Entrepreneurship education, a road to success : a compilation of evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education strategies and measures.
Date: 2015-03-04
Institutions: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs
Subjects: business policy, education policy, entrepreneurship, higher education, knowledge management, learning, report, teaching method

Entrepreneurship Education:  
A road to success 

A compilation of evidence on the impact of 
entrepreneurship education strategies and measures 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs 

Directorate F — Entrepreneurship & SMEs  

Unit F.1 — Entrepreneurship and Social Economy 

E-mail: GROW-F1@ec.europa.eu 

European Commission 

B-1049 Brussels 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Entrepreneurship Education:  
A road to success 

A compilation of evidence on the impact of 
entrepreneurship education strategies and measures 

2015 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015 

ISBN 978-92-79-44556-9  

doi: 10.2769/408497 

© European Union, 2015 

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. 

Printed in Belgium 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Acknowledgements 

The authors of the study would like to express our sincere gratitude to all policy 
makers, researchers, experts and practitioners who were kind enough to share their 
knowledge, expertise and insights with us.  

The insights provided by them were of great value for this report. Any responsibility for 
errors rests with us.  

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Contents 

List of acronyms and abbreviations ............................................... 5 

Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success ............................. 7 

1 
1.1 
1.2 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 
1.6 

2 
2.1 
2.2 
2.3 

3 

3.1 
3.2 
3.3 
3.4 
3.5 
3.6 
3.7 

4 

4.1 
4.2 
4.3 
4.4 
4.5 

5 

5.1 
5.2 
5.3 
5.4 

6 

6.1 
6.2 

7 
7.1 
7.2 
7.3 

Introduction ....................................................................... 13 
The aims and objectives of entrepreneurship education .................................13 
The main forms of entrepreneurship education .............................................13 
Why is it important to measure impact? ......................................................14 
Who benefits from impact measurement? ....................................................14 
This study ................................................................................................15 
This report ...............................................................................................16 

How entrepreneurship education is expected to impact..... 17 
Introduction .............................................................................................17 
The impacts of entrepreneurship education ..................................................17 
A ‘theory of change’ for entrepreneurship education ......................................18 

The impact of national and regional entrepreneurship 
education strategies .......................................................... 21 
Introduction .............................................................................................21 
The objectives of entrepreneurship education strategies ................................26 
Impact on the individual student ................................................................28 
Impacts on teachers .................................................................................35 
Impacts on institutions ..............................................................................37 
Impacts on the economy ...........................................................................40 
Impacts on society ....................................................................................42 

The impact of institutional changes prioritising 
entrepreneurship education ............................................... 44 
Introduction .............................................................................................44 
The objectives of institutional changes prioritising entrepreneurship education .47 
Impact on the individual student ................................................................49 
Impact on institutions ...............................................................................50 
Impact on the economy and society ............................................................53 

The impact of individual entrepreneurship education 
measures and initiatives .................................................... 56 
Introduction .............................................................................................56 
The objectives of individual entrepreneurship education measures ..................58 
Impact on the individual student ................................................................60 
Impact on economy and society .................................................................67 

How can the impact of entrepreneurship education be 
measured? ......................................................................... 74 
What methods and tools can be used to measure what type of impact? ...........74 
Measuring impact of entrepreneurship education: 14 points for consideration...78 

Key lessons learnt .............................................................. 84 
The evidence base for the impact of entrepreneurship education ....................84 
What type of input leads to what impact? ....................................................87 
Maximising the impact of entrepreneurship education: Lessons learnt .............89 

Annex 1  Work steps carried out ............................................... 92 

Annex 2 

The cases informing Chapter 5 ................................... 98 

Annex 3 

Sources .................................................................... 104 

 
  
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Key terms used in this study  

Entrepreneurship  

The  European  Reference  Framework  for  key  competences  for  lifelong  learning  defines 
entrepreneurship  as  ‘A  sense  of  initiative  and  entrepreneurship  is  the  ability  to  turn 
ideas into action. It involves creativity, innovation and risk-taking, as well as the ability 
to plan and to manage projects in order to achieve objectives. The individual is aware 
of  the  context  of  his/her  work  and  is  able  to  seize  opportunities  that  arise.  It  is  the 
foundation  for  acquiring  more  specific  skills  and  knowledge  needed  by  those 
establishing  or  contributing  to  social  or  commercial  activity.  This  should  include 
awareness of ethical values and the promotion of good governance.’1  

Entrepreneurship Education 

In  this  study,  entrepreneurship  education  is  taken  to  cover  all  educational  activities 
‘that  seek  to  prepare  people  to  be  responsible,  enterprising  individuals  who  have  the 
skills, knowledge and attitudes needed to prepare them to achieve the goals they  set 
for themselves to live a fulfilled life.’2  

It  hence  covers  a  broad  range  of  activities  across  all  levels  of  education  -  from 
creativity classes in primary education to Business Master Studies.   

Impact  

In this study the term ’impact’ is used in a broad sense: change observed as a direct 
consequence  of  an  educational  activity,  on  the  level  of  the  individual,  the  institution, 
the economy, and society.   

Theory of change  

A  theory  of  change  implies  that  there  is  causality  between  inputs  and  immediate 
results  and  outputs,  intermediate  outcomes  and  general/global  impact.  Ideally  causal 
chains can be observed between these.  

 

 

 

Inputs:  These  are  the  means  used  to  produce  outputs.  Inputs  include 
educational initiatives and costs (financial, administrative and human resources), 
but  also  costs  for  the  beneficiaries  or  target  population  (e.g.  co-financing  and 
compliance  costs  stemming  from  administrative  burden)  and  costs  for  third 
parties (e.g. Member States, intermediary organisations).  

Immediate results: These comprise outputs as well as results. Output is defined 
as  a  product,  which  is  delivered  through  the  input.  Outputs  are  linked  to 
operational  objectives  of  an  intervention  (strategy,  measure,  etc.).  Results  are 
immediate  or  initial  effects  of  an  intervention  (strategy,  measure,  etc.).  These 
occur at the level of direct beneficiaries/recipients of the intervention. Results are 
linked to specific objectives of the intervention. 

Intermediate  outcomes:  Short  to  medium-term  effects/outcomes  on  both 
direct  and  indirect  beneficiaries/recipients  of  assistance.  Indicators  at  this  level 
are  called  impact  indicators.  These  are  linked  to  the  intermediate  objectives  of 
the intervention. 

  General/Global  impact:  Longer-term  and  more  diffuse  effects/outcomes  of  an 

1 Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key 
competences for lifelong learning [Official Journal L 394 of 30.12.2006]. 
2 Cf. the terms of reference to this study 

3 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

intervention  (strategy,  measure,  etc.),  linked  to  the  global/general  objectives  of 
the intervention.3 For the purpose of this study, the use of the term ‘impact’ was 
not  restricted  to  ‘global  impact’.  In  line  with  the  definition  above,  it  was  often 
used to refer to immediate results and intermediate outcomes.   

Impact measurement 

An impact measurement was taken to be evidence from a study or a research project 
which  shows  that  initiative  ‘A’  is  a  cause  of  the  change  measured  on  ‘B’.  This  study 
draws  evidence  from  several  examples  of  impact  measurement.  The  key  requirement 
was that the studies were able to establish a causal link so that the impact (measured 
change) was clearly linked to a specific intervention.  

A considerable amount of time might have passed between an action (e.g. founding a 
company  or  becoming  self-employed)  and  an  educational  activity.  Other  contextual 
and  structural  factors  (family  history,  economic  framework  conditions)  and  other 
drivers of entrepreneurship outside of the educational system all have the potential to 
generate  impact  as  well.  Yet,  robust  and  credible  causal  linkages  between  an 
intervention  and  specific  changes  need  to  have  been  established  for  the  evidence  to 
have been cited. 

3 This definition was inspired by the guide ‘Evaluating EU activities – A practical guide for the Commission 
services.   

4 

 
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

List of acronyms and abbreviations 

AT Austria 

BE Belgium 

BG Bulgaria 

CoE Centres of Entrepreneurship 

CY Cyprus 

CZ Czech Republic 

DE Germany 

DK Denmark 

EE Estonia 

EL Greece 

ES Spain 

EQF European Qualifications Framework 

ESF European Social Fund 

EU European Union 

FI Finland 

FR France 

GEM Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 

HE Higher Education 

HU Hungary 

IE Ireland 

IT Italy 

JA-YE Junior Achievement – Young Enterprise 

LT Lithuania 

LU Luxembourg 

5 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

LV Latvia 

MA Massachussetts (USA) 

MIT Massachussetts Institute for Technology 

MT Malta 

NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training 

NFTE  Network  for  Teaching  Entrepreneurship  /(formerly:  National 

Foundation for Teaching Entrepreneurship) 

NL The Netherlands 

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 

PL Poland 

PBL Problem based learning 

PT Portugal 

RO Romania 

SE Sweden 

SEECEL South East European Centre for Entrepreneurial Learning 

SI Slovenia 

SK Slovakia 

SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises 

UK United Kingdom 

VET Vocational Education and Training 

6 

 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Key evidence from 91 national and transnational research projects  

Entrepreneurship education is given a significant role in supporting the main goals of the 
Europe 2020 strategy; growths and jobs. Therefore, it is important to gather knowledge 
and evidence from across  Europe  and elsewhere  that shows  whether and  how impact is 
achieved.   

