COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Draft 2015 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the Strategic Framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020) New priorities for European cooperation in education and training
Date: 2015-08-26
Institutions: Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, European Commission
Subjects: EU programme, adult education, continuing education, cooperation in the field of education, education policy, level of education, organisation of teaching, recognition of vocational training qualifications, school life, vocational training

EN 

   EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 26.8.2015  SWD(2015) 161 final   COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Draft 2015 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the Strategic Framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020)  New priorities for European cooperation in education and training {COM(2015) 408 final}  
 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 3 

2. THE ET 2020 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES AND PRIORITY AREAS: 
IMPLEMENTATION AND ORIENTATIONS FOR THE FUTURE .............................. 10 

2.1. Making Lifelong learning and mobility a reality ................................................ 10 

2.1.1. Lifelong learning strategies ................................................................................ 10 
2.1.2. Adult learning ....................................................................................................... 11 
2.1.3. European transparency and recognition tools ....................................................... 16 
2.1.4. Learning mobility .................................................................................................. 18 

2.2. Quality and efficiency in education and training ................................................ 19 
2.2.1. Basic skills (literacy, mathematics, science and technology), languages ............. 20 
2.2.2. Professional development of teachers, trainers and school leaders ...................... 25 
2.2.3. Modernising higher education and increasing tertiary attainment levels ............. 29 
2.2.4. Attractiveness and relevance of VET.................................................................... 34 
2.2.5. Efficient funding and evaluation ........................................................................... 42 

2.3 Promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship .................................... 45 
2.3.1. Early school leaving .............................................................................................. 46 
2.3.2. Early childhood education and care ...................................................................... 49 
2.3.3. Equity and diversity .............................................................................................. 52 

2.4. Enhancing creativity and innovation, including entrepreneurship, at 
all levels of education and training .............................................................................. 55 
2.4.1.  Building  partnerships  between  education,  business  and  civil  society  to 
promote entrepreneurship education and employability ................................................. 55 
2.4.2. Transversal key  competences, entrepreneurship  education,  e-literacy, media 
literacy, innovative learning environments ..................................................................... 63 
2.4.3. An agenda for digital learning .............................................................................. 67 

3. GOVERNANCE OF THE ET 2020 STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK ............................ 72 

3.1. ET 2020 Governance .............................................................................................. 72 
3.1.1. Making the most of the formal governance structure ........................................... 72 
3.1.2. Bridging ET 2020 formal and informal governance ............................................. 72 
3.1.3. Improving the transparency of ET 2020 governance ............................................ 73 

3.2. The ET 2020 tool box ............................................................................................. 74 
3.2.1. A third generation of ET 2020 Working Groups .................................................. 74 
3.2.2. ET 2020 Peer Reviews .......................................................................................... 75 
3.2.3. Improved ET 2020 peer learning activities, including peer counselling .............. 76 
3.2.4. Better dissemination, knowledge and transfer exchange ...................................... 77 
3.2.5. Cooperation with the stakeholders ........................................................................ 78 

3.3. Strengthening the evidence base of ET 2020 ........................................................ 79 
3.3.1. European benchmarks to support evidence-based policy-making ........................ 79 
3.3.2. The Education and Training Monitor ................................................................... 80 
3.3.3. Streamlining, optimising and rationalising reporting ........................................... 81 

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3.3.4.  The  Standing  Group  of  Indicators  and  Benchmarks  and  Indicator  Expert 
Groups under ET 2020 .................................................................................................... 81 

3.4. Funding instruments in support of ET 2020 ........................................................ 84 
3.4.1. The LLL Programme ............................................................................................ 84 
3.4.2. The new Erasmus+ programme for 2014-20 ........................................................ 85 
3.4.3. Cohesion Policy to support education and training between 2017-13 .................. 86 
3.4.4. The Investment Plan for Europe ........................................................................... 88 

ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................... 90 

Annex  1:  Synthesis  of  the  National  Contributions  from  the  EEA  and 
Candidate Countries ..................................................................................................... 90 

Annex 2: Independent interim evaluation ................................................................... 93 

Annex 3:  Riga Conclusions on a new set of medium-term deliverables in 
the field of VET for 2015-2020 ................................................................................... 105 

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1. INTRODUCTION 

The ET 2020 Joint Report 
Established  through  the  Council  Conclusions  of  12  May  2009,1  the  ET  2020  strategic 
framework for European cooperation in education and training provides for the adoption 
of  a  Joint  Report  by  the  Council  and  the  Commission  at  the  end  of  each  3-year  work 
cycle.  The  Joint  Report  looks  at  the  main  achievements  of  the  past  work  cycle, 
determines  the  main  remaining  challenges  and identifies  the  priority  areas  for  the next 
work  cycle.  To  thoroughly  prepare  this  Joint  Report,  the  Commission  has  conducted  a 
mid-term stocktaking of ET 2020. 

Preparing  the  2015  Joint  Report  was  not  a  routine  exercise.  In  February  2014,  the 
Education Council made clear that: 

-  Member States and Commission should try to “increase the added value and optimise 
the  effectiveness  of  the  ET  2020  strategic  framework  and  its  underlying  governance 
and working arrangements”; and that 

- 

the  purpose  of  the  mid-term  stocktaking  was  “to  help  prepare  the  next  draft  Joint 
Report,  with  a  more  forward-looking  focus  which  identifies  key  priority  areas  and 
concrete issues for future work”. 

Contributing elements to the mid-term stocktaking 

The  key  findings  of  the  ET  2020  mid-term  stocktaking  draw  on  a  variety  of 
contributions, including: 

  ET  2020  National  Reports  in  which  the  Member  States  elaborate  on  progress 
during the past work cycle, remaining challenges and needs for future cooperation 
at EU-level;  

  Senior officials' input: In the spring 2014, the ET 2020 Directors General (DG) 
meetings (for schools; higher education; VET) and the High Level Group (HLG) 
each  held  a  discussion  on  the  overall  ET  2020  framework  and  its  working 
methods.  In  the  autumn  2014,  the  DG  meetings  each  held  a  discussion  on  their 
sectoral priorities. In December 2014, the HLG discussed the overall orientations 
of the Joint Report; 

  The  independent  interim  evaluation  of  ET  2020  by  contractor  Ecorys  was 
submitted  on  3  November  2014  and  includes  recommendations  for  ET  2020’s 
improvement;  

  The  annual  Education,  Training  and  Youth  Forum  (9-10  October  2014)  was 
specifically devoted to  input  by stakeholders, civil society  and NGOs in  the ET 
2020 stocktaking;  

 

Input by the European social partners: On 5 June and 13 November 2014, the 
European  social  partners  provided  input  in  the  ET  2020  stocktaking  on  the 

1 Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and 
training (ET 2020), OJ C 119, 28.5.2009, p. 2–10. 

4 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
occasion  of  meetings  with  EAC.  On  6  November,  the  European  sectoral  social 
dialogue committee in education also discussed the ET 2020 priorities.  

ET 2020: the value of an integrated strategic framework 

The  ET  2020  strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and  training 
was launched by the Council in May 2009. It is designed to cover learning in all contexts 
—  whether  formal,  non-formal  or  informal  —  and  at  all  levels:  from  early  childhood 
education and schools through to higher education, vocational education and training and 
adult learning.  

During  the  ET  2020  mid-term  stocktaking,  there  was  a  general  consensus  among 
stakeholders about the great value of having such an integrated strategic framework 
covering education and training in all its contexts, levels and dimensions. Input from the 
stakeholders emphasised that such an integrated approach is necessary:  

  To  ensure  the  coherence  and  permeability  between  the  various  education  and 
training sectors and to bridge the gaps between formal, informal and non-formal 
learning (which is instrumental in making lifelong learning operational);  

  To  bring  the  necessary  broader  transversal  context  to  the  sectoral  agendas 
(stakeholders  generally  agreed  that  in  education  and  training  a  sectoral  silo 
approach can only lead to sub-optimal results); and  

  To  effectively  weigh  on  the  EU’s  overall  political  agenda,  in  particular  in  the 

context of the reviewed Europe 2020 and the European Semester. 

Several  reasons  plead  for  a  coherently  integrated  policy  framework  in  education  and 
training, also reflected in the integrated nature of the new Erasmus+ programme: 

Lifelong  learning:  in  the  modern  economy,  learning  has  become  a  necessary  and 
enriching activity during the various stages of life. Since the Lisbon Strategy, European 
cooperation on education and training has been underpinned by the principle of lifelong 
learning from early childhood to adult learning. Requests by stakeholders, including by 
learners,  providers  and  employers,  for  a  simpler,  more  user-friendly  and  more  flexible 
approach  to  implementing  the  lifelong  learning  paradigm  plead  for  an  enhanced 
coordination  between  the  various  education  and  training  sectors  and  for  a  strongly 
integrated overall policy framework. 

Permeability:  European  cooperation  in  education  and  training  has  fostered  a  world  of 
learning  that  is  increasingly  characterised  by  permeability  between  education  and 
training  contexts,  sectors  and  levels.  With  a  view  to  reducing  the  skills  gap  and 
improving employability, such permeability is essential to allow learners, providers and 
employers to fully benefit from education and training opportunities. However, in order 
to work in practice, permeability needs to go hand in hand with policy coherence, which 
at this moment is ensured through the mechanisms of the ET 2020 strategic framework.  

improved 
Qualification  and  competences:  A  key  element  of  permeability 
transparency and recognition of qualifications and competences and extended acceptance 
of European transparency and recognition tools. This is essential to the development of 
quality  education  and  training,  and  to  facilitate  mobility  for  both  lifelong  learning  and 
occupational  purposes  throughout  Europe,  between  countries  as  well  as  across  sectors. 

is 

5 

 
 
 
 
 
 
To be beneficial to learners, graduates, providers and employers, the further development 
of transparency and recognition of qualifications and competences is necessarily a cross-
sectoral activity that requires coherence and coordination of education and training as a 
whole, whether formal, non-formal or informal. This can also help to better use the skills 
of those having acquired qualifications outside of the EU. 

Communication:  The  integrated  ET  2020  framework  allows  for  greater  efficiency  in 
linking  with  the  public  and  with  the  education  and  training  stakeholders  than  a 
compartmentalised  approach.  This  is  important  since  the  effectiveness  of  European 
activities  in  education  and  training  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  reaching  the 
stakeholders, including at regional and local levels. 

ET 2020 strategic objectives: preserving the stability 

The large majority of Member States and most other stakeholders have indicated a clear 
preference for stability in ET 2020’s four strategic objectives as formulated by the 
Council in 2009, which guide ET 2020’s overall activities: 

1.  Making lifelong learning and mobility a reality; 

2. 

Improving the quality and efficiency of education and training; 

3.  Promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship; 

4.  Enhancing  creativity  and  innovation,  including  entrepreneurship,  at  all  levels  of 

education and training. 

Arguments for stability of the strategic objectives include: 

  The current strategic objectives still reflect a large consensus among the Member 
States. A reopening of the strategic objectives might lead to a lengthy negotiation 
for rather limited results; 

  The  strategic  objectives  are  sufficiently  broad  to  encompass  new  concerns  and 
new  agendas:  for  example,  they  emphasise  the  importance  of  education  in 
promoting  intercultural  competences,  democratic  values  and  non-discrimination. 
They  underline  the  importance  of  “the  use  of  new  teaching  and  learning 
technologies” and of “digital competence”.   

  The key issue with ET 2020 is not the formulation of the strategic objectives, but 
the weaknesses in its operational nature. Enhancing the operational nature of ET 
2020 is what the Joint Report should concentrate on. 

ET 2020 priority areas: making the strategic framework more operational 

The  stock-taking  indicated  a  preference  for  the  stability  of  the  four  strategic  objectives 
but at the same time called for ET 2020 to be more focused and more operational. The 
difference  between  the  ET  2020  strategic  objectives  and  the  current  priority  areas  is 
viewed as minimal and does not provide strong enough guidelines for implementation.  

Thus far, priority areas have hardly served as tools that help focus European cooperation 
on  a  limited  number  of  key  questions  or  on  achieving  particular  outcomes.  In  this 
context, Member States and stakeholders generally expressed a willingness to make the 

6 

 
 
 
 
 
 
future  priorities  more  concrete  and  operational.  Several  Member  States  also  underlined 
the  need  to  reduce  the  number  of  priorities  and  deliverables.  In  February  2014,  the 
Council  has  underlined that  the  mid-term  stocktaking  is  “to  help  prepare  the  next  draft 
Joint Report, with a more forward-looking focus which identifies key priority areas and 
concrete issues for future work”. 

In this context, the independent evaluation recommended that a more tightly focused set 
of  objectives  should  be  linked  to  concrete  and  clear  intended  outcomes  which  can  be 
systematically monitored (recommendation 2). The evaluation report went on to propose 
that a work programme should be added to ET 2020 which sets out a coherent package of 
activities to be undertaken at European level and with milestones and goals for Member 
States in order to be able to better measure progress (recommendation 3).  

It is proposed to have in Annex 1 of the Joint Report the list of priority areas (reduced 
from  13  to  6)  and  to  define  for  each  priority  area  a  set  of  concrete  issues  to  be  taken 
forward  in  the  ET  2020  Working  Groups  or  in  any  other  ET  2020  instrument.  These 
issues: 

- represent a common challenge for the Member States;  

- show a clear added value in tackling them at European level. 

These  concrete issues will  be followed on by the Working Groups, as made  explicit in 
their mandates. They will be monitored by the informal groups of senior officials.  

ET 2020 is firmly anchored in the EU’s broader political agenda 

ET 2020 contributes to the implementation of the Union’s overall political priorities and 
is the key European tool in providing support to Member States in the modernisation of 
their education and training systems.  

ET 2020 contributes in the first place to the EU’s priority of boosting jobs, growth and 
investment, which requires investing in education and training with the aim of improving 
educational  outcomes,  overcoming  skills  gaps,  enhancing  employability  and  social 
inclusion,  and  boosting  innovation  and  competitiveness.  To  be  effective  in  these  areas, 
our education systems must be modernised.  

Commissioner  Navracsics’  mission  letter  explicitly  states  that  “The  European  Semester 
should be the vehicle for pursuing the modernisation of education systems”. ET 2020 is 
crucial in this context, but needs further sharpening of the focus on assisting clusters of 
Member  States  that  face  issues  identified  in  the  CSRs,  notably  via  peer  learning 
activities,  conducted  both  within  and  outside  the  ET  2020  Working  Groups  (see  chart 
below).  

An  equally  important  role  of  education  and  training  lies  in  preventing  and  tackling 
radicalisation, racism, fanaticism and violence. As follow-up to the Paris declaration of 
17  March  2015  a  new  strand  of  activities  could  be  identified  under  ET  2020’s  third 
strategic  objective,  aimed  at  embedding  democratic  values  and  respect  for  fundamental 
rights,  combatting  racism  and  discrimination  and  promoting  social  cohesion  and 
intercultural competences.  

In addition, ET 2020 is actively contributing to other major Commission priorities, such 
as: 

7 

 
 
 
 
 

the  Digital  Single  Market,  notably  via  the  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  Digital 
and  Online  Learning  and  the  ongoing  work  to  improve  digital  skills  and 
competence education as well as the uptake of digital technologies and innovative 
tools and pedagogies across all education sectors; 

 

the  European  Agenda  on  Security,  via  the  reinforcement  of  the  third  strategic 
objective under ET 2020. 

ET 2020 governance cycle 

ET  2020  has  been  operating  on  the  basis  of  three-year  work-cycles.  During  the 
stocktaking  a  number  of  stakeholders  suggested  that  the  three-year  cycles  became 
obsolete. The Union’s political rhythm moves in accordance with the five-year terms of 
the European Parliament and of the Commission. The Union’s overall strategy for jobs 
and  growth  –  Europe  2020  –  was  established  for  a  ten-year  period,  with  a  mid-term 
review  after  five  years  and  the  Council  Conclusions  of  12  May  2009  on  the  ET  2020 
strategic framework underlined that education and training had to remain firmly anchored 
in the broader strategy.  

In  this  context,  the  draft  Joint  Report  proposes  that  the  ET  2020  governance  cycle  is 
henceforth  synchronised  with  the  Union’s  five-year  political  cycle  as  well  as  with  the 
rhythm of Europe 2020.  

For  ET  2020,  this  implies  that  the  next  Joint  Report  will  be  in  2020  (and  not  2018), 
thereby  allowing  more  time  for  Member  States  to  produce  National  Reports.  As  the 
results of European cooperation in education and training tend to take longer than three 
years before bringing about tangible effects, the five-year cycle will also enable a more 
reliable assessment of past policy orientations before making major changes.  

8 

 
 
 
 
 
 

9 

 
 
 
 
 
The Staff Working Document: content and structure  

The  present  Staff  Working  Document  accompanies  the  Commission  Communication 
proposing  the  draft  2015  Joint  Report  of  the  Council  and  the  Commission  on  the 
implementation  of  the  Strategic  Framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and 
training (ET 2020). 

The Staff Working Document provides the analytical basis for the Joint Report. It offers 
insight into the developments recorded over the period 2012-2014 and aims at:  

-  Reviewing progress made at national level towards the ET 2020 objectives;  
-  Taking stock of the developments at European level within the ET 2020 Strategic 
Framework  implementing  the  open  method  of  coordination  in  the  field  of 
education and training. 

Following  the  introductory  chapter,  the  structure  of  the  present  Staff  Working 
Document includes: 

  An  extensive  chapter  2,  focused  on  the  implementation  of  ET  2020  strategic 
objectives  and  priority  areas.  This  chapter  follows  the  order  of  the  ET  2020 
strategic  objectives  and especially  of  the  priority  areas  as  identified  in  the  2012 
Joint  Report,  thus  allowing  for  a  systematic  reporting  on  the  previous  ET  2020 
work cycle.  

A  standard  structure  was  used  under  each  priority  area,  including  the  policy 
context at EU level, reporting, remaining challenges, priorities for further action. 

The  cross-country  analysis  was  primarily  based  on  Member  States'  national 
reports,  but  in  some  cases  reference  is  also  made  to  other  official  sources  of 
information, such as, inter alia, Cedefop and Eurydice.  

To note that the national actions/initiatives mentioned in this document represent 
only a snapshot of the developments in a given ET 2020 priority area, as not all 
countries  reported  fully  and  ongoing  initiatives  may  exist  in  Member  States 
which have not reported them. The concrete examples reported here are intended 
to illustrate progress. They are not necessarily examples of good practice. 

The "priorities for future action" correspond to the “concrete issues” identified in 
the 2015 Joint Report. They are based on the Member States' national reports and 
the outcomes of the 2012-2014 work cycle, as well as on evidence and analysis 
the Commission has at its disposal.  

  A  detailed  chapter  3  on  Governance,  which  provides  an  overview  of  the 
implementation  of  ET  2020  open  method  of  coordination  with  a  focus  on  its 
working bodies, methods and outcomes.  

  Annexes 

10 

 
 
 
 
 
 
2. THE ET 2020 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES AND PRIORITY AREAS: 
IMPLEMENTATION AND ORIENTATIONS FOR THE FUTURE 

2.1. Making Lifelong learning and mobility a reality 

Lifelong  learning  (LLL)  strategies  continue  to  form  an  important  mechanism  to  guide 
and  connect  education  and  training  policies.  Making  lifelong  learning  and  mobility  a 
reality remains a fundamental ET 2020 principle, calling for coherent and comprehensive 
lifelong  learning  strategies  based  on  building  blocks  such  as  early  childhood  education 
and  care  and  the  reduction  of  early  school  leaving,  and  supported  by  European  and 
National Qualification Frameworks , permeability of learning pathways and transparency 
and recognition of learning outcomes.  

In  this  context,  adult  learning  remains  a  specific  challenge  for  a  number  of  Member 
States.  The value for adults to learn throughout life needs renewed and special attention 
and  has  to  be  acknowledged  as  an  integral  part  of  a  continuum,  delivering  skills  from 
early childhood to later life. 

Learning  mobility for learners and educators is an equally essential element of lifelong 
learning and a means for enhancing adaptability and employability.  

2.1.1. Lifelong learning strategies 

Policy context at EU level 

In  the  majority  of  EU  Member  States  the  LLL  approach  is  recognised  across  the 
education and training framework. However, as LLL strategies are sometimes conceived 
for  a  limited  duration,  efforts  must  be  pursued  over  the  next  ET  2020  cycle  to  ensure 
their mainstreaming in long-term policy and legislation. 

Embedding the concept of LLL and flexible learning in policy across all sectors requires 
coordination  and  partnership,  supported  by  continued  implementation  of  European  and 
National  Qualification  Frameworks  (EQF,  NQFs)  that  include  formal,  non-formal  and 
informal learning routes, at all levels of education and training. 

Reporting 

The  ET  2020  stocktaking  revealed  that  more  than  half  of  EU  Member  States  have  a 
comprehensive LLL strategy in place2. Some implemented their strategies between 2012 
and 2014 with a view to improving access, participation, flexibility and recognition3.  

Austria  introduced  its  comprehensive  "LLL  2020"  strategy  in  2011,  consisting  of  ten 
lines  of  action,  each  supported  by  strategic  objectives,  measures  and  benchmarks.  In 
addition, within the framework of the comprehensive "LLL 2020" strategy, each public 
university must develop its own institutional LLL strategy. 

Denmark  adopted  a  comprehensive  approach  implementing  a  wide  range  of  essential 
initiatives  to  promote  LLL:  assisting  municipalities  in  promoting  early  childhood 

2 AT, BG, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, FR, HU, LT, LU, PL, PT, SI, SK, UK. 
3 AT, CY, EE, HU, LU. 

11 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
education  and  care  to  support  vulnerable  children,  supporting  measures  targeted  at 
school,  higher  and  adult  education  and  continued  training  (receiving  an  extra  DKK1 
million for 2014-17), promoting youth education programmes. 

Some  Member  States  (FI,  SE)  consider  that  their  entire  educational  system  is  already 
built  and  developed  around  the  LLL  concept  and  therefore  do  not  plan  to  develop  any 
explicit  LLL strategy as  such,  others (SI) recently amended  their LLL legal base and a 
number of them are developing an integrated LLL strategy or renewing the existing one. 

Remaining challenges 

Several  Member  States  still  have  to  put  comprehensive  lifelong  learning  strategies  in 
place.  Since  such  strategies  are  essential  to  link  up  the  various  forms  and  levels  of 
learning  and  ensure  the  necessary  permeability,  all  Member  States  are  encouraged  to 
establish or renew them.  

This  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  reinforced  efforts  to  smoothen  transitions  within  the 
lifelong  learning  educational  trajectory  and  generate  a  seamless  continuum  which 
delivers skills from early childhood to later life. Furthermore, LLL strategies will not be 
successful  without  provision  of  lifelong  guidance  services,  needed  to  inform  and 
accompany learners, and reach out to low-skilled and disadvantaged groups.   

Achieving  a  learning  continuum  over  the  life-course  in  addition  to  modernised  formal 
education  requires  the  provision  of  comprehensive  information  on  studies,  counselling 
and career planning  across  sector-specific boundaries. Policy experimentation,  financed 
through  Erasmus+  in  2014,  gives  impetus  to  the  development  of  “one-stop  shops”  to 
provide this service at local and regional level, and could be followed on by prospective 
studies  geared  at  opening  up  existing  training  centres  and  educational  institutions  to 
reach a wider public, and to provide flexible modular pathways. 

Priorities for the future 

  Re-igniting  lifelong  learning  strategies  addressing  the  transition  phases  within 
school  education,  while  promoting  transitions  to  and  between  vocational 
education  and  training  (VET),  higher  education  (HE)  and  adult  learning  (AL), 
including  non-formal  and  informal  learning,  and  from  education  and  training  to 
work. 

2.1.2. Adult learning 

Policy context at EU level 

Despite  having  lifelong  learning  strategies  in  place,  it  can  be  observed  that  many 
Member States simply lack a coherent policy on adult learning which links seamlessly 
with  policy  on  initial  education  and  training  and  which  is  implemented  with  the  same 
rigour as policy on schooling.  

For  this  reason,  during  the  period  2012-2014,  the  European  Agenda  for  Adult 
Learning reinforced the ET 2020 priorities in the sector, in order to achieve the longer 
term  vision  of  equal  opportunity  and  access  to  high-quality  learning.  The  Agenda 
strongly emphasises the need to focus on awareness raising, participation and access for 
those groups that need learning most, including the low-skilled and unemployed adults, 
migrants and older people.  

12 

 
 
 
 
The  Council  Resolution  asked  Member  States  to  designate  a  national  coordinator,  in 
order  to  facilitate  cooperation  in  implementing  this  agenda:  36  countries  have  now 
nominated a national coordinator, of which 21 are in education ministries and the rest in 
related national agencies.  

Between 2012-2014, Lifelong Learning programme funding was secured to support the 
national coordinators in taking concrete steps to enhance, intensify and coordinate adult 
learning by involving all the relevant stakeholders. National coordinators were required 
to develop national activity plans to implement the European Agenda for Adult Learning 
at  national  and  regional  levels  and  to  this  aim  28  of  the  then  32  national  coordinators 
applied for funding. 

The  most  common  forms  of  coordination  and  exchange  with  stakeholders  were: 
conferences and seminars4; meetings to get stakeholder involvement on specific issues5; 
fostering  networks  of  stakeholders6.  Some  countries  developed  closer  cooperation  via 
occasional working groups7. Core groups to steer the agenda (DE, EL, FR, IT, NO) and 
in a few cases sustainable mechanisms for cooperation such as national bodies for adult 
or non-formal learning (BG, FI, HR, LT) were also set up. 

National  coordinators'  activities  focused  on  awareness-raising  of  the  European  Agenda 
and  highlighting  the  importance  of  national  adult  learning  policy,  in  particular  for  the 
low-skilled  target  groups.  More  than  60  national  events  and  230  regional  events  took 
place,  and  websites  and  promotional  materials  were  developed.  Awareness  raising 
campaigns  were  organised  in  12  Member  States8,  and  regular  calendar  events  such  as 
learning weeks or days were reinforced or introduced, including a learning bus in EE and 
LI.  These  events  provided  opportunities  for  peer  learning  and  exchange  of  practice  for 
national coordinators and stakeholders from other countries.  

Starting with 2015, Erasmus+  funding could support future work in this direction. 

Operational  since  2014,  EPALE  (Electronic  Platform  for  Adult  Learning  in  Europe) 
provides  a  collaborative  space  for  enhanced  networking  and  cooperation  among  adult 
learning  professionals  (educators  and  policymakers)  across  the  EU.  It  aims  at  driving 
change in the adult learning sector and support its transformation. It provides a repository 
of high quality learning resources that will enable staff to further develop their teaching 
and  outreach  skills  and  an  incubator  for  cooperation  and  the  development  of  digital 
teaching materials, in particular Open Learning Resources.   

An analytical framework for the analysis of adult learning policies and their effectiveness 
was developed in close association with the ET 2020 Working Group on adult learning. 
Finalised in 2015, it provides a tool for further cooperation to develop and improve adult 
learning policies in Europe, including use by future Working Groups.  

The EU level could  enhance  opportunities for mutual  learning  and exchange, including 
through  Erasmus+,  involving  continued  support  and  reinforcement  for  the  national 

4 EE, EL, FI, IS, LT, LU, LV, PL, PT, RO, TR, UK. 
5 AU, DK, LV, PT, NL, SI. 
6 IS, FI, HR, SE, PT. 
7 BG, CY, DE, EE, IT, LI, LU, NL, PL, SE, UK. 
8 DK, EE, ES, FI, HR, IT, LI, LT, LU, LV, RO, SI. 

13 

 
 
 
                                                 
coordinators  for  adult  learning,  staff  mobility  and  professional  development,  further 
development of EPALE, as well as innovative projects and policy experimentation.  

Reporting 

Adult  learning  is  an  area  where  prolific  activity  has  been  reported  during  the  ET  2020 
stocktaking. An extensive examination of national policy commitments to adult learning, 
main  types  of  programmes,  learning  flexibility  and  progression  pathways,  outreach 
initiatives, guidance services and targeted financial support is provided by Eurydice9. 
The majority of Member States10 reported measures to enhance the quality of the adult 
education  system.  Some  have  advanced  in  the  area  of  accreditation  and  evaluation  of 
providers and programmes, of monitoring systems, or have introduced national standards 
and  regulations,  or  set  up  responsible  bodies11.  Most  of  the  Member  States  reported 
measures to raise participation in adult learning by focusing on the individual adult12, 
through a range of activities: counselling13, flexibility in learning - evening courses, part-
time courses, personalised training programmes or e-learning14, broadening the variety of 
courses15, recognition and certification of prior learning (BE, PL, PT). Distance learning 
now accounts for about 5% of adult learning16.  

Efforts have been made to enable the participation in adult education of specific target 
groups,  such  as  persons  in  correctional  facilities  (IT,LV),  foreigners  and  migrants  (IT, 
SE), and older people (BG, DE, LT, PL). Young adults were targeted through initiatives 
under the Youth Guarantee (FI). 

Measures  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  adult  learning  are  underway  in  the  majority  of 
countries. There is a trend towards measures to better serve labour market needs, which 
focus on: raising the interest of the world of work for adult education (LV, LT, PL, SI), 
steering  adult  education  towards  labour  market  demands  (BG,  LV,  PL),  supporting 
employer investments in adult education (LT, PL, SI) and enhancing the involvement of 
employers in adult education (BG, PL).  

In  Northern  Ireland  (UK)  a  shift  from  non-formal  to  formal  learning  was  reported: 
about  90%  of  adult  education  leads  to  a  qualification,  designed  with  the  support  of 
sector skills councils and employers. 

In  2014,  both  Estonia  and  Lithuania  published  new  legislation  on  non-formal  adult 
learning,  in  the  latter  this  was  accompanied  by  a  quality  assurance  system  and  the 
development of an action plan 2014-16. 

In the area of financing adult learning, improvements to the funding system have been 
made in some countries17, for example by developing new funding criteria, or through the 

9  Adult  Education  and  Training  in  Europe:  Widening  Access  to  Learning  opportunities,  Eurydice,  2015.  
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/179EN.pdf. 
10 AT, BE fr, BE nl, BG, CY, CZ, DK, EE, FI, FR, HU, IE, IT, LT, LU, MT, NL, PT, SI, SK, UK. 
11 AT, BE fr, BE nl, BG, CZ, FI, HU, IE, SK. 
12 AT, BE-fr, BE-nl, BG, CY, DK, IE, IT, LV, LU, LT, PL, PT, UK. 
13 AT, BG, DK, IT, LV, PL, PT. 
14 DK, IT, LV, LU, PT, SE. 
15 CY, DK, IE, LU, LT. 
16 Adult Education and Training in Europe: Widening Access to Learning opportunities, Eurydice, 2015. 
17 CZ, DE, DK, EE, FI, FR, HU, LT, SI. 

14 

 
 
 
                                                 
participation of employers and municipalities. Funding mechanisms to raise  participation 
in  adult  education  include  providing  programmes  free  of  charge  (AT,  CY,  EE,  UK), 
training  vouchers  (DE)  and  additional  funding  for  providers  to  improve  quality  and 
personalise training (SE). 

Measures related to regionalisation and better exploitation of facilities locally include 
the  setting  up  of  regional  Education  and  Training  Boards  (IE),  the  identification  of 
regional  priorities  and  the  provision  of  regional  support  and  information  to  increase 
participation  (FR,  LT),  the  establishment  of  regional  adult  education  centres  (DK,  IT, 
LV), regional cooperation between employers and institutions (LV, PL), the involvement 
of VET schools by establishing them as lifelong learning centres (CZ).  

In  Ireland  the  Further  Education  and  Training  Authority  (SOLAS)  and  the  16 
Education and Training Boards (ETBs) were established in 2013 and all education and 
training  centres  vested  in  SOLAS  were  transferred  to  their  respective  ETB.  SOLAS 
published a five-year strategy for the development and delivery of an integrated further 
education and training system, linked to labour market needs. This includes setting up 
referral  protocols  between  education  and  training  boards  and  Intreo  offices  (single 
points  of  contact  for  all  employment  and  income  supports).  Annually,  each  ETB  will 
deliver the overall budget to make provision for learners and will detail the programmes 
and courses it will deliver, as well as target learner profiles and the National Framework 
of Qualifications levels that will be achieved, in consultation with employers and local 
Intreo offices. 

Remaining challenges 
The  results  of  the  OECD’s  Adult  Skills  Survey  (PIAAC)18  highlight  that  Europe’s 
growth  and  competitiveness  is  at  risk,  in  a  situation  where  one  in  five    Europeans 
surveyed  have  weak  literacy  and  numeracy  skills  and  one  in  four  have  difficulties  in 
using ICT to solve problems. Although, on average, more than 50% of those with weak 
skills are in employment, they enjoy much less training than high-skilled people and are 
therefore stuck in a "low skills trap".  

