Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages.
Date: 2016-01-11
Institutions: Eurofound
Subjects: EU Member State, arrangement of working time, health risk, job security, labour market, quality of life, remuneration of work, report, social well-being, unskilled worker, worker (EU), working conditions, working life, working time

Improving working conditions 
in occupations with 
multiple disadvantages

Coordinating the Network of EU Agencies 2015

Improving working conditions in
occupations with multiple disadvantages

Wyattville Road, Loughlinstown, Dublin 18 D18 KP65, Ireland. – Tel: (+353 1) 204 31 00 
Email: information@eurofound.europa.eu – Web: www.eurofound.europa.eu

When citing this report, please use the following wording:

Eurofound (2015), Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages, Publications Office of
the European Union, Luxembourg.

Authors: Jessica Durán López and Iñigo Isusi (IKEI), Oscar Vargas Llave, Karel Fric and Ricardo Rodriguez
Contreras (Eurofound), with contributions by Darina Peycheva, Stefania Capecchi, Gijs van Houten and Maurizio
Curtarelli.

Research managers: Oscar Vargas Llave, Karel Fric, Ricardo Rodriguez Contreras and Agnès Parent-Thirion.

Eurofound project: Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages (141016)

The authors wish to thank the following members of the Group of Experts who participated in the meetings of
6 March 2014 and 12 March 2015: Andrea Broughton (Institute for Employment Studies, London),
Marianne de Troyer (ETUI, Brussels), Ekaterina Markova (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia),
Claudia Villosio, (LABORatorio R. Revelli, Centre for Employment Studies, Turin), Vladka Komel (Ministry of
Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, Ljubljana), Laila Castaldo (UNI Europa),
Ursula Holtgrewe (FORBA), Kerstin Howald (EFFAT), Lidia Salvatore (CEDEFOP),
Ilaria Savoini (EuroCommerce), Rebekah Smith (BUSINESSEUROPE), Isabel Sobrino Mate (HOTREC).

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015

doi:10.2806/279323
ISBN: 978-92-897-1397-9

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

For rights of translation or reproduction, applications should be made to the Director, European Foundation for the Improvement of
Living and Working Conditions, Wyattville Road, Loughlinstown, Dublin 18, D18 KP65, Ireland.

The  European  Foundation  for  the  Improvement  of  Living  and  Working  Conditions  (Eurofound)  is  a  tripartite  European  Union
Agency, whose role is to provide knowledge in the area of social and work-related policies. Eurofound was established in 1975 by
Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1365/75, to contribute to the planning and design of better living and working conditions in Europe.

European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions
Telephone (+353 1) 204 31 00
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Executive summary

Introduction

1. Overview of working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages 

2. National perspective

3. Initiatives and policies aimed at improving working conditions

4. Conclusions and potential avenues for improvements

Bibliography 

Annexes

Contents

1

5

9

51

67

103

113

119 

Abbreviations used in the report

Cedefop

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training 

ČSÚ

CVVM

Czech Statistical Office 

Institute of Sociology of the Czech Academy of Sciences 

EL.STAT

Hellenic Statistical Authority 

ETUC

EU LFS

EWCS

GUS

Horeca

HSE

IGA

ISCO

ISPV

ISTAT

NACE

NFA

NGO

NWCS

OMD

ONS

WHO

European Trade Union Confederation 

European Union Labour Force Survey

European Working Conditions Survey 

Central Statistical Office [Poland]

hotel and restaurant sector

Health and Safety Executive [UK]

Health and Work Initiative [Germany]

International Standard Classification of Occupations 

Average Earnings Information System [Czech Republic]

National Institute of Statistics [Italy]

Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community 

National Research Centre for the Working Environment [Denmark]

non-governmental organisation

Netherlands Working Conditions Survey 

occupations with multiple disadvantages 

Office for National Statistics [UK]

World Health Organization

Country groups and codes

Country groups

EU15 

15 EU Member States prior to enlargement in 2004 

EU28  Current 28 EU Member States

Country codes

The  order  of  the  countries  follows  the  EU  protocol  based  on  the  alphabetical  order  of  the  geographical  names  of
countries in the original language.

BE

BG

CZ

DK

DE

EE

IE

EL

ES

FR

HR

IT

CY

LV

Belgium

Bulgaria

Czech Republic

Denmark

Germany

Estonia

Ireland

Greece

Spain

France 

Croatia

Italy

Cyprus

Latvia

LT

LU

HU

MT

NL

AT

PL

PT 

RO

SI

SK

FI

SE

UK

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Hungary

Malta

Netherlands

Austria

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Slovenia

Slovakia

Finland

Sweden

United Kingdom

Executive summary

Introduction

Occupation  is  a  critical  element  in  the  type  of  working  conditions  experienced  during  a  person’s  working  life,  with
knock-on effects for their health and well-being, income, working time, job security and career prospects. Based on data
from the European Working Conditions Survey 2010 and the EU Labour Force Survey 2013, this report explores the
working conditions of workers – particularly the medium-to-low skilled and unskilled – in occupations that are found to
have low levels of job quality as measured by four key indicators: earnings, prospects, working time and intrinsic job
quality.  While  the  term  ‘disadvantaged’  is  quite  new  in  work-related  studies  and  policies,  it  reflects  the  reality  of  a
considerable proportion of jobs in these occupations. 

Supplemented by information from across all 28 EU Member States submitted by Eurofound’s network of European
correspondents, the report presents examples of initiatives, policies and measures at national level aimed at improving
overall working conditions in these disadvantaged occupations. 

Policy context

A  key  priority  of  the  European  Union’s  employment  strategy  and  Europe  2020  is  to  create  more  and  better  jobs  in
Europe, while improving their quality and ensuring better working conditions. The Commission’s 2010 Agenda for new
skills and jobs places an emphasis on skills development to foster job quality and productivity. The improvement of
working conditions can ensure a longer working life and more sustainable work and employment, with positive effects
on participation in the labour market and on company productivity.

To achieve economic growth and job creation, the working conditions of all workers need to be improved, through higher
standards of occupational health, safety and well-being at work, as well as enhanced opportunities for skills development
and employment prospects. As workers in occupations with multiple disadvantages are at risk of social exclusion, job
insecurity  and  health  problems,  improving  the  employment  and  working  conditions  of  this  category  of  workers  can
contribute to achieving more sustainable work and a more inclusive labour market.

Key findings

Occupations  with  multiple  disadvantages  include  personal  service  workers  (waiters,  bartenders  and  cooks),  sales
personnel  (shop  salespersons,  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks),  plant  and  machine  operator  jobs  (assemblers,  machine
operators and drivers) and elementary occupations (mining, construction and manufacturing labourers, refuse workers
and food preparation assistants).  

Most workers in these occupations are disadvantaged in terms of being subject to high job strain, exposure to health risks
and difficulties in accessing training. They also experience more job insecurity and poorer career prospects than in other
occupations. 

Experiencing multiple disadvantages can have a detrimental effect on the careers of these workers and ultimately on their
participation in the labour market. According to the research, a high proportion of workers in most of these occupations
reported that they would not to be able to work when they were 60 years old.

There  is  a  clear  concentration  of  these  occupations  in  medium-to-low  skilled  occupations  in  the  service  and
manufacturing  sectors,  and  low-skilled  to  unskilled  occupations  in  various  sectors.  Two  occupations  in  particular  –
drivers and refuse workers – endure very poor conditions in most areas, with negative impacts on work–life balance,
ability to make ends meet and, above all, health status. 

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Some occupations with multiple disadvantages are dominated by a specific social group: for example, a high proportion
of women work as cashiers and ticket clerks, young workers as waiters, and people of foreign origin as food preparation
assistants.

The  majority  of  the  policies  and  initiatives  designed  to  improve  working  conditions  in  occupations  with  multiple
disadvantages are aimed at sector level (negotiated through social dialogue and collective bargaining), although there are
a few examples targeted at specific occupations: for example, berry pickers, miners, domestic cleaners and drivers. 

Over half of the measures identified in the research (54%) are aimed at improving working conditions related to intrinsic
job quality – such as skills, autonomy, social and physical environment, risk prevention and work sustainability – while
37% relate to earnings, 25% to working time and 20% to prospects.  

The  study  identified  transversal  initiatives  and  policies  targeting  broader  groups  of  occupations  or  even  the  entire
workforce, aimed at attaining minimum quality levels for all occupations in one or several job quality domains. These
cross-cutting initiatives have been developed by public authorities (in the form of legislation), social partners or third
parties (non-governmental organisations) and include the following: setting or raising of minimum wages, reducing the
duration  of  working  hours  or  limiting  the  presence  of  unsocial  working  hours,  fostering  skills  development  and
preventing social or physical environmental risks.

The research pointed to the need to foster the development of policies in specific occupations: for example, initiatives
in relation to working time in the hotels, restaurants and catering sector and job strain in manufacturing. One important
issue  for  policymaking  is  tackling  undeclared  work  or  illegal  employment,  prevalent  in  several  disadvantaged
occupations.

Policy pointers

n

Issues  for  further  research  include  the  relationships  between  occupations  with  multiple  disadvantages  and  the
prevalence of informal economy practices.

n A  qualitative  assessment  of  existing  policies  to  improve  the  working  conditions  in  these  occupations  should  be

further developed.

n Future policy debates on working conditions both at EU and national level and in social dialogue should take the

occupational perspective into account. 

n

Initiatives from sectoral social dialogue to address the occupational perspective could provide a suitable framework
for developing improvements to working conditions since they can address the issue from a holistic or multilevel
standpoint.   

n Governments and national-level social partners (under intersectoral agreements) should develop initiatives to address

the poor working conditions of all workers, regardless of their occupation or membership of a trade union. 

n As  transversal  policies  normally  target  all  workers  and  focus  on  minimum  standards,  they  can  contribute  to
improving the quality of work of employees in occupations with multiple disadvantages in one or several aspects of
working conditions. In some cases, they may address issues that are not tackled directly through specific sectoral or
occupational policies.  

n Given that social policies target certain disadvantaged groups in society based on inequalities in relation to gender,
income, housing and health and the fact that disadvantages are concentrated in some occupations, a mainstreaming
policy for these occupations could be considered at different levels.

2

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

n

Improving the job quality of workers in these occupations would contribute to the aims of growth and job creation
in  Europe,  and  help  meet  the  challenge  of  increasing  inequalities  in  societies,  including  reducing  the  risk  of
unemployment. The occupational approach can be a major element in fostering inclusiveness in the labour market
and sustainable work.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

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Introduction

The working conditions of an individual during their life course are largely determined by their occupation. The study
of  working  conditions  from  an  occupational  perspective  provides  a  meaningful  indication  of  the  typical  work
environment in specific jobs or occupations, and can identify differences which will have significant implications for the
well-being of workers. A situation in which workers in certain occupations suffer poor conditions in different aspects of
their job poses questions for the sustainability of their careers. Policymakers and/or organisations can develop initiatives
to avoid the unwanted consequences of those disadvantages such as health problems, in-work poverty or work–family
conflicts.

From a sociological perspective, the type of work provides one of the best single indicators of the overall life situation
of workers. It is a key cause and consequence of relative position with respect to stable inequalities or social stratification
(Ritzer,  2007).  Different  occupations  are  therefore  not  only  associated  with  variations  in  employment  and  working
conditions,  but  also  (and,  in  part,  because  of  that)  with  inequalities  in  society.  In  principle,  occupations  not  only
determine different monetary rewards or authority and position in society, but also influence possibilities for organising
an  individual’s  time,  the  extent  to  which  they  enjoy  a  healthy  environment  and  their  opportunities  for  professional
development.

Various studies have addressed the issue of inequalities between occupations and changes in the structure of occupations
in terms of wages or level of educational attainment (see, for example: Oesch, 2013; Eurofound, 2014a). However, there
are  few  comparative  analyses  looking  at  the  multidimensional  perspective  of  the  working  conditions  of  the  job  or
specific occupations at European level. When the various dimensions of working conditions of an occupation are of poor
quality, the occupation is said to be ‘disadvantaged’. This term is more frequently used in sociological analysis and social
policies in the context of deprivation of certain social groups or categories of individuals such as ethnic groups, gender
differences, poor people and the homeless. This report looks at the specific working conditions of occupations from a
multidimensional perspective and similarly these are referred to as ‘occupations with multiple disadvantages’.

Research approach

Eurofound’s report, Occupational profiles in working conditions: Identification of groups with multiple disadvantages,
shows  that  there  is  an  accumulation  of  disadvantages  in  relation  to  four  job  quality  areas  (earnings,  working  time,
prospects  and  intrinsic  job  quality)1 in  certain  major  occupational  groups  (Eurofound,  2014b).  It  confirmed  that
differences between occupations are often related to the level of skills required to carry out the task. Thus, disadvantages
are  accumulated  differently  according  to  the  position  in  the  occupational  structure.  The  only  area  that  is  not  clearly
associated with the position in the occupational structure is working time quality.

In  the  present  study,  the  employment  and  working  conditions  analysis  delves  deeper  into  the  occupational  level  to
identify the characteristics of more specific occupations. The analysis in this report is mainly developed at the 3-digit
level  of  the  International  Standard  Classification  of  Occupations  (ISCO)  called  minor  groups.  When  this  was  not
possible  due  to  availability  of  data  or  sample  size  requirements,  information  is  provided  either  at  a  2-digit  level
(sub-major groups) or a 1-digit level (major groups) (ILO, 2008). To contribute further to policymaking, the report also
tries to be more specific in relation to what are the conditions that make those occupations disadvantaged. In relation to
working time, for example, differences are shown in indicators such as long hours, part-time and irregular time. 

1

See Annex I of this report for an explanation of the job quality indices used and which are described in the report, Trends in job
quality in Europe (Eurofound, 2012a).

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

To  tackle  those  disadvantages,  policy  initiatives  to  improve  the  working  conditions  of  certain  occupations  can  be
developed by different actors or institutions in the labour market. Several contextual factors related to specific country
situations  seem  to  play  a  role  as  regards  the  type  of  actor  –  for  example,  government,  social  partners  or  non-
governmental  organisations  (NGOs)  –  or  the  working  conditions  area  that  they  try  to  improve.  When  workers  from
certain  occupations  are  organised  in  trade  unions  and  social  dialogue  is  embedded  in  the  policymaking  process  of  a
country, it is more likely that social partners will develop policies by means of agreements. In most European countries,
representation  of  workers  is  articulated  by  sector  and/or  company  level. This  aspect  has  implications  for  the  type  of
policies existing in the various countries. Governments are the other relevant actors, especially for regulating minimum
standards – mainly in relation to working time and health and safety – but also in some countries in relation to skills
development and other working conditions. 

There are limitations to the extent to which the working conditions of specific jobs and occupations can be improved.
These limitations are determined by the characteristics of the organisation of the production system, which can have
implications for health risks or working time arrangements. When these constraints exist it is more difficult to develop
policies to improve working conditions. For a policy to be successful, it has to consider the source and nature of the
disadvantages. For example, although it is not the focus of this report, labour market segmentation in some countries
could be one of the origins of the divide between multiple disadvantaged occupations and not being disadvantaged in
some aspects of the job.

EU policy

At EU level, regulations exist, for example, on protecting workers in terms of working time and health and safety, and
also in relation to the rights of workers on fixed-term contracts. However, the analyses show that some workers are still
exposed to risky conditions. The findings of this report are relevant in the context of meeting the challenges set by the
European Employment Strategy and the Europe 2020 strategy (European Commission, 2010a). The initiative, An agenda
for new skills and jobs, is how the European Commission is helping the European Union reach its employment target
and reduce poverty and social exclusion (European Commission, 2010b). Identifying poor job quality aspects and their
multidimensional component, as well as mapping relevant policies and identification of possible areas to be improved,
can contribute to reducing exits from the labour market and attract people to it. Therefore, a contribution can be made
to the Europe 2020 target of 75% of 20–64 year-olds to be employed in 2020. Moreover, certain conditions of people at
work like low income, risky health environment and lack of opportunities for skills development or work–life balance
pressures could be associated with situations of poverty and social exclusion.

This  report  explores  the  working  conditions  of  workers,  particularly  the  medium-to-low  skilled  and  unskilled,  in
occupations that accumulate multiple disadvantages. Considering these conditions and taking into account the relevance
of the occupational perspective for the overall well-being of the worker, the report identifies examples of policies that
can improve those conditions and make work in these occupations more sustainable. Therefore, the purpose of this study
is twofold:

n

to map disadvantages in terms of working conditions related to specific occupational groups to provide policymakers
with specific knowledge to design policies and initiatives to improve the working conditions of such occupations; 

n

to map existing initiatives, programmes and services in EU Member States.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Structure of the report

Chapter  1  presents  the  findings  of  an  analysis  of  data  from  the  European  Working  Conditions  Survey  2010  and  the
European Labour Force Survey 2013. It contains a comparative analysis of occupations with multiple disadvantages and
all other occupations in relation to specific working conditions. 

Chapter 2 complements these findings with national-level information obtained from contributions from Eurofound’s
network of correspondents from the 28 Member States and Norway. The occupations identified by the statistical analysis
in Chapter 1 as having multiple disadvantages are associated with poor working conditions in many EU countries. In
addition,  a  small  number  of  other  occupations  have  been  identified  by  the  national  contributions  as  having  various
disadvantages in specific countries. 

Chapter 3 presents examples of policies and initiatives carried out mainly by social partners and governments at EU and
national level with the aim of improving the working conditions of workers in occupations with multiple disadvantages.
Because  of  the  sectoral  approach  of  most  initiatives,  the  chapter  is  structured  by  groups  of  occupations  normally
belonging to the same economic sector. Even though the collection of initiatives does not represent an exhaustive list of
all those present in European countries, where possible a ‘policy gap analysis’ has been developed to identify areas of
job quality with less coverage by policies for specific occupations or groups of occupations. 

Finally, Chapter 4 derives conclusions about the situation and future of occupations with disadvantages, offering possible
explanatory arguments. A reflection on the contribution of present policies and implications for workers and society in
Europe is included. 

Annex  I  explains  the  methodology  used  in  this  report.  Annex  II  contains  a  graph  showing  the  distribution  of
disadvantaged  occupations  across  sectors. Annex  III,  which  is  available  on  request  from  Eurofound,  contains  a  table
summarising the various policies identified in the contributions from the network of correspondents.

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Overview of working conditions in
occupations with multiple disadvantages 

1

This chapter describes the working conditions of workers in occupations with multiple disadvantages (OMD) in Europe.
The analysis is based on the fifth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS2010) and the European Union Labour
Force Survey carried out in 2013 (EU LFS). Describing the specific working conditions of OMD enables the extent to
which  they  are  disadvantaged  and  in  what  aspects  to  be  determined.  This  information  is  not  only  relevant  for
policymakers and the public, but can also contribute to the development of effective initiatives to improve the working
conditions of the selected occupations.

The  chapter  begins  by  focusing  on  the  occupations  identified  as  OMD,  highlighting  their  distribution  across  the
occupational structure and sectors. This part of the analysis is completed by examining the evolution of OMD in the
occupational  structure  –  in  terms  of  understanding  future  conditions.  This  is  followed  by  a  description  of  the
sociodemographic characteristics of workers in OMD and a look at specific aspects of their working conditions such as
characteristics of working time and work–life balance, income situation, employment type, job insecurity and prospects,
training provision, and health and well-being risks and outcomes. The sustainability of work for OMD is also discussed,
with  the  findings  being  presented  in  comparative  terms  between  the  specific  occupations  and  all  other  occupations.
Finally,  occupational  profiles  are  developed  to  illustrate  the  conditions  of  work  and  employment  in  OMD  and  the
importance of considering the national context is explained through comparative country analysis.

Selection of OMD, distribution and trends

The OMD examined in this report were selected using data from the EWCS2010 based on the variation of indices of job
quality across occupations. 

Job quality indices
The occupations listed in Table 1 have relatively poor working conditions compared with other occupations in three out
of  four  job  quality  indices  –  earnings,  working  time,  prospects  and  intrinsic  job  quality  (see Annex  I)  –  built  using
indicators related to each area (see Eurofound, 2012a). 

n The earnings index captures the level of monetary reward through the construction of a harmonised monthly earnings

variable. 

n The prospects index refers to a person’s needs for employment: continuity, enhancement, job security and prospects

for advancement in their job. 

n The  intrinsic  job  quality  index  refers  to  the  social  and  physical  environment,  including  skills  and  job  discretion

(autonomy) and work intensity. 

n The working time index is closely related to whether the job in the occupation allows for a good balance between a

person’s working life and private life.

The  application  of  the  job  quality  indices  to  occupations  at  the  ISCO-08  3-digit  level  sought  to  select  OMD.  It  was
assumed that a given occupation had poor working conditions in a given aspect if it ranked in the bottom tercile of the
distribution of all occupations. Table 1 shows how the occupations selected as OMD score in the individual indices. For
example, cooks on average have a relatively low job quality in relation to earnings, intrinsic job quality and working
time quality, but not for prospects. 

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Note that when an occupation is defined as OMD, it means that on average, workers have poorer conditions in three or
four of the job quality areas. However, this does not necessarily mean that all workers in these occupations are in jobs
with  multiple  disadvantages.  At  the  same  time,  some  jobs  with  multiple  disadvantages  may  be  present  in  other
occupations.

Table 1: Job quality areas where workers in OMD have low scores

Occupation 

Cooks

Waiters and bartenders 

Shop salespersons 

Cashiers and ticket clerks 

Food processing and related trades workers

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related
trades workers 

Garment and related trades workers 

Machine operators 

Assemblers 

Car, van and motorcycle drivers 

Mobile plant operators 

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers 

Mining and construction labourers 

Manufacturing labourers 

Food preparation assistants 

Refuse workers 

ISCO-08 
3-digit code

Earnings

Prospects 

Intrinsic job
quality

Working time
quality

512

513

522

523

751

752

753

814–818

821

832

834

921

931

932

941

961

Note: Table cells shaded in yellow indicate a low job quality score.

Distribution of workers in OMD between the ISCO main occupational groups
OMD are not equally distributed between ISCO’s nine main categories (Figure 1). So what occupations are OMD and
in what proportion are they included in the major occupational groups?

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 1: Distribution of workers between ISCO main groups and share of workers in OMD in the EU28, 
2013 (% of all workers) 

Managers (1)

Professionals (2)

Technicians and associate professionals (3)

Clerical support workers (4)

Service and sales workers (5)

Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers (6)

Craft and related trades workers (7)

Plant and machine operators, and assemblers (8)

Elementary occupations (9)

0%

10%

20%

All other occupations

OMD

Notes: 1-digit level ISCO-08 codes are shown in brackets after the name of the main occupational group. No data are available for
Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

A high proportion of workers in the group ‘service and sales workers’ are in OMD, although this group are not at the
bottom of the occupational structure. Service and sales workers normally require the completion of secondary education,
which  may  include  a  significant  component  of  specialised  vocational  education  and  on-the-job  training.  Some
occupations require completion of vocation-specific education after completion of secondary education. Cooks, waiters
and bartenders are workers who provide personal services related to catering and hospitality, preparing and serving food
and beverages. Sales workers (shop salespersons, cashiers and ticket clerks) sell and demonstrate goods in wholesale or
retail  shops.  They  may  record  and  accept  payments  for  goods  and  services  purchased,  and  may  operate  small  retail
outlets. Some operate cash registers, optical price scanners, computers or other equipment to record and accept payment
for the purchase of goods and services. Supervision of other workers may be included for the whole group of ‘service
and sales workers’ (ILO, 2012).

The workers in OMD in the broad occupational group of ‘plant and machine operators, and assemblers’ represent 62%
of the workers in that group. These workers operate and monitor industrial machinery and equipment on the spot or by
remote control, drive and operate vehicles and mobile machinery and equipment, or assemble products from component
parts according to strict specifications and procedures. The skills required normally correspond to secondary education
or vocational training. 

The third broad group with OMD is ‘elementary occupations’. It would have been expected that more occupations in
this group would have been selected as having multiple disadvantages. Workers in these occupations perform simple
routine tasks which may require the use of hand-held tools and considerable physical effort. They need skills at a lower
level than do ‘service and sales workers’ or ‘plant and machine operators, and assemblers’, and include occupations in
different  trades.  Refuse  workers  collect  process  and  recycle  waste  from  buildings,  streets,  gardens  and  other  public
places,  or  keep  streets  and  other  public  places  clean.  Food  preparation  assistants  (includes  fast-food  preparers  and

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

kitchen helpers) prepare and cook to order a small variety of pre-cooked food or beverages, clear tables, clean kitchen
areas and wash dishes. Another occupation selected as OMD from the group ‘elementary occupations’ is mining and
construction  labourers,  who  perform  simple  and  routine  manual  tasks  in  mining,  quarrying,  civil  engineering  and
building operations. The last occupation of this broad occupational group is agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers.
They  perform  simple  and  routine  tasks  in  the  production  of  crops  and  livestock,  the  cultivation  and  maintenance  of
gardens and parks, the exploitation and conservation of forests, and the conduct of aquaculture and fisheries operations.

Finally, the last broad group where OMD are found is ‘craft and related trades workers’. The OMD included in this group
are food processing, woodworking, garment and other craft and related trades. The workers treat and process agricultural
and fishery raw materials into food and other products, and produce and repair goods made of wood, textiles, fur, leather
or other materials. Like service workers, plant and machine operators, these occupations require a secondary level of
education and supervision of other employees is possible.

As shown in Figure 1, OMD are concentrated in the middle and lower ISCO codes. No OMD are identified in other
ISCO  1-digit  categories  (managers,  professionals,  technicians  and  associated  professionals,  and  clerical  support
workers), which require higher skill levels, or for skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers. 

Distribution of workers between sectors
Thus, workers in OMD are mainly in the mid-to-low or low skill level of occupations, but in which sectors? As shown
in Chapter 3, the majority of initiatives developed by social partners or as a result of social dialogue are implemented at
sectoral  level.  This  indicates  that  future  actions  to  improve  working  conditions  should  take  into  account  the  sectors
where these occupations are found. 

The percentage of workers in OMD of total workers varies between sectors (Table 2). By far, the highest proportion of
OMD can be found in accommodation and food service activities (61%), followed by wholesale and retail trade, and the
repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles (46%). When interpreting these results, it is important to bear in mind that this
is a global overview and that differences in the proportion of OMD may occur at subsector level.

Table 2: OMD workers as a percentage of all workers in a sector, EU28

Accommodation and food service 
activities

61%

Construction 12% Public administration and defence; 
compulsory social security

Wholesale and retail trade; repair of 
motor vehicles and motorcycles

46%

Other service activities

8%

Human health and social work 
activities

4%

4%

Manufacturing 29% Arts, entertainment and recreation 7%

Education 2%

Water supply, sewerage, waste 
management and remediation 
activities

28% Administrative and support service 
activities

7%

Information and communication

2%

Agriculture, forestry and fishing 20%

Real estate activities

5%

Transportation and storage 16%

Electricity, gas, steam and air 
conditioning supply

5%

Mining and quarrying 13%

Activities of extraterritorial 
organisations and bodies

4%

Note: No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Professional, scientific and 
technical activities

1%

Activities of households as 
employers; undifferentiated goods- 
and services-producing activities 
of households for own use

1%

Financial and insurance activities

1%

12

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 2 shows the occupations in the sectors with a higher percentage of workers in OMD. In the ‘Accommodation and
food service activities’ sector are mainly waiters and bartenders, followed by cooks and food preparation assistants. As
expected, the vast majority of OMD in the ‘Wholesale and retail trade’ sector are shop salespersons followed by cashiers
and ticket clerks. In the ‘Manufacturing’ sector are mainly machine operators and assemblers, whereas in the ‘Water
supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation activities’ sector, refuse workers is the most prevalent occupation
among the OMD. As expected, a large proportion of agricultural labourers work in the ‘Agriculture, forestry and fishing’
sector. See Annex II for full information about the distribution of all OMD across all economic sectors.

Figure 2: Distribution of OMD across selected sectors (%)

Agriculture, forestry and fishing

Water supply, sewerage, waste management
and remediation activities

Manufacturing

Accommodation and food service activities

Wholesale and retail trade;
repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

All other occupations

Cooks (512)

Shop salespersons (522)

Machine operators (814-818)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Assemblers (821)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Refuse workers (961)

Notes: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

The proportion of OMD is expected to be higher in countries with:

n more employment in activities related to the sectors shown in Figure 3;

n higher share of workers in relatively low skill levels or low value-added work within any economic sector. 

The country distribution of OMD is presented at the end of this chapter.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Employment evolution 
As discussed above, OMD are mainly mid to low skilled occupations in the hotel and restaurant (Horeca) and commerce
sectors, and low skilled jobs in various economic sectors. It is also of interest to look at the employment evolution of
these occupations. 

Changes in occupational structure and trends might be related to the changing nature of the occupations due to several
factors, including technological and labour market changes and overall changes in the economic structure. In the 21st
century,  the  reduction  of  some  manufacturing  occupations  in  Europe  continues,  while  high  skilled  occupations  have
experienced an extraordinary growth. With the exception of clerical workers, the numbers in service-related occupations
have  also  increased. These  changes  can  be  related  to  the  way  work  is  performed  and  sometimes  to  the  reduction  of
employment  due  to  technological  changes  or  other  processes  related  to  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  economy  (for
example, globalisation). 

Some literature points to a trend of upgrading of the occupational structure in Europe (Wilson, 2007; Cedefop, 2010;
Oesch, 2013; Eurofound, 2014a). This means there are increasingly more jobs in the upper occupational groups than in
the mid and low skilled occupational groups. However, this is not a common trend in all countries and there is some
evidence indicating that this upgrading is being combined with polarisation, that is, growth in high and low skill jobs
(for example, the UK). There has been some hollowing out of the occupational structure, with loss of employment share
among agricultural and fishery workers, craft workers and clerks, and other intermediate level jobs. From the sectoral
point of view, there are notably declining shares of those employed in primary and manufacturing sectors and a growth
of employment in the services sector. 

EU LFS data from 1995 to 2014 confirm some upgrading/polarisation of the occupational structure, mainly driven by
an increase in professionals and technicians (48%). Some increase has also been experienced by elementary occupations
(12%) and service workers (39%), which are occupational groups containing several OMD. A strong decline is observed
for  craft-related  workers  (30%).  These  figures  support  upgrading  of  the  workforce  with  some  decline  in  middle
occupations and some growth in low skilled occupations in Europe. 

But what has happened with OMD? Figure 3 shows the changes in the share of workers during the past decade in the
sub-major  occupation  groups  (2-digit  ISCO).  However,  the  data  presented  provide  only  an  approximate  picture  of
developments in OMD as these groups are broader than the OMD referred to in this report. The information is provided
for the period from 2003 to 2008 and the period from 2008 to 2013 (that is, before and after the financial and economic
crisis). 

Figure  3  suggests  a  recent  growth  of  OMD  in  service-related  occupations  (waiters  and  bartenders,  cooks  and  food
preparation assistants, shop salespersons, and cashiers and ticket clerks) and other OMD identified in this study (care
workers, cleaners and helpers, refuse workers). However, OMD in the manufacturing sub-major occupational groups
(assemblers,  machine  operators  and  craft-related  workers)  declined  before  and  after  the  crisis.  The  economic  cycle
appears to be a major driver of employment prospects of drivers, mobile operators and labourers.

14

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 3: Change (%) of workers in ISCO sub-major occupational groups which include OMD, 
2003–2008 and 2008–2013

2003-2008

2008-2013

15%

10%

5%

0%

-5%

-10%

-15%

-20%

53. Personal
care workers

51. Personal
service
workers

91. Cleaners
and helpers

52. Sales
workers

94. Food
preparation
assistants

96. Refuse
workers and
other
elementary
workers

83. Drivers
and mobile
plant
operators

92.
Agricultural,
forestry and
fishery
labourers

93. Labourers
in mining,
construction,
manufacturing
and transport

82.
Assemblers

81. Stationary
plant and
machine
operators

All other
occupations

75. Food
processing,
wood working,
garment and
other craft
and related
trades

Notes: OMD in sub-major occupation groups (2-digit ISCO) with a low score in the job quality indices. Two occupations identified
in Chapter 2 – Personal service workers (51) and Cleaners and helpers (91) – are included to show their trends.
Source: EU LFS data from 2003, 2008 and 2013

Projections until 2025 by the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) seem to confirm
recent trends for Europe showing employment growth of occupational groups in high skill occupations such as technicians
and associated professionals (ISCO-3), professionals (ISCO-2) and legislators, senior officials and managers (ISCO-1),
but also in mid to low skilled service workers and shop and market sales workers (ISCO-5) and elementary occupations
(ISCO-9) (Cedefop, 2015). However, craft and related trades workers (ISCO-7) and clerks (ISCO-4) decline. 

This  trend  suggests  that  the  process  of  upgrading  of  the  workforce  with  some  polarisation  at  the  very  bottom  of  the
occupational structure will continue. More specifically, according to the EU Skills Panorama (European Commission,
2014), some activities with a high share of OMD (hotels and catering, retailing and construction) will grow until 2025.
Other  OMD  and  high  growth  will  be  assemblers;  they  saw  a  decline  during  the  crisis  but  an  increase  is  predicted.
Elementary occupations, including refuse workers and food preparation assistants, are also expected to grow. Similar
trends are expected by labourers in mining, construction and manufacturing. 

However, it is necessary to take account of the replacement demand (that is, the replacement of workers who have retired
or changed occupation) when assessing the future demand for workers. Figure 4 shows the requirement of workers until
2025 as a percentage of employment in 2013 for the sub-major groups with OMD. It shows a higher percentage for the
total requirement for workers in elementary occupations, but also a major requirement for OMD in service occupations.
Some of these occupations might undergo changes in the skills required in the future. Moreover, their low scores in the
job  quality  indices  might  make  it  difficult  to  fill  vacancies.  Special  attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  ageing  of
workers in these occupations.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

15

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 4: Future requirement of workers until 2025 for major occupational groups with OMD as a percentage of
employment in 2013

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

81. Stationary
plant and
machine
operators

83. Drivers
and mobile
plant
operators

82.
Assemblers

52. Sales
workers

51. Personal
service
workers

53. Personal
care workers

All other
occupations

93. Labourers
in mining,
construction,
manufacturing
and transport

96. Refuse
workers and
other
elementary
workers

91. Cleaners
and helpers

94. Food
preparation
assistants

92.
Agricultural,
forestry and
fishery
labourers

75. Food
processing,
wood working,
garment and
other craft
and related
trades

Notes: Total requirement includes new jobs created and replacement demand. ISCO-2 code of occupational group is given. 
Source: Cedefop data based on the EU LFS.

