age spectrum, there is (unsurprisingly) more 
emphasis on communal and social attendance among young people, though this is not true of all art 
forms. While a good overall majority attend events a far smaller percentage are active as amateurs. 
The market for culture, though, continues to be a major driver of city economic health. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Culture, Cities and Identity in Europe 

Alongside culture itself are the industries associated with it, including the media, advertising, fashion, 
design and publishing in all its forms, together with the new industries of video gaming and digital 
enterprise.  If  these  are  grouped  together  as  activities  that  are  heavily  dependent  on  intellectual 
property  for  their  income,  they  contribute  around  39%  of  the  EU's  GDP.  The  knock-on  effect  of 
cultural industries through the infrastructure put in place to allow them to flourish – from offices to 
the  cultural  centres,  concert  halls,  theatres,  cinemas,  museums,  heritage  sites  and  studios  –  is  felt 
throughout a city, from the restaurants, hotels, shops and bars to the transport system. 

The study divided these effects into three categories: a narrow view of culture, limiting it to just the 
arts  and  heritage;  a  broader  view  encompassing  the  cultural  industries  too;  and  an  extended  view 
including the impact on the commercial operations that benefited from the economic traffic generated. 
A  series  of  examples  are  detailed  in  the  study,  ranging  from  the  5.5%  of  city  GDP  acquired  from 
Bilbao's cultural policy initiatives, through the positive effect of Umbria's Jazz festival in 2007 to that 
of  Salamanca's  year  as  European  Capital  of  Culture  in  2002,  which  is  said  to  have  generated  over 
€700m to the Spanish economy. 

For all its impressive financial impact, culture (and especially its subsets of arts and heritage) has a 
value in terms of human expression that transcends the economic benefit accruing from it. That value 
is  not  negligible  and  is  increasingly  useful  to  economies  that  have  a  diminishing  base  of  natural 
resources  and  manufacturing  industries.  Culture  drives  tourism  as  much  as  sea  and  weather.  It  also 
provides the catalytic element around which other service industries can gather and grow. 

Such economic evidence underpins but is not alone in explaining the role culture plays as a tool for 
reconverting cities – in helping them to reinvent themselves as dynamic and attractive centres. Cities 
have  always  known  this  but  in  this  century  culture  has  increasingly  been  used  to  give  them  a 
competitive edge over rivals, not only within their own region or country, but across Europe and the 
wider world. It has also been used by smaller cities to draw attention away from national and regional 
capitals, allowing them to promote their energy and distinctiveness. 

It is understood that urban transformation requires not only investment in hard infrastructure, but also 
in soft skills and competences generated by education and lifelong learning, internal networking and 
stronger social capital. In this respect, attention needs to be paid to the active participation of citizens 
as  co-creators  of  regeneration,  moving  from  top-down  to  more  balanced  processes,  where  civic 
renewal replaces more restricted views of urban reconversion.  

Attention is drawn to four processes in which culture and city regeneration go hand in hand: culture-
led regeneration, using arts buildings and projects to redefine an area and draw in other businesses; 
cultural  regeneration,  which  uses  cultural  lifestyle  integration  in  an  area  strategy;  culture  and 
regeneration, where culture is part of but not integral to a strategy; and artist-led regeneration, where 
the establishment of artists' studios and galleries leads to an area becoming more desirable and trendy 
to live in. The study points out that it is important to place the inhabitants of a neighbourhood at the 
heart  of  regeneration  attempts.  It  warns  of  the  risks  of  social  homogenisation  and  gentrification  if 
cities  regard  culture  just  as  a  way  of  making  run-down  areas  fashionable  and  tidy.  While  this  may 
improve the appearance and the statistics of an area, it shifts the problems somewhere else by driving 
tenants the regeneration was supposed to help out of the area as property prices rise. 

