Organic production and the European Union : in-depth analysis.
Date: 2015-06-24
Institutions: Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services
Subjects: aid to agriculture, consumer information, labelling, organic farming, organic product, regulation of agricultural production

Organic
production and
the European
Union

IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service
Author: Jean Weissenberger
Members’ research service
February 2015 — PE 548.989

EN

(or. FR)

This document is aimed at providing readers with a general outline of organic agriculture. It gives an
overview of the principles of this type of farming, and provides the specifications for special forms of
production  that  are  not  necessarily  very  widely  known.  The  document  illustrates  the  size  and
importance  of  the  sector  and  how  it  is  growing,  while  also  indicating  the  challenges  posed  and
questions  that  may  arise,  especially  as  regards  the  future  prospects  of  the  organic  sector.  It  also
touches briefly on the European Commission’s initiative to revise the regulatory framework for organic
production in the EU, together with an action plan for developing the sector. While the first reading of
this draft regulation by the European Parliament and the Council is now in progress, the Commission
could withdraw its proposal if it is not quickly approved.

PE 548.989
ISBN 978-92-823-6578-6
doi: 10.2861/488634
QA-04-15-114-EN-N

Original manuscript, in French, completed in February 2015.
Translation completed in May 2015.

Disclaimer and Copyright

The  content  of  this  document  is  the  sole  responsibility  of  the  author  and  any  opinions
expressed therein do not necessarily represent the official position of the European Parliament.
It  is  written  for  MEPs  and  EP  staff  to  help  them  perform  their  work.  Reproduction  and
translation,  except  for  commercial  purposes,  are  authorised,  provided  the  source 
is
acknowledged and provided the European Parliament is given prior notice and supplied with a
copy of the publication.

© European Union, 2015.

eprs@ep.europa.eu
http://www.eprs.ep.parl.union.eu (intranet)
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank (internet)
http://epthinktank.eu (blog)

Organic production and the European Union

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SUMMARY

Organic production is an environmentally friendly form of agricultural production that
is  based  on  cultivation  and  animal  husbandry  practices  that  are  in  tune  with  natural
cycles.  The  use  of  genetically  modified  organisms  is  prohibited  and  that  of  synthetic
chemicals kept as low as possible, and farm animals enjoy a high level of welfare.

Beyond  the  producers  (farmers  and  aquaculturalists),  the  organic  sector  covers  an
entire  production  chain,  which  encompasses  everything  from  the  supply  of  raw
materials  and  their  conversion  to  produce  food  and  feedstuffs,  right  through  to
distribution  channels  and  retailing,  all  while  keeping  consumers  informed.  Organic
production is regulated at EU level – with rules that have to be adapted to the diversity
of the productions – and backed up by control and certification procedures. The values
of  organic  production  are  widely  recognised,  especially  in  terms  of  its  environmental
benefits.  The  sector  is  also  supported  by  specific  measures,  notably  within  the
framework of the Common Agricultural Policy.

Originally a niche market, organic production now covers a wide range of agricultural
and food products, which have often become flagship varieties at large-scale retailers.
The  organic  market  in  the  EU  accounts  for  more  than  22 billion  euros  per  year,  with
demand continuing to grow despite the economic situation of the last few years. This
demand is not met by European production alone, and international trading of organic
produce, which is also rising sharply, still needs to comply with the same or equivalent
production standards between the countries concerned.

This situation itself creates certain immediate challenges associated, for example, with
the  complexity  of  regulations,  the  coexistence  of  traditional  and  organic  agriculture
(the risk of contamination by non-organic varieties) and the need to ensure control and
provide guarantees to consumers. Some organic products are now also produced on a
large scale, and this process of industrialisation or of bringing organic production into
the mainstream raises questions about how we see the sector’s future and the societal
values it should embody.

In  March  2014,  the  European  Commission  proposed  a  review  of  the  EU’s  general
legislative  framework  for  organic  production  so  that  the  sector  could  continue  to
develop  sustainably  in  the  EU;  this  would  be  achieved  by  helping  farmers  convert  to
organic  techniques  and  by  maintaining  trust  between  consumers  and  producers.  In
particular,  it  would  involve  having  increasingly  harmonised  rules – especially  by
reducing the current exceptions to the rules and exceptional practices permitted – by
reviewing  the  control  and  importing  systems,  and  by  simplifying  the  legislative
framework  and  the  resulting  administrative  burdens.  Some  of  the  initial  reactions  to
those  proposals  seemed  fairly  critical.  In  particular,  the  associative  movement  of  the
organic  farming  sector  feared  that  those  proposals,  unless  modified,  would  actually
lead to a decline in organic production in Europe and harm small production units. The
initial stances taken by the various Member States diverged.

At a time when the European Parliament, in the early stages of the new parliamentary
term, had only just begun its first-reading consideration of the proposed new rules, on
16  December  2014  the  Commission  announced  its  intention  of  withdrawing  the
proposal if no agreement had been reached on it within six months.

Organic production and the European Union

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. The fundamental aspects of organic production .......................................................... 4

1.1. What is organic production? .................................................................................. 4

1.2. Definition ................................................................................................................ 4

1.3. The range of organic production methods and organic products ......................... 5

1.4. The main principles ................................................................................................ 5

2. A growing sector............................................................................................................ 6

2.1. Rapid development of areas used for organic agriculture in the EU ..................... 6

2.2. The main types of production in the EU................................................................. 7

2.3. Organic agriculture at a global level....................................................................... 8

2.4. A market of worldwide importance ....................................................................... 9

3. The main aspects of EU policy ..................................................................................... 10

3.1. Regulating organic cultivation and animal-rearing practices............................... 12

3.1.1. Agriculture and production of plants ......................................................................... 12

3.1.2. Rearing of land animals.............................................................................................. 13

3.1.3. Aquatic animal-rearing............................................................................................... 14

3.1.4. Algal cultivation.......................................................................................................... 15

3.1.5. Authorisations for the use of non-organic inputs and of chemicals .......................... 15

3.1.6. Organic and non-organic production activities in the same farm ............................. 15

3.1.7. Use of non-organic plant seeds and non-organic animals for reproduction ............. 16

3.1.8. Conversion of conventional practices to organic practices ....................................... 16

3.2. Processing and organic processed products ........................................................ 17

3.3. EU organic appellation(s), labelling and logo ....................................................... 17

3.4. Guarantee mechanisms – control and certification............................................. 18

3.5. Organic products originating from non-EU countries .......................................... 19

3.6. A European support policy for organic products ................................................. 20

4. The future of the organic sector.................................................................................. 22

4.1. Current and future challenges.............................................................................. 22

4.1.1. Some important fundamental questions ................................................................... 22

4.1.2. Principles that must also be expressed in the details ................................................ 24

4.1.3. Diverse visions of the future of the organic sector .................................................... 24

4.2. Towards a new European framework .................................................................. 27

4.2.1. Preparing proposals ................................................................................................... 27

4.2.2. The March 2014 proposals of the European Commission in brief............................. 28

4.2.3. Could initial critical reactions bring the debate to an early end? .............................. 29

5. Perspectives................................................................................................................. 31

Main references............................................................................................................... 33

Organic production and the European Union

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List of main abbreviations

IFOAM:

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

GMO:

CAP:

genetically modified organism

Common Agricultural Policy

Organic production and the European Union

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1. The fundamental aspects of organic production

1.1. What is organic production?

Organic  production  is  a  form  of agricultural  production that  adheres  to  certain
principles. Beyond cultivation and animal husbandry activities, the organic-production
sector encompasses  an  entire  industry  and  all  those  who  work  in  it.  It  in  particular
includes  the  supply  of  raw  materials,  their  processing  to  produce  foodstuffs,
information  to
distribution  channels  (including  retailing),  and  the  provision  of 
is regulated by
consumers. 
is  always  subject  to control  and certification
governmental  authorities,  and 
procedures.

In  the European  Union  (EU),  organic  production 

A brief history of organic agriculture

Modern-day  organic  agriculture  is  the  result  of  the  developments  made  in a  number  of
philosophies  that  first  emerged  in  several  European  countries  (in  particular  Germany,  the
United Kingdom and Switzerland) in the 1920s, before spreading to other countries, especially
to  France  in  the  1960s1.  One  thing  these  innovative  philosophies,  regarded  by  some
commentators as a romantic political challenge to modernity2, had in common was opposition
to the development of intensive farming, because of the impact it had on the environment and
health and because it made farmers dependent on industry.

The  sector  began  to  take  off  in  the  1970s,  when  various  organic  movements  came  together
under  the  aegis  of  IFOAM,  the  International  Federation  of  Organic  Agriculture  Movements,
established  in  1972.  The  non-profit-making  associations  and  trade  groupings  gradually  put  in
place  guarantees  for  consumers  (through  specifications  and  control  systems),  and  these
societal demands were increasingly recognised by governmental authorities. The specifications
for organic agriculture and the associated guarantees were gradually incorporated into national
legislation.  At  EU  level,  the  first  regulation  relating  to  organic  agriculture  and  labelling  of
relevant  products  was  passed  in  1991.  Originally  covering  only the  production of  plants3,  this
regulation  aimed  to promote  and  develop  the  sector  within  the  framework  of  the  internal
market while ensuring fair competition.

1.2. Definition

Definitions  of  organic  production  may  vary,  but  they  generally  have  a  number  of
elements in common. In 2008, following nearly three years’ work, IFOAM agreed on the
following common definition (for general use)4:

1

2

See, for example: ‘Histoire de l’agriculture biologique’ [History of Organic Agriculture], as summarised
on the website of France’s Fédération nationale de l’agriculture biologique (FNAB).

See,  in  particular,  various  items  published  by  Yvan  Besson,  such  as  his  article  ‘Une  histoire
d’exigences:  philosophie  et  agrobiologie. L’actualité  de  la  pensée  des  fondateurs  de  l’agriculture
biologique  pour  son  développement  contemporain’  [A  History  of  Requirements:  Philosophy,
Agriculture & Biology – The Contemporary Thinking of Organic Agriculture’s Founders as Relevant to
its Development] (Innovations Agronomiques (2009) 4, p. 329-362) or (summary of) his 2007 doctoral
thesis in  Environmental  Studies:  ‘Histoire  de 
introduction  aux
fondateurs;  Sir  Albert  Howard,  Rudolf  Steiner,  le  couple  Müller  et  Hans  Peter  Rusch,  Masanobu
Fukuoka’ [History of Organic Agriculture: an Introduction to the founders, Sir Albert Howard, Rudolf
Steiner, Hans Müller and his collaborator Hans Peter Rusch, and Masanobu Fukuoka].

l'agriculture  biologique:  une 

3

See the Historical Background on the European Commission’s website devoted to organic agriculture.
4 Definitions  are  available in  many  languages  from  the  corresponding  page  of  IFOAM’s  website

http://www.ifoam.org/en/organic-landmarks/definition-organic-agriculture.

Organic production and the European Union

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Organic Agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems
and  people.  It  relies  on  ecological  processes,  biodiversity  and  cycles  adapted  to  local
conditions,  rather  than  the  use  of  inputs5 with  adverse  effects.  Organic  Agriculture
combines  tradition,  innovation  and  science  to  benefit  the  shared  environment  and
promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.

This approach is essentially much the same as that decreed by the EU6, which specifies:

Organic production is an overall system of farm management and food production that
combines  best  environmental  practices,  a  high  level  of  biodiversity,  the  preservation  of
natural  resources,  the  application  of  high  animal  welfare  standards  and  a  production
method  in  line  with  the  preference  of  certain  consumers  for  products  produced  using
natural  substances  and  processes.  The  organic  production  method  thus  plays  a  dual
societal  role,  where it  on  the  one  hand  provides  for  a  specific  market  responding  to  a
consumer  demand  for  organic  products,  and  on  the  other  hand  delivers  public  goods
contributing to the protection of the environment and animal welfare, as well as to rural
development.