In  2013  DG  Enterprise  and  Industry  commissioned  ICF  International  to  conduct  a 
mapping  exercise  of  examples  of  research  on  the  impact  of  Entrepreneurial  Education. 
This report presents the outcome of the mapping exercise: 91 studies from 23 countries 
were  identified.  Eighty  four  studies  addressed  initiatives  and  actions  taken  at  national 
level,  and  seven  examples  researched  the  effects  of  transnational  projects  operating  in 
several countries.  

impression  that  emerged 

The  prevailing 
is  that 
entrepreneurship  education  works.  Students  participating  in  entrepreneurship 
education  are  more  likely  to  start  their  own  business  and  their  companies  tend  to  be 
more innovative and more successful than those led by persons without entrepreneurship 
education  backgrounds.  Entrepreneurship  education  alumni  are  at  lower  risk  of  being 
unemployed,  and  are  more  often  in  steady  employment.  Compared  to  their  peers,  they 
have better jobs and make more money.  

the  evidence  collected 

from 

Notably,  effects  tend  to  cumulate  and  lead  to  acceleration:  those  who  participated  in  a 
higher number of entrepreneurship education measures benefited more over time.  

The  positive  impact  is  not  restricted  to  students  and  alumni.  Besides  impact  on  the 
individual,  evidence  from  the  examples  reviewed  for  this  study  also  shows  impact  on 
educational institutions, the economy and society.  

A summary of key findings is presented below.  

Impact on the individual 

 Entrepreneurship  education  Entrepreneurship  helps 

to  boost  career 

ambitions  

  Participants  in  entrepreneurship  education  programmes  in  secondary  school 
change  their  career  aspirations,  ambitions  for  jobs  and  interest  in  taking  up 
further  education.  In  the  study  ‘The  effects  of  education  and  training  in 
entrepreneurship’  in  Sweden,  a  higher  percentage  of  students  taking  part  in  an 
entrepreneurship  programme  started  university  level  programmes  compared  to 
the control group.  

  Secondary  education  students  interviewed  for  the  Evaluation  of  Enterprise 
Education 
that  enterprise  education 
strengthened  their  confidence  and  acted  as  a  trigger  to  subsequently  build  up 
their capabilities and develop higher aspirations for life. 

in  England  (2007-2010),  reported 

  An analysis of data from on programmes provided by the National Foundation for 
Teaching  Entrepreneurship  (NFTE)  in  the  USA  shows  that  students  in  secondary 
education  who  participated  in  a  NFTE  programme  are  more  ambitious  regarding 
occupations and college attendance than students in the control group, and more 
likely  to  take  initiative  and  leadership  roles.  Another  study  on  the  NFTE 
programme found that the drop-out rate for NFTE alumni between the ages of 16–
19 is less than the national average (1% versus 3.4%, respectively). 

  Evidence for greater confidence and higher ambitions was also found for pupils in 
primary  education.  For  example,  the  ‘Creativity  and  innovation  in  school’ 
programme (UPI) in Slovenia led to improved confidence. After the programme, 
students’ showed higher ambitions regarding their choice of secondary education. 

7 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  A  long-term  study  on  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  carried  out  in 
Denmark revealed that students in both primary/lower secondary education that 
have  participated  in  entrepreneurship  education  have  higher  ambitions  on  their 
future  career  choices  (job  or  further  education)  than  those  that  have  not.  They 
became  more  self-motivating  in  their  efforts  in  the  learning  process  and  they 
claimed to engage more out of a desire for learning. 

 Entrepreneurship education leads to higher employability:  

  A  study  on  the  Enterprise  Challenge  programme  in  Ireland  finds  that  after  the 
programme,  three  quarters  of  secondary  students  participating  could  correctly 
recognise the most appropriate behaviour for interviews; 87% of primary students 
and 65%  of  secondary  students could correctly recognise the characteristics that 
employers  regard  as  important  and  seek  in  their  employees;  87%  of  primary 
students and 73% of secondary students understood the purpose of a CV. 

  The study “Making an impact” from Canada finds that alumni of entrepreneurship 
education programmes are three times more likely than the control group to hold 
senior  and  middle  management  positions,  and  25%  less likely  to  be unemployed 
than individuals in the control group. 

  A study from the USA shows that entrepreneurship graduates at the University of 
Arizona  were  more  often  employed  full-time  in  high-tech  industries  than  their 
peers.  

  A  US  study  on  alumni  of  the  NFTE  programme  shows  that  88%  of  NFTE  alumni 
between  the  ages  of  25–40  with  a  high  school  diploma  are  employed  (compared 
to 69% national average).   

  Graduates  from  entrepreneurship  programmes  connected  to  the  Action  Plan  in 
Norway  were  less  likely  to  be  unemployed  than  graduates  that  did  not  take  up 
entrepreneurship  education.  The  unemployment  rate 
for  entrepreneurship 
graduates  within  engineering  and  business  management  was  2.8%  compared  to 
6.6% for graduates in the control group. Moreover, they were more likely to be in 
steady employment (73.6% as opposed to 60.8% in the control group). 

 

In Denmark, prior to a long-term measurement launched among Danish students 
in  2011,  a  compilation  of  existing  data  was  undertaken.  Based  on  data  from  a 
variety  of  studies,  the  report  states  that  people  who  have  been  trained  and 
educated in entrepreneurship have a considerably higher income than  those who 
did  not  receive  this  type  of  education.  The  more  training  and  education,  the 
higher the income - the effects seem to accumulate.   

  Very  often,  this  positive  outcome  is  related  to  the  methods  used:  In  a  study 
examining  the impact  of  the  problem-based  learning  approach  (PBL  model)  used 
at Aalborg University in Denmark, 80% of students responded that they learned 
more  while  working  on  the  project  compared  to  instruction  and  lecture-based 
learning  in  a  classroom.  They  feel  that  the  project  work  and  the  learning 
associated with it are related to real–life work environments and found the project 
work useful in acquiring professional and core employability skills. 

 Entrepreneurship  education  leads  to  improved  entrepreneurial  skills  and 

attitudes 

  According  to  the  2012  and  2013  reports  of  the  Danish  long-term  measurement 
mentioned  in  the  previous  section,  entrepreneurship  education  in  Denmark 
increased the entrepreneurial skills and behaviour of primary and lower secondary 
students  regarding.  ‘Self-efficacy’  was  taken  to  be  a  reliable  indicator  to  predict 
the  likelihood  of  individuals  acting  entrepreneurially  in  the  future.  Upper 
secondary students improved their skills on all dimensions on a self-efficacy scale 
-  management  skills  (planning  and  financial  literacy)  and  skills  that  minimise 
barriers (managing uncertainty and marshalling resources).  

8 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Students that participated in the ‘E-Vitamin’-programme in Spain had statistically 
significant  higher  scores  than  the  control  group  in  self-efficacy,  pro-activeness, 
risk-taking and locus of control. 

  The  study  “Impact:  50  Years  of  Young  Enterprise”  from  England  (UK)  reported 
that alumni claimed the course Young Enterprise improved their ability to achieve 
objectives, cope with problems, deal with change, do business planning, start up a 
company, build business relationships and networks, innovate, spot opportunities 
and evaluate ideas. 

  The study ‘The impact of entrepreneurship education on human capital at upper-
secondary  level’  from  Switzerland  showed  that  entrepreneurship  programmes 
have  a  positive  impact  on  students’  entrepreneurial  competencies  such  as:  the 
capacity to exploit an opportunity and  to develop business ideas; persuasiveness 
or  leadership;  team  work;  persistence;  self-organisation;  delegation  of  tasks; 
meeting deadlines; and, how to deal with problems and find solutions.  

  40%  of  students  in  secondary  education  (general  and  vocational)  in  the 
Netherlands  assessed  that  they  showed  more  entrepreneurial  behaviour  after 
participating in the programmes launched under the National Action Plan.  