In a number of places the report raises the argument about whether culture, both contemporary and 
heritage, is best treated in terms of its own importance or as a contributor to other social and economic 
benefits. It suggests that, while strategies that leave out the cultural dimension are unlikely to be more 
than superficially successful, in the long term it is when culture is valued on its own terms that it plays 
the most positive role in giving a city its life and reputation. Moreover, valuing it on its own terms 
involves  providing  cultural  organisations  with  space,  continuing  investment  and  visibility  –  the 

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Culture, Cities and Identity in Europe 

benefits are lost if support is seen as one-off or time limited. 

The reinvention of derelict spaces or abandoned urban areas is helped considerably when artists and 
cultural  organisations  are  given  the  freedom  to  use  their  imagination.  They  help  citizens  and 
businesses  rediscover  territories,  often  with  a  fresh  sensitivity  to  the  environment  and  community 
well-being.  While  the  infrastructure  for  mainstream  cultural  buildings  remains  important,  the 
emphasis is shifting towards providing the basic facilities so that more informal and organic cultural 
initiatives can form and thrive – a process that appeals especially to young people who are best placed 
to provide the forward-looking energy a city needs to compete. This also helps to protect the city from 
imposed and destructive modernisation planning which redevelops cities without paying attention to 
local history and tradition: well-intentioned action that often leaves the city less vibrant than before 
and has to be rethought after a few years.  

When designing new spaces to improve the quality of urban life culture is the key element that makes 
the process innovative and sustainable. Where those cities that have enjoyed the title European Capital 
of Culture have followed this path their renewal has proved to outlive the original programme by an 
impressive period of time. Equally the cities illustrated among the best practice examples bear out the 
observation. 

In looking at culture as a tool for integration and inclusiveness, the study reports that this has been 
recognised  by  a  significant  number  of  intergovernmental  organisations,  including  the  EU  itself. 
UNESCO places intercultural dialogue at the heart of its policies on inclusiveness. Indeed it is seen as 
crucial  to  allowing  migration  without  serious  social  unrest.  The  EU's  outline  for  National  Action 
Plans  for  Social  Inclusion  points  out  the  role  the  cultural  sector  can  play  in  alleviating  the  risk  of 
exclusion.  Similarly  the  joint  action  by  the  EU  and  Council  of  Europe  in  creating  a  network  of 
Intercultural Cities illustrates the belief in the potential of such policies. The necessity of enhancing 
intercultural inclusion goes beyond the realm of pleasant cities and healthy prosperity to the duty of 
protection; doing all that is possible to divert the frustration that builds from exclusion and leads to 
unrest and terrorism. 

Despite the clear imperative to use culture as part of the integration and conflict alleviation process, 
and its recognition by policy makers, there is a need for more research and effective evaluation of the 
tools.  While  there  is  good  anecdotal  and  isolated  project  evidence  –  and  an  awareness  that  the 
opposite  of  intercultural  dialogue,  hostile  separation,  is  plainly  dangerous  –  more  will  need  to  be 
gathered  so  that  adequate  resources  and  political  will  can  be  devoted  to the  work.  A  section  of the 
study is devoted to statements from international reports that link closely the notions of human rights, 
citizenship and cultural inclusion. 

The  study  suggest  that,  while  the  arts  and  cultural  industries  are  ahead  of  many  sectors  of  the 
economy, there is considerable progress still to be made before policies on gender and special needs 
can be regarded as satisfactory. This applies equally to cultural activities themselves as to the projects 
in which they are used for regeneration or education. However there is great potential for the cultural 
sector to lead the way, as the examples of good practice show. 

The contribution of culture to European identity and its reach is greater than the effect of emblematic 
actions within Europe, or of cultural diplomacy to the rest of the world.  Identity is forged in a global 
context, where necessarily it escapes border definitions, often to the discomfort of governments. Quite 
apart  from  the  struggle  between  regional,  national  and  European  identity  which  bedevils  political 
debate  (and  which  leads  to  tension  in  the  interpretation  of  heritage  sites),  cities  are  home  to  many 
people who regard their identity as multiple and flexible. They are perfectly certain of their identity 
but they express it in ways that are unpredictable and which go against authorities' preference for easy 
categorisation. 