1.3. The range of organic production methods and organic products

In the European Union, organic production refers to agriculture and aquaculture, and
also to their live, raw or converted products, intended for human consumption or else
for  cultivation  (in  the  case of  seeds)  or  animal  husbandry  (in  the  case  of  live  animals
and animal feed). While the harvesting of plants or of wild seaweed can, under certain
conditions, also fall under the ‘organic’ umbrella, products resulting from the hunting
or fishing of wild species are not considered to come under that designation.

Non-agricultural products and non-food products (such as hygiene or beauty products,
or  textiles),  as  such,  are  also  not  considered  to  come  under  that  designation.  Only
agricultural  ingredients  and  constituents  of  such  products  can,  where  relevant,  be
referred to as ‘organic’.

1.4. The main principles
At European level, organic production is based on four general principles7, namely:

– making  use  of  cultivation  and  animal  husbandry processes that are  based  on

ecological systems using natural resources which are internal to the system;

– restricting the use of external inputs;
– strictly limiting the use of chemically synthesised inputs;
– adapting,  where  necessary,  the  rules  of  production  to special  situations (health
status,  regional  differences  in  climate  and  local  conditions,  stages  of  development
and specific husbandry practices).

Organic agriculture should thus make use of cultivation and animal husbandry practices
related with the soil (or that conform to the principle of sustainable fishing in the case
of  aquaculture),  use  mechanical  production  methods  and prohibit the  use  of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and products derived from GMOs.8 When the
use of external inputs is necessary, they are limited to those coming from other forms
of  organic  production,  natural  substances  or  substances  derived  from  them,  and

5

6

7

Examples are substances applied to the soil or to crops, plant nutrients, and veterinary medicines.

See,  among  others,  recital  1  to Council  Regulation  (EC)  No 834/2007 on  organic  production  and
labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91.

See Article 4 of Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.

8 With the exception of veterinary medicines (and, in particular, vaccines).

Organic production and the European Union

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sparingly  soluble  inorganic  fertilisers.  In  exceptional  cases  where  such  external  inputs
are  not  available,  or  where  their  use  is  likely  to  have  an unacceptable  impact  on  the
environment, chemically synthesised inputs may be used as a last resort.

2. A growing sector

2.1. Rapid development of areas used for organic agriculture in the EU

Organic  agriculture  has  grown  incessantly  in  the  European  Union  over  the past  ten
years,  with  the  areas  given  over  to  such  production 
increasing  by  around
500 000 hectares  each  year  on  average.  Although  this  type  of  production  still  only
accounts for 5.4 % of the EU-27’s usable agricultural land (as against 3.1 % in 2002), the
area  cultivated  in  accordance  with  organic  practices  reached  9.6 million  hectares  in
2011.  However,  while nearly  four-fifths  of  organically  cultivated  land  in  the  EU  lies  in
countries  that  were  Member  States  before  2004  (EU-15),  the  growth  in  organic
agriculture has been much more pronounced in those countries that have joined since
then.9 Similarly,  while  the  general  trend  in  Europe’s  agricultural  sector  has  been
downward  for  some  decades  (in  terms  of  both  the  number  of  firms  operating  in  the
sector and people employed in it), the number of organic farms has continued to grow,
reaching over 186 000 in 2010 – a figure which nevertheless still only accounts for 1.6 %
of the farms in the EU.

Figure 1 – Changes in the total number of farms and in the number of organic
farms in the EU-27
Trend in oranic and conventional holdings in the EU27

s
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Total number of farms (millions, left axis)

Nombre total d'exploitations (en millions - axe de gauche)

Nombre d'exploitations bio (en milliers - axe de droite)

Total number of organic farms (thousands, right axis)

Data source: European Commission (Eurostat).

The average land area of an organic farm is greater than that of a conventional farm.
The  statistics  available10 also  show  that  organic  farmers  in  Europe  are  younger  than
their conventional counterparts. In 2010, 61 % of farmers working in organic cultivation
or  animal  husbandry  were  under  the  age  of  55,  compared  with  only  44 %  of
conventional farmers.

9

Source: European Commission (data from Croatia not included).

10 See,  in  particular  ‘Facts  and  figures  on  organic  agriculture  in  the  European  Union’;  European
Commission, October 2013, some of the most important data from which is reproduced in ‘The rapid
growth of EU organic farming – Key facts and figures’, European Commission, EU Agricultural Markets
Briefs No 3, July 2014.

All of the agricultural statistics can also be accessed on the European Commission’s website, DG AGRI:
‘EU agriculture – Statistical and economic information – 2013’.

Organic production and the European Union

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However,  these  average  European  indicators  mask  fairly  wide  discrepancies between
the situations in different countries. In 2011, for example, 0.3 % of farmland in Malta
was organically cultivated, compared with 19 % in Austria.

Figure 2 – Proportions of farmland given over to organic practices in
each Member State

Share of total organic crop area out of total Utilised Agricultural Area (%)

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Data source: European Commission (Eurostat - 2011).

There  are  also  large  differences  between  regions.  While  organic  agriculture  is
particularly well developed in the regions that have retained large areas of permanent
pasture and extensive rearing, it is still somewhat rare in certain lowland regions that
have  witnessed  a  great  intensification  of  agricultural  production.  In  addition,  the
financial performance of organic farms, in relation to that of conventional farms, seems
to vary greatly.11

Figure 3 – Proportions of farmland given over to organic practices, by region

Source: European Commission (2010).

2.2. The main types of production in the EU

The types of organic crops grown vary between the Member States. Taking the EU as a
whole, permanent pasture accounts for the largest share of farmland used for organic

11

‘Organic versus conventional farming, which performs better financially? An overview of organic field
crop and milk production in selected Member States’, European Commission, Farm Economics Brief
No 4, November 2013.

Organic production and the European Union

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production (45 % of the total)12, followed by cereal crops (15 % of the farmland given
over  to  organic  cultivation)  and  perennial  crops  (13 %).  Over  four-fifths  of  the  land
given  over  to  perennial  crops is  used  to  produce  fruit,  which  is  one  of  the  types  of
organic  produce  most  in  demand.  Olives,  grapes,  walnuts  and  citrus  fruit  accordingly
account respectively for 31 %, 17 %, 13 % and 2 % of the total land area given over to
organic  perennial  crops  (with  other  fruit  crops  still  accounting  for  some  21 %  of  this
land area).

Figure 4 – Percentages of organically cultivated organically farmland
and of organically reared livestock

Farmland

Percentages of organically
cultivated farmland

Permanent grassland

Cereal crops

Perennial crops
Pulses
Industrial crops
Other crops

Cattle

Sheep,
goats

Poultry

Pigs

Data source: European Commission (2011 for the crops; 2010 for the livestock).

In  some  sectors,  the  proportion  of  organic  produce  has  become  significant  (for
instance,  organic  agriculture  accounts  for  almost  a  third  of  permanent  grassland  and
16 % of the output of pulses). However, when it comes to animal husbandry, the ratio
of  organic  rearing  to  conventional  rearing  is  still  low,  although  it  is  growing.  For
instance,  slightly  less  than  3 %  of  cattle  and  small  ruminants  (sheep  and  goats)  are
reared organically. This proportion is around 1 % for poultry, and 0.3 % for pigs.

2.3. Organic agriculture at a global level

In  2012,  organic  agriculture  was  practised  in  164  countries  around  the  world.  Over
37.5 million  hectares  of  agricultural  land  were  managed  in  accordance  with  organic
principles, by around 1.9 million farmers.13 In terms of the amount of farmland in each
continent  that  is  given  over  to  organic  agriculture,  Europe  lies  in  second  place
(approximately  11.2 million  ha)  behind  Oceania  (12.2 million  ha),  and  a  long  way  in
front of Latin America (6.8 million ha), Asia and North America (approximately 3 million
ha each), and Africa (1.1 million ha).

However, still less than 1 % of the world’s farmland is given over to organic agriculture.
Overall, the amount of organic farmland increased very slightly in 2012, reflecting not
only the strong and continued growth in Europe and a small rise in Africa as well, but
also, in contrast, a fairly marked recent decline in Asia.

Australia has the highest amount of land in the world given over to organic agriculture
(12 million hectares, 97 % of which are extensive pasture areas), followed by Argentina
and the United States.

12

13

In the terminology usually employed by the CAP, the term ‘permanent grassland’ actually covers both
permanent  grassland  and  permanent  pasture  (land  given  over  to  producing grasses  or  other
herbaceous  forage,  whether  naturally  or  through  cultivation):  See,  in  particular,  Article 4  of
Regulation (EU) No 1307/2013 on direct payments to farmers.

‘The  World  of  Organic  Agriculture.  Statistics  and  Emerging  Trends’;  FiBL  and  IFOAM,  15th  edition,
2014, 304p.

Organic production and the European Union

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Figure 5 – Organically cultivated farmland: the top 10 countries

Surface agricole bio: le top 10 des pays

12

Australie
Australia

Argentine

Argentina

USA
USA

China
Chine

Spain
Espagne

3.6

2.2

1.9

1.6

Italy
Italie

1.2

France
France

Allemagne

Germany

1

1

Uruguay

Uruguay

0.9

Canada
Canada

0.8

0

2

4

6
Milions d'hectares

Million hectares

8

10

12

Data  source:  FiBL  &  IFOAM  (N.B.  2012,  except  for  Australia  (2009),  China  and
the USA (2011) and Uruguay (2006)).

2.4. A market of worldwide importance

When  viewed  from  a  global  perspective,  the  market  for  organic  food  products  is
growing strongly. Trade in organic products amounted to less than 15 billion US dollars
in 2000, but reached over 60 billion US dollars (around 50 billion euros) 12 years later.
The United States and the EU account for the vast majority of current demand. Despite
the  financial  crisis,  overall  the  market  has  continued  to  grow,  and  analysts  generally
remain confident that this trend will continue, albeit with variations from one country
to another.

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Figure 6 – World growth in the market for organic food and drink
70

60

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10

0

2000

2004

2008

2012

Data source: FiBL & IFOAM.

The  data  relating  to  international  trade  in  organic  products – subject  to  mutual
recognition between the countries concerned with this description (see section 3.5.) –
are still inadequate for giving representative estimates of their exports and imports.

 
 
 
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For the EU, according to recent estimates, the organic market14 currently has a value of
greater than 22 billion euros. Part of this demand arises from the internal market. As
an  illustration,  90 %  of  the  organic  fruit,  vegetables  and  olives  produced  in  Greece,
Spain  and  Portugal  go  to  supply  the  markets  of  other  Member  States,  with four
countries alone (Germany, France, United Kingdom and Italy) accounting for two-thirds
of sales of organic products in the EU.

Figure 7 – Market for organic foodstuffs: the top 10 countries

Marché des aliments bio: le top 10 des pays (2012)

Chart Title

USA

USA

22 590

Allemagne

Germany

7 040

France

France

4 004

Canada

Canada

Royaume-Uni

United
Kingdom
Italie
Italy
Switzerland
Suisse

2 136

1 950

1 885

1 520

Autriche

Austria

1 065

Japan

Japon

1 000

Spain

Espagne

998

10 000

0
Retail sales (million euros)

Ventes au détails (million d'euros)

20 000

19%

3%

4%

4%

4%

8%

14%

44%

USA

USA

Germany
Allemagne

France

France

Canada

Canada

Royaume-Uni

U.K.

Italie
Italy

Suisse

Switzerland

Autres
Other

30 000

Data source: FiBL & IFOAM (2012)

3. The main aspects of EU policy

The  EU’s  policy  on  organic  agriculture  was,  naturally,  included  from  the  time  of  its
initial  development,  in  1991,  as  part  of  the  Common  Agricultural  Policy.  Later,  it  was
extended to include an aquaculture dimension, as part of the Common Fisheries Policy.
As for agricultural production in general, there are other policies and instruments that
are of interest to and applicable to the organic sector, without being specific to it (such
as  rules  governing  environmental  protection,  animal  health,  food  hygiene  and
consumer protection).