  The study ‘Opportunity Identification and its role in the Entrepreneurial Classroom’ 
from the USA tested the effect of a specific type of training on a persons’ ability 
to  generate  business  ideas  and  provided  evidence  that  the  right  training  can 
indeed  lead  to  enhanced  opportunity  identification  and  the  development  of 
innovative business ideas. 

 Entrepreneurship  education  leads  to  behavioural  change  towards  higher 

entrepreneurial intentions 

  The  Netherlands  National  Action  Plan  also  increased  the  proportion  of  students 
that  are  certain  that  they  want  to  become  entrepreneurs  after  graduation  (from 
13% in 2007 to 21% in 2012). In Wales (UK), parallel to the National YES Action 
Plan, under 25-year-olds showed an increased  intention to start a business or to 
be  self-employed  (53%  in  2012  compared  to  42%  in  2004).The  study 
‘Entrepreneurship  in  Israel:  Theory  and  Practice’  shows  that  the  willingness  of 
MBA students' to engage in entrepreneurship rose significantly after taking part in 
an  elective  entrepreneurship  course.  Students  in  the  sample  also  indicated  that 
experience 
future 
engagement in entrepreneurship. The researchers find it particularly notable that 
participation in just one entrepreneurship course had such a significant impact on 
students' perception of entrepreneurship and personal intentions. 

in  entrepreneurship  would  potentially 

increase 

their 

 Enhanced  intentions  to  start  a  business  can  already  be  proven  at 

secondary education level 

  The  2012  report  of  the  long-term  measurement  in  Denmark  shows  upper 
secondary  students  improve  both  cognitive  and  non-cognitive  skills  related  to 
entrepreneurship. Consequently their level of entrepreneurial intentions increased 
after the course. Before the course, they perceived the following barriers: ‘it takes 
too much effort’, ‘the risk of failure is too high’ and ‘the financial risk is too high’. 
These  barriers  were  connected  to  the  skills  of  ‘Managing  ambiguity’,  ‘Marshalling 
resources’, ‘Creativity’, ‘Planning’, and ‘Financial literacy’. Improvements of those 
skills consequently led to higher entrepreneurial intentions.  

 

In  Flanders  (Belgium),  participation 
the  entrepreneurship  education 
programmes  connected  to  the  Flemish  Action  Plan  helped  secondary  students  to 
develop  entrepreneurial  intentions.  After  participating  in  an  entrepreneurship 
education  course,  half  of  the  students  found  having  their  own  company  a 
compelling thought; and 33% of students thought they would indeed realise that 
wish (the corresponding figure in a pre-survey was 20%). 

in 

9 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Impact on the institution 

 Institutions  implementing  entrepreneurship  education  develop  a  stronger 

entrepreneurial culture 

  The  project  ‘Creativity  and  innovation  in  school  (UPI)’  in  Slovenia  helped  to 
establish  a  creative  climate  in  schools.  Principals  and  mentors  agreed  strongly 
that  entrepreneurship  education  had  a  positive  impact  on  flexibility,  innovation 
process  management  and  creativity  of  the  students  as  well  as  the  teachers  and 
mentors. 

  A  study  from  Wallonia  (Belgium)  on  the  ‘Entrepreneurship  Spirit  Programme’ 
run by the Walloon Agency for Economic Stimulation (ASE) showed that teachers’ 
and  head  of  schools  who  received  specific  training  changed  their  attitudes  and 
in  entrepreneurship.  A  higher  number  of  teachers 
raised  their 
acknowledged that entrepreneurship is useful in subjects related to social sciences 
(88%  versus  70.5%  of  the  non-involved  teachers),  and  at  all  educational  levels. 
Especially  regarding  primary  education,  differences  are  significant:  84.6%  of 
trained teachers found entrepreneurship important, while only 63.8% of the non-
trained teachers did. 

interest 

 Institutions 

implementing  entrepreneurship  education  notice  a  higher 

engagement of teachers  

  Evidence from cases in Wallonia (Belgium), South East Europe and England 
(UK)4  indicates  that  raising  the  awareness  of  teachers  of  entrepreneurship 
increases  the  likelihood  that  they  will  engage  in  entrepreneurship,  use  relevant 
tools  and  actions  and  be  more  motivated  to  set-up  entrepreneurial  activities. 
Moreover,  sensitised  teachers  seem  to  be  better  able  to  support  their  students’ 
entrepreneurial  learning  processes.  A  comprehensive  whole-school  approach 
seems to be especially successful in doing so.  

  An  Israeli  study  provides  evidence  for  the  impact  of  the  ‘Entrepreneurial  school’ 
programme  at  Misgav  elementary  school  in  Israel  on  staff  motivation  and 
engagement.  As  main  success  factors,  trust  in  the  principal  and  a  formal  and 
informal reward system in place were identified. Through this, the ‘Entrepreneurial 
school’  programme  encouraged  the  school  staff  to  act  innovatively,  which 
ultimately led to a shift towards an entrepreneurial school. This was taken to be a 
precondition for the reported increase of pupils’ entrepreneurial skills. 

 Institutions 

implementing  entrepreneurship  education 

intensify 

the 

engagement of stakeholders  

  The close ties of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the USA with 
technology-based  industries  allowed  for  the  development  of  several  spin-offs  led 
by MIT staff and alumni. These ties ensure that MIT staff are closely connected to 
the relevant business sectors and are up to date with technological innovation and 
the state-of-the-art.  

  When  the  Misgav  elementary  school  in  Israel  was  transformed  into  an 
entrepreneurial  school,  stakeholders  gradually  took  on  a  more  active  role,  for 
instance  they  helped  pupils  to  implement  the  business  ideas  developed  in  the 
classroom.  

Impact on the economy  

 Entrepreneurship  education  supports  a  higher  rate  of  start-ups  and  helps 

creating successful ventures:  

4 ‘Entrepreneurship Spirit Programme’ in the Walloon Region of Belgium, Enterprise Education in UK-England, 
SEECEL 

10 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Graduates from business schools in Norway with a major in entrepreneurship are 
between two and three times more likely to start a business than other graduates. 
Between  1997  and  2003,  several  measurements  on  possible  correlations  were 
undertaken.  In  1997,  it  was  found  that  three  times  more  entrepreneurship 
education  graduates  started  a  business  compared  with  other  graduates.  In  later 
surveys,  (2001  and  2003)  the  differences  were  found  to  be  smaller.  But 
entrepreneurship majors still remain more than twice as likely to start and own a 
business as graduates with other majors. 

 

In  Wales  (UK),  the  National  YES  Action  Plan  was  associated  with  the  start-up 
rate  among  18-24  year  olds  being  higher  than  the  UK  average.  The  Global 
Entrepreneurship  Monitor  (GEM)  Report  reported  in  2013  that  9.5%  of  young 
Welsh  people  engaged  in  early-stage  entrepreneurial  activity  in  2012.  The 
equivalent UK rate was 8.3%. 

  The  study  ‘Experiences  from  participation  in  JA-YE  Company  Programmes:  What 
experience  did  participants  in  Company  Programmes  have  during  their  time  as 
company founders – and what happened next?’ assessed the results of the JA-YE 
Company  Programme  in  Belgium,  Denmark,  Estonia,  Finland,  Romania, 
Norway  and  Slovak  Republic.  By  the  time  they  are  25  years  old,  JA-YE 
Company  Programme  alumni  demonstrate  start-up  rates  which  are  about  three 
times as high (15%) than among the average population in Europe (5-6%).  

  According  to  the  study  ‘Impact.  50  Years  of  Young  Enterprise’  from  England 
(UK), more Young Enterprise alumni end up running their own business. 42% of 
alumni  surveyed  started  firms  compared  to  26%  in  the  control  group  of  non-
alumni. 

  A US study undertaken at the University of Arizona in 2000 shows that graduates 
of the universities’ entrepreneurship education programme were three times more 
likely  to  get  involved  in  creating  new  business  ventures  than  their  non-
entrepreneurship course peers.  

  The  long-term  measurement  undertaken  by  FFE-YE  in  Denmark  showed  that 
higher  education  students  that  participated  in  entrepreneurship  education  more 
often  run  a  business  than  those  in  the  control  group.  In  2012  the  number  of 
entrepreneurship students who started their own company during their education 
increased by 50%, whereas the number of students in the control group doing so 
decreased  by  49.4%.  The  study  also  shows  that  entrepreneurship  student  led 
businesses are more sustainable.  

 Entrepreneurship education leads to economic impact 

Examples  for  concrete  economic  impact  were  provided  by  studies  from  Sweden, 
England (UK) and the USA.  