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Culture, Cities and Identity in Europe 

To its credit the European Union has generally acknowledged that identity is not something that can 
be  imposed  on  individuals.  The  European  Cities  of  Culture  programme  has  in  one  sense  become  a 
way  of  embracing  the  inherent  diversity  and  including  it  in  a  deliberately  vague  definition  of 
European identity. It is therefore presented as being the sum total of the cultural identities of all the 
people who live in Europe, rather than the official cultures of the EU's Member States. Consequently 
cities  are  more  useful  in  spreading  the  impression  of  Europe  as  an  inclusive  cultural  space  than 
nations,  anxious  to  promote  their  own  territorial  histories.  Cities  therefore  become  autonomous 
cultural actors in Europe's global story and they develop strategies that position themselves as of local 
and international importance, rather than primarily national as they would have done a century ago.  

Cultural networks have proved to be an effective tool for bringing in partners from beyond Europe's 
borders,  and for  extending  projects  across  the  borders  of  Member  States.  Cultural  mobility  is  often 
more  natural  and  easier  to  organise  than  employment  or  political  mobility,  thanks  to  the  ability  of 
creative professionals to develop their work at the international level. Networks of cities have been 
particularly active in joining forces across borders and in putting cultural exchange and co-operation 
at the heart of the plans they invent. 

The recommendations that  conclude the study are grouped into four general requests  - that the EU: 
recognises cultural rights as fundamental to human development; acknowledges culture as a necessity 
for  sustainable  development;  supports  exchange  between  cultures  to  foster  social  and  economic 
development; and empowers cities’ decisions on culture to shape our future.  

Within these there is a call to view culture, not as an output of cultural organisations but as an enabler 
of  citizens,  using  common  spaces  within  cities  for  dialogue  and  exchange.  There  is  a  warning  that 
cultural  rights  can  sometimes  be  used  as  an  obstruction  to  wider  human  rights,  defending  practices 
that in reality have more to do with social restriction and control than freedom of cultural expression. 
It is stressed that cities need to use cultural policies to remove such obstructions. 

Sustainability is becoming a crucial element of city economic and social policy and regarding culture 
as  a  stand-alone  pillar  of  this  should  be  normal  practice.  There  is  a  natural  connectivity  between 
culture  and  all  the  other  areas  of  sustainability.  Similarly  a  strong  policy  for  culture  will  have  a 
positive impact on other public and private initiatives. This should be reflected in cohesion strategies 
and measures aimed at increasing economic growth. 

The recommendations call on all levels of government to place dialogue with civil society at the heart 
of  decision-making.  True  intercultural  dialogue  will  flow  from  this.  The  initiatives  taken  by 
individuals and community groups at the grassroots level are essential to the process and need to be 
properly supported. 

Promoting cultural exchange to increase mobility is seen as important to fostering a sense of European 
identity  that  transcends  national  labels.  Cities,  already  thinking  in  networks  and  looking  for 
opportunities  to  widen  co-operation,  are  perfectly  placed  for  this.  They  are  also  best  placed  for 
helping individuals and community groups develop projects across borders. 

City networks should be encouraged to increase their co-operation internationally outwith as well as 
within the EU. This should be seen not only as a policy in support of sustainable development but one 
which sees migration and mobility as part of the solution to contemporary pressures, not as a problem. 
Cultural  organisations  are  well  placed  to  make  this  aspiration  a  reality.  While  infrastructure  is 
important it is less valuable than the work done within the buildings.  

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Culture, Cities and Identity in Europe 

Finally,  cities  should  be  empowered  to  rethink  their  policies  with  culture  as  their  starting  point. 
Regeneration strategies should be aimed at bringing peripheral communities back into the centre by 
reversing the social geography of cities. Security would be enhanced by encouraging the creative use 
of  public  spaces  for  dialogue.  Cultural  buildings  can  play  a  huge  part  in  this  if  they  are  open, 
welcoming and natural meeting places. 

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