A European Parliament report on labour market shortages in the EU includes the following OMD in its list of the top 10
occupations for which there is evidence of recruitment difficulties – referred to as ‘bottleneck occupations’ – at EU level
(European Parliament, 2015, Table 4):

n personal service workers;

n

sales workers;

n drivers and mobile plant operators;

n

food processing, wood working, garment and other. 

Conclusions

Despite the general upgrading of the workforce across Europe, employment is still increasing in some occupational
groups with OMD such as those in commerce (shop sales and cashiers) and in Horeca (food preparation assistants), and
some  elementary  occupations  (food  preparation  assistants).  Shortages  of  workers  in  OMD  are  mostly  found  in
service-related jobs with multiple disadvantages such as cooks, waiters and shop salespersons). Therefore, there will
be  a  growing  demand  for  some  OMD,  which  will  need  to  take  into  account  the  skills  requirements  as  well  as  the
working conditions so as to make the jobs in these occupations attractive to potential recruits.

16

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Sociodemographic characteristics of workers 

The occupations classified as having multiple disadvantages form a diverse group in terms of the composition of workers
in  them.  This  section  provides  an  insight  into  the  characteristics  of  workers  in  OMD.  Because  different  groups  of
workers are affected by different working conditions and needs, knowing the sociodemographic composition of OMD
can help policymakers to improve their working conditions.

Gender 
The EWCS2010 found that only a small proportion of workers (22% of women and 17% of men) work in gender-mixed
occupations, that is, occupations where the proportion of either gender exceeds 60%. 

However, when considering exclusively all OMD together, women and men are equally represented since the share of
male to female workers is 53% to 47%. Nonetheless, there are wide differences in terms of gender composition between
OMD  (Figure  5).  Strong  gender  segregation  is  found  in  mobile  plant  operators,  mining  and  construction  labourers,
drivers, wood workers and refuse workers (male dominated) and in cashiers and ticket clerks (female dominated); this
reflects  the  segregation  in  the  labour  market  indicated  above.  Cooks  appear  to  have  the  most  balanced  gender
composition  with  53%  of  men.  Other  OMD  that  could  be  classified  as  gender  mixed  are  waiters  and  bartenders,
manufacturing labourers and machine operators. 

Figure 5: Gender composition of workforce in OMD, EU28

Mobile plant operators (834)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Refuse workers (961)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Assemblers (821)

Machine operators (814-818)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

All other occupations

Cooks (512)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Shop salespersons (522)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Notes: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Male

Female

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Age
In the current context of demographic ageing, age is a relevant variable. In occupations with a higher proportion of older
workers, the issue of replacing skills and workers may arise. 

The overall OMD demographic composition is younger than the rest of occupations, with the exception of agricultural,
forestry and fishery labourers (22% are 55+ years-old and 4% are 65+ years-old) and car, van and motorcycle drivers
(21% are 55+ years-old and 6% are 65+ years-old). 

Figure 6 displays the age composition of workers in OMD across the EU28. The proportion of workers who are 24 years-
old or younger is the highest in waiters and bartenders (30%) and cashiers and ticket clerks (28%). The young age of
these occupations also raises the issue of how far they can provide sustainable work for some workers over their life
course. Given that these are among the OMD with a higher share of workers with higher levels of educational attainment,
it can be concluded that some are young qualified workers who will move to other jobs before they reach middle age.
Their retention could be a challenge in the context of declining numbers of young people entering the workforce. In the
case  of  waiters,  restaurants  and  other  catering  outlets  might  suffer  staffing  problems  due  to  fewer  potential  young
workers in the future due to demographic change. In addition, some OMD with older workers are also demanding jobs.
Therefore, when looking at the age composition of an occupation, it is important to consider the characteristics of the
job.

Figure 6: Age composition of workers in OMD, EU28

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

All other occupations

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Refuse workers (961)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Cooks (512)

Machine operators (814-818)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Shop salespersons (522)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Assemblers (821)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

15-24

25-34

35-44

45-54

55-64

65+

Notes: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

18

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Level of educational attainment
Education is a key variable for workers in OMD because it provides them with greater prospects of career development
and the possibility of moving to jobs which are not OMD. However, the majority of OMDs have a higher proportion of
workers with only primary education compared with all other occupations (4%). The highest proportion can be found
among  agricultural,  forestry  and  fishery  labourers  (20%)  (Figure  7).  However,  the  proportion  of  workers  with  only
primary education is lower than in all other occupations for shop salespersons (3%) and cashiers and ticket clerks (4%)
– occupations that typically require secondary education according to ISCO definitions. 

In  general,  workers  in  OMD  have  achieved  lower  levels  of  educational  attainment.  This  has  implications  for  their
probability of accessing better jobs. None of the OMD has a proportion of workers above all other occupations having
completed upper secondary or tertiary education. The generally lower level of educational attainment of OMD is itself
a disadvantage for career development.

Figure 7: Level of educational attainment of workers in OMD, EU28

Shop salespersons (522)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

All other occupations

Assemblers (821)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Machine operators (814-818)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Cooks (512)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Refuse workers (961)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Primary education

Lower secondary education

Upper secondary and post-secondary education

Tertiary education

Notes: According to highest level of education or training successfully completed. ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in
brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Share of foreign workers
Another characteristic of many OMD is the relatively high share of foreign workers. These workers are most often found
as food preparation assistants (24%) and agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (21%) (Figure 8). More than 15%
of manufacturing labourers, cooks, waiters and bartenders are foreign workers. Thus, a number of OMD have a higher
share of foreign workers compared with all other occupations; this is particularly the case for OMD in the hotels and
restaurants and agriculture sectors. In these occupations, initiatives for the improvement of working conditions should
take this fact into account.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

19

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

About two-thirds (64%) of foreign workers in all other occupations are workers from countries outside the EU (Figure
8). Similarly, workers from outside the EU form the majority of foreign workers in most OMD. The high proportion of
workers of foreign origin in some OMD could be related to the fact that some of jobs might not be wanted by nationals
or need certain skills.

Figure 8: Proportion of foreign workers in each OMD in the EU28, 2013

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Shop salespersons (522)

Assemblers (821)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

All other occupations

Refuse workers (961)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Machine operators (814-818)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Cooks (512)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Food preparation assistants (941)

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

From another EU country

From non-EU country

Notes: ISCO-3 code is given in brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Conclusions 

In very broad terms, relatively more people with a low level of educational attainment and young people are found in
OMD  than  in  all  other  occupations.  In  some  OMD,  there  are  also  more  foreign  workers.  Some  OMD  are  highly
segregated in terms of gender composition, with a higher share of women being found in occupations such as cashiers
and  ticket  clerks.  As  described  below,  these  are  occupations  that  are  relatively  disadvantaged  in  relation  to  short
hours/low  income,  atypical  working  hours,  work–life  balance  issues  and  a  poor  social  environment  including  high
levels of stress. Chapter 2 shows that the gender variable interacts with others, leading to certain poorer conditions than
in other occupations. 

20

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Working time and work–life balance 

The  job  quality  index  on  working  time  was  one  of  the  indices  used  to  determine  OMD  for  this  study.  This  section
examines the specific time dimensions for each selected OMD. Work–life balance is included as a variable related to the
organisation and duration of working time.

Working  time  plays  a  crucial  role  in  the  health  and  well-being  of  workers.  The  Eurofound  report,  Organisation  of
working time: Implications for productivity and working conditions (Eurofound, 2013a), shows the positive or negative
impact of specific working time schedules on work–life balance and health. For this reason, working time is one of the
most  important  areas  of  EU  employment  policy  intervention.  For  workers,  working  hours  have  a  direct  impact  on
standard of living, work–life balance and the overall sustainability of working life. For employers, working time is a key
element in the assessment of costs and productivity. 

This  section  looks  at  how  OMD  score  in  terms  of  working  time  duration,  irregular  and  atypical  working  time  and
work–life balance.

Working time duration
The  Working  Time  Directive  (2003/88/EC)  lays  down  provisions  for  a  maximum  48-hour  average  working  week,
including overtime, to protect workers from adverse health and safety risks. There is a statistical association between
working longer than 48 hours per week and the relative probability of reporting a negative impact of work on health
(Eurofound and EU-OSHA, 2014). 

However, one in eight workers (12%) in the EU28 in 2010 still admitted to usually working more than 48 hours per
week. Although this proportion is lower in the majority of OMD, some have long working hours exceeding the EU28
average. 

Car, van and motorcycle drivers and food processing and related trades workers most often report working long hours
(21%), followed by food processing and related trades workers (20%), cooks (18%) and waiters (16%) (Figure 9). Long
hours in OMD are therefore mainly in those with a high proportion of workers in the Horeca sector and among drivers. 

Usual working times exceeding 48 hours per week are the least prevalent in OMD among cashiers and ticket clerks and
refuse  workers  (both  3%).  However,  they  have  a  high  share  of  workers  working  less  than  20  hours  (36%).  Food
preparation assistants (39%) form the highest proportion of workers who work 20 hours per week or less (Figure 9). 

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

21

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 9: Weekly working time (left axis) and percentage of part-time workers who wish to work longer hours
(right axis) in each OMD, EU28 

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d relate
n
n a
a
ar, v

C

n
g a
sin
s
e
c
d pro

o
o
F

gric

A

48 hours or more

42 to 47 hours

35 to 41 hours

21 to 34 hours

20 hours or less

Part-time workers willing to work more hours as a % of part-time workers (right axis)

Notes: Part-time workers are defined as those working 34 hours per week or less. ISCO-3 code for occupational group is given in
brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia. 
Source: EU LFS 2013

The  proportion  of  workers  working  part  time  appears  to  be  positively  related  to  the  proportion  of  women  in  the
occupation. Part-time employment is covered by the Part-time Work Directive (97/81/EC), implementing the Framework
Agreement  on  part-time  work,  which  was  signed  by  the  social  partners  in  1997  (Eurofound,  2009).  The  literature
indicates that part-time work has both positive and negative consequences. Among the positive effects is the possibility
of  combining  work  and  private  life  commitments,  increasing  especially  the  female  employment  rate  and  generally
enabling parents to spend more time with their children while remaining in employment. However, employees working
part time have on average lower earnings and fewer possibilities for progressing in their career. Moreover, some results

22

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

suggest that the quality of part-time jobs is on average lower, although job satisfaction of part-time workers is on the
whole similar to that of full-time workers (Eurofound, 2009). 

An interesting aspect is whether a person works part time voluntarily or because they cannot find another suitable job.
Working  part  time  (34  hours  a  week  or  less)  is  not  always  the  worker’s  choice  but  rather  a  necessity  due  to  the
unavailability of a full-time job – called ‘involuntary part-time’. A quarter (26%) of EU28 workers who worked part time
expressed a wish to work more hours (Figure 9). Occupations with a high proportion of workers in this situation are
mainly male-dominated groups such as refuse workers (49%), mining and construction labourers (46%), drivers (38%)
and mobile plant operators (37%). This applies to both men and women working in these occupations. 

The only female-dominated occupation reaching a high proportion of workers dissatisfied with working part time is food
preparation assistants (36%), although this is influenced by the fact that there are fewer opportunities to work full time
(60% of food preparation assistants work part time). Male workers report involuntary part-time work more often (31%)
than females in all occupations (24%), with the only exception being cashiers and ticket clerks.

Irregular and atypical working hours 
Another important aspect of working time is whether the work takes place within or outside standard working hours.
Since  the  1980s,  most  industrial  societies  have  experienced  a  trend  towards  the  diversification,  decentralisation  and
individualisation of working time patterns. This has been driven by companies’ needs for greater adaptability in order to
meet market constraints and by major changes in the gender division of labour (Eurofound, 2012b). 

Irregular working time is understood as working hours that are allowed to vary between days and/or weeks. Irregular
working  time,  along  with  overtime  and  part-time  jobs,  allows  employers  flexibility  in  regulating  the  working  time.
However, research indicates that greater irregularity in time schedules increases the probability of reporting difficulties
with work–life balance and to a lesser extent of reporting that work has a negative impact on health. At the same time,
autonomy in organising time seems to ease these negative effects (Eurofound, 2012a).

The index of irregular working hours used in this study (see box) is based on whether workers work the same number
of  hours  every  day  and  every  week,  the  same  number  of  days  every  week  and  whether  they  have  fixed  starting  and
finishing times. Car, van and motorcycle drivers, agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers, and waiters and bartenders
prove  to  have  the  most  irregular  working  hours  among  the  OMD. Assemblers  and  machine  operators  have  the  most
regular working times (Table 3). 

Besides working on an irregular basis, workers may work atypical working hours such as nights or weekends. The extent
to  which  an  occupation  has  atypical  working  times  was  measured  by  an  index  of  atypical  working  hours  (see  box)
summarising night work, evening work and work during the weekends.

Occupations with a more irregular working pattern do not necessarily experience more atypical working hours (Table 3).
There are large differences between the OMD with respect to atypical working time. Waiters and bartenders are by far
the most affected. Cooks and food processing and related workers, food preparation assistants, drivers, shop salespersons
and  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks  belong  to  occupations  suffering  from  atypical  working  hours,  but  their  working  times
appear to be less atypical than those of waiters and bartenders. The least atypical working times among the OMD are
observed  in  the  case  of  wood  treaters,  cabinet-makers  and  related  trades  workers,  and  garment  and  related  trades
workers.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

23

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

The index of irregular working hours was based on responses to EWCS2010 questions Q37A (Do you work the same
number of hours every day?), Q37B (Do you work the same number of days every week?), Q37C (Do you work the same
number of hours every week?) and Q37D (Do you work fixed starting and finishing times?). The variables Q37A, Q37B,
Q37C and Q37D were given a value of ‘0’ if the answer to these questions was ‘yes’ and a value of ‘1’ if the answer was
‘no’. For observations with known values for at least three of the questions, the index was calculated as follows:

index = 100

Mean individual
Mean EU28

(Q37A+Q37B+Q37C+Q37D)

(Q37A+Q37B+Q37C+Q37D)

The index of atypical working hours was based on responses to EWCS2010 questions Q32 (Normally, how many
times a month do you work at night, for at least 2 hours between 10.00 pm and 05.00 am?), Q33 (How many times a
month do you work in the evening, for at least 2 hours between 6.00 pm and 10.00 pm?), Q34 (How many times a
month do you work on Sundays?) and Q35 (How many times a month do you work on Saturdays?). The scores of Q32
and Q33 were maximised at a value of 30 (to control for months with 31 days) and the scores of Q34 and Q35 at a
value of 4 (to control for months with five weekends). For observations with known values for at least three of these
questions, the index was calculated as follows: 

index = 100

Mean individual ( Q32 + Q33 + Q34 + Q35 )
Mean EU28
( Q32 + Q33 + Q34 + Q35 )

30

30

4

4

30

30

4

4

Table 3: Index of irregular working hours and index of atypical working hours, EU28 

Occupation

All other occupations

Machine operators (814-818)

Cooks (512)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Shop salespersons (522)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Assemblers (821)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Refuse workers (961)

Index of irregular 
working hours

Index of atypical working 
hours

103

55

86

116

78

93

73

88

70

48

153

74

128

81

48

96

46

92

85

187

237

154

155

179

51

51

73

166

82

123

59

63

156

65

Notes: A higher value of the index means more irregular or atypical working hours, as appropriate. The average index of irregular
working hours of all occupations in the EU28 is 100. ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

24

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Work–life balance 
Working hours are fundamental for work–life balance, that is, the balance between work and private life commitments.
Given the variation in gender roles, conditions in a given occupation may lead to different outcomes for men and women.
At the same time, variations appear along an individual’s life course.

More than eight out of ten European workers find that their working hours fit (very) well with their family or social
commitments outside work. Among the OMD, refuse workers (91%) and garment and related trades workers (88%) most
often say that they have a (very) good fit between their work and family or social commitments. The relatively worst
work–life balance can be found among car, van and motorcycle drivers (64%), mobile plant operators (70%) and waiters
and bartenders and cooks (both 72%) (Figure 10). These occupations have a high percentage of workers in irregular and
atypical hours and/or who work long hours. Arguably, improvements in the duration and organisation of working time
would improve the work–life balance in these occupations.

Figure 10: Workers’ perception of how well their working hours fit in with their family or social commitments
outside work in the EU28, 2010

Refuse workers (961)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

All other occupations

Machine operators (814-818)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Assemblers (821)

Shop salespersons (522)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Cooks (512)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Not at all well

Not very well

Well

Very well

Note: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

Conclusions

Car, van and motorcycle drivers and waiters and bartenders are OMD with a high share of workers with poor quality
in relation to all indicators analysed: long hours, involuntary part-time, irregularity of working hours, atypical working
time, and poor outcome in relation to work–life balance. It appears that occupations in Horeca and commerce have a
high  proportion  of  workers  working  atypical  hours.  Jobs  with  short  working  hours  like  those  of  cashiers  or  food
preparation assistants are mainly occupied by women, which can have implications for other working conditions such
as career development and income.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Income distribution

The effort of work has to be compensated for by a fee or a wage. Wages and salaries are important forms of compensation
that employees get for their work. The self-employed determine the price of their services or products, which in turn
establishes the income they will obtain from their work. Wages, earnings and/or income from work are a part of quality
of work and employment. This section provides a glimpse into the income distribution of workers in OMD and whether
they feel well-paid for the job they do and have sufficient earnings to make ends meet. 

About 7% of employees in all other occupations have an income below the first decile in their country, meaning that
their income is very low (Figure 11). A number of OMD have higher proportions of such workers, which means they are
in a higher risk of in-work poverty. Mobile plant operators (3%) and assemblers (6%) have the lowest proportion of
employees  with  a  very  low  income  among  OMD  (Figure  11).  The  highest  proportion  (above  or  just  below  20%)  of
workers  with  a  very  low  income  can  be  found  in  some  of  the  elementary  occupations  (food  preparation  assistants,
agricultural labourers and refuse workers) as well as among waiters, cashiers and ticket clerks, and shop salespersons. 

At the opposite side of the income distribution, 34% of workers in all other occupations have higher incomes (that is, at
or above the seventh decile) (Figure 11). This proportion of higher incomes is not achieved by any OMD. Again, mobile
plant  operators  and  assemblers  have  the  most  advantageous  position  among  OMD,  with  the  highest  proportion  of
workers earning higher incomes. 

Figure 11: Income distribution for each OMD in the EU28, 2012

Mobile plant operators (834)

Assemblers (821)

Machine operators (814-818)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

All other occupations

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Cooks (512)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Shop salespersons (522)

Refuse workers (961)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Food preparation assistants (941)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Very low income (below the 1st decile)

Lower income (between the 1st and the 4th decile)

Medium income (between the 4th and the 7th decile)

Higher income (the 7th decile or more)

Notes: Income is measured as monthly (take home) pay from the main job. ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets.
No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

An interesting perspective on the issue of income can be obtained when looking at workers’ own assessment of whether
they feel well paid for the job they do. About half of refuse workers (50%), car, van and motorcycle drivers (46%) and
cashiers and ticket clerks (45%) believe they are not well paid for the work they do. For comparison, the proportion is
about  30%  in  the  case  of  all  other  occupations  and  even  lower  among  mobile  plant  operators  (27%),  wood  treaters,
cabinet-makers and related trades workers (29%) and mining and construction labourers (30%).

When  considering  income  figures,  however,  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  many  other  variables,  apart  from
occupation, influence a person’s final income. For example, occupations with many part-time workers may score lower
because part-time workers receive income over a relatively shorter period of time.

This  section  aims  to  describe  the  income  of  workers  in  OMD  relative  to  income  in  all  other  occupations.  However,
although income and the financial security/vulnerability of workers are closely related, the data presented allow only
limited  conclusions  to  be  made  about  the  income  security/vulnerability  of  workers  in  OMD.  When  examining  the
financial security or vulnerability of workers, further factors such as household composition, social security systems or
income composition in terms of variable pay need to be taken into account. 

This assessment also looked at the share of workers reporting that they lived in a household with ‘difficulty or great
difficulty’  to  make  ends  meet.  The  results  show  this  is  the  case  for  more  than  20%  of  workers  in  all  elementary
occupations (ISCO-9), cashiers and ticket clerks and surprisingly machine operators. Apart from machine operators, the
results suggest that low income has a strong influence on whether the household can make ends meet. The percentage
for all other occupations is 11% of workers reporting ‘difficulty or great difficulty’ making ends meet.

Conclusions

It seems that certain disadvantages influence others. In general, those occupations with a lower level of educational
attainment or those working shorter hours (also involuntarily) receive lower income. Examples are food preparation
assistants  and  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks.  There  is  a  high  proportion  of  migrant  workers  among  food  preparation
assistants, and a high proportion of cashiers and ticket clerks are women. Income is also a variable which can have
consequences for opportunities to develop skills and access to health services in some countries, which in the end might
influence the work ability of the worker in the long term.

Professional and employment status, career prospects and job insecurity

This section discusses the prevalence of permanent employment, temporary employment contracts, self-employment and
family  workers  in  the  OMD.  A  worker’s  perception  of  their  job  security/insecurity  and  possibilities  for  career
development is influenced by whether they have a temporary contract or a contract for an indefinite period. National
labour market regulation and the institutional context can influence these aspects as well.

The proportion of employees with a permanent job or work contract of unlimited duration varies considerably across the
OMD (Figure 12). By far the lowest proportion of workers with permanent jobs was recorded in the case of agricultural,
forestry  and  fishery  labourers  (32%).  This  compares  with  75%  for  all  other  occupations,  69%  for  mining  and
construction labourers, 68% for three groups (refuse workers, wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers,
and car, van and motorcycle drivers) and 66% for waiters and bartenders. The highest proportion of employees with
permanent jobs was found in machine operators and assemblers (both 86%) and cashiers and ticket clerks (84%).

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

27

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

In economies where permanent workers have high levels of employment protection, temporary employment contracts
provide  a  device  for  enhancing  labour  market  flexibility,  since  companies  can  regulate  employment  by  adjusting
temporary  contracts  (Eurofound,  2012c).  Although  temporary  employment  offers  less  employment  security  to  the
workers, it may serve as a route to a permanent job. 

Just over a tenth (14%) of workers in the EU have temporary contracts (Eurofound, 2012c, Table 1). Among the OMD,
agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers have by far the highest proportion of employees with temporary contracts
(38%) (Figure 12). Other OMD that have more than double the EU average of temporary contract workers are refuse
workers  (28%),  mining  and  construction  labourers  (24%)  and  waiters  and  bartenders  (21%).  However,  garment  and
related trades workers, car, van and motorcycle drivers (both 6%) and wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades
workers (9%) and shop salespersons (10%) have a lower proportion of temporary contracts than the EU average.

The majority of employees (58%) with temporary contracts in OMD did not opt to work in a temporary position, but
were forced to do so because they could not find a permanent job. The proportion of involuntary temporary workers in
temporary employment is the highest among agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers, and refuse workers (90% and
88% of temporary workers, respectively). On the other side of the scale are wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related
trades workers and shop salespersons, among which less than half (34% and 45%, respectively) of temporary workers
are involuntarily temporary.

Almost one in six (15%) of EU workers is self-employed with or without employees (Eurofound, 2012c, p. 26). It is
usually assumed that the main characteristic of self-employment is an entrepreneurial way of working characterised by
autonomy of decision-making in organising work and hiring people, financial independence and related responsibility
and  constraints.  The  highest  proportion  of  self-employed  among  OMD  can  be  found  in  the  case  of  car,  van  and
motorcycle drivers (26%) and wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (25%). However, almost no self-
employed can be found among cashiers and ticket clerks and manufacturing labourers (both 1%) (Figure 12).

A specific category of workers are family workers. Family workers are people who help another member of the family
to run an agricultural holding or other business, provided they are not considered as employees. The only OMD which
has a substantial proportion (15%) of family workers are agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers. For all other OMD,
the proportion of family workers did not exceed 2% (Figure 12).

Both agricultural labourers and refuse workers are OMD that combine both high proportions of temporary work and on
an involuntary basis.

28

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 12: Composition of workers in OMD according to the type of employment contract, EU28

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

↔ 70%

↔ 68%

↔ 68%

All other occupations

↔ 75%

Shop salespersons (522)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

↔ 70%

↔ 70%

Mobile plant operators (834)

↔ 82%

Machine operators (814-818)

Assemblers (821)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

↔ 85%

↔ 85%

↔ 85%

Cooks (512)

↔ 71%

Food preparation assistants (941)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Refuse workers (961)

↔ 81%

↔ 82%

↔ 69%

↔ 66%

↔ 68%

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

↔ 32%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Employee with 'involuntary' temporary contract

Employee with a 'voluntary' temporary contract

Family worker

Self-employed (with or without employees)

Notes: Only workers’ first (main) jobs are included. The percentage at the end of the bar shows the proportion of workers who have
a permanent job. Employees with ‘involuntary’ temporary contract refers to those who are employed in a temporary job because they
could not find a permanent contract. Employees with ‘voluntary’ temporary contract includes those who do not want a permanent job,
are in a probation period or have a contract covering a period of training (for example, apprentices, trainees and research assistants).
ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Another  disadvantaged  situation  is  not  having  an  employment  contract.  Among  all  workers  in  OMD,  9%  have  no
contract whereas this figure is only 4% among all other occupations. The implications of not having a contract differ
from country to country, but it can lead to difficulties in proving an employment relationship and ensuring protection of
workers’ rights. The findings of the EWCS2010 show that waiters and bartenders, mining and construction labourers,
agricultural labourers, food preparation assistants and drivers are OMD with more than 10% of workers with no contract.

Situations like temporary employment or having no contract can be a source of job insecurity. In OMD, more than 30%
of food preparation assistants, manufacturing labourers, refuse workers and mining and construction labourers reported
that they might lose their job in six months. Also, a considerable proportion of machine operators and assemblers had
that feeling. 

Although  workers  in  manufacturing  do  not  have  a  high  proportion  of  jobs  with  temporary  contracts,  they  may  be
threatened by restructuring processes in some contexts linked to off-shoring or the economic crisis. Career prospects
exist when a job offers good prospects for career advancement; this in turn is linked to employment status. The lower
share  of  workers  reporting  that  their  job  offers  good  prospects  for  career  advancement  are  drivers,  labourers  in
agriculture  and  manufacturing,  machine  operators  and  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks  (less  than  16%  for  all  these
occupations). All OMD present a higher proportion of workers in jobs with poor career prospects in comparison with the
rest of occupations.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Conclusions

Working involuntarily on a temporary contract for a long time can damage a worker’s career prospects. Indeed, for
many Europeans, temporary employment may become a trap. Research shows that still holding a temporary contract
after  two  years  constitutes  a  severe  handicap  for  moving  from  low  pay  (European  Commission,  2012b).  OMD  in
general have poorer career prospects. 

Access to training and skills development is an aspect that has a strong influence on career development. Given that most
OMD are in the mid to low or low rank of skills in the occupational classification, the role of training is essential for
these workers to achieve promotion and better working conditions. 

Training provision

Training is one aspect of intrinsic job quality. The European Commission Communication, An agenda for new skills and
jobs, highlights the need for people to have the skills of the future for a competitive Europe. One way is participation in
lifelong learning through the provision of training (European Commission, 2010b).

Half (50%) of employees in the EU did not receive any training paid for by their employer or on-the-job training in the
12 months preceding the EWCS2010. Each single OMD had, compared with the average for all other occupations, a
lower proportion of employees who received training provided by their employers (or by themselves if they were self-
employed) and/or on-the-job training in the 12 months preceding the survey (Figure 13). The occupations with the lowest
proportions of employees who participated in such training activities were garment and related trades workers (16%) and
agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (18%). Mobile plant operators, however, had the least disadvantaged position
among the OMD in terms of training, with 47% receiving training provided by their employers (or by themselves if they
are self-employed) and/or on-the-job training – a proportion which is very similar to the average for all other occupations
(51%).  At  the  same  time,  mobile  plant  operators  had  the  highest  proportion  of  employees  receiving  training
paid for/provided by their employers (35%). The occupations with the highest proportion of on-the-job training were
machine operators, cashiers and ticket clerks (both 33%) and wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers
(32%).

30

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 13: Proportion of employees who in the previous 12 months underwent training to improve their skills
and/or on-the-job training in the EU28, 2010

All other occupations

Mobile plant operators (834)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Machine operators (814-818)

Cooks (512)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Assemblers (821)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Shop salespersons (522)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Refuse workers (961)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

No training paid for/provided by employer or on-the-job training

Only on-the-job training

Only training paid for/provided by employer

Received training paid for/provided by employer and on-the-job training

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Notes: Paid for by their employer or by themselves if self-employed. ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

Analysis of the EU LFS 2013 data also shows that OMD participate less in work-related training outside the workplace
than all other occupations. The results could indicate not only fewer opportunities for training in general, but also that
because of past experiences some workers in OMD are less interested in training or they might feel they do not need
further training for their occupation.

Conclusions

Training  is  one  of  the  key  elements  for  career  development.  Many  workers  in  OMD  are  low  skilled  and  for  them
training is essential, not only for advancing within the occupation or sector of activity, but also for moving to other jobs
with  better  conditions. The  findings  suggest  that  workers  in  OMD  have  less  access  to  work-related  training,  which
combined with being on a temporary contract, could cause workers in most OMD to be less likely to progress in their
career.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Health and well-being: risks and outcomes

The European treaties, legislation and policy measures recognise the importance of preserving the health and safety of
workers,  protecting  their  health  and  maintaining  their  well-being. The  Framework  Directive  on  Safety  and  Health  at
Work  (89/391/EEC)  forms  a  key  document  in  this  respect  (European  Commission,  1989).  The  directive  obliges
employers to implement preventive measures to guard against occupational accidents and diseases, both from physical
and psychosocial risks. 

A person’s occupation tends not to change many times throughout the life course compared with the job performed. A
person can change jobs within the same occupation more often than they change occupations. The occupational analysis
remains essential in order to look at health risks throughout the life course.

Health risks
Table 4 shows the values of indices of physical risks for OMD. These indices were constructed to summarise a number
of  questions  posed  to  workers  in  the  EWCS2010  and  cover  workers’  exposure  to  ergonomic  risks,  biological  and
chemical risks, and ambient risks. In general, most OMD are exposed to physical risks to a larger extent than all other
occupations.

Occupations with the highest exposure to the three types of risks are wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades
workers, mining and construction labourers, and refuse workers. Manufacturing labourers are particularly exposed to
ergonomic  risks,  while  machine  operators,  agriculture  workers,  assemblers  and  food  processing  workers  are  highly
exposed to both ergonomic and ambient risks. Mobile plant operators are mainly exposed to ambient risks. Certain OMD
(drivers, shop salespersons and cashiers and ticket clerks) are relatively not very much exposed to physical risks. As
expected, physical risks are mostly reported by workers in occupations within manufacturing sectors.

Table 4: Index of exposure to ergonomic risks, biological and chemical risks, and ambient risks per occupation in
the EU28, 2010

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

All other occupations

Shop salespersons (522)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Cooks (512)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Assemblers (821)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Machine operators (814-818)

Refuse workers (961)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Ergonomic risks

94

96

103

106

112

114

116

120

120

130

133

133

134

137

138

145

146

Index of exposure

Biological and 
chemical risks
82

101

77

82

78

105

97

97

97

91

115

102

113

141

104

137

120

Ambient risks

92

97

77

88

91

108

102

166

117

138

143

151

154

172

127

147

169

Notes: The value of the index equal to 100 is the EU28 average in 2010. A higher value of an index means that a particular occupation
is on average more exposed to the risk concerned. ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

32

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

However, occupations which do not experience a high exposure to physical risks may still be exposed to psychosocial
risks such as having high levels of work intensity (Figure 14) or a poor social environment (Table 5).

The  job  demand  and  job  control  model  of  Robert  Karasek  explains  stress  at  work  and  links  it  to  the  interaction  of
psychological demands from work with the degree of control or decision latitude of the workers (Karasek, 1979). The
model hypothesises that job strain (work-related stress) is highest when workers are put under high work demands while
being limited in the extent to which they control the way in which they carry out their job. 

In terms of high strain jobs (that is, those with low autonomy and high intensity), assemblers, garment and related trades
workers, manufacturing labourers and machine operators are among the occupations with a relatively high proportion of
workers  in  that  situation.  Other  occupations  in  relatively  high  strain  jobs  are  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks,  waiters  and
bartenders,  drivers, and food processing and related trades workers (Figure 14). Cooks is an occupation with high work
intensity, but a high proportion of them also report a high level of autonomy, which can contribute to diminishing to some
extent the potential damaging effects of high intensity.

Figure 14: Job autonomy and work intensity in each OMD in the EU28, 2010

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Shop salespersons (522)

All other occupations

Refuse workers (961)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Cooks (512)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Machine operators (814-818)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Assemblers (821)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Low autonomy and high intensity

Low autonomy and low intensity

High autonomy and high intensity

High autonomy and low intensity

Notes: Distribution into groups is based on indices of job autonomy and work intensity as used in the overview report of EWCS2010
(Eurofound,  2012c).  The  indices  range  between  0  and  100  and  are  constructed  by  calculating  the  average  value  of  a  number  of
variables. The work intensity index is based on questions Q45a and Q45b, asking whether the respondents’ work involves working
at very high speed and to tight deadlines, and Q51g asking whether the respondent has enough time to get the job done. Cases having
a work intensity index <50 are considered as having low intensity, while cases with work intensity index >50 are considered to have
high intensity. The job autonomy index is based on questions Q50a, Q50b and Q50c asking whether respondents can change the
order of their tasks, methods of work and speed or rate of work, question Q51e on having a say in the choice of working partners, and
Q51f on being able to take a break when desired. Cases having a job autonomy index of <50 are considered as having low autonomy
while cases with a job autonomy index of >50 are considered to have high intensity.
ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

33

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Overall,  the  index  of  good  social  environment  seems  to  be  poorer  among  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks,  drivers,  refuse
workers, food preparation assistants and waiters and bartenders (Table 5). This means that these OMD might be more
affected  by  a  lack  of  support  and/or  adverse  social  behaviours  such  as  violence  and  harassment  more  than  other
occupations. A gender difference is also seen with, for example, female waiters reporting a worse social environment
than their male counterparts.

Some  OMD  are  in  a  high  psychosocial  risk  exposure  environment  based  on  the  various  indices.  Cashiers  and  ticket
clerks, drivers, waiters and bartenders, manufacturing labourers and food preparation assistants are OMD with relatively
higher exposure to high intensity, low autonomy and a poor social environment compared with other occupations.