14 Sources:  IFOAM  2013-2014  (reported  in  ‘Organic  farming’,  EU  Rural  Review  No 18 – European

Network for Rural Development, Spring 2014).

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The  EU’s  current  policy  to  benefit  organic  production  is  based  on  an action  plan laid
down  some  10  years  ago15,  and  its  essential  principles  are  expressed  in Council
Regulation  (EC)  No 834/2007 on  organic  production.16 This  Regulation  envisages  that
the  European  Commission,  assisted  by  an  advisory  group  and  a  formal  group  of
technical  consulting  experts17,  will  adopt  certain  implementation  measures18 in
collaboration  with  a  regulatory  committee.  Nevertheless,  since  the Treaty  of  Lisbon
entered  into  force,  the  European  Parliament  has  acquired  equal  legislative  power  in
this  area.  Although  the  Parliament,  in  July  2012,  adopted  the  position  at  the  first
reading19 for harmonising the Regulation with Articles 290 and 291 of the Treaty on the
Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), the Council has not since then expressed an
opinion on establishing the Commission’s delegated and implementing powers.

The major areas of EU legislation on organic production are focused on the regulating
of:

– organic production  practices in  the  EU,  relating  to  primary  production  from  the
ground  (cultivation  of  plants  or  rearing  of  land  animals,  including  bees)  or  from
water (cultivation of algae or other aquatic plants, breeding of aquatic animals such
as fish and shellfish), and the raw products derived from them.

– the processing and labelling of products, and in particular the use of an organic logo

to help consumers identify them as such.

– a certification  and  guarantee mechanism  for  ensuring  compliance  with  these

standards.

– the importing and marketing of organic products from non EU countries.

European  organic  agriculture  is  also  supported  by  instruments  forming  part  of  the
Common  Agricultural  Policy.  Following  its  2013  reform,  the  CAP  is  continuing and
increasing  EU funding for  ‘greener’  agriculture.20 In  this  respect,  EU  funding  for
developing  and  promoting  organic  aquaculture  comes  under  the  European  Maritime
and Fisheries Fund (EMFF21).

15 Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: European Action

Plan for Organic Food and Farming (COM(2004) 451).

16 Council  Regulation  (EC)  No 834/2007 on  organic  production  and  labelling  of  organic  products  and
repealing  Regulation  (EEC)  No 2092/91  (amended by  Regulation  (EC)  No 967/2008  to  postpone
compulsory use of the Community logo and Regulation (EU) No 517/2013 by reason of the accession
of  the  Republic  of  Croatia).  This  basic  Regulation  has  been  complemented  by  a  whole  set  of  more
detailed implementation rules with regard to organic production, labelling and control (Commission
Regulation (EC) No 889/2008).

17 More  information  is  available  on  DG AGRI’s  website,  on  the  pages  specifically  devoted  to  the

Regulatory Committee, the Advisory Group and the Group of Experts.

18 See, in particular, Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008, as amended 13 times.
19 Procedure 2010/0364(COD).  The European Commission has withdrawn this proposal in response to

the introduction of a new draft Regulation on organic production (see section 4).

20 See,  for  example,  DG  AGRI’s  website  pages http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-funding/eu-
funding-and-the-new-cap/index_en.htm on EU financing within the framework of the new CAP.
21 Regulation  (EU)  No 508/2014 of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  on  the  European

Maritime and Fisheries Fund (see, in particular, Article 53 thereof).

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3.1. Regulating organic cultivation and animal-rearing practices

Organic agriculture aims to be environmentally friendly and, in particular, to protect the
soil and other natural resources.22 In the case of organic animal-rearing, it requires not
only the health of animals to be monitored, but also a high level of animal welfare to be
guaranteed,  especially  with  respect  to  the  specific  behavioural  needs  of  the  animals.
Since  the  use of chemicals must  be  kept  as  low  as  possible, these  substances may be
used  only  if  they  have  received  prior  authorisation  for  organic  production  purposes.
While  not  forgetting  that  the  use  of  GMOs  is  prohibited,  these  main  principles  (see
section  1.4)  also  envisage  that  EU  organic  specifications are  adapted  to  the  various
types of production, distinguishing between cultivation and animal rearing on the one
hand,  and  soil-based  activities  and  water-based  activities  on the  other.  There  are  also
more specific requirements that apply to certain particular types of production (such as
producing  mushrooms  or  oysters)  or  to  certain  specific  products,  such  as  wine23,  for
which  the  organic  specifications  take  account  not  only  of  vine  cultivation  but  also  the
vinification  process  and  oenological  practices  in  general. Converting conventional
production to organic production, and also synchronising these two types of production
within a single producing unit, are also regulated fairly closely.

Consequently, the regulatory requirements relating to organic practices may prove to be
fairly complex, and their details are not necessarily known to the general public and/or
consumers; they may even be unknown to some people who work in the organic wine
trade.24 The  sections  below  summarise  the  essential  features  of  EU  provisions  in  this
area.

3.1.1. Agriculture and production of plants
In order for land cultivation practices to fall in line with the EU’s legislative provisions,
they must:

–

–
–

not harm the soil (i.e. they must, among other things, maintain its natural fertility,
biodiversity and stability, and protect against erosion);
limit the use of non-renewable resources;
recycle  waste  products  and  by-products  from  the  farm  (such  as  effluents  from
animal husbandry) as inputs into cultivation, and use only inputs of organic origin,
while limiting the use of inputs that come from sources other than the farm itself;

– make  use  of  preventive  measures  to  maintain  plant  health  (such  as  by  using
adapted  and  resistant  plants  or  by  protecting  the  natural  predators  of  pests  that
attack crops), use mechanical and physical agricultural methods, and carry out crop
rotation  (including  the  use  of legumes  and  other  ‘green’  means  of  fertilising  the
soil);
use seeds or other means of ensuring plant propagation in accordance with organic
principles.

–

22 With this in mind, organic production also aims to be in harmony with ecosystems, biodiversity, water
resources and landscapes, but the regulatory specifications do not formally cover those aspects.
23 See Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 203/2012 amending Regulation (EC) No 889/2008
laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic
wine.

24

Initiatives  to  inform  and  spread  knowledge  are  taken  by  both  non-profit  organisations  and
governmental  authorities.  As  an  example,  France’s  National  Federation  of  Organic  Agriculture
publishes sheets on various aspects of the regulations, also aimed at those working in the sector, and
drawing  on  both  national  and  European  legislation  (including  any  subsequent  amendments  made
thereto).

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The  use  of  nitrogenous  inorganic  fertilisers  is  prohibited.  Certain  substances,  such  as
other  types  of
fertiliser,  plant  protection  products  or  cleaning  and  disinfection
products, may be used only if they have been authorised at EU level or by the Member
State for use in organic agriculture25 (see section 3.1.5).

Harvesting wild plants, including seaweed

The gathering of seaweed or other plants from natural environments can fall within the scope
of organic production so long as it does not affect the stability of the natural habitat and does
nothing to harm protection (or maintenance) of the species in the area in question.

In  addition,  for  land  plants,  during  at  least  the  three-month  period  prior  to  harvesting,  no
improvement may be made to the soil and no other treatment may be given using a substance
that has not been specifically authorised for use in organic agriculture.

For the harvesting of seaweed, the area from which it is collected must also be considered to
be  of  high  ecological  quality  (in  terms  of  the  Water  Framework  Directive26)  and  the  water
quality  must  comply  with  certain  hygiene  standards  (as  laid  down  for  shellfish  farming,  for
example; see section 3.1.3).

3.1.2. Rearing of land animals
Organic animal-rearing must be associated with the soil and adapted to the site. The
animals must have access to areas in the open air, with their density limited in order to
provide  the  soil  itself  with  appropriate  protection  (avoiding  overgrazing,  erosion  and
pollution).

The animals must be reared throughout their lives on organic farms, by trained staff.

The animals’  health must  be  protected  by  giving  preference  to  natural  means  of
defence, and in particular by choosing suitable breeds and rearing practices (in terms of
diet, housing, hygiene, etc.). With regard to preventing and treating disease, the use of
immunological  veterinary  medicinal  products  (notably  vaccines)  is  allowed,  and
preference  should  be  given  to  phytotherapy  products  or  homeopathic  products.
Nevertheless,  synthetic  chemical  allopathic  medicinal  products  (including  antibiotics)
may be resorted to, under strict conditions, for the immediate treatment of an illness
and to prevent the animal from suffering.

Organic  animal-rearing  also  requires  ensuring  a  high  level  of animal  welfare by
accommodating  the  needs  specific  to  each  species;  by  reducing  any  suffering  or
mutilation,  including  through  the  choice of  breeds  and  approach  to  reproduction
(limiting  difficult  births  requiring  Caesarean  procedures,  for  example27);  by  avoiding

25 See Article 16 of Regulation 834/2007 (‘Products and substances used in farming and criteria for their

authorisation’).

26 Directive  2000/60/EC of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  establishing  a  framework  for

Community action in the field of water policy.

27 As  an  example,  the Walloon  (Belgium)  Government’s  official  Decision  of  11 February  2010 on  the
mode of production and the labelling of organic products requires, for a meat-supplying flock or herd,
that five years after the conversion of a farm has begun, the number of natural births be, and remain,
over 80 % of the total number of births, every year. In addition, the proportion of natural births must
already  have  reached  30 %  three  years  after  the  conversion  has  begun.  These  requirements,  in
practice,  prohibit  double-muscled Belgian  Blue  cattle (with  hypertrophic  muscle  mass)  from  being
reared  in  organic  farms  in  Wallonia,  as  the  animals’  muscle  conformation  increases  the  risk  of
problems during calving and often requires Caesarean births to be resorted to in order to prevent the
calf or the cow from dying.

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tying up animals or keeping them in isolation; and by reducing the amount of time they
are in transport.

In  terms  of  the  animals’ diet,  animal  feeds  must  have  been  derived  from  organic
agriculture  or  from  natural  non-agricultural  substances.  The  feeds  must  have  been
produced  on  the  farm  itself  or  come  from  organic  farms  in  the  same  region.  The
animals must also have access to pasture or to roughage. Growth factors and synthetic
amino  acids  are  prohibited.  Unweaned  young  mammals  are  fed  on  natural  milk,
preferably from the mother.

Natural  methods  of reproduction should  be  used  wherever  possible.  While  artificial
insemination is nevertheless authorised, other artificial methods of reproduction (e.g.
cloning and embryo transfer) are prohibited, as are treatments based on hormones or
similar substances.

However,  certain less-restrictive  reproductive  practices are  also permissible.  In  an
organically  reared  herd,  for  example,  the  use  of  a  veterinary  treatment  based  on
hormones  to  deal  with  a  reproductive  problem  in  an  individual  animal  is  authorised.
Organic animal-rearing may also involve the use of feeds coming from a farm that is still
undergoing conversion to organic production, or even of non-organic feed ingredients
(including  additives  or  processing  aids),  so  long  as  they  are  authorised  for  such
purposes.  According  to  the  same  principle,  products  for  cleaning  and  disinfecting
buildings  or  other  animal-rearing 
installations  must  be  authorised  for  organic
production purposes (see section 3.1.5).

Apiculture

For the organic rearing of bees, EU requirements provide, in particular, that:

-

-

-

the  hives  are  sufficiently  distant  from  potential  sources  of  harm  for  the  bees  or  of
contamination  for  the  apiculture  products.  They  must  be  primarily  located  in  areas  of
organic  cultivation,  wild  flora  or  forest,  or  else  in  non-organic  cultivation  areas  that  have
been subject to treatments having only a minor impact on the environment,

the  hives  and  the  other  resources  used  in  beekeeping  must  mainly  be  made  of  natural
materials,

the methods used to collect apiculture products must not result in the deaths of bees in the
honeycomb.