  The  firms  created  by  alumni  of  Young  Enterprise  UK  alumni  have  higher 
turnovers:  12%  of  alumni  firms  turned  over  £500,000  compared  3%  of  the 
control  group’s  firms.  In  addition,  3%  of  Alumni  firms  turned  over  more  than 
£1million, compared to none in the control group. 

  The firms created by alumni of Young Enterprise UK employ more people: 11% 
had 51-99 employees compared to 9% of the control group. Two per cent of the 
alumni had 100-249 employees compared to none in the control group.  

  The  annual  revenues  (estimated  $2  trillion)  and  employment  footprint 
(estimated  3.3  million  employees)  of  the  firms  founded  by  alumni  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  (MIT)  are  equivalent  to  the  11th  largest 
economy in the world. 

  The  impact  of  MIT  alumni  goes  beyond  the  US.  The  majority  of  the  MIT 
alumni  firms  are  founded  in  the  US,  but  not  only:  for  example,  790  MIT  alumni 
firms have been created in Europe, mainly in England, France and Germany often 
in the software and consulting sectors. 

11 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  MIT  alumni  company  sales  constitute  25%  of  the  sales  of  all  companies  in 

Massachusetts. 

  MIT  alumni  companies  are  highly  active  in  innovative  sectors  such  as 
software, electronics (including instruments, semiconductors, and computers) and 
biotechnology.  About  one  third  of  employees  in  MIT  alumni  founded  firms  are  in 
manufacturing, whereas in the USA, manufacturing firms employ less than 11% of 
total employment. 

  Equally, Young Enterprise UK alumni firms are innovative and at the forefront 
of  modern  technology:  21.2%  of  alumni  firms  were  digital  and  ‘cloud’-based 
firms  compared  to  3%  in  the  control  group.  Alumni  firms  are  more  diverse: 
Alumni  firms  ranged  from  internet  sales  to  advanced  engineering,  corrosion 
control  and  ‘retro’  tourism.  Control  group  firms  were  concentrated  in  fewer 
sectors.  

  The firms started by Young Enterprise Sweden Alumni led to more job creation: 
The mean size of firms started by alumni as sole proprietorships or partnerships is 
two  employees,  and  the  mean  size  of  corporations  started  by  Young  Enterprise 
Sweden  Alumni  is  nine  employees.  Both  figures  are  significantly  larger  than  the 
overall mean size of new firms in the Swedish economy in terms of employment. 
This  applies  for  both  corporations  and  proprietorships/partnerships.  According  to 
the results from the first four years of research, alumni-founded corporations are 
on  average  7.5%  larger  in  terms  of  job  creation  than  the  ones  in  the  control 
group. The respective difference for proprietorships/partnerships is again in favour 
of JA alumni and reaches 3.5 percentage points.   

  The  firms  started  by  Young  Enterprise  Sweden  Alumni  also  generated  more 
revenues.  The  revenues  of  alumni-funded  corporations  are  on  average  20% 
higher  than  comparable  firms  of  the  control  group.  The  same  holds  for 
proprietorships/partnership  firms  (6%  higher  for  the  Young  Enterprise  Sweden 
alumni). 

Impact on the society 

 Entrepreneurship  education  can  help  to  protect  an  individual  against  social 

exclusion  

  Evidence  from  evaluation  of  an  arts  and  cultural  activities  project  in  England 
(UK) with children at risk of social exclusion resulted in a marked improvement in 
the  self-efficacy  and  empowerment  of  many  of  the  children  involved.  The 
researchers  hypothesised  that  by  enhancing  the  children’s  self-esteem  and  self-
efficacy, the project on the long-term will contribute to their social inclusion. 

  The  evaluation of the ENTRANCE project  implemented in  England  (UK),  Israel, 
Hungary and Spain comes to similar conclusions regarding the protective effect 
of  entrepreneurship  education  against  social  exclusion.  The  ENTRANCE  project 
had a significant impact upon motivation and self-confidence of the young people 
involved; and its effect was found to be greatest for those students most at-risk of 
social  exclusion.  Here  as  well,  the  researchers  identified  that  entrepreneurial 
attitudes  such  as  commitment,  determination,  creativity  and  planning  will  help 
young people to move away from being at risk of exclusion. 

 High  annual  return  on 

investment 

for  measures  and  activities 

in 

entrepreneurship education: 

  The study “Making an impact” from  Canada estimated that the entrepreneurship 
education  provider  Junior  Achievement  Canada  delivers  a  45:1  annual  return  on 
“societal prosperity” per dollar invested.  

12 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

1 

Introduction  

1.1  The aims and objectives of entrepreneurship education 

As  a  key  competence  for  life,  entrepreneurship  is  prominent  on  the  agenda  of 
the  European  Commission.  DG  Education  and  Culture’s  (DG  EAC)  ‘Rethinking 
Education’5  communication  states  that  all  young  people  should  benefit  from 
entrepreneurship  education,  including  ‘at  least  one  practical  entrepreneurial 
experience  before  leaving  compulsory  education’6.  The  Europe  2020  strategy7 
provides  the  supporting  framework  for  this,  and  the  2013  Country  Specific 
Recommendations8 highlight the importance of the Entrepreneurship Agenda.  

The  Entrepreneurship  2020  Action  Plan9  states  that  it  is  entrepreneurship  that 
makes the European economy more competitive and innovative - new companies 
and  enterprises  are  seen  as  the  most  important  source  of  new  jobs  and 
employment. In turn, entrepreneurship education is expected to support Europe 
in competing globally, returning to economic growth  and creating high levels of 
employment.  Including  entrepreneurship  education  in  education  and  training 
curricula  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  education  has  a  role  to  play  in 
developing and supporting future entrepreneurs.  

In its Council Conclusions from December 201410, the European Council stresses 
that  both  entrepreneurship  and  education  are  priorities  of  the  Europe  2020 
strategy  for  smart,  sustainable  and  inclusive  growth.  Taking  into  account  the 
definition  of  entrepreneurship  used  in  the  2006  recommendation  on  key 
competences  for  lifelong  learning11  (‘an  individual’s  ability  to  turn  ideas  into 
action’),  the  Council  Conclusions  underline  that  developing  an  entrepreneurial 
mind-set  can  have  considerable  benefits  for  citizens  in  both  their  professional 
and private lives.  

Consequently,  Member  States  are  invited  to  encourage  the  development  of  a 
coordinated  approach  to  entrepreneurship  education  throughout  the  education 
and training system.   

1.2  The main forms of entrepreneurship education  

Entrepreneurship education is implemented through different types of input  and 
at varying scales. The main types of input and activities are:    

  National/regional  strategies:  Countries  and  regions  draft  strategies  or 
Action  Plans 
to 
entrepreneurship  education.  These  are  complemented  and  implemented 
through a range of funded programmes and activities. 

formulating  specific  goals  and  objectives 

related 

  Institutional  changes:  Educational  institutions  prioritise  content  and 
methods  related  to  entrepreneurship  education  in  teaching  and  learning 
(e.g. the ‘whole-school approach’). In some cases, this goes together with a 
changed vision and mission of the institution. 

5 http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/rethinking_en.htm 
6 ibid 
7 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm 
8 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/making-it-happen/country-specific-recommendations/ 
9 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/entrepreneurship-2020/index_en.htm 
10 Council conclusions on entrepreneurship in education and training: 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/146196.pdf (original version - EN) 
11 Key competences for lifelong learning (2006):  
http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11090_en.htm 

13 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Courses  and  classes:  Schools  and  universities  introduce  entrepreneurship 
education  in  the  form  of  individual  courses  and  classes.  These  can  take 
different  forms  and  can  be  offered  either  by  the  institution  or  by  external 
providers. 

1.3  Why is it important to measure impact? 

Processes for measuring the impact of entrepreneurship education  are often set 
up  in  parallel  to  implementing  a  programme,  initiative  or  a  strategy  as  part  of 
the overall monitoring. The results are then usually used for the evaluation of a 
public  policy12.  Impact  measurement  facilitates  both  the  assessment  of  the 
progress  and  quality  of  participants’  learning,  and  the  programme,  initiative  or 
strategy per se.  

Measuring  the  impact  of  an  educational  programme  or  strategy  aims  at 
demonstrating  if,  after  the  intervention,  there  is  an  observable  shift.  For 
example,  this  can  relate  to  participants’  knowledge,  skills  and  views;  the 
atmosphere  and  perceptions  that  run  across  the  institution;  the  economy;  or, 
society more generally. Measuring the impact can demonstrate what  works and 
can  be  used  as  a  basis  to  explore  why  it  worked  (or  didn’t).  Data  on  and 
understanding of the impact can function as a feedback loop,  stressing possible 
areas  for  improvement  or  that  a  programme/initiative  does  not  serve  its  goals 
and  resources  should  be  allocated  elsewhere.  In  times  of  stringent  state 
budgets, this is of great importance. 