Table 5: Proportion of workers who work in a good social environment (%) in the EU28, 2010

Men

Women

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Refuse workers (961)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Shop salespersons (522)

Cooks (512)

All other occupations

Assemblers (821)

Machine operators (814-818)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

*

71

75

76

77

78

78

79

79

79

79

79

80

81

81

81

86

70

*

*

77

80

74

78

83

78

77

78

82

*

78

*

*

82

Notes: The index of good social environment summarises the social support and absence of abuse in the workplace. It is based on
questions Q51A (help and support from colleagues), Q51B (help and support from manager), Q58A (manager provides feedback on
ones work), Q58B (manager respects one as a person), Q58C (manager is good at resolving conflicts), Q58D (manager is good in
planning and organising the work), Q58E (manager encourages one’s participation in important issues), Q77E (respondent has very
good friends at work), Q70A (one is subject to verbal abuse), Q70B (one is subject to unwanted sexual attention), Q70C (one is subject
to threats and humiliating behaviour), Q71A (one was subjected to physical violence in the past 12 months), Q71B (one was subjected
to  bullying/harassment  in  the  past  12  months)  and  Q71C  (one  was  subjected  to  sexual  harassment  in  the  past  12  months)  in  the
EWCS2010.
* No index is presented because the sample size was less than 50.
ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

The proportion of workers in high strain jobs in most OMD is higher than in all other occupations. But in terms of social
environment, the average for all other occupations ranks in the middle. The list of occupations with the highest exposure
to  psychosocial  risks  differs  to  some  extent  from  the  list  of  occupations  with  the  highest  exposure  to  physical  risks
(Table  6).  More  service-related  occupations  are  subjected  to  psychosocial  risks,  whereas  more  manufacturing-related
occupations  have  a  high  exposure  to  some  physical  risks.  Nevertheless,  a  typical  manufacturing  occupation,  such  as
assemblers, appears to be exposed to a relatively high degree to both types of risks. 

34

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Table 6: Occupations with a relatively high exposure to health risks

Psychosocial risks

Physical risks

l Cashiers and ticket clerks (JS, SE)
l Drivers (JS, SE)
l Waiters and bartenders (JS, SE)
l Manufacturing labourers (JS, SE)
l Food preparation assistants (JS, SE)
l Assemblers (JS)
l Refuse workers (SE)

l Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers
l Mining and construction labourers
l Refuse workers
l Machine operators
l Mobile plant operators
l Agricultural workers
l Assemblers

Notes: Psychosocial risks: exposure to high job strain (JS) and poor social environment (SE). Physical risks: index 40% higher than
EU average in any type of physical risk.

Information about health and safety contributes to the prevention of physical and psychosocial risks. Workers in OMD
appear to be less informed about the health and safety risks related to the performance of their jobs than those in all other
occupations. About one in five garment and related trades workers (20%), for example, perceives themselves as being
not well informed. However, the percentage of not well-informed workers in the case of wood treaters, cabinet-makers
and related trades workers (5%) and cooks (5%) is considerably lower than that for all other occupations (10%).

Health outcomes 
Exposure to physical and psychosocial risks may have direct consequences for the health of workers. Moreover, some
aspects such as monetary reward and promotion possibilities (Siegrist, 1996) or job insecurity and irregular working
hours (Eurofound and EU-OSHA, 2014) influence the health of workers in relation to work.

A quarter (24%) of workers in all other occupations think their health is at risk because of their work (Figure 15). While
this  percentage  is  lower  in  some  OMD  such  as  shop  salespersons  (10%)  or  waiters  and  bartenders  (15%),  it  is
considerably higher in other OMD. The occupations that are perceived to be most risky for workers’ health among OMD
are wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers, mining and construction labourers (both 43% of workers
working in these occupations) and refuse workers (41%). They are also occupations with a high exposure to physical
risks (Table 6).

A related indicator is the effect of work on health. It is not by chance that machine operators, assemblers, mobile plant
operators, mining and construction labourers report higher perceived negative effects of work on health (38% or more).
All of them are on the list of high exposure to physical risks (Table 6). One in four workers (25%) in all other occupations
shares this opinion (Figure 15). However, some OMD such as shop salespersons (13%) and food preparation assistants
(15%) have even lower proportions of workers experiencing negative health effects because of their jobs.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

35

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 15: Proportion of workers who think their health or safety is at risk because of their work, or who think
their work affects their health negatively in the EU28, 2010

Shop salespersons (522)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Cooks (512)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

All other occupations

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Refuse workers (961)

Assemblers (821)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Machine operators (814-818)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Health or safety at risk because of one's work

Perceived negative health effect of one's work

0%

5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%

Note: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

According  to  the  report,  Psychosocial  risks  in  Europe:  Prevalence  and  strategies  for  prevention (Eurofound  and
EU-OSHA, 2014), social environment aspects (for example, dealing with angry clients, the need to hide feelings and
adverse behaviour) and work intensity are strongly associated with the level of stress. Three OMD with a poor social
environment (cashiers and ticket clerks,  waiters  and  bartenders, and drivers)  have a stress level  higher than all other
occupations  (Figure  16).  Three  OMD  with  a  high  work  intensity  (machine  operators,  cooks  and  assemblers)  have  a
higher stress level than all other occupations. In these OMD, the share of workers reporting stress is higher than in all
other occupations. However, this is not the case for the other OMD. This could be interpreted that the social environment
can be as good or as bad in occupations included in the ‘all other’ category as in these OMD.

36

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 16: Percentage of workers reporting that they experience stress at work always or most of the time, 2010

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Refuse workers (961)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Shop salespersons (522)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Food preparation assistants (941)

All other occupations

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Assemblers (821)

Cooks (512)

Machine operators (814-818)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Note: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

0%

5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Presenteeism  refers  to  a  phenomenon  whereby  ‘employees  go  to  work  despite  feeling  so  sick  that  they  should  have
stayed at home’ (Heponiemi et al, 2010, p. 830). Presenteeism can have serious negative consequences for health as well
as loss of productivity (Eurofound, 2012a).

When questioned for the EWCS2010, about 38% of workers in all other occupations admitted they had worked when
sick in the past 12 months. Quite surprisingly, with the exception of cashiers and ticket clerks (45%), the proportion of
workers who had worked when sick is lower in all OMD. The lowest proportions were seen in mobile plant operators
and wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (both 23%).

Conclusions

Machine operators and assemblers seem to suffer from both psychosocial risks due to high work intensity and physical
risks, especially ambient and ergonomic risks, with negative consequences on their stress levels and general health. The
social environment can affect OMD and workers in all other occupations to the same extent. Among OMD, cashiers
and ticket clerks, waiters and bartenders, and drivers are negatively affected by their social environment.

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

37

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Sustainability of work 

With the average age of the population rising, people aged 55–64 years-old make up an increasing share of workers in
Europe. This demographic shift, as well as ongoing threats to the sustainability of national welfare and pension systems,
has increased pressure for reforms to encourage longer careers (Eurofound, 2013b). However, workers who face the most
difficult conditions and have frail health will either leave a job that places demands on their health or leave the labour
market completely (Eurofound, 2012a). 

Understanding the role that work has on a person’s career is an important dimension for meeting the EU2020 target of
high employment as it will impact, for example, on whether someone will retire early or continue working until they
reach  retirement  age.  Some  of  the  working  conditions  referred  to  before  are  related  to  being  able  to  work  such  as
work–life balance, job insecurity, and in general high exposure to physical and psychosocial risks (Eurofound, 2012a;
Eurofound and EU-OSHA, 2014). 

Various factors affect the complex relationship between employment and working conditions and sustainability of work.
Apart from the working environment, aspects like employment and pension’s policy, level of income or health status also
play a role (Eurofound, 2013b, 2013c). As noted above, a high proportion of OMD have a relatively low income which
may incentivise participation in the labour market depending, for example, on the characteristics of the employment or
pension system. 

Health status is clearly a variable related to being able to work. The occupational dimension is a relevant perspective for
studying  the  sustainability  of  working  life,  since  many  workers  are  in  the  same  occupation  for  a  large  part  of  their
working life. 

The reasons for not being able to work at 60 years-old can differ from one occupation to another. However, most OMD
have a lower proportion of workers aged 45 years-old or more who think that they will be able to do the same job they
are doing at the age of 60 years-old than those in all other occupations (69%) (Figure 17). All OMD together have 55%
of workers who feel that they are going to be able to work in their job when they are 60 years-old. Among workers in
OMD aged more than 45 years-old, by far the lowest proportion (28%) are mining and construction labourers followed
by refuse workers and assemblers (both 39%) and waiters and bartenders (42%). However, cashiers and ticket clerks
(79%), car, van and motorcycle drivers (77%) and shop salespersons (71%) have a higher proportion than the average
of all other occupations (68%). 

38

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 17: Proportion of workers (%) aged 45 or more who think they will be able to do the same job when they
are 60 years-old in the EU28, 2010

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Shop salespersons (522)

All other occupations

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Cooks (512)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Machine operators (814-818)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Refuse workers (961)

Assemblers (821)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

No, I don't think so

I wouldn't want to

Yes, I think so

Note: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

Differences between OMD and other occupations 

Previous sections discussed various characteristics of the working conditions of workers in OMD. Not surprisingly, in
each aspect some occupations were more disadvantaged than others. For some working conditions, OMD scored even
better than the average of all other occupations, but it is not the case for most conditions. This section summarises the
information provided above to give a more general view of the working conditions in individual OMD. Figure 18 shows
the  relative  position  of  each  OMD  in  comparison  with  the  rest  of  the  OMD  and  all  other  occupations.  The  relative
position was determined on the basis of a score that was calculated as follows:

Score =

proportion occupation – proportion all else occupations
standard deviation (average proportions of all OMD and average of all other occupations)

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

39

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

There  are  some  aspects  of  working  conditions  in  which  the  average  score  in  most  OMD  is  lower  than  in  the  whole
workforce and all other occupations (that is, areas where they have poor conditions). These aspects are: 

n perception of not being well paid for the job and low income;

n

involuntary part-time or temporary contract;

n high job strain (low autonomy and high work intensity);

n

n

lack of training provision by employer;

exposure to physical or psychosocial risks.

Having a low income increases the risk of in-work poverty. Moreover, the feeling of not being well paid for the job can
lead to stress or health problems according to Siegrist (1996). According to his model, a crucial job factor for health
consequences is the degree to which the workers are rewarded for their efforts. Clearly, other common conditions can
have implications for the health of workers such as job strain (Karasek, 1979) and exposure to physical risks. Involuntary
situations regarding part-time and temporary contracts are factors related to job insecurity and career prospects. 

Analysis of EWCS2010 data shows that:

n

n

all OMD (except drivers) have a higher share of workers reporting job insecurity;

there is a lower share of workers with career prospects in all OMD without exception than in all other occupations. 

The  interaction  between  the  disadvantages  in  OMD  can  be  quite  damaging  for  the  workers. The  combination  of  job
insecurity,  physical  risks,  job  strain,  low  salaries  and  lack  of  training  or  some  of  them  can  interact,  with  negative
consequences for workers’ career development, and health and income in the long term. In practical terms, this means
that some workers in some occupations (for example, waiters and bartenders, food processing workers, drivers, refuse
workers and labourers) are relatively more likely to be in a spiral of poor working conditions. On a positive side, only
half of OMD are affected by a high share of workers working long hours and only three OMD have a high proportion
of workers with irregular schedules. Moreover, the social environment overall is not necessarily worse than in all other
occupations.

40

© European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2015

Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 18: Comparative performance of OMD compared with all other occupations for each aspect of working
conditions

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Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Notes: ‘All other occupations’ are represented by the middle dotted line. ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. The
size of the bar is determined by the distance of the occupation’s mean in a given indicator from the average of all other occupations
(measured by the standard deviation of the means of all OMD). The red bar means that, in that particular aspect, the occupation has
a  worse  average  value  than  all  other  occupations. The  larger  the  red  bar  is,  the  more  disadvantaged  the  occupation  is  on  average
compared with other OMD. Analogically, the green bar means that the occupation has a more advantageous average than all other
occupations and this advantage is larger with increasing size of the green bar. For example, in terms of long working hours (48 hours
or more), agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers are slightly more advantaged compared with all other workers. However, this
advantage is even bigger in the case of assemblers.
Source: EWCS2010 and EU LFS 2013

Occupation and health status

The relationship between work and health is complicated to study and measure. Workers’ health is affected by their work,
lifestyle,  activities  outside  work,  and  other  factors  such  as  genetic  predisposition. These  all  interact  with  the  broader
environmental and economic context. In addition, a number of health problems are caused by more than one factor. 

Regulation of the working environment, including collective bargaining, may impact on work and working conditions.
Furthermore, differences in employment structure between countries can also affect worker exposure to risks as well as
health outcomes (Eurofound, 2012c). However, there are some studies which attempt to show the relationship between
a job or occupation and general health status (Murray, 2007).

This  section  first  compares  psychosocial  health  and  well-being  between  OMD  and  all  other  occupations  and  then
analyses the impact of an occupation on the perception of workers’ own health. The World Health Organization (WHO)

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41

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Well-being Index (WHO-5) assesses various aspects related to mental well-being including positive mood (good spirit,
relaxation), vitality (being active and waking up fresh and rested) and general interest (being interested in things). The
answers are measured by a score reaching values from 0 to 25. Values below 13 indicate poor mental well-being and are
reported as ‘mental health at risk’. 

The highest proportion of employees in OMD whose mental well-being is at risk can be found in refuse workers (32%),
garment and related trades workers (31%) and machine operators (30%). Some 19% of workers in all other occupations
report poor well-being (Table 7).

Table 7: Percentage of workers whose mental health is at risk (WHO-5) in the EU28, 2010

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

15% Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Shop salespersons (522)

Mobile plant operators (834)

All other occupations

Manufacturing labourers (932)

16%

18%

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

18% Food preparation assistants (941)

19% Assemblers (821)

22% Cooks (512)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

23% Machine operators (814-818)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

23% Garment and related trades workers (753)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

23% Refuse workers (961)

24%

24%

25%

25%

26%

30%

31%

32%

Note: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS 2010

A regression analysis has been used to analyse differences in workers’ own assessed health in OMD. The results obtained
from a generalised ordered logit model 2 show that, in many cases, occupation maintained a significant effect even after
controlling for workers’ age, sex and country; these occupations are shown in Figure 19. Shops salespersons and waiters
and bartenders were found to be the only two OMD where workers are more likely to report better health than all other
occupations. Machine operators, garment and related workers, assemblers, car, van and motorcycle drivers and refuse
workers assessed their general health as being worse than all other occupations even after controlling for some attributes
of the workers. Refuse workers appear to have the worst position (higher relative probability of reporting bad health)
and  is  the  occupation  with  the  highest  percentage  of  workers  reporting  bad  or  very  bad  health  (10%).  The  lowest
percentage is reported by waiters (only 1%).

2

42

The assumptions of ordered logistic regression, namely the proportional odds assumption, were not met and therefore a generalised
ordered  logit  model  was  used  in  STATA  (gologit2  command).  See  Williams  (2006)  for  more  information  on  this  model.  The
independent variable was EWCS2010 Q68 recoded into three categories – (very) good, fair and (very) bad. The dependent variables
were age, sex, occupation category and country. The proportional assumption was not relaxed for any explanatory variable. The
final  model  included  36,402  observations  and  as  a  whole  was  statistically  significant  compared  with  the  null  model  with  no
predictors (the likelihood ratio chi-square was 1597.63 and p value was 0.0000).

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 19: Results of regression analysis of workers’ assessment of own health

Compared with all other occupations, OMD workers are more likely to report:

(Very) bad health

Fair health

(Very) good health

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Machine operators (814–818)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Assemblers (821)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Refuse workers (961)

Shop salespersons (522)

Note: ISCO-3 code of occupational group is given in brackets. 
Source: EWCS2010

Physical working conditions and employment conditions are associated with social inequalities in health (Benach et al,
2010). The analysis for this report showed that a higher proportion of workers in most OMD (3.4%) reported ‘bad’ or
‘very bad’ health status than in all other occupations (2.7%). The survival effect also has to be considered; some workers
in very bad health will leave employment and are therefore not included in the analysis. As mentioned before, health is
one of the main aspects linked to the sustainability of work in a life course perspective and also of being able to work
until retirement age. 

Summary of specific disadvantages and future prospects 

Most  OMD  are  disadvantaged  in  relation  to  certain  working  conditions.  This  section  offers  a  snapshot  of  specific
disadvantages and future prospects for the various OMD considered in this report. The information is based on:

n

n

n

the analysis of EWCS2010 and EU LFS 2013 data presented above;

the EU skills panorama web page (European Commission, 2014); 

the report, Labour market shortages in the European Union (European Parliament, 2015). 

The  description  provided  for  each  OMD  (ISCO-3  code)  should  be  understood  as  a  relative  position  in  terms  of  the
percentage of workers and in comparison with other OMD and all other occupations.

Cooks (512) and waiters and bartenders (513)
OMD in accommodation and food service activities are affected more than all other occupations by involuntary part-
time work, long hours, low income (except cooks) and atypical work (being very atypical in the case of waiters and
bartenders).  Overall,  waiters  and  bartenders  seem  to  be  more  disadvantaged  than  cooks,  especially  in  relation  to  the
psychosocial work environment. However, waiters in relation to the health outcomes at work present better results than
the rest of the OMD. Probably it has to do with their country distribution (higher share in the EU15) and the younger
composition of the workforce. 

This group of workers grew during the past decade, mainly before 2008. However, some decline is forecast for the future.
Nevertheless, job openings until 2025 are expected mainly in Spain and Sweden. A higher percentage of workers in these
two OMD is found in Spain.

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Shop salespersons (522) and cashiers and ticket clerks (523) 
Shop  salesperson  is  the  OMD  with  the  largest  number  of  workers  in  all  countries  and  appears  to  be  the  OMD  with
generally better working conditions. Poor conditions are related to income and provision of training. Shop salespersons
report better health than the average, which can be linked to the small proportion of workers exposed to high strain jobs
and physical risks. However, cashiers and ticket clerks have quite a different situation. Apart from the lack of provision
of training for a significant proportion of workers, it is an occupation with a high percentage of high strain jobs and low
income (lower than in the case of shop salespersons). It is the OMD with a worse social environment and in general
poorer career prospects than shop salespersons.

This group of workers grew during the past decade. Recruitment difficulties will take place for some occupations and
technological changes will shape the role of these workers. The country with the largest share of shop salespersons is
Greece.  For  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks,  it  is  Denmark  and  the  Netherlands. These  occupations  are  facing  bottlenecks.
Countries expected to have a high proportion of job openings are France and Greece.

Craft-related workers: food processing and related trades workers (751), wood treaters, cabinet-makers and
related trades workers (752) and garment and related trades workers (753)
Food processing, wood treaters and garment workers are all exposed to physical risks more than the rest of the OMD in
this group and have a relatively high proportion of workers in high strain jobs. Wood treaters are among the workers with
poorer reported health. In relation to other conditions such as atypical and long working hours and work–life balance,
food processing has a higher proportion of workers with poor conditions than the other OMD in this group. They also
report more difficulties in accessing training and higher job strain. Overall, it is the occupation with the worst working
conditions of this group.

These  occupational  groups  have  declined  over  the  long  term  and  the  pattern  is  set  to  continue.  However,  there  are
recruitment difficulties for some jobs within these occupations. Some workers are highly skilled and food processing
workers have to meet stringent health and hygiene standards. A high proportion of garment workers are in Portugal and
Romania. There  are  higher  proportions  of  wood  treaters  in  the  Baltic  states  and  food  processing  workers  in  Greece,
Ireland and Lithuania. In general, for the whole group of occupations, job openings until 2015 are expected in Austria,
the Baltic states and Greece. Wood and garment workers are facing bottlenecks.

Machine operators (814–818)
A major concern for this occupational group is the relatively high exposure to health risks and high strain jobs, which
seems to have consequences for workers’ health. However, working time related conditions (for example, irregularity
and long hours) are better than for the rest of the OMD. Career prospects are relatively poor. 

Employment in the occupation declined from 2003 to 2013 and this trend is set to continue. The qualification level has
risen recently. A higher proportion of workers is found in some eastern European countries and Portugal. Job openings
until 2025 are expected to be mainly in eastern Europe.

Assemblers (821)
The negative conditions for assemblers are very similar to those of machine operators (that is, exposure to health risks
and high job strain), whereas their working time is relatively good. Training opportunities are relatively poorer than for
machine operators.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Although employment has declined substantially in recent years, this trend is forecast to reverse until 2025. Countries
with  higher  proportions  of  assemblers  are  in  central–eastern  Europe  (Czech  Republic,  Hungary,  Slovakia).  Bigger
percentages of job openings until 2025 for these workers are expected in the aforementioned countries and Belgium.

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832) and mobile plant operators (834)
Drivers  face  a  variety  of  disadvantages,  including  working  time  (for  example,  long  and  irregular  hours)  and  the
associated poor work–life balance. It is the OMD with a work–life imbalance par excellence. Drivers also experience a
feeling of being badly paid for their work and little access to training. As a consequence, it is the group of workers with
a high share of poor career prospects. 

Mobile plant operators are mainly exposed to physical risks and high strain, with implications for their health. They also
report a significant share of workers reporting poor work–life balance, but to a lesser extent than drivers.

The number of workers in these occupations has grown over the past decade (albeit with a decline during the economic
crisis), but this trend is forecast to change. Countries with a high proportion of workers are the Baltic states, the Czech
Republic  and  Romania.  A  higher  percentage  of  job  openings  is  expected  in  these  countries  and  Sweden.  These
occupations are facing bottlenecks.

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)
Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers also suffer disadvantages related to working time (involuntary part-time and
irregular hours). It is an occupation with a high proportion of workers working involuntarily in temporary contracts, with
a lack of training and poor career prospects. They also have relatively poor income and exposure to physical risks.

This group of workers registered a small increase during the past decade and this trend will continue. The qualifications
required are expected to be upgraded. Migrant workers make up a high proportion of this group. The country with the
highest share of workers is Romania. A higher share of job openings until 2025 is expected mainly in this country and
Slovenia.

Manufacturing labourers (932) and mining and construction labourers (931)
Mining and construction labourers have a relatively high exposure to physical risks (higher for mining than construction
labourers), which makes the occupation risky in relation to health. In the workers’ opinion, these types of labouring is
not a sustainable job, or in other words, a low proportion of workers in these two OMD want or think they are going to
be able to work in the same job when they are 60 years-old. Manufacturing labourers have a higher proportion of workers
with high strain jobs. They are also considered OMD because of the low income level and prevalence of involuntary
temporary work. It is an occupation with a relatively high share of workers reporting job insecurity.

These occupations grew slightly in Europe in the past decade (albeit with a decline during the economic crisis). Migrant
workers  make  up  a  significant  proportion  of  workers.  Foreseen  technological  changes  might  imply  a  need  for  skills
upgrading in this group. Countries with higher proportions of workers are the Baltic states, the Czech Republic, Ireland,
Romania and Slovakia. Job openings until 2025 are expected mainly in Austria and the UK.

Food preparation assistants (941)
Food preparation assistants are mainly disadvantaged in relation to low income, provision of training and involuntary
part-time contracts. In combination with a considerable percentage of workers in temporary contracts, it is one of the
occupations with higher job insecurity. In this regard, they have similar characteristics to OMD in accommodation and

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

food services. However, the occupation is relatively less negatively affected by health risks than the average and has a
very low percentage of workers working more than 48 hours. 

At EU level, the share of workers in this occupation has increased over the past decade. A high proportion of workers is
found in Denmark, Sweden and the UK. It is an occupation facing bottlenecks.

Refuse workers (961)
The occupation is multiple disadvantaged mainly because of the low income, feeling of not being paid well for the job,
very high proportion of involuntary temporary contracts, job insecurity, lack of access to training, exposure to health
risks and poor health status. It is one of the occupations with the most multiple disadvantages. In relation to working
time, it has a relatively high proportion of workers working involuntarily part-time, although the organisation of their
working time allows a rather good work–life balance.

The occupation grew in Europe during the past decade. Slovakia has a very high proportion of such workers.

National context

Working conditions in general are influenced by the country in which workers live. The institutional setting, including
legislation  and  collective  bargaining,  plays  a  role  in  setting  the  minimum  standards  and  conditions.  Moreover,  a
country’s employment relations, general standards of living, the welfare state system and sociocultural characteristics
have an impact on working conditions, so a worker in the same occupation will enjoy better conditions in one country
than in another. It is therefore important to take into account the fact that the composition and the total amount of OMD
in each country are different and that this affects the EU level data presented above. They differ not only in the number
of workers in OMD (Figure 20) but also in the percentage of each OMD (Figure 21).

While  countries  in  the  west  and  the  north  of  the  EU  tend  to  have  a  lower  proportion  of  workers  in  OMD,  a  higher
proportion  can  be  found  in  the  countries  in  the  south  and  east  of  the  EU  (Figure  20).  Countries  with  the  highest
proportion  of  workers  in  OMD  (more  than  27%)  are  Latvia,  Romania  and  Slovakia,  while  the  lowest  proportion  of
workers in OMD (less than 15%) can be found in Belgium, Finland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 20: Share of OMD of the total population of workers in each EU28 country

 15% or smaller

Higher than 15%  but no more than 18% 

Higher than 18%  but no more than 21% 

Higher than 21%  but no more than 24% 

Higher than 24% 

Data not available

Note: No data are available for Bulgaria, Malta, Poland and Slovenia.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Figure 21 shows the distribution of the OMD in EU countries with the largest workforce (that is, people in employment).
In eastern European countries, assemblers represent up to 2.7% of the workforce whereas, for example, in Germany only
0.5%. Higher proportions of waiters and bartenders are found in Mediterranean countries; it is an important group in
Spain (3.5%) while in Romania, for example, it represents only 0.9%. Spain has a large share of agricultural labourers
compared  with  the  other  selected  countries.  In  all  countries,  shop  salespersons  represent  the  largest  OMD,  while  the
proportion of cashiers and ticket clerks is rather small. This occupational group has a bigger share of workers in the
Netherlands than in the other selected countries.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 21: Distribution of OMD in selected EU countries (%)

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

AT

BE

CZ

DE

ES

FR

EL

HU

IT

NL

PT

RO

SE

UK

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)
Mining and construction labourers (931)
Mobile plant operators (834)
Machine operators (814-818)
Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)
Food preparation assistants (941)
Waiters and bartenders (513)
Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Refuse workers (961)
Manufacturing labourers (932)
Assemblers (821)
Garment and related trades workers (753)
Food processing and related trades workers (751)
Cooks (512)
Shop salespersons (522)
Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Note: Countries with the largest numbers of people in employment.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Figure 22, which compares the share of workers working long hours (more than 48 hours) in the four OMD with the
largest proportions in five different countries, confirms that the country where the worker is employed matters. For all
four  OMD,  there  are  more  workers  working  long  hours  in  Spain  than  in  Germany.  Looking  at  differences  between
occupations, waiters and bartenders for example are the group with the highest proportion of workers working long hours
in Romania, while in Germany it is drivers and in Italy it is shop salespersons. The reason why machine operators in the
UK  work  longer  hours  than  in  any  of  the  other  selected  countries  could  be  due  to  the  different  nature  of  collective
bargaining in the sector where they work. 

Figure 22 is one example of the influence of national settings on the working conditions of specific occupations. Thus,
the data presented in Chapter 1 must be interpreted in EU terms and should not always be directly translated into what
is happening at national level.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Figure 22: Share of workers working long hours (%)

40%

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

DE

ES

FR

IT

RO

UK

Machine operators

Waiters and bartenders

Shop salespersons

Drivers

Note: ‘Long’ hours are defined as 48 or more hours per week.
Source: EU LFS 2013

Preamble to Chapters 2 and 3

Chapters  2  and  3  present  the  information  provided  by  Eurofound’s  network  of  European  correspondents.  Chapter  2
includes  findings  based  on  national  sources  of  information  about  the  conditions  of  OMD  in  some  EU  countries  at
national level. In addition, Chapter 2 includes some OMD not covered by the statistical analysis at European level given
in  Chapter  1.  This  is  because,  according  to  the  information  provided  by  the  national  correspondent,  they  can  be
considered as multiple disadvantaged in the national context. 

As suggested in Chapter 1, there is a cumulative negative effect in performing an occupation characterised by multiple
disadvantages in different domains (low wages and salaries, low job security, high work intensity and physical demands,
absence of social support by colleagues, long and/or unsocial working hours, lack of social recognition, presence of high
physical hazards, lack of skills development opportunities and career prospects, and so on). Individuals who work in
these types of jobs can experience declines in their health status, low self-esteem and psychological stress, as well as
shorter working life prospects and worse conditions for retirement.

Chapter  1  examines  working  conditions  for  the  OMD  at  European  level. After  taking  into  account  variables  such  as
country,  age  and  gender,  most  of  the  OMD  still  have  a  higher  probability  of  reporting  poorer  health  than  all  other
occupations.  Therefore,  occupation  is  associated  with  health  outcomes  as  well  as  with  variables  affecting  working
conditions (for example, access to training, income and employment status). For specific variables such as working time,
however, workers in the same occupation present different patterns depending on the country where they live. For this
reason, research carried out for this project investigated the working conditions of OMD drawing from contributions
based on national sources of information as well as policies and initiatives seeking to improve their situation.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

In light of these considerations, Chapters 2 and 3 have the following objectives:

n Explore and describe the concrete associated working conditions of workers in different EU Member States in the
pre-defined list (those presented in Chapter 1) of occupations characterised by multiple poor working conditions at
European level.

n Detect those occupations not included in the European level list that, according to national standards, should also be
regarded as OMD, as well as their associated working conditions and consequences (outcomes) in terms of working
life.

n

Identify  and  describe  existing  initiatives,  policies  and  measures  at  national  level  intended  to  improve  existing
working conditions in OMD, either aimed at specifically addressing some concrete occupations or transversal ones
(covering more than one specific occupation).

n Provide knowledge to inform the development of new policies or the improvement of existing policies intended to

improve working conditions in OMD.

Chapter 2 contains results about the working conditions of the OMD at EU level and others identified at national level.
Chapter 3 describes existing policies and initiatives developed at national level to improve the working conditions of
those occupations. It concludes with a section on EU policy related to the improvement of working conditions in OMD.

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National perspective

2

Chapter 1 identified, at the ISCO-08 3-digit level, occupations that can be regarded as OMD in the EU28 in the sense
that they score particularly low in at least three out of the four job quality indices that correspond to the four dimensions
of job quality: earnings, job and career prospects, working time and intrinsic job quality (Eurofound, 2014b). 

This chapter uses information from Eurofound’s network of European correspondents to consider in more detail the job
quality dimensions and working conditions of the OMD listed in Table 1. The OMD are presented in groups according
to their ISCO-08 2-digit code. 

This national-level information also led to the identification of a small number of further occupations that are considered
OMD in specific EU countries. These occupations are considered in the final section of the chapter.

Introduction

This section presents available national information for the EU28 Member States and Norway on the working conditions
associated with the OMD analysed in Chapter 1 to determine if these occupations can be also considered as OMD at
national  Member  State  level.  It  also  provides  information  on  the  possible  consequences  (outcomes)  of  these  poor
working conditions in terms of working life (accidents at work, health impact of work, work–life balance and so on). 

Before presenting the national information it is important to stress the following points.

There is a crucial lack of national statistical data sources from the occupational perspective. Most of the national sources
on employment and working conditions are intended to provide information by economic sector (NACE classification)
and not by occupation (ISCO classification). Hence, an occupational perspective on working conditions is relatively rare
in most Member States, at least in comparison with sectoral approaches.

The concept of OMD is new in most Member States and Norway in the sense that no comprehensive studies at national
level  dealing  with  this  concept  were  identified  during  this  study. This  situation  contrasts  with  the  concept  of  ‘risky’
sectors, for which more information on associated working conditions is available. In addition, in Italy the concept of
‘workers  with  disadvantages’  generally  refers  to  different  target  groups  such  as  young  unemployed,  immigrants  and
people with disabilities, whereas in Belgium the most common concept that relates to ‘occupations with difficulties’ is
those which struggle to fill vacancies due to the tough working conditions.

Notwithstanding this, relevant information by occupation can be extracted in some cases from existing national statistical
data  sources.  This  information  is  complemented  by  special  ad  hoc  national  surveys  and  studies  conducted  for  some
specific sectors or occupations characterised by tough working conditions.

Finally, the financial and economic crisis is likely to have resulted in poorer working conditions for most sectors and
occupations. This especially applies to low skilled workers – see, for instance, the experience of Ireland (Loftus, 2012).

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Main occupations identified

Personal service workers (ISCO-08 51): Cooks, waiters and bartenders 
Information  from  different  European  countries  confirms  that  both  cooks  (ISCO-08  512)  and  waiters  and  bartenders
(ISCO-08 513) can be defined as OMD. This is exemplified by their low salary levels, higher prevalence of unsocial
working hours and overtime practices, poor future prospects and high exposure to physical risks and stress levels. 

In Cyprus, hourly wage levels among waiters and bartenders in the Horeca sector are lower than the national average.
This occupation is also characterised by a high prevalence of temporary working contracts linked to the holiday period
and a high accident rate. The Cypriot Horeca sector is characterised by a high proportion of migrant workers, which adds
an  element  of  discrimination  and  disadvantage  in  terms  of  social  benefits  and  employment  rights  (Antoniou,  2010).
Similar results can be found in other EU Member States such as Spain (Cartagena, 2012).

In the Czech Republic, the average wages of cooks, waiters and bartenders were 60% less than the average national
hourly wage in 2013 according to the country’s Average Earnings Information System (ISPV). In a study by the Institute
of Sociology of the Czech Academy of Sciences (CVVM), 72.2% of these occupational groups reckoned they were paid
less than they deserved, 28.1% believed there was a high possibility of losing their job, 13.9% claimed to have high
levels of stress and 21.6% worked for more than 50 hours per week; these figures compared with 58.5%, 24%, 9.3% and
13.4%,  respectively,  for  the  whole  Czech  workforce.  Meanwhile,  Czech  cooks,  waiters  and  bartenders  seem  to  be
particularly disadvantaged in terms of possibilities for continuous training (3.3% and 2% of them participated in some
form of training compared with 11% for the average worker) according to data from the Czech Statistical Office (ČSÚ).
Czech  waiters  and  bartenders  are  also  exposed  to  overtime  practices  and  a  high  number  are  on  fixed-term  contracts.
These poorer working conditions may explain why waiters and bartenders are one of the occupational groups with the
greatest  difficulty  in  filling  vacancies  in  the  Czech  Republic  (Aktualne,  2014).  An  important  element  within  this
occupational group is the high level of illegal employment in the Horeca sector. For example, inspections in 2012 by the
State Labour Inspection Office detected a total of 4,717 illegally employed persons of whom 866 (that is, one in five)
worked in the restaurant and catering sector. The working conditions of those working illegally are not regulated by law. 

Information from Bulgaria confirms the large extent of the grey economy and the use of illegal forms and employment
practices in Horeca occupations.