With respect to the 15% benchmark, the Labour Force Survey results show that in 2014 
only  10.7%  of  all  adults  aged  25  to  64  participated  in  lifelong  learning.  When 
considering only tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 and 6), the 15% benchmark has been 
reached, but only 4.4%  of those with low attainment levels participated (lower secondary 
educational level or less - ISCED 0-2).  
The Adult Education Survey (AES)19 shows that, with a few exceptions, the demand for 
adult  and  continuing  education  grew  between  2007  and  2011,  in  spite  of  the  economic 
crisis. However, it also highlights a lack of motivation to learn as a huge challenge to be 
overcome.  Of  all  the  adults  in  EU28,  almost  half  (46%)  responded  that  they  do  not 
participate and do not want to participate in learning activities in the future. Two thirds of 
those who already participate in learning (28% of the total adult population) do not want 

education 

18 OECD (2013) Skills outlook 2013,  http://skills.oecd.org/skillsoutlook.html; PIAAC (2013) Implications 
for 
in  Europe,  http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-
framework/doc/piaac_en.pdf. 
19 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained /index.php/Lifelong_learning_statistics, 

training  policies 

and 

15 

 
 
 
                                                 
to participate more in adult learning (their learning needs were “satisfied”), whereas 14% 
would have liked to participate more than they actually could.  

Motivation,  outreach,  access  and  participation  remain  the  key  challenges  facing  adult 
learning20.  Even  basic  skills  provision  is  fragmented  and  dispersed  among  a  myriad  of 
providers,  stakeholders,  policies,  short-term  and  longer-term  initiatives,  often  restricted 
to  individual  target  groups.  The  qualifications  of  around  68  million  people  do  not  go 
beyond  lower  secondary  level.  They  face  substantial  barriers  and  are  least  likely  to 
benefit  from  learning  opportunities.  While  policy  agendas  emphasise  access  for  this 
group,  specific  targets  are  rarely  set  and  little  is  known  about  the  effectiveness  of 
outreach initiatives, which pleads for further monitoring and impact assessment. 

As  only  6,2%  of  the  participation  in  adult  learning  is  through  the  formal  education 
system,  adult  learning  policy  should  include  processes  to  validate,  identify,  document, 
access and certify learning outcomes in line with the 2012 Council Recommendation on 
the validation of non-formal and informal learning21. 

The European Agenda for Adult Learning has a crucial role in addressing these issues, as 
it reflects Member States' national policy priorities up to 2020. 

The  national  coordinators  face  challenging  tasks  that  deserves  due  resources  and 
attention and their status and impact at national level would need to be raised to reach the 
desired goals.   

Priorities for further action 

European Agenda for Adult Learning 2015-2020 

Governance 

• 

• 

• 

Improve  the  coordination  and  effectiveness  of  adult  education  and  training 
policies  and  their  coherence  with  other  policy  areas  including  initial  education 
and training, social, environmental, welfare and employment; 

Ensure the relevance  of adult  learning  provision  to  the  needs  of  society  and  the 
labour market; 

Develop equitable, shared solutions to increase investment in adult learning. 

Supply and take up 

• 

• 

Significantly  increase  the  supply  of  high  quality  adult  learning  provision, 
especially in literacy, numeracy and digital skills, including by closer partnership 
with providers, social partners and civil society;  

Significantly increase the take-up of adult learning, particularly in the workplace, 
including through effective outreach, guidance and motivation strategies targeting 
groups at risk, older adults and migrants and people with a migrant background. 

20 Adult Education and Training in Europe: Widening Access to Learning opportunities, Eurydice, 2015.   
21 Source: Eurostat, Adult Education Survey (2011), online table: trng_aes_100. 

16 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Flexibility and access 

• 

• 

• 

Widen  access  to  provision  by  encouraging  providers  and  employers  to  increase 
significantly  the  availability  of  workplace-based  learning,  and  by  making 
effective use of ICT in adult learning; 

Put  in  place  procedures  to  identify  and  assess  the  skills  of  low  qualified  adults 
inside and outside the labour market, to stimulate adult participation in learning, 
in  line  with  the  Recommendation  on  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal 
learning;  

Provide sufficient second-chance opportunities leading to a recognised EQF level 
qualification  for  those  without  a  level  3  qualification  (upper  secondary 
education). 

Quality 

• 

• 

• 

Quality assurance, including monitoring and impact assessment;  

Significantly  raise  the  quality  of  the  initial  and  continuing  education  of  adult 
educators; 

Keeping policy and provision under review and ensuring collection of necessary 
data on needs to effectively target and design provision. 

2.1.3. European transparency and recognition tools 

Policy context at EU level 

Most  Member  States  regard  European  transparency  and  recognition  tools  as  a  priority 
and  a  significant  challenge  for  the  future,  on  the  backdrop  of  high  levels  of 
unemployment and skills bottlenecks and mismatches in certain regions or sectors. 

Under  the  2012-2014  ET  2020  work  cycle  a  large  majority  of  Member  States  have 
already developed a National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and have referenced their 
NQF to the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). Some NQFs encompass formal 
and non-formal learning, but several countries prefer to focus in the first place on formal 
qualifications.  

A revision of European tools and policies on skills and qualifications is ongoing. The aim 
is  to  better  enable  learners  and  workers  to  have  skills  and  qualifications  recognised  by 
employers  and  educational  institutions  within  and  across  national  borders,  for  purposes 
of employability and further learning. This can also help to better use the skills of those 
having acquired qualifications outside of the EU. 

Reporting 
Five Member States22 propose to take implementation of the EQF forward to the next 
ET 2020 work cycle, focussing on the learning outcomes approach (CZ, DK, FI), or on 
the validation and recognition of skills and qualifications (HR), and advocate cooperation 
on  assigning  EQF  levels  to  international  qualifications  (MT).  Several  stress  the  link 
between recognition tools, such as the EQF, and quality tools such as EQUAVET, or the 

22 CZ, DK, FI, HR, MT. 

17 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
need  to  focus  on  the  implementation  of  the  EQF  and  validation  of  non-formal  and 
informal learning (DK). 

Some  Member  States  (HR,  IT,  MT,  RO)  see  the  promotion  of  the  recognition  and 
validation  of  skills  and  competences  acquired  through  non-formal  and  informal 
learning as an essential part of an integrated lifelong learning strategy.  

According  to  the  European  Inventory  on  Validation,  three  Member  States  (FI,  FR,  ES) 
have a comprehensive national strategy in place, eleven  have a national strategy but with 
some  missing  elements23,  and  thirteen  are  preparing  a  national  strategy24.  Fifteen 
Member  States  have  adopted  measures  related  to  the  learning  outcomes-based 
approach25,  which  is  sometimes  driven  by  the  NQFs26.  The  degree  of  implementation 
varies from Member States where it is anchored in all levels of education (EE, MT, PL) 
to those where it is only in primary and secondary education and VET (LU). 

Remaining challenges 

The  EU  and  the  Member  States  have  launched  several  initiatives  to  promote  the 
transparency,  quality  assurance,  validation  and  recognition  of  skills  and  qualifications. 
But  challenges  remain,  as  these  initiatives  have  often  been  developed  for  a  specific 
sector and do not sufficiently support permeability and mobility between sectors, nor do 
they accommodate the needs and opportunities arising from new learning trends such as 
digital  technologies  and  internationalisation  of  education.  Moreover,  tools  and  services 
for  the  transparency,  validation  and  recognition  of  prior  learning  are  not  sufficiently 
known  by  the  citizens  nor  by  potential  users  (e.g.  European  e-Competence  Framework 
and DIGICOMP).  

There  is  a  need  to  improve  awareness  of  and  access  to  European  transparency  and 
recognition  tools and services among workers, employers and students, and to promote 
the validation and recognition of learning outcomes acquired in the e-environment. This 
has  to  be  backed  by  the  implementation  of  the  EQF  recommendation,  including  the 
establishment of the NQFs, as suggested by several Member States27. The development 
of  NQFs  that  include  all  forms  of  non-formal  learning  is  still  a  challenge  in  many 
countries, and mapping the NQFs to the EQF entails a shift to learning outcomes. 

Member  States'  suggestions  for  further  work  include:  promoting  common  procedures,  
exchanging good practices to reduce distrust in systems, procedures and results, creating 
a European platform for validation and recognition of skills and learning outcomes.  

Priorities for further action 

  Fostering transparency, quality assurance, validation and recognition of skills 
and  qualifications,  including  those  acquired  through  digital,  online  and  open 
learning  and  the  validation  of  informal  and  non-formal  learning.  Facilitating 
assessment and recognition of skills acquired outside of the EU. 

23 CZ, DK, EE, IT, IS, LU, LV, NO, NL, PL, RO. 
24 AT, BE-vl, CH, CY, DE, EL, LI, LT, MT, PT, SI, SK, TR. 
25 BE-nl, CY, DK, EE, FI, HU, IE, IT, LT, LU, MT, NL, PO, PT, SK. 
26 EE, IE, IT, LU, MT, PL, SK. 
27 CY, FI, LU, NL, PL. 

18 

 
 
 
                                                 
  Simplifying  and  rationalising  the  transparency,  documentation,  validation  and 
recognition tools that involve direct outreach to learners, workers and employers 
and promoting the use of qualifications frameworks. 

2.1.4. Learning mobility  

Policy context at EU level 

ET 2020 underlines the value of international mobility as a way for learners and teaching 
staff  to  develop  their  skills  and  employment  prospects  and  calls  for  action  to  expand 
opportunities for mobility in European education and training systems. Recent evidence 
from  a  study  on  the  impact  of  the  Erasmus+  programme28  shows  that  higher  education 
students who study abroad increase their advantage in key transversal competences over 
non-mobile students, are given greater responsibility in their first jobs and have a greater 
propensity to work abroad after graduation. The same study found that 64% of employers 
think that international experience is an important factor in recruitment. 

Under the previous ET 2020 work cycle considerable efforts have been made to further 
specify the overall objectives on mobility included in ET 2020 through target setting and 
more  detailed  policy  recommendations.  In  November  2011,  Member  States  adopted  a 
benchmark  on  learning  mobility  with  the  aim  of  raising  the  proportion  of  graduates 
having spent a period studying or training abroad to 20% in higher education and 6% in 
initial VET by 202029.  

Member  States  have  committed  to  promote  mobility  through  implementing  the  2011 
Council  Recommendation  ‘Youth  on  the  move  —  promoting  the  learning  mobility  of 
young people’30. 

This  Recommendation  highlights  key  issues  which  affect  individuals'  motivation  and 
ability to spend time studying or training abroad and where national policy frameworks 
and  institutional  strategies  can  have  a  clear  influence.  Important  aspects  include 
provision  of  information  and  guidance  about  mobility  opportunities  and  benefits  of 
mobility,  financial  support  (including  targeted  assistance  for  disadvantaged  students), 
recognition of credits and qualifications obtained abroad. 

Reporting 

Member States' National Reports on the implementation of ET 2020 highlight a range of 
policy  initiatives  to  support  mobility  reflecting  elements  in  the  2011  Council 
Recommendation  and  a  strong  on-going  commitment  at  national  level  to  expanding 
mobility  opportunities  across  the  EU,  particularly  as  part  of  wider  efforts  to 
internationalise higher education.  

Fifteen  Member  States  report  specifically  on  national  internationalisation  strategies  in 
higher education31 and all of these involve promotion of mobility of students and staff to 

28  http://ec.europa.eu/education/library/study/2014/erasmus-impact_en.pdf  
29  Rough estimates situate current mobility rates at 10-15% in higher education and around 3% in initial  
VET at EU level. Improved Eurostat data will be available from 2015 and onwards. 
30 Council Recommendation of 28 June 2011 — ‘Youth on the move’ — promoting the learning mobility 
of young people, OJ C 199, 7.7.2011, p. 1–5. 

19 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
some  extent  (typically  both  inbound  and  outbound),  often  through  international 
institutional  partnerships.  In  this  regard,  many  countries  explicitly  acknowledge  their 
strategic  use  of  EU  mobility  programmes32  as  a  tool  to  help  drive  forward  national 
mobility and internationalisation agendas33.   

Remaining challenges 
The 2014 Mobility Scoreboard34 reveals that the environment for learning mobility varies 
greatly between Member States and that no single Member State scores highly in all the 
areas  covered  by  the  study.  Despite  numerous  European  initiatives  to  promote  the 
transparency and recognition  of skills and qualifications, as well as skills development, 
obstacles related to transparency and recognition of skills and qualifications still hamper 
geographical and sectoral mobility.  

In the area of information and guidance, the most comprehensive public support systems 
are  found  in  five  Member  States35,  while  four  countries  have  the  least  developed 
information  and  guidance  structures36.  The  degree  to  which  student  support  can  be 
accessed  during  study  abroad  also  varies  considerably.  Higher  education  students  are 
able to receive public grants and loans when they study in another country on the same 
terms as when they study at home in several Member States37, while support systems are 
most restrictive in others38.  

Regarding joint degree programmes, experience from Erasmus Mundus (now Erasmus+) 
has  shown  the  benefits  of  this  approach,  but  equally  the  need  to  address  outstanding 
challenges such as joint quality assurance and funding agreements. 

Priorities for further action 

  Supporting the mobility of students, staff and researchers and the development of 
strategic  partnerships  and  joint  courses  by  increasing  internationalisation  in 
Higher Education. 

2.2. Quality and efficiency in education and training 

Quality  teaching  and  the  effective  organisation  of  educational  and  training  activities 
received  increased  attention  over  the  previous  ET  2020  work  cycle.  There  is  a  general 
acknowledgement that investment in human capital is essential for ensuring growth and 
competitiveness and Member States argue in favour of maintaining the strategic objective 
of pursuing quality and efficiency in education and training.  

In general Member States see quality as an issue that cuts across general, vocational, and 
adult  education.  Regarding  efficiency,  on  the  backdrop  of  recent  cuts  and  continuing 

31  AT,  BE  nl,  CZ,  DE,  DK,  ES,  FI,  IE,  IT,  LT,  PL,  PT,  SE,  SI,  UK  (See  also  Chapter  2.2  under 
"Modernising Higher Education"). 
32 AT, CY, HR, HU, LU, SE, SI. 
33 'Towards a mobility scoreboard: conditions for learning abroad in Europe',  Eurydice 2014. 
34 The Mobility Scoreboard monitors progress in implementing the 2011 Council Recommendation. 
35 DE, BE, ES, FR,ES. 
36 BG, EL, SI,CY. 
37 BE-nl and BE-de, CY, LU, SI, FI, SE. 
38 BE-fr, BG, CZ, EL, HR, LT, RO, SK. 

20 

 
 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                 
constraints  on  educational  budgets  in  a  number  of  Member  States,  increasing  the 
efficiency and effectiveness of investment in education and training appears essential to 
avoid deterioration of outcomes. 

2.2.1. Basic skills (literacy, mathematics, science and technology), languages 

Policy context at EU level 

Data from Eurostat, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the 
Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) show that too many people (young and adults) in the EU 
have fairly low skills, drop out from education or training, or do not take part in further 
learning, up- or re-skilling. Underachievement in basic skills among school-age children 
cause  troubles  in  the  transition  to  work  and  increase  the  risk  of  remaining  low-skilled 
throughout  life,  which  is  correlated  to  a  higher  risk  of  unemployment  and  low 
productivity. Progress is mixed regarding the ET 2020 benchmark of reducing the share 
of "low achievers"39  among 15 year  olds in reading, mathematics and science to below 
15%. The EU as a whole is seriously lagging behind in mathematics. Progress is slightly 
better in reading and science, but the slow pace of improvement demands that Member 
States sustain their efforts to tackle low achievement in school education.  

Students below PISA level 2 – European Union's averages 

                      2006 

Reading   

Mathematics 

Science 

23% 

24% 

20% 

2009 

20% 

22% 

18% 

2012 

18% 

22% 

17% 

Source: EU Commission analysis of PISA 2012 results (PISA 2012, OECD)40. 

There is evidence that migrants and those with a migrant background have more adverse 
educational  outcomes.  In  2012,    an  average  of  30%  of  foreign-born  pupils  across  the 
European Union lacked basic reading skills at 15, compared with around 25% of native 
students born to immigrant parents and 14% of native children of mixed parentage and of 
children of native-born parents41. 

Low  literacy  and  numeracy  skills  are  also  revealed  by  PIAAC  among  the  adult 
population  in  17  EU  countries  surveyed,  representing  83%  of  the  EU28  population.  It 
also showed that 25% lack the skills to effectively make use of ICT. 

39 PISA level 2. 
40 http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/doc/pisa2012_en.pdf. 
41 OECD/European Union (2015), Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In, OECD Publishing, 
Paris. 

21 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Share of the population 16-65 years old at each skills level per country42 

Source: European Commission based on Survey of Adult Skills' results (OECD, 2013). Ordered by the 
share of level 1 and below. Missing: did not take the test. 

National  initiatives  on  basic  skills  tend  to  be  scattered,  instead  of  embracing  a  lifelong 
learning  approach.  This  area  continues  to  attract  considerable  spending  from  structural 
funds, with very unequal implementation results across Member States. 

The European added value to addressing the issue of underachievement in basic skills is 
related  to  actions  that  may  involve  but  are  not  limited  to:  (i)  identify,  analyse,  and 
promote policies that work, coupling  research evidence with practice; (ii) support these 
policies  through  the  Erasmus+  programme;  (iii)  support  policy  development  and 
experimentation  in  search  of  new  solutions;  (iv)  look  for  inspiring  initiatives  from 
outside the education system; (v) create a network for cooperation among stakeholders at 
various  levels  in  view  of  strengthening  the  mission  of  schools  not  only  as  providers  of 
knowledge, but also as centres of local communities; (vi) identify key trends as well as 
new  social  and  technological  developments  that  might  affect  education  across  Europe; 
and (vii) develop EU-wide standards and frameworks to help reducing underachievement 
in basic skills. 

As  a  follow  up  of  the  Rethinking  Education  Communication,  a  report  on  tackling 
underachievement in basic skills is expected to be prepared. This report will build on the 
conclusions  of  the  High  Level  Group  of  experts  on  literacy  and  of  the  OMC  Thematic 
Working Group on Mathematics, Science and Technology. It will use information from 
the  PISA  2012  results,  the  PIAAC  Survey,  the  Study  on  National  Policies  on 
underachievement  in  basic  skills,  the  Study  on  Innovative  Pedagogies  and  from 
numerous  other  analyses  and  research  articles.  It  will  cover  literacy,  mathematics, 
science and digital literacy and extend to early childhood, school and adult education  – 
including formal, non-formal and informal ways of learning. 

42  See  also  graphs  on  numeracy  and  problem  solving 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/doc/piaac_en.pdf. 

in 

technology  rich  environments 

in: 

22 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
Erasmus+ could support future initiatives, with projects that integrate the teaching of all 
three  domains  of  basic  skills  (maths,  science  and  literacy),  foster  multidisciplinary  and 
inter-disciplinary  approaches  and  promote  problem-based  learning  and  innovative 
approaches to teaching in a technology-rich environment.  

Boosting  adults’ basic skills continues  to be the key objective of the European Agenda 
for Adult Learning. A Call under Erasmus+ was published in Spring 2015 to cover the 
period 2016-17 with the view to provide grants to support national coordinators to carry 
out  concrete  activities  which  will  increase  the  rate  of  participation  in  learning  of  low 
skilled or low qualified adults and enhance their basic skills and other key competences.  

Regarding the situation of  languages  in  the EU, the need to equip the future  European 
population  with  additional  languages  to  their  native  language  is  widely  recognized. 
Support to the acquisition of the language of instruction for children speaking a different 
language at home needs particular attention. 

At European level, the ET 2020 Thematic Working Group on languages has produced 
a  Country  Comparative  Analysis,43  which  seeks  to  identify  the  main  challenges  and 
opportunities in language teaching and learning and delivers elements of methodology to 
assess  the  modalities  for  language  teaching  and  learning  in  the  different  national 
contexts.  

The  2014  Council  conclusions  on  multilingualism  and  the  development  of  language 
competences44  invited  Member  States  to  adopt  and  improve  measures  aimed  at 
promoting multilingualism and enhancing the quality and efficiency of language learning 
and  teaching.  The  conclusions  also  stressed  the  importance  of  appropriate  assessment 
methods  to  measure  progress  and  invited  Member  States  to  make  greater  use  of  the 
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages. Indeed, developing 
language skills involves first improving the quality and efficiency of language education 
within the teaching and learning time available. It also involves developing better testing 
and  assessment  methods  for  learning  outcomes  and  establishing  a  common  basis  for 
national evaluation systems based on the CEFR. 

Reporting 

In  their  National  Reports  on  the  previous  ET  2020  work  cycle,  Member  States  listed  a 
number  of  activities  which  aim  at  improving  the  general  outcomes  of  school  education 
and at reaching the ET 2020 basic skills benchmark.  

For example, in-depth country analyses of PISA results, dissemination to the public and 
discussion  with  experts  were  reported  by  eight  Member  States45.  In  some  cases  these 
analyses  were  used  as  a  basis  for  the  development  of  measures  and  specific  national 
strategies  and  legislative  initiatives46.  Other  Member  States  took  measures  to  improve 
school  quality,  e.g.  by  emphasising  student-centred  learning  or  the  introduction  of  new 
teaching methods47.  

43Available in the document library on the Languages web site:  
http://ec.europa.eu/languages/library/index_en.htm. 
44 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/142692.pdf.  
45 BE fr, CY, DE, HR, HU, SE, SI, SK. 
46 CZ, ES, HR, IE, NL. 
47 CZ, DE, DK, EE, IR, PT. 

23 

 
 
 
                                                 
Measures  often  focus  on  improving  specific  skills,  such  as  literacy48,  numeracy49  or 
digital literacy50. Some countries report measures to support specific target groups, such 
as high achievers, disadvantaged students, students with low socio-economic background 
or ESL. Six countries51 gave priority to individualisation of teaching and learning, which 
is closely related to the approach of inclusion. 

Several  Member  States  reported  an  increasing  number  of  participants  in  adult  basic 
education or made efforts to include low skilled groups in adult education52. A number of 
National Reports mentioned diverse target groups, e.g. people at risk of exclusion from 
labour  market,  young  people,  ESLs  or  NEETs,  workers,  migrants,  prisoners  or  ex-
offenders  and  disabled  people.  The  main  measures  reported  to  reach  these  groups  are: 
guidance and counselling activities, support to "family learning" and "back to education" 
as well as the professional development of practitioners working with vulnerable groups. 

The  publication  of  PIAAC's  results  is  triggering  debate  and  reforms  in  a  number  of 
Member States. Some increased funding for adult education (FI, DK), others introduced 
deductibility of training costs from income taxes (NL). Increasing adult skills through a 
national guidance and counselling project (SK), developing an LLL 2020 strategy (EE) 
and establishing a permanent observatory to monitor the matching of training and labour 
market  requirements  (IT)  count  among  targeted  initiatives.  Several  Member  States 
reported  a  focus  on  specific  areas  for  improvement,  such  as  VET  and  work-based 
learning (FR, SK) or adult basic skills (DK, MT). 
Regarding  languages,  several  Member  States53  have  implemented  or  are  currently 
implementing specific action plans and strategies to improve the availability, and to some 
extent  the  quality  of  foreign  language  learning.  In  other  Member  States54  foreign 
language  learning  and  teaching  have  undergone  change  as  part  of  broader 
educational  reforms.  The  initiatives  mainly  target  primary  and/or  secondary  education 
(no Member State mentions initiatives in higher education). Foreign language teaching is 
initiated at an earlier stage than in the past and more languages are made available. In all 
Member  States  (except  BE-nl,  IE  and  UK)  English  is  the  first  foreign  language,  either 
compulsory or chosen. More recent reforms focus on language teaching methodology55, 
teacher training56 and assessment of language competencies57. 

Following  the  May  2014  Council  conclusions  on  multilingualism,  EU  Member  States 
agreed to improve measures aimed at promoting multilingualism, enhancing the quality 
and efficiency of language learning and teaching and to develop measures for assessing 
language proficiency of secondary school students. To this aim DG EAC launched two 
studies to be presented on the European Day of Languages58: (i) an inventory of national 

48 BE fr, BE nl, BG, CZ, DE, HR, IE, LU, MT, NL, UK. 
49 DE, EE, IE, NL. 
50 CZ, EE, FR, IE. 
51 AT, BE nl, DE, HR, MT, SE. 
52 BE nl, BG, CY, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, IE, IT, LU, LV, MT, PT, RO, SI, SE, SK. 
53 BE nl, CZ, EE, FR, SK, SI. 
54 DK, ES, FI, HE, HR, IT, MT, NL, SE, UK. 
55 AT, BEfr, BG, CZ, CY, ES, FR, HE, HR, HU, IT, LV, LT, NL, SI. 
56 BG, CZ, EE, EL, HE, IT, NL, SK. 
57 AT, BEfr, DK, HE, HU, LT, PT. 
58 European Day of Languages - September 26, 2015. 

24 

 
 
 
                                                 
assessment and testing methods in Member States, and (ii) a study on the comparability 
of national assessment methods.  

Remaining challenges 

Regarding  basic  skills,  the  challenges  lying  ahead  are  daunting.  Many  EU  Member 
States  have  significant  and/or  increasing  number  of  underachievers  in  basic  skills  as 
measured by PISA and PIAAC.  

An outstanding challenge remains to ensure the adequate supply of learning opportunities 
for adults, particularly tailored to specific groups in specific settings or situations, such as 
at  the  workplace,  unemployed,  migrant,  inactive  in  the  labour  market59.  Improving 
adults’ skills levels is prioritised in several Member States60 and there is a clear call for 
providing basic skills as part of a broader set of transversal key competences, including 
digital skills61.  
Thirteen countries62 reported they intend to perform in-depth analysis of the results of the 
PISA survey. Eleven countries referred to plans to initiate activities in the area of quality 
enhancement  of  the  teaching  and  learning  process63,  support  mechanisms  for  targeted 
groups64, improvement of specific skills as numeracy, literacy or digital skills65 and the 
development  of  standards  and  frameworks66.  Some  Member  States  reported  a  specific 
emphasis on primary and compulsory schooling67. 
Ten  countries  propose  focusing  on  the  challenge  of  combating  early  school  leaving68. 
The ESL headline target certainly overlaps with underachievement in basic skills. Early 
school leavers are typically those students who perform poorly in the classroom and on 
standardised tests. Overall, Member States consider that it is now of key importance to 
provide high-quality secondary education as a basis for further education or entering the 
labour market.  

Providing learning support for underachieving students, introducing curriculum reforms, 
promoting  new  assessment  tools  and    innovative  pedagogical  practices,  developing  a 
more holistic approach to school education are outstanding challenges.  

Regarding languages, a number of challenges are still to be addressed:  

•  Increasing  the  levels  of  achievement  in  languages  within  the  teaching  and 
learning time available in compulsory education. 

•  Promoting  a  broader  understanding  of  the  CEFR  approach:  new  assessment 
models, emphasis on productive skills and the ability to communicate effectively. 

•  Setting  ambitious  and  realistic  targets  for  the  1st  and  2nd  foreign  language:  the 
majority of pupils should have reached the "independent user" level (CEFR level B1 

59 See also chapter 2.1.1. 
60 AT, CY, DK, LA, MT, PL, SE. 
61 CZ, EE, FR, HU, NL, PL, SI. 
62 BE fr, CY, CZ, DE, ES, HR, HU, IE, NL, PL, SE, SI, SK. 
63 AT, CZ, DE, DK, EE, FR, HR, IE, LU, PT, RO. 
64 AT, DE, EE, ES, FR, IE, LU, PT, SE. 
65 BG, CZ, DE, EE, FR, IE, LU, NL. 
66 AT, DE, IE, MT, PT, UK. 
67 AT, DK, FI, MT, SE. 
68 BG, DE, FI, FR, HU, LV, MT, PT, SK, UK. 

25 

 
 
 
                                                 
or more) at the end of compulsory education in the 1st foreign language and be able 
to expand and differentiate the acquisition of foreign languages. 

•  Maintaining  and  building  language  competences  in  ISCED  3  when  language 
learning is likely to be an optional choice for students. 

•  Promoting the effective acquisition of the language of instruction by migrants. 

Priorities for further action 

  Enhancing 

targeted  policy  action 

in  basic 
competences  across  Europe,  covering  literacy,  mathematics,  science  and  digital 
literacy. 

low  achievement 

to  reduce 

2.2.2. Professional development of teachers, trainers and school leaders   

Policy context at EU level 

Educators  are  essential  to  improving  the  quality  of  teaching  and  learning  and  have  the 
most  important  impact  on  the  performance  of  learners  within  educational  institutions. 
The  2012  PISA  survey  found  that  countries  that  had  improved  their  performance  in 
PISA, such as Estonia and Poland in the EU, had also established policies to improve the 
quality of their teaching staff. 69 

In  their  Council  Conclusions  on  effective  teacher  education  (May  2014),  Education 
Ministers  addressed  the  issue  of  teacher  education  as  a  key  part  of  broader  policies  to 
raise the attractiveness and quality of the teaching profession. The Conclusions focus on 
action to make Initial Teacher Education (ITE) more effective and stress the need for ITE 
programmes to offer a balanced mix of subject knowledge, pedagogical competences and 
practical  teaching  experience,  and  to  enhance  teachers’  capacity  to  support  and  teach 
diverse groups of learners effectively.  

Initial  Teacher  Education  should  prepare  teachers  with  key  tools  for  high  quality 
teaching in a range of learning situations and classroom environments. This includes the 
capacity to diagnose student problems effectively and to draw from a wide repertoire of 
possible  solutions  to  create  learner-oriented  teaching  methods  and  assess  learning 
outcomes.  ITE  should  also  ensure  that  teacher  education  addresses  equality  and  non-
discrimination,  potential  gender  stereotypes  and  ways  of  dealing  with  diversity  in  the 
classroom.  While  ITE  cannot  give  teaching  staff  all  the  competences  they  will  require 
throughout  their  career,  it  needs  to  provide  novice  teachers  with  a  solid  foundation  for 
collaborative,  reflective  and  research-led  practice,  including  an  attitude  and  capacity  to 
engage  in  continuing  professional  development  (CPD).  According  to  TALIS  201370, 
the  areas  where  teachers  report  the  highest  needs  for  professional  development  include 
teaching  students  with  special  needs,  developing  ICT  skills  for  teaching,  new 
technologies in the workplace and teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting. The 

69  OECD(2013):  PISA  2012  Results:  Excellence  through  Equity.  Giving  Every  Student  the  Chance  to 
Succeed. Volume II. 
70 OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS2013), June 2014, with the participation of 
19 EU Member States (BE_nl, BG, CZ, CY, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, HR, IT, LV, NL, PL, PT, RO, SE, SK, 
UK). 

26 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
study report Survey of Schools: ICT in Education71 shows that on average across the EU 
countries,  between  20-25%  of  students  are  taught  by  digitally  confident  and  supportive 
teachers  having  high  access  to  ICT  and  facing  low  obstacles  to  their  use  at  school. 
Differences between countries are, however, very large. 

The  Council  Conclusions  on  effective  teacher  education  also  make  reference  to  the 
importance of defining teachers’ competences. By clarifying what teaching staff should 
know and be able to do, competence frameworks or standards can help raise the quality 
of  the  teaching  profession  in  several  ways,  for  instance  by  improving  initial  teacher 
the  provision  of  continued 
education  programmes,  recruitment  processes  and 
professional development. Member States increasingly acknowledge this, and according 
to "Key data on Teachers and school leaders" (Eurydice 2013) competence frameworks 
have  been  recently  introduced  in  several  countries  (PL,  NO)  or  have  recently  been 
revised72. 

At  EU  level,  the  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  School  Policy  is  developing 
recommendations on the ways and means to improve the relevance and effectiveness of 
Initial  Teacher  Education.  This  work  complements  new  evidence  from  a  range  of 
sources,  such  as  results  from  the  OECD’s  TALIS  survey,  including  secondary  data 
analysis by Eurydice73 and CRELL74, a study on the diversity of the teaching force, the 
conclusions  of  the  SIRIUS  policy  network  on  education  and  migrants75  and  of  the 
European Policy Network on School leaders (EPNoSL)76. Work could be pursued at EU 
level  on  innovative  pedagogies  and  new  school  organisation  through  both  policy  work 
and the Erasmus+ programme. 

The  Erasmus+  programme  provides  support  for  a  range  of  initiatives  including 
cooperation in the field of teacher education, partnerships for more effective professional 
support,  the  introduction  of  innovative  tools  and  methods  of  teaching, assistance  to  the 
development  of  leadership  in  schools.  With  a  view  to  reducing  shortages  of  qualified 
teachers  and  improving  the  attractiveness  of  the  teaching  profession,  Erasmus+  could 
also  finance  policy  experimentation  to  strengthen  recruitment  and  selection  of  teachers 
and develop alternative pathways to the teaching profession.  
With  the  School  Education  Gateway77  the  Commission  has  created  a  new  web-based 
platform  for  teachers  (and  other  educational  actors  and  organisations,  policy  makers, 
enterprises  etc.)  which  could  be  continuously  developed  to  improve  the  links  between 
policy and practice in European education.  