Therefore, impact measurement, which encompasses outcomes and  results (see 
section  2.1  on  the  use  of  the  terms),  is  a  means  for  evidence-based  policy 
making  at  governmental  and  institutional  levels.  Using  pre-set  goals  as  a 
benchmark,  impact  measurement  can  contribute  to  forecasting  expected 
outcomes  of  entrepreneurship  education.  From  an  institutional/provider’s 
the  promotion  of  a 
perspective,  evidence  of  what  works 
programme/initiative and the engagement of sponsors/funding sources (whether 
public or private). 

facilitates 

For  example,  according  to  Young  Enterprise  (UK),  the  publication  of  the  impact 
study they ran (“Impact 50 years of Young Enterprise”13) significantly supported 
developments  in  the  organisation  during  the  economic  crisis.  The  results  of  the 
impact  study  increased  the  interest  of  policy  makers  and  employers  in 
entrepreneurship and were used by Young Enterprise to promote their work and 
the entrepreneurship education agenda overall. 

Also,  where  impact  is  measured  systematically  and  regularly,  i.e.  the  impact  of 
the same programme/initiative is measured  on an annual basis, the results can 
allow for comparison between different years and  the assessment of the impact 
of any changes/corrections made to the content/teaching etc.   

1.4  Who benefits from impact measurement? 

As  monitoring  can  positively  affect  all  stages  of  the  policy  cycle14,  impact 
measurement offers evidence to be used in policy and practice design, planning, 
implementing  and  reviewing.  So,  measuring  the  impact  of  an  entrepreneurship 
education programme or strategy can bring about significant benefits to several 
stakeholders: 

12 See, for example, Evalsed (2012) The Resource for the Evaluation of Socio-Economic Development; 
http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/guide/guide2012_evalsed.pdf 
13 http://www.young-enterprise.org.uk/about-us/annual-review/ 
14 Evalsed (2012) The Resource for the Evaluation of Socio-Economic Development; available at 
http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/guide/guide2012_evalsed.pdf 

14 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  The  institution  launching  the  programme  or  the  public  authorities  that 
are responsible for specific programmes and/or the strategy, as they can:  

 

invest resources in programmes/initiatives that prove to have an impact, 
based on good evidence; 

  make  the  necessary  corrections  early  enough  to  achieve  better  results 

from existing programmes; 

  understand the reasons that drive (or do not) impact and  take them into 

consideration when designing relevant policies; 

  have  realistic  expectations  from  entrepreneurship  education:  data  and 
insights  from  impact  measurement  can  highlight  that  it  is  not  the 
programme/initiative  per  se  that  should  be  corrected,  but  the  impact 
expected should be adjusted to what can be realistically expected; 

 

if  impact  on  the  economy  and  society  is  measured,  public  authorities  in 
particular  can  gain  a  clear  view  on  how  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship 
education  can  go  beyond  the  individual/institutional  level;  and  can  be 
linked to other policy areas (such as employment, social policies etc.). 

  Educators/trainers,  who can better understand the purpose  of their work 

and what could be achieved through their efforts; 

  Participants/learners, as they feel their opinions matter.  

Existing  evidence  on  the  positive  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  can 
engage stakeholders such as educators/trainers, training providers, learners, but 
labour  market  actors;  this  is  especially  relevant  to 
also  parents  and 
countries/regions/institutions 
of 
little 
entrepreneurship  education.  Also,  existing  evidence  on 
impact  of 
entrepreneurship  education,  as  provided  in  this  study,  can  inform  stakeholders 
that entrepreneurship education can have positive impact, regardless of the form 
of  delivery  or  the  level  of  education  (for  example,  an  through  an  initiative  in 
primary  education;  a  programme  in  VET  or  higher  education;  or  a  strategy  at  
national or institutional level).  

experience 
the 

that  have  no 

or 

1.5  This study 

Given  the  significant  role  expected  of  entrepreneurship  education  in  supporting 
the  goals  of  the  Europe  2020  strategy,  DG  Enterprise  and  Industry 
commissioned  a  mapping  exercise  with  the  aim  of  gathering  knowledge  from 
across  Europe  and  more  widely  on  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education 
(especially quantified impacts – on the individual, on educational institutions, on 
the  society  and  on  the  economy)  and  the  methodologies  of  impact  assessment 
utilised in generating this evidence. 

15 

 
 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Objectives of the study 

The study had the following three objectives:  

1.  To  identify  examples  of  measuring  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship 
education  on  micro  (individual,  institutional)  and  macro  (society  and 
economy) levels through: 

–  Systematic  country  research  in  all  28  EU-Member  States  plus  15  Non-

EU-countries (literature research plus interviews); and 

– 

Interviews with high-level experts and academics.15 

2.  To  prepare  case  studies  that  further  examine  how  different  types  of 
initiatives  have  delivered  different  types  of  impact,  and  show  how  this  has 
been achieved.16 

3.  To present an overview of the key findings.  

1.6  This report  

This  report  is  the  final  report  to  this  study.  It  presents  the  key  findings  of  the 
research  in  three  main  sections;  each  section  presenting  evidence  for  impacts 
related to a specific type of input:  

  Impact  of  national  and  regional  entrepreneurship  education  strategies 

(Section 3). 

  Impact  of  institutional  changes  by  prioritising  entrepreneurship  education 

(Section 4). 

  Impact  of  classes;  courses  and  modules  of  entrepreneurship  education 

(Section 5). 

Additionally,  

  Section  2  outlines  the  means  through  which  it  is  anticipated  that 

entrepreneurial education can generate impacts.  

  Section 6 presents key trends and observations regarding the methodologies 

used for measuring impact of entrepreneurship education.  

  A  final  section,  based  on  the  evidence  of  impact  collected,  presents  key 
lessons  learnt  for  maximising  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education 
(Section 7). 

  Annex 1 explains the approach to conducting the research.  

  Annex 2 provides background information to those cases providing evidence 
of  the  impact  of  individual  entrepreneurship  education  measures  and 
initiatives. 

  Annex 3 presents a list of literature and sources used.  

15 More information about the method is provided in Annex 1. 
16 The full set of case studies is available as a separate document. 

16 

 
 
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

2 

How entrepreneurship education is expected 
to impact  

2.1 

Introduction 

This  section  summarises  the  main  assumptions  underlying  the  approach  to  this 
study.  It  clarifies  the  understanding  of  the  terms  used  and  presents  the 
underlying ‘theory of change’ on how entrepreneurship education leads to impact 
at the individual, institutional, economic and societal levels.   

2.2  The impacts of entrepreneurship education  

In  the  inception  stage,  the  understanding  of  the  term  ‘impact’  underlying  the 
design of the research was clarified. This process followed existing definitions of 
evaluative  terms,  inspired  by  the  guide  ‘Evaluating  EU  activities  –  A  practical 
guide for the Commission services17.   

Definition of key terms 

Inputs/activities:  These  are  the  means  used  to  produce  outputs.  Inputs 
include  educational  initiatives  and  budgetary  costs  (financial,  administrative 
and human resources), but also costs for the beneficiaries or target population 
(co-financing,  compliance  costs  stemming  from  administrative  burden)  and 
costs 
intermediary  organisations. 
Measurements  can  be  related  to  inputs,  i.e.  when  an  initiative  is  trying  to 
enhance the offer of entrepreneurship education.  

(Member  States, 

third  parties 

for 

Immediate  results:  two  types  of  immediate  outcomes  can  be  observed, 
outputs and results. 

  Outputs:  Output  is  defined  as  a  product,  which  is  delivered  through  the 
input.  Outputs  are  linked  to  operational  objectives  of  an  intervention 
(strategy, measure, etc.). 

  Results:  Immediate  or  initial  effect/outcome  of  an  intervention  (strategy, 
measure, etc.). These occur at the level of direct beneficiaries/recipients of 
the 
linked  to  specific  objectives  of  the 
intervention. 

intervention.  Results  are 

Intermediate  outcomes:  Short  to  medium-term  effects/outcomes  on  both 
direct and indirect beneficiaries/recipients of assistance. Indicators at this level 
are called impact indicators. These are linked to the intermediate objectives of 
the intervention. 

General/Global  impact:  Longer-term  and  more  diffuse  effects/outcomes  of 
an  intervention  (strategy,  measure,  etc.),  linked  to  the  global/general 
objectives of the intervention. 

The time dimension (short, medium and long term) of the effects is specified 
when relevant. 