In Denmark, both occupational groups are characterised by lower gross earnings per hour than the national average –
DKK 164.5 and DKK 153.7 (€22.0 and €20.6 as at 16 July 2015), respectively, compared with DKK 237.7 (€31.85) for
the national average in 2012. They also suffered from a higher prevalence of variable working hours, the need to work
at high speed and a higher accident rate according to data from Statistics Denmark and the Danish National Research
Centre for the Working Environment (NFA). 

In  France,  48.9%  of  cooks  in  2010  reported  working  at  least  10  Sundays  per  year  while  52.5%  worked  at  least  20
Saturdays per year (compared with only 16.5% and 24.5% for the national average, respectively). Meanwhile, 97% and
58.3% of national workers reported postural constraints and exposure to heat, respectively (compared with 74.3% and
20%, respectively, for all French workers), as well as higher than national average figures for exposure to noise pollution
and biological agents. Some 63% of cooks in France reported high levels of stress at work compared with the national
average of 37.1% (Amira, 2014). 

Greek data from the Hellenic Statistical Authority (EL.STAT) show a higher prevalence of part-time and temporary work
contracts than the corresponding national averages.

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In Germany, 22% and 46% of male and female cooks, respectively, as well as 39% of female waiters, expect to earn low
wages. They also suffer from a higher prevalence of night/weekend work, poor prospects of staying in their occupation
until retirement age and a high prevalence of part-time work (46% of workers in the restaurant sector are marginal part-
time workers) (Destatis, 2012; Burr et al, 2013; Wittig et al, 2013). 

Italian evidence shows that cooks suffer from higher levels of involuntary part-time contracts and overtime practices than
the corresponding national averages according to the National Institute of Statistics (Istat). Hence, 72.1% of Italian cooks
and 75.1% of Italian waiters and bartenders working part time reported an involuntary situation in 2013, whereas this
ratio  was  61.6%  for  the  national  average.  Meanwhile,  84.1%  of  cooks  and  70.9%  of  waiters  and  bartenders  usually
worked overtime.

In Slovenia, existing information shows that working conditions for national workers in the Horeca sector as a whole
can be labelled as tough. For instance, cooks are confronted with a higher prevalence of unpaid overtime practices, fixed-
term employment contracts, unsocial working hours during weekends and public holidays, and lower than the average
hourly wage levels, as well as a higher prevalence of illegal work (Ankele et al, 2012). It is not therefore strange that,
as in the Czech Republic, the Horeca sector in Slovenia has a major problem attracting cooks due to the occupation’s
poor working conditions.

In the Netherlands, data from the Netherlands Working Conditions Survey (NWCS) for 2011–2013 show that cooks,
waiters and bartenders report particularly poorer working conditions in a wide array of domains, including earning and
existing job prospects, as well as poorer job quality and working time indicators. For example, the average age people
think they will be able to continue working in their current job is 57 years-old for cooks and 53.7 years-old for waiters
and bartenders, whereas the national average is 62 years-old. Also, 15.9% of Dutch cooks felt ‘burnt out’ and 25.6%
identified major difficulties in combining work and family activities (compared with 12.7% and 8.9% for the national
average,  respectively).  The  number  of  accidents  and  health-related  complaints  for  cooks  is  nearly  double  the
corresponding national averages. This finding is also revealed in data from the Central Statistical Office (GUS) of Poland
(GUS, 2014a). 

Similarly, Swedish cooks, waiters and bartenders are confronted with disadvantageous conditions in terms of earnings,
job  prospects  and  job  quality  elements  (skill  use  and  discretion,  social  environment,  physical  environment,  work
intensity) (Swedish Work Environment Authority, 2014). 

In the UK, the occupations of cooks, waiters and bartenders are characterised by lower average wage levels – average
hourly wages of £7.50 (€10.67 as at 16 July 2015) for cooks and £6.10 (€8.68) for waiters and bartenders, compared
with a national median hourly wage in 2012 of £11.28 (€16.04). There is also a higher prevalence of part-time working
practices  and  unsocial  working  hours  (28.8  hours  on  average  for  cooks  and  20.5  hours  for  waiters  and  bartenders)
according to the Office for National Statistics (ONS) (ONS, 2013). The prevalence of low wage levels for cooks, waiters
and  bartenders  is  confirmed  by  studies  in  Belgium  (Statistics  Belgium,  2012),  Poland  (GUS,  2014b)  and  Portugal
(Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012).

Sales workers (ISCO-08 52): Shop salespersons, cashiers and ticket clerks 
A relatively wide array of literature and statistical evidence shows that shop salespersons (ISCO-08 522) and cashiers
and ticket clerks (ISCO-08 523) can be labelled as OMD. 

Information from countries such as Austria (Eichmann and Saupe, 2014), Bulgaria (data from Eurostat), Denmark (data
from Statistics Denmark), Finland (data from Statistics Finland), Poland (GUS, 2014b), Portugal (Portuguese Ministry
of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012) and the Netherlands (data from NWCS 2011–2013) identifies both
occupational groups as low-income occupations, that is, hourly wage levels are 54%–70% of the national average. 

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In  the  Czech  Republic,  information  from  the  ISPV  confirms  that  shop  salespersons,  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks  are
characterised by lower than average hourly wage levels (around 60% of the national average), with 57% of workers in
these OMD suggesting they are paid less than they deserve. In a CVVM study, responses from Czechs in these OMD
suggest  a  higher  prevalence  of  stress  levels  at  work  (18.4%  of  them  identified  with  this  problem  compared  with  a
national  average  of  9.3%),  a  much  higher  prevalence  of  temporary  and  part-time  work,  and  a  lower  involvement  in
further training activities (around 5% compared with 11% for the national average). 

In France, available information shows that a large share of shop salespersons, cashiers and ticket clerks report working
at least 20 Saturdays per year (75% in all cases compared with a national average of 24.5%), a lack of 48 consecutive
hours rest per week (49.7% and 60.7% compared with a national average of 14.8%), as well as a higher exposure to
manual  handling  of  loads,  flexible  working  hours  that  may  change  from  day  to  day,  and  difficult  situations  with
customers (Amira, 2014; Dares, 2014). 

In  Germany,  available  data  for  shop  salespersons  show  that  16.8%  and  42.9%  of  the  male  and  female  sales  staff,
respectively, are low earners compared with 11% and 26% for the national average, respectively. In addition, up to 38.2%
of sales staff report their work as being beneath their qualification level (national average of 16.7%) and 41% of retail
workers have a marginal part-time contract (data from the Health and Work Initiative (IGA); Wittig et al, 2013; Schmidt
et al, 2012; Bispinck and WSI-Tarifarchiv, 2014). Data from Istat show a high prevalence of part-time work among shop
salespersons also in Italy. 

In Greece, the occupation of shop salesperson is characterised by a high proportion of employees working part time and
on a temporary basis, as well as low wage levels (employees who earn up to €699 per month make up a third of this
occupational group) according to data from EL.STAT.

As far as Sweden is concerned, studies show that sales workers can be regarded as disadvantaged, especially when it
comes to the physical and social environment. For instance, approximately 25% of this occupational group indicate they
have been exposed to threats and violence at work, while a third of all such employees claim they have suffered pain
severe enough for medical diagnosis because of their work; this problem was more acute among women and workers
with many years’ service (data from the Commercial Employees’ Union; Balogh et al, 2011). 

In the UK, evidence from several studies shows that retail trade occupations are characterised by a culture of long hours,
poor work–life balance, lack of facilities for workers or poor communication levels between management and the shop
floor (Brandwood et al, 2007). Meanwhile, another study carried out for the food retail sector suggests that most shop
assistants were engaged in low skilled work, where median pay rates fell below or were just on the low pay threshold.
The  study  found  that  most  assistants  were  dissatisfied  with  aspects  of  their  employment,  typically  the  inconvenient
working hours, the physically demanding nature of the work or the limited career prospects (especially for part-time
workers, usually female workers) (Mason and Osborne, 2008). Finally, both occupational groups  have very low wage
levels; the median hourly wage is £6.75 (€9.60) for shop salespersons and £7.01 (€9.97) for cashiers and ticket clerks,
compared with £11.28 (€16.04) for the national average (ONS, 2013). 

Food processing, wood working, garment and other craft-related workers (ISCO-08 75):
Food processing and related trades workers, wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades
workers, and garment and related trades workers 
According  to  existing  national  information,  the  occupations  of  food  processing  and  related  trades  workers  (ISCO-08
751), wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (ISCO-08 752) and garment and related trades workers
(ISCO-08 753) cannot be characterised as OMD in all Member States. 

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In  the  Czech  Republic,  these  three  occupational  groups  have  lower  hourly  wage  levels  and  fewer  further  training
opportunities than the corresponding national averages (less than 5% of workers in these occupations are engaged in
training activities compared with the national average of 11%). The prevalence of long working hours, and fixed-term
and part-time contracts is in line with or below the national average, with the exception of longer working hours for wood
treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers and a greater prevalence of part-time jobs among garment and related
trades workers according to the ISPV and a study by CVVM. 

Similarly, wage levels in these occupations are less than 60% of the national average in countries such as Bulgaria (data
from  Eurostat),  Germany  (Bispinck  and  WSI-Tarifarchiv,  2014),  Poland  (GUS,  2014b)  and  Portugal  (Portuguese
Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012).

In Denmark, workers in these three occupational groups believe their earnings are less than national average wage levels
(approximately 75% lower in all three cases), and also have a higher fear of losing their jobs. In contrast, data from
Statistics Denmark suggest that other elements of working conditions are in line with the national averages, with the
exception of food processing and related trades workers who have a greater need to work at high speed and a greater
prevalence of variable working hours.

In  France,  information  related  to  food  processing  and  related  trades  workers  shows  that  these  workers  are  usually
characterised  by  high  stress  pressures  (63%  of  them  have  to  work  in  a  rush  compared  with  the  national  average  of
37.1%), higher exposure to heat or cold conditions (71.7% versus the national average of 20%) and a higher exposure
to manual handling of loads and postural constraints. In addition, 71.1% of them report working at least 20 Saturdays
per year while the national average is only 24.5% (Amira, 2014; Dares, 2014).

Greek information shows that the three occupational groups are characterised by a high prevalence of foreign nationals
and part-timers, as well as a high prevalence of low earners; 30%, 55% and 70% of Greek workers in the ISCO-08 751,
752 and 753 occupations, respectively, earn less than €699 per month according to data from EL.STAT. 

In  contrast,  data  from  Istat  in  Italy  suggest  that  these  three  ISCO-75  occupations  have  working  conditions  that  are
relatively similar to the national average, with the exception of a greater prevalence of overtime practices among wood
treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers. For garment and related trades workers, for example, temporary or
part-time contracts, involuntary temporary work and involuntary part-time work are significantly less widespread than
the corresponding national averages. 

Similarly, data from the NWCS 2011–2013 show that only food processing and related trades workers in the Netherlands
can be characterised as an OMD in comparison with national standards – although the three occupational groups have
lower than national average wage levels. Hence, it is not strange that food processing and related trades workers give a
lower age for when they expect to have to stop working in their current occupation – that is, 59.5 years-old compared
with the national average of 62 years-old.

The  same  result  is  found  in  the  UK  where  some  authors  suggest  that  working  conditions  in  food  processing  related
occupations  (meat  processing  workers,  bakers)  can  be  extremely  unpleasant  as  well  as  harmful  to  health  and  safety
(James and Lloyd, 2008; Mason and Osborne, 2008). Thus, pay rates for most process operatives are low and repetitive
work routines, which are physically demanding and monotonous, can often result in injuries to the back, neck, hands and
shoulders. In some cases, employees work long hours to make up their pay and ensure a reasonable standard of living,
with ‘gruelling’ 10 hour shifts. Opportunities for learning and progression are extremely limited and there is evidence of
work intensification as large supermarket chains apply increasing pressure on suppliers to cut costs.

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Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers have a higher propensity to suffer from work accidents in a
number  of  countries,  including  the  Netherlands  (data  from  NWCS  2011–2013),  Poland  (GUS,  2014a)  and  Portugal
(Portuguese  Ministry  of  Solidarity,  Employment  and  Social  Security,  2011).  For  instance,  7.5%  of  workers  in  this
occupational group in the Netherlands report this issue compared with 2.3% for the national average.

Stationary plant and machine operators (ISCO-08 81): Rubber, plastic and paper products machine operators,
textile,  fur  and  leather  products  machine  operators,  food  and  related  products  machine  operators,  wood
processing and papermaking plant operators, other stationary plant and machine operators 
National information relating to some of the occupations in the ISCO-08 81 group – comprising rubber, plastic and paper
products machine operators (814), textile, fur and leather products machine operators (815), food and related products
machine  operators  (816),  wood  processing  and  papermaking  plant  operators  (817)  and  other  stationary  plant  and
machine operators (818) – shows mixed results and, in some cases, these occupations cannot be considered as OMD. 

Information  from  Member  States  such  as  Bulgaria  (data  from  Eurostat),  the  Czech  Republic  (data  from  the  ISPV),
Denmark  (data  from  Statistics  Denmark),  Poland  (GUS,  2014b),  Portugal  (Portuguese  Ministry  of  Solidarity,
Employment  and  Social  Security,  2012),  the  Netherlands  (data  from  NWCS  2011–2013)  and  the  UK  (ONS,  2013)
confirms  that  these  occupational  groups  are  characterised  by  wage  levels  that  are  50%–75%  lower  than  the  national
average, depending on the country. In Poland, for instance, average hourly gross earnings vary from 69.6% of the Polish
national average for textile, fur and leather products machine operators (815) and 76.7% for other stationary plant and
machine operators (818).

Available information on other elements of working conditions is much more mixed. For example, data from a study by
CVVM in the Czech Republic show that 68.4% of all stationary plant and machine operators believe they are paid less
than  they  deserve  (compared  with  the  national  average  of  58.5%)  and  have  fewer  further  training  opportunities. The
percentages of Czech operators claiming a probable job loss, an atmosphere full of conflict or high levels of stress are
much  lower  than  the  corresponding  national  averages.  However,  other  variables  such  as  number  of  average  working
hours or the prevalence of fixed-term and part-time contracts are similar to or below the corresponding national averages.
In Denmark, only food and related products machine operators suffer high levels of stress at work, as well as relatively
lower levels of social support from other colleagues according to data from Statistics Denmark. The working conditions
of French textile, fur and leather products machine operators are not particularly worse than the national average (Dares,
2014). 

In  Germany,  information  from  the  IGA  Initiative  shows  that  the  percentage  of  food  and  related  products  machine
operators  suggesting  they  would  be  able  to  stay  in  the  same  occupation  until  retirement  is  lower  than  the  national
average.  The  issue  of  posted  workers  in  meat  processing  was  a  major  issue  in  Germany  in  2013–2014  (Deutscher
Bundestag, 2013; Hausding, 2014). Meanwhile, German wood processing and papermaking plant operators are exposed
to higher health-related risks and work accidents (Wittig et al, 2013) – a finding matched by data from the Netherlands
(NWCS 2011–2013) and Poland (GUS, 2014a).

In  Italy,  the  ISCO-08  81  occupations  are  characterised  by  having  a  higher  prevalence  of  overtime  practices  than  the
national  average,  whereas  other  elements  of  working  conditions  such  as  the  prevalence  of  part-time  or  temporary
contracts are less than the national average levels. The only exception is food and related products machine operators,
who  are  characterised  by  a  higher  prevalence  of  fixed-term  contracts,  involuntary  part-time  and  temporary  working
situations  according  to  data  from  Istat. Also  for  this  occupation,  Dutch  information  shows  that  up  to  25.2%  of  these
operators reckon they are affected by ‘burnout’ feelings, a percentage that is much higher than both the other ISCO 81
occupations considered as OMD and the national average (12.7% of Dutch workers). Similarly, Dutch food and related
products  machine  operators  state  that  59.3  years-old  is  the  age  up  to  which  they  think  they  will  be  able  to  continue

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working in their current job; this age is the lowest among the ISCO 81 occupations and lower than the national average
of 62 years-old.

Assemblers (ISCO-08 82): Assemblers 
The  occupational  group  of  assemblers  (ISCO-08  821)  is  characterised  by  multiple  disadvantages,  although  existing
national evidence provides a ‘mixed’ perspective on this occupation. 

For  instance,  information  from  Member  States  such  as  Bulgaria  (data  from  Eurostat),  Denmark  (data  from  Statistics
Denmark),  Poland  (GUS,  2014b)  and  Portugal  (Portuguese  Ministry  of  Solidarity,  Employment  and  Social  Security,
2012) shows that, while the occupation is characterised by lower wage levels (70%–80% of the national average), these
are generally speaking not as low as in other occupations. 

In contrast, available information from the Czech Republic shows that hourly wage levels for assemblers are in line with
the  national  average.  However,  this  group  is  particularly  affected  by  a  conflictive  working  atmosphere,  a  greater
prevalence of fixed-term contracts than the national average and a strong fear of losing their job, whereas stress levels,
part-time and overtime practices are smaller than the corresponding national averages according to data from ČSÚ, data
from the ISPV and a study by CVVM.  

In countries such as Denmark, Finland, Italy and the Netherlands, the working conditions associated with assemblers do
not seem to be so ‘disadvantageous’, at least in comparison with national standards. For example, with the exception of
lower hourly wage levels, assemblers in Denmark and Finland are not particularly affected by stress levels, poor social
support at work, exposure to accidents and poor employment prospects according to data from Statistics Denmark, the
NFA and Statistics Finland. In Italy, the percentage of assemblers in voluntary and involuntary fixed-term contracts or
part-time  practices  is  less  than  the  corresponding  national  averages  according  to  data  from  Istat.  Similarly,  in  the
Netherlands, assemblers are characterised by lower hourly wage levels and a relatively higher exposure to accidents,
although other elements of working conditions such as work–life balance and sustainability are more positive among this
group than the corresponding national average. For instance, only 1.1% of Dutch assemblers identified difficulties in
combining work and family life, whereas the national average is 8.9% (NWCS 2011–2013). 

Finally, information from Germany shows that male assemblers face an above average health risk (Wittig et al, 2013), a
result  confirmed  by  Polish  and  Portuguese  data  on  accident  rates  among  this  occupational  group  (GUS,  2014a;
Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2011).

Drivers and mobile plant operators (ISCO-08 83): Car, van and motorcycle drivers, mobile plant
operators 
Existing national information suggests that the occupational groups of car, van and motorcycle drivers (832) and mobile
plant operators (834) can be labelled as OMD, especially the former. 

Evidence  from  a  number  of  Member  States  –  Bulgaria  (data  from  Eurostat),  Finland  (data  from  Statistics  Finland),
Poland (GUS, 2014b) and Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012) – shows
that both occupational groups are confronted with hourly wage levels lower than the national averages. German taxi
drivers, for instance, suffer particularly from very low wages (Destatis, 2012). In contrast, data from Statistics Denmark
show that hourly wage levels in both occupations are above the national average. 

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In the Czech Republic, the level in both occupational groups who reckon they are paid less than they deserve is higher
than  the  national  average  (78.3%  compared  with  the  national  average  of  58.5%).  Both  groups  also  claim  a  high
prevalence of overtime practices and high stress levels as well as less access to training activities (6.8% for drivers and
5.9% among mobile plant operators compared with 11% for the national average) according to data from ČSÚ and a
study by CVVM. Car, van and motorcycle drivers suffer particularly from longer working hours (43.2 hours per week
versus 41.9 hours for the national average). However, other elements of working conditions such as the prevalence of
part-time practices or fixed-term contracts are in line with or even below the corresponding national averages.

In France, information for car, van and motorcycle drivers shows that they face several important disadvantages. Thus,
drivers are more exposed to working time constraints than average French workers. This is reflected in changes in daily
working  times  (50.9%  compared  with  22.7%),  difficulties  in  fixing  their  work  schedule  for  the  next  week  (37.9%
compared with 10.4%) and a higher prevalence of night and weekend working. French drivers in this occupational group
are particularly confronted with difficult situations when dealing with customers, and are particularly exposed to stress
situations and acute weather conditions (38.2% versus 20% for all workers). In the case of the mobile plant operators,
available data show that this occupational group is not so constrained by working time issues than with problems related
to postural constraints, exposure to noise or manual handling of loads (Amira, 2014; Dares, 2014). 

In  Italy,  available  information  from  Istat  shows  that  both  occupational  groups  face  a  higher  prevalence  of  overtime
practices and involuntary temporary and part-time practices than the corresponding national averages. 

Information  from  Spain  shows  that  ‘vehicle  drivers’  is  one  of  the  occupations  with  the  largest  percentage  of  people
suggesting that they can rarely or never learn new things at work (27% compared with 16.4% for the national average),
higher  exposure  to  high  or  very  high  noise  at  work,  and  little  space  to  work  comfortably  (21.2%  compared  with  the
national average of 10.8%). In addition, up to 83.2% of Spanish vehicle drivers suffer from some type of work-related
pain (posture, position, effort and so on) (INSHT, 2011). 

In the Netherlands, data from the NWCS 2011–2013 identify that car, van and motorcycle drivers experience particularly
negative working conditions in terms of overtime working practices, as well as higher exposure to work-related accidents
than the national average. This is also the case for mobile plant operators. In addition, car, van and motorcycle drivers
experience greater difficulties in combining work and family life than the national average. However, burnout levels and
prospects of continuing in the same job until retirement age are similar to the corresponding national averages; similar
results are obtained for mobile plant operators. 

This  higher  exposure  to  work-related  accidents  among  drivers  is  confirmed  in  other  Member  States  such  as  Poland,
where up to 1.1% of all accidents among this occupational group result in death compared with the national average of
0.41% (GUS, 2014a).

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (ISCO-08 92): Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers 
The occupational group of agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (ISCO-08 921) is an OMD according to national
information collected for this study. 

Information from the Cypriot Statistical Service shows that this occupational group is characterised by very long average
working hours (46.8 hours compared with the national average of 41.3 hours), as well as one of the lowest hourly wages
in the national economy (€8.35) and a very high dissatisfaction level with their working conditions and environment. In
addition, a very high percentage of farm labourers (45% of the total) feel that their safety and health are endangered by
the work they perform. The large number of immigrants within this occupational group in Cyprus may explain this result. 

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In  the  Czech  Republic  (data  from  the  ISPV),  Denmark  (data  from  Statistics  Denmark),  Finland  (data  from  Statistics
Finland) and Poland (GUS, 2014b), agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers receive an income that is less than 60%
of the average gross national monthly wage. This percentage goes down to 40.2% in Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of
Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012). In the Czech Republic, labourers in this occupational group suffer
from  a  very  high  prevalence  of  fixed-term  contracts  (43.7%  compared  with  9.8%  for  the  national  average)  and  less
participation in training activities according to data from ČSÚ.

In Germany, this occupational group combines lower wage levels (27% of surveyed male agricultural workers earn low
wages compared with 11% for the national average) with a very high prevalence of marginal part-time contracts (40%
of the total), poor prospects of staying in the occupation until retirement age (especially as far as forestry labourers are
concerned)  and  a  very  high  rate  of  work-related  accidents,  especially  among  foreign  seasonal  workers  and  posted
labourers (Wittig et al, 2013; Destatis, 2012; Bispinck and WSI-Tarifarchiv, 2014). 

A similarly high incidence of accidents can be detected in countries such as Bulgaria (NSSI, 2013), the Netherlands (data
from  NWCS  2011–2013),  Poland  (GUS,  2014a)  and  Portugal  (Portuguese  Ministry  of  Solidarity,  Employment  and
Social Security, 2011). 

In Italy, this occupational group is affected by a very high share of involuntary temporary and part-time work according
to data from Istat – 93.1% and 84.5%, respectively, where the corresponding figures for the national average are 61.9%
and 61.6%, respectively.

In Sweden, the special group of agricultural labourers involved in berry picking is affected by multiple disadvantages in
terms of very low wage levels and exposure to poor living and working conditions (Nilsson, 2014). As in the case of
Cyprus, the particularly poor working conditions for berry pickers are caused by gaps in labour migration legislation and
particularly by a lack of transparency in incomes and employer costs for immigrant workers (Efendic, 2013). 

In the UK, labourers involved in agricultural, forestry and fishery activities combine very low wage levels; £7.75 (€11.06
as at 23 July 2015) is the median hourly wage compared with £11.28 (€16.04) for the national average, where 40% of
workers earn £7.40 (€10.56) or less with very long working hours (38.2 hours per week compared with 33.1 hours for
the national average) (ONS, 2013). 

However, evidence from countries such as Denmark (data from the NFA and Statistics Denmark) and the Netherlands
(NWCS 2011–2013) shows that this occupation does not suffer from disadvantages in elements of working conditions
such as successful combination of family and work life, burnout levels, age limit for changing job, fear of losing their
job or a supportive social environment. 

Labourers in mining, construction, manufacturing and transport (ISCO-08 93): Mining and
construction labourers, manufacturing labourers 
The two occupational groups of mining and construction labourers (ISCO-08 931) and manufacturing labourers (ISCO-
08 932) can be considered as OMD from the information available from many EU Member States. 

Information from different Bulgarian sources (NSSI, 2013; data from Eurostat) shows that both mining and construction
labourers and manufacturing labourers are exposed to high accident rates (especially mining and construction labourers)
and hourly wage levels that are less than the national average. Similar results are available in other Member States such
as Cyprus (data from the Cypriot Statistical Service), Poland (GUS, 2010a, 2014b), Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of
Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2011, 2012) and the Netherlands (NWCS 2011–2013). 

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In the Czech Republic, up to 80% of people belonging to the occupational group ISCO-08 93 say they are paid less than
they deserve, compared with a national average of 58.5%, according to data from a study by CVVM and data from ČSÚ.
The percentage of people in the occupations that report experiencing stress at work and a conflictive work atmosphere
is  also  higher  than  the  corresponding  national  averages.  In  addition,  up  to  20%  of  people  in  this  occupational  group
suggest that their work has a negative influence on their health status compared with 2.9% for the national average. The
extent of fixed-term contracts is also higher than the national average. 

In  Greece,  information  from  EL.STAT  shows  that  mining  and  construction  labourers  are  characterised  by  a  high
proportion of foreign nationals (42.5%) and temporary workers (29.1%); almost two-thirds of temporary workers have
employment contracts for a term ranging from one to three months. In addition, 40% of employees earn less than €699
per  month.  Information  for  Greek  manufacturing  labourers  shows  relatively  better  working  conditions,  with  a  lower
prevalence of temporary workers and higher average wage levels. 

Information from Germany (data from the IGA Initiative) and the Netherlands (NWCS 2011–2013) shows that in both
occupations, but especially for mining and construction labourers, existing prospects of staying in the occupation until
retirement age are lower than the national average. German labourers also receive less training than the national average
(Wittig et al, 2013).

Italian  mining  and  construction  and  manufacturing  labourers  face  a  higher  than  average  prevalence  of  fixed-term
contracts and overtime practices according to data from Istat.

Mining is a high-risk activity in many countries. For instance, information from a Bulgarian government study funded
by  the  European  Commission,  research  by  the  Federation  of  Metalworking,  Mining,  Chemical,  Pharmaceutical,
Petroleum and Gas Workers’ Unions (Fieqmetal) in Portugal and a study from Spain (INSHT, 2013) show that miners
tend to be exposed to high temperatures, radiation and harmful agents, high noise and vibration levels, as well as the
hazards related to the use of explosives, intense physical work or limited space to work comfortably. All these elements
combine to make mining a very disadvantageous activity. One of the consequences of these poor working conditions is
the number of accidents at work. Bulgarian information shows that the construction sector there is particularly affected
by a high presence of the grey economy and illegal forms and practices of employment (Dzhekova and Williams, 2014).

Despite  these  negative  elements,  the  situation  is  not  as  bad  in  some  countries  in  relation  to  some  dimensions.  For
instance, problems of long working hours, overtime practices or involvement in continuing training activities are not that
important for these occupational groups in the Czech Republic and, in Finland, construction and manufacturing labourers
have higher wage levels than the national average according to Statistics Finland.

Food preparation assistants (ISCO-08 94): Food preparation assistants 
Like  the  occupational  groups  of  cooks  and  waiters/bartenders,  the  occupational  group  of  food  preparation  assistants
(ISCO-09 941) can be defined as an OMD in some Member States but not all. 

For  example,  information  from  the  ISPV  in  the  Czech  Republic  shows  lower  than  national  average  wages.  This
disadvantage is combined, according to data from ČSÚ, with a very high prevalence of fixed-term contracts and part-
time jobs (46% and 16.8%, respectively, compared with 9.8% and 6.8% for the corresponding national averages) and
fewer training activities. 

In Denmark, food preparation assistants are subject to lower gross hourly wages (DKK 150.72 (€20.19) compared with
DKK 237.7 (€31.85) for the national average, as well as a greater prevalence of variable working hours and a need to
work at high speed (data from the NFA and Statistics Denmark)). This high incidence of low hourly wage levels in this

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occupational group is backed by evidence from Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social
Security, 2012) and Poland (GUS, 2014b). 

Food preparation assistants in the Netherlands have lower wage levels and job prospects (NWCS 2011–2013). Evidence
from Sweden shows that they suffer from important disadvantages in earnings, prospects and job quality (skill use and
discretion, social environment, physical environment, work intensity) (Swedish Work Environment Authority, 2013). 

In the UK, this occupational group is mainly affected by a combination of low wage levels. The median hourly wage for
the occupation is £6.25 (€8.92), with 80% of workers earning £7.35 (€10.49) or less (ONS, 2013). There is also a higher
proportion of part-time work than the national average. 

Available indicators from the Netherlands (NWCS 2011–2013) and Sweden show that this occupational group is not
particularly  affected  by  negative  elements  such  as  high  burnout  levels,  negative  impacts  on  health  or  difficulties  in
combining work and family activities.

Refuse workers and other elementary workers (ISCO-08 96): Refuse workers 
National information confirms the existence of multiple disadvantages for refuse workers (ISCO-08 961) in a number of
Member States. 

In  the  Czech  Republic,  data  from  ČSÚ  showsa  higher  prevalence  of  fixed-term  and  part-time  contracts  (49.6%  and
14.8% versus 9.8% and 6.8% for the national average, respectively), lower levels of pay, less participation in education
and higher levels of overtime compared with the corresponding national averages.  

In Denmark, refuse workers are exposed to lower hourly wage levels, higher accident rates and higher working speeds
than the corresponding national averages according to data from the NFA.

German refuse workers have poor prospects of being able to stay in the occupation until retirement age (Institut DGB-
Index Gute Arbeit, 2013), as well as high physical demands and a very strong incidence of sickness leave according to
an annual report on absenteeism in the German economy (WIdO, 2013). 

In  Italy,  refuse  workers  are  characterised  by  a  higher  extent  of  overtime  practices  and  a  prevalence  of  involuntary
temporary and part-time employment according to data from Istat. 

In  Latvia  (VDI,  2014),  Portugal  (Portuguese  Ministry  of  Solidarity,  Employment  and  Social  Security,  2011)  and  the
Netherlands  (NWCS  2011–2013),  the  occupation  is  characterised  by  higher  than  average  accident  rates.  Dutch
information  stresses  the  high  proportion  of  refuse  workers  complaining  of  burnout  (up  to  20.2%  of  people  in  the
occupation compared with a national average of 12.7%). 

Information from several countries also suggests the prevalence of low hourly wage levels in this occupation, ranging
from 26% less than the national average in the cases of Belgium (Statistics Belgium, 2012) and Bulgaria (data from
Eurostat) to 71% lower in Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012) and 82%
lower in Denmark (data from Statistics Denmark). 

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Other occupations with disadvantages identified at national level

In  addition  to  the  list  of  ISCO-08  3-digit  level  occupations  selected  for  this  study  (Table  1)  as  discussed  above,
Eurofound’s network of national correspondents identified several other occupations that can be considered as OMD in
their  respective  countries.  The  criteria  used  to  identify  these  additional  occupations  are  based  on  a  combination  of
existing national information sources and the perceptions of the national correspondents. 

Cleaners and helpers (ISCO-08 91 group)
One occupational group where there is widespread national evidence confirming its multiple disadvantaged nature in
many countries is cleaners and helpers (ISCO-08 91) in relation to:

n domestic, hotel and office cleaners and helpers (ISCO-08 911);

n vehicle, window, laundry and other hand cleaning workers (ISCO-08 912).

For instance, an Austrian study on working conditions in the cleaning sector and based on Working Climate Index data
shows that nearly half of workers in this occupation complained about:

n

n

n

n

low wage levels (compared with 9% of all Austrian employees);

atypical working time patterns (with evening, night and early morning working hours because of the nature of the
service);

the associated difficulties of having a good work–life balance;

the impossibility of continuing in the same job until retirement age (around 30% of respondents compared with 17%
of all employees);

n

the high prevalence of cleaners suffering from physical and psychosocial work strains.

Similarly, a Czech study by CVVM shows that cleaners and helpers are characterised by:

n very low average wages (71.4% suggested they were paid less than they deserved compared with the national average

of 58.5%);

n high probability of losing their job;

n

low level of training opportunities;

n high concentration of fixed-term contracts;

n underemployment;

n high share of unpaid overtime work;

n high levels of stress (30.8% reckoned they suffered from stress almost every day compared with the national average

of 9.3%);

n

a higher perceived negative influence of working life on health status, general well-being and family life. 

Cleaners are seen as an OMD in the Finnish labour market. They are poorly paid and their working conditions are both
emotionally and physically demanding. 

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In the Netherlands (NWCS 2011–2013), cleaners think the age up to which they will be able to continue in their current
occupation  is  56.4  years-old  (one  of  the  lowest  of  any  occupational  group)  compared  with  a  national  average  of
62 years-old.

Low wage levels are confirmed by studies in Belgium (Statistics Belgium, 2012), Hungary (data from the Hungarian
Central Statistical Office), Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012), Poland
(GUS, 2014b) and Spain (INSHT, 2013). 

In the UK, the median hourly wage for this occupational group is £6.54 (€9.33) compared with the national average of
£11.28 (€16.04), with 70% of cleaners and helpers earning £7.30 (€10.41) or less (ONS, 2013). 

In  Spain,  a  high  proportion  of  cleaning  workers  work  weekends  and  bank  holidays,  have  low  associated  learning
opportunities and, generally speaking, low satisfaction levels at work (INSHT, 2013). 

Evidence from Cyprus (Antoniou, 2010; Charalambidou Solomi, 2011) and Sweden (Abbasian and Bildt, 2007; Hägg et
al, 2008) shows that a large majority of workers employed as domestic assistants and cleaners are women and, in the
case  of  Cyprus,  third  country  nationals.  This  finding  may  also  explain  the  current  poor  working  conditions  in  the
occupation in Cyprus. 