Reporting 

In the ET 2020 National Reports, Member States list a number of activities which aim at 
improving the quality of teaching. Thirteen Member States reported measures to improve 

71 https://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/sites/digital-agenda/files/KK-31-13-401-EN-N.pdf. 
72 GR, IE, NL, SE, UK, TR. 
73Forthcoming Eurydice report “The teaching profession in Europe: Practices, Perceptions, and Policies”, 
June 2015. 
74  Forthcoming  CRELL  report  on  Teaching  and  learning  practices  in  primary  and  secondary  education, 
June 2015. 
75 http://www.sirius-migrationeducation.org/. 
76 http://www.schoolleadership.eu/. 
77 http://www.schooleducationgateway.eu. 

27 

 
 
 
                                                 
the quality of teaching by enhancing teacher training or evaluation78, while eight reported 
measures  to  improve  the  evaluation  of  education  and  training  through  diverse 
approaches:  external  examination  trough  examiners  ("critical  friends"),  scientific 
research and analysis (PT, SI), new assessment and accreditation methodologies as self-
evaluation79, monitoring of student progress and graduates (PL).   

Remaining challenges 

Several  remaining  challenges  were  highlighted,  ranging  from  shortages  of  qualified 
teachers,  low  job-satisfaction  and  attractiveness  of  the  teaching  profession,  to 
professional  development  related  issues  such  as  increasing  ICT  skills  for  teachers  and 
addressing teaching in multicultural environments. 

According to school leaders surveyed for TALIS 2013, more than a third of teachers in 
the European Union work in schools with shortage of qualified/well-performing staff. 
Nearly half of all teachers are employed in schools where there is a shortage of teachers 
for pupils with special needs.  

In  the  mid-term,  such  shortages  can  endanger  progress  already  made  on  educational 
performance  and  equity.  Shortages  perceived  at  school  level  can  have  different  causes. 
At least 11 Member States80 are faced with  global teacher shortages due to an ageing 
workforce  or  high  drop-out  rates,  but  none  of  them  has  a  coherent  strategy  in  place  to 
increase  the  attractiveness  of  the  teaching  profession.  In  addition,  many  countries 
experience shortages of staff in particular subjects or with special profiles. It is often the 
disadvantaged  schools  that  have  difficulties  in  attracting  sufficient  qualified  and 
experienced  teachers.81  The  attractiveness  of  the  teaching  profession  is  in  decline  in 
many Member States, and with few exceptions (FI, IE), teaching careers no longer attract 
the academically best candidates. Although nearly 90% of teachers in the EU say they are 
satisfied with their jobs,only 19% feel that the teaching profession is valued in society82. 
These  trends  and  perceptions  have  the  potential  to  further  increase  the  challenges  of 
recruiting high-calibre candidates and retaining good teachers within the profession.  

78 AT, BG, DE, EE, FR, HR, IE, LU, PL, PT, RO, SE, SI. 
79 DE, ES, IT, RO, SI. 
80 AT, BE-fr, DK, DE, IT, LU, NL, RO, SI, SK, SE, according to the ‘Study on policy measures to improve 
the attractiveness of the teaching profession in Europe’ (European Commission, 2014). 
81  OECD  (2013):  PISA  2012  Results:  Excellence  through  Equity.  Giving  Every  Student  the  Chance  to 
Succeed (Volume II). 
82 TALIS 2013: http://ec.europa.eu/education/library/reports/2014/talis_en.pdf.  

28 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Percentage of teachers and leaders in ISCED2 who "Agree" or "Strongly Agree" with 
the statement presented 

Source: European Commission analysis of TALIS 2013 The Teaching and Learning International Survey 
(OECD). 

Teachers’  professionalisation  and  competence  development  was  proposed  by  eight 
Member States as a priority area for the next ET 2020 work cycle83. Teacher education, 
including  career-long  professional  development,  must  be  conceived  from  a  lifelong 
learning perspective and requires solid approaches related to, inter alia, modernisation of 
initial teacher education (CZ), the development of specific teaching skills, such as digital 
competences (ES) and the ongoing professionalization throughout the career (BE nl). 

Priorities for further action 

•  Strengthening  recruitment,  selection  and  induction  of  the  best  and  most  suitable 

candidates for the teaching profession. 

•  Raising the attractiveness and prestige of the teaching profession, including through 

comprehensive strategies, and tackling gender imbalances in the profession. 

•  Supporting  initial  education  and  continuing  professional  development  of  educators, 
especially  to  deal  with  increased  diversity  of  learners,  ESL,  work  based  learning, 
digital competences and innovative pedagogies, including through EU tools such as 
eTwinning,  the  School  Education  Gateway  and  the  ePlatform  for  AL  in  Europe 
(EPALE). 

•  Promoting  excellence  in  teaching  at  all  levels,  through  programme  design,  learning 
organisation and incentive structures, and exploring new ways to measure the quality 
of teacher training. 

83 BE nl, BG, CZ, ES, FR, IT, LT, SE. 

29 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
2.2.3. Modernising higher education and increasing tertiary attainment levels 

Policy context at EU level 

Supporting  efforts  to  modernise  higher  education  systems  and  increase  tertiary 
attainment levels are key elements of ET 2020 and remain an important area for further 
European cooperation.  

Building, in particular, on the Commission's 2011 Communication on the modernisation 
of  higher  education  systems  and  the  subsequent  Council  Conclusions84,  EU-level 
cooperation  in  higher  education  has  been  structured  around  five  closely  inter-related 
themes:  increasing  attainment  levels;  improving  the  quality  and  relevance  of  higher 
education  provision;  promoting  mobility  and  cross-border  cooperation;  linking  higher 
education,  research  and  innovation  processes  and;  improving  governance  and  funding 
systems.  

In the latest round of structured cooperation within the ET 2020 Working Group on the 
modernisation of higher education, in-depth exchange and peer learning has targeted four 
important  issues:  the  deployment  of  new  modes  of  teaching  and  learning  in  higher 
education  (early  2014);  mergers,  consolidation,  clustering  and  specialisation  (spring 
2014);  performance-related  funding  (autumn  2014)  and  promoting  the  employability  of 
graduates (early 2015). Outcomes of these workshops have been presented systematically 
to  the  meetings  of  Directors  General  for  Higher  Education  hosted  as  part  of  each  EU 
presidency. 

Progress on each of these themes depends on the priorities set at national level and the 
ET  2020  stocktaking  showed  that  Member  States  have  elected  to  focus  their  efforts  on 
one or more of these strands.  

Reporting 

The most recent edition of the Commission's Education and Training Monitor shows that 
current  levels  of  tertiary  education  attainment  vary  considerably  between  Member 
States.  While  16  Member  States  have  attainment  rates  among  the  30-34  year  old  age 
cohort above the ET 2020 benchmark of 40%85, only 11 countries have already met the 
national  targets  they  have  established  for  202086.  Expanding  graduate  numbers  in  line 
with labour market requirements remains an important priority in a majority of Member 
States.   

84 COM(2011)567, respectively Conclusions of Education, Youth, Culture and Sport Council meeting, 28-
29 November 2011. 
85 BE, CY, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, IE, LU, LT, LV, NL, PL, SE, SI UK. 
86 LT, SE, CY, FI, EE, DK, NL, LV, SI, EL, HU. 

30 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Tertiary attainment levels and targets (%), 2014 

Tertiary education attainment rate 2014
Europe 2020 headline target
National target

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

IT RO MT SK CZ BG PT DE HR HU EL EU LV AT SI PL ES BE DK FR NL FI EE UK SE IE CY LU LT

Source: Eurostat (LFS). Online data code: t2020_41. Note: The indicator covers the share of the population 
aged  30-34  years  having  successfully  completed  ISCED  level  5  to  8.  National  targets  follow  different 
definitions of the indicator in some countries. 

Increasing the proportion of the European citizens that has successfully gained a tertiary 
education qualification implies both widening access to higher education to people who 
are traditionally less likely to attend university or college and ensuring that those entering 
higher education actually graduate. This twin focus is reflected in the National Reports.   
Seven  Member  States  report  initiatives  designed  to  improve  completion  rates87.  The 
focus  is  often  on  improving  guidance  and  support  to  prospective  and  current  students 
and/or on developing higher education programmes that are more directly relevant to the 
labour market. 
Ten Member States88 report on recent measures to improve  social mobility and access 
to  higher  education,  including  financial  support,  the  creation  of  new  alternative 
pathways  into  higher  education  and  campaigns  to  overcome  psychological  and  cultural 
barriers  that  can  stop  young  people  from  non-academic  backgrounds  from  entering 
higher education.  

In  Austria, policy to  widen  access has  focused in  particular on expanding capacity in 
Universities  of  Applied  Sciences  (Fachhochschulen),  which  offer  courses  that  have 
potential  to  appeal  effectively  to  target  groups  with  historically  low  rates  of  higher 
education participation. Over 50% of programmes can be attended on a part time basis, 
thus creating flexibility and increasing attractiveness.  

In Denmark, the institutional development contracts for 2015-2017 include promoting 
social  mobility  as  a  mandatory  goal  and  every  institution  is  expected  to  demonstrate 
how they plan to achieve it.  

In  France,  a  national  programme  of  partnerships  between  schools,  higher  education 
institutions  and  education  authorities  focuses  on  providing  counselling  to  help  young 
people  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  to  overcome  psychological  and  cultural 
barriers that might prevent them from pursuing higher education. 

87 AT, DK, HU, HR, IS, PT, IT. 
88 AT, BE-fr, DE, DK, FR, FI, HR, HU, PL, SE. 

31 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
While  raising  tertiary  education  attainment  rates  remains  firmly  on  the  agenda  in  EU 
Member States, an arguably stronger focus is placed on strengthening the quality and 
relevance  of  the  education  that  systems  provide,  as  well  as  developing  synergies 
between teaching, research and innovation. This focus is clearly reflected in Member 
States’ proposals for fields for further cooperation at EU level. 

The  last  two  decades  have  seen  the  development  of  independent  quality  assurance 
(QA) systems in higher education across the EU. In their national reports, six Member 
States89  report  on  the  introduction  of  new  quality  assurance  and  evaluation  systems, 
including the creation of new quality assurance agencies (CY).  

Sweden is in the process of designing a new system of QA that will balance a perceived 
need  for  enhanced  supervision  of  quality  with  the  country’s  strong  tradition  of 
institutional autonomy.  

In  Denmark,  a  new  Expert  Committee  on  Quality  in  Higher  Education  has  been 
established to provide recommendations on how to enhance the quality of Danish higher 
education over the next 20 years. 

The  relevance  of  higher  education  to  societal  and  economic  needs,  in  particular  in 
terms  of  the  specific  knowledge  (from  particular  disciplines  of  study)  and  broader 
transversal skills fostered by programmes cannot be dissociated from the issue of quality. 
In  this  area,  many  EU  countries90  report  on  initiatives  to  improve  the  match  between 
higher education provision and the needs of the economy. Other common areas for policy 
development are the development of higher vocational education and professional higher 
education91  and  establishing  better  links  between  education,  research  and  development 
and the broader economy92. 

reported  specifically  on 

the  development  of 
Half  of  EU  Member  States 
internationalisation strategies in higher education to support quality and openness of 
national systems93. The national strategies typically cover mobility of students, teachers 
and researchers (including attracting more students from outside the EU), the creation of 
international partnerships between institutions, including, in some cases, the development 
of  joint  courses  and  participation  in  European  or  international  projects  and  obtaining 
funding  from  “international"  sources.  Five  Member  States  explicitly  mention  efforts  to 
increase provision of higher education programmes in English to support mobility94. As 
part of the internationalisation strategies, there are signs of a growing engagement with 
higher education in emerging economies.  

89 BE-fr, CY, CZ, FI, LV, PT 
90 AT, BE-fr, CZ, DK, ES, IT, PL, PT, PL 
91 BE-nl, CZ, DK, ES, IT 
92 AT, CZ, HR, LV, SK 
93 AT, BE-nl, CZ, DE, DK, ES, FI, IE, IT, LT, PL, PT, SE, SI, UK 
94 AT, BE-nl, CY, HR, PT 

32 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
The  Danish  government  has  supported  the  establishment  of  Innovation  Centre 
Denmark (ICDK), with a presence in India, China and Brazil, as well as other strategic 
markets including  Silicon Valley, to support  Danish  higher education institutions (and 
companies) to build new innovation partnerships with actors in these countries.  

The  UK  has  established  partnership  agreements  with  India,  Brazil  and  China,  which 
enable  UK  HEIs  to  identify  and  access  research  and  innovation  partners,  attract 
international  students  to  the  UK,  promote  mobility  exchange  and  the  development  of 
long-term links. 

Regarding funding, recent work in the ET 2020 Working Group on higher education and 
in the meeting of Directors General for Higher Education illustrated that designing and 
implementing  higher  education  funding  systems  with  a  stronger  performance-based 
element is a common preoccupation across EU Member States and a field where mutual 
learning at EU level has a strong added value95. 

Remaining challenges 

A  key  concern  in  countries  across  the  EU  is  to  increase  graduate  employability  and 
reduce  the  risk  of  unemployment  among  graduates  by  ensuring  students  are  as  well 
prepared as  possible for the world  of work.  Twelve Member States  suggest developing 
joint  work  to  improve  monitoring  of  graduate  employment  outcomes  and  the  use  of 
this data to enhance the relevance of higher education provision96. Several countries point 
to a need to improve skills matching and ask for additional skills forecasting97, while 
many  of  these  countries  also  highlight  improved  links  between  higher  education 
institutions and businesses  and other employers as  an important  tool  in both improving 
the relevance of education and easing graduates’ transition to the labour market. 

Increasing the relevance of higher education remains a challenge.  To support policy-
making  at  national  and  institutional  level  and  increase  the  match  between  what  higher 
education delivers and what society needs in the short and long term, better intelligence 
is  required  on  how  today’s  graduates  fare  in  terms  of  labour  market  integration  (how 
quickly they find work and in what areas), and what the future labour market is likely to 
require  (in  terms  of  specific  knowledge  and  skills  or  combinations  of  knowledge  and 
skills).  This  is  particularly  important  in  an  increasingly  digital  society  and  for  the 
transition to a circular economy. 

Evidence from work to date shows that system-wide skills anticipation and labour market 
monitoring  play  an  important  role  in  identifying  gaps  in  current  higher  education 
provision,  as  well  as  areas  of  over-supply  of  graduates  (in  particular  disciplines). 
However,  forecasting  and  monitoring  can  ever  only  be  part  of  the  picture,  especially 
given  the  fast-changing  nature  of  the  labour  market.  Helping  students  to  develop 
transversal  skills  crucial  for  employment  and  long-term  adaptability  must  be  a  core 
concern for higher education programmes in all disciplines. There is considerable scope 
at  EU  level  for  more  mutual  learning  regarding  effective  curriculum  design,  rewarding 

95 See also chapter 2.2.5 under "Efficient funding and evaluation". 
96 DE, DK, ES, FR, HU, IE, IT, LV, PL, PT, RO, SI. 
97 DK, HR, RO, SE, PT. 

33 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
and  recognising  good  teaching,  effective  use  of  ICT,  development  of  inter-discplinary 
working, organisation of work-based learning and cooperation between higher education 
and employers.  

Seven  Member  States  explicitly  highlight  a  need  for  more  work  on  promoting  quality 
and excellence in higher education teaching98. This is consistent with a core message 
of  the  EU  High  Level  Group  on  the  Modernisation  of  Higher  Education,  whose  2013 
report looked at this issue. 

Supporting  digitisation  is  a  key  challenge  for  the  future.  While  clearly  linked  to  the 
wider goal of enhancing teaching in higher education, the use of ICT in higher education 
emerges as a priority in its own right. Blended learning makes it possible to rethink the 
way established higher education programmes are structured and delivered, in particular 
by freeing up contact time in class for interactive activities. Online delivery also opens 
greater  opportunities  for  building  links  between  insitutions  and  expanding  lifelong 
learning  provision, while digital networks within and between campuses nationally and 
innovation  activities  within  higher  educations 
worldwide  support  reseach  and 
institutions.  

Many national reports refer to the exploitation of new technologies and suggest this as a 
specific  area  for  further  EU-level  cooperation.  The  recommendation  is  to  look 
specifically at digitisation of content and use of eLearning tools to create new forms of 
course and cooperation platforms. A number of countries (IT, SI) highlight the particular 
role of the EU in stimulating higher education institutions and Member State authorities 
to  be  innovative  in  the  deployment  of  ICT,  including  through  use  of  EU  funding 
programmes. The issue of quality assurance of online courses, as part of wider European 
quality and recognition systems, is also highlighted by some Member States as an issue 
worthy of further attention at EU level. 

SG comment: the SWD priorities must be fully in line with Joint Report. This alignment 
was  done  throughout  the  SWD.Several  Member  States  (BE-nl,  CZ,  IE,  HR,  RO)  stress 
the  importance  of  developing  more  effective  mechanisms  for  allocating  public 
investment in higher education and rewarding good performance by institutions. 

Action  to  support  mobility  was  suggested  by  more  than  two  thirds  of  countries,  with 
many stressing the importance of ensuring that study periods abroad are as effective and 
meaningful  as  possible  for  students,  staff  and  researchers.  Other  suggestions  included 
further development of joint programmes (DE, LV, MT, PL, PT) and long-term strategic 
partnerships  between  institutions  (EE,  LU,  LV,  SE).  Some  Member  States  (SE,  UK) 
argue  for  thorough  implementation  of  existing  frameworks  such  as  European  Credit 
Transfer  System  (ECTS)  and  the  European  Qualifications  Framework,  as  a  basis  for 
effective cooperation across Europe in teaching and learning. 

Priorities for further action 

•  Promoting  the labour market and societal relevance of higher  education, including 
through better intelligence and anticipation about labour market needs and outcomes, 
new  forms  of  curriculum,  more  work  based  learning  and  enhanced  cooperation 
between institutions and employers. 

98 BG, CY, ES, FR, IE, NO, SK. 

34 

 
 
 
                                                 
2.2.4. Attractiveness and relevance of VET 

Policy context at EU level 

Vocational  education  and  training  is  a  key  education  and  training  sector  that  can  help 
address challenges Europe faces today in terms of youth unemployment, structural skills 
mismatches and rapid technological developments. As an indication of the importance of 
reforms  in  this  sector,  a  considerable  number  of  country  specific  recommendations 
adopted within the European semester have been related to VET in recent years.  
The modernisation agenda for VET as set in the Bruges Communiqué in 201099 proved 
to  be  effective  in  assisting  countries  in  focusing  and  implementing  the  reforms, 
particularly  through  a  set  of  short-term  deliverables  defined  for  the  period  2011-2014. 
The  analysis  of  progress  in  their  achievement  carried  out  by  Cedefop100  shows  that  the 
Bruges  Communiqué  has  inspired  and  supported  national  reforms.  As  shown  in  the 
Cedefop analysis and in the ET 2020 National reports, countries have focused mainly on 
overall  system  reforms,  quality,  quality  assurance,  work-based  learning  and  labour 
market relevance of VET. In most cases national authorities take the lead in reforms, but 
social partners' involvement becomes more and more common especially in the field of 
work-based  learning.  However,  in  countries  with  lower  engagement  of  employers  and 
trade unions, their involvement in the governance of VET systems could be strengthened. 

In  general,  topics  such  as  work-based  learning,  cooperation  with  social  partners, 
development of national qualifications frameworks (NQFs), measures to make VET more 
inclusive  were  at  the  top  of  national  policy  agendas.    Less  focus  was  placed  on 
mechanisms to feed the information of labour market outcomes back to VET provision, 
or  on  continuing  professional  development  for  VET  teachers  and  trainers101.  Incentives  
to  prevent  early  leaving,  to  encourage  providers  to  use  information  on  VET  graduate 
employability or to promote networks to reduce the cost of modernising technology are 
not yet very common. 

Increasing options for work-based learning in VET as a way to increase the quality and 
relevance  of  skills  acquired  through  VET  has  been  a  top  priority  across  the  EU.  The 
European  Alliance  for  Apprenticeship  and  the  Youth  Guarantee  have  provided  an 
additional boost to increase the proportion of work-based learning in VET.  

99  The  Copenhagen  process  governs  the  EU  level  cooperation  in  the  field  of  VET  and  is  an  important 
aspect of the ET 2020 strategic framework. The ET 2020 Council Conclusions of May 2009 specifically 
stipulate that the Copenhagen process should continue to contribute to achieving the objectives set out in 
the ET 2020 strategic framework. 
100 Cedefop (2015): Stronger VET for better lives – Cedefop's monitoring report on vocational education 
and training policies 2010-2014. 
101 Professional development of VET teachers and trainers was not a specific short-term deliverable in the 
period 2011-2014. 

35 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
The European Alliance for Apprenticeships was launched in Leipzig on 2 July 2013 in 
the  form  of  a  joint  declaration  between  the  European  Commission,  the  Lithuanian 
Presidency  and  the  EU  social  partners.    It  was  further  underpinned  by  a  Council 
Declaration on 15 October 2013 in which Ministers agreed on a comprehensive approach 
combining education, training and employment measures, in addition to common guiding 
principles and Member States commitments. It aims to bring together public authorities, 
businesses, social partners, VET providers, youth representatives, and other key actors in 
order  to  promote  apprenticeship  schemes  and  initiatives  across  Europe.  There  are three 
strands  of  action:  a)  reform  of  apprenticeship  systems,  b)  promote  the  benefits  of 
apprenticeships and c) smart use of funding and resources. On 22 June 2015, a high-level 
Presidency  event  was  organised  in  Riga  to  give  the  Alliance  a  new  boost.  As  a 
consequence, 7 new countries joined (31 in total) and 38 new pledges (84 in total) were 
made from companies and other organisations. In addition, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia 
signed a Baltic Alliance for Apprenticeships.   

The  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  VET  responds  to  the  call  to  maximise  work-based 
learning,  including  apprenticeships,  and  to  make  related  policies  more  targeted  and 
effective.  It  also  contributes 
the  European  Alliance  for 
Apprenticeships,  which  consists  in  boosting  the  quality  and  supply  of  apprenticeships 
and in generally improving the attractiveness of VET programmes. 

the  objectives  of 

to 

The Working Group focuses on the following four issues: (1) support for companies, in 
particular  SMEs,  offering  apprenticeships;  (2)  positive  image  of  apprenticeships  and 
improved  career  guidance;  (3)  national  governance,  regulatory  framework  and  social 
partners' involvement; (4) quality assurance in work-based learning. The Working Group 
produced  a  first  guidance  framework  including  7  guiding  principles  on  how  to  support 
companies  in  offering  apprenticeships  and  is  expected  to  finalise  work  on  the  3 
remaining  themes  by  October  2015  with  a  document  covering  around  20  guiding 
principles followed by examples of good practices at national level. 

Reporting 

Member  States  have  supported  the  promotion  of  work-based  learning  through  the 
introduction  of  compulsory  work  experience  (BE  nl),  of  funding  compulsory  work-
placements  in  specific  VET  curricula  (IT),  the  development  of  a  placement/traineeship 
system  (EE),  the  widening  of  possibilities  to  start  apprenticeship  trainings  (FR),  the 
provision  of  short-term  internships  for  unemployed  youth  (BG),  (planned)  financial 
support to learners and/or companies (BG, FR, SE, SK), or a planned introduction of a 
‘Chamber Guarantee’ initiative for ensuring that learners perform on-the-job training in 
real companies (HU). 

36 

 
 
 
 
 
 
IVET work-based students as % of upper secondary IVET, 2012 

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

96 

87 

70 

44 

46 

43 

45 

27 

24 

26 

15 

16 

4 

BE

CZ

DK

DE

1 

EE

3 

ES

FR

LU

HU

NL

AT

PL

SK

FI

UK

Source:  Cedefop  calculations  based  on  Eurostat  data/UOE  data  collection  on  education  systems.  In  the 
UOE  data  collection,  a  VET  programme  is  classified  as  "combined  work-  and  school-based"  if  25%  or 
more of the curriculum is presented outside the school environment.102   

Measures to boost quality of work-based learning include the modernisation of training 
models in industry (CY), the implementation of a ‘workplace learning website’ (BE nl), 
the support of cooperation between training providers and companies (BG, FI, LV), the 
training of trainers/mentors (PT, SE). 

Governments  together  with  social  partners  are  striving  to  increase  the  number  of 
apprenticeship, with subsidies to enterprises being the most popular incentives (grants, or 
reimbursements  of  training  costs,  or  allowances)  and  tax  benefits  appearing  as  less 
popular. There are also training funds to which employers contribute (FR, HU,DK), and 
social partner and/or sectoral training funds (AT, IT, NL, DE).  

Italy  has  recently  overhauled  its  apprenticeship  schemes  through  major  labour  market 
(the  “Jobs  act”)  and  education  reforms  ("La  buona  scuola”).  The  reforms  aim  at 
extending  the  supply  of  dual  apprenticeship,  and  ensuring  improved  “on  the  job 
training”.  A  more  attractive  set  of  financial  support  mechanisms  for  hiring  young 
apprentices is being provided.  

Source: Italy, National Commitment to the European Alliance for Apprenticeships, 2015 

102  In  several  countries,  a  statistical  distinction  of  vocational  programmes  between  combined  work-  and 
school-based,  as  opposed  to  school-based,  was  not  applicable,  due  to  the  characteristics  of  their  IVET 
systems  (BG,  GR,  HR,  CY,  IT,  PT).  For  other  data  was  not  available,  or  have  a  flag  negligible  in  the 
source data (SE and TR) indicating that their upper secondary VET system is school-based.  

37 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
In the UK, apprenticeships are increasingly offered in services industries, as in health and 
social  care,  business  administration,  management,  customer  service  and  hospitality  and 
catering.  Recently,  apprenticeships  have  also  been  developed  in  law,  accountancy  and 
advanced engineering as an alternative to qualifying for these professions by completing 
university degrees.  

In Spain, legislation from 2012 sets the principles for implementing apprenticeship-type 
schemes  and  encourages  enterprise  participation  in  formal  IVET.  Sectoral  agreements 
aim  at  motivating  chambers  and  enterprises  to  help  develop  and  implement  training 
programmes. One of the main aims is to improve learners’ employability and ease their 
transition into the labour market. The programmes are expected to help the low-qualified 
and  early  leavers  return  to  education  and  training  to  upgrade  their  skills.  Since  2012, 
regions have developed dual programmes and are piloting them. 

Source: Cedefop (2015): Stronger VET for better lives 

VET-enterprise  cooperation  goes  beyond  arrangements  to  enable  and  promote  high 
quality work-based learning. As shown in Cedefop analysis, employers, in their capacity 
as  social  partners,  are  involved  in  structures  to  ensure  labour  market  relevant  VET 
provision and to develop and update VET curricula in many countries.  

In Working Groups for curriculum development, employers have a decision-making role 
in some Member States (DE, NL, RO, ES), while they mainly advise in other (FR, PT, 
SK).  

Employer involvement in curriculum design can also take the form of consultation (FI, 
IE)  or  through  national,  sector  and  VET  programme  councils,  such  as  Steering 
Committees and competence centres (BE fr), tripartite Sector Councils (HR), Vocational 
Committees (LT), Sectoral Experts Councils (LV) as well as new support structures for 
enhancing cooperation between VET and labour market (FR, IE, LT, RO).  

Measures  to  achieve  stronger  employer  engagement  include  regional  conferences  (PL), 
the  adjustment  of  opportunities  for  involving  them  in  examinations  (SK)  and  their 
engagement  in  design  of  apprenticeships  and  putting  apprenticeship  funding  in  their 
hands  (UK).  Some  countries  focused  specifically  on  the  development  of  structures  for 
monitoring and forecasting of skills needs103. 

Since  2011,  the  prime  concern  has  been  to  address  youth  unemployment  and  skills 
mismatch through VET for young people. Promoting lifelong learning and mobility has 
therefore  been  somewhat  less  prominent.  However,  a  major  step  towards  improving 
access  to  further  learning  and  individualised  and  flexible  learning  paths  has  been 
countries' work on establishing national qualification frameworks (NQFs). The EQF has 
become an accepted reference point for national qualifications.  

All Member States have introduced measures to reduce early-school-leaving or adapted 
existing  ones  during  the  past  few  years.  These  were  related  to  guidance  (improved 
guidance  quality  and  mentoring  measures)  or  career  management  skills,  for  instance  in 
transition/bridge  or  remedial  programmes104.  Member  States  have  progressed  in  raising 
training participation of the low-skilled and other at-risk groups, but there is scope to do 

103 BE fr, BG, EE, IE, PT, RO, SK. 
104 CZ, DE, LU, AT, RO, UK. 

38 

 
 
 
                                                 
more  to  offer  training  opportunities  for  adults  that  meet  their  learning  and  practical 
needs.  Examples  of  such  measures  are  offering  suitable  time  arrangements,  expanding 
guidance and support and training VET teachers/trainers to work with adults. 

The  Youth  Guarantees  and  similar 
inclusive  aspect  of 
apprenticeships. Many countries devise apprenticeship type schemes and other forms of 
work-based  learning  to  prevent  youth  from  leaving  education  and  training  or  to  help 
young people and adults reintegrate and acquire a qualification. 

initiatives  stress 

the 

Remaining challenges 

According to the ET 2020 National Reports, despite progress in some key areas, Member 
States face a number of challenges, notably related to the attractiveness of VET.105 

Students  enrolled  in  vocational  upper  secondary  education,  2012,  as  a  %  of  all 
students enrolled in upper secondary education (ISCED level 3) 

72,8 

72,7 

71,3 

59,2 

60,7 

75,3 

69,5 

70,3 70,1 

66,2 

61,9 

50,4 

50,6 

48,3 

46,1 

45,5 44,2 

34,1 

32,2 33,1 

48,2 

43,6 

49,4 

38,6 

39,0 

28,7 

27,3 

13,2 

11,8 

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

)
s
e
i
r
t
n
u
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c
8
2
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i

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a
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a
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B

l

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e
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c
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i

a
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a
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r
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e
c
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r
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i

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a
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S

e
c
n
a
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a
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t
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C

y
l
a
t
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s
u
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p
y
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a
i
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i
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g
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b
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a
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U

Source: Eurostat (UOE data collection) 

Favourable  outcomes  alone  are  not  sufficient  to  attract  learners  to  VET  or  to  engage 
enterprises  in  providing.  Smart  use  of  incentives  could  contribute  significantly  to 
boosting  VET  attractiveness  but  according  to  Cedefop  analysis  incentives  are  mainly 
targeted  at  involving  companies  in  work-based  learning  and  other  options  appear  to  be 
underused.  More  needs  to  be  done  to  set  in  place  incentives  (both  financial  and  non-
financial) to support people to remain in VET, to influence the actions of VET providers 
or  to  stimulate  VET  stakeholders  to  cooperate.  Incentives  to  VET  providers  to  prevent 
early  leaving,  for  instance  through  performance-based  funding  are  less  common,  but 
several countries have taken steps after 2010 to introduce them (BG, DK, IE, HR, UK, 

105 BG, CY, DK, EE, ES, HR, IT, LT, LU, LV, SE, SI. 

39 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
IS).  Few  countries  have  reported  on  incentives  to  encourage  VET  providers'  networks 
and  public-private  partnerships  that  could  reduce  the  cost  of  modernising  technology.  
Only a minority of countries has incentives (funding schemes) in place to encourage VET 
providers to use information on VET graduate transition data.  

Cedefop  analysis  shows  that  even  if  data  on  VET  outcomes  –  such  as  graduate 
employability - is available, it does not systematically feed back into the VET provision. 
In fact, the majority of Member States collects data on VET graduate employability and 
other labour market outcomes106, but the actual use of such data for VET provision is less 
common,  possibly  due  to  legal  limitations.  The  underlying  Cedefop  data  shows  that 
legislation allowing combining data on learning, labour market entry and career exists in 
only half of the EU Member States.  

These  conclusions  are  strongly  confirmed  by  the  ET  2020  National  reports.  Member 
States  indicate  as  major  challenges:  achieving  sustainable  partnerships  based  on 
stronger  company  or  stakeholder  involvement  in  apprenticeship  or  internship  /  work-
based learning schemes (ES, HR, IT, LT, SE), developping of curricula and qualification 
profiles  in  cooperation  with  social  partners  to  avoid  skills  mismatches  (EE,  PL,  SE)  or 
the  general  absence  of  a  formal  agreement107  between  the  social  partners  and  the 
government  to  reinforce  work  based  learning  and  provide  training  places  in  companies 
(CY).  

Some countries indicated  skills mismatches as significant remaining challenge (IE, IT, 
LT) and the need to improve skills forecasting procedures (LT, PT, RO). 

Monitoring  the  outcomes  of  VET  graduates  is  an  important  tool  to  support  VET 
participation for groups at risk, through identifying which groups are lagging behind in 
terms of participation, and through providing insight into the underlying causes for this. 
Measures  to  monitor  at  risk  groups  have  been  put  in  place  at  a  slower  pace  than  most 
monitoring measures in general. For instance, children of migrants rarely have the same 
chances to access good training places in the apprenticeship systems108. 