Entrepreneurship education is expected to contribute to a broad range of policy 
objectives  and  to  have  an  impact  on  many  different  levels  of  society  and  the 
economy.  Concrete  policy  strategies,  programmes  and  teaching  approaches  for 
entrepreneurship education are expected to impact in terms of:   

  more educational offers for entrepreneurship education; 

17 European Commission 2004, 
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/secretariat_general/evaluation/docs/eval_activities_en.pdf 

17 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  more educators prepared for entrepreneurship education; 

  more institutions practising entrepreneurship education;  

  more engaged and active citizens;  

  more and new social ventures;  

  more innovative employees adding value to existing enterprises; and  

 

increased business start-up rate (particularly amongst young people).  

Hence, expectations are multi-layered and spread across several levels:  

  the individual and their knowledge, skills and attitudes – resulting in actions 
taken  by  the  individual,  but  also  by  her/his  ability  to  find  a  job 
(‘employability’) or to start a business; 

  educational organisations and their approach to teaching and learning; 

  societal change and social inclusion;  

  economic  growth  –  relying  on  both  new  entrepreneurs  and  new 
‘intrapreneurs’,  who  are  taken  to  be  innovative  employees  adding  value  to 
existing businesses. 

2.3  A ‘theory of change’ for entrepreneurship education 

Based  on  the  above,  an  underlying  theory  of  change  was  developed.  This  is 
illustrated in Figure 2.1. 

Figure 2.1 Simple theory of change triggered by entrepreneurship education 

Entrepreneurship 
education 

.. .has an effect 
on the 
individual 
receiving it 

 ...changes the 
institution 
prioritising it 

Individuals and 
institutions 
cause societal 
and  economic 
change 

The theory can be summarised as follows:  

  It is assumed that entrepreneurship education has an effect on the individual 
receiving  it  in  form  of  learning  outcomes  (knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes), 
and behaviour.  

  Equally  it  is  assumed  to  cause  a  change  in  the  culture  of  an  educational 

institution.  

  As  a  consequence  of  the  behaviour  and  actions  of  the  individuals  and 

institutions, societal and economic change is stimulated.  

Through the study, it was aimed to identify reports and examples which illustrate 
aspects  of  these  chains  and  relationships.  It  was  anticipated  that  some 
measurements  may  be  able  to  provide  evidence  of  causal  links  between  the 
different levels, while others would only show impact on one specific level.  

18 

 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

The study team defined that a key requirement for establishing a causal chain is 
that  an  impact  (measured  change)  can  be  clearly  linked  to  a  specific 
intervention.  A  considerable  amount  of  time  might  have  passed  between  an 
action  (e.g. 
founding  a  company  or  becoming  self-employed)  and  an 
entrepreneurial  education  activity.  Other  contextual  and  structural  factors  (e.g. 
family  history  and  economic  conditions)  and  other  drivers  of  entrepreneurship 
outside  of  the  educational  system  all  have  the  potential  to  generate  impact  as 
well.  Yet,  robust  and  credible  causal  linkages  between  an  intervention  and 
specific  changes  need  to  be  established.  In  other  words,  evidence  is  needed 
which  proves  that  initiative  A  is  a  cause  for  the  change  measured  on  B.  Figure 
2.2 shows a hypothetical example of a causal chain of evidence.  

In  reality,  such  chains  are  often  difficult  to  establish.  Nevertheless,  during  the 
study,  several  examples  were  identified  which  collected  evidence  of  change  on 
specific levels and pointed to effects on other levels as well (see sections 3-5).  

19 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Figure 2.2 Impact mapping – establishing causal chains 

20 

 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

3 

The impact of national and regional 
entrepreneurship education strategies  

3.1 

Introduction 

This  section  presents  evidence  on  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education 
strategies  identified  through  the  research  for  this  study.  It  considers  the 
objectives  and  inputs/activities  of  entrepreneurial  education  strategies  and 
presents  evidence  of  their  impact  on:  students;  teachers;  institutions;  the 
economy; and, society. 

Entrepreneurship Education Strategies 

An  entrepreneurship  education  strategy  was  taken  to  be  the  existence  an 
official  policy  document  developed  by  educational  and/or  other  competent 
authorities at a national, regional or local level. A strategy usually includes: 

  a vision of what it aims to accomplish; 

  specific objectives; 

  the steps and actions to be taken to meet these objectives; 

  the identification of competent authorities and stakeholders; 

  the processes to be followed; and, 

  the allocated budget. 

The  entrepreneurship  education  strategies  reviewed  covered  a  broad  range  of 
programmes and initiatives on all levels and types of education (from primary to 
adult  education  and  including  formal  education,  non-formal  and,  informal 
learning). Five of the impact studies related to strategies examined the effects of 
several  programmes  and  initiatives  within  the  strategy  or  showed  how 
institutions  utilised  the  funding.  Four  other  cases  focused  on  measuring  the 
impact of one specific programme. 

Additionally,  evidence  was  drawn 
three  cases  concerning  broad 
governmental  programmes  implemented  on  a  large  scale.  What  differentiates 
them from the other strategies is the absence of a specific policy document that 
formulates  overarching  goals  for  entrepreneurship  education.  However,  since 
their  scope  and  impact  can  be  compared  to  that  of  a  strategy,  these  examples 
were included. 

from 

Table  3.1  provides  brief  characteristics  of  the  twelve  cases  that  provided 
evidence to inform this section. 

21 

Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Table 3.1  The cases providing evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education strategies 

Type 

Cases 

Key characteristics 

Evidence on impact 

1  National 
Strategy 

2  National 
strategy 

3  National 
strategy 

4  National 
Strategy 

Foundation for 
Entrepreneurship - Young 
Enterprise (FFE-YE), Denmark, 
2010-2013, http://www.ffe-
ye.dk/ 

FFE-YE is a national knowledge centre supporting 
the implementation of entrepreneurial education in 
Denmark at all educational levels. Relevant target 
groups include actors from primary and secondary 
school and higher education. 

Impact measurement is annually reported 
by FFE-YE and so far four impact 
measurement reports have been published 
(from 2010 to 2013). Impact is measured 
in all levels of education at the end of the 
school year. 

The Entrepreneurship 
Education National Action Plan 
2007-2012 (Netherlands), 
http://www.rvo.nl/subsidies-
regelingen/actieprogramma-
onderwijs-en-ondernemen 

Action Plan ‘Entrepreneurship in 
Education and Training – from 
compulsory school to higher 
education 2009–2014’, Norway, 
2010-2014, 
http://www.regjeringen.no/en/
dep/kd/documents/reports-
and-
actionplans/Actionplans/2009/e
ntrepreneurship-in-education-
and-traini.html?id=575005 

Unlocking the UK talent, 
Enterprise Education in UK-
England, 2008-2011, 
http://webarchive.nationalarchi
ves.gov.uk/20081201222039/h
ttp://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwe
do/enterprise/enterprisesmes/e
nterprise-
framework/index.html 

In 2007, the Netherlands launched a 
comprehensive National Action Plan that targeted 
all educational levels and funded a variety of 
projects in primary, secondary, secondary 
vocational and Higher Education.  

Regular surveys (on a two-year cycle) 
measured progress against the two main 
goals of the Action Plan. In addition, 
several independent evaluations measured 
the success of the projects funded.  

The Action Plan is a broad initiative to further 
implement entrepreneurship education throughout 
the whole education system. It is based on a cross-
ministerial collaboration, between the Ministry of 
Education and Research, the Ministry of Trade and 
Industry and the Ministry of Local Government and 
Regional Development. 

The strategy was accompanied by an 
ongoing evaluation of its implementation, 
comprising several impact assessments 
covering all levels of education (2010-
2014). 

A 2008 White Paper formulated policy objectives. 
Subsequently several funding opportunities were 
created, distributed by the Department for 
Children, Schools and Families (DCSF), (then 
Department for Education (DfE)). 

There was a review and evaluation of the 
impact of enterprise education in 
secondary schools in England, including 
the most useful support and tools for 
ensuring effective teaching and learning.   

22 

 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

5  National 
strategy 

6 

7 

Programme 
related to 
strategy  

Programme 
related to a 
strategy   

Youth Entrepreneurship 
Strategy (YES) Action Plan, UK-
Wales; 2004-2009, 2010-2015, 
http://business.wales.gov.uk/bi
gideas/yes-action-plan-2010 

The 2010-2014 strategy builds on a previous 
funding round and has clear objectives to produce 
more entrepreneurial young people across the 
country. It includes actions in all sectors of 
education (from primary to higher education, and 
both formal and non-formal).  