These  difficult  working  conditions  may  explain  why  cleaners  are  overrepresented  in  the  Finnish  early  disability
retirement system or why the sector experiences high turnover levels and major difficulties in recruiting new staff in
Belgium (VDAB, undated) and the UK (MacNamara, 2014).

Hairdressers, beauticians and related workers (ISCO-08 514) 
This group is labelled as an OMD in several countries (Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands), in terms of poor
wages, prospects and intrinsic job quality. 

Evidence from Belgium shows that this occupational group is one of the 15 worst paid 3-digit ISCO occupations in the
country; the average monthly wage is 34% below the national average (Statistics Belgium, 2012). A similar result is
found in the Netherlands (NWCS 2011–2013). In Germany, the sectoral agreed minimum wage until 1 August 2015 was
less than the statutory minimum wage introduced in January 2015. 

French evidence (Dares, 2014) shows that hairdressers, beauticians and related workers are more exposed to chemical
and biological agents (88% and 78% of workers, respectively) than the national average (33% and 22%, respectively).
In Germany, up to 42.9% of hairdressers work beneath their qualification level (Wittig et al, 2013). It is therefore not
surprising  that,  in  Belgium,  hairdressing  is  considered  an  occupation  where  it  is  difficult  to  fill  vacancies  (VDAB,
undated). 

Childcare workers and teachers’ aides (ISCO-08 531) 
Childcare workers and teachers’ aides are an OMD in countries such as Belgium, Hungary and Italy.

According to data from Istat, this occupational group is characterised in Italy by high levels of (involuntary) part-time
and temporary work coupled with low wage levels and job prospects. In Belgium, childcare workers are one of the five
occupations with the highest number of accidents according to information from the Fund for Occupational Accidents.

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Personal care workers in health and residential services (ISCO-08 532) 
Personal care workers in health and residential services are another occupation with significant national evidence on
multiple  disadvantages.  Despite  increasing  life  expectancy  and  demands  for  personal  care,  this  occupation  is
experiencing major recruitment and retention problems in a number of Member States due to poor associated working
conditions  such  as  low  pay,  lack  of  career  progression  opportunities,  the  demanding  nature  of  the  job  and  image
problems. 

Evidence  from  the  Czech  Republic  (ISPV  data),  Hungary  (data  from  the  Hungarian  Central  Statistical  Office)  and
Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012) shows that average gross monthly
wages in the sector are 60%–70% of the corresponding national average. 

In the UK, the 2012 median hourly wage for this occupational group was £7.90 (€11.28) against a national median wage
of  £11.28  (€16.04),  while  40%  of  workers  earned  £7.41  (€10.58)  or  less  (ONS,  2013).  The  majority  of  the  British
workers did not receive set wages, making it hard to plan and budget, and 57.8% were not paid for their travelling time
between visits. Also in the UK, a study by the trade union UNISON found that 41.1% of social workers were not given
specialist training to deal with their client’s specific medical needs, while over half the workers reported that their terms
and conditions had worsened over the last year (UNISON, 2012).

In Germany, 74% of care workers said they would not be able to work in the occupation until retirement age and 84%
felt high time pressure due to their work schedule (Ver.di, 2013; Institut DGB-Index Gute Arbeit, 2013). 

Protective services workers (ISCO-08 541) 
In France and Poland, available studies suggest that the occupational group of protective services workers is also subject
to several disadvantages. 

Polish research on protective services workers shows that not only are earnings very low in this occupation, but also
working time was longer than the average and most of the workers were employed on the basis of civil law contracts
(GUS, 2014b). 

Meanwhile,  French  research  for  the  subgroup  of  security  guards  (ISCO-08  5414)  shows  that  they  are  particularly
exposed to flexible working time, including Sunday and Bank Holiday work, as well as night work (75% compared with
a national average of 15%) (Dares, 2014).

Market-oriented skilled agricultural workers (ISCO-08 61), market-oriented skilled forestry, fishery
and hunting workers (ISCO-08 62)
In  addition  to  the  occupational  group  of  labourers  in  the  agricultural,  forestry  and  fishery  sectors  (ISCO-08  921)
described above, information available in countries such as Denmark, Italy, Latvia, Norway and Portugal shows that
skilled workers in market-oriented agricultural, forestry, fishery and hunting activities (ISCO-08 61 and 62) can be also
characterised as OMD in terms of lower salaries, lower intrinsic job quality and working time aspects. 

Average earnings in Denmark (data from Statistics Denmark), Latvia (data from the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia)
and Portugal (Portuguese Ministry of Solidarity, Employment and Social Security, 2012) are around 50%–60% of the
national average for these two occupational groups.

There is a high prevalence of overtime and involuntary part-time and temporary work practices among Italian workers
in these occupational groups according to data from Istat. In Latvia, the accident rate is also high among these workers
(VDI,  2014).  In  Denmark,  workers  in  these  occupational  groups    are  particularly  concerned  about  the  possibility  of
losing their jobs according to data from the NFA. 

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Building and related trades workers, excluding electricians (ISCO-08 71)
Construction labourers (ISCO-08 931) are identified at European level as an OMD. Workers involved in building and
related trades (apart from electricians) are regarded as OMD in several EU countries including Croatia, Italy, Latvia, the
Netherlands and Portugal. 

For  instance,  in  Croatia,  building  workers  report  health  and  psychological  problems  caused  by  work  in  adverse
conditions (noise, dust, cold and so on) as well as difficulties in achieving an adequate work–life balance, high working
time pressures and a higher prevalence of work accidents (Croatian Institute for Health Protection and Safety at Work,
2014). 

Heavy truck and bus drivers (ISCO-08 833) 
Car, van and motorcycle drivers (ISCO-08 832) are identified at European level as an OMD. Heavy truck and bus drivers
are also considered an OMD in some EU countries. 

Evidence collected from several Member States such as Belgium (data from the Fund for Occupational Accidents), the
Czech  Republic  (Kyzlinková  and  Dokulilová,  2007),  Germany,  Ireland  (Health  &  Safety  Review,  2014),  Malta  and
Sweden  confirms  this  negative  situation.  It  is  reflected  in  excessive  working  hours,  long  working  shifts  and  high
prevalence  of  overtime  issues  (with  physical  environment  and  health  and  safety  implications),  a  high  number  of
accidents and work-related injuries, as well as violence at work problems. For instance, every fourth Swedish bus driver
in public transport experienced threats or violence in 2013 (Arbetsmiljöverket, 2014). In Germany, heavy truck drivers
are particularly exposed to low wage levels (40% of truck drivers say they are not happy with their earnings). They also
report very long working hours (54 hours per week on average) and high exposure to accidents and stress levels, as well
as much discontent with work–life reconciliation issues (Wittig et al, 2013; Dribbusch et al, 2014; Bispinck and WSI-
Tarifarchiv, 2014; ZF Friedrichshafen, 2014). These poorer working conditions may explain why this occupation has
major difficulties filling vacancies in the Czech Republic (Aktualne, 2014).

Transport and storage labourers (ISCO-08 933)
Transport and storage labourers are another OMD according to the information collected in certain Member States where
this particularly refers to occupations such as freight handlers (ISCO-08 9333) and shelf fillers (ISCO-08 9334). 

Information collected from Belgium (data from the Fund for Occupational Accidents), Germany (Wittig et al, 2013),
Italy  (data  from  Istat)  and  the  Netherlands  (NWCS  2011–2013)  shows  that  transport  and  storage  labourers  are
characterised by a greater prevalence of involuntary part-time and temporary work, overtime, fixed-term contracts and
low wage levels than the corresponding national averages. They also suffer from a higher-than-average risk of dropping
out of working life before retirement age due to the higher prevalence of work-related accidents and health risks.

Occupations regarded as OMD in some Member States

A number of occupations can be identified as being OMD in individual Member States. Travel attendants, conductors
and guides (ISCO-08 511) score particularly low in Denmark in the dimensions of working time, earnings and prospects
according  to  data  from  the  NFA.  Armed  forces  occupations,  other  ranks  (ISCO-08  03)  are  characterised  by  poor
associated working conditions in all four dimensions of job quality in the Netherlands (NWCS 2011–2013). 

Two occupational groups, postal courier services – part of messengers, package deliverers and luggage porters (ISCO-
08 9621) – and call centre agents (ISCO-08 5244) are identified as OMD in Germany. In the case of postal couriers, the
DGB Good Work Index (‘Index Gute Arbeit’) finds the job quality of workers in logistics, postal and courier services to
be significantly below the average in a number of elements, including a high prevalence of marginal part-time workers

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and low hourly wages (Ver.di, 2013). Some 60% of German call centre agents suggest their wages are insufficient to get
by on. These workers also have one of the highest incidence of days of sickness leave due to health problems (including
mental disorders) (Beiderwieden, 2013; AOK, 2014). 

In  Finland,  a  special  group  is  formed  by  temporary  agency  workers,  a  group  (not  an  occupation  as  such)  who  are
identified as particularly vulnerable within the Finnish labour market in terms of earnings, prospects and intrinsic job
quality (Huotari and Pitkänen, 2013; Mäkiniemi et al, 2014). 

Conclusions: Country differences in identifying OMD

In many countries, the identification of OMD coincides with those selected at EU level (Table 1). Even in countries
with  different  labour  market  characteristics  like  the  Czech  Republic  and  Sweden,  many  of  these  OMD  can  be
considered disadvantaged in the national context, that is, in comparison with the rest of the occupations in the country. 

The study has highlighted the prevalence of migrant workers in some of the OMD (for example, waiters, construction
labourers and food processing workers), sometimes linked to the posting of workers or fraudulent contracting.

Machine  operators,  with  the  exception  of  food  machine  operators,  are  not  considered  an  OMD  in  some  countries.
Assemblers were not found to be especially disadvantaged in a few countries in the EU15.

Among the occupations not selected for analysis in Chapter 1, cleaners stand out as an OMD in many EU28 countries.

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Initiatives and policies aimed at
improving working conditions

3

This  chapter  identifies  and  describes  initiatives  and  policies  aimed  at  improving  working  conditions  in  OMD.  They
include measures addressed at specific occupations and transversal initiatives targeted at broader groups of occupations.
Examples of specific initiatives and policies are highlighted in boxes.

This chapter is based on information from Eurofound’s network of correspondents. Most of the examples presented in
this chapter are sectoral measures, that is, many of the measures do not focus on particular occupations but they refer to
all  workers  undertaking  a  certain  economic  activity.  However,  there  are  sectoral  measures  that  contain  specific
references to particular occupations (for example, berry pickers, miners, domestic cleaners and drivers). 

A  number  of  measures  aimed  at  improving  the  working  conditions  of  other  occupations  which  were  not  initially
considered  as  OMD  (based  on  statistical  data  at  European  level  in  Chapter  1)  were  also  identified  by  the  national
correspondents. More precisely, information collected at national level includes significant initiatives and policies aimed
at occupations such as: workers in the care, health and social sector; cleaners and helpers; and hairdressers.

The  initiatives  and  policies  are  presented  by  sector  or  economic  activity,  given  that  their  classification  by  specific
occupation is not feasible in practical terms. They are organised according to the following job quality areas: 

n

earnings or income;

n prospects (employment status and protection, job insecurity and employability);

n working time (duration, organisation and work–life balance);

n

intrinsic job quality (skills development, psychosocial and physical risks, and health). 

The initiatives and policies may be related to one or several of these four dimensions of working conditions or specific
aspects of them. Aspects of working conditions not included in the contributions received from national correspondents
are also mentioned. 

The  national  correspondents  were  asked  to  provide  a  list  of  selected  policy  examples.  Hence,  this  compilation  of
initiatives  and  policies  is  not  an  exhaustive  list  of  all  the  measures  in  force  in  each  country  and  for  each  analysed
occupation. In addition, the information provided is only summarised below and not all the examples are presented. A
full list of initiatives is provided in Annex III (available on request from Oscar Vargas Llave: ova@eurofound.europa.eu),
organised by country, job quality area and main actors.

Horeca-related occupations

The Horeca sector is highly fragmented, with high seasonal work. The vast majority of the sector are microenterprises
and it is a big employer, particularly of young people.

Most of the examples of national initiatives addressed at cooks (ISCO-08 512), waiters and bartenders (ISCO-08 513)
and  food  preparation  assistants  (ISCO-08  941)  are  aimed  at  the  tourism  sector  or  the  hotel  and  catering  industry  in
general. This section therefore presents examples of initiatives and policies aimed at workers within the Horeca sector
in general and without focusing exclusively on specific occupations.

These  occupations  have  problems  related  to  unsocial  and  irregular  hours,  and  violence  and  harassment  at  work.
However, these are not the main area of attention of the measures identified by this study. 

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Horeca-related occupations – Summary of initiatives 

Earnings-related  measures  recur  regularly  in  the  examples  which,  in  general,  are  agreements  reached  via  social
dialogue. There are also numerous initiatives dealing with intrinsic job quality, that is, aimed at improving skills and
promoting  health  and  safety  (for  example,  prevention  of  physical  and  psychosocial  risks),  which  are  generally
implemented by public authorities. However, the examples do not pay particular attention to situations in relation to
employment  status  such  as  job  security,  involuntary  part-time  work  or  atypical  working  hours,  although  these  are
recurrent disadvantages for these occupations. One of the poor conditions for waiters and bartenders is the level of job
strain  and,  although  some  initiatives  have  sought  to  tackle  psychosocial  risks,  no  specific  attention  is  paid  to  job
autonomy and work intensity.

Initiatives concerning improvements in earnings
The  terms  related  to  wages  in  the  Greek  Collective  Employment Agreement  on  the  pay  and  working  conditions  of
employees of hotel enterprises are particularly significant. The agreement provides for no increase in basic wages in
2014 and for a 1% increase in 2015, and was signed one day before the expiry of the previous sectoral agreement which
provided for wage reductions of 15%. Also in Greece, several agreements affecting hotel enterprises at local level were
identified, including the local sectoral collective employment agreement for pay and working conditions of employees
of hotel enterprises in the Prefectures of Lassithi and Iraklio.

There are other examples of sectoral agreements in:

n Denmark (Collective Agreement in the Personal Service Sector 2014–2017);

n Hungary (Collective Agreement in the Hospitality and Tourism Sector);

n Slovenia (Collective Agreement of Activities of Catering and Tourism 2014–2015);

n Sweden (Collective Agreement in the Hotel and Restaurant Sector 2013–2016).

All  four  are  nationwide  measures.  In  these  agreements,  the  most  interesting  terms  benefiting  cooks,  waiters  and
bartenders are linked to earnings. For instance, they establish higher minimum basic salaries than the national average
in Hungary and Slovenia. In Sweden, the collective agreement in the hotel and restaurant sector creates a model for local
wage  setting,  based  on  employee  performance  criteria  connected  to  specific  company  objectives.  In  Denmark,  the
collective agreement in the personal service sector states that skilled waiters must earn more than unskilled waiters; the
social  partners  wish  to  motivate  more  waiters  to  participate  in  education  and  expect  this  provision  to  result  in  more
unskilled waiters wanting to become skilled waiters.

Initiatives concerning improvements in prospects
There are also examples of initiatives aimed at favouring employability and labour participation, and thus facilitating
career advancement and promotion. In Spain, professionalism certificates in ‘basic kitchen tasks’ and in ‘basic restaurant
and  bar  tasks’  allow  workers  in  the  selected  occupations  to  improve  their  qualifications  by  accrediting  professional
competences acquired through work experience and/or non-formal methods of training. These certificates are promoted
by national and regional public authorities. 

In  Belgium,  the  sector  covenant  for  the  hotel  and  catering  industry  is  a  tripartite  agreement  that  focuses  on  the  link
between education and the labour market, lifelong learning and employment policy at regional level (Flemish region). 

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In Croatia, there is a provision of scholarships and guarantees for employment to attract young people to occupations in
the tourism industry. This measure is applied by the biggest and most competitive companies in tourism in the country
(for  example, Arena  Pula  and  Zelena  Laguna  Poreč)  with  the  support  of  public  authorities. Around  700–900  young
people are included in the scheme every year. 

Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality
An example from the UK relates to skills development where the UK Commission for Employment and Skills (UKCES)
and the Federation for Industry Sector Skills and Standards are working to reduce skills gaps among cooks. 

UKCES is a publicly funded, industry-led organisation that offers guidance on skills and employment issues in the UK.
The  Federation  for  Industry  Sector  Skills  and  Standards  is  composed  of  independent,  employer-led  UK-wide
organisations. It aims to develop high quality skills standards with employers. Among the objectives of both institutions
are to:

n

n

support employers in developing and managing apprenticeship standards; 

reduce skills gaps and shortages and improve productivity; 

n boost the skills of their sector workforces; 

n

improve learning supply.

UK: Sector Skills Councils

Sector Skills Councils are independent, employer-led organisations which seek to build a skills system that is driven
by employer demand. The 18 Sector Skills Councils and five Sector Skills Bodies work with over 550,000 employers
in the UK to define skills needs and skills standards, and to define occupational standards and job competencies. They
also  advise  employers  about  the  qualifications  that  are  best  suited  for  apprenticeships  and  have  a  list  of  training
providers that can deliver those qualifications. The focus is industry and not occupation based. People 1st is the Sector
Skills Council dealing with hospitality, leisure, passenger transport, travel and tourism. 

The  government  is  currently  piloting  major  changes  to  the  skills  system  and  skills  funding  in  England  through  the
Employer  Ownership  Pilot.  The  Trades  Union  Congress  (TUC)  has  expressed  support  for  some  key  aspects  of  the
scheme. Unionlearn, the TUC’s learning and skills organisation, sees it as a priority to support union involvement in
the work of Sector Skills Councils and the new Industrial Partnerships. Unionlearn works closely with affiliated unions
to  identify  suitable  candidates  to  sit  on  the  boards  and  sub-committees  of  Sector  Skills  Councils  and  Industrial
Partnerships to ensure that workers have their voices heard.

Source: UK contribution

Other  examples  deal  with  working  conditions  and  health  and  safety  issues.  This  is  the  case  for  several  nationwide
campaigns. 

In Belgium, the Federal Public Service Employment, Labour and Social Dialogue implemented a nationwide inspection
campaign on psychosocial risks in the catering sector in 2012. The first inspection of catering establishments focused on
whether  there  was  a  psychosocial  risk  analysis  (a  legal  requirement)  and  on  prevention  measures;  80%  of  the
establishments received a written warning following this first inspection. A further inspection in the second half of 2012
resulted in a written warning for 35% of the establishments. 

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In  Norway,  the  Governmental  Inspectorate  has  carried  out  a  joint  inspection  campaign  in  hotel,  catering  and  food
industries to check the extent to which the requirements of health and safety standards were being met. Also in Norway,
regulations  approved  in  May  2011  established  that  regional  safety  representatives  must  ensure  the  quality  of
occupational  health  and  safety  and  prevent  social  dumping  (especially  in  companies  without  their  own  safety
representatives). 

To  improve  its  employees’  working  conditions,  the  Bulgarian  catering  company  Happy  Lady  Ltd  has  invested  in
measures such as:

n

collective and personal protective equipment and clothing; 

n upgrading of the ventilation system, electricity and lightning protection. 

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for Horeca related occupations are summarised in Table 8.

Table 8: Examples of initiatives for Horeca-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Prospects

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Mostly sector collective agreements at sector
level (catering, tourism and so on)

Mainly provisions and regulation of minimum
wages and annual salary increases

Some social dialogue agreements and state
measures

Member States

DK, EL, HU, SE, SI

BE, ES, HR, HU

BE, BG, DK, NO, UK

Initiatives promoting career development and
employment protection (for example,
'professionalism certificates', scholarships)

Inspection campaigns preventing psychosocial
risks
A few programmes for skills development and
training

Intrinsic job quality Mostly government measures (inspection

campaigns and training programmes)
Some collective agreements, measures
developed by employers and company-level
measures

Note: No examples aimed at improving working time conditions were identified.
Source: National contributions

Retail- and commerce-related occupations

The majority of the examples of measures aimed at improving the quality of jobs and ensuring better working conditions
for shops salespersons, cashiers and ticket clerks do not refer exclusively to these particular occupations. Instead, they
are rather sectoral measures affecting workers in the commerce or the retail sector as a whole. 

Although  occupations  in  this  sector  in  general  have  poor  working  conditions  in  relation  to  working  time  (unsocial
working hours), it is necessary to distinguish the conditions of shop salespersons from those of the cashiers and ticket
clerks.  Cashiers  and  ticket  clerks  report  an  especially  poor  situation  in  relation  to  access  to  training,  low  income,
involuntary temporary work, social environment due to violence and harassment exposure, and job strain. However, shop
salespersons work longer hours.

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Commerce/retail – Summary of initiatives

The majority of the measures in the examples of initiatives aim to improve working time conditions among workers in
the commerce sector. These measures facilitate work–life balance and try to reduce unsocial hours – one of the main
problems affecting working conditions for shop salespersons. Measures that seek to improve their earnings were also
identified. 

Many of the example initiatives are collective agreements that include a set of provisions for employees concerning
both their working time (for example, more flexible working time, banded hours, opening hours, and compensation for
unsocial  working  hours)  and  their  remuneration  (for  example,  minimum  salaries,  pay  increases  and  productivity
bonuses). Intrinsic job quality is also a repeated policy area among the initiatives found and there are a few measures
that seek to prevent violence and psychosocial risks. 

Given  the  different  conditions  of  shop  salespersons  and  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks,  a  more  specific  occupational
approach might be more appropriate for the occupations in this sector given the more difficult disadvantages of cashiers
and ticket clerks, especially in relation to income and social environment.

Initiatives concerning improvements in working time and earnings
There  are  several  examples  of  measures  aimed  at  improving  working  time  conditions.  For  instance,  in  the  Czech
Republic, the Parliament is working on a law for the reduction of opening hours of chain stores. This law aims to enable
chain store employees to spend public holidays with their family at home by limiting store opening hours on those days.
In  Lithuania,  a  noticeable  action  was  the  reduction  of  working  hours  during  Christmas  holidays  (December  2013),  a
measure implemented by employers of large shopping centres in the biggest cities of Lithuania to allow their employees
to better balance work and family life. 

Some  collective  agreements  approve  terms  concerning  the  improvement  of  both  working  hours  and  earnings.  For
example, in Austria, the collective agreement in the commerce sector includes a specific provision which increases the
minimum  wage  and  extends  participation  rights  for  salespersons  regarding  work  on  Saturdays.  In  Slovenia,  the
Collective Agreement of the Activity of Commerce includes several terms for the improvement of working hours (for
example, working time can be separated to a maximum of two parts or shifts) and also approves new minimum basic
salaries. In Bulgaria, the Sectoral Collective Agreement in Wholesale and Retail Trade approves pay for working hours
at night, equal pay for men and women, and work–life balance measures, among others. 

In France, the collective agreement for the large general retailers increases the minimum level of working hours for part-
time employees and demands that part-time employment contracts must forecast a weekly working time of at least 26
hours. These provisions are designed to improve work–life balance, reduce unsocial hours and increase earnings. From
1  January  2015,  the  distribution  of  working  time  should  allow  workers  to  share  their  part-time  work  with  another
employee or to adapt their part-time working hours to suit family constraints. 

There are also examples of measures at company level which focus primarily on working time arrangements and the
improvement of earnings. This is the case for the Penneys–Mandate collective agreement and the Tesco–Mandate/SIPTU
national  agreement,  both  in  Ireland.  Similarly,  in  Slovakia,  the  company Tesco  offers  its  employees  better  and  more
transparent scheduling of working time (see box).

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Slovakia: Scheduling of working time at Tesco 

Tesco Slovakia offers internal benefits to its employees concerning working time. With director approval, Tesco human
resources (HR) managers launched an initiative aimed at limiting long working time which covers all employees of
Tesco  Slovakia  in  all  Tesco  retail  shops.  The  HR  managers  have  set  precise  rules  and  limits  for  working  time  and
improvement of working conditions of shop salespersons in Tesco shops, thus reducing average actual weekly working
time. 

Internal  company  regulation  allows  better  and  more  transparent  scheduling  of  working  time,  which  has  resulted  in
higher employee satisfaction, higher work autonomy and lower intensity. This company regulation is also intended to
limit long working time, including overtime and night work. Likewise, Tesco offers additional benefits such as extra
holidays  for  significant  life  events,  a  financial  benefit  on  the  anniversary  of  an  employee  joining  the  company,  a
transport allowance and a family shopping discount scheme.

Source: Slovakian contribution

Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality
Several initiatives dealing with intrinsic job quality, particularly concerning hard work and dangerous conditions, as well
as psychosocial risks, were identified. 

An interesting measure in Sweden is online training to improve social and physical working conditions for sales workers.
It was implemented by the Commercial Employees’ Union (Handels), in collaboration with the Working Environment
Committee of Commercial Employees, and Prevent – a non-profit organisation and provider of knowledge and training
in  the  field  of  health  and  safety,  owned  by  the  Confederation  of  Swedish  Enterprise,  the  Swedish  Trade  Union
Confederation (LO), and the Council for Negotiation and Co-operation (PTK). 

In France, the agreement about sales representatives’ health at work adapts health medical monitoring to the specificities
of the occupation of mobile sales representatives. Social partners choose a single work-related medical service to provide
national monitoring of commercial sales representatives in cooperation with local work-related medical services. 

Linked to the general Health and Safety at Work Act, there is detailed sector-specific legislation in the UK on important
issues such as slips and trips, manual handling, violence, work at height and workplace transport.

In Romania, a national campaign on psychosocial risks in the working place was implemented by Territorial Labour
Inspectorates  in  2013. This  consisted  of  initiatives  to  raise  awareness  nationally  and  initiatives  concerned  with  work
security  and  health  for  the  target  groups  (1,163  workers  from  123  banks,  1,214  workers  from  119  multinational
companies and 1,328 workers from 126 supermarkets). The main outcomes were a 25% reduction in the total number of
employment accidents, and the development and strengthening of the culture of preventing accidents. 

Exposure to third party violence and harassment is a significant disadvantage for retail and commerce occupations. For
this reason, for instance, the Spanish Collective Agreement for Convenience Stores, agreed by social partners at national
and sectoral level, includes a ‘prevention and action protocol’ for facing psychological and sexual harassment at work.

Concerning skills and training, the Sectoral Collective Agreement in wholesale and retail trade in Bulgaria approved
measures to ensure employee training and attainment of a qualification once per year. The collective agreement in the
Italian  commerce  sector  established  an  institution  managed  jointly  on  a  parity  basis  between  the  social  partners  for
continuous vocational training.

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Initiatives concerning improvements in prospects
An example that could be related to job prospects is the Sectoral Collective Agreement in wholesale and retail trade from
Bulgaria, which approves a set of measures against redundancies in response to the financial and economic crisis.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for retail and commerce related occupations are summarised in Table 9.

Table 9: Examples of initiatives for retail- and commerce-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Collective agreements (at sectoral and
company level)

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Initiatives establishing minimum wages and
salary increases, supplementary payments
(linked to unsocial working hours, higher
productivity)

Measures facilitating work–life balance (for
example, regarding work on Saturdays or
holidays, banded hours, flexitime)

Member States

AT, BG, EE, FR, IE, IT,
SI

AT, BG, CZ, EE, FR, IE,
IT, LT, SI, SK

Working time

Mainly collective agreements (at sectoral and
company level)

Prospects

Collective agreements (at sectoral and
company level)

Measures against redundancies (employment
protection)

BG

Intrinsic job quality

Government measures and collective
agreements

Source: National contributions

Manufacturing-related occupations

Health and safety measures, campaigns on
psychosocial risks, prevention protocol for
psychological and sexual harassment
Training and qualification guaranteed by some
collective agreements

BG, FR, ES, IT, RO, SE,
UK

The  group  of  manufacturing-related  occupations  is  a  broad  one  which  includes  jobs  related  to  different  economic
activities  and  professions  within  the  manufacturing  sector.  Given  that  the  national  initiatives  are  difficult  to  classify
according to specific occupations, all these measures are studied under the ensemble of manufacturing activities. As in
other sections of this chapter, the majority of the initiatives do not refer to specific occupations but they rather deal with
sectors or economic activities.

This section analyses initiatives in sectors such as:

n

n

textiles – covering garment and related trades workers (ISCO-08 753);

food & drink – covering food processing and related trades workers (ISCO-08 751) and food and related products
machine operators (ISCO-08 816);

n wood – covering wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (ISCO-08 752) and wood processing and

papermaking plant operators (ISCO-08 817);

n

chemicals – covering rubber, plastic and paper products machine operators (ISCO-08 814);

n other occupations mainly linked to the metal sector such as assemblers (ISCO-08 821) and manufacturing labourers

(ISCO-08 932).

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Manufacturing-related occupations – Summary of initiatives 

Linked to the relative high job strain and health risks of these occupations, most of the initiatives and policies seek to
improve their ‘intrinsic job quality’. Most of the measures deal with the physical and/or social environment (physical
and  psychosocial  risks  prevention),  but  a  significant  number  are  concerned  with  skills  development  and  training.
Earnings are another commonly considered matter. 

For some occupations (manufacturing labourers, garment workers, machine operators and food processing workers),
no specific measures were reported in relation to job strain. However, some of the initiatives are meant to compensate
for  arduous  working  conditions.  No  measures  related  to  employment  security  were  reported  for  manufacturing
labourers. 

Although social dialogue is the leading driver among the measures found for these occupational groups, there are a few
government-led initiatives – mostly linked to intrinsic job quality – and several examples applied by companies. 

In general terms, high job strain and high health and safety risks are the main reason for poor working conditions among
manufacturing related occupations and might explain the low levels of job satisfaction and poorer work sustainability.
Garment workers have little training provision and food processing workers have a poorer work–life balance, probably
related to atypical working hours. Manufacturing labourers have a relatively high level of job insecurity.

Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality
Two examples of policies and initiatives dealing with health and safety are the national campaigns for:

n

n

the continuous improvement of working conditions in the footwear industry in Portugal, based on a protocol of action
signed by the Authority for Working Conditions (ACT) and other social partners in the sector; 

checking  by  the  Territorial  Labour  Inspectorates  of  compliance  with  health  and  safety  regulations  in  Romania
affecting workers involved in the manufacture of textiles, clothing, leather and related products. 

Also  in  Romania,  there  was  a  campaign  to  urge  companies  and  workers  in  the  food  industry  to  adapt  to  meet  EU
legislation on safety and health at work. 

A project in the Lithuanian furniture, wood and paper sector in 2012–2014, funded by the European Social Fund and
implemented by sectoral social partners, sought to improve occupational health and safety in the sector’s enterprises. 

In the Netherlands, ‘5xbeter’ is a joint project of employers and trade unions in the metal industry sector (see box) to
improve health and safety in its companies.

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Netherlands: 5xbeter project 

5xbeter (‘very strong for safe work’) is a joint project between five social partners in the metal industry: Koninklijke
Metaalunie,  the  Federation  for  the  Metal  and  Electrical  Industry  (FME),  the  Dutch Trade  Union  Federation  (FNV),
CNV Professionals and the Dutch General Independent Union (De Unie). The project was set up in 2006 and aims to
improve safety and health in companies covered by the sector’s collective agreements. Its two main activities are:

n

n

the development of a health and safety catalogue, called ‘5xbeter Improvement Checks’, listing the major health
and safety risks in the sector;

improving  the  availability  of  coaches  who  advise  companies  and  employees,  and  support  them  in  the  proper
implementation of the health and safety catalogue in companies.

All  5xbeter’s  products  and  services  are  available  free  of  charge  to  all  companies  covered  by  the  metal  industry’s
collective agreement.

Source: Dutch contribution

In  Denmark,  a  licence  card  for  working  with  ‘lean  production’  processes  has  been  developed,  with  the  objective  of
making employees work smarter to avoid stress. The measure consists of a training course offered to assembly workers,
meant to improve the working environment by reducing stress and improving job prospects. The measure aims to reduce
job strain and high intensity – one of the main disadvantages reported for these occupations.

In Romania, social partners in the pulp, paper and paperboard sector implemented organisational support programmes
and training for staff in 2010–2013 to help them adapt to market dynamics by, for example:

n

improving the level of training and health and safety conditions at work;

n developing innovative methods of organisation of work;

n providing training in new technologies.

In  Italy,  the  company  Gruppo  Loccioni  has  introduced  its  ‘Play  factory’  method  for  developing  a  new  work  culture,
aimed at developing employees’ involvement and well-being.

Initiatives concerning improvements in earnings and working time
There  are  many  interesting  examples  of  initiatives  aimed  at  improving  workers’  earnings.  Most  of  the  measures
identified are collective agreements where social partners have agreed on aspects such as minimum salaries, and special
supplements  or  payments  linked  to  arduous  working  conditions  (such  as  night  shifts  and  occupational  risks).  For
instance,  Germany  has  extended  the  agreement  on  minimum  wages  for  food  processing  workers,  approved  through
collective bargaining. In Spain, the regional collective agreement for the metal industry, services and installation sector
of the Autonomous Community of Madrid approved pay supplements to compensate for tough working conditions.

Collective agreements usually regulate a variety of aspects which may affect different policy areas (earnings, working
time, skills, physical environment and so on). For instance, in Bulgaria, the subsectoral collective agreement for the pulp
and paper industry, the subsectoral collective agreement for wood processing and the manufacture of furniture, and the
subsectoral collective agreement for the manufacture of metal establish minimum requirements for wages and additional

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remunerations. They also approve other terms related to working time, paid leave, social security, health and safety, and
so on. In Lithuania, where there is a strong collective bargaining tradition within the food industry, collective agreements
in food sector enterprises approve higher wages for those companies with active trade unions and flexible working time
for employees with children, improving work and family life balance.

Finally, concerning initiatives implemented at company level, in Italy there are several cases of specific companies with
agreements  that  improve  conditions  related  to  payments,  which  refer  to  special  bonuses  to  promote  productivity,
organisational  efficiency  (for  example,  a  bonus  encouraging  attendance  at  work  and  organisational  efficiency  at
Prysmian  Cavi  e  Sistemi  Italia)  or  night  work  (for  example,  company  welfare  services  and  variable  wage  at
Tecnofar Spa). 

Initiatives concerning improvements in prospects
In Austria,  the  collective  agreement  in  the  textile  industry  guarantees  higher  employment  security  for  all  blue-collar
workers, with longer periods of notice in the case of dismissal. In Germany, the regional initiative Meister.Werk.nrw
aims to promote good quality in production and in work, collective bargaining coverage and provision of training. The
licence  card  for  working  with  lean  production  processes  from  Denmark  also  seeks  to  improve  job  prospects  and
employment protection.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for manufacturing-related occupations are summarised in Table 10.