The work on learning outcomes based EQF and NQFs has triggered reflections on how to 
include non-formally acquired qualifications but most countries have yet to link these to 
their  validation  arrangements.  Skills  audits,  for  instance,  are  directly  relevant  to  make 
youth  guarantees  work.  Skills  assessment  is  used  in  transition  programmes  from 
compulsory  education  to  VET  (DE),  in  some  countries  the  validation  system  has 
contributed  to  reducing  the  number  of  early  leavers  as  well  as  the  proportion  of  low-
skilled (PT), while a number of Member States still perceive the enhancement of flexible 
learning  pathways  and  permeability  between  VET  and  other  sectors  of  education  and 
training systems as a challenge (HR, IT). 

The role of education and training in supporting competitiveness, innovation and growth 
policies has been so far largely limited to the higher education sector. Apart from being 
responsive to labour market needs, VET needs to be able to develop skills for innovation 

106 DK, EL, HR, LU, SK and UK-NIR are in the process of implementing such data collection. 
107  To  note  that  in  some  countries  there  is  a  long  established  tradition  that  makes  a  formal  agreement 
unnecessary. 
108  Cf.  OECD/European  Union  (2014),  Policy  Brief  –  Matching  economic  migration  with  labour  market 
needs. 

40 

 
 
 
                                                 
and  creativity.The  role  of  VET  in  innovation  is  increasingly  acknowledged  but  should 
be  further  enhanced.  There  are  however  some  positive  developments:  new  VET 
programmes for green jobs in the building sector (BE), strategies for smart specialisation 
that refer to the innovation potential of VET (CY, SK).  

The German funding programme for innovative SMEs supported cooperation networks 
until  end  2014  and  subsidized  public-private  science  and  industry  partnerships  for 
innovation that include CVET.  

In Slovenia, local communities, companies, and intercompany training centres financed 
by  the  Ministry  of  Education  act  as  knowledge  exchange  platforms  and  increase  the 
capacity to train students, workers and VET teachers. 

Source: Cedefop (2015): Stronger VET for better lives 

While  entrepreneurship  is  increasingly  becoming  an  underlying  principle  in  VET  and 
VET-business  links  are  expanding,  support  for  aspiring  entrepreneurs  and  training  for 
VET  teachers  and  trainers  to  help  learners  acquire  entrepreneurship  skills  could  be 
strengthened.  

As Cedefop analysis shows, providing professional development opportunities for VET 
staff  is    a  challenge.  Introducing  new  elements  into  VET  in  view  of  an  increasingly 
heterogeneous learner population (age, learning objectives), using new learning methods, 
and  addressing  the  substantial  ageing  of  the  VET  teaching  workforce  requires 
investments in teachers’ and trainers’ skills.  

Offering professional development to VET teachers and trainers to help them teach key 
competences  and opening up opportunities for them to  be trained in  enterprises are not 
yet  widespread  practices.  Creating  space  for  innovation  and  creativity,  for  instance, 
through  experiments  in  VET  schools  and  possibilities  to  work  outside  the  limits  of  a 
‘normal’ programme supports teacher and trainer development.  

These developments support the call made in the ET 2020 national reports to improving 
the  initial  and  continuous  development  of  VET  teacher  and  trainers,  and  of 
administration and management staff to boost leadership in VET. 

Priorities for further action 
Based on the Riga conclusions109, work during the next ET 2020 cycle will focus on the 
following medium-term deliverables: 

With a view to developing high quality and labour market relevant vocational skills and 
qualifications, based on the learning outcomes approach: 

  Promote  work-based  learning  in  all  its  forms110,  with  special  attention  to 

109  Agreed  at  the  informal  meeting  of  Ministers  responsible  for  vocational  education  and  training  of 
countries participating in the Copenhagen process, the European social partners, and the Commission (and 
supported by the European level VET providers’ associations) on 22 June 2015 in Riga. 
110  According  to  Cedefop,  work-based  learning  refers  to  knowledge  and  skills  acquired  through  carrying 
out – and reflecting on – tasks in a vocational context, either at the workplace […] or in a VET institution.  
For  IVET,  according  to  the  Commission  report  "Work-based  learning  in  Europe:  Practices  and  Policy 
pointers",  2013,  defines  three  forms  of  work-based  learning:  1)  alternance  schemes  or  apprenticeships 
typically known as the "dual system", 2) work-based learning as school-based VET which includes on-the-
job  training  periods  in  companies  and  3)  work-based  learning  integrated  in  a  school-based  programme, 

41 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
apprenticeships,  by  involving  social  partners,  companies,  chambers  and  VET 
providers, as well as by stimulating innovation and entrepreneurship. 

  Further  develop  quality  assurance  mechanisms  in  VET  in  line  with  the 
EQAVET recommendation111 and, as part of quality assurance systems, establish 
continuous  information  and  feedback  loops  to  I-VET  and  C-VET  systems 
based on learning outcomes. 

For people's informed choice of pathways and long-term employability and adaptability 
to evolving skills needs: 

  Enhance  access  to  VET  and  qualifications  for  all  through  more  flexible  and 
permeable systems, notably by offering efficient and integrated guidance services 
and making available validation of non-formal and informal learning. 

  Further  strengthen  key  competences112  in  VET  curricula  and  provide  more 
effective  opportunities  to  acquire  or  develop  those  skills  through  I-VET  and  C-
VET. 

In support of successful implementation of reforms and to raise the overall quality and 
efficiency of VET: 

 

Introduce systematic approaches to, and opportunities for, initial and continuous 
professional  development  of  VET  teachers,  trainers  and  mentors  in  both 
school and work based settings. 

Due  attention  will  be  paid  to  transversal  areas  and  principles  which  are  crucial  for 
achieving  the  deliverables  and  modernising  VET:  strong  partnerships  with  social 
partners  and  other  relevant  stakeholders  such  as  chambers  and  various  competent 
institutions;  efficient  funding  and  promotion  of  excellence  and  innovation  in  VET; 
consistent  use  of  learning  outcomes  approach  and  the  commonly  developed  tools  and 
principles. This includes: setting up comprehensive validation arrangements by 2018 as 
agreed in the 2012 Council Recommendation113.  

The  following  EU  level  activities  will  support  the  implementation  of  the  above 
mentioned  deliverables  in  the  participating  countries,  as  well  as  the  country-specific 
recommendations  within  the  European  Semester.  They  will  be  supported  by  funding 
opportunities under ESIF and Erasmus+. 

  Assist  participating  countries  or  clusters  of  participating  countries  to  implement 

through  on-site  labs,  workshops,  kitchens,  restaurants,  junior  or  practice  firms,  simulations  or  real 
business/industry project assignments. 
111 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1430316040997&uri=CELEX:52014DC0030. 
112  As  defined  in  the  corresponding  Recommendation  from  2006,  the  8  key  competences  consist  of 
communication in the mother tongue, communication in foreign languages, mathematical competence and 
basic  competences  in  science  and  technology,  digital  competence,  learning  to  learn,  social  and  civic 
competences,  sense  of  initiative  and  entrepreneurship,  cultural  awareness  and  expression.  The 
Recommendation  also  refers  to  fundamental  basic  skills  of  language,  literacy,  numeracy  and  ICT  as 
essential  foundation  for  learning.  Learning  to  learn,  social  and  civic  competences,  initiative-taking  and 
entrepreneurship,  and  cultural  awareness  and  expression  are  considered  ‘transversal  key  competences’ 
(Council conclusions 2010 on competences supporting lifelong learning and the ‘new skills for new jobs’ 
initiative). 
113 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32012H1222(01). 

42 

 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                 
VET reforms (depending on their particular needs) through country specific support, 
including with the assistance of Cedefop and the ETF for participating countries in the 
form  of  country  reviews,  targeted  national  activities,  policy  learning  fora,  mutual 
learning  and  exchanges  of  good  practices  notably  through  the  ET  2020  Working 
Groups  on  VET  and  Adult  Learning,  DGVT  Peer  Reviews  as  well  as  through 
facilitation  of  bilateral  or  multilateral  cooperation  arrangements  between  countries. 
Produce  EU  level  evidence  (e.g.  study  on  higher  VET  in  the  EU)  and  policy 
guidelines  (e.g.  Guidelines  for  SME  involvement  in  WBL),  and  organise  EU  level 
events (e.g. European Business Forum on Vocational Training). 

  Monitor and analyse progress in the area of VET by Cedefop and the ETF, through a 
streamlined  monitoring  system  with  a  use  of  newly  developed  indicators  (related  to 
prevalence and quality of work-based learning and mobility in I-VET) and available 
VET specific statistical data (implementation of ISCED 2011 in Labour Force Survey 
and UNESCO/OECD/EUROSTAT data collection), adapted to the new medium-term 
deliverables; monitor impact of VET initiatives supported by ESIF at national level.  

  Intensify support to the European Alliance for Apprenticeships (EAfA) to boost the 

quality, supply and attractiveness of apprenticeships across Europe. 

  EU  level  support  to  ensure  transparency  and  recognition  tools  (EQF,  ECVET, 
EQAVET,  Europass  and  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning)  are  further 
developed and implemented in a more coherent and integrated way. 

  Support transnational mobility of VET learners and staff (Erasmus+, ESIF, EURES, 
Your  first  EURES  job),  facilitate  the  development  of  adult  educators  (EPALE), 
address  common  EU  level  sector  specific  skills  challenges  (Sector  Skills  Alliances) 
and support policy reforms in VET (strategic partnerships, forward-looking projects). 

  In  addition,  the  European  Commission  assisted  by  Cedefop  will  support  Member 
States  in  targeted  communication  and  visibility  of  the  achievements  of  European 
cooperation  in  VET  (Copenhagen  process)  through  concrete  activities  (visibility 
events, campaigns, promotional activities). 

2.2.5. Efficient funding and evaluation 

Policy context at EU level 

Despite  the  general  acknowledgement  that  investment  in  human  capital  is  essential  for 
ensuring growth and competitiveness and for generating new technological ideas, many 
Member States reduced their public investment in education and training in recent years.  

Public education budgets in real terms have been reduced in 9 out of 27 EU countries in 
2010, 13 in 2011 and 19 in 2012. The overall reduction in the EU-27 between 2010 and 
2012  was  of  2.4%,  while  the  number  of  pupils  and  students  decreased  by  just  0.6 
percentage points. 

In 2012, no less than 20 Member States reduced the share of education expenditure out of 
primary government expenditure114, with an average cut of 0.2 percentage points. Most 

114 i.e. total expenditure minus interest payments. 

43 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
worryingly, deep cuts were operated also by the countries which already had the lowest 
levels of expenditure in education. 

Fiscal  consolidation  policies  are  often  blamed  for  these  cuts,  but  –  except  for  the  few 
countries  under  financial  assistance  programmes  –  the  way  they  are  implemented  is  a 
choice  of  national  governments.  The  Commission  has  consistently  recommended  to 
prioritise  growth-friendly  public  expenditure,  in  some  cases  with  specific  reference  to 
education. These past trends are not expected to revert soon.115  

Investment to provide opportunities to participate in adult learning is the most important 
factor  in  increasing  the  overall  level  of  participation  by  adults,  as  higher  rates  of 
investment are linked with higher rates of participation and high training costs are one of 
the  key  barriers  to  adult  learning.  Total  spending  on  adult  learning  varies  significantly 
across  Member  States.  A  recent  study  estimated  that  in  most  countries  it  accounts  for 
between 15% and 20% of all spending on education. 

Participation  in  adult  and  continuing  education  is  mainly  funded  by  companies  and 
learners. The state plays a marginal role, focussing on narrow sections of the population, 
particularly  the  less  advantaged.  Companies  pursue  the  professional  development  of 
personnel  through  off-the-job  and  –  above  all  –  on-the-job  training.  Individuals  also 
provide  complementary  funding,  in  much  higher  proportion  than  the  State  (which 
sometimes  also  includes  ESF  funding):  the  rate  varies  from  a  minimum  of  2.7%  to  a 
maximum  of  14.7%.  The  share  paid  by  the  State  ranges  from  0.1%  to  0.2%,  except  in 
Nordic countries where it is larger. This, however, does not include "tax expenditures". 
In fact, tax policies are an important tool in promoting continuing vocational education 
and  training  (C-VET)  participation:  in  2009,  more  than  half  of  EU  Member  States 
offered  tax  deductibility  from  corporate  income  or  from  payrolls,  while  other  forms  of 
incentive or subsidies also exist. 

Bipartite  funds  constitute  a  further  tool  to  foster  C-VET  activities:  they  are  usually 
established  bilaterally  by  the  social  partners  at  sectorial  level  and  are  financed  by 
companies with a proportion of their wage bill, ranging from 0.25% in Poland up to 2% 
in Belgium. 

ET  2020’s  strategic  objective  2  explicitly  calls  for  "the  efficient  and  sustainable  use  of 
resources  –  both  public  and  private,  as  appropriate”  as  well  as  “the  promotion  of 
its  2011 
evidence-based  policy  and  practice 
Communication  on  the  modernisation  of  higher  education116,  the  Commission  also 
reflected  this  focus,  arguing  that  governments  and  higher  education  institutions  should 
cooperate to promote greater diversity in income sources and increased efficiency in the 
way both public and private investment is used. 

in  education  and 

training”.  In 

From  the  National  Reports  and  other  policy  cooperation  work  in  the  context  of  ET 
2020117 it clearly appears that funding reform in the tertiary education sector is high on 
the agenda across the EU. This reflects not only an increased focus on the effectiveness 

115 After tightening considerably between 2010 and 2013, the combined fiscal stance of both the euro area 
and  the  EU  is  forecast  to  remain  substantially  unchanged  between  2013  and  2016  (Cf.  European 
Commission Spring forecast 2015). 
116 COM (2011) 567 final. 
117  Notably  the  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  the  modernisation  of  higher  education  and  the  meetings  of 
Directors General for Higher Education (DG HE). 

44 

 
 
 
                                                 
of  public  spending  in  the  wake  of  higher  student  numbers  and  public  budgetary 
constraints,  but  also  a  need  to  adjust  funding  models  in  many  countries  to  higher 
education  systems  characterised  by  greater  institutional  autonomy,  less  direct  State 
control and an enduring need for public accountability. 

Reporting 

As far as funding mechanisms are concerned, ten Member States implemented reforms of 
their funding regime118, while five others planned similar reforms119. 

In  their  National  Reports,  fourteen  Member  States  explicitly  highlighted  initiatives  to 
promote equitable and efficient funding of higher education120.  

While the focus of these initiatives varies, there is an identifiable trend towards linking 
public investment in higher education more clearly to outputs (for example: the number 
of graduates, average time taken to complete degrees, drop-out rates, number of research 
publications, etc.), as opposed to more traditional "input" based systems (which typically 
fund  institutions  based  on  historical  patterns  and  number  of  students).  In  this  context, 
several  countries  (EE,  FI,  LT,  PT)  highlight  the  introduction  or  amendment  of 
performance agreements between the state and higher education institutions, establishing 
goals to be achieved over fixed time periods.121  

For  higher  education,  it  is  clear  that  implementing  performance-based  funding 
instruments brings along many challenges. Leaving aside certain practical aspects such as 
the need for effective  systems of data collection and monitoring, a core issue relates to 
the  choice  and  definition  of  indicators  of  performance  and  potential  impact  (including 
unintended  as  well  as  intended  consequences).  This  was  a  major  discussion  point  in 
recent policy cooperation in this field and is also highlighted in some National Reports, 
with FR highlighting the challenge of designing systems to support improving graduation 
rates  and  reducing  drop-out  and  HU  linking  state  funding  to  employment  outcomes  of 
graduates. 

As systems of performance funding – whether based on output-related formulae or linked 
to  institutional  performance  agreements  –  are  a  comparatively  recent  development  in 
most Member States122, detailed evidence of the effectiveness of these systems remains 
scarce.  Many  of  the  Member  States  which  identify  funding  of  higher  education  as  a 
priority  area  for  further  cooperation123,  also  directly  or  indirectly  refer  to  the  need  for 
more robust empirical evidence of the effectiveness of different instruments, which can 
be used as an input to policy making.  

This is very much in line with the conclusions of the recent meeting of Directors General 
for Higher Education, where DGs agreed it is important to maintain on-going exchanges 

118 BG, DK, LT, FI, CZ, HR, LU, NL, PT, IT. 
119 CZ, DE, ES, PL, UK. 
120 AT, BE fl, BE fr, BG, DK, EE, FI, HU, IT, LT, MT, PL, PT, SE, SK. 
121  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  the  modernisation  of  higher  education  organised  a  country-focused 
workshop  on  performance  agreements  (September  2014)  followed  by  discussion  by  DG  HE  (October 
2014)  
122  With  the  notable  exception  of  DK,  FI  and  to  some  extent  the  UK,  which  have  a  longer  history  of 
implementing performance funding models. 
123 AT, BE nl, BG, EE, HR, IE, IT, LV, PT, RO. 

45 

 
 
 
                                                 
on the issue of performance funding, improve the evidence base and return to share the 
lessons of upcoming policy evaluations and reviews in this area.  

Remaining challenges 

The  recently  completed  study  on  mapping  the  tools  to  promote  efficiency  and 
effectiveness  in  European  education  systems  shows  that  most  Member  States  do  not 
focus  enough  on  the  efficiency  of  their  education  policies  and  programmes.  Without 
being a policy goal per se, a higher efficiency would allow to improve the outcomes of a 
governments'  investment  in  education,  which  is  essential  especially  in  countries  where 
fiscal  sustainability  concerns  have  reduced  the  resources  available  for  education.  The 
study  found  that  only  few  European  countries  regularly  measure  efficiency,  and  even 
fewer use those measures within assessments aimed at increasing the value-for-money of 
the investment, such as cost-benefit analyses.  

Several  countries  proposed  to  take  forward  the  issue  of  effective  use  of  resources  in 
education. Proposed actions for addressing this issue include the implementation of Peer 
Learning  Activities  and  peer  reviews  based  on  the  "Stockholm  seminar  on  cost  benefit 
and cost effectiveness 2013"124 as well as using the "Analytical Framework" developed 
by the OECD for policy insights (EE) or the "SGIB indicator expert group" (IT). 

The investment plan for Europe, launched by the Commission in November 2014, carries 
new  opportunities  to  catalyse  private  capital  towards  investments  in  education.  Seizing 
the  opportunities  offered  by  the  European  Investment  Plan  requires  the  activation  of 
national  and  local  stakeholders  in  developing  projects  that  attract  private  capital 
investors.  This  may  require  shifting  the  attention  from  traditional  grants,  available  e.g. 
through  the  structural  funds  or  Erasmus+,  towards  combinations  of  public  and  private 
resources in domains where there can be a return for the private partner contributing to 
finance, build or manage an education and training facility or programme. 

Priorities for further action 

•  Exploring the potential of the Investment Plan for Europe in the area of education 
and  training,  including  by  promoting  funding  models  attracting  private  actors  and 
capital. 

•  Encouraging  Member  States  to  use  evidence  based  policy-making  to  monitor 

policies and design reforms that deliver quality education more efficiently. 

•  Encouraging  innovative  ways  to  ensure  sustainable  investment  in  all  forms  and 

levels of learning, including performance-based funding and cost-sharing. 

2.3 Promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship  

The Europe 2020 target to reduce the early school leaving (ESL) rate to less than 10 % 
by 2020 remains particularly crucial in a post-crisis reality where a high amount of young 
students leave school and face an unemployment rate that is almost the double compared 
to the general youth unemployment rate for the same age group. 

124 Stockholm, 11-12 November 2013. 

46 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Regarding  early  childhood  education  and  care  (ECEC),  the  ET  2020  National  Reports 
confirm that this area is increasingly regarded as an integral part of the education system 
and  as  the  first  step  of  lifelong  learning.  Member  States  stress  the  importance  of  equal 
access to quality ECEC as a measure to decrease socio-economic and other background-
related disadvantages and to prevent early school leaving and low performance in school. 

Regarding  equity  and  diversity,  six  years  after  the  2010  Council  Conclusions  on  the 
social  dimension  of  education  and  training,  tackling  inequality  and  discrimination  in 
education  and  training  remains  a  challenge  for  all  Member  States.  All  European 
education  systems  remain,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent,  marked  by  inequalities.  Europe 
needs more inclusive and equitable education systems that enable everybody to succeed 
in  education  and  to  develop  their  full  potential,  irrespectively  of  their  background  and 
according to their specific learning needs. 

2.3.1. Early school leaving 

Policy context at EU level 

The economic crisis has severely hit young people and more dramatically those lacking 
upper secondary education, which is the recommended  minimum entrance qualification 
when  making the crucial transition  from education to  the labour market. There are still 
more than five million early school leavers across Europe, (i.e. people aged 18-24) with 
only lower secondary education or less. They face an unemployment rate of 41%, almost 
double compared to the general youth unemployment rate for the same age group.  

Against this backdrop, the Europe 2020 target to reduce the ESL rate to less than 10 % 
by 2020 becomes particularly crucial. Although Europe is approaching this target (12.0% 
in 2013), significant disparities remain between but also within countries.  

Certain  groups  are  more  affected  than  others:  the  risk  of  early  school  leaving  is  33% 
higher  amongst  boys  compared  with  the  avaerage;  26%  higher  for  the  foreign-born125; 
156% higher for disabled learners, between 50 and 90% higher for Roma; and more than 
30% higher in bottom-performing regions.  

The  latest  available  data  (2014)  shows  that  the  EU  average  early  school  leaving  rate 
stands at 11.1%, down 0.8 percentage points from 2013. Nineteen Member States have 
reached the Europe 2020 headline target of an early school leaving rate below 10%126, up 
from eighteen last year. BE joins this group mainly due to methodological changes. EL, 
furthermore, dropped below 10% for the first time, whereas EE increased its early school 
leaving rate from 9.7% in 2013 to 11.4% in 2014. 

125 The recent OECD-EU report on indicators of immigrant integration showed that, in the EU, native-born 
with  two  foreign-born  parents  were  only  slightly  more  likely  to  be  early-school  leavers  (11.4%)  than 
native-born  with  two  native-born  parents  (9.9%).  However,  the  rate  was  higher  among  the  foreign-born 
that  arrived  before  the  age  of  15  (17.1%)  and  much  higher  for  the  other  foreign-born  (26.2%) 
(OECD/European Union (2015), Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In, OECD Publishing, 
Paris).  
126 HR, SI, PL, CZ, LT, LU, SE, SK, CY, IE, AT, DK, LV, FR, NL, EL, FI, DE, BE. 

47 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Early school leaving (2014) and target levels  

Early school leaving rate 2014

Europe 2020 headline target

National target

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

ES MT RO PT IT BG UK EE HU EU BE DE FI EL NL FR LV DK AT IE CY SK SE LU LT CZ PL SI HR

Source: Eurostat (LFS). Online data code: t2020_40. The indicator covers the share of the population aged 
18-24 having attained ISCED level 0 to 2 and not receiving any formal or non-formal education or training 
in  the  four  weeks  preceding  the  survey.  National  targets  follow  different  definitions  of  the  indicator  in 
some countries (see Table 2.1.1). Data for HR has low reliability due to the small sample size. 

The 2011 Council Recommendation on policies to reduce ESL called on Member States 
to implement coherent, comprehensive and evidence-based strategies against ESL. In the 
absence  of  reporting  obligations  under  the  Council  Recommendation,  the  information 
available  is  partial:  around  a  third  of  countries/regions  now  have  a  national  strategy  in 
place  that  aims  to  reduce  early  leaving  from  education  or  training  127  and  to  address 
educational disadvantage (IE). Overall, all Member States have  introduced  policies and 
measures that have either been developed specifically to address early leaving, or are part 
of  general/ongoing  policies  which  contribute  to  reducing  early  leaving  rates.  The  2014 
Eurydice/Cedefop report provides a more completed picture in this regard128 .  

The 2011 Council Recommendation and the work done in the framework of the ET 2020 
policy  cooperation  have  identified  concrete  actions  that  Member  States  can  implement, 
taking into account the specificities of their national context129. 

Reporting 

Many  countries  report  initiatives  to  tackle  different  aspects  of  ESL,  including 
individualisation of teaching and learning (AT, BE nl, DE, HR, MT, SE), reinforcement 
of support measures for students from socio-economic disadvantaged background or with 
special  needs  (AT,  IE,  HR,  LT,  LV,  PT,  RO,  SK),  improvement  of  counselling  and 
mentoring130, enhanced access to quality early childhood education and care, establishing 
more  flexible  pathways  of  education  (ES,  FI,  FR,  PT,  SI),  improvement  of  teachers' 

127 AT, BG, B/NL, FR, HU, MT, NL, RO, ES. 
128 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/175EN.pdf. 
129  'Reducing  early  school  leaving:  Key  messages  and  policy  support'  ,  Final  Report  of  the  Thematic 
Working Group on Early School Leaving (November 2013). 
 http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/doc/esl-group-report_en.pdf. 
130 AT, BE fr, DE, DK, EE, HR, HU, LU, MT, NL, RO, SE, SI. 

48 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
competence to deal with at risk students131. These measures, however, do not necessarily 
add  up  to  a  comprehensive  strategy.  Some  countries  are  also  trying  to  improve 
cooperation between various actors inside and outside the education system to fight ESL. 

The Netherlands has  adopted a  coherent approach based on agreements between local 
authorities,  secondary  schools  and  the  government  for  the  period  2008-2015.  The 
agreements define the method of financing and it seems successful in reaching long-term 
goals for the reduction of early school leavers. 

Remaining challenges 

With  some  notable  exceptions,  current  Member  State  policies  are  not  based  on 
sufficiently  up-to-date  data  about  the  causes  and  incidence  of  ESL.  Twelve  Member 
States132    have  reported  initiatives  to  improve  data  collection  and  monitoring,  but  a 
systematic approach is missing in many others. 

Further cooperation between different education sectors and policy areas, such as youth 
policy, social and employment services, health, housing, etc. is necessary at all levels and 
across levels of government. Stakeholders and professionals from different sectors need 
to work together more closely and in strong cooperation with schools. Cooperation with 
parents and local communities, with actors of non-formal and informal education, school-
business  cooperation,  non-curricular  and  out-of-school  activities  are  possible  ways  to 
reinforce prevention of ESL. 

ET  2020  National  Reports  confirm  that  reducing  ESL  should  remain  a  priority  for  the 
future  and  that  Member  States  need  to  be  supported  in  the  implementation  of  policies. 
More  ambitious  national  targets  can  be  set  in  some  countries,  while  those  where  no 
progress is visible should intensify their efforts.  Member States that approach the target 
need  to  sustain  their  efforts,  as  experience  shows  that  reducing  ESL  becomes  more 
challenging as the number of early school leavers declines. More complex and targeted 
solutions are necessary to reach those young people most alienated from education and 
training.  

As  indicated  by  the  2011  Recommendation,  combating  ESL  can  only  be  effective  as  a 
coordinated  strategy  across  levels  of  government  and  different  policy  areas.  A 
successful response to early school leaving needs to be comprehensive, based on a long-
term  commitment  and  a  clear  strategy,  be  informed  by  accurate  data  and  a  good 
understanding  of  the  scope  and  reasons  of  the  problem.  It  requires  active  involvement 
and  cooperation  of  all  relevant  stakeholders  at  all  levels  (national,  regional,  local  and 
school level).  

More needs to be done in prevention and early intervention as these measures are also 
more  cost-effective.  Education  and  training  policies  that  aim  to  reduce  ESL  need  to 
establish conditions for successful learning for all, and to improve access to education for 
socially  disadvantaged  pupils  and  students  with  a  migrant  background  or  from  ethnic 
minorities. Persistent inequalities in education should be tackled systematically.    

Education and training policies need to remove obstacles within the school education 
system that may hinder young people in completing upper secondary education; ensure 

131 CZ, DE, DK, FR, HR, HU, IE, IT, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, PL, SE. 
132 BE nl, CZ, DE, DK, LT, LU, LV, MT, PL, SE, SI, SK. 

49 

 
 
 
                                                 
smooth transition between different levels of education (including from early childhood 
education and care to school); ensure access to high quality education throughout life and 
the provision of high quality VET.  

Teachers education need to equip teachers with the competences to adopt inclusive and 
student-focused methods, and with skills and ability to work with other professions and 
partners.  It  should  also  focus  on  establishing  professional  continuum  so  that  each 
educational step builds on the development of the previous educational stage. Teachers 
need  to  be  supported  in  dealing  with  diversity  in  terms  of  the  social  and  ethnic 
background of pupils as well as supporting individuals with special learning needs.  

Policies  need  to  support  schools  to  be  open,  welcoming,  conducive  and  supportive 
learning  environments  that  focus  on  the  needs  of  individual  pupils;  cooperation  in  and 
around schools need to be encouraged, in order for schools to become "learning hubs" 
receiving support and offering support to the broader community.  

Priorities for further action 

•  Reducing  ESL  by  supporting  school-based  strategies  and  second  chance 

opportunities, emphasizing effective learning environments and pedagogies. 

2.3.2. Early childhood education and care (ECEC) 

Policy context at EU level 

In several Member States the governance of ECEC for the entire age group (from birth to 
compulsory  primary  school)  is  the  competence  of  the  Ministry  of  Education133  and  a 
number  of  others  develop  in  this  direction134.  This  trend  confirms  that  ECEC  is 
increasingly regarded as an integral part of the education system, thus strengthening the 
significance of early childhood education as the first step of lifelong learning. 

According  to  the  Eurydice  2014  Key  Data  on  ECEC,  participation  rates  of  children 
between the age of 4 and the start of compulsory education vary considerably, from 70% 
to 100%, although the EU average rate (93.9%) is very close to the ET 2020 benchmark 
of 95%.Participation of Roma children in ECEC is consistently below national averages, 
with on average only one out of two Roma children in ECEC, and participation ranging 
between 9% and 83%. 

Because  of  the  rather  fast  expansion  of  the  services,  the  very  diverse  child  population, 
and  strict  austerity  measures  in  Member  States,  the  issue  of  quality  (including  staff 
qualifications,  working  conditions,  etc.)  and  the  importance  of  high-quality  accessible 
ECEC for later learning, employability and social integration cannot be overemphasised.  

Even  though  the  role  of  quality  ECEC  for  children's  further  cognitive  and  social 
development  is  widely  recognised,  challenges  persist  in  the  implementation  of  high 
quality equitable ECEC systems for all children from birth to compulsory primary age. 

133 DK, DE, EE, HR, LV, LT, LU, MT, SI, FI, SE, UK. 
134 HU, RO, AT. 

50 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
Provision  of  ECEC  services  for  the  children  under  3  years  is  particularly  problematic, 
only ten Member States having reached the Barcelona target135. 

In addition, there is clear evidence that early childhood education in the host country is 
particularly beneficial for immigrant offspring. A recent OECD-EU report136 showed that 
among children of comparable socio-economic backgrounds, those who attend preschool 
in  their  current  host  country  obtain  better  reading  literacy  results  at  15  years  old  than 
those  who  do  not.  The  gap  between  the  two  groups  is  75  points,  roughly  equivalent  to 
two years at school. Nevertheless, there is still lower participation to pre-school among 
immigrant  children  than  native-born  children  in  some  EU  Member  States,  in  particular 
Italy,  Norway  and  the  Czech  Republic  (with  attendance  rates  that  are  10  percentage 
points lower among immigrant children) 

The number of initiatives in ECEC evidenced by the ET 2020 National Reports confirms 
that  significant  efforts  should  be  made  to  further  support  Member  States  in 
implementation  of  policies  that  try  to  expand  access  and  address  quality.  The  Proposal 
for a Quality Framework137 prepared by the Thematic Working Group on ECEC could 
help to address all these issues in a tailor-made manner.  

Reporting 

As many as 22 National Reports list measures to increase the ECEC participation rates 
and  ensure  equal  access  to  ECEC,  in  particular  for  the  disadvantaged  families,  who  in 
some  Member  States  have  significantly  lower  ECEC  participation  rate.  Most  common 
measures implemented by the Member States include:  
- introducing 1 or 2 compulsory years138 and/or free pre-school year(s)139 for all children 
(with  additional  years  or  language  support  for  children  with  a  different  mother 
tongue)140; in some systems introducing a legal entitlement for a place from a very early 
age141. 
- (co-)financing of ECEC places and additional support for disadvantaged children142 

- improving the quality of ECEC through skills development of all ECEC staff and also 
as a measure to reduce inequalities and prevent early school leaving143.  

Some  ET  2020  National  Reports  reveal  that  a  number  of  Member  States  focus  on 
particular  ECEC-related  challenges  such  as  lack  of  funding  on  the  municipal  level  for 
increasing the number of ECEC places, under-representation of Roma children in ECEC 
and the need for more coherent education policy and cooperation of all stakeholders.  

135  i.e. by 2010 33% of children under three years should be in ECEC. 
136  OECD/European  Union  (2015),  Indicators  of  Immigrant  Integration  2015:  Settling  In,  OECD 
Publishing, Paris. 
137http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/archive/documents/ecec-quality-
framework_en.pdf. 
138 AT, BG, CY, EL, HR, HU, LU, LV, PL. 
139 BE, BG, CZ, EE, IE, EL, ES, IT, CY, LT, lV, LU, HU, MT, AT, PL, PT, RO, SK, FI, SE, UK. 
140 There is a difference in the hours that are provided for free between 19 or 40+ a week. 
141 DK, SE, FI, DE,  EE, SI. 
142 Eg. BE, CY, FR, HR, HU, IE, RO, SK,SI, UK. 
143 DE, DK, HU, LT, LU. 