South East Europe Centre of 
Entrepreneurial Learning 
(SEECEL); 2009-ongoing, 
http://www.seecel.hr/seecel-s-
publication-school-professional-
toolkit 

SEECEL is an independent, non-profit institution 
founded in 2009 on the initiative of eight countries 
(Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, 
Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey). One 
of its initiatives is the School Professional Toolkit 
(SPT) for teaching entrepreneurship at school. 

Creativity and innovation in 
school (UPI), Slovenia; 2010-
2012, 
http://www.mgrt.gov.si/si/zgod
be_o_uspehu/arhiv/celoviti_pro
gram_spodbujanja_ustvarjalno
sti_inovativnosti_in_podjetnosti
_mladih/ 

UPI courses were implemented in primary schools 
by the Slovenian Chamber of Craft and Small 
Businesses (OZS); and in secondary schools UPI 
courses by the higher and vocational business 
education centre Gea College. They were part of a 
national programme financed by the Ministry of the 
Economy of Slovenia and managed by the Public 
Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for 
Entrepreneurship and Foreign Investment. 

Measures of impact on students through a 
range of surveys, questionnaires and 
assessments. 

Measures of the impact of the SEECEL 
School Professional Toolkit (SPT) on four 
selected schools in each of the eight 
SEECEL-countries. 

Measures of the impact of the UPI courses 
on creativity and flexibility of pupils in the 
participating primary schools. 

8 

Programmes 
related to a 
strategy 

Entrepreneurship Education in 
Secondary School (Belgium-nl) 
2008-2009, 
http://www.vlaanderen.be/nl/p
ublicaties/detail/advies-
actieplan-
ondernemerschapsonderwijs 

As part of the Action Plan Entrepreneurship 
Education in Belgium-Flanders 2006-2009, a range 
of projects and initiatives in secondary education 
were funded.   

Compilation of the short-term effects of 21 
projects for students in secondary school 
with differing aims and outreach in the 
school year 2008-2009.  

9 

Programme 
related to a 
strategy  

E-Vitamin-programme, Spain, 
Region of Castilla y León, 2007-
2011, 
http://www.educa.jcyl.es/Vita
minaE/es 

The regional government of Castilla y León in Spain 
launched a regional strategy in 2002 called 
‘Educate for Entrepreneurship’ (Educar para 
emprender). The E-Vitamin programme was part of 
the strategy.   

Measures of the impact of the programme 
based on data from 2007/2008 to 
2010/2011 on students in lower secondary 
education.  

23 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

10  Other  

11  Other  

12  Other 

‘Entrepreneurship Spirit 
Programme’, Walloon Agency 
for Economic Stimulation 
(ASE), Walloon Region, 2011-
2014, http://as-
e.be/content/le-programme-
wallon-esprit-d-entreprendre 

‘Entrepreneurial spirit into 
schools’, Germany, 2004-2009, 
http://www.unternehmergeist-
macht-
schule.de/DE/DieIdee/Initiatore
n/initiatoren_node.html 

Impact of three of 
entrepreneurship programmes 
at upper-secondary education 
level (incl. VET), Switzerland, 
2006-2013, 
http://www.sbfi.admin.ch/beruf
sbildung/01550/01564/01817/i
ndex.html?lang=it&download=
NHzLpZeg7t,lnp6I0NTU042l2Z6
ln1ah2oZn4Z2qZpnO2Yuq2Z6g
pJCDen17gGym162epYbg2c_Jj
KbNoKSn6A-- 

The Entrepreneurship Spirit Programme targets all 
Walloon schools and teachers (at all levels).  

Measures of the impact of training and 
awareness-raising activities on teachers 
and heads of school.  

Between 2004 and 2009, the Federal Ministry of 
Economy and Technology funded four programmes 
related to entrepreneurship education (JUNIOR, 
JUNIOR-Kompakt, German Foundation Contest for 
Students (DGPS) and Youth Start-up). The 
programmes were implemented in secondary 
education in eight German ‘Laender’.  

Between 2006 and 2013, the Swiss government 
funded three entrepreneurship programmes at 
upper-secondary education level with different 
methodological approaches and for different target 
groups.   

Measures of the effects of the training on 
secondary students’ attitudes towards 
entrepreneurship and discusses challenges 
related to implementation.  

Measures of whether entrepreneurship 
programmes have an influence on 
entrepreneurial competencies, 
entrepreneurial knowledge, attitudes 
towards entrepreneurship and students’ 
intention to create a company. 

24 

 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

The main impacts of entrepreneurial education strategies 

Impacts on students 

through  a  process  of 

All cases identified provided evidence that the programmes and courses related 
to  the  strategies  led  to  enhanced  entrepreneurial  knowledge,  skills  and 
behaviour.  Students  go 
‘demystification’  of 
entrepreneurship and get a clearer view on what an entrepreneur is and does. 
This  often  leads  to  greater  interest.  Courses  that  use  methods  which  help 
students 
their 
entrepreneurial  potential.  Many  entrepreneurship  education  alumni  also  show 
enhanced intentions to start a business after finalising school. For instance, in 
Wales, during the period of implementation of  the YES Action Plan, under 25-
year-olds  showed  an  increased  intention  to  start  a  business  or  to  be  self-
employed (53% in 2012 compared to 42% in 2004). 

their  creativity  especially  help 

to  develop 

to  unlock 

Impacts on teachers 

Evidence from several cases18 indicates that raising the awareness of teachers 
of  entrepreneurship  increases  the  likelihood  that  they  will  engage  in 
entrepreneurship, use relevant tools and actions and be more motivated to set-
up  entrepreneurial  activities.  Moreover,  sensitised  teachers  seem  to  be  better 
able  to  support  their  students’  entrepreneurial 
learning  processes.  A 
comprehensive  whole-school  approach  seems  to  be  especially  successful  in 
doing so.  

Teachers  also  learn  to  understand  that  entrepreneurship  is  relevant  for  all 
educational  levels  and  not  just  in  economic  subjects.  However,  the  impact  on 
teachers that were already familiar with entrepreneurial teaching and learning 
concepts before the intervention is higher than on others.  

Impacts on institutions 

As a consequence of the Entrepreneurship Education National Action Plan in the 
Netherlands,  between  2007  and  2012  entrepreneurship  gained  momentum  in 
Dutch  schools  and  universities  and  a  broader  range  of  institutions  across  all 
educational  levels  started  practising  it.  Primary  schools  showed  the  largest 
growth  rate  (from  50%  to  69%);  whilst  vocational  schools  and  universities 
showed a slightly lower growth rate, but a very high penetration rate (HE: 80% 
in 2007, 96% in 2012; VET: 78% in 2007, 96% in 2012).  

After the UPI  Creativity and innovation Programme in Slovenia, principals and 
mentors  in  participating  schools  agreed  strongly  that  entrepreneurship 
education has a positive impact on flexibility, innovation process management 
and the creativity of students.  

Pilot  projects  launched  by  SEECEL  in  South  East  Europe  succeeded  in 
promoting  innovative  approaches  to  entrepreneurial  teaching  and  learning. 
Moreover, the projects encouraged schools to intensify their collaboration with 
the  local  community,  especially  with  entrepreneurs,  and  to  strengthen  their 
cross-border collaboration with schools in other SEECEL-countries. 

Impacts on the economy 

Several countries and initiatives measured impacts on the economy. They can 
be  considered  forerunners  in  developing  suitable  methodologies  to  tackle  this 
challenge.  For  instance,  there  is  evidence  that  the  Welsh  YES  Action  Plan 

18 ‘Entrepreneurship Spirit Programme’ in the Walloon Region of Belgium, Enterprise Education in UK-England, 
SEECEL 

25 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

generated  a  higher  rate  of  start-up/venture  creation  among  young  people 
(9.5% of young Welsh people compared to the 8.3% UK average in 2012); and 
increased  the  survival  rate  of  graduate  start-up  businesses  (10.3%  of 
businesses  founded  in  Wales  survive  compared  to  the  UK  average  at  5%  in 
2011).  

While  the  definitive  causality  of  the  YES  Action  Plan  is  difficult  to  prove,  it  is 
evident that Welsh students’ entrepreneurial intentions have grown since 2004 
and students in Wales are more likely to set up and sustain their own business 
than UK students in general.  

Similar  observations  were  made 
in  Denmark,  where  entrepreneurship 
education  students  founded  more  companies  with  higher  longevities  than  a 
control group.  

Impacts on society 

In  Norway,  the  programmes  connected  to  the  Action  Plan  led  to  a  higher 
number of student companies in rural areas, compared to urban areas. This did 
not (as yet) lead to societal impact in the form of regional development. Such 
impact will only be measurable in due time.  