Table 10: Examples of initiatives for manufacturing-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Sectoral and company level collective
agreements, and a few company initiatives

Agreements approving minimum salaries,
wage increases, additional remuneration and
compensation

Member States

BG, DE, ES, IT, LT, SI

Working time

Collective agreements at sectoral level

Flexitime and banking of hours, specific
regulations on overtime and night work (some
linked to pay supplements)

BG, IT, LT

Prospects

Collective agreements, measures implemented
by trade unions or by employers’ associations
individually, and governmental initiatives

Employment security (in the case of
dismissals), collective bargaining
representation, promotion of job prospects

AT, DE, DK

Intrinsic job quality

Government measures, social dialogue
agreements, initiatives developed by trade
unions or employers’ associations
independently, and company-level measures

Source: National contributions

Drivers and related occupations

Health and safety campaigns and good practice
guides, promotion of skills, training

DE, DK, IT, LT, NL, PT,
RO

This section focuses on initiatives aimed at car, van and motorcycle drivers (ISCO-08 832) and mobile plant operators
(ISCO-08  834),  which  are  identified  as  OMD  based  on  European  statistical  data  (Chapter  1).  Some  of  the  national
measures may have an occupation-based perspective, for example, by covering the whole group of drivers and mobile
plant operators (ISCO-08 83) or just ‘drivers’ in general, while other measures are related to the economic activity of
‘road freight transportation’. In addition, the specific occupational group ‘heavy truck and bus drivers’ (ISCO-08 833)
has been included here – even though it was not classified as an OMD according to EU level data – because it has been
reported as an OMD in countries such as the Czech Republic, Romania and Sweden (see Chapter 2). 

The most significant problems for these occupations are working time (long hours and work–life balance), exposure to
health risks, provision of training for drivers and low wages.

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Drivers and related occupations – Summary of initiatives

This  section  deals  with  particularly  regulated  professions  and  therefore  occupations.  Most  of  the  examples  deal
primarily with intrinsic job quality (especially health and safety matters) and working time. In the case of drivers, safety
and working time appear to be closely related, as the limits on driving hours concern both safety and working time
patterns. Public authorities play a key role in the implementation of measures aimed at drivers, for example, health and
safety inspection activities and legislation on driving times. However, ‘drivers’ is an occupational group which contains
more workers who are not well informed about health and safety. 

There are relatively few examples of measures related to earnings in the national contributions. Moreover, no examples
aimed at improving prospects were identified and training seems to focus on health and safety rather than other skills
development aspects.

There  is  a  lack  of  measures  reached  through  social  dialogue,  although  there  are  a  few  examples  of  initiatives
implemented by social partners, either by trade unions or employers’ associations unilaterally, or by both sides through
joint action. Among those, it is worth highlighting the measures aimed at training drivers on health and safety issues. 

Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality
Looking  at  some  of  the  particular  examples  identified,  it  is  worth  mentioning  labour  inspections.  For  instance,  in
Romania, the Territorial Labour Inspectorate carried out a national campaign on health and safety at work aimed at all
workers  in  road  transportation  involving  inspections,  identifying  contraventions  and  imposing  penalties  (see  box).  In
Sweden, the Swedish Work Environment Authority implemented a campaign consisting of inspections to secure a better
work environment for truck drivers, affecting all workplaces where employees are operating trucks.

Romania: Health and safety at work campaign for road transport workers

The  national  campaign,  ‘Driver  awareness  on  occupational  risks  and  inspection  of  compliance  with  regulations  of
health  and  safety  at  work  for  transport  operators  licensed  for  passenger  transportation’,  was  implemented  by  the
Territorial Labour Inspectorate to check how employers were complying with the law. These inspections include the
revision of several legal aspects such as:

n

n

safety and health at work; 

establishment of the application of the rules on driving times, breaks and rest periods for drivers;

n utilisation of recording equipment during their work; 

n organisation of health and safety at work; 

n

staff training in health and safety at work. 

The campaign was carried out in May–June 2013 and October 2013, and covered all workers in road transportation.
The main actions undertaken during this campaign were basically carrying out inspections and applying penalties when
necessary. 

Source: Romanian national contribution

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The  training  of  workers  on  occupational  hazards  is  also  a  significant  measure  for  the  improvement  of  intrinsic  job
quality. 

In Sweden, there was a campaign for educating bus drivers in conflict management to improve safety and employment
protection. 

In Spain, trade unions published a guide on the prevention of occupational hazards for goods transport drivers. 

In the Netherlands, the Sector Institute of Transport and Logistics is developing a number of campaigns and initiatives
to improve health and safety among workers, such as the award-winning campaign ‘Forklifts Heroes’, which provides
‘tip cards’ for employees on dealing with violence or aggression and workshops for employers on supervision and risk
and safety culture. 

In the UK, and linked to the general Health and Safety at Work Act, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), publishes
specific health and safety guidelines for drivers jointly with the Department of Transport, as well as recommendations
on driving hours. 

Initiatives concerning improvements in working time
As noted above, working time regulations are of special interest in the case of drivers and some of the measures show
that working hours are closely linked to work safety. 

For  instance,  in  the  Czech  Republic,  special  inspections  in  truck  freight  transportation  were  carried  out  by  the  State
Labour Inspection Office as a measure to prevent infringements of working time regulations and secure better safety at
work for drivers. 

In Spain, Royal Decree 1635/2011 regulates special working hours in road transport; its objective is to improve health
and safety among road transport professionals by implementing a set of minimum conditions concerning working hours
in the sector as well as by improving control systems. 

Romania has adopted new rules for road and freight transportation on driving times, breaks and rest periods for drivers.

Initiatives concerning improvements in earnings
There are examples of company-level initiatives on earnings from Italy: 

n variable wages and economic compensations at S. Service srl;

n

a bonus for improving productivity and outcomes at Graziano & CO Srl.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for drivers are summarised in Table 11.

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Table 11: Examples of initiatives for drivers

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Member States

Policy area

Earnings

Company-level measures

Prospects

State initiatives

Bonus and variable wages linked to
productivity

IT

Legislation and guidelines on driving hours
and breaks, inspection activity on driving
times

CZ, ES, IT, RO

Intrinsic job quality Mainly state initiatives, but also measures
applied by trade unions or by employers’
associations independently

Health and safety campaigns, inspections,
good practice guides (health and safety often
linked to working times)

CZ, ES, NL, RO, SE,
UK

Note: No examples aimed at improving working time were identified.
Source: National contributions

Construction sector occupations 

In line with the type of measures and their sectoral nature, information related to the occupation ‘mining and construction
labourers’ (ISCO-08 931) has been classified into two different groups: workers in the construction sector and workers
in  the  mining  sector.  This  section  looks  at  initiatives  linked  to  the  construction  sector.  These  measures  and  policies
mainly  seek  to  improve  working  conditions  among  construction  labourers  but  some  of  them  also  refer  to  other
occupations in the construction sector.

The main poor working conditions which characterise these occupations are health and safety risks (including job strain),
low work sustainability, job insecurity, high levels of involuntary temporary and part-time work, and limited access to
training for labourers. 

Construction and mining labourers – Summary of initiatives

The majority of the measures deal with intrinsic job quality such as health and safety issues, job strain, and training and
skills  development  programmes.  In  addition,  many  of  the  measures  seek  to  improve  wage  levels  (for  example,
minimum  wage  arrangements  and  extra  payments  for  hard  working  conditions),  which  is  not  a  relatively  strong
disadvantage  for  this  occupational  group.  There  are  also  a  number  of  measures  referring  to  working  time  and  job
prospects. Given the disadvantages found for labourers, it might be considered more appropriate to target the group
more specifically.

However, there is no dominant driver for the type of actor implementing the measures, although social dialogue has
played a major role as many of the measures are collective agreements. Public authorities tend to lead health and safety
initiatives,  whereas  both  trade  unions  and  employers’  organisations  implement  interesting  measures  for  the
improvement  of  intrinsic  job  quality,  often  in  collaboration  with  governments.  For  example,  there  are  examples  of
measures that have received financial support or official approval from national governments, but which have been
implemented in practice by social partners. 

For  mining  labourers,  there  are  mostly  national  measures,  predominantly  dealing  with  intrinsic  job  quality.  No
examples aimed at improving working time or prospects were identified.

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Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality (health and safety)
As previously mentioned, health and safety problems are the main disadvantage for these occupations.

An example of a national initiative aimed at the prevention of occupational health problems is ‘Baufit’, an occupational
health and safety programme for Austrian construction workers (see box). 

Austria: Baufit OSH programme for construction workers

Baufit is a programme implemented by the Austrian Workers’ Compensation Board (social insurance for occupational
risks) (AUVA), an organisation financed mainly by contributions paid by employers with legal duties in prevention of
occupational accidents and disease as well as rehabilitation. It offers subsidised intervention and training courses to
reduce  stress  loads  and  accident  frequency  at  construction  sites.  Companies  are  offered  training  programmes  on
ergonomic work procedures and movements, complementary exercises, eurhythmy and prevention of work accidents.
In 2013 new training modules on reducing stress at work were added to an extended version of Baufit. 

For participating companies with up to 50 employees, 80% of the costs of Baufit projects are paid by AUVA and only
20% by the companies themselves. For bigger companies, 60% of the costs are refunded by AUVA. 

According to AUVA, its assessment of Baufit projects shows that sick leave numbers in participating companies could
be  reduced  by  half  and  work  accidents  by  a  quarter  compared  with  the  same  period  before  implementation  of  the
projects. 

A total of 220 projects in about 200 companies were carried out between 2004 and 2014. Usually, 15–20 construction
workers  participated  in  each  project,  which  means  that  a  total  of  3,300–4,400  workers  have  been  involved  in  the
programme so far. 

Source: Austria national contribution

In Slovenia, the project ‘Establishing support environment for improvement of working processes and conditions in the
field  of  health  protection  in  the  construction  sector’  sought  to  identify  key  factors  with  negative  impacts  in  the
construction  sector  based  on  two  surveys  on  stress  factors  (for  example,  workload,  work  autonomy,  physical  effort,
support  from  colleagues,  support  from  leaders  and  fear  of  losing  their  job)  and  physical–chemical  factors  causing
overburden. The survey on stress factors involved 330 people. It was concluded that stress was mostly connected with
working relationships, work complexity, effort; at company level, factors affecting stress at work were mostly physical
effort,  low  material  situation  and  fear  of  losing  the  job.  These  results  could  be  linked  to  the  fact  that  the  sector  is
characterised by highly mobile and temporary jobs.

In Norway, the occupational health and safety charter for an injury-free construction industry, signed in June 2014 by
social  partners  and  the  Norwegian  Minister  of  Labour  and  Social Affairs,  aims  to  make  sites  in  the  industry  a  safe
workplace. The charter includes actions such as:

n occupational health and safety plans for every project;

n

n

n

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improvements in tidiness and safety conditions on all construction sites;

annual reports on injuries and occupational illnesses;

a guarantee that required safety equipment is always available.

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In the UK, the HSE has produced an example of an occupational health and safety plan for the construction industry. 

In Finland, the project ‘Developing health in the construction sector’, implemented by the Finnish Institute for Occupational
Health and social partners, created a website (Työhyvinvointitarjotin, http://tyohyvinvointitarjotin.rakennusliitto.fi) with
details of good practices in the field of promoting well-being at work.

In Bulgaria, the company Chehplast Ltd significantly improved health and safety conditions among its employees by
measures including modernisation of workplaces, provision of personal protective equipment and special clothing.

Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality (skills) and prospects
Some  measures  combine  intrinsic  job  quality  with  the  improvement  of  job  prospects  (for  example,  employment
protection and employment contracts).

In Denmark, the Danish government approved the ‘safety card’ (Sikkerhedskort) in 2015; its objective is to secure fewer
accidents and a better working environment on construction sites, as well as to counteract social dumping. All employees
in the construction sector must carry a safety card with information such as name, employer and obligatory industrial
injury insurance. 

A collective agreement in the construction industry in Cyprus introduced a ‘special occupational identification card’ for
all workers. It sought to combat undeclared work and to help the introduction of standards of occupational qualifications.
In addition, special training is provided to workers who want to be employed in the construction industry to become
qualified  with  the  occupational  card.  Linked  to  this,  employers  and  trade  union  organisations  have  jointly  agreed  to
operate  the  Qualification Accreditation  Centre,  which  gives  workers  in  construction  the  opportunity  to  develop  their
skills and to certify their qualifications. 

In Spain, the Labour Foundation of Construction aims to:

n

n

enhance vocational training among workers in the construction sector;

encourage health and safety at the workplace;

n promote employment in the sector. 

The  Foundation  aims  to  provide  businesses  and  workers  in  the  construction  industry  with  the  necessary  resources  to
develop a more professional, qualified and educated sector. The organisation is led by nationwide social partners.

The ‘Social House of Constructors’ is a Romanian measure aimed at ensuring the protection of employees during work
disruption due to adverse weather conditions, which can be linked to employment continuity and job security.

Initiatives concerning improvements in earnings
There are several examples of measures which aim to improve construction workers’ wages, most of which have been
approved by agreements between social partners. 

In  Croatia,  the  collective  agreement  for  the  building  sector  regulates  basic  wage  increases  when  an  employee  works
occasionally in operating conditions that are harder than normal.

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In Ireland, the registered employment agreement for the construction industry sets overtime rates, minimum wage rates,
pay progression for workers, annual leave provisions and so on. 

In  Italy,  the  collective  agreement  in  the  construction  sector  introduced  shift  rotations  and  allowances  in  the  case  of
overtime, night and distressing work, which resulted in higher earnings for workers. 

In Germany, the Federal Labour Minister has extended the sectoral minimum wage agreements for labourers and skilled
workers in construction, where minimum wages for the sector are established. The National Statutory Minimum Wage
introduced  in  January  2015  is  not  a  substitute  for  the  sectoral  wage  and  so  workers  will  be  covered  by  this  sectoral
agreement until it expires. 

At company level, in Italy, the company ERP Massa Carrara Spa used tax cuts to introduce a bonus to reward cases of
higher productivity.

Initiatives concerning improvements in working time
In  Croatia,  the  collective  agreement  of  the  large  construction  company  Konstruktor  increased  the  duration  of  annual
holiday leave, with the objective of improving work–life balance for its workers. 

In Ireland, the registered employment agreement for the construction industry regulates annual leave provisions for the
construction industry and the working week, and also sets overtime rates. 

The  Italian  collective  agreement  in  the  construction  sector  introduced  shift  rotations  and  allowances  in  the  case  of
overtime and night work.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for construction related occupations are summarised in Table 12.

Table 12: Examples of initiatives for construction-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Collective agreements

Agreements approving minimum salaries,
wage increases, additional remuneration and
compensation (overtime rates)

Member States

BG, DE, HR, IE, IT

Working time

Collective agreements

Overtime and night shift regulation, leave
provisions

HR, IE, IT

Prospects

State initiatives, collective agreements and
measures developed independently by trade
unions and employers’ associations

Combating undeclared work and social
dumping, social protection, career and
employment promotion

CY, ES, DK, RO

Intrinsic job quality

State initiatives, collective agreements and
measures developed independently by trade
unions and employers' associations

Occupational risks prevention,
programmes/campaigns for improving
working conditions, skills development and
standards of occupational qualifications

AT, BG, CY, DE, DK,
ES, FI, NO, SI, UK

Source: National contributions

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Mining sector occupations

This section presents the measures affecting the mining sector, for which only a few measures were identified by the
national  contributors.  Given  the  arduous  working  conditions  from  which  workers  in  this  sector  suffer,  it  is  worth
commenting on a couple of measures aimed at improving workers’ health and safety conditions. 

In the UK, the HSE has been working with the mining sector to review all health and safety mining legislation, with the
aim of removing the unnecessary regulatory burden on business through clarification and simplification. 

The Slovenian coal company, Premogovnik Velenje, d.d., has a long-running project called ‘Care for a healthy worker’
(see box). 

Slovenia:  ‘Care for a healthy worker’ programme for mineworkers 

The project was initiated by management and health and safety representatives at the Velenje coal mine company in
1998. It is basically a medical preventive programme for reducing musculoskeletal disorders, organised especially for
workers at the mine. 

The company uses different analyses to prepare suitable measures, such as workability and age structure analysis, as
well as statistics from the Institute of Public Health (IVZ) on the most common causes of work-related absence, and
company analyses on musculoskeletal disorders. These analyses are the basis for planning the preventive health and
safety activities and for the annual evaluation of the programme based on the statistical data and internal assessment. 

The  project  was  initiated  by  management  and  health  and  safety  representatives  at  the  company.  Personnel
representatives  and  external  consultants  were  also  involved  in  setting  up  activities  within  the  project.  During
implementation, the occupational therapist and psychologist from the company`s health and safety department assist in
ergonomic and psychological workplace interventions as well as in training, coaching and supervision. 

To take part in this prevention programme, employees do not apply by themselves, but the company draws lots for
them;  it  takes  about  5–7  years  before  all  workers  in  the  mine  get  their  turn.  Every  year,  around  110  employees  are
invited and 90–100 employees decide to join this activity. 

The programme’s main outcomes are: 

n prevention and early discovery of diseases, and care for workers’ health; 

n

n

n

a low absenteeism level (5%–6%), which represents a success given the company’s main activity of coal mining; 

a fall in the number of accidents in the recent years; 

reduced  absence  due  to  other  reasons  such  as  occupational  diseases  (musculoskeletal  disorders)  and  health
problems; 

n greater awareness by workers of their health and safety at work.

Source: Slovenian contribution

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An  example  concerning  skills  development  is  the  national  training  agreement  for  the  mining  sector  in  Spain.  This
agreement, signed by national social partners, highlights the importance of training activities in the sector and it is a
commitment to the promotion of training among its workers.

In  Bulgaria,  the  sectoral  collective  agreement  for  ‘mining  and  quarrying’  approved  a  minimum  monthly  wage  for
employees that was 40% higher than the national minimum wage; the wage increase is determined at company level
according to its financial–economic situation but should never be lower than the national minimum wage.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for mining-related occupations are summarised in Table 13.

Table 13: Examples of initiatives for mining-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Collective agreements

Minimum wage

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Member States

BG

ES, SI, UK

Intrinsic job quality

State initiatives and social dialogue
agreements

Health and safety regulations, medical
preventive programmes, promotion of training
activities

Note: No examples aimed at improving working time or prospects were identified.
Source: National contributions

Agricultural, forestry and fishery sector occupations

Most  of  the  measures  covering  agricultural,  forestry  and  fishery  labourers  (ISCO-08  921)  are  implemented  from  a
sectoral  perspective,  that  is,  the  majority  of  the  initiatives  cover  the  agricultural,  forestry  or  fishery  sector,  without
dealing  with  specific  occupations.  However,  there  are  a  few  particular  cases  such  as  the  measures  aimed  at  ‘berry
pickers’ in Sweden.

Long hours, low wages, job insecurity, involuntary and temporary employment, health and safety issues and training
difficulties are the main disadvantages experienced by these occupations. 

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers – Summary of initiatives

The majority of the initiatives aimed at occupations in the agricultural, forestry and fishery sectors deal with health and
safety,  and  particularly  with  health  and  safety  conditions.  This  is  to  be  expected,  given  the  physical  efforts,  risky
activities, unfavourable environmental conditions and so on that characterise these occupations. Linked to this, many
initiatives  consist  of  training  and  awareness-raising  campaigns  to  promote  work  safety.  In  those  cases,  public
authorities play a key role, usually with the support of social partners. For some countries, measures aimed at improving
employment protection have also been reported, in some cases linked to combating undeclared work. 

Initiatives concerning improvements in intrinsic job quality (health and safety) and working time
These occupations are among those with a relatively high share of workers who are less informed about health and safety
risks. Many of the initiatives are therefore concerned with improving health and safety conditions and promoting risk
prevention. 

In Portugal, social partners and public authorities have published several good practice guides (for example, a guide on
safety, hygiene and health at agricultural work, and a guide for workers when using agricultural pesticides) and launched

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a number of awareness-raising campaigns (for example, a campaign to improve working conditions in fishery, and a
campaign on occupational safety and health in agriculture and forestry). 

Other examples of measures linked to health protection include:

n vaccination  against  tick-borne  encephalitis  among  employees  working  in  enterprises  with  active  trade  unions

operating in the forestry sector in Lithuania;

n

legislation  in  Spain  (Royal  Decree  568/2011)  which  establishes  minimum  conditions  for  health  protection  and
medical assistance for those working at sea.

Measures aimed at the Finnish agricultural sector deal with a variety of areas, including intrinsic job quality and well-
being, career advancement and work–life balance. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Health has created a working group
on well-being at work and prolongation of working careers for agricultural entrepreneurs, which seeks to make proposals
for  improvement  and  present  initiatives  to  prolong  the  working  careers  of  agricultural  entrepreneurs.  So  far,  only
proposals have been made; suggestions have included:

n

n

n

easing the administrative burden on employers by developing e-services;

improvements in the system of farm relief workers (that is, holiday replacements for farmers);

temporary replacement workers to allow improved access to vocational education for permanent employees. 

Also in Finland, the regional project ‘Apuva’ (‘Help and resources in daily life on farms’) aims to improve the health
and work ability of agricultural and forestry producers, agricultural labourers and farm relief workers (see box). 

Finland: Apuva project for agricultural and forestry producers and workers

Apuva (‘Help and resources in daily life on farms’) is a regional project which aims to improve the health and work
ability of agricultural and forestry producers, agricultural labourers and farm relief workers in the Kainuu region of
Finland through information measures and training initiatives focusing on prevention. The project is administered by
agricultural expert organisation Maa- ja kotitalousnaiset (Rural Women’s Advisory Association), with financing from
the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) and the regional Centre for Economic Development,
Transport and the Environment. 

The project has a broad focus on improving the work sustainability, covering issues such as safety at work, work–life
balance, time management and healthy living conditions. The project has published a guide with information on the
services and initiatives available to support agricultural workers in developing their well-being (including safety and
work–life balance measures).

Source: Finnish contribution

Initiatives concerning improvements in prospects (focus on migrant workers) 
Two measures from Sweden deal specifically with foreign berry pickers, particularly with their employment protection
and  intrinsic  job  quality.  Different  Swedish  public  authorities  are  cooperating  in  an  inspection  campaign  to  secure  a
better work environment for travelling berry pickers. The objective is to expose employers who exploit immigrant berry
pickers from non-EU countries and who do not pay proper taxes and payroll taxes. Linked to this, the Swedish Food

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Federation  is  working  on  ensuring  secure  employment  conditions  for  berry  pickers,  with  a  focus  on  international
seasonal workers. Unions in Spain are also focusing on berry pickers, signing specific agreements with local and national
authorities, including with non-EU countries.

Initiatives concerning improvements in earnings
In Romania, the unique national collective agreement for the agriculture, aquaculture and fisheries industry, agreed by
sectoral social partners at national level, improves unfavourable working conditions by providing health bonuses and
allowances. It establishes a minimum gross wage of RON 725 (approximately €165).

Examples  of  initiatives  in  different  policy  areas  for  agricultural,  forestry  and  fishery  sector-related  occupations  are
summarised in Table 14.

Table 14: Examples of initiatives for agricultural, forestry and fishery sector-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Working time

Prospects

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Member States

Collective agreements

Minimum salaries, bonuses linked to
unfavourable working conditions and overtime

Professionals’ organisation and public centre
for economic development

Proposals for work–life balance and time
management

State initiatives, and measures implemented by
employers’ organisations

Prolongation of working careers, actions
against undeclared work

RO

FI

FI, SE

Intrinsic job quality

State initiatives, measures implemented by
employers’ organisations or by trade unions,
independently

Health and safety conditions, guides on
occupational risks, campaigns for the
prevention of accidents, health and safety
inspections, well-being proposals

ES, FI, LT, PT, SE

Source: National contributions

Waste management occupations

This  section  presents  examples  of  national  initiatives  covering  waste  management  related  occupations,  including  the
European level OMD of refuse worker (ISCO-08 961). Unfortunately, only a few measures were identified by national
contributors for this occupational group.

Refuse workers – Summary of initiatives

Health and safety risks, sustainability of work, involuntary temporary and part-time work, and low wages are an issue
for many refuse workers. All the examples of measures in the national contributions deal with wages. No examples
aimed at improving working time, job security, intrinsic health and safety or training were identified.

Most of the examples are company-level initiatives (that is, applied by the company itself). 

In Italy, one company introduced ‘productivity evaluation criteria’ with the aim of reducing absenteeism and promoting
higher  productivity;  actions  include  provision  of  economic  incentives,  canteen  vouchers  and  productivity  bonuses  to
promote attendance organisational efficiency. 

In Malta, the Maltese government’s waste management agency, WasteServ, rectified a discrimination related to pay; it
adjusted the pay of eight immigrant workers so that they were being paid the same as their Maltese counterparts and
not less.

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One nationwide collective agreement reached through social dialogue was identified – the unique national collective
agreement  for  ‘services  of  public  utilities  –  waste  management,  decontamination  and  environmental  protection
activities’ in Romania. This established a series of labour rules and regulations for the sector, such as a minimum wage
of  RON  1,000  (€225  as  at  27  July  2015)  from  1  January  2012,  and  bonuses  for  extraordinary  working  conditions,
harmful conditions, work during weekends and holidays.

In Italy, the Italian Compensation Authority (Inail) has carried out research on preventing the exposure of refuse workers
to risks at municipal waste plants.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for waste management-related occupations are summarised in Table 15.

Table 15: Examples of initiatives for waste management-related occupations

Policy area

Earnings

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Member States

Company-level measures, collective
agreement

Minimum wages, equal pay, bonus/incentives
linked to productivity or difficult working
conditions

IT, MT, RO

Note: No examples aimed at improving working time, prospects or intrinsic job quality were identified.
Source: National contributions

Occupations not selected as OMD at EU level

Information collected at national level for this study resulted in the identification of measures aimed at improving the
working conditions of other occupations which were not selected as OMD at EU level but considered OMD at a national
level in some countries. These occupations are:

n workers in the care, health and social sector; 

n

cleaners and helpers; 

n hairdressers.

Examples of initiatives and policies aimed at these three occupational groups are given below.

Initiatives and policies aimed at workers in the care, health and social sector 
Healthcare assistants (ISCO-08 5321) have been identified in several countries as an OMD (see Chapter 2). One of the
most  significant  cases  is  Germany  where  several  examples  aimed  at  improving  their  working  conditions  were  found
during this study. 

In  general  terms,  there  are  several  national  measures  aimed  at  improving  the  working  conditions  of  health  associate
professionals  (ISCO-08  32).  This  is  the  case  of  Hungary,  for  instance,  where  many  doctors,  nurses  and  social
professionals have migrated to other Member States primarily because of their low wages and partly due to the poor
working conditions, in general. Initiatives and policies aimed at these three occupations are analysed together in this
section, with examples of different measures for the health and personal social care sector.

In  Germany,  the  working  conditions  of  care  workers  are  addressed  by  several  non-related  initiatives.  The  ‘Pact  for
promoting  good  health  and  elderly  care’  (Bündnis  für  gute  Pflege)  and  the  ‘Apprenticeship  pact  for  care  work’
(Ausbildungspakt Pflege) both aim at improving working conditions and wages in care work, raising employee numbers
to reduce time pressure and work load, and improving vocational training standards. Meanwhile, the Campaign Healthy
Care  Work  is  a  nationwide  campaign  aimed  at  improving  the  work  ability  and  working  conditions  of  care  workers
(see box). 

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Care and health associated professionals – Summary of initiatives

From a contextual perspective, the ageing of the population, and thus the increasing need for health and social care of
the  elderly,  is  becoming  evident  in  many  European  countries  (Germany  is  an  example).  The  national  measures
identified for this study have varied objectives and many of them deal with different policy areas at the same time.
Indeed, some of these measures seek to both solve the problem of labour shortages and promote quality and dignity of
care by ensuring employment conditions in different fields of action. 

The most recurrent aspects dealt with by the initiatives identified are wages and intrinsic job quality (skills and health
related  aspects).  Although  violence  and  harassment  are  a  significant  problem  for  these  occupations,  the  national
contributions do not mention any measures specifically aimed at tackling these issues. 

The  actors  implementing  the  measures  are  also  very  varied  and  depend  on  the  type  of  measure  applied.  The  main
players are social partners and public authorities, but also other stakeholders such as non-profit organisations. 

Germany: Healthy Care Work 

In  Germany,  Healthy  Care  Work  (Offensive  Gesund  Pflegen)  is  a  nationwide  campaign  implemented  via  regional
networks.  It  has  been  funded  by  the  Federal  Labour  Ministry  since  1999,  and  is  implemented,  among  others,  by
Initiative  New  Quality  of  Work  (INQA),  the  Federal  Institute  for  Occupational  Safety  and  Health  (BAUA),  the
employers’ liability association, regional ministries and other regional stakeholders.

The aim of this joint project, which focuses on interdisciplinary cooperation and sharing of knowledge, is to improve
the work ability and working conditions among health care workers. Its objectives are:

n

n

improving working conditions and career prospects in care; 

improving the quality of care services; 

n developing competitive, innovative and sustainable facilities; 

n merging and supporting all relevant social partners;

n

improving public appreciation for nurses. 

Several actions have been implemented including academic studies, development of tools and training materials, and
training programmes. 

Source: German contribution

In 2012, the UK public service union UNISON developed an ethical care charter. This is potentially applicable to all care
workers employed by local authorities in the UK, but is dependent on them signing up to it. The charter’s objective is to
establish a minimum baseline for the safety, quality and dignity of care by ensuring employment conditions. Linked to
this, the charity Citizen UK launched a charter of good practice for care providers and care commissioners, which sets
out basic standards that would enable quality for the recipient of care and dignity for the care worker. The charter calls
for dignity at work and for care workers to be paid the ‘Living Wage’ (that is, the amount an individual needs to earn to
cover the basic cost of living in the UK), to be offered an occupational sick pay scheme and given a clear pathway for

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career progression. This charter could potentially cover all care workers employed by independent service providers in
the UK, but it is dependent upon employers signing up.

In France, a measure concerning the home-based care sector is the agreement about prevention of arduousness, signed
by social partners at national level, which seeks to improve employees’ physical and mental health and to improve work
organisation. The agreement implies a commitment to:

n negotiating a company-level agreement or adopting a plan of action;

n diagnosing the causes and effects of arduousness factors;

n

n

n

reducing multiple exposures to arduousness factors; 

a better working organisation and an increase of qualifications;

improved training.

Also in France, social partners have concluded an agreement on health and employment quality for the health and social
care sector, whose aim is to improve working conditions and quality of working life by developing training programmes,
information campaigns concerning health and quality of life, occupational risk prevention and so on.

Hungary  has  approved  a  number  of  measures  aimed  at  health  professionals. The  government  approved  a  number  of
decrees in 2013 and 2014 to introduce regular wage supplements in the health and personal social care sector. Regular
(monthly) wage supplements have been introduced and wages have increased for health professionals (ISCO-08 22),
health associate professionals (ISCO-08 32) and personal care workers (ISCO-08 53).

In the Hurum municipality of Norway, social partners have developed a programme to avoid involuntary part-time work
(that is, to promote the freedom to choose either full-time or part-time work) among health associate professionals. They
have also negotiated compensation for work at night and weekends, and inconvenient working hours are converted into
hours entered into the time bank (these hours can be used to shorten working hours or be paid).

Examples  of  initiatives  in  different  policy  areas  for  workers  in  the  care,  health  and  social  sector  are  summarised  in
Table 16.

Table 16: Examples of initiatives for workers in the care, health and social sector

Policy area

Earnings

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

State initiatives, social dialogue agreements,
measures implemented by employers’
organisations or by trade unions
independently, and others (initiatives by
social welfare organisations)

Campaigns and pacts for the improvement of
wages, sectoral minimum wages, charters for
basic conditions

Member States

DE, HU, NO, UK

Working time

Social dialogue agreement

Avoiding involuntary part-time, banking of hours NO

Prospects

Intrinsic job quality

State initiatives, and measures developed by
employers’ organisations or by trade unions,
independently, and others (initiatives by
social welfare organisations)

Social dialogue agreements, state initiatives,
measures implemented by employers’
organisations or by trade unions
independently, and others (initiatives by
social welfare organisations)

Source: National contributions

Campaigns for the improvement of work ability
and general conditions, quality and dignity of
workers, development of qualifications

DE, UK

Protection of employees’ physical and mental
health, campaigns on health and quality of life,
safety, vocational training 

DE, FR, UK

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Initiatives and policies aimed at cleaners and helpers
The  national  contributors  from  several  countries  identified  significant  measures  aimed  at  improving  the  working
conditions of cleaners and helpers (ISCO-08 91). Some of the measures are aimed at domestic workers in particular, but
there are also initiatives covering the cleaning industry in general. 

These occupations suffer from the following poor conditions: lack of training, lack of information on health and safety,
and low income. Job security is also an issue for this group of workers. 

Cleaners and helpers – Summary of initiatives

The measures identified cover a wide range of policy areas. The policies and initiatives aim principally at improving
intrinsic job quality (particularly health and safety), earnings and job prospects (for example, employment contract or
employment protection). Linked to this are measures in some countries aimed at fighting abusive labour conditions or
even illegal work, which sometimes occur among domestic workers. 

Public authorities play a key role in those initiatives linked to job prospects or abusive labour conditions, as well as in
health  and  safety  rules.  However,  measures  related  to  earnings  are  normally  agreements  reached  through  social
dialogue. 

Among  the  measures  aimed  particularly  at  domestic  workers,  the  ‘job  prospects’  policy  area  (that  is,  employment
contract or employment protection) is noteworthy. For instance, in the Czech Republic, the campaign ‘Do you know who
is cleaning your home?’ addresses the issues faced by female foreigners working in Czech households (see box). 

Czech Republic: ‘Do you know who is cleaning your home?’ campaign

As part of labour migration, female foreigners working in Czech households as cleaners constitute a new segment of
the  country’s  labour  market.  These  women  often  have  to  cope  with  inadequate  treatment  or  various  forms  of
discrimination, and are often forced to perform illegal work since it is far more profitable for their employers. In better
cases, the most frequent problems are low wages, overtime work and insurance payments unpaid by the employer or a
lack of days off. 

The project seeks to develop public debate on equal opportunities for domestic helpers and to support female foreigners
working  in  Czech  households  in  occupations  such  as  cleaning  ladies,  domestic  helpers  and  carers. The  campaign’s
objectives are to:

n

n

encourage respect for the rights of domestic helpers and the proper treatment of female foreigners in Czech households;

raise awareness of the problem of illegal employment of female migrants as domestic helpers;

n offer support/advice courses for both the migrants themselves and other relevant institutions (for example, trade unions).

Under the framework of the project, research analysing the phenomenon of paid domestic work in the Czech Republic
was conducted and a conference on the issue was organised. 