51 

 
 
 
                                                 
Remaining challenges 

Overall,  ECEC  is  faced  with  the  double  challenge  of  increasing  simultaneously  access 
and quality. Key questions concern: 

-  improving  accessibility  and  affordability  particularly  for  the  disadvantaged  children: 
apart  from  targeted  (co-)funding  of  ECEC  for  vulnerable  children,  there  should  be 
progress  towards  universality.  Both  have  financial  consequences,  which  are  difficult  to 
meet in the situation of economic austerity; 

- professionalization of staff: competences of child carers, pedagogical staff and teachers 
are crucial for qualitative ECEC and consequently for children's outcomes; 

-  improving  ECEC  governance  and  funding  through  comprehensive,  inter-sectoral 
cooperation; 

-  improving  monitoring  of  systems'  quality  and  systematic  data  collection  on  issues  of 
quality. 

A number of important challenges remain therefore to be addressed: 

  Ensuring  available  and  affordable  access  to  quality  ECEC  for  all  families. 
Structural  or  legislative  arrangements  should  include  the  right  to  affordable 
ECEC  provision  through  additional  funds  to  support  access  for  disadvantaged 
groups.  Moving  torwards  introducing  a  legal  entitlement  for  a  place  in  ECEC 
immediately after the end of maternity/parental leave can be a useful way for that. 

  The  ECEC  workforce  should  be  professionalised.  Initial  education  and 
continuing  training  of  all  staff  in  ECEC  (pre-school  teachers,  assistants, 
educators, child carers, as well as leaders) and professional leadership are  key to 
the  quality  of  pedagogical  work  and  children's  outcomes.  Additionally, 
professional leadership creates opportunities for observation, reflection, planning, 
teamwork and cooperation with parents, which contribute to the quality of ECEC 
services. 

  Establishing efficient and effective governance and funding arrangements for 
ECEC  services.  Stakeholders  in  ECEC  systems  must  have  clear  and  shared 
understanding  of  their  roles  and  responsibilities  and  be  prepared  to  collaborate 
with  partner  organisations.  Legislation,  regulation  and  guidance  can  be  used  to 
create clear expectations about the importance of collaborative working for high 
quality outcomes for children, families and local communities.  

  Ensuring  smooth  transition  from  ECEC  to  school,  which  proves  to  be  a 
delicate  phase  in  the  learning  process  and  risks  to  undermine  acquisitions  from 
susbsequent  stages  in  case  of  negative  experiences.    Education  systems  should 
provide  structural,  pedagogical  and  professional  continuity  in  order  to  sustain 
efforts  from  ECEC.  This  includes  continuity  of  institutions,  of  training,  of 
curriculum, building professional capacity of diverse workforce from early years 
to  the  end  of  compulsory  schooling,  developing  systematic  monitoring  and 
exploiting the results for policy development, empowering all parents to support 
their children's learning process.   

52 

 
 
 
 
Priorities for further action 

  Fostering access to high-quality ECEC, especially for the disadvantaged, and 

implementing the quality framework on ECEC. 

2.3.3. Equity and diversity 

Policy context at EU level 

"Promoting  equity,  social  cohesion  and  active  citizenship"  was  the  focus  of  specific 
Council  Conclusions  in  2010  and  2013.    In  this  context,  the  Commission's  work  has 
focused  inter  alia  on  the  reduction  of  early  school  leaving,  on  improving  accessibility 
and quality of ECEC, on supporting the education of children from a migrant background 
with  advice  from  the  SIRIUS  policy  network  and  on  promoting  inclusive  education 
through  cooperation  with  the  European  Agency  for  Special  Needs  and  Inclusive 
Education. Also, education is one of the four pillars of the EU Framework on National 
Roma Integration Strategies. 

Wide  disparities  in  education  and  training  persist  both  across  and  within  Member 
States144.  Compelling  evidence  suggests  that  a  learner's  socio-economic  background 
remains the strongest determinant of educational success or failure in all Member States 
and  levels  of  education  and  that  the  intergenerational  inheritance  of  educational 
disadvantage  remains  strong145.  Disability,  ethnicity,  migrant/traveller  status,  gender, 
age, sexual orientation and geographic location continue to impact strongly on people's 
chances to access and succeed in education and training. Whole social groups or sub-sets 
of  the  population  persistently  achieve  less  well  in  education  –  despite  the  presence  of 
policies aiming to redress these inequities.  

There  is  wide  variation  between  different  Member  States  in  their  success  at  addressing 
the  problem,  suggesting  that  some  education  systems  are  much  more  inclusive  and 
equitable.  Recent  evidence146  shows  that  equity  in  education  is  compatible  with  strong 
learning  outcomes  and  high  performance.  It  also  shows  that  the  highest-performing 
countries  allocate  educational  resources  more  equitably  among  advantaged  and 
disadvantaged schools. 

Educational  poverty  severe  consequences  for  individuals,  for  economic  growth  and  for 
social  cohesion.  Policies  to  remedy  these  disparities  are  urgently  needed  and  renewed 
efforts  are  necessary  at  European  level  to  help  Member  States  deliver  on  formal 
commitments: in 2014 ten Member States (AT, BG, CZ, DE, DK, HU, LU, RO, SE and 
SK)  received  country-specific  recommendations  on  education  inequalities  affecting 
disadvantaged learners. 147  

144 Education and Training Monitor 2014; OECD, PISA 2012 Results: Excellence through Equity, Vol. 2, 2013; 
Mind the Gap – education inequality across EU regions, 2012; the European Commission's EU Sixth Report on 
Economic, Social and Territorial Cohesion, 2014; the Education and Training Monitor 2014. 
145 Education and Training Monitor 2014; OECD, Education at a Glance 2014;   Social Inclusion Monitor 
Europe, 2014; 
146  OECD,  PISA  2012  Results:  Excellence  through  Equity  –giving  every  student  the  chance  to  succeed,  V.2, 
2013;  Social Justice in the EU–a cross-national comparison, 2014. 
147 AT, BG, CZ, DE, DK, HU, LU, RO, SE, SK. 

53 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
Following  the  terrorist  attacks  in  Paris  and  Copenhagen  in  2015  there  is  a  growing  
perception  in  Europe  that  education  can  contribute  to  fostering  tolerance,  solidarity, 
respect  for  diversity  and  human  rights,  intercultural  understanding,  equality  and  active 
citizenship in European societies.  In this context, European Education Ministers met in 
Paris on 17 March 2015 and reaffirmed their determination to nourish these fundamental 
values through adopting a Declaration on "Promoting citizenship and the common values 
of freedom, tolerance and non-discrimination through education"148.  

The  Paris  Declaration  highlights  the  need  to  "…cooperate  and  coordinate,  to  exchange 
experiences  and  to  ensure  that  the  best  ideas  and  practices  can  be  shared  throughout  the 
European Union" with a view to: 

  Ensuring  that  children  and  young  people  acquire  social,  civic  and  intercultural  
competences,  by  promoting  democratic  values  and  fundamental  rights,  social 
inclusion and non-discrimination, as well as active citizenship; 

  Enhancing critical thinking and media literacy, particularly in the use of the Internet 
and  social  media,  so  as  to  develop  resistance  to  all  forms  of  discrimination  and 
indoctrination; 

  Fostering the education of disadvantaged children and young people, by ensuring that 

our education and training systems address their needs; 

  Promoting  intercultural  dialogue  through  all  forms  of  learning  in  cooperation  with 

other relevant policies and stakeholders. 

To  reflect  the  Paris  Declaration,  the  ET  2020  policy  focus  will  be  re-calibrated  to 
reinforce the role of education and training in promoting equity and non-discrimination 
and  in  imparting  fundamental  values,  intercultural  competences  and  active  citizenship. 
ET  2020  activities  in  follow-up  of  the  Paris  Declaration  will  build  on  previous  work 
carried out in the ET 2020 policy framework149, as well as exploit synergies with youth 
policy, culture and sport.   

Erasmus+ could be mobilised, inter alia to increase support to mobility of teachers and 
youth  workers,  youth  exchanges  and  volunteering,  strategic  partnerships  in  the  field  of 
education  and  youth  policy,  transnational  networks,  school  cooperation  platforms,  joint 
projects on citizenship education, and collaborative partnerships in sport. Actions could 
be  embedded  in  comprehensive,  cross-sectorial  approaches  and  implemented  through 
reinforced  cooperation  with  the  civil  society  and  social  partners  to  ensure  appropriate 
outreach and engagement at local level. 

Reporting 

In the context of the Commission's ET 2020 stock-taking consultation many European-level 
education  stakeholders, other  important  institutional  actors  and  scholars expressed  concern 

148http://ec.europa.eu/commission/2014-2019/navracsics/announcements/education-help-tackle-
radicalisation-eu-commission-and-ministers-agree_en. 
149 e.g. outputs of the ET 2020 Working Group on Schools in relation to early school leaving; cooperation 
with Council of Europe on human rights education; the concept of social and civic competences as defined 
in  the  2006  Council  recommendation  on  key  competencies  in  lifelong  learning;  the  structured  dialogue 
with sport stakeholders addressing problems like violence, racism and xenophobia. 

54 

 
 
 
                                                 
about the lack of progress in improving equity in education systems across the EU.  They 
argue that work in this area should become a priority in the next ET 2020 cycle. 
15  Member  States150    took  measures  to  improve  access  to  education  for  socially 
disadvantaged  students  and  migrant  learners.  Some  countries151    report  measures  targeting 
Roma in particular. 
Eight Member States152   report action to promote essential values in the education system 
such  as  tolerance,  respect  for  diversity  and  democratic  citizenship.  The  measures  include 
education-related legislation  and curricular content.  However, key education stakeholders, 
other important institutional actors and scholars across the EU voiced strong concern about 
the lack of attention to the civic objectives of education in the framework of European level 
cooperation  in  education  and  training,  arguing  that  the  civic  dimension  of    the  strategic 
objective on "Equity and diversity" should become a priority in the next ET 2020 cycle. 

Remaining challenges 

Significant  challenges  remain  to  be  addressed  in  the  area  of  equity,  diversity  and  the 
promotion  of  fundamental  values.  Europe  needs  more  inclusive  and  equitable  education 
systems that enable  all citizens to succeed in education and to develop their full potential, 
irrespectively  of  their  background  and  according  to  their  specific  learning  needs.  The 
challenge is to create inclusive learning environments where disadvantaged learners receive 
the support they need to succeed and feel respected and valued. Our education systems need 
to actively seek to promote  justice, tolerance, solidarity,  intercultural understanding, active 
citizenship, respect for diversity and fundamental rights – values and attitudes which are just 
as  fundamental  for  the  cohesion,  success  and  well-being  of  our  societies  and  can  be  best 
promoted through education and training.   

In  addition,  despite  important  progress  in  recent  years,  gender  inequalities  persist  in 
European  education  systems  -  in  terms  of  study  subject  preferences,  performance  and 
patterns of participation.  For example, currently across the EU: 

  Boys drop out more from school, are more likely to repeat years and outnumber 

girls in VET.  

  Women are more likely to have a higher education degree but are under-

represented in STEM studies and careers, in research and in senior posts at all 
levels of education, including higher education.  

  Boys perform much worse than girls in reading in all Member States.   

  Gender stereotypical subject and career choices persist.  

  Women are not making labour market gains commensurate with their educational 

achievements.  

  There are strong gender imbalances in the teaching profession 

150 BE fr, CY, EE, FI, HR, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, PT, RO, SE, SI, SK. 
151 HR, LT, PT, SI, RO. 
152 BE fr, BE nl, CZ, ES, FI, FR, RO, SI. 

55 

 
 
 
                                                 
Priorities for further action 

•  Addressing the increasing diversity of learners and enhancing access to good quality 
and inclusive mainstream education and training for all learners, including those from 
disadvantaged  backgrounds,  those  with  special  needs,  migrants,  and  Roma,  while 
tackling discrimination, racism, segregation, bullying, violence and stereotypes. 

•  Tackling gender gaps in education and promoting more gender balanced educational 

choices. 

•  Facilitating the effective acquisition of the language of learning and employment by 

migrants. 

•  Promoting  civic, 

relational  competences,  mutual 
understanding  and  respect,  and  ownership  of  democratic  values  and  fundamental 
rights. 

intercultural,  social  and 

•  Enhancing critical thinking and cyber and media literacy. 

2.4. Enhancing creativity and innovation, including entrepreneurship, at all levels of 
education and training 

Creativity  and  innovation  sustain  economic  development  and  competitiveness  and  can 
help prepare for the transition to a circular economy. To this aim, the acquisition of key 
competences  such  as  digital  skills,  including  coding,  the  ability  to  continuously  update 
knowledge,  a  sense  of  initiative  and  entrepreneurship,  as  well  as  cultural  and  green 
awareness are essential. Strong partnerships between education, research and innovation 
policies and between institutions, business and civil society are effective patterns to get 
there.  

All Member States reported initiatives in one or more of the aforementioned areas over 
the  previous  ET  2020  work  cycle.  Many  reported  an  array  of  initiatives  across  the 
educational system, addressing various transversal skills, either separately or focused on 
one particular type of skills, most prominently entrepreneurship.  

As most of the initiatives reported have been launched within the current decade, there is 
little  evidence  about  their  effectiveness  and  impact.  The  ET  2020  stocktaking  showed 
however  that  a  number  of  Member  States  would  like  to  engage  in  knowledge  sharing 
about  specific  issues  of  systemic  and/or  institutional  change  through  digital  readiness, 
using  innovative  pedagogies  and  MOOCs,  closer  linking  of  education  to  research, 
business and society, and expanding entrepreneurship education.  

2.4.1. Building  partnerships between education, business and civil  society to  promote 

entrepreneurship education and employability 

Policy context at EU level 

A  key  element  to  stimulate  innovation  in  and  through  education  is  engagement  with 
relevant stakeholders, in particular with business and civil society. This is important at all 
levels of education and training, but while this work is progressing in higher education, 

56 

 
 
 
 
 
 
much  remains  to  be  done  to  develop  this  approach  and  engagement  in  VET  and 
particularly in schools.  

Erasmus+ has placed a significant emphasis on developing partnerships across all levels 
of  education  and  training.  Strategic  Partnerships  support  links  between  all  types  of 
organisations and bodies working on education, addressing one of the identified priorities 
which include entrepreneurship education and employability.  

This  funding  offers  the  opportunity  to  forge  concrete  projects  with  organisations  that 
bring  together  expertise  and  strengths,  to  deliver  projects,  new  knowledge,  innovative 
actions  or  other  initiatives.  This  is  the  primary  funding  mechanism  to  encourage  and 
support partnerships for schools, VET and higher education.  

TOPIC 

KA 200 Higher 
Education 

KA 203 

TOTAL 

For Higher Education 

Labour  market 
guidance / youth unemployment 

issues 

incl.  career 

Enterprise,  industry  and  SMEs  (incl. 
entrepreneurship) 

Overcoming skills mismatches 
(basic/transversal) 

Entrepreneurial learning - 
entrepreneurship education 

TOTAL 

4 

5 

1 

12 

22 

9 

13 

5 

20 

47 

13 

18 

6 

32 

69 

Knowledge  Alliances  (higher  education)  and  Sector  Skills  Alliances  (VET)  are 
transnational projects also funded under Erasmus+ for the advantage of both business and 
education  partners.  Knowledge  Alliances  are  designed  to  involve  higher  education 
institutions and companies in new models of cooperation that lead to behavioural change 
among students, academics and company staff.  

The  main  added  value  of  the  Knowledge  Alliances  lies  in  their  focus  on  innovation  in 
and through higher education rather than on a given sector and or activity; all disciplines 
and sectors can be addressed through a Knowledge Alliance.  

The  interest  for  Knowledge  Alliances  is  extremely  high  leading  to  very  strong 
competition  for  funding.  For  the  pilot  calls  and  for  the  first  Erasmus+  call  the  success 
rate was below 5%. 

57 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Knowledge Alliances 

Proposals 

Budget 

Funded Projects 

2011 pilot call 

2012 pilot call 

2013 LLP 

2014 Erasmus+ 

93 

103 

69 

229 

3 

3 

14 

10 

1 Mio € 

1 Mio € 

5 Mio € 

8,4  Mio  €  (initial  budget  was  6,1 
Mio € - additional 2,3 Mio € were 
provided  allowing  the  funding  of 
3 additional projects that were on 
the reserve list).   

2015 Erasmus+ 

200 

7,5 Mio € (initial budget) 

Evaluation  process  on-
going 

Sector Skills Alliances aim to identify and close skills gaps in occupations by enhancing 
the responsiveness of initial and continuing VET systems to sector-specific labour market 
needs  and  demand  for  new  skills.  They  endeavour  to  agree  on  sector-wide  training 
content for European professional core profiles based on commonly defined competence 
standards,  and 
thus  facilitating  cross-border 
certification and therefore easing professional mobility in the sector. An Alliance should 
include  networks  of  VET  providers  including  companies,  representative  sector 
organisations or sectoral social partners. 

integrate  work-based 

learning, 

to 

Four  pilot  projects  launched  in  2012  were  recently  finalised  and  cover  the  following 
fields:  automotive  industry,  health  and  social  work,  tourism  and  catering  and  energy 
saving technologies.153  

In higher education, partnerships between institutions and business are further supported 
through  the  European  Institute  of  Innovation  and  Technology  (EIT)  and  the  Marie 
Sklodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA).  

The  European  Institute  of  Innovation  and  Technology  EIT  aims  at  reinforcing  the 
innovation capacity of Member States and at creating the entrepreneurs and innovators of 
tomorrow.  The  EIT  achieves  its  mission  by  fully  integrating  all  three  sides  of  the 
'Knowledge  Triangle'  (higher  education,  research  and  innovation)  in  Knowledge  and 
Innovation Communities (KICs). There are five KICs operating in key areas of economic 
and  societal  relevance  for  Europe:  Climate-KIC,  EIT  ICT  Labs,  KIC  InnoEnergy,  EIT 
Raw  Materials  and  EIT  Health.  They  bring  together  more  than  700  organisations  from 
higher  education,  research  and  business  from  Europe  and  abroad.  In  the  future,  three 

153 http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/vocational-policy/sector-skills_en.htm. 

58 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
additional KICs will be created in the areas of added value manufacturing, food for the 
future and urban mobility. 

The  EIT  promotes  excellent  and  relevant  education  responsive  to  both  business  and 
societal  demands  and  focused  on  the  delivery  of  innovation,  entrepreneurship  and 
creativity competences. EIT KICs educational programmes at Master and Doctoral levels 
are  distinguished  by  an  EIT  quality  label,  expected  to  become  an  internationally 
recognized brand of excellence helping to attract talent from Europe and abroad.  

EIT  labelled  degrees  are  built  on  a  set  of  specific  quality  criteria,  overarching  learning 
outcomes  and  an  internal  Quality  Assurance  and  Learning  Enhancement  Model.  This 
model  is  based  on  the  learning  outcome  paradigm  as  brought  forward  by  the  Bologna 
Process  with  the  aim  to  move  from  ‘teacher  driven’  to  ‘student  centred’  teaching  and 
learning,  changing  higher  education  from  being  just  knowledge  based  into  also  being 
competence  based.  As  such,  EIT-labelled  Masters  and  PhD  programmes  combine 
excellent  science  and  multidisciplinary  curricula  with  entrepreneurship  education, 
business creation services, and mobility and outreach schemes. EIT labelled programmes 
are  designed  and  implemented  together  with  business  across  boundaries.  They  offer 
students  the  possibility  of  carrying  out  internships  in  industry  and  of  learning  directly 
from professionals, so they end up with the necessary set of skills for the labour market 
and for innovation in global competition.  

Together  with  the  KICs,  the  EIT  is  expanding  its  portfolio  of  educational  activities 
beyond  post-graduate  education  to  a  greater  variety  of  study  modes,  involving  online 
education,  professional  development  and  executive  education,  and  tailor-made  training 
courses. 

Scale of EIT KIC educational activities: 

The  EIT  KICs  designated  in  2009  (Climate-KIC,  EIT  ICT  Labs  and  KIC  InnoEnergy) 
have attracted more than 24,000 applicants from all over the world to their more than 100 
education programmes. There are 1028 graduates from EIT KICs education programmes. 
It is expected that by 2020 the EIT, through the different KICs, will have trained more 
than  20  000  masters'  students  and  PhD  candidates.  The  results  of  a  survey  conducted 
among 300 students from the three EIT KICs show that the experience is enhancing their 
career potential through adding a set of hard and soft skills in working, interacting across 
academia and business and building greater confidence to start a business.  
The  Marie  Sklodowska-Curie  actions  (MSCA)154  aim  at  strengthening  researchers’ 
skills,  training  and  career  development  and  notably  foresee  to  fund  25  000  PhDs  that 
combine excellent and interdisciplinary research with entrepreneurial skills, international 
exposure and a reinforced involvement of future employers. 

The  various  actions  are  open  to  researchers  of  any  discipline  regardless  of  their 
experience, age or nationality, and offers lifelong training opportunities.  

Cooperation  between  universities  and  the  non-academic  sector  alongside  with  trans-
national and cross-sectoral mobility are important features of MSCA. Business and non-

154  For  details  on  the  FP7  period  of  MSCA  2007-2013  see  the  final  report  “FP7  Marie  Curie  Actions 
Interim  Evaluation”  (Specific  contract  EAC  -  2011  –  0517  Implementing  framework  contract  No 
EAC/50/2009). 

59 

 
 
 
                                                 
academic  participation  is  particularly  emphasised  during  the  MSCA  doctoral  training 
(ITN),  when  researchers  develop  'transferable'  skills  such  as  entrepreneurship,  thus 
increasing their employability.  

In  this  respect,  the  2015  call  finances  107  European  Training  Networks  (ETN),  9 
European  Joint  Doctorates  (EJD)  and  22  European  Industrial  Doctorates  (EID)  where 
academic  and  non-academic  organisations  cooperate.  For  example,  in  EID  at  least  one 
academic  participant  and  one  participant  from  the  private  sector  team  up  to  provide 
doctoral training. The researcher is enrolled in a PhD programme within a university and 
spends at least 50% of his/her time within the commercial partner. The joint supervision 
of fellows by supervisors from each sector is mandatory.  

In the 2014 MSCA ITN call, around 40% of all successful participants are from the non-
academic  sector,  including  over  550  companies.  In  ETN,  higher  education  institutions 
count  for  roughly  57%  of the  beneficiaries,  while  non-academic  sector  organisations 
amount to 24% of the total beneficiaries. 

Non-academic and SMEs beneficiaries in MSCA 2014 ITN projects (%) 

60 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Higher education and non-academic beneficiaries in the 2014 ITN call 

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

HE

non-academic

ETN

EJD

EID

The  MSCA  also  include  a  specific  action  for  the  short-term  exchanges  of  staff  at  all 
career  levels,  including  administrative  and  technical  staff,  as  part  of  the  Research  and 
Innovation Staff Exchanges (RISE). RISE is open to partnerships of academic and non-
academic organisations, including businesses and SMEs.  

The  2014  RISE  call  finances  89  projects  in  which  57%  of  participations  come  from 
higher  education  institutions,  while  30%  from  non-academic  sector  organisations, 
including 13% from SMEs. 

Research  institutions  involved  in  MSCA  have  to  comply  with  the  principles  of  the 
European  Charter  for  Researchers  and    Code  of  Conduct  for  the  recruitment  of 
researchers when recruiting researchers.155 The Charter and Code promote high quality 
employment  and  working  conditions  for  researchers  (fair  and  transparent  recruitment, 
parental leave, etc.). The MSCA has a true international dimension, as demonstrated by 
the high number of  non-EU fellows. 

Furthermore, under the COFUND scheme of MSCA in Horizon 2020, national funding 
agencies  as  well  as  individual  universitieswill  be  able  to  fund  doctoral  programmes 
implementing  the  seven  principles  forinnovative  doctoral  training  (IDT).  These 
principles,  as  endorsed  by  the  Council  of  Ministers  in  2011,  are  defined  as:  research 
excellence, an attractive institutional environment, internal quality assurance, exposure to 
industry  and  other  relevant  employment  sectors,  interdisciplinary  research  options, 
international networking and transferable skills. The increase in scientific production, the 
growing  competition  for  young  talents  and  the  consideration  for  the  non-academic  job 
market have partly triggered and been accompanied by the development of new forms of 
doctoral training provision in many European higher education systems. 

available 

155  Details 
and 
http://ec.europa.eu/euraxess/index.cfm/rights/codeOfConduct.  EURAXESS  is  a  pan-European  initiative 
providing access to a complete range of information and support services to researchers wishing to pursue 
their research careers in Europe. 

http://ec.europa.eu/euraxess/index.cfm/rights/europeanCharter 

under 

61 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Number of MSCA fellows with EU28 nationality 2007-2014 FP7 period 

62 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Number of MSCA fellows with non-EU nationality 2007-2014 FP7 period 

BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and…

Associate countries

 Highly Industrialised Partner…
EU Neighbourhood + Eastern…
Latin American Countries
Asia others
ASEAN
Sub-Sahara Africa
Caribbean
Others

648 
622 
608 

276 
274 

58 
16 

2829 

1765 

1543 

Total number of non-
EU fellows: 8634 

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

The  Commission  has  established  the  European  University–Business  Forum,  and  the 
VET-Business  Forum.  These  two  fora  are  platforms  at  European  level  for  structured 
dialogue  between  relevant  education  and  business  stakeholders  at  higher  education  and 
VET levels respectively, stimulating exchange of good practice and mutual learning and 
supporting the participants in developing further action in their respective countries.  

In order to respond to the specific needs at national and/or regional level the Commission 
and  Member  States  have  co-organised  Thematic  University–Business  Forums156.  The 
higher education forum is well-established and has already proven to be an effective tool 
for  initiating  concrete  action  through  new  initiatives  such  as  HEInnovate  and  the 
Knowledge Alliances.  

Finally, three studies have been commissioned. Beside the general objective of getting a 
better  understanding  of  the  issues  and  challenges,  raising  awareness  and  encourage 
institutional  change  in  higher  education,  the  studies  generate  evidence  for  future 
undertakings.  Tools,  platforms  and  activities  could  be  further  developed  and  explored, 
supporting an increasing number of institutions and national higher education systems to 
be  more  responsive  to  the  ET  2020  challenges.  The  request  of  setting-up  a  European 
University-Business Working Group or Council, with representatives of National Rector 
Conferences and Business Representatives could also be explored. 

Reporting 

First  evidence  on  the  development  of  university-business  cooperation  in  EU  Member 
States  was  delivered  as  a  result  of  the  EC  study  "The  State  of  European  University-
Business  Cooperation".157  The  outcomes  of  the  European  and  of  the  Thematic 

156 Thematic University-Business Fora BE and FR, in 2012; PL in 2013; SE, UK, ES, IT and DE in 2014. 
157 http://www.ub-cooperation.eu/. 

63 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
University-Business  Forums 
recommendations, -have been regularly summarized in comprehensive reports.158  

-  such  as  best  practice  examples,  findings  and 

A  monthly  update  of  country  fact  sheets  and  statistics  is  available  on  the  MSCA  web 
page.159  Further  reporting  on  policy  and 
the 
ERC/FET/MSCA Configuration of the Horizon 2020 Programme Committee. 

implementation 

through 

is  due 

The European Institute of Innovation and  Technology submits Annual Activity Reports 
to the EIT governing board.160  

Remaining challenges 

  Going beyond the examples of good practice and making the cooperation between 

HE and business a normal feature in the National HE systems. 

  Further developing the knowledge base on university-business cooperation in 

Europe, its state of development and its impact. 

Priorities for further action 

•  Fostering participatory education governance by stimulating engagement of learners, 
educators,  parents  and  the  broader  local  community  such  as  civil  society  groups, 
social partners and business. 

• 

Increasing  synergies  between  education,  research  and  innovation  activities,  with  a 
sustainable growth perspective, building on developments in HE, with a new focus on 
VET and schools. 

2.4.2.  Transversal  key  competences,  entrepreneurship  education,  e-literacy,  media 

literacy, innovative learning environments 

Policy context at EU level 

in  particular  young 

to  be 
Enabling  and  encouraging  citizens  and 
entrepreneurial,  innovative  and  creative  are  an  issue  of  strategic  importance  for  many 
governments.  In  its  Communications  on  "Rethinking  Education",  "Modernisation  of 
Higher  Education"  and  in  particular  "Opening  up  Education",  the  Commission  has 
stressed that attention should be focused on these core issues. The Commission continues 
to  support the  Member States through a variety of actions and funding opportunities  to 
include these elements in teaching and learning throughout their education systems.  

individuals 

The  Commission  and  the  Member  States  have  cooperated  within  a  Working  Group  to 
issue policy guidance on how to embed entrepreneurship as a key competence of cross-
cutting relevance. The Working Group's final report161 outlined a number of challenges 
and ways forward, which constitute the basis for work in the current ET 2020 Working 
Group  on  Transversal  Skills,  with  an  emphasis  on  languages,  entrepreneurship  and 

158 http://ec.europa.eu/education/tools/university-business_en.htm. 
159 http://ec.europa.eu/research/mariecurieactions/funded-projects/statistics/index_en.htm. 
160 http://eit.europa.eu/interact/bookshelf/annual-activity-report-2013. 
161 
2014_en.pdf. 

http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/archive/documents/entrepreneurship-report-

64 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
digital skills162. The discussions in the thematic group helped to define the priorities for 
the Erasmus+ Prospective initiatives Call163. The Working Group is expected to deliver 
feasibility reports on a European reference framework for entrepreneurship, on a digital 
competence skills framework and a citizen tool for self-assessment of transversal skills. 

In  the  sector  of  higher  education,  the  Commission  in  cooperation  with  the  OECD 
launched in November 2013 HEInnovate, an online tool designed to help institutions of 
all  types  assess  their  performance  as  "Entrepreneurial  Higher  Education  Institutions". 
This  tool  serves  the  purpose  of  assessing  the  status  quo  and  of  providing  advice  and 
action plans on how to improve an institution’s activities. The self-assessment cuts across 
seven  key  areas  common  to  all  entrepreneurial  HEI’s:  Leadership  &  Governance, 
Organisational capacity, Teaching & Learning, Pathways for Entrepreneurs, University-
Business Exchange, the Internationalised Institution, and Impact measurement.  

HEInnovate does  not  serve as  a ranking  or  benchmarking tool and  all data remains the 
property  of  the  user.  Over  the  span  of  one  year  HEInnovate  was  used  by  around  600 
higher education institutions. More than 1300 self-assessments have been completed and 
the use goes well beyond the EU. The USA is one of the top ten user countries. A series 
of  workshops  and  dissemination  events  took  place  in  2014164.  In  addition,  a  country 
review based on HEInnovate was organised in cooperation with the OECD in Bulgaria.  

Using HEInnovate for strategic purposes: 

In Denmark, VIA University College used HEInnovate to shape strategy and corporate 
culture AFTER a merger of six higher education institutions. 

In Ireland, Dublin’s three institutes of technology used it to PREPARE their merger to 
create a technical university. 

Porto Polytechnic in Portugal based the REVIEW and update of the university strategy 
on the HEInnovate methodology. 

(These examples have been discussed at the European University-Business Forum 2015) 

The Commission is working with OECD to explore the feasibility of developing a similar 
tool  for  primary,  secondary  and  VET  (ex-Entrepreneurship360).  This  initiative  brings 

162 With a reference to the "Rethinking Education" Communication, the Working Group mandate defines 
transversal  skills  as  follows:  "Transversal  skills  have  cross-cutting  dimensions  and  give  people  a  high 
degree of transferability in both life and work, adding value to job-specific knowledge and skills. They are 
skills that do not stem from a specific vocational context,  but are instead relevant as both a citizen or in 
employment. Transversal skills have been shown to positively impact on employability, active citizenship 
and  levels  of  new  business  creation  (for  both  social  aims  and  personal  profit).  They  can  be  drivers  for 
social and economic well-being, supporting Europe's key priority for growth and new job creation through 
a more employable and productive workforce as well as higher numbers of new business start-ups. During 
this  mandate,  the  WG  will  concentrate  on  three  transversal  skills:  Entrepreneurship,  Digital  Skills  and 
Languages". 
163  The  Erasmus+  Prospective  initiatives  Call  (EACEA  10/2014)  are:  Assessment  of  transversal  skills  in 
basic  and  secondary  education/Practical  entrepreneurial  experience  at  school/  Cooperation  on  innovative 
methods  for  fast  and  smooth  academic  recognition  across  borders  in  higher  education/  Reducing  the 
number  of  low  skilled  adults/  Encouraging  the  development  and  internationalisation  of  young  people's 
volunteering. 
164 BE, UK, SE, ES, IT, CY, BG, DE, CR, EL, IE, LT, RO. 

65 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
together  over  70  stakeholders  and  50  pilot  schools  and  is  expected  to  encourage 
entrepreneurial ecosystems at all these levels of education and training.   