3.1.3. Aquatic animal-rearing
Most  of  the  non-specific  requirements  applicable  to  the  practices  for  organically
rearing land animals also apply to the organic rearing of aquatic animals (organic origin
of  the  animals,  measures  to  ensure  health  and  welfare,  limiting  suffering,  choice  of
breeds,  the  use  of  rearing  practices  that  reduce  environmental  impact,  preventing
disease, the use of veterinary treatments, use of organic feeds or of products with prior
authorisation, etc.).
With  regard  to  reproduction28 for  the  organic  rearing  of  aquatic animals,  artificial
methods  for  inducing  polyploidy29,  hybridisation,  cloning  or  the  production  of  single-

28 The reproductive physiology of aquatic animals differs greatly between species. The mechanisms that
determine  sex  and  produce  sexual  differentiation,  and  also  the  physiological  and  environmental
influences  on  these  processes,  vary  a  lot  more  between  fish  species  than  they  do  for  other
vertebrates (mammals, birds and reptiles).

29

In  many  species,  the  animals’  non-reproducing  cells contain  an  even  number  of  chromosomes
(containing the genetic information), each chromosome being present in duplicate. This is the case in

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sex  groups  (other  than  by  manual  sorting)  are  all  prohibited.  For  fish  and  crustacean
feeds,  ingredients  derived  from  aquatic  animals  must  come  from  a sustainable  fish-
farm (producing sustainable fish or other aquatic species). Except in the case of juvenile
animals reared in fish hatcheries or nurseries, the rearing of bivalve molluscs or other
species that feed on natural plankton must be carried out in shellfish-producing waters
that  meet  the  highest  health  standards  (class  A  or  B)  and  are  within  zones  of  high
ecological quality.30

3.1.4. Algal cultivation
The organic cultivation of seaweed must be carried out in coastal areas having a certain
level  of  environmental  and  health  quality  (at  least  equivalent  to  the  quality  level
required  for  the  areas  from  which  organic  wild  seaweed  is  collected – see  box  in
section 3.1.1.). It also requires sustainable practices to be implemented at all stages of
production, and prohibits the use of fertilisers.

In the case of algal cultivation in closed installations, care must be taken to ensure that
genetic  diversity  is  maintained,  by  regularly  supplementing  the  cultivated  stock  with
young varieties collected from an environment where they grow wild. In these closed
systems, the use of fertilisers is permissible so long as they are of types that have been
authorised for this purpose.

3.1.5. Authorisations for the use of non-organic inputs and of chemicals
The  European  Commission  draws up  lists  of  products  that  may  be  used  in  organic
production  activities  (raw  materials  and  non-organic  food  additives,  fertilisers,  plant
protection products, and products for cleaning and disinfection) to meet specific needs,
and in accordance with certain criteria.31

Apart  from  the  products  featuring  in  these  EU  lists  that  may  be  used  by  organic
producers, Member States may also authorise additional substances for use in organic
agriculture within their own territory.32

3.1.6. Organic and non-organic production activities in the same farm
As  a  general  rule,  an  entire  farm  must  be  managed  in  accordance  with  the  rules
applicable  to  organic  production.  The  legislation  does,  however,  also  authorise  that
only a part of the farm is organic, so long as the farm’s production activities are divided

species whose members are diploid. In some cases, the chromosomes may be present in triplicate, or
in even higher multiples. These ‘polyploids’ are not GMOs (as there has not been any modification of
the  species’  genetic  inheritance  by  introducing  genes  from  another  species).  For  instance,  many
cultivated plants are polyploid. In the animal kingdom, while polyploidy is not viable in all members of
a mammalian species, it is possible for certain species of fish and shellfish. There are thus techniques
that make it possible to produce triploid aquatic animals (by subjecting trout eggs to heat shock, or
by  cross-reproduction  between  diploid  and  tetraploid  individuals  in  some oyster species,  for
example).  The  resulting  triploid  animals  have  an  odd  number  of  chromosomes,  and  the  sterility
generally  associated  with  this  phenomenon  may  have  advantages  in  animal-rearing  (in  term  of
growth or of availability of products on the market in any season, for example).

30 The health standards required are class A or B, as defined in Annex II of Regulation (EC) No 854/2004,
and the ecological quality must comply  with the  specifications given in the Directive on the quality
required of shellfish waters (2006/113/EC) and the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC).

31 The lists of authorised products appear in the Annexes of Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008

laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.

32 As  a  result,  national  guides  and  other  national  lists  are  published,  indicating  approved  plant
protection products that may be used in organic agriculture, as is the case, for example, in France and
Belgium.

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into  distinct  units  or  sites.  When  it  comes  to  cultivating  the  soil,  this  in  particular
involves  the  use  of  different  plant  varieties,  which  can  easily  be  told  apart.  When  it
comes to rearing land animals on the same farm, the organically reared species need to
be different from those reared conventionally and kept in separate enclosures, and as a
general  rule,  the  non-organic  animals  should  not  have  access  to  organic  pastures.
When  it  comes  to  rearing  aquatic  animals,  it  is  possible  to  rear  both  organically  and
non-organically  the  same  species  in  a  single  establishment,  as  long  as  the  production
locations are separated appropriately.

3.1.7. Use of non-organic plant seeds and non-organic animals for reproduction
As  a  general  rule,  seeds  (and  other  types  of  plant propagation  material such  as  small
plants, tubers, etc.) have to be organic. However, when such products are unavailable,
an organic farmer is permitted to use seeds originating either from a production unit
that  is  in  the  course  of conversion  or  from conventional agriculture,  provided  that
these  seeds  have  not  been  treated  after  harvesting  with  any  substance  that  is
prohibited in organic production.33

Similarly, organic farmers must rear organic animals born on the farm. If necessary, and
while it is preferable to introduce new animals from other organic farms, there are also
dispensations  allowing, in  addition, conventional  animals to  be  used,  particularly  for
reproductive  purposes.  However,  these  animals  must  be  subjected  to  a  period  of
conversion, which varies according to the species, or even to the type of production.34

3.1.8. Conversion of conventional practices to organic practices
Conversion refers to a change from non-organic agriculture (or aquaculture) to organic
agriculture (or aquaculture). During this transitional period, the farm must be managed
in accordance with all the rules for organic production, but its produce cannot yet be
claimed to comply with the organic specifications.

In  order  for  the  conversion  period  to  officially begin,  compliance  with  the  farm’s
organic  rules  must  have  been  recognised  (following  notification  of  the  organic
production activity to the competent authorities, subject to the corresponding control
system and an authorisation visit that complies).

The conversion period varies, depending on the types of cultivation and animal-rearing.
As  an  example,  the  conversion  period  must  be  at  least  two  years  for  annual  crops
(before sowing) or pasture (before being used as a source of organic pasture or grazing,
or to provide organic fodder), and at least three years for perennial crops (such as fruit
trees and vines).

In  the  case  of  animal-rearing  farms,  it  is  permissible,  under  certain  conditions,  to
simultaneously convert the livestock and the land used to provide food for the animals
(generally a two-year conversion period, but with the possibility of a shorter period in
some cases, such as open-air production for poultry).

33 Alternatively,  such  seeds  are  allowed  provided  that  they  do  not  come  from  a  plant  species  that  is
considered  to  be  adequately  available  within  Europe  in  organic  versions  and  identified  as  such  in
Annex X of Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 (the annex still being empty at the time of publication of this
report).

34 See,  in  particular,  Article  38  and  38(a)  of  Regulation  No 889/2008  (consolidated  version)  in  this

respect.

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Dispensations  are  also  possible  in  cases  where  certain  non-organic  animals  are  being
introduced into a farm, but the animals’ products may not be sold as organic before the
end of the conversion period (e.g. 10 weeks for poultry and 6 months for cows’ milk).

3.2. Processing and organic processed products

In all cases, the processing of organic products must be kept separate (whether in time
or  physically)  from  the  processing  of  non-organic  products.  Treating  raw  materials  or
processed products with ionising radiation is prohibited. Also prohibited is the use of
substances or methods intended to correct effects or errors in processing or in storage,
or to result in mistakes being made about the product’s true nature.

In the production of processed feeds for animals in organic animal-rearing activities, it
is  prohibited  to  mix  organic  and  non-organic  varieties  of  the  same  raw  material,  and
also to make use of synthetic solvents.

Organic foodstuffs for human consumption must be produced mainly from ingredients of
agricultural  origin  (not  counting  added  water  and/or  salt).35 A  non-organic  agricultural
ingredient may be used only when it has been authorised for that specific purpose.

The  use  of  additives,  processing  aids,  aromas,  water,  salt,  preparations  of  micro-
organisms  or  of  enzymes,  trace  elements,  vitamins,  amino  acids  and/or  other  micro-
nutrients is allowed. However, in order to limit their use, recourse to such ingredients
must be essential for specific technical or nutritional reasons. Here too, the use of such
ingredients  for  making  organic  foodstuffs  must  have  received  specific  authorisation.
Such authorisations are granted only at EU level by the European Commission36 (there
being no possibility of additional national lists of substances authorised for processing
organic foodstuffs).

3.3. EU organic appellation(s), labelling and logo

A reserved designation for a variety of different products
Those  operating  in  the  production  and/or  marketing  of  raw  or  processed  agricultural
(or  fish-farming)  products  may  use  the  term  ‘organic’  (or  variations  of  that  term)  for
labelling  and  advertising  purposes,  but  only  if those  products  comply  with  all  the
relevant provisions and criteria.

Thus, in the case of processed foodstuffs, at least 95 % (by weight) of the ingredients of
agricultural origin must be organic. As organic production prohibits the use of GMOs, the
term ‘organic’ may not be used to denote a product made or derived from a GMO, and
also to denote a product whose composition would require it to be labelled as containing
GMOs.37 In addition, the use of terminology making reference to an organic designation
(e.g. by using a commercial brand) which could mislead consumers is prohibited.

However, if a product complies with the rules of  organic production and can therefore
make  that  claim  throughout  the  EU,  the  ‘organic’  designation  does  not  have  identical
effects  in  the  Community’s  various  languages.  Depending  on  the  language  in  question,
two other terms may be used to denote ‘organic’, which literally translate as ‘ecological’
and ‘biological’. In some languages (e.g. German, Latvian and Slovakian), operators may

35 Wine production and yeast production are subject to other specific provisions.
36 See Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008, and more specifically Annexes VIII and IX thereof.
37 For example, a foodstuff that apparently contains 99 % products of organic agricultural origin but also
1 % of a genetically modified agricultural ingredient may not be designated ‘organic’ (such a product
would actually be required to be labelled as ‘GMO’).

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even use more than one of the three words (which literally mean) ‘organic’, ‘biological’
and ‘ecological’, without intending any difference in their meaning.

Mandatory indications and an EU logo
The labelling of a product presented as organic must, in all cases, include the identity of
the control body (country and code number).
A single European Union logo was officially adopted in March 2010.38 It shows a Euro-
leaf symbol (a stylised leaf with its edge being made up of 12 stars, set against a green
background), and was familiar to only one EU resident in every four in 2013.39 The logo
is now mandatory on the packaging of pre-packed organic foodstuffs. Its use is optional
for products imported from non-EU countries. When the EU organic logo is used, the
operator must also provide information on where the constituent agricultural materials
were produced (EU and/or non-EU agriculture).40

Figure 8 – European Union logo and mandatory information

=> ‘Euro-leaf’

‘GB-ORG-000’

=> Control body (country and
code number of the control
body or control authority)

EU/non EU agriculture

=> Indication of origin

There  are  also  specific  provisions  applicable  for  organic  labelling  of  animal  feeds,
products derived from in-conversion crops, and seeds (or plant propagation products).