The campaign is being carried out by the NGOs Člověk v tísni, o.p.s. and the Association for Integration and Migration,
as well as by Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education - Economics Institute (CERGE-EI)

Source: Czech contribution

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In  Belgium,  the  federal  government  launched  a  system  of  service  vouchers  (‘dienstencheques’),  which  promote  the
demand  for  domestic  services  and  proximity  services,  and  allow  private  persons  to  hire  the  services  of  recognised
companies for domestic help. In practical terms, the system was created to tackle undeclared work rather than to improve
the working conditions in those jobs. 

In Spain, Royal Decree 1620/2011 regulates the labour relationship of special character in domestic services (see box). 

Spain: Special Regime for Domestic Services 

Royal  Decree  1620/2011  regulates  the  labour  relationship  known  as  the  Special  Regime  for  Domestic  Services.  It
approved new working conditions for domestic employees by establishing more and better rights for domestic workers.
It also tries to tackle undeclared work.

For  instance,  the  law  improved  the  rights  concerning  working  time,  promoted  work  stability  and  reinforced
transparency. Thanks to it, domestic workers have the right to access virtually the same benefits as other workers in the
General Regime, with some peculiarities (for instance, domestic workers are not entitled to unemployment benefits). 

According to the Institute of Fiscal Studies, the number of persons registered under the Special Regime in 2011 was
295,465; in 2012 it had increased to 420,300. This was a 42.25% increase, compared with increases of 0.8%–2.8% in
the previous five years. The impact of this legislative initiative is thus evident.

Source: Spanish contribution

There  are  also  examples  of  measures  which  deal  both  with  job  prospects  (employment  protection)  and  intrinsic  job
quality  (health  and  safety).  For  instance,  in  Norway,  the  cleaning  industry  has  major  challenges  when  it  comes  to
working  conditions,  health  and  safety  standards,  and  undeclared  work.  The  Ministry  of  Labour  and  Social  Affairs
approved  a  new  regulation  scheme  for  all  cleaning  businesses  and  introduced  identity  cards  for  their  employees  to
improve working conditions. This measure has reduced illicit work and has improved working conditions in general. In
addition, employers have promoted an industry programme in the cleaning industry to reinforce health and safety at work
and  to  contribute  to  more  decent  working  conditions.  The  programme  includes  regulated  approval  schemes  for  all
cleaning  businesses  and  increased  requirements  to  follow  the  specifications  laid  down  in  the  tender  for  a  particular
cleaning contract. Moreover, regional safety representatives in Norway work to ensure the quality of occupational health
and safety and to prevent social dumping (especially in companies’ without their own safety representatives).

Looking at intrinsic job quality, in the UK there are examples of measures aimed at improving both skills and health and
safety  conditions.  In  particular,  UKCES  and  the  Federation  for  Industry  Sector  Skills  try  to  offer  better  training  for
cleaners and there are specific HSE rules governing the cleaning industry.

There are also a number of measures aimed at improving workers’ pay. 

In  Finland,  there  is  a  wage  development  programme  (‘Ansiokehitysohjelma’)  for  the  period  2010  to  2017  whose
objective is to raise the wages of cleaners by 16.5%. 

In  Germany,  the  sectoral  minimum  wage  agreement  for  cleaners  has  been  extended  by  the  federal  labour  minister,
meaning  that  the  national  statutory  minimum  wage  introduced  in  January  2015  is  not  a  substitute  for  the  sectoral
agreement until it expires. 

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In Sweden, the collective agreement for caretakers and cleaners in municipal companies increased the minimum wages,
as agreed by the Swedish Municipal Workers’ Union and the employers’ organisation Fastigo. 

There  are  also  some  other  initiatives  related  to  public  bidding  or  government  work,  and  dealing  with  earning.  For
instance,  in  Malta,  the  Office  of  the  Prime  Minister  issued  a  number  of  mandatory  conditions  for  all  government
contracts (for example, penalties for non-payment of overtime work).

Finally, concerning working time, a campaign against unsocial working hours implemented in Austria aimed to reduce
non-standard working hours (early in the morning and late in the evening) and to improve work–life balance.

Examples of initiatives in different policy areas for cleaners and helpers are summarised in Table 17.

Table 17: Examples of initiatives for cleaners and helpers

Policy area

Earnings

Type of initiative (actor)

Examples

Social dialogue agreements, state initiatives

Minimum wage agreements, wage
development programmes

Member States

DE, FI, MT, SE

Working time

Trade union initiative

Campaign against unsocial working hours

AT

Prospects

Mainly state initiatives

Intrinsic job quality Mainly state initiatives, also initiatives

implemented by employers’ associations

Source: National contributions

Service vouchers and ID-cards, campaign
against inadequate working conditions and
undeclared work, improvement of workers’
rights, social dumping prevention

Initiatives promoting health and safety at
work, specific regulations, regional safety
representatives, skills development

BE, CZ, ES, NO

NO, UK

Initiatives and policies aimed at hairdressers
Hairdressers  (ISCO  Code  5141)  are  considered  as  an  OMD  in  France  where  there  are  several  measures  aimed  at
improving their working conditions. Two measures in particular deal with intrinsic job quality, in particular health and
safety matters. 

The regional bodies of the French National Health Insurance Fund, with the support of social partners, offer financial
assistance for the purchase of ergonomic equipment to reduce exposure to musculoskeletal disorders. 

The  National  Federation  of  Hairdressers  (FNC)  has  published  a  position  statement  advising  employers  to  apply
precautionary principles to avoid carcinogenic substances. 

Overview of the measures identified

The  sections  above  describe  a  diverse  range  of  initiatives  and  policies  aimed  at  improving  working  conditions  in  a
number of sector-related occupations characterised by multiple disadvantages. 

There are cases where a single initiative aims at improving several job quality areas. For instance, sectoral collective
agreements  tend  to  include  different  terms  and  conditions  which  improve  different  aspects.  Looking  at  the  whole
collection  of  examples  found,  the  majority  of  the  measures  (around  54%)  are  aimed  at  improving  the  ‘intrinsic  job
quality’ area (that is, skills, autonomy, social and physical environment, risks prevention, work sustainability and so on).
Close  to  one-third  of  the  measures  refer  to  earnings  (37%),  while  the  rest  deal  with  working  time  (25%)  and  with
prospects (around 20%). 

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There are certain occupations or sectors where some policy areas are more recurrent than in others such as:

n working time arrangements for sales workers;

n health and safety issues, together with working time, for drivers.

Concerning the type of actor, players are also varied and normally depend on the type of measure. For instance, there
are numerous examples of sectoral collective agreements reached through social dialogue by the social partners. There
are also a number of examples of initiatives dealing with health and safety measures, usually implemented by public
authorities (particularly in the case of regulations). 

Social dialogue is the most common driver (40% of the measures), closely followed by public authorities (32% of the
measures). Other stakeholders by order of importance are employers’ associations, trade unions and companies – each
implementing around 13%–18% of the measures. 

The majority of the examples found are nationwide measures, but there are also interesting examples at regional and
company level.

Looking at the national perspective, it is possible to suggest several results. In the majority of EU Member States and
Norway, the identified initiatives mainly focus on dealing with the intrinsic job quality area. However, some countries
(Bulgaria, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta and Slovenia) have an important focus on earnings. In Austria,
the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the main focus is on working time issues, while the focus in Belgium and Croatia has
been on the employment prospects. 

Concerning the main type of actor involved, in most EU countries, the initiatives have been principally adopted through
social  dialogue  practices,  including  collective  bargaining  processes.  In  principle,  this  is  as  expected  since,  given  the
general lack of occupational focused initiatives, the main players at sectoral level in many countries are sectoral social
partners. However, there are a number of countries (Belgium, Finland, Hungary, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Spain and
the UK) where government initiatives are prevalent and there is rather weak sectoral social dialogue in some of these
countries. In Cyprus and the Netherlands, the initiatives reported were taken separately by social partners and mainly
company examples were presented from Italy, Lithuania, Malta and Slovakia. 

Transversal initiatives and policies 

Only  a  small  number  of  initiatives  and  policies  target  specific  OMD,  most  of  which  are  at  sectoral  level.  However,
collective bargaining systems differ between Member States and, in some countries, a sectoral collective agreement does
not apply to all workers. In some countries, workers are not covered by the agreement if they are not members of a
signatory trade union and, in others, there is no a sectoral agreement in place in specific industries. 

It is therefore important for governments and national-level social partners (under intersectoral agreements) to develop
initiatives to address the poor working conditions of all workers regardless of their occupation or membership of a trade
union.  Transversal  policies  normally  target  all  workers  and  focus  on  minimum  standards.  These  policies  affect  all
workers and can therefore contribute to the improvement of the quality of work of employees in OMD in one or several
elements of working conditions. In some cases, they may address issues which are not tackled directly through specific
sectoral or occupational policies. 

Due to the large number of transversal initiatives in the EU, only the most recent ones are summarised below. 

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Transversal initiatives and policies related to earnings
Many EU Member States stipulate a minimum wage enforced by law, often after consultation with social partners, or
directly by a national intersectoral agreement. This minimum wage applies to all employees, or at least to a large majority
of employees, within a country. 

According  to  minimum  wage  statistics  from  Eurostat,  22  EU  Member  States  applied  a  national  minimum  wage  in
January 2015. Several of the founding EU Member States have a lengthy tradition of ensuring a national minimum wage
for those at the lower paid end of the labour market. However, a number of Member States including Germany, Ireland,
the UK and many of the countries that joined the EU in 2004 or later have only recently introduced minimum wage
legislation. 

There is no national minimum wage in six EU Member States (Austria, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, Italy and Sweden)
and  also  in  the  non-EU  country  of  Norway.  In  Cyprus,  minimum  wages  are  set  by  the  government  for  specific
occupations (for example, domestic workers). In Austria, Denmark, Finland, Italy, Sweden and Norway, minimum wages
are laid down by sectoral collective agreements that together cover a high proportion of the working population. 

Germany  introduced  a  national  minimum  wage  on  1  January  2015,  although  transitional  provisions  apply  in  some
circumstances and sectors such as waste management, construction, mining and cleaning services. In the past, minimum
wages were set for several sectors by collective agreements and declared binding by the Federal Ministry of Labour and
Social Affairs. 

In  addition  to  minimum  wage  initiatives,  it  is  possible  to  identify  a  number  of  additional  transversal  initiatives  and
policies intended to improve the general wage levels of workers. For example, unemployed people accepting a part-time
(usually low paid) job in Belgium can ask for public financial support via the ‘Income Guarantee Allowance’ in order to
achieve sufficient total income. In Malta, wages are adjusted every calendar year in accordance with the inflation rate;
this Cost of Living Allowance (COLA) ensures that all wages, and especially those of the disadvantaged workers, keep
pace  with  inflation.  In  Spain,  Law  35/2010  of  17  September  2010  containing  urgent  measures  for  the  reform  of  the
labour market stresses that payments in kind cannot represent more than 30% of total earnings and that they should not
reduce total earnings in cash below the minimum interprofessional salary. 

Austria, the Czech Republic and Ireland: Recent discussions and agreements on the minimum wage 

At its federal congress in 2013, the Austrian Trade Union Federation (ÖGB) resolved to claim a monthly gross statutory
minimum wage of €1,500 and thereby put this topic on the political agenda. As a consequence of this resolution, the unions
at sector level include it with their policy and put it on the agenda for the annual negotiations on collective agreements. 

In  the  Czech  Republic,  the  minimum  wage  is  one  of  the  lowest  in  the  EU28  countries  and  is  received  by  only
approximately 2% of employees. The social partners, together with the national authorities, finally agreed to increase
it from January 2015 up to CZK 9,200 per month (approximately €332). The government foresees further increases up
to 40% of the average wage over the next 4–10 years. 

In Ireland, the national minimum wage is currently set at €8.65 per hour, having been reduced temporarily to €7.65 per
hour in February 2011 by the previous government due to the economic crisis. In July 2014, the government announced
the establishment of a Low Pay Commission, a statutory body expected to make annual recommendations on the level
of the minimum wage and related matters for low paid workers.

Source: Austrian, Czech and Irish national contributions

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Transversal initiatives and policies related to duration and organisation of working time
Working time practices are regulated by the Working Time Directive (2003/88/EC), which requires all EU countries to
guarantee a number of working time rights for all workers, with the exceptions of some sectors including doctors in
training, offshore workers, sea fishing workers and people working in urban passenger transport. This directive regulates,
among  other  elements,  maximum  weekly  working  hours,  minimum  daily  and  weekly  rest  periods  and  some  extra
protection rules for night work, although there some differences among Member States regarding how the directive has
been implemented (European Commission (2012a) for more information on these differences). 

There are also examples of national transversal initiatives and policies intended to foster working time-related issues in
different  domains,  such  as  the  limitation  of  unsocial  working  hours  or  flexitime  practices.  For  instance,  Collective
Agreement 76 of 18 July 2000, signed by all relevant Belgian social partners, regulates for the whole of the country and
with a cross-sectoral perspective the existing working time practices in those jobs and occupations characterised by non-
standard  working  hours  (and  defined  within  the  same  collective  agreement).  Meanwhile,  section  18  of  the  Irish
Organisation  of Working Time Act  1997  addresses  those  workers  employed  under  ‘zero  hour’  contracts  (particularly
relevant in sectors such as retail, Horeca and social care), where these workers are entitled to payment equivalent to 25%
of hours they are contractually expected to work or payment equating to 15 hours.

To  reduce  involuntary  part-time  practices,  the  Norwegian  government  published  in  2011  a  White  Paper  on  joint
responsibility for a good and decent working life (2010–2011). This has so far funded 47 projects intended to reduce the
incidence of this problem. In Sweden, social dialogue between the Swedish Municipal Workers’ Union (Kommunal) and
the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions (SKL) has resulted in a common agreement to ensure the right
to part-time and full-time work for municipality employees in the whole country (see box).

Sweden: Municipalities grant the right to work full time to all employees 

Since 2004, four out of 10 Swedish municipalities have introduced the right to part-time and full-time employment.
The right to full-time employment aims to reduce the gender inequality between men and women in Sweden, where
women  more  often  work  part  time  than  men.  Since  several  female-dominated  occupations,  such  as  healthcare  and
cleaning services, are found at the municipal level, these have been highlighted as particularly important in combating
the horizontal segregation in the Swedish labour market. The problem pointed out by the trade union is that employees
in these occupations have not had the opportunity to choose their own working time arrangement and have, despite
requests  for  full-time  work,  been  granted  part-time  contracts.  The  model  is  based  on  employer–employee  dialogue
where the employee gets to choose annually whether to work part time or full time.

Source: Swedish national contribution

Transversal initiatives and policies related to employment prospects 
There  are  a  number  of  national  examples  of  transversal  initiatives  and  policies  intended  to  foster  issues  related  to
employment prospects such as employment protection and career advancement/promotion. 

In 2013, the Croatian Employment Service introduced an extended pension insurance for permanent seasonal workers.
Under  this  scheme,  employers  who  permanently  keep  on  at  least  20%  of  their  seasonal  workers  after  the  end  of  the
season can request co-financing of pension insurance out of season for a maximum period of six months. In Greece, the
operational  plan  ‘Artemis’  is  designed  to  tackle  undeclared  work  in  certain  sectors  with  the  highest  presence  of
undeclared work (Greek Ministry of Finance, 2013).

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In France, the latest pension reform (Law 2014-40 of 20 January 2014) introduced from January 2015 the possibility for
employees  who  are  exposed  to  some  predefined  occupational  risk  factors  (for  example,  night  work,  shift  work  and
dangerous chemical agents) to obtain ‘extra points’ for a personal account that can be used subsequently for different
purposes such as attending a vocational training course, financing a period of part-time employment (when people are
still in employment) or acquiring quarterly pension rights to retire earlier. Similarly, the new 2013 Slovenian Pension
and Disability Insurance Act establishes compulsory supplementary pension insurance mechanisms from employers to
secure the right to an occupational pension among insured persons performing particularly hard work or work harmful
to their health.

In  the  Netherlands,  the  National  Platform  for  Sustainable  Employability  brings  together  specialised  expertise  from
consultants, knowledge centres and companies to identify practical applications for sustainable employability.

Germany: Projects on sustainable work for elderly workers 

Two  projects  were  identified  in  Germany  related  to  the  current  demographic  changes  and  the  population  ageing
problem, both funded by the Federal Ministry of Employment and supported by several social partners. Both projects
cover not only working time but also have employment prospects elements.

The ‘Growing Together – Designing Work’ (Zusammen Wachsen-Arbeit Gestalten) project, covering the period from
2011 to 2014, sought to support collective bargaining and social partners in testing and designing different ways for
making work more sustainable for elderly workers in different sectors and related occupations. 

The ‘Horizontal Career Change’ (Horizontaler Berufsumstieg) project provides support to elderly workers who need or
want to change their occupation due to work-related health reasons. The project has developed an online database for
workers, worker representatives and employers with information on searching for alternative occupations with the same
qualification and similar wage levels. 

Source: German national contribution

Transversal initiatives and policies related to intrinsic job quality 
EU Member States have developed a number of transversal initiatives and policies intended to foster other job quality-
related domains such as skills development, prevention activities in social environment/psychosocial-related risks and
physical environment-related risks. Examples of these initiatives and policies are presented below. 

Skills development
Several examples of transversal initiatives aimed at skills development can be identified. 

In the Czech Republic, the 2013 project ‘Extend your Knowledge for Stability’, which is co-financed by the European
Social Fund, aims to fund professional growth programmes for employees whose employers, due to the economic crisis,
are temporarily unable to assign their employees work in the agreed volume. 

In Denmark, the recent employment reform of June 2014 has made it easier for both skilled and unskilled workers, as
well as the unemployed, to access further training opportunities. A policy programme implemented by the government
known as ‘Job Rotation’ provides financial support to companies to promote job rotation projects for enhancing skills
(see box). 

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Denmark: Job rotation scheme

This government programme aims to subsidise job rotation by compensating companies for sending their employees
on relevant education and training courses. 

One example of a company making use of this initiative is Bisca, which has chosen to use the job rotation programme
to sustain and develop the production of biscuits and cookies in its existing facilities in the municipality of Vordingborg.
The company is a major workplace in a small town environment and it is therefore of great importance for the workers’
job  prospects  to  sustain  their  jobs. The  programme  consists  of  job  rotation  within  the  company  to  educate  existing
employees. The rotation is assumed to enhance workers’ skills and to give them more enjoyment in their daily working
life. Hence, it enhances both the prospects and the intrinsic job quality of the participating employees.

Source: Danish contribution

In Finland, the national government passed new legislation in 2013 entitling employers to compensation for the costs
arising from training employees, especially groups of workers who had previously received few training opportunities. 

Health and safety
In parallel with the Framework Directive on Safety and Health at Work (89/391 EEC), there are a wide range of national
policies  and  initiatives  concerned  with  prevention  activities  related  to  social  environment  and  psychosocial/physical
risks. Such initiatives are often developed by public authorities (sometimes in collaboration with social partners), but
also by representative social partner organisations (either in collaboration or on their own initiative or by other agents). 

EU Member States have developed over the years special laws intended to ensure healthy and safe working conditions
within enterprises. For example, legislation was introduced recently in Croatia (see box).

Croatia: New law on health and safety at work 

The new Law on Occupational Safety (OG 71/14) came into force on 19 June 2014. It includes provisions on:

n

setting up the National Institute for the Improvement of Safety at Work;

n protecting workers from psychosocial risks (stress) and psychophysiological effort at work. 

The law prescribes:

n general principles of risk prevention at work and protection of health;

n

rules to eliminate risk factors;

n procedures for the training of workers;

n procedures of information and consultation of workers and their representatives with employers and their agents.

Source: Croatian national contribution

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There  is  also  a  wide  array  of  national  legislation  regulating  specific  elements  of  work-related  risks.  In  Belgium,  for
instance,  the  law  of  28  February  2014  on  the  welfare  of  workers  in  the  performance  of  their  work  focuses  on  the
prevention of any type of psychosocial risks at work (see box).  

Belgium: Law on the welfare of workers at work

The law of 28 February 2014 on the welfare of workers in the performance of their work aims to guarantee the welfare
of  workers  by  preventing  psychosocial  risks  at  work,  including  in  particular  violence,  harassment  and  sexual
harassment. Among other elements, the law foresees the introduction of improved procedures to detect and prevent
violence,  harassment  or  sexual  harassment  in  the  workplace.  It  also  broadens  the  definition  of  harassment  in  the
workplace, shortens the time periods to be able to notify the employer of this type of risk and introduces the possibility
for the victim to claim compensation for moral and material damages. In addition, the law reinforces the role played
by  the  employment  tribunals  and  the  Employment  Inspectorate  in  combating  violence,  harassment  and  sexual
harassment at work.

Source: Belgian national contribution

In Italy, the ‘stability law’ (Law no. 147 of 27 December 2013) revises the regulation of compensation insurance for
accidents at work by increasing some type of coverage and the set of the beneficiaries. 

In Portugal, Decree Law 24/2012 of 6 February 2012 regulates the minimum safety and health requirements of workers
from the risks related to chemical agents at work. 

Member States also developed specific national strategies and programmes intended to guide the activities of public and
private sector stakeholders in the domain. Examples include the Bulgarian National Programme for Safety and Health
at Work 2014, the Portuguese National Strategy for Health and Safety at Work 2013–2015 and the Integral Plan of Action
elaborated by the Spanish Labour and Social Security Inspectorate for 2013.

National public authorities have also developed other initiatives intended to improve risk prevention activities. 

For instance, the Cypriot Department of Labour Inspection developed a code of practice related to heat stress in 2014
and also sought to deal with existing risks for workers due to exposure of workers to thermally burdened workplaces. 

In  Denmark,  the  Fund  for  Better  Working  Environment  and  Labour  Retention  aims  to  improve  work  environment
programmes within individual enterprises in specified sectors characterised by tough working conditions (for example,
agriculture, forestry and fishery, transportation, and wood and furniture manufacturing). 

In  Germany,  a  work  programme  on  musculoskeletal  health  risks  has  been  set  out  by  the  labour  inspectorates  of  the
regional Länder for the period 2013–2018 as part of the German Occupational Protection Strategy. 

The Irish Health and Safety Authority started the ‘BeSMART’ initiative in early 2011, which seeks to help small business
produce their own risk assessment and safety statement via a free online tool. 

Since 2012, the Portuguese National Authority for Working Conditions has promoted an awareness-raising campaign on
working  conditions  in  confined  spaces  aimed  at  different  stakeholders,  which  includes  guidance  documents,
communication tools and inspection visits. 

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In Spain, the National Institute of Health and Hygiene at Work publishes a series of informative technical notes on risk
exposure and other advice intended to facilitate the application of legislation related to risk prevention and health and
safety issues.

Two recent public policy measures implemented in Malta and Poland are intended to improve the working conditions of
enterprises subcontracted by the public sector (see box).

Malta and Poland: New public procurement practices 

In  Malta,  the  Office  of  the  Prime  Minister  issued  in  July  2013  a  number  of  mandatory  new  conditions  which  a
contractor must abide by in order to be rewarded a contract of work by the government and which are intended to avoid
any type of abuse by the employer. Under the new rules: 

n workers employed by contractors working on a government contract must be paid the same basic rate as workers

employed in government services;

n

n

services provided by companies that have won government contracts cannot be subcontracted to third parties;

all  employees  of  the  contract  holder,  whether  working  directly  on  the  government  contract  or  not,  must  have  a
written employment contract. 

In Poland, the Parliament passed in August 2014 an amendment to the Public Procurement Law designed to ensure that
employment contracts, social and health insurance are in place as well as wages that cannot be less than the statutory
minimum wage in given a year. These new policies are expected to particularly affect some particularly disadvantaged
occupations such as cleaners, security personnel, healthcare workers and refuse sorters.

Source: Maltese and Polish national contributions

In some cases, social partners have developed within the framework of social dialogue initiatives intended to improve
prevention activities related to physical and psychological risks. A good example of this is found in Finland, where a
tripartite working group on ‘risk of violence’ was appointed in 2013 to investigate whether the legislation and existing
guidance related to the risk of violence in work was adequate or needed to be updated. Interestingly, the group drew
attention to the fact that many Finnish employers were not fully aware of existing legislation on safety at work related
to violence. 

In other cases, such initiatives are taken by social partners on their own and on an individual basis. For instance, the Irish
Small Firms Association, in conjunction with the Irish Health and Safety Authority, has developed a Workplace Health
Toolkit  for  small  businesses. The  Portuguese  Employers’ Association  (AEP)  has  developed  in  collaboration  with  the
National Authority for Working Conditions (ACT), and within the framework of the ‘Programme Prevention’, a number
of  good  practice  manuals  and  guides  intended  to  assist  enterprises  in  implementing  measures  to  improve  their
performance in relation to health and safety at work.

Finally, it is possible to identify some initiatives developed by independent third parties. 

The Danish Cancer Society is currently running a campaign called ‘Smoke free at work’. This campaign provides ad hoc
tools for companies wanting to implement a non-smoking policy within their premises; smoking in private workplaces
is legal in Denmark. 

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In  Slovenia,  the  project  ‘Improvement  of  the  working  environment  in  key  activities  of  the  Obalno-kraška  region’  is
supported by several social partners and research institutions and covered the period 2010 to 2012. It sought to introduce
innovative work organisation methods in local enterprises so as to combine positive economic results with better health
and safety conditions at work. 

EU policy approach 

As happens at national level, an occupational approach does not feature in EU policies. The Treaty on the Functioning
of the European Union mentions the concept of ‘occupation’ mainly when referring to the prevention of occupational
accidents  and  diseases  (Article  156).  It  is  also  to  some  extent  linked  to  the  employment  concept  with  regard  to  the
application of the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment of men and women (Article 157. 3). 

Currently applied and budgeted EU policies are mainly thematic-based (for example, environment) or have a sectoral
approach (for example, Common Agriculture Policy). An occupational focus in employment and social areas is as yet
absent. However, this does not mean that the EU does not pay attention to the disadvantages presented in this report. As
such, EU action in the social field aimed at improving the disadvantages related to working conditions focuses mainly
on:

n

n

setting minimum working conditions standards through legislation such as the health and safety directives; 

applying strategies, recommendations and programmes addressed at easing and facilitating general goals such as the
initiative An agenda for new skills and jobs (European Commission, 2010b) in the EU2020 strategy. 

Because the EU has not specifically addressed the occupational level, the action taken is often composed of cross-cutting
measures  dealing  with  health  and  safety  issues.  In  some  special  cases,  however,  such  as  the  working  time  of  truck
drivers, the working conditions of an occupation are regulated. 

The examples given below provide a brief overview of the actions taken at EU level with regard to the job quality areas
rated as disadvantaged in the occupations analysed in this study. 

EU regulation through directives
Other  than  the  Working  Time  Directive  2003/88/EC  of  4  November  2003  laying  down  minimum  safety  and  health
requirements concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time, the EU has adopted a set of legislation
regarding  road  transport  which  affects  the  occupation  ‘Car,  van  and  motorcycle  drivers’  (ISCO-08  832).  In  addition,
Directive 2002/15/EC lays down minimum requirements with regard to the organisation of working time for workers in
mobile  road  transport  activities,  including  self-employed  drivers. These  minimum  requirements  are  supplemented  by
common rules on drivers’ driving time and rest periods established in Regulation (EC) No. 561/2006. 

In  relation  to  intrinsic  job  quality,  legislation  has  been  developed  on  health  and  safety. Apart  from  the  Framework
Directive  89/391/EEC  on  safety  and  health  at  work,  some  directives  have  been  adopted  addressing  either  risks
potentially linked to the occupations or sectors analysed in this study. 

A thematic approach is pursued by the health and safety legislation, although individual directives also focus on specific
tasks, hazards at work or group of workers – but not on occupations. 

It is well known that other areas identified as disadvantaged for the occupations analysed, such as ‘earnings’, fall outside
EU legislative competencies. 

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EU soft measures
The EU has developed policy documents such as strategies in various areas. Although countries are not obliged to take
account of their content, it is important for national policies. 

For example, the flagship document of the EU2020 strategy, An agenda for new skills and jobs (European Commission,
2010b), includes the improvement of employment and working conditions as a way to develop skills and to reach higher
employment rates. 

Other strategies are those related to health and safety. The most recent ‘EU Occupational Safety and Health Strategic
Framework 2014–2020’ identifies key challenges and strategic objectives for health and safety at work, presents key
actions and identifies instruments to address these. 

Instruments that can be used for improving working and employment conditions include the European Social Fund.

Autonomous social dialogue
EU action is not only taken at institutional level by EU bodies. EU social partners also have a role to play given that the
occupations identified as disadvantaged take place in sectors which have formalised social dialogue committees. At least
10 of these committees are potentially able to deal with the OMD identified in this study; some of them have reached
agreements through sectoral social dialogue to improve working conditions, mainly in the areas of working time, health
and  safety,  training  and  general  working  conditions  (Degryse,  2015). The  various  documents  and  other  outputs  from
these committees over the past 15 years suggest that the occupational focus has been overwhelmed by economic activity.
There are hardly any references to specific occupations because, as expected, the sectoral social dialogue committees
handle broad working conditions in quite extensive subsectors. 

The vast majority of initiatives introduced through social dialogue are related to health and safety issues. Such initiatives
use different instruments such as ‘joint opinion’, ‘best practice’, ‘proposals for action’ and ‘joint declaration’. 

For example, in the extractive industry sector affecting mining workers (ISCO-08 931), a joint declaration on health and
safety  was  signed  on  28  September  2012  by  the  European  Mine,  Chemical  and  Energy  Workers’  Federation  (now
IndusriAll)  and  the  Confederation  of  European  Paper  Industries  (CEPI),  which  addressed  their  national  affiliated
organisations and led to the production of health and safety guidelines. Similarly, social partners in the agriculture sector
issued a declaration on 21 November 2005 which addressed the protection of workers related to risks arising from plant
protection products and aimed to reduce workers’ exposure to the risk of work-related musculoskeletal disorders. 

Other examples are found in other sectors. For example, in relation to skills and mobility, the EU social partners and the
European Commission launched the Hospitality Skills Passport in June 2014, which fosters a better match of offer and
demand and enhances mobility within the tourism sector. European social partners in the cleaning industry have a joint
position to promote ‘daytime cleaning’ and to obtain more working hours, income and better work–life balance. In the
construction industry, sectoral social partners run several projects on occupational health and safety.

At intersectoral level, few framework agreements have been signed in relation to working conditions. One example is
the Autonomous  Framework Agreement  on  Work-related  Stress  signed  by  the  European  Trade  Union  Confederation
(ETUC),  Business  Europe,  European Association  of  Craft  Small  and  Medium-Sized  Enterprises  (UEAMPE)  and  the
European Centre of Enterprises providing Public Services (CEEP) on 8 October 2004.

A report by several EU social partners and ETUC assessed the reality of ardous and hazardous occupations and tried to
link this reality with a realistic and worker-friendly end-of-career policy (Werner Buelen et al, 2014). Its findings show

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that working in these occupations has a long-term destructive impact on the physical and psychological well-being of
the workers involved. 

Finally,  the  European  Trade  Union  Institute  (ETUI)  carried  out  a  study  on  ‘occupations  and  ageing  at  work’  which
examined  the  relationship  between  age  and  working  conditions  from  the  angle  of  several  occupational  categories
(Vendramin and Valenduc, 2012).

Final remarks

Statistical evidence is presented in Chapter 1 on occupations which have poor scores across the EU28 and Norway in a
plurality  of  employment  and  working  conditions  which  seriously  affect  the  quality  of  work.  The  workers  in  these
occupations may encounter significant obstacles compared with other workers even in the same sector. These obstacles
may prevent their progress in their careers as they interact with each other: low skills are related to low earnings, poor
working  time  (hours  and  shifts)  is  linked  to  poor  health  conditions,  and  so  on.  Disadvantaged  working  conditions
mutually feed into each other and, overall, constitute poor quality jobs. 

The implications of such undesirable working situations could be seen as a new field of action at EU level. Policies and
activities  could  pay  attention  to  these  specific  occupations.  Despite  differences  both  at  national  level  and  within  the
assessment of each occupation, facts and figures at EU level unveil a vicious looping in these worst score occupations. 

After  fine-tuning  of  the  occupations  identified  as  OMD  in  terms  of  a  better  assessment  of  the  sectoral  context,  an
integrated approach addressing the various disadvantages identified could be carried out at EU level. 

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Conclusions and potential avenues
for improvements

4

Chapters 1 and 2 present information on a number of occupations with multiple disadvantages (OMD). These are defined
as occupations that score relatively poorly in four dimensions of job quality (earnings, employment prospects, working
time and intrinsic job quality) according to the job quality indices methodology developed within the framework of a
Eurofound  secondary  analysis  of  the  fifth  European  Working  Conditions  Survey.  In  this  framework,  job  quality  is
assessed at the level of the job and includes characteristics proven to have a causal relationship on health and well-being.

Further analysis in Chapter 1 shows, at EU level, the specific conditions of the selected OMD to enable the public and
policymakers to understand what the disadvantages involve and what needs to be improved in the different occupations.

Chapter 2 incorporates national information on the working conditions for the list of OMD identified at EU level, as well
as for an additional group of occupations identified at national level as having multiple disadvantages.

Chapter 3 describes initiatives, policies and measures at national level intended to improve working conditions in these
OMD. The  initiatives  are  examples  of  how  improvement  of  working  conditions  is  considered  for  those  occupations,
although there are very few policies targeting the specific occupations themselves.

This  chapter  draws  out  the  study’s  main  findings,  some  of  which  are  possible  topics  for  further  research  on  the
occupational perspective of working conditions. It also reflects on the consequences of an occupation having multiple
disadvantages, suggests ways to improve working conditions in OMD (bearing in mind contextual aspects such as labour
market trends and the role of social dialogue) and highlights some policy implications. 

Main findings

Most OMD identified at EU level also identified at national level
Generally speaking, most of the occupations characterised as being ‘multiple disadvantaged’ at EU level (Chapter 1)
were also identified as being OMD at national level (Chapter 2) in terms of:

n

n

n

n

lower wages;

limited employment prospects;

a high proportion of non-standard forms of employment and difficult aspects of organisation of working time;

a high prevalence of physical and psychosocial risks at work. 

Evidence  shows  that  this  situation  is  clear  for  some  occupations  such  as  cooks,  waiters  and  bartenders,  shop
salespersons,  cashiers  and  ticket  clerks,  agricultural/forestry/fishery  labourers  and  mining/construction  labourers.  In
other cases such as manufacturing-related occupations (ISCO-08 groups 75, 81 and 82), however, the results are more
‘mixed’  in  the  sense  that  the  national  information  indicates  that  these  occupations  cannot  be  labelled  as  ‘multiple
disadvantaged’ in some Member States. 