Reporting 
In  13  countries165  transversal  skills,  and  in  particular  entrepreneurship  and  innovation 
skills, have played a role in educational reforms. Four Member States166  report specific 
legislative changes to support the introduction of transversal skills, while the remaining 
ten report curricula reforms which give emphasis to transversal skills. 

Entrepreneurship has been introduced at all levels of education. A fourth of EU Member 
States167  report  about  planned  or  existing  initiatives  specifically  targeting  primary  and 
pre-primary education. Examples of these initiatives are: introduction of a framework for 
entrepreneurship  education  at  primary  and  secondary  level,  support  for  teachers  and 
schools,  special  subsidies  for  schools  running  entrepreneurship  programmes,  price 
competitions  and  challenges  for  individual  students,  groups  of  students,  or  schools, 
support for partnerships between primary schools, research and companies. 

165 CY, DE, EE, ES, FI, HR, HU, LV, MT, PL, RO, SI, SK. 
166 EE, ES, RO, SK. 
167 IE, LU, MT, PT, SE, SI, UK. 

66 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
About  half  of  the  Member  States168  have  initiated  or  planned  initiatives  to  introduce 
entrepreneurship  in  general  secondary  education.  The  initiatives  vary  considerably 
according to scope, specificity and objectives, but a main thrust is that entrepreneurship 
and innovation are implemented as crosscutting topics rather than as separated subjects.  

Examples  include  an  "Entrepreneurial  Skills  Certificate"  offered  as  a  supplementary 
qualification, integration of topics and working methods to enhance entrepreneurial skills 
into  the  syllabuses  of  other  subjects169,  direct  collaboration  between  schools  and 
employers  as  well  as  social  partners  and  universities,  a  "Forum  on  Entrepreneurship  in 
Education" to raise awareness of entrepreneurship initiatives. 

The  Entrepreneur’s  Skills  Certificate®  in  Austria  is  offered  as  a  supplementary 
qualification  from  grade  eight  in  school.  The  Entrepreneur’s  Skills  Certificate® 
comprises four modules. Each module is concluded with a standardised examination and 
a certificate.  
Several  Member  States170  mention  having  introduced  entrepreneurship  skills  in 
vocational  education  and  training.  In  some  countries  (ES,  FI,  PL,  SK)  compulsory 
modules  on  entrepreneurship  have  been  integrated  into  all  VET  programmes,  while  in 
others (MT, NL), such modules are offered on an optional basis. 
Many  Member  States171  report  initiatives  to  strengthen  entrepreneurship  in  higher 
education.  Most  of  the  initiatives  concern  educational  content  (introduction  of  new 
programmes or courses), while a few aim at creating stronger links between universities 
and businesses. These initiatives range from setting up specialised bodies to disseminate 
to  making 
innovation  and  entrepreneurship 
entrepreneurship education an optional course (ES, LV) or even a Master’s degree (LU, 
MT) or setting up business incubators in universities (MT, PL) and using structural funds 
to co-finance project activities of students involving partnership with businesses (SI). 

in  higher  education 

(DK,  UK) 

The Creative Classrooms Lab project carried out a series of policy experimentations to 
collect  evidence  on  the  implementation,  impact  and  up-scaling  of  1:1  pedagogical 
approaches using tablets. 

The project aimed to: 

(1)  Provide  guidelines,  examples  of  good  practice  and  a  training  course  for  schools 
wishing to include tablets as part of their ICT strategy. 

(2)  Support  capacity  building  within  Ministries  of  Education  and  regional  educational 
authorities and encourage them to introduce changes in their education systems. 

(3)  Enable  policy  makers  to  foster  large-scale  uptake  of  the  innovative  practice  that  is 
observed during the project.http://creative.eun.org/ 

Remaining challenges 

Although  there  has  been  a  real  uptake  of  entrepreneurship  education  across  Member 
States,  some  challenges  are  still  ahead.  First,  as  entrepreneurship  education  is  fairly 

168 AT, EE, ES, FR, IE, IT, LU, LV, MT, PL, PT, RO, SI, UK. 
169 AT, EE, ES, LV, MT, RO. 
170 AT, CY, EE, ES, FI, IT, MT, NL, PL, PT, SK. 
171 DK, EE, ES, FI, HU, LU, LV, MT, NL, PL, PT, SI, UK. 

67 

 
 
 
                                                 
recent, there is a lack of coherence and a fragmentation of policy and implementation at 
national level. Reforms are often not systemic across all levels of education and training, 
nor is the understanding of what is meant by entrepreneurship education coherent across 
different  European  countries.  Second,  the  definition  of  entrepreneurship  skills  wavers 
between an equity model (transversal skills) and a market model (business knowledge), 
with  a  tendency  to  apply  the  market  model  in  VET  and  higher  education.  Third, 
educators  are  not  supported  or  trained  properly  and  lack  awareness  of  the  relevance  to 
their own teaching. Finally, data and monitoring of progress hardly exists. 

initiatives.  Exploring 

More  work  is  needed  to  support  effective  and  high  quality  implementation  of 
entrepreneurship-related 
impact  and  reach  of 
HEInnovate  as  an  established  development  tool  for  higher  education  at  EU  level  is 
essential. European  models of educator training could be developed, particularly online 
or  MOOCs,  to  enable  cost-effective  and  high  quality  professional  development 
opportunities, that can be embedded into national/regional policy approaches. Links need 
to  be  made  between  the  learning/skills  agenda  and  entrepreneurship  as  a  career 
destination, linking schools to their wider ecosystem. 

interim 

the 

Priorities for further action 

•  Strengthening the development of transversal skills and key competences, in line with 
the Reference Framework on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning,  in particular 
digital,  entrepreneurship  and 
through  common  EU 
linguistic  competences 
frameworks and self-assessment tools such as HEInnovate. 

•  Mainstreaming innovative and active pedagogies, such as inter-disciplinary teaching 
and  collaborative  methods,  to  enhance  the  development  of  relevant  and  high-level 
skills  and  competences  while  fostering 
including  for 
disadvantaged and learners with disabilities. 

inclusive  education, 

2.4.3. An agenda for digital learning 

Policy context at EU level 

New  technologies  provide  opportunities  for  open  and  innovative  pedagogies.  In  the 
context of the Digital Single Market initiative, which aims create a frictionless European 
digital economy and society, the Commission committed itself to support the supply of 
digital competences and skills among the workforce as well as the general population and 
to  innovate and  improve  education systems.  This  will  ensure,  that  Europe's  youth  –and 
Europe's adult learners – learn through the most effective and engaging means as well as 
that they learn those up-to-date and relevant knowledge, skills and competences that will 
aid them to be full participants and creators in the social, civic and economic life of an 
increasingly digital Europe. As the digital revolution is changing our lives and the way 
we live, interact, learn and do business, it is in particular essential that education systems 
contribute to develop and enhance digital competences of learners. These two objectives 
of ICT in education must be kept in mind.  

Digital  technologies  are  changing  our  lives  and  the  way  we  interact,  learn  and  do 
business.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  education  systems  also  contribute  to  develop  and 
enhance digital competences. Indeed, to harness the opportunities of the digital economy 
and society, new skill sets will be necessary for (i) citizens to be able to take active part 
and benefit, (ii) young people to develop the skill set they need for employability and (iii) 

68 

 
 
 
 
entrepreneurs as well as established companies across economic sectors to find the skills 
they  need,  to  invest  in  digital,  grow  and  create  jobs.  These  developments  create  an 
enormous  challenge  for  education  and  training  systems,  which  cannot  be  tackled  by 
individual stakeholders on their own. 

To  help  educators  and  learners  benefit  from  the  opportunities  offered  by  innovation 
through the adoption of technology and open practices, the Commission has launched in 
2013 the Opening up Education initiative. The initiative proposed several actions to be 
taken by the Commission, the Member-States and educational institutions. It recognised 
the need for a comprehensive approach to technology use and openness in education and 
thus  focused  on  three  areas  that  should  be  addressed  simultaneously  to  fully  reap  the 
benefits  of  technology  in  education:  open  learning  environments;  open  learning 
resources; connectivity and infrastructure. 

Opening up Education has led to a number of developments:  

  The  issue  of  openness,  open  educational  resources  and  digital  technologies  in 
education has gained significant attention and traction across the EU, leading to 
Council conclusions172, a European Parliament Resolution173, positive comments 
and  action  from  Member  States  and  even  inspiring  a  dedicated  initiative  on  the 
issue in Slovenia, 'Opening up Slovenia'174 

  Erasmus+ includes an open access requirement, according to which any teaching 
and learning materials produced within a project must become Open Educational 
Resources  

  Erasmus+  is  funding  partnerships  for  institutions  to  explore  new  organisational 

models to include open resources and practices 

  a digital competence reference framework for educators, learners and institutions 

is being developed 

 

the  "Open  Education  Europa"  website  has  been  launched  as  the  European 
gateway to innovative and open learning175  

  a guide for institutions to include OER among recommended learning materials is 
being prepared by the ET 2020 Working Group on digital and online learning.  

172 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/141138.pdf. 
173http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&reference=P7-TA-2014-
0395&language=EN&ring=A7-2014-0249. 
174 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-464_en.htm. 
175 http://www.openeducationeuropa.eu/. 

69 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
The ET 2020 Working Group on Digital and Online Learning put its primary focus 
on  mutual  learning  and  the  identification  of  good  practices.  Expected  outcomes  are 
related  to  effective  organisational  change  in  educational  institutions  towards  innovative 
and open learning environments, as well as guidelines transferring these to national and 
local  contexts.  To  increase  the  uptake  of  innovative  practices,  a  proposal  for  a  quality 
assurance  model  for  open  and  innovative  learning  environments  should  be  conceived 
taking  into  consideration  the  implications  for  EU  transparency  and  recognition 
instruments. 

Coding,  as  an  important  part  of  digital  competence  education,  is  another  issue  of 
importance also for education cooperation.  

In  its narrow definition, coding or  computer  programming  is  the process  of developing 
and implementing various sets of instructions to enable a computer to perform a certain 
task, solve problems and provide human interactivity. The term "coding" has also been 
used in a broader sense, referring to "computing science", including programming as well 
as learning about other online activities 

Coding skills are increasingly important: knowing how to code is empowering. It allows 
to understand the digital world we live in and to shape it. Basic coding skills are essential 
for  accessing  the  jobs  of  tomorrow  and  today.  Whether  analysing  healthcare  data, 
designing  security  software,  developing  apps,  communication  tools,  social  platforms  or 
special effects for movies, coding is the red thread that runs through future professions. 
Coding skills help to elaborate specifications of what we want the system to do. Last but 
not  least  it  helps  to  develop  skills  such  as  analytical  thinking,  problem  solving,  and 
creativity.  

Coding  has  been  pushed  so  far  mainly  through  grass  root  movements  and  other 
organisations (e.g. EU Code Week, the European Coding Initiative and its All you Need 
is Code campaign, Coderdojo). Although some Member States have started introducing 
mandatory  coding  or  computing  science  classes  in  schools  (e.g.  UK),  the  several 
scattered  initiatives  within  and  across  Member  States  would  benefit  from  more 
coordinated  approaches  also  in  terms  of  recognition  of  qualifications.  However,  for 
coding to be accessible to all kids, teaching could take place around schools, during or 
after school hours.  

The  "Grand  Coalition  for  Digital  Jobs"  was  announced  by  the  2012  Employment 
Package,  launched  in  March  2013  and  endorsed  by  the  European  Council.  It  aims  to 
tackle the lack of digital skills in Europe and the estimated 825.000 unfilled ICT-related 

70 

 
 
 
 
 
vacancies  by  2020  across  all  industry  sectors.  It  is  the  largest  collaborative  effort  in 
Europe  to  date  to  gather  offerings  in  ICT  training;  implement  job  placement 
programmes;  provide  more  aligned  degrees  and  curricula  at  vocational  schools  and 
universities; and motivate young people to study ICT and pursue related careers. These 
are achieved through "pledges" made by more than 80 stakeholders and by the work of 
"national  coalitions"  (national  employment,  education  and  industry  actors)  which  have 
been  launched  in  thirteen  countries  (BE  ,BG,  CY,    EL,  IT,  MT,  NL,  LT,  LV,  PL,  PT, 
RO, UK) while many more are under formation. 

Reporting  

Initiatives reported by Member States under the previous ET 2020 work cycle focus on 
teachers, learners and resources.  
Two  thirds  of  Member  States176  report  initiatives  to  strengthening  teachers’  digital 
skills,  for  instance  by  promoting  continued  training  of  teachers  in  the  use  of  ICT,  by 
integrating  ICT  competences  into  new  professional  standards  for  teachers  or  by 
establishing networks of innovative teachers who can promote digital skills regionally. In 
many  of  these  countries,  the  provision  of  these  skills  is  strongly  linked  to  the 
development and use of open education resources, in the sense that potential and existing 
teachers are trained in developing and using materials for virtual material platforms.  
Several  Member  States177  report  about  initiatives  to  enhance  the  digital  skills  of 
learners.  These  initiatives  focus  mainly  on  ensuring  that  teachers  have  the  right  skills 
and that the technological infrastructure is in place, but also on describing and assessing 
the  relevant  learning  outcomes.  In  a  number  of  countries,  work  has  been  done  to  set 
targets for improving learners’ digital competences.  

Initiatives  to  open  up  education  and  support  the  provision  of  learning  resources 
using online platforms are mentioned in 24 National Reports178. The scope and content of 
the initiatives reported vary considerably, from initiatives to deliver courses to registered 
students  online  or  through  blended  learning,  over  MOOCs  (massive  open  online 
courses), to repositories and databases for teaching materials.  

Whereas  online  or  blended  learning  is  implemented  in  most  countries,  particularly  in 
higher education, MOOCs is an area of great interest but still not so widely used. 
Finally,  nine  Member  States179  indicate  the  existence  of  a  national  strategy  for 
digitalisation of education covering skills and infrastructure and learning resources. 
Opening  up  Slovenia,  a  Slovenian  initiative  inspired  by  Opening  up  Education180  is  a 
bottom-up  created  and  top-down  supported  initiative  to  create  a  unique  nationwide 
research  environment  in  open  education.  The  initiative  is  carried  by  a  coalition  of  all 
Slovenian universities, compulsory and vocational education institutions with technical, 
research and industry partners. 

176 AT, BE fr, BE nl, CY, DK, EE, FI, FR, IE, IT, LT, LU, LV, NL, PL, PT, RO, SI. 
177 AT, BE fr, BE nl, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, HR, HU, IT, LT, NL, PT, RO, SE. 
178 AT, BE nl&fr,, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, ES, FI, FR, HU, IE, IT, LT, LU, LV, MT, NL, P L, RO, SE, SI, 
UK. 
179 AT, FR, LT, LV, MT, PL, RO, SE, SI. 
180 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-464_en.htm. 

71 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
Remaining challenges 

Though  many  experiments  are  being  successfully  implemented  by  many  innovative 
institutions all across Europe, some challenges are clearly ahead.  

-  Beyond  those  institutions  and  individuals  who  are  leading  the  path,  many 
institutions, administrators, educators and policy makers  are still uncomfortable, 
unaware or not prepared for a greater adoption of digital and open practices and 
resources. Many reasons contribute to adoption lag, among which clarifying the 
implications, potential and challenges, for an institution has a clear role. Lack of 
awareness on the subject is also an important factor;  

-  Education  institutions  must  revisit  their  organisational  models  to  become  more 

innovation driven and increase their level of e-maturity; 

-  The  lack  of  visibility  of  the  quality  and  relevance  of  learning  materials  is  an 
obstacle to  the usability of digital  and open teaching  and learning materials and 
learning opportunities (eg MOOC); 

-  At the moment,  there are not enough possibilities for recognition and validation 

of digitally acquired knowledge and skills.  

-  There is a need to reach beyond the early adopters policy tools; communication 
and  best  practices  should  be  adapted  in  order  to  reach  out  to  the  average 
practitioner and ensure more active use of innovative pedagogies and digital tools 

-  The uptake of ICT and  OER in  education should be  increased  - educators at all 
levels  must  be  given  the  opportunities  to  enhance  their  digital  competences  and 
skills  (including  coding);  students  must  be  provided  the  necessary  digital 
competences and skills (including coding) to adapt to a digital era   

The proliferation of emerging technologies to deliver education in an open format (such 
as  MOOCs  and  other  online  learning  offers)  demonstrates  the  need  to  focus  on  digital 
open education. Both MOOCs and digital skills were raised among the initiatives to be 
brought forward to the next work cycle.  

With regard to  the provision  of MOOCs,  equity,  and quality assessment  are issues that 
several countries feel should be addressed. Some Member States expressly pointed to the 
need to make MOOCS an area of knowledge sharing at EU level. 

Priorities for further action 

•  Promoting  the  use  of  ICT  as  a  driver  for  systemic  change  to  increase  quality  and 

relevance of education at all levels. 

•  Boosting  availability  and  quality  of  open  and  digital  educational  resources  and 
pedagogies  at  all  education  levels,  in  cooperation  with  European  open  source 
communities. 

•  Addressing the development of digital skills and competences at all levels of learning 

in response to the digital revolution. 

72 

 
 
 
 
 
3. GOVERNANCE OF THE ET 2020 STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK 

Achieving  the  full  potential  of  the  ET  2020  strategic  framework  requires  a  well-
functioning  governance  system  which  respects  Member  States'  competences  for  the 
content  and  organisation  of  their  education  and  training  systems  but  provides 
opportunities for further cooperation in education. Since the 2012 Joint Report progress 
has been made in improving ET 2020’s working methods and tool box. In particular ET 
2020  Working Groups have  been  successfully reorganized to  produce useful outputs in 
support of Member States' policy. 

3.1. ET 2020 Governance  

In their National Reports, Member States suggested that further steps could be taken to 
ensure that the existing ET 2020 governance arrangements are used to their full potential, 
in particular to increase involvement of the political level and improve coordination and 
transparency between the formal and informal dimensions of governance. 

3.1.1. Making the most of the formal governance structure 

In  the  National  Reports,  more  than  a  third  of  the  Member  States  call  for  a  closer 
involvement of politicians in the design and implementation of European cooperation in 
education  and  training.  Several  Member  States  stress  the  importance  of  enhancing  the 
involvement of the Council of Education Ministers in the steering of ET 2020 and in the 
exploitation  of  ET  2020  results.  Member  States  also  suggest  strengthening  the  relation 
between  ET  2020  and  the  European  Parliament’s  Culture  and  Education  Committee. 
These are constructive ideas to enhance the political impetus behind ET 2020.  

As suggested in the independent evaluation (recommendation 10), the evidence basis for 
a  more  systematic  political  steering  of  ET  2020  could  be  the  annual  Education  and 
Training Monitor. As proposed in the draft Joint Report, it would inform policy debates 
at  Council  level  ahead  of  the  European  Semester  as  well  as  with  the  European 
Parliament.  

3.1.2. Bridging ET 2020 formal and informal governance  

In addition to steering by the Council, ET 2020 benefits from the direct input by senior 
Member State officials at the informal meetings of the High Level Group on Education 
and  Training  and  of  Directors-General  (School  Policy,  Vocational  Education  and 
Training,  Higher  Education).  These  meetings  are  chaired  by  the  Council  Presidency. 
They  contribute  to  create  a  strategic  vision  on  education  and  training,  steer  ET  2020 
activities (in particular the ET 2020 Working Groups) and identify ET 2020 issues which 
should be signalled to the Council.  

As  suggested  by  the  independent  evaluation  (recommendation  12),  for  these  informal 
structures to play their role and fulfil their potential, it is important that Member States 
improve the way in which they interact with these structures at senior level.  

During  the stocktaking,  several  stakeholders  also  underlined  the  need  for  a  streamlined 
communication and greater coherence between ET 2020’s formal governance (within the 
Council) and these informal governance structures. In this respect, a number of Council 

73 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Presidencies  have  taken  the  good  initiative,  at  the  end  of  their  mandate,  to  draw  up  an 
information document summarising the salient elements of the informal ET 2020 senior 
officials meetings to the Council.  

To  improve  transparency  and  coherence  in  implementation,  the  draft  Joint  Report 
proposes  to  establish  an  ET  2020  indicative  rolling  Work  Plan.  Prepared  by  the 
Commission, in cooperation with the Member States, it would integrate inter al. the key 
activities  planned  in  the  ET  2020  Working  Groups  as  well  as  in  the  ET  2020  informal 
groups of senior officials. The Work Plan would be discussed at the High Level Group 
on  Education  and  Training  and in  the  relevant  meetings  of  Directors General  to  ensure 
that they are given a clear overview of regular joint activities of the new streamlined ET 
2020 (independent evaluation recommendation 14).  

3.1.3. Improving the transparency of ET 2020 governance 

The need for greater transparency and clarity in ET 2020 governance was highlighted by 
the National Reports, the consultation of senior officials and the independent evaluation.  
This need for transparency also concerned the relationship between the various ET 2020 
actors (see the ET 2020 governance chart below). 

In  line  with  recommendation  15  of  the  independent  evaluation,  the  Commission  could 
prepare a Guide which describes the different elements of the ET 2020 framework, the 
roles  and  responsibilities  of  different  bodies  and  their  inter-relationships.  The 
Commission  is  also  in  the  process  of  enhancing  the  visibility  of  ET  2020  through  the 
Europa (DG EAC) website.  

Schematic overview of ET 2020 cooperation 

74 

 
 
 
 
 
 
3.2. The ET 2020 tool box 

ET 2020 is the main instrument to develop "exchanges of information and experience on 
issues  common  to  the  education  [and  training]  systems  of  the  Member  States"  (TFEU, 
art. 165 and 166). Since 2012, and following the reorganisation of the ET 2020 Working 
Groups,  the  ET  2020  toolbox  has  gained  in  efficiency.  As  indicated  in  the  draft  Joint 
Report,  it  is  proposed  to  launch  a  new  generation  of  ET  2020  Working  Groups. 
Furthermore,  new  ideas  of  peer  learning  activities  and  peer  reviews  have  emerged  that 
were tested as pilot events.  

3.2.1. A third generation of ET 2020 Working Groups  

As  part  of  the  ET  2020  Open  Method  of  Coordination  the  Commission  and  Member 
States cooperate in the form of Working Groups. Their primary focus is, for each of the 
sectors and policy areas, to benefit the Member States in their work of furthering policy 
development through mutual learning and the identification of good practices. Working 
Groups are open to all Member States, Candidate and EFTA Countries, as well as invited 
EU institutional partners (such as Cedefop and ETF), European social partners and some 
international organisations.  

In February 2013, the Education Council asked the Member States and the Commission 
to  establish  “clear  mandates  and  standard  operating  procedures  (i.e. terms  of  reference, 
deliverables, membership requirements and sunset clauses) for all TWGs”. As a follow-
up,  new  ET  2020  Working  Groups  were  put  in  place  (early  2014)  and  a  number  of 
changes were made, concerning the number of groups (a reduction from eleven to six), 
the  adoption  of  standard  operating  procedures  (with  mandates)  and  the  definition  of 
precise outputs directly linked to the objectives of ET 2020 and contributing to Europe 
2020, to be delivered by October 2015. The six new Working Groups concentrated on the 
following subjects:  

(1)  Schools, including Early School Leaving and the Teaching Profession; 

(2)  Modernisation of Higher Education;  

(3)  Vocational Education and Training, with an initial focus on apprenticeships and 

work-based learning, as key elements of overall VET systems;  

(4)  Adult  Learning,  with  a  focus  on  strategies  to  reduce  the  number  of  low-skilled 

adults;  

(5)  Transversal Skills, including ICT, Entrepreneurial Skills and Languages;  

(6)  Digital and Online Learning. 

A  limited  number  of  horizontal  policy  issues  were  mainstreamed  in  the  different 
Working  Groups,  notably:  sustainable  and  efficient  funding  for  education  and  training, 
social  and  equity  aspects  of  education  and  training,  and  issues  around  teaching  and 
training of a general nature. 

The reorganisation of the Groups aimed at more efficient working methods, relying also 
on  the  use  of  ICT  tools.  Thus,  in  2014,  Working  Groups  held  18  meetings,  but  also  9 
webinars and developed a relatively active social network (Yammer) with more than 400 
members, more than 4500 messages posted and 650 files uploaded.  

75 

 
 
 
 
 
In the National Reports, almost half of the countries181 explicitly stated that participation 
in  Working  Groups  was  useful  or  was  expected  to  be  useful  following  their  recent 
reorganisation. Outputs from the Working Groups will be available on EAC website (see 
below). 

As  proposed  in  the  Joint  Report,  a  new  generation  of  ET  2020  Working  Groups  will 
contribute  to  the  implementation  of  the  Priority  Areas  and  Concrete  Issues  as  of  2016. 
The  mandate  for  the  new  Groups  will  be  proposed  by  the  Commission,  in  close 
consultation  with  the  Member  States,  and  building  on  the  positive  experience  with  the 
Working Groups created in 2014.  

3.2.2. ET 2020 Peer Reviews 

Since the last Joint Report, four peer reviews have been held in the ET 2020 context in 
order  to  follow  up  on  shared  policy  challenges  emerging  from  the  European  Semester. 
Following  a  pilot  peer  review  in  Brussels  in  September  2012,  three  peer  reviews  have 
been linked with the meetings of Directors General (DGs) from national ministries; the 
first one on VET in November 2013 under the Lithuanian Presidency, the second one on 
schools  policy  in  March  2014  under  the  Greek  Presidency  and  the  third  one  on 

181 AT, CY, DE, ES, FI, HU, IE, LV, NL, RO, SE, SI. 

76 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
employability  and  higher  education  in  March  2015  under  the  Latvian  Presidency.  In 
addition to Directors General and Commission services, the peer reviews were attended 
also by representatives of international organisations and key stakeholders. 

External evaluators issued a recommendation that the peer reviews should be established 
as an intrinsic part of the relationship between ET 2020 and the European Semester. The 
evaluation  suggested  that  one  peer  review  could  be  organised  under  each  Council 
Presidency.  

The feedback on the peer reviews mentioned above was generally positive, but a number 
of  improvements  is  wished  for.  They  are  valued  for  bringing  together  people  with 
relevant  expertise  in  an  open  and  productive  format  and  offering  them  a  possibility  to 
apply  EU  policy  to  particular  national  contexts.  However,  a  certain  number  of  issues 
could be addressed by both the Commission and the Member States in order to make the 
reviews more useful and relevant for EU level and national policy development. Firstly, 
to encourage more engagement by Member States and a better quality of discussions, the 
working methods of the peer review could be improved,, in particular by increasing the 
time  dedicated  to  the  analysis  of  each  country  experience,  clustering  countries  by  their 
similarities  and  issuing  quality  guidelines.  Secondly,  to  increase  the  impact  of  peer 
reviews, to allow a better peer learning experience and ensure ownership in the Member 
States,  opportunities  for continuity of the review process could be encouraged  (e.g. via 
"twinning"  arrangements  or  an  e-platform).  Lastly,  in  order  to  increase  the  focus  on 
supporting  Member  States'  national  policy  development,  a  follow  up  of  specific  policy 
challenges could be made possible via the Working Groups or the newly developed peer 
counselling tool. 

3.2.3. Improved ET 2020 peer learning activities, including peer counselling 

Since 2014, and based on their explicit mandate, the new ET 2020 Working Groups, have 
held twelve "country focussed workshops (CFW)"182. These "workshops" typically take 
place in a country volunteering to host the event and with a good practice to demonstrate, 
they focus on one specific policy issue and gather Member States for which the issue at 
stake is a national challenge or where they want to reach excellence (with a maximum of 
twelve  Member  States).  They  serve  to  analyse,  compare  and  contrast  different  policy 
options  or  approaches,  to  develop  new  knowledge  about  the  policy  area,  to  exchange 
policy  experience  and  evidence,  to  integrate  research  into  policy  making  and  to  offer 
practical guidance to participating countries, thus focusing on excellence as much as on 
the challenges of education and training systems. 

182  WG  Vocational  Education  &  Training:  1.  Support  for  companies,  in  particular  SME's,  offering 
company  placements;  2.  Positive  image  of  apprenticeships  and  improved  career  guidance;  WG  Adult 
Learning:  3.  Basic  skills;  4.  Policy  coherence;  WG  School  Policy:  5.  Governance  of  Initial  Teacher 
Education;  6.  Collaborative  Learning  Environments  (Teacher  Education);  7.  School  Governance  and 
Collaborative Practices (Early School Leaving); 8. Parental involvement (Early School Leaving); 9. Initial 
Teacher Education in the continuum of teacher education; 10. Whole School Approaches to Early School 
Leaving;    WG  Modernisation  Higher  Education:  11.  Changing  the  higher  education  landscape: 
specialisation,  consolidation  and  territorial  development;  12.  Performance-agreements  and  funding  in 
higher education. 

77 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
In their National Reports, several countries identified peer learning as the most important 
and  useful  area  of  ET  2020  in  support  of  national  reform  and  development183.  Most 
stakeholders, in particular at the 2014 Education, Training and Youth Forum, as well as 
respondents  to  the  independent  evaluation  equally  identified  this  as  an  area  with  high 
potential and added value at EU level. 

Peer learning is not only one of the main instruments for European policy-development 
in education but also an instrument which produces and circulates knowledge and ideas. 
Compared  to  other  knowledge  producers  in  education  (mainly  OECD,  UNESCO  and 
research centers), the EU uses peer learning and sharing of good practices in the field of 
education  and  training  as  a  source  of  knowledge  and  is  mainly  concerned  with 
knowledge transfer to policy makers at all levels.  

During the stocktaking, it was particularly emphasised that the visibility of peer learning 
at EU level should be boosted and the effectiveness of this instrument – which includes 
Working  Groups  but  also  goes  beyond  –  should  be  increased.  As  proposed  in  the  draft 
Joint Report, the ET 2020 indicative rolling Work Plan could be a means to provide 
an overview of peer learning activities.  

The  need  to  offer  Member  States  tailor-made  support  for  the  implementation  of  their 
national policy agenda was recognised already in the ET 2020 Joint Report of February 
2012 where it was part of a larger package of measures to align the activities under ET 
2020  with  the  European  strategy  for  growth  and  jobs  ‘Europe  2020’.  The  text  was  the 
following: “The peer-learning instrument could be used better and linked more closely to 
Europe  2020…  Member  States  that  wish  to  do  so  could  invite  peers  to  an  in-depth 
discussion  of  specific  issues  in  their  country.  The  Commission  would  use  relevant 
financial instruments to support this activity, including by supporting the participation of 
internationally renowned experts.” 

There  is  a  good  case  for  introducing  peer  counselling  as  a  new  instrument  in  the 
cooperation of EU Member States in education and training. Its aim is to support policy 
development  and  design  as  well  as  policy  implementation  and  evaluation  at  national 
level, by providing high quality, country-specific and tailored policy advice by peers and 
advisors  from  other  national  administrations  as  well  as,  optionally,  from  independent 
experts.  As  a  demand-driven  instrument,  peer  counselling  needs  to  remain  flexible  and 
linked to a specific policy challenge, ongoing reform or strategy in the country.  

3.2.4. Better dissemination, knowledge and transfer exchange 

According to the evaluation, ET 2020 processes and outputs tend to be rated highly by 
participants.  In  contrast,  the  ability  of  outputs  to  influence  people  and  feed  into  policy 
reduces  quickly  beyond  the  individuals  themselves  who  take  part  in  ET  2020.  In  the 
National Reports, several Member States signalled that they are putting in place ideas to 
ensure a better feedback between participants in ET 2020 activities and national policy-
makers,  both  by  bringing  together  national  representatives  in  the  ET  2020  Working 
Groups  and  in  the  ET  2020  senior  officials  groups  with  the  political  level,  and  by 
organising  dedicated  meetings  at  political/senior  official  level  on  specific  aspects  of 

183 AT, CZ, DE, EE, FI, FR, HU, IE, LT, LU, LV, PL, RO, SE, SK, UK. 

78 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
education  modernisation  whereby  the  expertise  of  the  representatives  in  the  ET  2020 
Working Groups is specifically valorised.  

The  stocktaking  has  also  brought  to  the  light  the  potential  disconnect  between  (a) 
European cooperation on education and training which links to and reaches the Member 
States, and (b) sub-national regional and local levels of governance which are not always 
directly in the loop on developments in European cooperation on education and training, 
but  whose  activities  are  often  crucial  in  setting  actual  learning  frameworks.  In  this 
context, Member States are encouraged to extend valorisation and dissemination efforts 
of  what  was  learned  at  European  level  at  the  appropriate  sub-national  regional  and 
local levels. More flexibility could also be given to the ET 2020 toolbox to reflect needs 
of mutual learning, for example by organising peer learning activities outside the scope 
of  Working  Groups,  thematic  events  and  other  forms  of  policy  learning  exchanges, 
including by using international evidence. 

Cooperation in education is useful only if it manages to produce outputs that are used by 
Member  States.  It  is  proposed  to  enhance  dissemination  and  valorisation  of  good 
practices and lessons learned – at both Member State and EU level – to improve ET 2020 
knowledge transfer and exchange, with the aim of providing insights into what works in 
education. 