A specific, but not exclusive, label
Productions  and  products  that  comply  with  European  organic  regulations  may  also
optionally  be  indicated  by  various  types  of additional  national  or  private  logos.
However, whenever it also includes the designation ‘organic’ (or something that implies
that  term),  any  labelling  or  comparable  optional  indication  must  have  an  EU  organic
label  associated  with  it,  and  the  product  in  question  must  fulfil  the  associated
requirements.41

3.4. Guarantee mechanisms – control and certification

Member  States  must  put  a  control  system  in  place  on  order  to  monitor  compliance
with the provisions applicable to organic production. Although it has to be established

38 Commission Regulation (EU) No 271/2010 of 24 March 2010, amending Regulation (EC) No 889/2008
(consolidated version) laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC)
No 834/2007 as regards the organic production logo of the European Union.

39 See  the Questions  &  Answers published  by  DG  AGRI,  and  the Special  Eurobarometer  Agriculture

Report of 2013.

40

If  all  the  agricultural  ingredients  were  produced  in  the  same  country,  the  EU  mention  may  be
supplemented or replaced by a mention of that country.

41 See, for example, the explanations and illustrations relating to the EU label and its use together with

the ‘AB’ label – France’s Agriculture Biologique.

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on  the  principle  of  a  risk  assessment,  the  EU  legislation  also  requires  that  operators’
checks are performed at least once a year (except for retailers and wholesalers who sell
only pre-packed organic products).

The  competent  authorities  may  delegate  the  control  activities  to  accredited
certification bodies, but they must nevertheless carry out certain supervisory activities
(verification  that  the  accredited  bodies  are  independent  and  that  their  checks  are
effective, information relating to any irregularities noted being duly returned, etc.).

Figure 9 – Organic production control: systems and numbers of control bodies or
control authorities in each Member State

Control system operated by private
bodies

Control system operated by public
authorities

Control system operated by private
bodies and public authorities

Number of control bodies or control
authorities

Data source: European Commission (2011)

In  five  of  the  EU  Member  States  (Denmark,  Estonia,  Finland,  Lithuania  and  the
Netherlands),  controls  are  performed  solely  by  public-sector  institutions.  In  four
Member  States  (Spain,  Luxembourg,  Malta  and  Poland),  the  control  systems  are  a
mixture  of  public- and  private-sector  institutions.  In  the  other  Member  States
(19 countries),  the  controls  are  performed  by  private-sector  institutions.42 At  the
beginning of the current decade, there were around 190 certification bodies in the EU.

3.5. Organic products originating from non-EU countries

Imported  products  may  also  be  marketed  as  organic  products,  if  the production  and
control standards  applicable  in  the  relevant  non-EU  country are  considered  to  be
equivalent to those in the EU on the subject. The European Commission is responsible
for  recognising the  equivalence  of  a  non-EU  country’s  organic  production  system  and
verifying that it is duly monitored. In late 2014, the EU had thus concluded equivalence

42 Commission staff working document: Impact assessment accompanying the proposal for a regulation
of the European Parliament and the Council on organic production and labelling of organic products
(SWD(2014) 65 final, Part 3/3 – Annex 9).

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agreements  with  more  than  a  dozen  non-EU  countries  (Argentina,  Australia,  Canada,
Costa Rica, India, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Switzerland, Tunisia, the USA, Norway and
Iceland). Imports of these products are accompanied by ad-hoc inspection certificates.

In the absence of recognition that the rules in a given non-EU country are equivalent,
the products may  nevertheless  be  designated  as  ‘organic’  if  they  are  produced  and
controlled in  accordance  with  European  standards,  provided  that  the  operators  can
provide  documents  to  support  this.  The  European  Commission  examines  requests
submitted  for  this  purpose  by  the  control  bodies  and  control authorities  and,  where
appropriate,  accredits them  to  check  and  certify  the  organic  products  in  the  non-EU
countries concerned. The European Commission is also responsible for supervising the
authorities or other organisations thus recognised.43

3.6. A European support policy for organic products

The  EU’s actions  are  not  limited  to  defining  control  and  certification  standards  and
rules  for  organic  activities.  Recognising  the unique  qualities of  these  types  of
production (see box), the Common Agricultural Policy provides financial support for the
promotion and development thereof.

Organic: a dimension of European policy in favour of high-quality agricultural products

The  promotion of organic production is  part of  a  broader  policy of  the  Union favouring high-
quality agricultural products.

This  quality  policy  also  promotes  and  protects  products  with  qualities that  are linked  to  their
place or method of production:
- Protected  Designation  of  Origin (PDO)  recognises  a  special  savoir-faire  for  a  product  for
which all manufacturing steps (production, processing and finishing) take place in a specific
geographical area,
Indication protected Protec (PGI) designates a product closely linked to a geographical area
in which at least one key manufacturing step takes place,
the Traditional Specialities Guaranteed (TSG) designation recognises the traditional nature
of a product, in terms of either its composition or its method of production.

-

-

This quality policy also includes a European system for the specific recognition of agricultural
products from outlying regions.

43 See  the  DG  AGRI  website,  specifically  the  pages  on relations  with  non-EU  countries or recognised

control bodies/authorities.

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Following the most recent amendment of the CAP and its funding44 for the 2014-2020
period,  farmers  who  comply  with  the  obligations  of  the  ‘Organic  Regulation’  (No
834/2007)  may  receive direct  EU  subsidies45,  especially  as  regards  the ecological
component  of  those  subsidies  (payments  for  climate- or  environmentally-friendly
agricultural practices or ‘green measures’).
Moreover, the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD46) promotes
organic  agriculture  not only  by  supporting  advisory  services  or through collective  and
cooperative actions, for example, but also through aid measures that favour conversion
to these organic production methods. In order to avoid double funding, Member States
are furthermore exempt from having to establish other selection criteria for subsidised
projects  (such  as  criteria  intended  to  guarantee  equality  of  treatment  among
applicants) when measures linked to organic agriculture are involved.
The  new Common  Market  Organisation (CMO)47 strengthens  and  reinforces  the
possible  role  of  producer  organisations  and  interbranch  organisations  so  that  any
action  aimed  at  defending,  protecting  and  promoting  organic  agriculture  (as  well  as
designations  of  origin,  quality  labels  and  geographical  indications)  can be  taken.  The
implementation of operational programmes in the fruit and vegetable sector48, which
include actions that benefit organic agriculture (or, more broadly, actions that benefit
the environment), may also receive financial support from the EU.

While organic production activities ‘linked to the earth’ may benefit from the funding
instruments  of  the  Common  Agricultural  Policy  (CAP),  organic  production  activities
‘linked  to  the  water’  may  benefit  from  those  of  the Common  Fisheries  Policy (CFP).
Consequently, the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF)49 allows support to be
provided for converting to organic aquaculture, marketing such products and investing
in the processing thereof.

In addition to the funding instruments of the CAP and the CFP, the EU also contributes
to research  and  innovation initiatives  in  the  organic  production  sector,  within  the
framework  of  the  ‘Horizon  2020’  programme.  Representatives  from  the  sector  and
from  civil  society  are  grouped  under  the  aegis  of  a  technology  platform dedicated  to
organic  production,  which  allows  them  to  play  a  pivotal  role  in  identifying  research
needs and priorities.50

44 See  specifically  the  page  on  CAP funding of  the  DG  AGRI  website,  or the  ‘guide  on  support

opportunities for organic producers in Europe’, published in December 2014.

45 Regulation (EU) No 1307/2013 of the EP and of the Council establishing rules for direct payments to
farmers  under  support  schemes  within  the  framework  of  the  common  agricultural  policy  (see
Article 43).

46 Regulation (EU) No 1305/2013 of the EP and of the Council on support for rural development by the

European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) (specifically Article 29 thereof).

47 Regulation  (EU)  No  1308/2013 of  the  EP  and  of  the  Council  establishing  a  common  organisation  of

the markets in agricultural products.

48 See specifically the page on the fruits and vegetables scheme of the DG AGRI website.
49 Regulation (EU) No 508/2014 of the EP and of the Council on the European Maritime and Fisheries

Fund (see, specifically, Articles 53, 68 and 69).

50 See  the  essential  elements  on  the ‘Horizon  2020’  site  of  the  Commission  and  on  the  website

dedicated to the technology platform ‘TP organics’.

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European Court of Auditors Special Report No 9/2012: failing control procedures
In 2012, the European Court of Auditors published an audit report51 on the performance of the
control  system  governing  the  production  of  organic  products,  which  focused,  among  other
things,  on  how  those  responsibilities  are  performed  at  different  levels  of  power  and
intervention, and how the regimes for importing organic products are managed.

Observing that the European Commission has not performed any audit of the Member States’
control  systems  for  ten  years,  the  Court  also  noted  a  lack  of  supervision  on  the  part  of  the
competent  authorities  at  national  level, and  consequently  a  failure  of  certain  control  bodies.
The  competent  authorities  in  the  Member  States  are  no  longer  capable  of  ensuring  full
traceability of organic products in their territories, and even less so when it comes to products
originating  from  other  countries.  The  Court  likewise  reported  weaknesses  in  the  system  of
various  regimes  for  importing  organic  products  into  the  EU.  This  audit  led  the  Court  to
recommend,  among  other  things,  that  Member  States  tighten  their  supervision  over  their
respective control bodies, that information be better shared between competent authorities at
all  levels,  and  that  more  controls  be  performed  by  different  operators  in  the  sector.  The
Commission  should  also  step  up  its  surveillance  of  national  authorities  and  improve  the
supervision  of  non-EU  countries  recognised  as  equivalent  in  terms  of  organic  production  and
whose products may be imported as such into the EU.
In  its  resolution52 of  April  2013  on  the  Court  of  Auditors’  special  reports,  the  European
Parliament in particular recalls that it ‘has always supported organic farming and will continue
to  do  so’.  It  ‘stresses  the  importance  of  providing  sufficient  assurance  that  the  system  is
operating effectively and that it ensures that consumer confidence is not undermined’, and it
asks  the  Commission  ‘to  bring  forward  initiatives  and  regulatory  proposals  aiming  to  ensure
that all the weaknesses pointed out by Special Report No 9/2012 are remedied by the end of
2013’.

In  response  to  these  criticisms  and  recommendations,  the  European  Commission  began  by
revising and strengthening certain rules on the organic production control system, particularly
with  regard  to  the  sharing  of  information  throughout  the  sector,  the  supervision  of  control
bodies, and even the establishment of sanctions.53 In May 2013, it also proposed a revision of
the  regulation  on  official  controls  in  the  food  and  feed  sectors  (2013/0140(COD)).  In  this
regard, in its first reading opinion of April 2014, the European considered that official controls
should certify compliance with the procedures applicable to organic production54. In its March
2014  proposal  (see  section  4.2),  the  Commission  proposed  a  new  legislative  framework  for
organic production, which also covers control and the import system.

4. The future of the organic sector

4.1. Current and future challenges

4.1.1. Some important fundamental questions
The coexistence  of  conventional agriculture  (including  the  biotechnology  dimension)
with organic agriculture involves several major challenges, notably those linked to the
risks  of  contamination  of  organic  products  by  synthetic  pesticides  or  genetically

51 See Special Report No 9/2012 and the accompanying press release.
52 Resolution P7_TA(2013)0123 of 17 April 2013 on the Court of Auditors’ special reports in the context

of the 2011 Commission discharge.

53 Commission Regulation (EU) No 392/2013.
54 Procedure 2013/0140(COD) and Resolution T7-0380/2014.

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modified organisms (GMOs) – these being two key elements that are prohibited in the
organic sector.

Considering  that GMOs pose  major  environmental  and  economic  risks  and  an
‘unprecedented  threat  to  the  biosphere’,  IFOAM55 advocates  a  total  ban  on  GMOs  in
agriculture,  which  would  be  the  only  sure-fire  way  of  preventing  contaminations  by
GMOs.  However,  in  order  to  take  the  current  situation  into  account,  IFOAM  stresses
the need for GMO-based products to be labelled as such and for the risk of inadvertent
cross-contamination  by  GMOs  to  be  reduced  (by  implementing  buffer  zones,  for
example).  It  also  feels  that  this  risk  should  not  prejudice  the  certification  of  organic
agriculture  as  a  production  method  rather  than  as  a  guarantee  of  the  final  product.
Organic  farmers  should  not  have  to  prove  that  their  crops  are  not  contaminated  by
traces  of  GMOs  or  pesticides  that  they  themselves  did  not  use,  and  the  ‘polluters’
should  be  held  liable  for  any  contaminations  of  organic  products.  However,  IFOAM
does  not  believe  that  acceptable  genetic  contamination  threshold  values  should  be
defined, nor is it in favour of mandatory regulatory testing of organic products in this
respect. Not only would the setting of such contamination limits be arbitrary, but above
all it would not be in keeping with the very principles of organic agriculture.