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National sources of information were also used to compile a list of additional occupations that can be considered as an
OMD in certain Member States. The occupational group of cleaners and helpers appears to be an OMD in a large number
of Member States. Other occupations mentioned in a smaller number of countries as being an OMD include:

n hairdressers;

n beauticians and related workers;

n

childcare workers and teachers’ aides;

n personal care workers in health and residential services;

n protective services workers;

n

skilled workers in market-oriented agricultural, forestry, fishery and hunting activities;

n workers in building and related trades workers;

n heavy truck and bus drivers;

n

transport and storage labourers. 

In  many  of  these  occupations  (for  example,  agricultural  and  construction-related  occupations,  cleaners  and  helpers),
there is a high presence of foreign workers.

Nature of the disadvantages 
The analysis at European level (Chapter 1) shows that OMD are mainly found in service-related occupations such as:

n personal service workers – cooks, waiters and bartenders;

n

sales workers – shop salespersons, cashiers and ticket clerks;

n plant  and  machine  operators  and  related  occupations  –  assemblers,  machine  operators,  drivers,  mobile  plant

operators;

n

elementary occupations – mining, construction and manufacturing labourers, refuse workers and food preparation
assistants. 

There is a clear concentration of OMD in mid-to-low skilled occupations of the service and manufacturing sectors and
in low skilled occupations in various sectors. Although all of them are multiple disadvantaged and have in common high
job strain, difficulties in accessing training and exposure to some risks, it is of interest to determine which areas are a
major concern. 

For services workers, in general, even if there are substantial differences (for example, between shop salespersons and
waiters), OMD are characterised by a high share of workers with poor employment conditions including part-time or
temporary contracts, job insecurity and low income. 

Although some manufacturing workers are also affected by job insecurity, the risks to their health are the main issue of
concern. In some cases, it seems that exposure is unavoidable and initiatives and policies try to deal with it by income
compensation. 

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Two OMD, drivers and in particular refuse workers, have very poor working conditions in most aspects. The working
conditions of these workers may have an impact on work–life balance, on making ends meet and, above all, on their
health status. 

It is important to reflect on how working conditions affect the career of those in OMD and ultimately what will be the
implications for their participation in the labour market. Results show that a higher share of workers in most OMD think
they will not be able to work when they are 60 years-old.

National and institutional context matters
In  general,  eastern  European  countries  have  a  higher  proportion  of  OMD  (and  a  comparatively  higher  share  of  craft
workers  and  plant  and  machine  operators),  followed  by  southern  European  countries  (with  a  comparatively  higher
proportion of services workers in Horeca and commerce). This finding is closely related to the structure of the economy
in  a  particular  country  and,  to  some  extent,  influences  the  outcomes  related  to  the  disadvantages  in  a  particular
occupation. 

The  same  occupation  can  present  different  situations  in  different  EU  countries.  In  relation  to  workers  working  long
hours, for example, drivers work longer in some countries than in others. Also, some occupational groups (for example,
skilled workers in manufacturing) are not disadvantaged in a small number of countries. In many cases, however, an
occupation is considered disadvantaged in all countries when seen in the national context.

Looking at the distribution of OMD across countries, there are elements of the national institutional setting that can play
a role in terms of a worker being multiple disadvantaged and especially regarding possibilities for a worker to improve
their  status  and  working  conditions.  These  elements  are  industrial  relations,  the  welfare  state  and  labour  market
characteristics (for example, segmentation and employment protection). These elements should be further explored to
find out how exactly they impact on the working conditions of OMD.

Multiple disadvantage traps
OMD have a higher proportion of workers with poor working conditions in terms of employment status, training and
health risks, career prospects, training and working time characteristics. When most or all of them are part of a particular
job, the worker might face a situation in which the different conditions interact with each other (reinforcing each other)
such  that  they  remain  affected  by  all  of  them. This  situation  leaves  few  possibilities  for  the  worker  to  improve  their
situation. 

For example, working in an environment which has high health risks, with no access to further training and temporary
employment,  can  have  a  multiplying  negative  impact  on  career  development.  Poor  health,  a  lack  of  training  and  a
temporary job could limit possibilities for promotion and might represent a constraint for finding another job or, more
likely, the risk of being dismissed during a restructuring process. During the economic crisis from 2008 to 2014, for
example, low skilled workers with a temporary job had a higher chance of becoming unemployed than other workers. 

The higher the accumulation of disadvantages, the less likely it is for a worker to be able to improve their employment
and  working  conditions,  including  avoiding  the  risk  of  unemployment  and  being  able  to  make  transitions  in  their
working life.

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Policies and studies

Lack of occupational perspective in relation to working conditions 
The  examples  given  in  Chapter  3  are  based  on  information  collected  from  national  sources  and  do  not  represent  an
exhaustive  list  of  initiatives  and  policies.  The  report,  however,  has  shown  that  the  focus  on  working  conditions  in
identified policies and initiatives is very rarely occupational. In general, it is dominated by a sectoral approach in the
sense that most of the existing national sources provide information by economic sectors (NACE classification) and not
by occupation (ISCO classification). 

Related to this, the concept of OMD can be labelled as new in most European countries in the sense that no studies were
identified at national level dealing with this concept from a comprehensive perspective. Notwithstanding this, the report
includes relevant information on occupations characterised by tough working conditions from national statistical data
sources and some ad hoc studies.

Initiatives to improve working conditions among OMD have a sector approach
Among  the  national  initiatives,  policies  and  measures  intended  to  improve  working  conditions  in  OMD  presented  in
Chapter 3, there is a lack of measures with an occupational focus, either in general or for a specific OMD. Indeed, the
concept of OMD is not typically used in the policy/social dialogue domain by relevant national actors (trade unions,
employers, researchers, government officials and so on), at least not compared with other concepts used in some Member
States  (for  example,  Belgium  and  Italy)  such  as  risky  sectors,  workers  with  disadvantages  (young  unemployed,
immigrants, people with disabilities) and occupations which have difficulty filling vacancies due to their hard working
conditions. The majority of the policies and measures identified by the study are therefore sectoral ones. However, there
are a few measures and initiatives aimed specifically at particular OMD:

n berry pickers in Sweden;

n miners in Bulgaria and Slovenia;

n domestic cleaners in the Czech Republic and Spain;

n drivers in Romania and the UK.

Overall, considering the whole collection of measures identified by this study, the majority (around 54%) are aimed at
improving the intrinsic job quality elements of OMD such as skills and the prevention of psychological and physical
risks. Based on the information provided by the national correspondents, these initiatives tend to be led by social partners
through social dialogue (40% of the identified measures), closely followed by public authorities (32% of the identified
measures). Initiatives and measures taken either by individual social partners, individual companies or other institutions
(third parties and NGOs) account for less than 20% of the identified measures. 

Among Horeca occupations, unsocial and irregular working hours could be a typical disadvantage, but the identified
measures do not pay particular attention to this problem; most focus on improving either the earnings or the intrinsic job
quality  of  these  occupations  rather  than  addressing  working  time  organisation  issues.  In  contrast,  the  majority  of
initiatives in the retail and commerce-related occupations deal with working time issues, mainly trying to alleviate the
prevalence of unsocial working hours – an element which is very relevant for these occupations.

Most  of  the  identified  measures  and  initiatives  for  manufacturing  related  occupations  deal  with  intrinsic  job  quality
elements (particularly in relation to the alleviation of job-related health and safety risks), as well as with earnings. In the
case of driving related occupations, most of the identified initiatives and measures deal with two of the less favourable
elements of these occupations, namely health and safety (intrinsic job quality) and working time issues. 

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In the case of construction and mining related occupations, the identified measures and initiatives focus particularly on
improving  intrinsic  job  quality  elements  (probably  as  a  response  to  the  incidence  of  work-related  health  and  safety
problems among these occupations), as well as earnings related measures. A similar emphasis on intrinsic job quality
elements,  in  particular  on  work-related  safety  conditions,  is  also  seen  among  agricultural,  forestry  and  fishery  sector
related  occupations.  In  contrast,  identified  initiatives  and  measures  aimed  at  care,  health  and  social  sector  related
occupations  vary  in  their  scope  and  cover  different  areas  (mainly  in  earnings,  intrinsic  job  quality  and  employment
prospects elements). 

The identified measures and initiatives aimed at cleaners and helpers try to improve their intrinsic job quality and job
prospects (particularly in tackling abusive labour conditions and the extent of illegal work practices), whereas the very
few initiatives aimed at waste management related occupations (refuse workers) all focus on improving earnings.

As well as the working time issues in Horeca occupations, other policy ‘gaps’ can be identified from the information
provided by the national correspondents. The reduction of job strain does not seem to be a policy target in initiatives in
the  Horeca  and  manufacturing  sectors,  while  tackling  violence  and  harassment  could  be  encouraged  in  healthcare
occupations. 

It is important that sectoral policies develop an occupational approach, so that they can better improve different working
conditions in diverse occupations such as the differences between cashiers and shop salespersons.

Transversal initiatives targeting all workers may play an important role in addressing negative
elements associated with OMD
In addition to the collection of initiatives and policies aimed at improving working conditions within OMD (mostly from
a sectoral perspective), the report presents a number of ‘transversal’ initiatives which seek to improve the conditions of
all occupations. These wide-ranging initiatives try to guarantee minimum quality levels for all occupations in one or
more of the four main job quality areas so as to prevent the risk that some occupations fall below minimum standards.
These identified general initiatives have been developed either by public authorities (in the form of legislation), by social
partners (in collaboration or via ad hoc initiatives) or by third parties (NGOs and so on). 

Examples of these transversal initiatives include:

n

the introduction and improvement of statutory national minimum wages;

n measures reducing the duration of working hours or limiting the prevalence of unsocial working hours;

n measures fostering employment protection or career advancement and promotion (including measures to deal with

current and future demographic change);

n

initiatives and policies intended to foster skills development activities;

n prevention  activities  against  social  environment/psychosocial  related  risks  or  physical  environment-related  risks
(higher safety norms, stronger safety and skills standards, personal protection means, norms regarding the moving of
heavy loads and so on).

The economic crisis is also impacting on working conditions in OMD. It has affected the priorities of public authorities
and  social  partners  in  the  improvement  of  existing  working  conditions,  especially  in  those  sectors  and  occupations
characterised by multiple disadvantages. In the case of some Member States particularly affected by the economic crisis
(Croatia, Greece, Ireland, Spain), the attention among social partners and public authorities is currently on reducing high
unemployment levels rather than on improving working conditions in specific occupations or sectors. 

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Importance of social dialogue practices and initiatives related to intrinsic job quality in most EU countries
In  most  EU  countries,  the  initiatives  identified  by  this  study  were  mainly  adopted  through  social  dialogue  practices,
including collective bargaining processes. In other countries (Belgium, Finland, Hungary, Norway, Portugal, Romania,
Spain and the UK), government policies seem to be more prevalent. In Cyprus and the Netherlands, some of the reported
initiatives have been taken separately by social partners, while company examples are reported from Italy, Lithuania,
Malta and Slovakia. 

The available information shows that the initiatives have mainly focused in most countries on dealing with the intrinsic
job quality area. However, the main issue reported in a small number of countries (Bulgaria, Estonia, Greece, Hungary,
Ireland, Italy, Malta and Slovenia) has been related to earnings. Working time issues have received attention in Austria,
the Czech Republic and Slovakia, while employment prospects initiatives have been reported from Belgium and Croatia.

Avenues for improvements

Evidence calls for action and a more holistic approach
The European Working Conditions Survey and the Labour Force Survey show that some occupations are disadvantaged
in various aspects. National sources added some other occupations to the list and put disadvantages in a national context.
Those conditions represent a risk for workers’ career development and their health and well-being. Even though there
are examples of initiatives and policies in EU countries, additional policy efforts need to be considered at different levels
to improve the working conditions of some of these workers. The examples provided in this report can serve as source
of information for implementing initiatives in contexts where they do not exist. 

To tackle the real problem (that is, the fact that workers are affected by multiple disadvantages), a more holistic approach
aimed at tackling all disadvantages needs to be considered – especially for the most disadvantaged occupations.

Key aspects to be tackled: access to training and undeclared work 
All OMD have a smaller percentage of workers participating in training provided by their employer. Development of
skills is important for all workers and the productivity of companies in the EU. For workers in OMD, however, it is
essential to be able to cope with possible changes in skills demand (for example, technological changes) and to improve
their opportunities for higher wages, promotion or moving to another job in the occupational ladder. Access to training
is essential. 

For  some  of  the  workers  in  these  occupations  (mainly  waiters,  construction  labourers,  agricultural  labourers,  food
preparation assistants, drivers and cleaners), there is an additional disadvantage: the prevalence of undeclared, illegal or
fraudulent situations, which makes any improvement in the four job quality areas more difficult. This issue is raised
mostly in the national-level analysis. 

Role of collective bargaining and industrial relations characteristics
Among the institutional settings, the existing system of industrial relations – and particularly the negotiating power of
trade unions at country or sector level – influences the importance of social dialogue practices. Even though the sectors
are the main level for the development of initiatives and not the occupations, sectoral collective bargaining should be
considered a framework within which the multiple disadvantages can be tackled. One reason for this is that, depending
on the national context, agreements can be comprehensive enough to cover most of the disadvantages identified. The
second reason is that employers and workers’ representatives know the conditions of work in OMD and can make a
relevant  contribution  to  tackling  them.  However,  the  different  relevance  of  sectoral  social  dialogue  in  various  EU
countries needs be taken into account since, in some countries, sectoral social dialogue is not much developed and thus
does not cover the majority of workers.

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The industrial relations system can play a role in improving the working conditions of OMD. The proportion of workers
in OMD is higher in countries with relatively low collective bargaining coverage such as the Czech Republic, Hungary
and Romania (17%–36% of workers are covered by an agreement). Countries with a low proportion of OMD include
Belgium (96% collective bargaining coverage) and Sweden (88% collective bargaining coverage). Moreover, workers in
some  OMD  (namely,  Horeca,  sales  and  elementary  occupations)  generally  have  a  low  rate  of  union  membership  in
countries for which data are variable (for example, the UK) compared with OMD in manufacturing or higher skilled
occupations. Collective bargaining coverage and union membership might influence the possibilities for better working
conditions in OMD. 

Examples  in  the  report  show  that  active  unions  in  companies  contribute  to  the  development  of  initiatives  for  the
improvement  of  working  conditions  in  OMD.  In  companies  with  no  union  representation  or  in  countries  with  no
automatic  extension  of  sectoral  collective  agreements,  the  possibilities  of  improving  working  conditions  through
negotiation and social dialogue do not exist. This is either due to the lack of social dialogue or because the companies
are not covered by any agreement, including any provision for certain minimum conditions. 

Labour market needs and needs of workers in OMD in the labour market
The occupational structure from 2004 to 2014 shows an upgrading trend in Europe (an increase the share of high skilled
occupations),  with  some  decline  in  middle–low  skilled  workers  in  craft  related  occupations  and  plant  and  machine
operators,  and  some  increase  in  personal  service  workers  (waiters,  cooks,  food  preparation  assistants),  care  workers,
cleaners and helpers, and sales workers. There is also an increase in elementary occupations identified as OMD.

Apart from the forecast demand for high skilled occupations until 2025, there will be a considerable demand for the
OMD  noted  above  in  the  services  sector  and  in  elementary  occupations.  Some  countries  are  already  experiencing
difficulties in filling vacancies for some jobs in these occupations (for example, waiters, construction labourers and sales
workers) due to reasons including demographic change, lack of skilled people and hard working conditions. In order to
replace workers and fill vacancies, it is important that European workers are properly trained, but also that the jobs in
those occupations offer more attractive working conditions. 

The  situation  can  be  illustrated  by  developments  in  the  Horeca  sector,  where  employers  rely  on  young  people  to  fill
vacancies for waiters. The ageing process of European societies will imply a further need for young workers across all
occupations. However, being a waiter is not attractive for some young people because of the poor working conditions.
For the labour market to function well in some countries, an improvement in working conditions may be needed so that
people  want  to  work  in  certain  occupations.  Policies  and  initiatives  that  seek  to  improve  conditions  so  as  to  attract
workers to certain sectors already exist in European countries for Horeca and construction occupations, for example.

The structural change represented by the observed decrease in some middle–low skilled occupations could also have
implications  for  the  career  development  of  low  skilled  occupations  (elementary  occupations).  For  some  labourers,
especially in manufacturing, the ‘natural’ development in their careers is to move to the occupations of plant machine
operators  and  craft  related  workers.  The  decline  in  the  share  of  some  of  these  occupations  could  limit  their  career
progression. If this is the case, learning and training will become even more relevant for career advancement and the
acquisition of better working conditions.

Some recent trends connected to the economic recovery after the economic crisis (2008–2014) appear positive for job
creation, but probably not so much in terms of quality of work. For example, in Spain, employment growth in 2014 and
2015 has mainly taken place through temporary and part-time jobs. In other countries, labour legislation can be used for
some occupations in a way that maintains some of their poorer working conditions. For example, zero hours contracts
(UK) and ‘mini jobs’ (Germany) are largely used for Horeca occupations and labourers in general.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

To summarise, the improvement of working conditions in OMD could benefit both companies and workers. It could also
be a lever for a reduction of inequalities in European countries which, in some cases, have become more unequal during
the recent economic crisis. 

Need for more research and policy debates
Further  research  is  needed  to  better  identify  and  explain  the  internal  characteristics  associated  with  OMD  including
issues such as:

n background information on the workers active in OMD (for example, typical job transition patterns and incidence of

poor working situations);

n questions related to the workplaces where OMD are found; 

n

n

n

n

n

the relationship between OMD and the prevalence of informal economy practices;

the influence of sector-related characteristics on the working conditions associated with OMD;

the ‘cumulative’ effects of individual negative job quality characteristics on the well-being and health of workers in
OMD;

the influence of the ‘country’ dimension (institutional settings) on the working conditions in OMD;

assessment of the most relevant and effective policy tools to deal with the negative elements associated with OMD. 

The evolution of these OMD also needs to be considered, especially in a context of rapid technological change. Both
qualitative research through cases studies and more in-depth statistical analysis at national level will contribute to more
knowledge about the processes of improvement and the specific national contexts.

From a policy perspective, this report has shown that the occupational perspective is insufficiently taken into account in
the policy debate related to working conditions and in social dialogue practices, both at EU and at national/regional level.
This occupational perspective is likely to become increasingly important in the coming years and arguably should be
integrated as a supplementary view to the sectoral one when analysing working conditions. 

The  situation  of  having  a  significant  proportion  of  workers  in  OMD  makes  their  work  not  sustainable 3 over  the  life
course,  as  workers  in  OMD  face  difficulties  in  continuing  in  the  same  occupation  until  their  retirement  age.  This  is
particularly true in a context characterised by the increasing polarisation and segmentation of the labour market and the
problems associated with an ageing population in many Member States. Both elements are likely to reinforce the need
to ensure longer and healthier working careers for all workers in general, and specifically for those engaged in specially
disadvantaged occupations. This in turn will require a more focused emphasis in European and national policy and social
dialogue  initiatives  on  improving  the  working  conditions  of  OMD  through  higher  standards  of  occupational  health,
safety and well-being at work, as well as enhanced opportunities for skills development and employment prospects.

3

See Eurofound (2014c) for a comprehensive description of the ‘sustainable work’ concept.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

New approaches to improve working conditions and reduce inequalities
To achieve improvement, it may be necessary to start thinking differently. The term ‘disadvantage’ or ‘disadvantaged’
groups referred to in social policies normally includes poor people, disabled persons, drug abusers, migrants and women.
In the world of work, however, differences in wages, employment status and working conditions are to a great extent
based on occupational differentials. And indeed workers in OMD are more likely to be at risk of exclusion from a good
working environment and opportunities for development. A policy approach taking into account occupational differences
will help to reduce inequalities in society, probably using the ‘disadvantage’ term. In relation to the latter, it remains
important to avoid stigmatisation of both the occupation and the job holder.

Relevance of the analysis for EU policy
EU2020 has the objective of increasing participation in the labour market so that it achieves its target of 75% of people
in employment. An agenda for new skills and new jobs (European Commission, 2010b) is one of the flagships of the
EU2020 strategy to reach that objective because it encourages skills development to foster job quality and productivity.
To go in that direction, the concepts of sustainable work (Eurofound, 2012d, 2014c) and inclusive labour markets 4 are
essential.  The  situation  of  a  considerable  proportion  of  workers  in  OMD  is  not  sustainable  and  lacks  inclusiveness.
Applying  the  principles  guiding  both  concepts  will  contribute  to  making  possible  the  European  policy  objectives
mentioned above. However, also in the European context, the policy debate and decision-making on some issues (for
example, earnings) can have effects on the OMD identified. Therefore, some occupational mainstreaming in policies
could be also relevant for the improvement of working conditions. 

4

‘Labour markets are inclusive when everyone of working age can participate in paid work, especially vulnerable and disadvantaged
people’ (European Commission, undated). 

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111

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Annexes

Annex I: Methodology

This project builds on the findings of the report, Occupational profiles in working conditions: Identification of groups
with multiple disadvantages (Eurofound, 2014b). It uses some common methodological aspects in relation to the sources
(EWCS2010), job quality indices and concept of occupation. However, a new identification of occupations is made at
the ISCO-08 3-digit level and the EU LFS 2013 has been used for a few specific working or employment conditions for
the purpose of presenting more up-to-date findings.

In addition, the second strand of the report on policies to improve working conditions is based on national contributions
from the 28 Member States and Norway. 

The  purpose  of  this  project  is  therefore  twofold.  First,  it  aims  to  map  disadvantages  in  terms  of  working  conditions
related to the selected OMD to provide specific knowledge to policymakers to design policies and initiatives aimed at
improving their working conditions. Second, it aims to map existing initiatives, programmes and services designed to
improve  the  working  conditions  of  workers  in  OMD  in  the  EU  Member  States  and  –  whenever  such  information  is
available – their impact, providing knowledge for the development of new policies or the improvement of existing ones.

Definitions and underlying concepts
Occupation in the EWCS and in the EU LFS is captured by two open-ended questions (the title of the main paid job and
a description of what is mainly done in it), which have subsequently been coded into the ISCO-08 classification (ILO,
2008). This report and the identification of ‘occupations with multiple disadvantages’ are based on ISCO-08; therefore,
its definitions and key concepts are important for the analysis. 

Occupation is defined in ISCO-08 as ‘a set of jobs whose main tasks and duties are characterised by a high degree of
similarity’ (ILO, 2012). Two concepts are considered key to the design and construction of ISCO-08: 

n

the ‘job’ – defined as ‘a set of tasks and duties carried out or meant to be carried out’ by one person including an
employee or a person in self-employment; 

n

the ‘skill’– defined as ‘the ability to carry out the tasks and duties of a given job’.

ISCO-08 has a hierarchical structure: the broadest categories are the 1-digit major groups; each major group is further
organised into sub-major, minor and unit groups. The analysis done for Eurofound (2012a) is limited to the major and
the sub-major occupational groups (ISCO-08, 1-digit and 2-digit levels, respectively). The current study includes the 3-
digit level so as to identify occupations which are more homogeneous and relevant for the project’s aim of analysing
policies that address the improvement of working conditions in OMD.

Two dimensions of skill are used to arrange the occupations into groups: the ‘skill level’ and the ‘skill specialisation’. 

The  level  of  skill  is  defined  as  a  function  of  ‘the  complexity  and  range  of  tasks  and  duties  to  be  performed  in  an
occupation’.  It  is  measured  by  considering  the  nature  of  the  work  performed  in  an  occupation  in  relation  to  the
characteristic  tasks  and  duties  for  each  ISCO-08  skill  level,  and/or  the  worker’s  level  of  formal  education  and  their
amount of informal on-the-job training and/or previous experience. 

The  skill  specialisation  is  considered  in  terms  of  the  field  of  knowledge  required,  the  tools  and  machinery  used,  the
materials worked on or with, and the kinds of goods and services produced. 

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While the concept of the level of skill is mainly applied at the major group level, sub-major groups are primarily arranged
on the basis of skill specialisation. 

The major groups in ISCO-08 are associated with four broad skill levels, defined in relation to the levels of education
specified in the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97). A relatively informal classification is
derived from ISCO-08 on the basis of the application of the skill level (higher or lower) requirement: high, mid and low
skilled  occupations.  Thus,  the  occupational  groups  of  ‘managers,  professionals  and  technicians’  (ISCO-08  1)  are
sometimes classified as high skilled occupations; ‘clerical support workers’ (ISCO-08 4) and ‘service and sales workers’
(ISCO-08 5) as mid-skilled service occupations; ‘skilled agricultural and fishery workers’ (ISCO-08 6), ‘craft and related
trades  workers’  (ISCO-08  7)  and  ‘plant  and  machine  operators,  and  assemblers’  (ISCO-08  8)  as  mid-skilled  manual
occupations; and elementary occupations are classified as low skilled occupations (ISCO-08 9).5

All occupations identified as having multiple disadvantages are include in the groups of mid-skilled service occupations,
mid-skilled manual occupations and low skilled occupations.

Job quality, health and well-being indices
This report uses the job quality indices – earnings, prospects, intrinsic job quality and working time quality – to identify
OMD. These indices are related to some self-reported well-being indicators such as number of health problems, negative
effect  of  work  on  health,  mental  well-being,  self-reported  work–life  balance,  and  meaningfulness  of  work.6 These
indicators were constructed by Green and Mostafa (Eurofound, 2012a) to identify occupations and groups of workers in
these  occupations  who  were  experiencing  poor  working  conditions  and  negative  outcomes  on  their  physical  and
psychological well-being.

Green and Mostafa (Eurofound, 2012a) define ‘job quality’ as a synonym for ‘quality of work and employment’. They
define the concept of the ‘job’ as broader than that of the work itself, as it also encompasses the nature of the physical
location of employment. However, this does not cover the nature of the labour market and beyond.

The  four  job  quality  indices  include  two  sets  of  extrinsic  job  features  –  ‘earnings’  and  ‘prospects’  –  and  two  sets  of
intrinsic  ones  –  ‘intrinsic  job  quality’  and  ‘working  time  quality’.  These  features  integrate  elements  from  multiple
disciplines  such  as  economics,  sociology  and  occupational  psychology,  and  have  been  associated  in  epidemiological
studies with a proven impact on health and well-being.

The index of earnings captures the level of monetary reward through the construction of a harmonised monthly earnings
variable. Prospects refer to a person’s need for employment. This need is related to the need for income, for employment
continuity, and for enhancement. Key features include job security and prospects of advancement in their job. 

Whether the job allows for a good balance between a person’s working life and private life is captured by the working
time quality index. This focuses mainly on features of the timing of the job.

5

6

Formal  education  requirements  are  only  one  component  of  the  measurement  of  a  level  of  skill  and  should  be  considered  as
indicative only. The most important determinant of skill level is the nature of the tasks performed in a particular occupation in
relation to the characteristic tasks defined for each skill level. It is not necessary for a person to hold qualifications at a particular
level for their job to be classified at a particular ISCO skill level.

In Eurofound (2012a), Green and Mostafa use slightly different labelling for the indices of well-being: number of health problems,
health issues caused by work, subjective well-being, subjective work–life balance, and meaningfulness of work.

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Intrinsic job quality is about the work and its environment. The index is made up of four sub-indices associated with
meeting people’s needs. The first sub-index (skills and discretion)  captures the concepts of the skills required to do the
job and the level of autonomy that a worker has.7 The second sub-index (social environment) captures this environment’s
positive and negative aspects. The third sub-index (physical environment) concerns physical or posture-related hazards.
The  fourth  sub-index  (work  intensity)  refers  to  the  intensity  of  labour  effort  during  work  time,  with  labour  effort
incorporating both physical and mental aspects (Eurofound, 2012a). 

Identification of OMD
The identification of OMD is based on the variation of the indices of job quality across occupations. The weighted mean
for each occupational group is computed and ranked to select the occupations in the bottom tercile of the ranking on all
four of the dimensions. Occupations where job quality is low (in the bottom tercile of the distribution) on three or four
dimensions of job quality are labelled ‘occupations with multiple disadvantages’. The occupations where job quality is
high, in the two upper terciles of the distribution, are labelled ‘all other occupations’. This process has been carried out
in two steps.

n Step 1: Occupational groups at 2-digit level are ranked and those consistently (three out of four or four out of four

job quality indices) found in the bottom tercile of the job quality index distributions are selected.

n Step 2: Due to the purposes of the analysis, those occupational groups at 2-digit level selected in Step 1 are further
disaggregated to 3-digit level, checking if they score in the bottom tercile at this level. If they do, they form part of
the list of occupations with multiple disadvantages.

The reasons for selecting occupations at 3-digit level scoring in the bottom tercile in three or four indices are as follows.

n

Improvement of working conditions in those occupations must be addressed by policies targeting the occupations.

n The occupations are relatively homogenous so that their specific characteristics can be better distinguished.

n Occupations can be recognised easily by the public and stakeholders.

n The selection of occupations carried out considers those with the worse situation (bottom tercile).

n With this method, a third of workers are included.

n The selection allows for a more accurate analysis for specific working conditions and therefore makes it possible to

relate working conditions to occupations and policies.

To  complement  the  statistical  analysis  and  to  include  the  national  perspective,  the  contributions  from  Eurofound’s
network of European correspondents include information available on occupations that present various disadvantages at
national level. In this case, the criteria are more flexible because the intention is to identify OMD at national level that
have not been identified by the statistical analysis at EU level. Thus, the report differentiates occupations identified by
the analysis of the EWCS and occupations identified by this study.

To facilitate the presentation and interpretation of data, as well as to draw attention to specific issues, the report includes
the specific working conditions aspects listed in the table below. Many of these are included in the job quality indices. 

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Variables included in the statistical analysis of the study using EWCS2010 or EU LFS 2013

Job quality
area

Area

Indicator

Sociodemographic and economic
indicators

Sector
ISCO-1 and ISCO-2
Country (only large countries)
Age
Gender
Country of origin

Prospects

Employment status

Employment status

Type of contract

Family worker

Involuntary/voluntary temporary contract

Intrinsic job
quality

Training

Training paid by employer

Health and well-being

Job autonomy

Work intensity (Green index)

Social environment index

Physical risks indices (ergonomic,
biological and ambient risks)

Job strain: autonomy and intensity

Health and safety information

Earnings

Earnings

Income

Working
time

Working time

Long hours (more than 48)

Very short hours

Part-time and involuntary part-time

Atypical hours index (possible selection to
be made)

Irregular hours index (possible selection to
be made)

Sustainability

Able to work when
60 years-old – only
for those older than
45 years

Outcomes by job
quality area

EARNINGS
Making ends meet
Feeling well paid for the
job

HEALTH AND
SAFETY-RELATED
OUTCOMES
Health at risk
Work affects health
negatively
Health status
Accident at work
(absent because of)
Stress at work always or
most of the time

WHO-5: Psychological
well-being

WORKING TIME:
Work–life balance

PROSPECTS:
Job insecurity
Career development

Identification of policies
The project’s second aim was to compare policies implemented for the improvement of working conditions of OMD.
The  objective  was  to  further  explore  the  working  conditions  of  workers  in  these  medium-to-low-skill  occupations  at
national level and to identify policies that seek to improve these conditions and which make work in these occupations
more sustainable. 

The report uses information provided by Eurofound’s network of national correspondents to identify policies, measures
and services designed to improve working conditions in the OMD previously identified, as well as, where information
is  available,  the  outcomes  of  these  initiatives.  This  includes  measures  in  the  fields  of  active  labour  market  policies
(ALMPs) (including training), career development, health and safety, wages and working time arrangements. Although
the focus of the report is on the identification of policies, information available on working conditions of OMD in the
national context was requested from national correspondents and forms part of the findings related to the identification
of OMD.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Limitations of the analysis
The application of specific research methods always has advantages and disadvantages. 

The  EWCS  data  might  have  relatively  small  samples  when  looking  at  specific  occupations.  Some  occupations  were
eliminated  from  the  analysis  for  this  reason.  Another  consequence  of  performing  analysis  of  occupations  at  the
ISCO 3-digit level is that the possibilities for country comparison are limited. 

The EU LFS 2013 data have their own limitations in the sense that they do not include information on ISCO 3-digit
codes from all EU countries. 

The collection of information for the study is not exhaustive, which means that it does not represent a census of policies
but the main examples in relation to the occupations identified as having multiple disadvantages. The identification of
OMD  using  Eurofound’s  network  of  European  correspondents  has  its  own  limitations  as  the  level  and  the  extent  of
information differs from country to country.

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Improving working conditions in occupations with multiple disadvantages

Annex II: Distribution of workers in OMD by economic sector

Refuse workers (961)

Garment and related trades workers (753)

Wood treaters, cabinet-makers and related trades workers (752)

Mining and construction labourers (931)

Cashiers and ticket clerks (523)

Manufacturing labourers (932)

Food processing and related trades workers (751)

Food preparation assistants (941)

Assemblers (821)

Cooks (512)

Mobile plant operators (834)

Car, van and motorcycle drivers (832)

Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers (921)

Waiters and bartenders (513)

Machine operators (814-818)

Shop salespersons (522)

All other occupations

Total

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Agriculture, forestry and fishing
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply
Water supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation activities
Construction
Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles
Transportation and storage
Accommodation and food service activities
Information and communication
Financial and insurance activities

Real estate activities
Professional, scientific and technical activities
Administrative and support service activities
Public administration and defence; compulsory social security
Education
Human health and social work activities
Arts, entertainment and recreation
Other service activities
Activities of households as employers; undifferentiated goods- and 
services-producing activities of households for own use
Activities of extraterritorial organisations and bodies

Source: EU LFS 2013

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EF/15/44/EN

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5
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Occupation is a critical factor in determining the type of working
conditions a person will experience during their professional life.
This  report  explores  the  working  conditions  of  workers  –
particularly medium-to-low skilled and unskilled – in occupations
that are found to have low levels of job quality as measured by four
key indicators: earnings, prospects, working time and intrinsic job
quality. The knock-on effects of poor job quality and unacceptable
working  conditions  for  these  workers  are  significant  in  terms  of
psychosocial and physical health, job security, work–life balance,
career  path  and,  ultimately,  the  sustainability  of  their  work.
Based  on  data  from  the  European  Working  Conditions  Survey
2010 and the EU Labour Force Survey 2013, the report presents
examples  of  initiatives,  policies  and  measures  across  the  28  EU
Member States that aim to improve overall working conditions in
these disadvantaged occupations.   

The  European  Foundation  for  the  Improvement  of  Living  and  Working
Conditions (Eurofound) is a tripartite European Union Agency, whose role is
to  provide  knowledge  in  the  area  of  social  and  work-related  policies.
Eurofound was established in 1975 by Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1365/75,
to  contribute  to  the  planning  and  design  of  better  living  and  working
conditions in Europe. 

doi:10.2806/279323
ISBN: 978-92-897-1397-9