3.2.5. Cooperation with the stakeholders 

To achieve an effective impact through the working methods that can be deployed under 
ET 2020 requires a close cooperation with civil society organisations active in the area of 
education and training and with the social partners who have a first-hand knowledge and 
expertise  of  evolutions  in  the  field  and  whose  membership  basis  is  an  indispensable 
multiplier  for  the  mutual  learning  and  good  practices  emerging  through  ET  2020 
cooperation. 

Regarding cooperation with civil society and other stakeholders active in education and 
training,  and  in  follow-up  of  the  ET  2020  Joint  Report  of  2012,  the  Commission  has 
organised  an  annual  exchange  of  views  between  the  stakeholders  in  the  field  of 
education,  training  and  youth  in  the  form  of  the  Education,  Training  and  Youth 
Forum. The Forum has been a constructive platform for exchange and discussion on the 
priorities for European cooperation.  

In October 2013, the Commission strengthened its informal cooperation with European 
social partners in the field of education and training. This cooperation supplements the 
cross-sectoral and sector-specific European social dialogue as well as the participation of 
social partner representatives in the ET 2020 Working Groups, the Advisory Group for 
the European Qualifications Framework, the meeting of Directors General for Vocational 
Education and Training, and the Advisory Committee on Vocational Training.  

Because  of  the  intense  links  between  education  and  training,  skills  development, 
employability,  equity  and  social  cohesion,  and  the  activities  and  expertise  of  the  social 
partners  and  relevant  civil  society  organisations,  Member  States  are  encouraged  to 
consult  these  partners  at  national  level,  whenever  they  deem  it  relevant,  on  ET  2020 
activities and inputs. Member States are encouraged to engage in a partnership with the 
relevant  social  partners  and  civil  society  organisations,  notably  to  best  reach  out  to  the 
learners, educators, and learning providers, also at sub-national regional and local levels. 

79 

 
 
 
 
3.3. Strengthening the evidence base of ET 2020  

ET  2020  is  accompanied  by  a  set  of  seven  European  benchmarks  to  foster  policy 
developments and monitor outcomes184. Regular monitoring of the benchmarks supports 
evidence-based  policy-making  and  facilitates  Member  States'  mutual  learning.  The 
Education and Training Monitor provides data and analysis to support policy debates.  

Recent  years  have  seen  significant  progress  in  availability  of  quality  data  on  education 
and training at EU/international level. These improvements are actively exploited by the 
Commission. However, the interaction between users and providers of data over the last 
years  within  the  ET  2020  process  has  also  shown  that  a  continuous  effort  is  needed  to 
assess the reporting situation. This is important in relation to a justified approach for EU 
data  demands.  The  efforts  to  streamline,  optimise  and  rationalise  reporting  should 
therefore continue. 

3.3.1. European benchmarks to support evidence-based policy-making 

Benchmarks  capture  trends  over  time  towards  a  set  target  and  the  use  of  appropriate 
breakdowns  leads  to  better  knowledge  of  specific  features  of  educational  inputs  and 
outcomes.  

Data evidence, analysis and progress monitoring in support of the ET 2020 framework is 
provided  by  Eurostat  (official  statistics),  the  Eurydice  network  of  national  units 
(information on systems and reform processes), CEDEFOP (on VET) and by OECD, as 
well  as  by  the  Commission  (Digital  Agenda  Scoreboard  and  the  Digital  Economy  and 
Society Index) and other international organisations, implementing education assessment 
surveys.  

The OECD is a major knowledge provider in the field of education, with its Education 
and  Skills  Directorate  leading  on  a  number  of  international  surveys,  but  also  thematic 
studies and country reports. In order to maximise the strategic use of existing cooperation 
with OECD, the Commission can play a role in facilitating a dialogue with and among 
Member  States.  To  this  purpose,  the  Commission  organises  regular  meetings  with 
representatives  of  the  Member  States  in  order  to  exchange  opinions  on  strategic 
cooperation with OECD; involvement in surveys and other studies; and use of Erasmus+ 
funding to support EU's participation in OECD projects. 

Five years into ET 2020, some benchmarks are forecasted to be achieved at EU level but 
retain a powerful potential; some will evolve towards a better measurement basis; while 
work  is  needed  to  develop  further  indicators  that  capture  additional  and  emerging 
priorities under ET 2020185.  

Based  on  current  trends,  the  indicators  on  Early  School  Leaving  and  Tertiary 
Attainment,  adopted  as  the  education  Headline  Target  under  Europe  2020,  can  be 
considered within reach by the EU as a whole: early school leaving is in decline (from 

184  Five  European  Benchmark  adopted  in  2009  and  two  Benchmarks  adopted  in  2011  (Cross-national 
learning mobility) and 2012 (Education and training for employability). 
185 An overview of progress towards the ET 2020 Benchmarks and framework for indicators is given in the 
2014 Monitor. 

80 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
13,9%  in  2010  to  11,1%  in  2014)  and  higher  education  attainment  rates  continue  to 
improve (from 33,6% in 2010 to 37,9 in 2014) and are above the Europe 2020 headline 
target in 16 Member States. 

However,  striking  discrepancies  both  between  and  within  Member  States  remain  and 
should  be  regularly  monitored:  there  are  still  more  than  5  million  early  school  leavers 
across Europe, facing an unemployment rate of 41% and in countries hit hardest by the 
crisis, the employability of graduates remains a particularly severe problem. 

Early  Childhood  Education  is  an  area  where  the  existing  ET  2020  benchmark  has 
opened up for adopting a wider discourse on the quality dimension in ECEC. To this end, 
there  is  ongoing  work  to  develop  a  framework  of  ECEC  indicators  that  considers 
accessibility and affordability of ECEC; the qualification and professional development 
of staff; the ECEC curriculum; monitoring and evaluation; plus governance and funding 
of ECEC. 

Progress towards the objectives of the benchmark on low achievements of 15-year olds 
has  been  inconsistent  in  the  last  years  and  Europe  is  lacking  behind,  particularly  in 
mathematics.  Analyses  of  key  breakdowns  as  gender,  socio-economic  and  migrant 
background remain important for direct use to design better policy responses.  

Regarding  the  employability  benchmark,  this  target  witnesses  the  close  connection 
between  education,  employment  and  economic  cycles  and  the  political  focus  of  the 
European Union over the period 2009-2020, and should be maintained. 

The  data  and  statistical  methodology  for  the  IVET  and  higher  education  learning 
mobility benchmark targets had to be improved substantially following its adoption in 
2011186.  This  development  work  has  been  carried  out  by  Eurostat  within  the  European 
Statistical System. Data availability is expected to improve substantially during 2015 and 
coming years allowing for reporting back to the Council at the end of 2015 as asked for 
in the 2011 Conclusions. This reporting explicitly calls for an assessment of the current 
formulation of the indicators. 

Finally,  the  methodology  for  measuring  the  benchmark  on  participation  in  adult 
learning  could  be  improved  in  the  coming  years  by  refining  existing  data  sources  as 
proposed in the context of the modernisation of European social statistics. This concerns 
mainly  a  longer  reference  period  for  the  participation  rate,  timing  of  data  as  well  as 
improved methodological guidance for data collection. 

3.3.2. The Education and Training Monitor 

The  Education  and  Training  Monitor  could  be  strengthened  as  the  ET  2020's  key 
instrument  for  monitoring  and  as  a  basis  for  evidence-based  policy  coordination  and 
knowledge brokerage.  

The  Monitor  is  an  annual  publication  that  reports  on  the  evolution  of  education  and 
training  systems  across  Europe,  bringing  together  the  latest  quantitative  and  qualitative 

186 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/126380.pdf. 

81 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
data, recent technical reports, studies, policy documents and other developments187. Since 
2012, it has set itself firmly as a flagship publication on trends in education and training 
at EU level, with positive feedback from a variety of stakeholders. 

The Education and  Training Monitor  provides  crucial support to  the implementation of 
ET 2020 by strengthening the evidence-base. Its release date could be brought forward so 
as to better fit with the European Semester cycle. Publication at the end of October could 
allow for its use as an analytical contribution to the discussion in the November Council. 
The  key  messages  at  the  beginning  of  the  Monitor  could  be  strengthened  to  become  a 
succinct and powerful executive summary, which distils concrete, evidence-based policy 
messages for Member States. This could be the starting point for a more systematic use 
of the Monitor as basis for Council debates and in the European Parliament. 

3.3.3. Streamlining, optimising and rationalising reporting 

On 24 February 2014, the Education Council adopted the "Conclusions on Efficient and 
Innovative Education and Training to Invest in Skills", in which it invited Member States 
and the  Commission to "Increase the added value and optimise  the effectiveness  of  the 
"ET  2020"  strategic 
its  underlying  governance  and  working 
arrangements,  notably  by:  …  optimising,  reducing  and  simplifying  education  and 
training reporting structures so as to avoid duplication." 

framework  and 

In this context, the Commission has provided an overview of reporting obligations under 
the  ET  2020  framework  and  discussed  with  the  Member  States  the  basic  principles 
underpinning  ET  2020  reporting.  The  five  key  principles  –  which  are  already  put  in 
practice – can be summarised as follows: 

1)  Reporting  provides  feedback  on  the  implementation  of  a  policy  initiative,  thus 

contributing to a quality implementation process. 

2)  Reporting is agreed with Member States and should have a legal or political basis. 
As  often  as  possible,  questionnaires  are  drafted  in  consultation  with  Member 
States. 

3)  The  expected  scale  of  Member  States  authorities’  contribution  to  EU-level 

reporting is proportionate to its strategic importance. 

4)  There  should  be  neither  duplication  nor  overlap  between  reporting  requests.  In 

particular: 

a)  the NRPs can be used as basis for analysing reforms made in relation to the 

Europe 2020 targets; 

b)  Eurypedia/Refernet as sources of information on descriptions of national 

reforms; and 

c)  Bologna reports where relevant as sources of information on reforms in the 

area of higher education. 

187  Volume  1  of  the  Monitor  provides  an  analysis  from  a  cross-national  and  thematic  point  of  view, 
whereas Volume 2 includes 28 country chapters providing analysis for each of the EU Member States. 

82 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
5)   Member  States’  contributions  mainly  focus  on 

the  following 

types  of 

information: 

-  Critical self-assessment of progress made; and 

-  Forward looking priorities and actions to be put in place. 

3.3.4.  The  Standing  Group  of  Indicators  and  Benchmarks  and  Indicator  Expert 

Groups under ET 2020  

In order to make use of appropriate expertise at national level and to develop indicators 
that are usable and meaningful for EU and MS policy makers, Indicator Expert Groups 
(IEGs) have been set up under ET 2020 (reporting to the Standing Group of Indicators 
and Benchmarks). The SGIB IEGs are active when needed following specific Terms of 
Reference as agreed by the SGIB and the Commission. 

Regarding  education  investment,  the  2012  Commission's  Communication  "Rethinking 
Education188" proposed to monitor actions taken by Member States to prioritise growth-
enhancing  expenditure  and  developing  an  evidence-based  framework  to  analyse  the 
efficiency of public spending for quality education and training in different education and 
training sectors. For this purpose, an Indicator Expert Group on Education Investments, 
was  set  up,  which  met  four  times  in  2014.  The  Group  identified  a  limited  set  of 
quantitative information allowing an appropriate monitoring of education spending at EU 
level,  advised  on  possible  areas  of  improvement  or  development  of  data  sources,  and 
provided guidance on the development and improvement of quantitative and system level 
information  on  education  investment.  Taking  into  consideration  the  importance  of  the 
issue in the framework of the European Semester, an appropriate follow-up of the work 
of  the  Group  could  be  reflected  on.  Emphasis  could  be  on  improving  and  streamlining 
existing data sources (including timeliness of data) as well as exploring possibilities for 
further work on effectiveness and efficiency. 

Following  preparatory  work  undertaken  by  an  Expert  Group  on  indicators  on  ICT  in 
education, and in line with the Commission's Communication 'Opening up Education'189, 
there  is  ongoing  work  to  develop  indicators  on  how  ICT  is  embedded  in  teaching  at 
different levels of the education system and the use of open educational resources (OER) 
as well as Massive Open Online Courses. The Commission’s follow up focused so far on 
data development, e.g. improvements to the “Community survey on the usage of ICT in 
households  and  by  individuals”,  potential  new  data  collections  on  digital  learning  in 
higher  education  institutions,  and  the  analysis  of  results  from  the  first  round  of 
International  Computer  and  Information  Literacy  Study.  2015  and  beyond  could  see 
further  work  with  experts  from  Member  States  and  through  co-operation  with  IEA  and 
OECD to propose a concise set of main and sub-indicators in this area.  

A need for further data and indicator developments for entrepreneurship education and 
the  competence  of  entrepreneurship  has  been  identified  as  a  key  area  by  the  ET  2020 
Thematic  Working  Group  in  Entrepreneurship  Education.  Between  2012  and  2014,  an 
Indicator Expert Group concluded on a set of recommendations for a limited set of main 

188 COM/2012/0669 final. 
189 COM/2013/0654 final. 

83 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
and  sub-indicators  and  produced  suggestions  for  data  developments,  mainly  based  on 
existing data sources. Through the Eurydice network a study is ongoing to provide new 
qualitative data on entrepreneurship education in schools and higher education.  

In  addition,  given  the  policy  priority  areas  of  ET  2020,  improvements  of  existing  data 
sources or new data are relevant in eight areas. This gap analysis is based on progress in 
evidence monitoring under ET 2020. These areas are: 

- Inequalities in education and furthering social cohesion and active citizenship. The 
terrorist  attacks  of  early  2015  in  Paris  and  Copenhagen  demonstrated  the  need  for 
monitoring equity and inclusiveness in education including the effects of socio-economic 
and disability status. A better coverage of equity and inclusiveness data aspects could be 
developed with Eurostat, also by strengthening the knowledge base on education issues 
related to migration and ethnic minorities (including Roma participation in education). 

- Professional development of teachers, trainers and school leaders. To improve data 
on the teachers' workforce, the Commission could work with Member States (including 
through a SGIB Indicator Expert Group on Teachers) and OECD to improve the country 
coverage in TALIS  2018 and in a longer perspective (TALIS 2023)  assure further data 
developments (new variables, coverage of upper secondary). 

-  Key  competences.  Further  work  could  be  considered  to  explore  how  data  from 
international and national assessments can shed further light on the development of basic 
competences  from  lower  secondary  to  upper  secondary  education  (e.g.  beyond  PISA 
analysis). 

-  High  quality  early  childhood  education  and  care.  Work  in  the  area  of  data  and 
indicators  on  access  to  ECEC  may  become  relevant  based  on  on-going  examination  of 
the  feasibility  of  collecting  such  information  through  the  Eurydice  network.  Potential 
work with OECD on an ECEC staff survey would provide key data for policy discussions 
on  the  profile  of  the  ECEC  workforce  and  its  role  for  the  quality  of  ECEC  provision. 
Participation of the Commission in activities to measure ECEC learning outcomes could 
become relevant in the forthcoming period. 

- Fostering learning mobility. In addition to the ongoing data developments on graduate 
learning  mobility  related  to  the  learning  mobility  benchmark,  Eurydice  will  provide  an 
updated Mobility Scoreboard in 2016. 

- European comparability and national data collections on multilingualism. Ongoing 
work on development of a consistent system for monitoring progress in multilingualism 
follows from the 2014 Council Conclusions on Multilingualism and the development of 
language  competences190.  The  current  approach  to  monitoring  progress  is  based  on 
realising  an  inventory  of  existing  systems  of  language  testing  and  analysing  their 
comparability  in  EU  Member  States  and  a  refinement  of  the  learning  input  indicator 
monitored in the framework of official Eurostat statistics. On the learning input side, data 
on  the  number  of  languages  taught  at  secondary  level  would  yield  more  comparable 
results if refined. 

- European coverage of existing data sources in adult education. The Survey of Adult 
Skills (PIAAC) brought in 2013 ground-breaking evidence for 17 Member States about 

190 http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/142692.pdf. 

84 

 
 
 
                                                 
the  skills  of  the  working  age  population,  the  use  made  of  these  and  their  relation  to 
educational attainment. Though some more Member States have implemented the survey 
since  then,  the  challenge  is  to  complete the  geographic coverage  of  the  EU.  Moreover, 
there is currently an opportunity for countries for a second data collection five years after 
the first one in order to measure the evolution over time.  

Furthermore, there are on-going efforts to define an education and training survey to be 
carried out on the adult population to explore the use of education throughout life. This 
survey could replace the current Adult Education survey. The development takes place in 
co-operation with Eurostat. 

-  VET  indicators.  Data  availability  is  the  main  challenge  of  monitoring  VET,  for 
instance, on vocational educational attainment, ESL from VET and apprenticeships. The 
new ISCED 2011 classification discriminates between general and vocational strands of 
educational attainment, but will in 2015 allow to assess VET outcomes more thoroughly. 
It also offers better definitions of several related relevant indicators. The development of 
a core indicator on VET with support from the Member States could be useful to improve 
VET monitoring. 

3.4. Funding instruments in support of ET 2020 

3.4.1. The Lifelong Learning Programme (2007-2013) 

The  Lifelong  Learning  Programme  (LLP)  with  a  relatively  small  budget  (representing 
around  1%  of  the  public  money  spent  on  education  in  Europe),  succeeded  to  act  as  a 
catalyst  for  structural  change  through  support  to  policy  development,  cooperation  and 
mobility across Europe. This is partly due to its efficient implementation system based on 
a  triangle  between  the  Member  States,  the  European  Commission  and  the  National 
Agencies. 

In the past seven years, some 1 600 000 higher education students have studied or carried 
out  traineeships abroad, while  about 500 000 students  and apprentices have  carried out 
mobility  experience  in  the  VET  field.  At  the  same  time,  more  than  520  000  school 
teachers, professors, lecturers, trainers and staff of educational institutions have delivered 
or  received  teaching  and  training  abroad.  In  addition,  50  000  participations  have  been 
registered  in various  partnership  projects (bilateral and  multilateral school  partnerships, 
regional partnerships, learning partnerships and Leonardo partnerships). 

The  Erasmus  Impact  Study  has  revealed  significant  positive  impact  in  terms  of 
employability  of  young  people  who  have  benefited  from  mobility  abroad.  Both  former 
Erasmus  students  and employers  report  that the  Erasmus  experience  is an  advantage  in 
the job market. Young people who study or train abroad are half as likely to face long-
term unemployment compared with those who stay at home. They are also given greater 
professional responsibility and their job environment is more international.  

Moreover  one  in  three  Erasmus  trainees  are  offered  a  position  in  their  host  company 
abroad after their traineeship and one out of 10 start their own business.  

Beyond  its  contribution  to  transnational  mobility,  the  LLP  programme  also  improved 
policy-making  by  providing  quality  tools,  analysis  and  research  as  well  as  fora  for 
exchanging best practices under ET 2020. 

85 

 
 
 
 
 
Despite the overall success of the programme, the interim evaluation, as well as studies 
and  stakeholder  consultations  identified  a  number  of  challenges,  which  needed  to  be 
addressed such as:   

 

 

 

 

insufficient  level  and  access  to  funding;  limited  participation  of  disadvantaged 
groups  (e.g.  those  with  special  education  needs);  quality  of  the  mobility 
experience (e.g. for in-company training); limited mobility in VET; and, lack of 
validation  and  recognition  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  gained  during  a 
mobility exchange; 

limited  direct  influence  of  LLP  actions  on  the  modernisation  of  education  and 
training system;. 

limited  evidence  on  which  actions/elements  of  the  programme  have  been  most 
effective  and  having  created  a  high  European  added-value  (e.g.  due  to  lack  of 
critical mass); 

fragmentation  and  complexity  of  the  rules  leading  to  excessive  administrative 
workload. 

3.4.2. The new Erasmus+ programme (2014-2020) 

The  Erasmus+  programme  brought  together  seven  previous  sub-programmes  under  a 
single  programme  with  a  total  budget  of  EUR  14.7  billion  over  the  period  2014-2020, 
representing a 40% increase compared to previous funding levels.  

The  programme  is  aimed  at  boosting  skills,  employability  and  the  modernisation  of 
education,  training  and  youth  systems  and  supports  actions,  cooperation  projects  and 
tools  linked  to  policy  priorities  of  ET  2020.  By  doing  so,  it  also  contributes  to  the 
implementation  of  the  Europe  2020  strategy,  in  particular  the  country-specific 
recommendations in the field of education and training. Investment from Erasmus+ will 
benefit individuals, institutions and society as a whole, thus contributing to jobs, growth 
and competitiveness and enhancing prosperity and social inclusion. 

The  new  streamlined  programme  architecture  of  Erasmus+  draws  on  the  lessons  learnt 
from its predecessor and aims to address emerging challenges and opportunities, such as 
high  youth  unemployment,  the  growing  demand  for  highly  skilled  workers,  the 
internationalisation of education and the development of new technologies.  

The  new  streamlined  Erasmus+  programme  is  organised  around  three  key  actions, 
notably  learning  mobility  of  individuals  (KA1);  cooperation  for  innovation  and  the 
exchange  of  good  practices  (KA2)  and  support  for  policy  reform  (KA3).  It  pursues  a 
substantially  new  approach  to  have  greater  impact  and  visibility,  which  can  be 
characterised by: 

  closer links between programme and policy objectives; 

  more  synergies  and  interaction  between  formal,  informal  and  non-formal 

learning;  

  more cross-sectoral partnerships with the world of work; 

  a streamlined, simpler architecture; and 

  a stronger focus on the European added-value. 

86 

 
 
 
 
The clear link with policy objectives and the simplified architecture will ensure that the 
programme  has  not  only  a  direct  impact  on  individuals  and  institutions,  but  will  also 
trigger structural reforms thus contributing to the modernisation of education and training 
systems.  

The  increased  funding  volume  will  create  opportunities  for  even  more  individuals  for 
transnational  mobility.  Over  the  next  7  years,  more  than  4  million  people  will  receive 
support  to  study,  train,  work  or  volunteer  abroad,  including  2  million  higher  education 
students (of whom 450 000 will be on traineeships), 800 000 school teachers, lecturers, 
educators,  trainers,  education  staff  and  youth  workers,  650  000  vocational  training 
students  and  apprentices  and  more  than  500  000  young  people  participating  in  youth 
exchanges  or  volunteering  abroad.  Students  planning  a  full  Master's  degree  abroad,  for 
which  national  grants  or  loans  are  seldom  available,  will  benefit  from  a  new  loan 
guarantee  scheme  run  by  the  European  Investment  Fund.  These  transnational  mobility 
actions  will  help  Member  States  making  progress  towards  the  ET  2020  mobility 
benchmark of 20%.  

3.4.3. Cohesion Policy to support education and training 

Education  and  training  policies  have  benefitted  from  substantial  support  from  the 
Structural  Funds  in  the  2007–13  programming  period,  with  approximately  10%  of  the 
total  Cohesion  Policy  envelope  amounting  to  EUR  37  billion  directly  spent  on 
investment  in  human  capital  (ESF:  EUR  28  billion,  ERDF:  EUR  9  billion)191.  The 
European  Social  Fund  has  supported  approximately  68  million  individuals,  including 
actions  aimed  at  supporting  labour  market  participation,  life-long  learning  and  social 
inclusion. About one third of all ESF participants were young people. An estimated 8.5 
million  individuals  gained  a  qualification  through  ESF  support,  while  5  million  young 
people, 5.5 million individuals with low skills, and 576 000 older people participated in 
adult learning.   

The ESF did not only contribute to the up-skilling of the workforce, but also supported 
the  implementation  of  structural  reforms  of  education  and  training  systems  in  most 
Member States. Over the past 7 years more than EUR 8 billion have been allocated to the 
design,  introduction  and  implementation  of  reforms  in  education  and  training  systems, 
with some Member States having allocated more than 25 % of their ESF budget to this 
priority  (e.g.  CZ,  HU).  These  measures  covered  all  education  levels  and  sectors, 
including pre-school education (e.g. CZ); tertiary education (CZ, HU, LT, MT and PL); 
improving  teacher  education  (CZ,  HU);  and  vocational  training  (DK).  In  addition,  the 
European  Regional  Development  Fund  has  invested  in  education  infrastructure  in  21 
Member  States,  with  significant  amounts  in  some  of  the  Convergence  regions  (PT:  2.2 
bn, PL: 1.2 bn, SK: 706 mio, ES: 674 mio, EL: 637 mio, HU: 598 mio).  

191 The European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) also promotes training activities and 
knowledge transfer actions. 

87 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
European  Structural  and  Investment  Funds  to  support  education  and  training 
between 2014-20 

The European Structural and Investment (ESI) Funds will continue to invest in education 
and training policies over the next 7 years with a comparable magnitude, amounting to 
approximately EUR 32.5 billion192, (ESF: EUR 26.3 billion, ERDF: EUR 6.2 billion). If 
these  important  amounts  are  mobilised  in  a  strategically  targeted  and  effective  way, 
Cohesion  Policy,  particularly  in  the  less  developed  regions,  can  make  a  significant 
contribution  to  the  modernisation  of  education  and  training  systems  in  line  with  the 
priorities of ET 2020. 

In the 2014-2020 cycle, investments under the ESI funds have been aligned more closely 
to the Europe 2020 strategy and the challenges identified under the European Semester in 
the  form  of  Country  Specific  Recommendations.  Moreover  to  ensure  greater  impact, 
Member  States  have  been  requested  to  concentrate  a  certain  share  of  their  ESF 
allocation193 (at Operational Programme level) on up to five investment priorities.194ESI 
funds will be directed at all educational sectors from early childhood to higher education 
under five investment priorities  (IP),  mirroring  largely the composition of the ET 2020 
Working Groups.195 The outcomes of the programming exercise show that all education 
related investment priorities have been selected by a great number of Member States at 
national  or  regional  level,  depending  on  the  areas  where  individual  countries  face 
particular challenges: 

1) Reducing early school leaving and promoting access to good quality early childhood 
and school education (ESF) – selected by 19 Member States196  

2) Improving quality, efficiency and access to tertiary education (ESF) – selected by 18 
Member States197; 

3)  Enhancing  access  to  life-long  learning  and  up-skilling  of  the  workforce  (ESF)  –
selected by 26 Member States198; 

4) Strengthening VET and apprenticeships and increasing the labour market relevance 
of education and training systems (ESF) – selected by 22 Member States199; 

5) Investment in education and training infrastructure (ERDF) - selected by 19 MS. 

In addition, education and training measures are also programmed under other priorities, 
for  instance  apprenticeships  and  second  chance  education  programmes  under  the  IP  on 
sustainable integration of young people in the labour market, or education measures for 
Roma  under  IP  on  promoting 
integration  of  marginalised 
communities.  

the  socio-economic 

192 Under thematic objective 10: "Investing in education, training and vocational training for skills and life-
long learning". 
193 This share is defined according to the category in which the region falls: 60% in less developed regions, 
70% in transition regions, 80% in more developed regions. 
194 See Article 4 of Regulation 1304/2013 on the European Social Fund. 
195 See Article 3 of Regulation 1304/2013 on the European Social Fund. 
196 AT, BE, BG, CZ, DE, EE, EL, ES, FR, HU, IT, LT,LVMT, PL, PT, RO, SK, UK. 
197 BG, CZ, EE, EL, ES, FR, HR, HU, IE, IT, LT, LV, MT, PL, PT, RO, SI, SK. 
198 All Member States, with the exception of CZ and NL. 
199 BE, BG, CY, CZ, DE, DK, EE, EL, FR, HR, HU, IT, LV, MT, PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, SK, UK. 

88 

 
 
 
                                                 
ET  2020  priorities  have  served  as  a  key  reference  point  for  the  negotiations  on  the 
content of investment priorities of the future Operational Programmes, thus feeding 
directly into the programming exercise. 

Since  the  impact  of  measures  implemented  under  the  above  investment  priorities  will 
ultimately  depend  on  the  way  ESF  funding  is  deployed,  it  is  important  to  strengthen 
further  the  links  between  ESF  and  ET  2020.  The  regulatory  framework  for  Cohesion 
Policy provides an excellent basis for this, notably, through the establishment of ex-ante 
conditionalities,  which  requires  Member  States  to  put  in  place  a  strategic  policy 
framework, taking into account the policy objectives and orientations agreed at EU level. 

Education and training policies will be covered directly by four ex-ante conditionalities, 
which correspond to the four investment priorities established by the ESF Regulation (1. 
early-school leaving, 2. higher education, 3. lifelong learning and 4. vocational education 
and training)200. 

The  assessment  of  ex-ante  conditionalities  has  been  carried  out  jointly  by  the 
Commission  and  the  Member  States  during  the  negotiations  on  the  Partnership 
Agreements  and  Operational  Programmes.  At  the  time  of  adoption  of  the  Operational 
Programmes, 20 Member States have not fulfilled one or more ex-ante conditionalities in 
the field of education and training. These countries had to submit an action plan, which 
set  out  the  necessary  measures  to  be  taken  and  the  corresponding  timeframe  (final 
deadline is end 2016).  

ET  2020  priorities  have  been  well  reflected  both  in  the  regulatory  framework  of 
Cohesion Policy, but also in the programming  exercise. Nevertheless, it is important to 
ensure consistency also throughout the implementation of Operational Programmes. This 
could inter alia be done through  cooperation between the ET 2020 Working Groups 
and  the  ESF  Managing  Authorities.  For  example,  the  outcomes  of  the  ET  2020 
Working Groups could be made available to Managing Authorities, thus bringing policy 
evidence  into  the  programme  implementation  reinforcing  cooperation  at  EU  level  (e.g. 
presentations  to  ESF  Technical  Working  Group  (TWG);  meetings/seminars  organised 
jointly by ET 2020 Working Groups and ESF TWG etc).  

Moreover,  the  impact  of  EU  funding  programmes  on  the  modernisation  agenda  of 
education and training could be boosted by better exploiting potential synergies between 
Erasmus+ and the European Social Fund. For instance, innovative policy approaches 
and  tools  which  have  been  developed  and  proved  successful  under  the  Erasmus+ 
programme (e.g. through transnational cooperation projects or policy experimentations), 
could be scaled up with the support of ESF. 

This  requires  a  greater  awareness  of  possible  linkages  and  a  reinforced  cooperation 
among the stakeholders involved in the implementation of the programmes. To facilitate 
the  process,  the  Commission  has  developed  guidance  tools  both  for  policy  makers  and 
beneficiaries  on  synergies  between  the  ESI  funds  and  other  EU  funding  instruments, 
including Erasmus+.  

200 The applicability of ex-ante conditionalities depend on the choice of investment priorities by Member 
States. 

89 

 
 
 
                                                 
National  Agencies  and  ESF  Managing  Authorities  could  be  encouraged  to  engage  in  a 
structured cooperation to share information and facilitate coordination of the timing and 
content of certain calls, as appropriate. 

3.4.4. The Investment Plan for Europe 

In  November  2014,  the  Commission  presented  an  Investment  Plan  for  Europe,  which 
aims  at  mobilising  at  least  €  315  billion  in  2015-2017.  The  Plan  was  endorsed  by  the 
European  Council  in  December.  The  Plan  has  three  building  blocks:  The  first  is  the 
European Fund for Strategic Investment (EFSI) providing guarantees based on the EU's 
and  EIB's  budgets  to  private  investors  participating  in  strategic  projects.  The  EFSI 
regulation  was  adopted  on  25  June.201;  The  second  block  is  the  increase  of  the 
information available to investors, through an Investment Project Portal where promoters 
can advertise their projects to potential investors; Finally, the Plan aims at improving the 
business  environment  and  reducing  the  administrative  and  tax  burdens  for  the  private 
sector. 

Education and training feature prominently among the strategic policy objectives of the 
Investment Plan. To maximise financial leverage, the Plan will predominantly use loans 
or other lending instruments, which need to be reimbursed. Among the suitable types of 
intervention  that  can  benefit  from  it  are:  long-term  loans  for  building  educational 
infrastructure; student loan schemes; public-private partnerships for the design, building 
and  operation  of  facilities;  projects  that  combine  the  provision  of  digital  infrastructure 
and equipment with the development of learning support material, teaching methods and 
teachers' training. Suitable projects should be developed bottom-up, also using dedicated 
technical assistance facilities, and apply for funding at the EIB. Smaller projects, e.g. in 
individual  schools,  should  be  pooled  with  other  similar  ones,  possibly  bundled  in 
"investment platforms". The financing can also be intermediated by national promotional 
banks (some of which have already announced their intention to commit billions of euros 
to co-finance investments under the Plan). 

201 http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/PE-34-2015-INIT/en/pdf. 

90 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
ANNEXES  

Annex  1:  Synthesis  of  the  National  Contributions  from  the  EEA  and  Candidate 
Countries 

Among the EEA and Candidate Countries, national reports were received from Norway 
(EEA), Iceland and Turkey (Candidate Countries).  

Turkey  has  undertaken  significant  regulatory  reforms  underpinning  the  adoption  of  a 
lifelong  learning  strategy.  Compulsory  education  has  been  extended  to  twelve  years, 
and  a  draft  law  is  being  prepared  which  identifies  the  roles  and  responsibilities  of  all 
stakeholders  and  providers  in  the  education  system.  In  Norway,  the  Norwegian 
Qualifications  Framework  (NQF)  for  lifelong learning  was adopted  in  December  2011. 
In  Iceland,  the  Icelandic  Qualifications  Framework  for  Lifelong  Learning  (ISQF)  was 
referenced to the EQF in 2013.  