The coexistence of genetically modified crops with other crops has been the subject of
numerous political and technical developments in the EU56 for some time. This issue of
coexistence and the risks of contamination by GMOs was also a motivating factor in the
2010 proposal of the Commission to review the regulatory framework of approvals to
grow transgenic plants in the territory of the Member States, a proposal on which the
European  Parliament  gave  a  second  reading  opinion  pursuant  to  ordinary  legislative
procedure on 13 January 2015.57

in  demand 

The obtaining of organically produced seeds and plant propagation material is another
example of the challenges facing organic agriculture. To enhance agricultural diversity
and  better  adapt  crops  to  local  conditions,  heirloom  varieties  or  ‘on-farm’58 products
are  frequently 
in  the  organic  sector.  The  need  of  being  organic
notwithstanding,  however,  these  types  of  seeds  are  not  necessarily  available  via  the
conventional seed producer route. Moreover, the production and distribution thereof
may  not  always  comply  with  EU  regulatory  requirements,  according  to  which  seeds
must be approved and registered in a national (or EU) registry once certain qualities of
distinctiveness,  uniformity,  and  stability  of  the  varieties  in  question  have  been
demonstrated.  In  2013,  the  European  Commission  proposed  to  review  the  legislative
provisions on the marketing of seeds59, a proposal rejected by the European Parliament
at first reading and withdrawn by the Commission at the end of 2014.60

55 See IFOAM: position on genetic engineering and GMOs.
56 See, for example, the DG AGRI web page of the European Commission dedicated to the issue of the

coexistence of GMOs and non-GMOs.

57 See  Procedure  File 2010/0208(COD). The notice of  a  principle  agreement  between  the  European
Parliament  and  the  Council  in  the  beginning  of  December  2014  notwithstanding,  in  its 2015  Work
Programme, the European Commission plans to review the decision-making process regarding GMOs.
58 See  in  particular IFOAM:  position  on  the  use  of seeds  and  plant  propagation  material  in  organic

agriculture.

59 See for example: ‘Seeds and other plant reproductive material – Towards new EU rules’, Briefing of

the Library of the European Parliament, June 2013.

60 See Procedure 2013/0137(COD) and Annex II of the Communication from the Commission on its 2015

Work Programme.

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4.1.2. Principles that must also be expressed in the details
The implementation of the fundamental principles of organic production also requires
them to be expressed in more detailed technical standards. In this regard, one of the
principles  of  organic  production  as  defined  by  the  EU  provides  in  particular  for  the
production  rules  to  adapt  to  special  situations,  should the  need  arise  (see  also
section 1.4).

The  EU  has  thus  defined  specific  rules  for  certain  types  of  animal  husbandry,  e.g.  for
bees  and  poultry  (with  standards  that  may  even  vary  by  species  or  gender,  as  in  the
case  of ducks,  for  example).  At the  present time,  there are no  common  specific  rules
applying  to  other  types  of  production.  This  is  the  case,  among  others,  for  rearing
ostriches  or  rearing  snails,  for  which  organic  farmers  must  refer  to  a  list  of
specifications (if one exists) established on a national or even regional level.61

Moreover,  the  definition  of  detailed  rules  on  crop-growing  or  animal  husbandry
practices,  or  the  concrete  application  of  organic  principles  to  certain  forms  of
production,  may  be  subject  to  discussion.  As  an  illustration,  the  EU defined  a  list  of
organic  specifications  specific  to  aquaculture  operations  in  2009.62 However,  certain
production methods are still a source of debate: in May 2014, IFOAM launched a global
public consultation on what ‘organic’ should mean for aquaculture.63 Referring to the
fact  that  many  species  reared  in  aquaculture  systems  are  carnivorous  but  that  their
food (which mostly comes from fishery products) may not be organic, IFOAM raised the
question  as  to  whether  the  concept  of  organic  production  can  truly  apply  to  such
aquaculture systems.

Inquiries  of  this  nature  conducted  by  associations  linked  to  the  sector  can  be
considered as one of the reflections of the evolving nature of the organic concept and
of  the  diversity  of possible  trends  and points  of  view  in  this  field,  in a  context  where
organic  agriculture  itself  has  become  a  benchmark  on  the  market  and  where
conventional agriculture continues to transform.

4.1.3. Diverse visions of the future of the organic sector
Organic  products  are  today  no  longer  seen  as  a  niche  market.  Even  though  they
account  for  a  low  proportion  of  total  EU  agricultural  production,  they  nevertheless
represent a European market worth more than EUR 22 billion per year, which over the
last few years has been growing steadily at a rate of around 8 % per year. In addition,
the  days  of  organic  products  only  being  available  at  speciality  shops  have  long  gone;
large-scale  retailers  and  online
they  have  now  become  flagship  products  for 
distributors.

For example, according to a study of the performances of organic agriculture published
in  2013  by  the  French  national  agricultural  research  institute  (INRA)64,  half  of  the
purchases  of  products  originating  from  organic  agriculture  by  French  people  were

61 As in France or in Wallonia, for example.
62 Regulation (EC) No 710/2009 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation
(EC) No 834/2007, as regards laying down detailed rules on organic aquaculture animal and seaweed
production.

63

64

‘How  does  the  organic  movement  define  organic aquaculture?’,  IFOAM  online consultation
questionnaire, from 2 May to 2 July 2014.

‘Vers des agricultures à hautes performances. Volume 1 – Analyse des performances de l’agriculture
biologique’  [Towards  high-performance  agriculture.  Volume  1 – Analysis  of  the  performances  of
organic agriculture], Guyomard H., (under the direction of the) INRA, September 2013.

Organic production and the European Union

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made in supermarkets, whereas direct sales accounted for only 11 % of such purchases.
Although both segments have grown over the last five years, the growth rate recorded
for supermarket sales has been more pronounced than that for direct sales. However,
the growth rate of supermarket sales is starting to slow down (it was 39 % in 2008 and
only 14 % in 2011), whereas that of direct sales is oscillating at around 8-9 %.

This  evolution  of  the  market  for  adapting  to  a  demand  that  requires  supplies  on  a
regular basis and in greater volumes, the development of long distribution channels, as
well as the diversification of purchasers and places for purchasing products originating
from  organic  agriculture,  led  the  authors  of  this  study  to  conclude  that  this
‘conventionalisation  of  organic  agriculture is  already  a  reality’
in  the  processing,
distribution and consumption stages. However, the authors also underline the very real
nature  of  the  fears  that  this  conventionalisation  of  organic  agriculture  is  raising,
especially  in  the  production  stage.  Some  organic  farmers  are simplifying  and  gearing
their  agronomic  and  animal  husbandry  practices  towards  a  greater 
level  of
standardisation  and  towards  the  search  for  greater  productivity  from  the  land  and
labour,  with  the  aim  of  minimising  production  costs  as  well.  Such  an  adaptation  can
thus have the effect of reducing the expected environmental and territorial benefits of
the organic sector.

Organic agriculture benefiting small-scale farmers or large-scale financiers - examples in
Romania
According to Commission statistics65, Romania (like other Member States that have joined the
EU since 2004) has seen a marked increase in the amount of its farmland given over to statistic
organic agriculture (from 131 500 ha in 2007 to 230 000 ha in 2011).66

However, there is more than one side to the reality of this growth. For instance, certain press
articles67 highlight  the  favourable  development  of  organic  agriculture  and  its  advantages  for
numerous  Romanian  small-scale  farmers,  even  though  there  are  still  certain  challenges,
particularly in terms of traceability.

On  the  other  hand,  an  investigative  television  report  on  the  industrialisation  of  the  organic
sector and of organic practices broadcast in June 2014 refers to certain examples in Romania in
order  to  highlight  and  condemn  a  system  in  which  investment  fund  managers  buy  up  large
areas  of  agricultural  land  at  a  low  price  in  order  to  exploit  them  organically  on  a  large  scale,
without any actual control, and may, as a result, benefit from the increased availability of EU
financial support.68

In their  2014  report  on  trends  in  organic  agriculture,  the  Swiss  Research  Institute  of
Organic  Agriculture  (FiBL)  and  IFOAM  stressed,  among  other  conclusions,  that  the
organic sector is largely viewed as a success story in the international agrifood industry,
and  that  possibilities  for  further  growth  will  be  pursued.  Nevertheless,  certain
challenges  still  need  to  be  addressed,  particularly  in  terms  of  a  more  balanced  and
regionalised  geographical  approach  in  organic  production.  Citing  the  example  of  raw

65

‘Facts and figures on organic agriculture in the European Union’; European Commission, 2013.

66 An asset highlighted by Dacian Ciolos, the European Commissioner for Agriculture during the 2009-
2014 period, and mentioned in particular by Romanian representatives in non-EU countries such as
Switzerland or Canada.

67 See for example the press article ‘Le bel avenir bio de l’agriculture roumaine’ [The promising organic
future  of  Romanian  agriculture]  of  18  August  2013,  which  also  mentions  the  ‘bio  Romania’
association.

68 See  ‘Produire  bio - Un  business  comme  les  autres?’  [Organic  production – a  business  just  like  any

other?]; television report broadcast on ARTE on 3 June 2014.

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products such as organic rice, soybeans, fruit or spices imported into Europe from Asia
and then processed  into  finished  products  to  be  exported  back  to  Asian  markets, the
authors feel that this imbalance linked to international trade must be corrected, not
only because of its environmental footprint but also because of the extra costs linked
to transport and logistics for the consumer.69

The  industrialisation  of  the  organic  sector  and  its  alignment  with  large  market  trade
practices  can  also  be  seen  through  the increased  proliferation  of  events associated
therewith, such as large trade shows that attract stakeholders from the entire sector,
particularly the processing, trade and distribution branches. These commercial events
also  serve  as  platforms  for  promoting  ideas  and driving  market  trends.  The  ‘Organic
3.0’70,  published  in  January  2014  in  partnership  with  BIOFACH – the  ‘world’s  leading
trade  fair  for  organic  foods’ – is  an  example  of  this.71 This  analysis  of  the  trend  and
potential  of  the  future  evolution  of  the organic  sector  suggests  certain  concepts
redefined  by  their  promoters,  and  envisages  needs  and  possibilities  for  the  sector  to
adapt  in  response  to  certain  major  social  trends  (such  as  individualism,  connectivity,
health, globalisation). As regards the competitive development of the organic sector, it
proposes, among other things, a reorientation of its overall approach, which has thus
far been focused on modes of production but should instead be centred more on the
needs of consumers, which would be achieved by exploiting other key values such as
those of regional or traditional production or by getting involved in the more general
‘lifestyle, nutrition and health’ debate. Some may feel that this study and the context in
which  it  is  being  presented  and  discussed  are  an  illustration  of  the  ‘appropriation’
phenomenon described by other authors, which consists of the ‘mechanism by which
the  downstream  agrifood 
(slaughterhouses-butchers-distributors),  a
newcomer  to  the  organic  sector,  is  reconfiguring the  processes  of  agricultural
production in order to reduce them to an agribusiness input’.72

industry 

In  terms  of  values  linked  to  organic  production,  it  should  be  recalled  that  the  EU
legislative framework establishes a least common denominator for organic production,
focused essentially on the environmental (and zoo technical) dimensions of agricultural
and aquacultural practices. Also possible is the voluntary use of other societal claims or
references such as those linked to the closeness of production and consumption, to fair
trade, to the recognised origin or to the provenance of products. Such values and their
criteria do not enter into the certification criteria of organic production. However, the
growing number of labels or the concomitance of other claims (such as those linked to
health)  may  increase  the  risks  of  misleading  or  confusing  those  consumers  who  are
insufficiently informed, and also give rise to risks of ‘diluting’ the value of the organic
sector or loss of confidence in the significance thereof.73

69

70

‘The  World  of  Organic  Agriculture.  Statistics  and  Emerging  Trends’  published  by  FiBL  and  IFOAM  in
2014: see in particular the chapter on the global market for organic food and drink and the section
therein entitled ‘Conclusions and future growth’ (pp. 130-131).

‘Organic 3.0 - Trend and potential analysis of the future of organics’, BIOFACH, January 2014.

71 This  sector-wide  debate  was  launched  during  the  2014  BIOFACH  trade  fair  and  will  be  pursued

further during the 2015 BIOFACH Congress.

72

73

‘Le  Blanc  Bleu  Belge  est-il  soluble  dans  le  bio?’,  [Are Belgian  Blue  cattle  feasible  in  organic
production?] P. Stassart and D. Jamar, 2005, Nature, Sciences, société.

In  this  respect,  certain  analysts  feel  that  as  far  as  environmental  claims  are  concerned,  only  the
organic  agriculture  label  ‘reflecting  a  coherent  and  exhaustive  set  of  different  factors’  should  be
authorised (see specifically: ‘La réforme de la PAC au-delà de 2013 – Une vision à plus long terme’

Organic production and the European Union

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Besides the increased risks of fraud due to the discrepancy between demand and actual
production  possibilities,  this  frenzy  on  the  market  for  organic  (or  ‘green’74)  products
may also lead to this claim being misused for non-agricultural or non-food products, or
if not, at least to requests to extend the organic label to other products such as textiles,
clothing or cosmetic and hygiene products.

A  proposal  to  revise  the  EU  framework  of  organic  production  presented  by  the
European  Commission  in  March  2014  is being  discussed  in  this  context  of  diverse
challenges and visions for the future of organic agriculture.

4.2. Towards a new European framework

4.2.1. Preparing proposals
The development of the European Commission initiative for a revision of the legislative
framework of  the  organic  sector  and  of  the  action  plan  for  supporting  this  type  of
production has been marked by several key steps.

Already aware of the shortcomings of the control system for organic production noted
by the Court of Auditors and disclosed in a special audit report in June 2012 (see also
the  box,  section  3.6),  in  May  2012  the  Commission  presented  its  report  on  the
implementation of Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 to the European Parliament and to the
Council,  a  process  by  which  it  hoped  to  start  a  discussion  on  numerous  subjects,
including  improvement  of  the  control  systems  but  also  the  coexistence  of  organic
production  and  that  using  GMOs,  the  import  regime,  and  the  simplification  of  the
general legislative framework.75

The  Commission  also  carried  out  a  very  large-scale  public  consultation  as  part  of  this
appraisal  process.76
In  addition  to  several  special  hearings  with  the  principal
stakeholders  in  the  organic  sector  and  meetings  with  the organic  advisory  group,  the
Commission  also  received  more  than  45 000  voluntary  contributions  in  response  to  a
public consultation launched on the Internet, a very high number that was deemed to
reflect how important this subject is to European citizens.77 As part of preparing for its
appraisal of the impact of a revision of the EU legislative framework, the Commission
also  ordered  an  external  appraisal  of  the  legislation  on  organic  production78 to  be
performed.  In  this  study  published  in  November  2013,  the  authors  presented  their
recommendations  for  a  possible  revision  of  the  scope  of  this  legislation,  rules  of
production,  control,  imports,  etc.  According  to  an  analysis  carried  out  by  of  the
European  Parliamentary  Services  concerning  the  various  available  appraisals  on  the
implementation  of  the  legislation  on  organic  production  and  labelling,  this  external

[CAP  reform  beyond  2013 – A  longer  term  vision],  JC.  Bureau  and  LP  Mahé,  2008,  ‘Notre  Europe’
think tank).

74

‘Attitudes  of  Europeans  towards  building  the  single  market  for  green  products’,  European
Commission, Flash Eurobarometer 367, July 2013.

75 Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the  application  of
Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  834/2007  on  organic  production  and  labelling  of  organic  products
(COM(2012) 212) – see also the web page of the DG AGRI site dedicated to this report.

76 See also the roadmap of this initiative, which was formalised in September 2012.
77 This consultation process brought together a vast array of documents and contributions, which can

be accessed as full text versions or in summary form on a specific web page of the DG AGRI.

78

‘EU  legislation  on  Organic  Production  and  Labelling',  Study  report,  Thünen  Institute  of  Farm
Economics, November 2013, 370 p. available in its entirety or by chapters on the web page of the DG
AGRI site.

Organic production and the European Union

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study  would  have  been  more  complete  if  it  had  covered  supplementary  dimensions
such as possible contradictions between the legislation for the organic sector and other
EU 
it  had  given  greater  consideration  to  certain
stakeholders, especially exporters of organic products or consumer associations.79

legislation  or  policies,  or 

if 

4.2.2. The March 2014 proposals of the European Commission in brief
The issues that the Commission is seeking to address with its proposal of a new legal
framework  and  an  action  plan  for  the  future  of  organic  production  in  the  EU80 are
based on the following observation: although the European organic market quadrupled
between  1999  and  2011,  the  amount  of  farmland  in  the  EU  given  over  to  organic
production  merely  doubled  from  2000 to 2010, and the  shortfall  must  be  covered by
imports. This situation not only represents lost opportunities for European farmers, but
also  entails  the  risk  of  holding  back  the  development  of  the  organic  market  and
resulting in a loss of the environmental benefits unique to this type of production.

The Commission identified four main types of challenges, which it took into account in
its appraisal:

–

–

–

–

The conversion of  forms  of  conventional  agriculture  to  organic  production
methods is still inadequate.
Consumer confidence,  a  key  factor  in  the  development  of  the  organic  products
market, is  at  risk of  declining.  The  rules  and  the  system  in  general  are  being
undermined,  in  terms  of  their  credibility,  by  cases  of  fraud,  shortcomings  in  the
control  system  or  in  the  import  regime,  and  unclear  exemptions  or  provisions  of
the 
legislation.  Certain  current  practices,  although  compatible  with  the
specifications of the organic sector, are not always in keeping with its objectives of
high  levels  of  environmental  protection  or  animal  welfare.  The  development  of
private certifications leads to a multiplicity of labels and logos in competition with
each other (and with the EU scheme) and is a source of confusion for consumers.
The  system  does not  lead  to fair competition among the  farmers,  and the single
market is not fully operational due to the complexity of the provisions linked to the
coexistence with conventional agriculture or different levels of implementation by
the national authorities (for example in terms of granting derogation schemes, of
controls  and  sanctions,  or  of  the  recognition  of  competing  certification  bodies),
among other things.
The legislation is complex and generates a considerable amount of constraints and
red  tape,  not  to  mention  the  disproportionate  cost  of  organic  certification  for
small-scale farms.

Based on this impact assessment, which itself was the subject of an initial appraisal by
the  European  Parliamentary  Services81,  the  Commission proposed to  review  the

79 EU  legislation  on  Organic  Production  and  Labelling – Implementation  Appraisal,  Briefing  of  the

European Parliamentary Research Service, PE 536.328v02-00, October 2014.

80 See the web page dedicated to this new initiative on the DG AGRI site, which also contains links to the
legislative  proposal  (COM(2014)  180),  the  action  plan  (COM(2014)  179),  the  impact  assessment
report (SWD(2014) 65) and its executive summary (SWD(2014) 66), along with the press release, the
‘questions and answers’ information sheet, background memo, and the citizens’ summary.

81 Organic  production  and  labelling  of  organic  products - Initial  appraisal  of  a  European  Commission
Impact Assessment, Briefing of the European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS), EP 528.799, July
2014.  In  short,  this  appraisal  concluded  that  the  Commission’s  impact  assessment  makes  a
reasonable  case  for  the  need  to  change  the  system,  but  that  the  credibility  of  some  of  the

Organic production and the European Union

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regulatory framework in order to remove the obstacles to the development of organic
agriculture  and  to  maintain  the  confidence  of  both  consumers  and  farmers  in  the
system. In particular:

–

–

–

to  increase  the  harmonisation  of  the  organic  production  rules  (in  particular  to
eliminate certain current exemptions or derogations and to ban the concomitance
of  organic  and  conventional  production  on  the  same  production  site)  while  still
favouring  access  to  the  organic  label  for  small  farmers  by  possibly  introducing  a
group  certification  regime.  Unless  they  are  small  and  medium-sized  enterprises,
operators  downstream  of  primary  production  would  be  required  to  implement
systems for improving their environmental performance;
to revise the control system, particularly by basing it more on risk analyses and by
extending  the  mandatory  controls  to  retail  businesses,  but  also  by  defining
measures  and responsibilities  regarding  the presence  of  unauthorised  substances
in organic products. Moreover, the organic sector controls would become part of
the general framework of the official controls of the agrifood sector, the legislative
framework of which is currently under discussion;82
to  amend  the  provisions  on  international  exchanges,  in  particular  by  initiating  a
system of simple compliance with EU rules while still keeping the already accepted
equivalence systems in place (see section 3.5).

In  its  annexes,  this  proposal  for  a  new  regulation  (which  would  repeal  the  current
regulation)  also  summarises  the  detailed  rules  of  specific  forms  of  production,  the
future  amendment  of  which  would  be  part  of  the powers  delegated to  the
Commission.83
Along with its legislative proposal, the Commission included an action plan84 focused on
three  priority  domains,  namely  to  increase  the  competitiveness  of  organic  producers
(by bolstering research and innovation, for example), to increase consumer confidence
(through  electronic  certification  and  better  fraud  prevention,  for  example),  and  to
reinforce  the  external  dimension  of  the  EU  organic  production  scheme  (e.g.  by
exploring the  possibility  of  a  multilateral  agreement  and  greater  convergence  of  the
standards applied by the main partners of the organic sector on an international level).

4.2.3. Could initial critical reactions bring the debate to an early end?
The initial reactions of various stakeholders were consistent with the logic of the values
and  interests  that  they  represent.  As  an  example,  the  day  after  the  Commission
presented  its  proposal, Copa-Cogeca85 highlighted  the  need  for  farmers  to  be  able  to

assumptions made and conclusions drawn is undermined by a lack of appropriate quantitative data to
back them up.

82 Procedure 2013/0140(COD).
83

In 2010, the Commission presented a proposal for aligning the organic production regulation to the
provisions of the Treaty of Lisbon in matters of executive powers and delegated powers (Procedure
2010/0364(COD)). The Council did not rule on the EP’s position at first reading, and when drawing up
its 2015  Work  Programme  (Annex  II),  the  Commission  decided  to  withdraw  this  ‘Lisbonisation’
proposal since these measures are already integrated in its proposal for the general revision of the
organic legislation, which was presented in March 2014.

84 Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European
Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions – Action  plan  for  the  future  of
Organic Production in the European Union, COM(2014) 179 final of 24 March 2014.

85 Copa-Cogeca brings  together  farmers  and  their  cooperatives  on  a  European  level  (press  release of

March 2014).