A  comprehensive  framework  for  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning 
(VNIL) is in place in Norway. There is however no all-encompassing VNIL strategy at 
national level. One of the most important challenges in this area is the involvement of the 
private sector in validation strategies. Iceland is confident that the adoption of ISQF will 
facilitate VNIL to a certain extent, but still sees challenges, in particular as concerns the 
recognition of non-formal learning.  

All  three  countries  are  introducing  measures  to  raise  quality  in  education  aimed  at 
improving  education  and  training  outcomes  as  documented  by  the  PISA  and  PIAAC 
surveys.  In  Iceland,  a  White  Paper  on  educational  reforms  was  published  in  2014, 
outlining  two  main  objectives  until  2018:  90%  of  all  pupils  should  meet  minimum 
reading  criteria,  and  60%  of  students  should  complete  upper  secondary  education  on 
time. Norway plans to follow up on the recent PIAAC survey results with a White Paper 
on quality, participation and efficiency of adult learning to be presented in autumn 2015. 
Turkey  participates  in  the  2nd  phase  of  PIAAC  and  will  monitor  results  with  a  view  to 
ongoing reform.  

Following the extension of compulsory education in Turkey, the country is in the process 
of  reforming  curricula, 
introducing  more  elective  subjects  and  emphasising 
mathematics. 

All  three  countries  have  developed  strategies  and  instruments  for  inclusion,  focusing 
mainly on early childhood education and primary schools. All three countries note that it 
is  a  challenge  to  implement  policies  throughout  all  responsible  local  authorities  and 
institutions. 

Entrepreneurship  skills  are  approached  very  differently  by  the  three  countries.  In 
Norway, a set of different national initiatives promotes entrepreneurship at various levels 
of education. In Iceland, tax deductions for companies that support Master’s and doctoral 
students  are  introduced  to  encourage  greater  cooperation  between  universities,  research 
institutions and companies. Turkey participates in the iTEC (Innovative Technologies for 
Engaging  Classrooms)  project  where  education  ministries,  technology  providers  and 
research organisations cooperate to transform the way technology is used in teaching and 
learning. 

In  Norway,  the  Educational  Reform  of  2006  for  Primary  and  Secondary  Education 
introduced  a  set  of  five  basic  skills  to  be  embedded  in  all  subject  areas,  one  of  these 

91 

 
 
 
being  digital  skills.  PCs  (laptops,  tablets)  are  being  used  extensively.  Teachers’  digital 
proficiency is an area of concern, though. Iceland is introducing a new information and 
communication  policy  for  all  levels  from  pre-school  to  upper  secondary  education. 
Turkey  has  focused  on  enhancing  the  digital  skills  of  teachers  and  has  trained  a  large 
share of the country’s teachers. 

In  Norway,  a  government  commission  was  appointed  in  2013  to  inquire  into  the 
possibilities  and  challenges  related  to  Massive  Open  Online  Courses  (MOOCs).  The 
final  report  was  published  June  2014202.  The  Icelandic  Ministry  of  Education  has 
launched  ‘The  Educational  Resource  Centre’,  an  open  educational  platform  for  schools 
and educational organisations and a framework for grassroots activity in education. Open 
educational  resources  are  under  way  at  universities  in  Iceland,  where  a  MOOCs 
programme  is  currently  being  developed,  and  open  educational  resources  have  been 
introduced in teacher education. In Turkey, the strategy towards opening up education is 
strongly linked to the strategy to raise the level of digital competences in the population. 
Turkey  utilises  the  eTwinning  and  scientix  platforms  to  allow  teachers  in  primary  and 
secondary education to download and upload digital teaching materials and communicate 
and work together with teachers in Europe.  

Regarding language teaching and learning, Norway focuses on generic language skills 
by  strengthening  reading,  writing  and  oral  skills  in  new  curricula  for  Mathematics, 
English,  Norwegian,  Social  Studies  and  Natural  Sciences.  Iceland  promotes  language 
teaching  and  learning  through  ‘The  Language  Square’  (www.tungumalatorgid.is),  an 
open education resource. Turkey considers communication skills in foreign languages as 
a  main  priority.  The  country  has  adopted  the  Common  European  Framework  of 
Reference  for  Language  programmes.  Participation  in  eTwinning  projects  is  a  major 
supporting tool. 

All  three  countries  have  implemented  measures  to  reduce  drop  out  and  ESL.  Norway 
and  Iceland  have  both  focused  on  the  professional  development  of  teachers  as  an 
important prerequisite for reducing ESL, while Turkey is implementing measures to raise 
the attention of teachers to the problem. In Norway measures to improve the quality of 
primary and secondary education have been put in place to reduce the probability of ESL 
later on.  

Neither of the  three  countries participate in the European Alliance for Apprenticeships, 
nor  have  agreed  to  implement  the  educational  dimension  of  the  Youth  Guarantee. 
Norway  and  Iceland  both  have  long-standing  traditions  of  involving  social  partners  in 
VET policy making, based on negotiated agreements between authorities and the social 
partners. In Norway, future professional skills needs are primarily identified by the social 
partners  and  education  authorities.  In  Iceland,  committees  composed  of  representatives 
from the labour market are appointed to ensure that work-based learning is in line with 
the  needs  of  companies.  Iceland  still  faces  challenges  concerning  the  quality  of  the 
company-based  parts  of  dual  VET  programmes.  In  Turkey,  steps  to  increase  the 
attainment rate and the quality of vocational and technical education at secondary level 
have  been  successful  in  increasing  the  uptake  in  VET.  Further,  Turkey  has  passed 
regulation  allowing  for  the  establishment  of  private  VET  schools  in  connection  with 
economic sectors.  

202 Available in Norwegian only. 

92 

 
 
 
                                                 
In Iceland and Norway, ongoing initiatives directly or indirectly focus on increasing the 
quality  of  higher  education  (e.g.  a  White  Paper  on  the  institutional  structure  of 
Norwegian higher education with a focus on obtaining more efficient and robust HEIs). 
In  Iceland,  all  HEIs  have  to  be  accredited  by  the  Minister  of  Education,  Science  and 
Culture,  and  HEIs  can  only  operate  within  their  accredited  fields  of  study.  A  Quality 
Board  for  Higher  Education  has  established  a  Quality  Enhancement  Framework  for 
Higher Education in Iceland and has carried out institutional reviews. Turkey has focused 
on  access  to  HE  and  on  internationalisation,  investing  in  infrastructure  and  human 
resources.  This  has  led  to  a  significant  increase  in  the  number  of  students  and 
universities,  from  27  in  1982  to  93  in  2013.  Turkey  and  Iceland  report  that  they 
implemented the Bologna Process and participate in Erasmus+. Turkey is in the process 
of developing a Turkish Higher Education Qualifications Framework.  

All  three  countries  have  instituted  measures  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  provision  of 
adult learning. In Iceland, all education and training providers must be accredited. Both 
Norway and Iceland have launched initiatives to improve access to further education and 
to the labour market for adults lacking basic skills and/or qualifications. In Norway, the 
‘Basic  competences  in  working  life  (BCWL)’  programme  provides  the  opportunity  for 
adults to acquire the basic skills required in modern working life and society. Demand for 
funding has been continuously increasing. Competence Goals for Basic Skills for Adults 
were  implemented  in  2013.  They  establish  national  standards  for  reading  and  writing, 
mathematics, digital competence and oral communication, and can be used as an aid in 
adapting learning content to the needs of adults. 

In  Iceland,  the  social  partners  and  the  government  announced  their  joint  objective  of 
reducing  the  proportion  of  people  in  the  labour  market  without  upper  secondary 
education  to  a  maximum  of  10%.  Focus  is  on  educational  and  career  counselling.  In 
Iceland,  policies  further  focus  on  methods  for  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal 
learning.  

Turkey  reports  that  recent  research  has  shown  that  adult  learning  as  a  concept  is  not 
sufficiently known and valued by the society, that expectations are low, that supply is not 
sufficient and that the qualifications gained through adult education are not sufficient for 
individuals to adapt new scientific and technological developments into daily activities. 
Therefore,  a  newly  designed  adult  learning  project  will  focus  on  awareness  raising, 
provision of basic skills to adults and developing e-courses to increase participation rates. 

93 

 
 
 
 
 
Annex 2: Independent interim evaluation 

94 

 
 
 
 
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105 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Annex 3:  Riga Conclusions on a new set of medium-term deliverables in the field of 
VET for 2015-2020 

RIGA CONCLUSIONS 2015 

ON A NEW SET OF MEDIUM-TERM DELIVERABLES IN THE FIELD OF VET FOR THE PERIOD 2015-
2020, AS A RESULT OF THE REVIEW OF SHORT-TERM DELIVERABLES DEFINED IN THE 2010 
BRUGES COMMUNIQUÉ 

PREAMBLE: Declaration of the Ministers in charge of vocational education and 
training – of EU Member States, Candidate Countries, European Economic Area 
Countries 

We, the Ministers in charge of vocational education and training (VET) met in the 
Baltic city of Riga on 22 June 2015 to renew our efforts in raising the overall quality and 
status of VET in the context of the Copenhagen process, in order to meet the ET 2020 
strategic objectives and to reaffirm our support for the wider European growth and jobs 
agenda. 

We hereby recall the importance of investing in VET and skills’ policies that, on one the 
hand,  raise  the  employability  of  people,  help  to  reduce  current  skills’  mismatches  and 
allow  for  smoother  transitions  into  employment  and,  on  the  other  hand,  promote 
personal development of individuals and thus contribute to increasing quality of life. We 
remain  convinced  that  all  groups  merit  our  full  attention  and  commitment  in  this 
respect. 

We  will  build  on  the  achievements  of  our  cooperation  agreed  in  the  Copenhagen 
declaration  (2002)  and  reaffirmed  in  the  Communiqués  of  Maastricht  (2004),  Helsinki 
(2006), Bordeaux (2008) and Bruges (2010). We commit ourselves to implement VET 
reforms  in  compliance  with  national,  regional  and  local  developments  and  demands. 
Where applicable, our actions in the period 2015-2020 will focus on five medium-term 
deliverables  as  defined  in  the  Riga  Conclusions.  We  will  reiterate  these  five 
deliverables  in  the  discussion  on  the  future  priorities  of  the  ET  2020  Strategic 
Framework. 

We  highly  value  the  existing  dialogue  and  cooperation  with  social  partners  and  other 
relevant  stakeholders,  such  as  chambers  and  various  competent  institutions.  We  will 
continue  contributing  to  raised  quality  and  attractiveness  of  accessible  and  inclusive 
VET at all education levels by encouraging further cooperation between social  partners, 
VET  providers,  learners,  parents,  companies,  public  employment  services,  chambers, 
teachers and trainers, guidance personnel and other stakeholders. 

We  will  step  up  efforts  to  better  understand  the  skills  needed  in  the  labour  market, 
including  by  closely  monitoring  sectoral  and  regional  trends,  and  to  exploit  this 
understanding  to  improve  education  and  training  policies  and  underpin  learning  and 
career guidance and counselling. 

We will commit ourselves to long-term policies through effective investment, enhanced 
strategic partnerships and increased cooperation to promote innovation and excellence 
in  VET,  as  well  as  to  strengthen  permeable  and  flexible  pathways  for  a  competitive 
European VET. 

We will combine our efforts to encourage the effective use of EU transparency tools, 
and in particular of the European Qualifications Framework, as a common reference for 
EU  comparison  and  transparency  to  facilitate  mobility  of  students  and  workers  in 
Europe.  In  this  respect  we  invite  the  European  Commission  to  explore  ways  to  make 

106 

 
 
 
 
such tools more effective and easily accessible to individuals and relevant stakeholders.  

We  are  determined  to  further  contribute  to  the  international  competitiveness  of  the 
labour  force  developed  by  the  European  VET  systems  and  to  improved  recognition  of 
VET qualifications in Europe and global context.  

We, the Ministers: 

 

  Firmly intend to implement the commitments expressed in the Riga Conclusions 
and explore alternative ways of funding and partnerships to meet the five medium-
term deliverables; 
Invite the future EU Presidencies to build on the discussions held in Riga on 22 
June 2015 and the Riga Conclusions, when setting out future priorities for European 
cooperation in VET.  
Invite the European Commission to develop, in cooperation with Member States, 
social partners and stakeholders, a VET and skills agenda with a view to 
strengthening European cooperation in VET and to boosting employability and 
competitiveness.  

 

  Express our resolution to continue our discussion on the current and future 

challenges for a competitive European VET in the light of the Copenhagen process 
in the period 2015 to 2020 and beyond. 

107 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The RIGA CONCLUSIONS: 

Agreed by the Ministers responsible for Vocational Education and Training of countries 
participating in the Copenhagen process (hereafter: ‘participating countries’):  

-  of the EU Member States (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia Cyprus, Czech 
Republic, Denmark203, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, 
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, 
Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom); 

-  of the EU Candidate Countries (Albania, Montenegro, the Former Yugoslav 

Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Turkey);  

-  of the EEA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway).  

Agreed  by  the  European  Social  Partners  (ETUC,  BUSINESSEUROPE,  UEAPME, 
CEEP). 

Agreed by the European Commission, and 

Supported  by  the  European  level  VET  providers'  associations  (EVTA,  EFVET, 
EURASHE, EUCEN, EUproVET, EVBB) by issuing a joint Declaration in support of the 
Riga Conclusions   

FROM COPENHAGEN TO BRUGES AND RIGA 
The Riga Conclusions204 present the role of vocational education and training (VET) in 
the  context  of  the  growth  and  jobs  agenda  and  the  Strategic  Framework  for  European 
cooperation in education and training (ET 2020). It aims at reaching agreement among 
the participating countries, EU level social partners and the European Commission on a 
new set of medium-term deliverables for the period 2015 – 2020 in the context of the 
Bruges  Communiqué205  adopted  in  2010  as  part  of  the  overall  Copenhagen  process 
launched in 2002206.  

The  new  deliverables  reinforce  the  2020  vision  for  VET.  They  contribute  to  the  key 
challenges and the progress to be made. Compared to the period 2011-2014, they are 
substantially streamlined  and reduced  in number. At the same time, the  continuity with 
previous deliverables is maintained. 

Due  attention  will  be  paid  to  transversal  areas  and  principles  which  are  crucial  for 
achieving  the  deliverables  and  for  modernising  VET:  strong  partnerships  with  social 
partners  and  other  relevant  stakeholders  such  as  chambers  and  various 
competent institutions; efficient funding and promotion of excellence and innovation 
in  VET;  consistent  use  of  the  learning  outcomes  approach  and  the  commonly 
developed  tools  and  principles.  This  includes:  setting  up  comprehensive  validation 
arrangements by 2018 as agreed in the 2012 Council Recommendation207. In addition, 
the European Commission and the Member States should also commit, in cooperation 

203   Subject to government endorsement. 
204   These Conclusions include Annex 1, Annex 2 and Annex 3 that form an integral part of the Riga Conclusions. The 

socio-economic  and  institutional  background  in  Annex  1  gives  an  overview  of  the  foundations  of  the  new  medium-

term  deliverables.  The  EU  level  activities,  listed  in  Annex  2,  will  support  the  implementation  and  monitoring  of  the 

above mentioned deliverables in participating countries. Annex 3 provides a list of examples of policy options linked to 

the new deliverables 

205  http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/vocational-policy/doc/brugescom_en.pdf  
206  http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/vocational-policy/doc/copenhagen-declaration_en.pdf 

207  http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32012H1222(01)  

108 

 
 
 
                                                 
with all VET stakeholders, to targeted communication and appropriate visibility of the 
achievements of European cooperation in VET (Copenhagen process). 

THE PROPOSAL FOR A NEW SET OF MEDIUM-TERM DELIVERABLES 2015-2020 

With a view to developing high quality and labour market relevant vocational skills and 
qualifications, based on the learning outcomes approach: 

1.  Promote work-based learning in all its forms208, with special attention to 

apprenticeships, by involving social partners, companies, chambers and VET 
providers, as well as by stimulating innovation and entrepreneurship. 

2.  Further develop quality assurance mechanisms in VET in line with the EQAVET 

recommendation209 and, as part of quality assurance systems, establish 
continuous information and feedback loops in I-VET and C-VET systems 
based on learning outcomes. 

For people's informed choice of pathways and long-term employability and adaptability 
to evolving skills needs: 

3.  Enhance access to VET and qualifications for all through more flexible and 

permeable systems, notably by offering efficient and integrated guidance services 
and making available validation of non-formal and informal learning. 

4.  Further strengthen key competences210 in VET curricula and provide more 

effective opportunities to acquire or develop those skills through I-VET and C-VET. 

In support of successful implementation of reforms and to raise the overall quality and 
efficiency of VET: 

5.  Introduce systematic approaches to, and opportunities for, initial and continuous 
professional development of VET teachers, trainers and mentors in both 
school and work based settings. 

208   According  to  Cedefop,  work-based  learning  refers  to  knowledge  and  skills  acquired  through  carrying  out  –  and 

reflecting on – tasks in a vocational context, either at the workplace […] or in a VET institution.  For IVET, according 

to the Commission report from 2013 (Work-based learning in Europe: Practices and Policy pointers), there are three 

forms  of  work-based  learning:  1)  alternance  schemes  or  apprenticeships  typically  known  as  the  "dual  system",  2) 

work-based  learning  as  school-based  VET  which  includes  on-the-job  training  periods  in  companies  and  3)  work-

based  learning  integrated  in  a  school-based  programme,  through  on-site  labs,  workshops,  kitchens,  restaurants, 

junior or practice firms, simulations or real business/industry project assignments. 

209  http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1430316040997&uri=CELEX:52014DC0030  

210   As defined in the corresponding Recommendation from 2006, the 8 key competences consist of communication in the 

mother  tongue,  communication  in  foreign  languages,  mathematical  competence  and  basic  competences  in  science 

and  technology,  digital  competence,  learning  to  learn,  social  and  civic  competences,  sense  of  initiative  and 

entrepreneurship, cultural awareness and expression. The Recommendation also refers to fundamental basic skills of 

language,  literacy,  numeracy  and  ICT  as  essential  foundation  for  learning.  Learning  to  learn,  social  and  civic 

competences,  initiative-taking  and  entrepreneurship,  and  cultural  awareness  and  expression  are  considered 

‘transversal key competences’ (Council conclusions 2010 on competences supporting lifelong learning and the ‘new 

skills for new jobs’ initiative). 

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ANNEX 1 

THE CONTEXT FOR DEFINING THE MEDIUM-TERM DELIVERABLES 

VET's role in the European growth and jobs agenda 

As in 2010, Europe still faces enormous economic and social challenges with very high 
levels of youth unemployment in many Member States, an adult workforce of which one 
quarter lacks basic skills, a strong need for up-skilling of the workforce due to changes 
in labour market requirements, including increasing use of new technologies, an evident 
mismatch  of  skills  supply  and  demand  that  hinders  economic  growth  and  job  creation, 
and  reduced  public  and  private  financial  resources  due  to  budgetary  consolidation 
processes. 

Given these challenges, a much more prominent role has been attributed to VET in the 
overall  growth  and  jobs  agenda.  The  contribution  of  VET,  particularly  work-based 
learning  and  apprenticeships,  to  fight  youth  unemployment,  to  ensure  better  match 
between training and labour market needs and to ease transitions to employment is now 
more  widely  recognised.  As  an  indication  of  the  urgency  of  reforms  in  this  sector,  a 
considerable number of country specific recommendations adopted within the European 
Semester  are  related  to  VET.  The  Rethinking  Education  Communication  (2012)211 
stressed  the  need  to  invest  in  building  world-class  VET  systems  and  increase 
participation  in  work-based  learning. The  European Alliance  for Apprenticeships, Youth 
Guarantee as well as the Youth employment initiative – all launched in 2013 – confirmed 
the crucial role of VET in increasing the employability of young people. Learning in the 
workplace  is  also  an  effective  way  to  re-train  and  up-skill  adults.  Ensuring  learning 
opportunities for all, especially disadvantaged groups, remains a major challenge, as the 
renewed adult learning agenda underlined. The potential of continuing  VET, which  can 
respond  flexibly  to  short-term  needs  and  helps  improve  citizens’  employability  and 
enterprises’ competitiveness, is not yet fully used. 

The President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker has identified growth 
and job creation as the first priority objective of the European Commission (2014-2019). 
Development  of  skills  and  competences  of  the  European  workforce  is  key  to  this 
objective, including promotion of quality VET and lifelong learning. Candidate Countries 
also share these aspirations. 

From Copenhagen to Bruges and Riga 

Work on modernising VET does not start from scratch. It has been subject of enhanced 
political cooperation between Member States, EEA and Candidate Countries, European 
level social partners and the European Commission for more than a decade – known as 
Copenhagen  process. They  committed  themselves  to  supporting  mobility  for  work  and 
learning and making access to lifelong learning easier through: more transparency and 
easier recognition of qualifications and competences, improved quality of VET and better 
information and guidance. A series of Communiqués  has guided this work on common 
priorities.  

The Bruges Communiqué, adopted in 2010, combined a long-term vision with short-term 
actions.  Building  on  the  agreed  principles  and  in  line  with  the  overall  framework  for 
education  and  training  (ET  2020),  it  defines  an  ambitious  agenda  to  contribute  to  the 
objectives  of  the  Europe  2020  Strategy. Aiming  to  support  employability  and  economic 
growth and help promote social cohesion and respond to broader societal challenges, it 

211  http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1389776578033&uri=CELEX:52012DC0669 

110 

 
 
 
                                                 
stresses the dual objective of VET: excellence and inclusion.  

The  Bruges  Communiqué  and,  in  particular,  its  set  of  short-term  deliverables  for  the 
period  2011  -  2014,  has  helped  EU  and  Candidate  Countries  focus  and  implement 
reforms,  as  Cedefop’s  and  ETF’s  progress  analyses  show.  212  The  review  points  to  a 
focus  on  overall  system  reforms,  quality  assurance,  work-based  learning  and  labour 
market relevance of VET, also apparent from the ET2020 National Reports.213  

The work on learning-outcomes based national qualifications frameworks has facilitated 
many  of  these  reforms.  Frameworks  that  cover  all  types  and  levels  of  national 
qualifications have helped clarify how those acquired in VET relate to those obtained in 
general/academic programmes. National qualification frameworks are increasingly being 
linked 
in  putting 
comprehensive validation systems into place. To help people  progress in learning, find, 
maintain  and  advance  in  work  within  and  across  countries,  the  next  step  should  be  to 
move from a ‘tool by tool’ to a more integrated approach focused on user needs, make 
them widely known and use them systematically. 

learning  and  support  countries 

to  validation  of  non-formal 

While  most  national  agendas  have  focused  on  making  VET  more  inclusive  to  help 
reduce  early  leaving  and  promote  further  learning  among  those  at  risk,  less  attention 
has  been  paid  to  promoting  VET  excellence  through  creativity,  innovation  and 
entrepreneurship – which could aid enterprise performance and job creation. Information 
on  labour  market  outcomes  is  not  yet  sufficiently  used  to  guide  VET  provision  and 
continuing  professional  development  for  VET  teachers  and  trainers214  has  also  been 
less  visible  in  national  policies.  Social  partners  have  increasingly  been  involved  in 
developing  and  implementing  VET  policies.  However,  involvement  of  employers  and 
trade unions in VET governance and management could be strengthened. 

The  new  deliverables  should  support  the  work  of  the  countries  and  social  partners 
endorsing  the  Riga  Conclusions  in  implementing  VET  reforms,  and  in  the  case  of  EU 
Member  States  the  developments  called  for  in  the  country-specific  recommendations 
issued in the area of VET in the framework of the European Semester. They are also an 
integral  part  of  the  Education  and Training  2020  Strategic  Framework  and  its  priorities 
with  a  proposed  identical  policy  cycle  up  to  2020. The  links  between  the  Copenhagen 
process  as  the  European  cooperation  platform  for  VET  and  the  ET  2020  Strategic 
Framework are of particular importance in ensuring consistency between VET and other 
sectors of education and training.  

212  The text in this section provides a summary of the main findings presented in Cedefop (2015): Stronger VET for better 

lives – monitoring report on vocational education and training policies 2010-2014. This report includes ETF's 

monitoring on achievements in the candidate countries. http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-

resources/publications/3067  

http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/publications/9096 

213  http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/index_en.htm#stock 

214  Professional development of VET teachers and trainers was not a specific short-term deliverable in the period 2011-

2014. 

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 ANNEX 2 

EU LEVEL SUPPORT TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF 
THE MEDIUM-TERM DELIVERABLES 

The following EU level activities will support the implementation of the above mentioned 
the  country-specific 
deliverables 
recommendations  within  the  European  Semester.  They  will  be  supported  by  funding 
opportunities under ESIF and Erasmus+. 

the  participating  countries,  as  well  as 

in 

  Assist participating countries or clusters of participating countries to 

implement VET reforms (depending on their particular needs) through country 
specific support, including with the assistance of Cedefop and the ETF for 
participating countries in the form of country reviews, targeted national activities, 
policy learning fora, mutual learning and exchanges of good practices notably 
through the ET 2020 Working Groups on VET and Adult Learning, DGVT Peer 
Reviews as well as through facilitation of bilateral or multilateral cooperation 
arrangements between countries. Produce EU level evidence (e.g. study on higher 
VET in the EU) and policy guidelines (e.g. Guidelines for SME involvement in WBL), 
and organise EU level events (e.g. European Business Forum on Vocational 
Training). 

  Monitor and analyse progress in the area of VET by Cedefop and the ETF, through 
a streamlined monitoring system with a use of newly developed indicators (related to 
prevalence and quality of work-based learning and mobility in I-VET) and available 
VET specific statistical data (implementation of ISCED 2011 in Labour Force Survey 
and UNESCO/OECD/EUROSTAT data collection), adapted to the new medium-term 
deliverables; monitor impact of VET initiatives supported by ESIF at national level.  
Intensify support to the European Alliance for Apprenticeships (EAfA) to boost 
the quality, supply and attractiveness of apprenticeships across Europe. 

 

  EU level support to ensure transparency and recognition tools (EQF, ECVET, 

EQAVET, Europass and validation of non-formal and informal learning) are further 
developed and implemented in a more coherent and integrated way. 

  Support transnational mobility of VET learners and staff (Erasmus+, ESIF, 
EURES, Your first EURES job), facilitate the development of adult educators 
(EPALE), address common EU level sector specific skills challenges (Sector Skills 
Alliances) and support policy reforms in VET (strategic partnerships, forward-looking 
projects). 
In addition, the European Commission assisted by Cedefop will support Member 
States in targeted communication and visibility of the achievements of 
European cooperation in VET (Copenhagen process) through concrete activities 
(visibility events, campaigns, promotional activities). 

 

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ANNEX 3 

EXAMPLES OF POLICY OPTIONS LINKED TO THE NEW  
MEDIUM-TERM DELIVERABLES 2015-2020 

The  new  deliverables  provide  more  flexibility  in  their  implementation  at  national  level 
which is crucial given the considerable differences in VET across participating countries. 
Some of the deliverables will be more pertinent than others depending on each country’s 
specific  situation  and  needs.  Similarly,  a  specific  medium-term  deliverable  can  be 
implemented in a different way depending on national circumstances. To cater for these 
differences,  the  medium-term  deliverables  are  further  supported  by  a  second  level  of 
policy  options  which  present  an  indicative  and  not  prescriptive  list  of  possible  relevant 
measures that could be pursued to address a specific deliverable. 

1.  Promote work-based learning (WBL) in all its forms, with special attention to 
apprenticeships, by involving social partners, companies, chambers and VET 
providers as well as stimulating innovation and entrepreneurship. 

Concrete  actions  could,  for  example,  include  mobilising  initiatives  at  national  level  to 
boost  the  share  of  WBL  in  VET  programmes  in  school-based  programmes  and  those 
combining  learning  in  schools  and  enterprises,  as  appropriate;  mobilising  actions  to 
strengthen,  review  or  introduce  apprenticeships  in  the  context  of  the  EAfA,  and 
integration  of  apprenticeships  provided  under  Youth  Guarantees  in  national  VET 
systems;  creating  a  clear  regulatory  framework  (for  WBL)  taking  into  account  existing 
regulations,  industrial  relations  and  education  practices;  setting  up  institutionalised 
intermediary  support  structures  with  involvement  of  chamber,  business  and  sector 
organisations  to  manage  administration  related  to  work-based  learning  in  companies; 
assist  VET  providers  in  finding  training  places  for  trainees  and  VET  teachers  and 
trainers in enterprises, and support SMEs in providing apprenticeship places (including 
incentives), etc. 

2.  Further develop quality assurance mechanisms in VET in line with the EQAVET 
recommendation and, as part of quality assurance systems, establish continuous 
information and feedback loops in I-VET and C-VET systems based on learning 
outcomes. 

Concrete  actions  could,  for  example,  include  further  developing  quality  assurance 
(including a specific focus on work-based learning and C-VET), introducing incentives to 
VET  providers  to  upgrade  technological  equipment,  use  information  on  VET  graduate 
employability  and  a  combination  of  data  on  learning,  labour  market  entry  and  career; 
establish  coherent  systems  for  data  collection  and  analysis  and  mechanisms  to  feed 
back  the  results  of  the  monitoring  to  adapt  VET  provision;  develop  capacities  of  local 
and regional authorities and VET providers to use the information for designing curricula, 
development of occupational profiles and the content of VET qualifications at all  levels 
in  response  to  new  economic  and  technical  requirements;  ensure  that  the  use  of 
outcomes of VET is systematically used as part of quality assurance systems, including 
those in C-VET, use new opportunities for data collection and analysis such as big data, 
etc. 

3.  Enhance access to VET and qualifications for all through more flexible and 

permeable systems, notably by offering efficient and integrated guidance services 
and making available validation of non-formal and informal learning. 

Concrete actions could, for example, include stepping up efforts to: set up systems for 
validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  (agreement  in  the  2012  Council 
Recommendation  to  set  such  arrangements  up  by  2018);  expansion  of  modularised 

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offers  of  C-VET  as  a  way  to  enable  up-skilling  of  workers  and  a  rapid  response  to 
emerging  skills  requirements;  tackle  the  well-known  barriers  to  accessing  training  for 
groups at risk, in particular low-skilled adults; expand training offers by using ICT tools, 
better  integration  of  C-VET  and  active  labour  market  policies;  promote  work-place 
learning and the creation of learning conducive work environments in companies for the 
working  population;  integrate  guidance  and  counselling  services  provided  by  both 
education  and  employment  sectors  for  both  I-VET  and  C-VET,  promote  measures  to 
foster  inclusiveness  of  VET  systems  (including  preventing  early  leaving  or  second-
chance-VET programmes leading to qualifications), continue work on implementation of 
National  Qualifications  Frameworks,  linked  to  EQF,  by  embedding  also  qualifications 
obtained  outside  formal  education  and  training  systems;  ensure  greater  institutional 
synergies  between  I-VET  and  C-VET  providers  (at  regional,  national  and  European 
levels), guidance and employment services and validation centres, etc. 

4.  Further strengthen key competences in VET curricula and provide more effective 

opportunities to acquire or develop those skills through I-VET and C-VET. 

Concrete actions could, for example, include assessing the place of key competence in 
VET curricula, work on improving levels of basic skills of VET students as exemplified by 
PISA and PIAAC, strengthen provision of key competencies in VET, particularly in work-
related training, promote innovative approaches to provide combined key competencies 
and  work-specific  skills, devote  special  attention  to  the  development  of  entrepreneurial 
skills, etc. 

5.  Introduce systematic approaches and opportunities for initial and continuous 

professional development of VET teachers, trainers and mentors in both school 
and work based settings. 

Concrete actions for supporting initial and continuous professional development of VET 
teachers  and  trainers  could,  for  example,  include  development  and  implementation  of 
policies  addressing  VET  teachers  and  trainers  competence  development  underpinned 
by sustainable use and complementarity of national and EU funding (Erasmus +, ESIF, 
etc.);  systematic  approaches  towards  ensuring  professional  development  of  VET  staff 
(including  knowledge  gathering,  needs  analyses,  provision  of  learning  opportunities, 
creating  and  expanding  opportunities  for  validation  and  certification  of  trainers’  prior 
learning  and  competences  acquired  at  work  as  valid  alternatives  to  formal  training); 
effective  partnerships  of  all  relevant  stakeholders  (particularly  companies)  to  support 
professional  development  of  VET  teacher  and  trainers  (including  arranging  training 
placements for VET teachers directly in companies, incentives to support companies to 
invest  in  their  trainers  professional  development);empowering  and  supporting  bodies 
responsible  for  the  professional  development  of  VET  teachers  and  trainers  (including 
European  and  National  networks  of  VET  providers);  promotional,  information  and 
awareness  raising  activities  (through  information  services,  sharing  good  practices, 
promotional events and awards for best training companies and VET trainers), etc.  

114