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(continue  to)  convert  to  organic  practices  gradually,  and  that  organic  farmers  should
not have to bear the costs of accidental contamination or residue analysis. Eurogroup
For  Animals86 felt  that  by  retaining  the  shortcomings  of  the  current  regulation  in  the
new  legislative  framework,  the  proposal  failed  in  its  objective  of  protecting  animal
welfare.  In  terms  of  the  proposal  as  a  whole,  some  reactions  even  seemed  rather
negative. The European branch of IFOAM thus87 ‘rejected the Commission’s proposal in
its  current  form,  unless substantially  changed’.  It  believed  that  the proposal  fell  short
on  a  good  many  points  and  that  it  would  lead  to  a  decline  of  organic  production  in
Europe,  in  particular  at  the  expense  of  small  organic  farms  and  businesses,  and  less
developed regions.
Although88 the Council had  called  on  the  Member  States  and  the  Commission  to
‘develop  the  organic  production  sector  at  an  ambitious  level  by  reviewing  the  current
legal  framework…’  in  conclusions  that  it  unanimously  adopted  in  2013,  the  press
reported ardent criticisms expressed by various Ministers for Agriculture regarding this
proposal for a new regulation. For example, many of them demanded that the current
derogations be kept or that the delegated powers be restricted.89

In  its  position  statements  in  past  years,  the European  Parliament has  reiterated  its
support  of  organic  production  methods,  and  has  underlined  the  need  to  ensure  that
the  system  is  operating  effectively  and  that  consumer  confidence  is  maintained  (see
the  box  on  the  Court  of  Auditors’  Special  Report on  organic  agriculture  and  the  EP
Resolution  of  2013  on  the  Court  of  Auditors’  Special  Reports90).  The  Commission  for
Agriculture and Rural Development has been assigned the task of conducting a detailed
review of the new proposals presented by the Commission.91 This activity has started
with  the  new  legislature,  and  the  initial  discussions  regarding  the  proposal  of  the
Commission92 have  also  been  criticised.  However,  this  legislative  process  could  be
completed  early,  even  though  the  European  Commission  has  announced  its  intention
(which  it  gave  in  its  2015  Work  Programme93 and  on  which  the  European  Parliament
did  not  rule  during  its  first  plenary  session  of  2015)  of  withdrawing  its  proposal  of  a
new regulatory framework if no agreement is reached on it within six months.

86 An association that campaigns for the rights of animals (press release of October 2014).
87 See in particular the IFOAM EU press release of 7 May 2014 press in December 2014.
88 Organic  Farming:  Application  of  the  regulatory  framework  and  development  of  the  sector - draft
conclusions  of  the  Council  (8906/13  LIMITE  AGRILEG  56),  adopted  at  the Agriculture  and  Fisheries
Council meeting of May 2013.

89 For example, according to the European Union Press Agency, this statement of the so-called Visegrad
countries, which also advocates curtailing the options of the Commission for delegating powers, also
received  support  from  other  Member  States  (France,  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Spain,  Portugal,
Poland,  Sweden,  United  Kingdom).  Several  Member  States  also  suggested  that  the  European
Commission  submit  a  new  proposal.  However,  these  criticisms  did  not  halt  the discussions end  of
2014, the Latvian Presidency of the Council of the EU made this dossier one of its priorities.

90 Resolution P7_TA(2013)0123.
91 See in particular Procedures 2014/0100(COD) and COM(2014) 179.
92 See  in  particular  the  results  of  the  Commission  for  Agriculture  and  Rural  Development  hearing  of

3 December 2014, which was covered by the European Union Press Agency.

93 See the Communication from the Commission: ’Work programme for 2015 - (COM(2014) 910 final)’,

and in particular Annex II thereof.

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5. Perspectives

European organic agriculture now finds itself at a crossroads. Another possible form of
the  ‘Quarrel  of  the  Ancients  and  the  Moderns’ lies  in  considering  the  origin  of  the
organic  movement  as  being  in  opposition  to  certain  forms  of industrialisation  and
modernisation  of  agricultural  practices  and  exploitation  of  the  soil.  The  debate  on  its
future  positioning  must  therefore  take  new  realities  into  account.  As  a  direct
consequence of the success of organic agriculture in terms of marketing, some organic
production operations are now being conducted on an industrial scale. The commercial
and economic framework of the sector is no longer just ‘small business’.

Some  may  feel  that  this  change  justifies  an  overhaul  of  the  principles  of  organic
agriculture  beyond its  essentially  environmental  dimensions,  in  order  to  extend  them
to  and  underpin  other  societal  values.  Others  see  the  need  of  first  assessing  the
in  terms  of
revision  of  the  rules  applicable  to  organic  production  methods 
costs/benefits  or  market  demands,  and  then  in  terms  of  a  possible  perspective  of
‘overflow’ of demands to conventional production methods. These different trends are
addressed  in,  for  example,  the  study  performed  by  the  INRA  for  the  French  General
Commission for Strategy and Economic Foresight.94 As an illustration of this debate, the
authors of this study feel that:

... Although  the  harmonisation  of  national  translations  of  the  EU  regulation  on  organic
agriculture  and  more  broadly  the  harmonisation  of  the  rules  and  specification  lists  of  organic
agriculture on an international level is desirable, it also raises the question of strengthening (or
conversely,  relaxing)  restrictions.  The  expected  benefits  of  a  possible  relaxation  would
essentially  lie  in  the  production,  collection  and  processing  stages  (increase  of  production
performances  and  decrease  of  production  costs),  benefits  that  must  be  weighed  against  the
disadvantages  and  in  particular  against  the  possible  loss  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  at  least
some  consumers regarding  products  originating  from  organic  agriculture.  In  cases  where  the
nutritional, sanitary and organoleptic qualities of products originating from organic agriculture
and conventional agriculture do not appear to be significantly different, the opportunity and the
risk  of  a  strengthening,  or,  conversely,  of  a  relaxation,  of  the  restrictions  can  only  be
appreciated  by  the  impact  on  the  environmental  and  social  performances  (use)(strengthening
would presumably have the effect, all other things being equal, of diminishing production and
economic  performances,  a  diminishment  which  would  have  to  be  compensated  for  by  raising
the prices at consumption, whereas relaxation would have the opposite effect).

...

In summary, the challenge lies in moving away from the simplistic and unproductive opposition
between the activists and the opportunists of organic agriculture, between local products and
export markets, between short and long distribution channels, and between organic agriculture
and conventional agriculture. ... In this regard, the socio-economic theory (i.e. transitions) that
gives  rise  to  the  recommendation  to  abandon  socio-technical  impasses  through  hybridisation
with  innovative  niches  will  find  its  full  expression  in  agriculture  if  such  niches  are  not  in
opposition to the majority model. Under these conditions, organic agriculture can then claim to
be a prototype of a more sustainable form of agriculture for serving a broader purpose, namely
that of the greatest possible sustainability of all agricultural and agrifood systems.

94 Vers des agricultures à hautes performances. Volume 1 – Analyse des performances de l’agriculture
biologique [Towards  high-performance  agriculture.  Volume  1 – Analysis  of  the  performances  of
organic agriculture], Guyomard H., (under the direction of the) INRA, September 2013.

Organic production and the European Union

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Beyond  the  questions  on  the  future  of  the  organic  sector  and  the  contents  of  the
legislative proposal (which could motivate its rejection by some or its defence as a basis
for new rules by others), the announcement by the Commission of 16 December 2014
of  a  deadline  of  six  months  for  the  European Parliament  and  the  Council  to  reach  an
agreement  has  changed  the  context  in  which  this  proposal  is  being  discussed.  This
could  in  particular  raise  other  questions  of  institutional  nature,  in  cases  where  the
treaties  do  not  establish  any  deadline  for  colegislators  to  conclude  the  steps  of  first
reading.  This  position  of  the  Commission  could  also  be  perceived  as  an  interference
with the European Parliament’s prerogatives of defining its own work schedule, apart
from  the  necessary  consideration  of  the  average  normal  timelines  of  ordinary
legislative procedure and due to the fact that the appraisal of the proposal could not
actually start until after the installation of the new legislature.

Organic production and the European Union

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Main references
Facts and figures on organic agriculture in the European Union, European Commission, October
2013, p. 44.

The  World  of  Organic  Agriculture.  Statistics  and  Emerging  Trends, H.  Willer,  J  Lernou;  FiBL  &
IFOAM, 15th edition, 2014, p. 304.

Organic farming, EU Rural Reviews, No 18 – European Network for Rural Development, spring
2014, p. 40.

Vers des agricultures à hautes performances – Vol. 1: Analyse des performances de l'agriculture
biologique, [Towards  high-performance  agriculture – Vol.  1:  Analysis  of  the  performances of
organic agriculture], H. Guyomard, (under the direction of the) INRA – study conducted by the
French General Commission for Strategy and Economic Foresight, September 2013, p. 368.

Biofach – Organic  3.0 – Trend  and  potential  analysis  of  the  future  of  organics,  H.  Rützler,  W.
Reiter, Zukunftsinstitut Österreich GmbH, January 2014, p. 60.

Le  Blanc  Bleu  Belge  est-il  soluble  dans  le  bio? [Are  Belgian  Blue  cattle  feasible  in  organic
production?], P. Stassart, D. Jamar, 2005, Nature, Sciences, société, p. 15.

Special  Report  No  9/2012 of  the  European  Court  of  Auditors:  audit  of  the  control  system
governing the production, processing, distribution and imports of organic products, p. 68.

Evaluation  of  the  EU  legislation  on  organic  farming, Study  Report,  J.  Sanders  (Ed),  Thünen
Institute of Farm Economics, November 2013, p. 370.

Council  Regulation  (EC)  No  834/2007 on  organic  production  and  labelling of organic  products
and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 (consolidated version).

Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of
Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of the Council on organic production, labelling and control
consolidated version).

Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on organic production
and labelling of organic products [...] (COM(2014) 180 / 2014/0100(COD)).

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Action Plan for the future
of Organic Production in the European Union (COM(2014) 179).

Commission  staff  working  document – Impact  assessment  accompanying  the  document
Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on organic production
and labelling of organic products [...] (SWD(2014) 65).

EU legislation on Organic Production and Labelling – Implementation Appraisal, Briefing of the
European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS), EP 536.328v02-00, October 2014.

Organic  production  and  labelling  of  organic  products – Initial  Appraisal  of  a  European
Commission  Impact  Assessment,  Briefing  of  the  European  Parliamentary  Research  Service
(EPRS), EP 528.799, July 2014.

European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Agriculture  and  Rural  Development,  website
dedicated to organic agriculture (http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/index_en.htm).

International 
(http://www.ifoam.org/).

Federation 

of  Organic  Agriculture  Movements 

(IFOAM),  website

French National Federation of Organic Agriculture (FNAB), website (http://www.fnab.org/).

Organic agriculture in Germany, Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, June 2014, p, 20 (see
also www.bmel.de).

QA-04-15-114-FR-N

Q
A
-
0
4
-
1
5
-
1
1
4
-
E
N
N

-

Organic  agriculture  views  itself  as  respecting  natural  cycles
from  the  use  of  genetically  modified
by  refraining 
organisms,  by 
limiting  the  use  of  synthetic  chemical
products and by ensuring animal welfare.

Organic production, regulated and supported at EU level, is
controlled, certified and labelled. The specifications list also
adapts  to  different  kinds  of  production.  Initially  a  niche
market,  organic  agriculture  now  represents  a  European
market worth more than EUR 22 billion a year, with demand
continuing  to  increase.  The  organic  sector,  seeking  a  vision
for  the  future,  must  respond  to  certain  challenges,
particularly in its coexistence with conventional agriculture,
but  also  in  terms  of  producer  and  consumer  confidence  in
in  a  context  of  growing
the  system  and 
international exchanges.

its  values, 

In  March 2014,  the  European  Commission  proposed  to
revise the entire legislative framework of the organic sector,
in particular with the aim of reducing the current derogation
practices,  reviewing  the  control  system  and  the  import
regime, simplifying the legislation and cutting down on the
red  tape.  Some  initial  reactions  to  these  proposals  seem
rather  critical.  The  first  reading  legislative  appraisal  has
started in the European Parliament, but the announcement
of  the  new  "Juncker  Commission"  of  its  intention  to
withdraw  this  proposal  by  mid-2015  should  an  agreement
not be reached by then could change the context.

Publication of the
Members’ Research Service

Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services, European Parliament

PE 548.989
ISBN 978-92-823-6578-6
doi: 10.2861/488634