The  SEECEL  pilot  projects  had  an  impact  on  policy  development.  In  all  eight 
participating  countries,  they  led  to  policy  initiatives  which  promoted  the 
inclusion of entrepreneurship education in school curricula and practices.  

In  some  cases  the  studies  reviewed  are  on-going  and  will  provide  further 
evidence.  For  example,  the  evaluation  project  related  to  the  Norwegian  Action 
Plan19  started  in  autumn  2010,  and  was  scheduled  to  continue  until  the  end  of 
2014. Hence, first results  were included in this report, but the final assessment 
is pending.   

Other  ongoing  research  projects  have  not  yet  published  results  and  therefore 
were  not  included.  An  example  is  the  Swedish  programme  Ifous.20  The 
programme  is  a  three-year  development  and  research  programme  with  the 
objective  to  promote  entrepreneurial  education  in  the  participating  schools  (27 
schools  from  all  parts  of  the  country  participate).  The  programme  will  run  until 
2015.  Only  one  survey  has  taken  place  so  far,  so  change/impact  cannot  be 
assessed  yet.  However,  teachers  and  school  principals  already  assess  that 
students  are  more  involved  in  planning  and  that  teachers  are  more  engaged  in 
pedagogic discussions after the launch of the programme.  

3.2  The objectives of entrepreneurship education strategies 

The  entrepreneurship  education  strategies  have  objectives  related  to  impact  on 
all  four  levels  considered  in  this  study:  individual;  institutional;  society;  and, 
economy.  The  strategies  and  programmes  included  a  broad  variety  of  activities 
to achieve these objectives.   

3.2.1  Objectives seeking impact on individuals  

Most  of  the  objectives  of  the  strategies  and  programmes  targeted  change  in 
individuals  and  launched  classes,  programmes  and  activities  pertinent  to 
entrepreneurship education. The examples reviewed aimed:    

  To  increase  the  interest  of  target  group(s)  in  entrepreneurship: 
Although  expressed  differently  among  strategies,  there  was  a  common 

19 Johansen, V. et al. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i utdanningen og oppnåelse av læringsmål” 
20 Entrepreneurial learning - for motivation and success in school (Entreprenöriellt lärande – drivkraft och 
motivation för framgång i skolan). In: Leffler, E (2014) - Ifous –programmet Entreprenöriellt lärandeus 

26 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

objective  to  make  pupils/students  more  interested  in  entrepreneurship. 
Entrepreneurship  was  mostly  viewed  as  an  intention  to  start  a  business  in 
the future. The objective was directly linked to inputs that raised awareness, 
offered  specific  knowledge,  and  provided  hands-on  experience  and 
interaction  with  existing  entrepreneurs.  For  example,  in  Wales,  the  YES 
Action  Plan  included  the  development  of  a  website21  and  a  campaign  to 
inform students and stakeholders and to promote the Action Plan.   

  To  increase  entrepreneurial  attitudes  and/or  behaviour:  One  of  the 
objectives  of  the  Entrepreneurship  Education  National  Action  Plan  in  the 
Netherlands  that  targeted  primary,  general  secondary  and  secondary 
vocational  education  aimed  at  supporting  the  entrepreneurial  attitude  of 
students and their teachers. Boosting entrepreneurial attitudes of youth aged 
5-25  years  old  was  one  of  the  goals  of  the  Welsh  YES  Action  Plan.  The 
development  of  ’entrepreneurship  spirit’  was  also  an  objective  of  a  broad-
based initiative in Germany22 and the Action Plan Entrepreneurship Education 
in Belgium-Flanders.  

  To  develop  entrepreneurial  skills  (e.g.  self-efficacy,  risk  bearing  and 
locus  of  control,  spirit of  initiative,  and  dynamism)  and  abilities  (e.g.  ability 
to work as part of a team, develop personal responsibility and self-reliance): 
Objectives  of  this  type  were  the  focus  of  projects  of  entrepreneurial 
education  in  the  upper  secondary  education  in  Switzerland.  Increasing 
entrepreneurial  skills  (viewed  as  the  ability  to  detect  and  utilise  an 
opportunity) was also highlighted by the Norwegian National Action Plan, the 
Spanish ‘E-Vitamin’ Programme and in Enterprise Education in UK-England.  

  To  promote  creativity  and  innovation  among  young  people:  The 
Creativity  and  Innovation  in  School  (UPI)  programme  in  Slovenia  aimed  to 
develop a long-term sustainable model for training young people in the field 
of  creativity,  innovation  and  entrepreneurship  at  primary  and  secondary 
level.  

  To increase students’ intentions to start a business: An increase in the 
number  of  students  who  declare  they  have  an  intention  to  start  a  business 
was part of the objectives of most strategies and programmes.  

3.2.2  Objectives seeking impact on teachers and institutions 

Some objectives targeted teachers and educational institutions:  

  To  prepare 

teachers 

for  entrepreneurship  education: 

The 
‘Entrepreneurship Spirit Programme’ implemented by the Walloon Agency for 
Economic  Stimulation  (ASE)  targeted  teachers  (at  all levels),  since  they  are 
considered  the  best  actors  to  transfer  entrepreneurial  behaviours  to  young 
people.  The  Spanish  ’E-Vitamin’  programme  involved  the  development  and 
implementation 
for 
and 
entrepreneurship  education,  adapted  to  the  different  education  levels 
(primary, lower secondary and upper secondary). The launch of the SEECEL 
School  Professional  Toolkit23  went  together  with  training  for  teachers  and 
school  management  teams  received  training  that  included  details  on  the 
project,  what  each  school  should  do  and  types  of  curricula.  SEECEL  also 
offers  a  platform  through  which  teachers,  school  management  and  national 
contact points could communicate and exchange ideas and practices24. 

teaching  methodology 

of  materials 

a 

21 http://business.wales.gov.uk/bigideas/ 
22 ‘Entrepreneurial spirit into schools’. In: Josten, Martina, Marco van Elkan: "Unternehmergeist in die Schulen?! 
Ergebnisse aus der Inmit-Studie zu Entrepreneurship Education-Projekten an deutschen Schulen". 2010" 
23 http://www.seecel.hr/seecel-s-publication-school-professional-toolkit 
24 http://www.seecel.hr/cop 

27 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  To  embed  entrepreneurship  education  in  all  education  levels:  The 
Foundation for Entrepreneurship-Young Enterprise (FFE-YE) in Denmark aims 
to  promote  entrepreneurship  across  education  to  embed  entrepreneurial 
abilities  in  curricula.  This  objective  was  shared  by  the  Norwegian  National 
Action  Plan  for  Entrepreneurship  Education  and  the  Entrepreneurship 
Education National Action Plan in the Netherlands.  

  To  change  the  culture  of  the  institution:  Enterprise  Education  in  UK-

England aimed to enhance “a culture of enterprise” in schools.  

  To engage stakeholders: The Norwegian Action Plan introduced measures 
adapted  to  different  types  of  stakeholders,  who  could  adjust  them  to  local 
specificities. The FFE-YE in Denmark supported the Start-up Programme that 
targeted  educators.  Its  goal  was  to  inspire  them  to  engage  with  the  local 
community, businesses, investors, experts and experienced entrepreneurs. 

3.2.3  Objectives seeking impact on the economy and society 

Several objectives were broad and addressed change in the economy and society 

  To  increase  the  rate  of  start-up/venture  creation:  Two  of  the  vision 
targets  of  the  Welsh  YES  Action  Plan  concerned  intermediate  results,  in 
particular  boosting  the  rate  of  ‘entrepreneurially  active  young  people’  as 
measured by the  Global Entrepreneurship Monitor and the creation of  start-
ups. The other target concerned the increase of the rate of start-ups founded 
by graduates and their survival rate. 

  To enhance employability: The  strategy ‘Educate for  Entrepreneurship’ in 
strongly  aimed  at  enhancing  employability  as  well  as 

Spain25 
entrepreneurship.  

  To facilitate regional development: The main objective of the Welsh YES 
Action Plan was to achieve a cultural shift towards more entrepreneurship in 
Wales, which would serve the development of the region in the long run. The 
Norwegian Action Plan expected to achieve positive impact on rural areas.  

  To foster entrepreneurial literate societies: SEECEL’s vision/objective is 
to ‘foster entrepreneurial-friendly environments and to strengthen the mind-
sets  for  building  entrepreneurially  literate  societies  that  lead  to  sustainable 
development’26. 
economic 
to 
entrepreneurship  and  the  coordinated  and  systematic  efforts  in  eight 
countries  are  an  example  of  a  transnational  approach  to  promoting 
entrepreneurship education.  

approach 

SEECEL’s 

growth 

and 

The  following  sections  show  how  far  the  strategies  achieved  their  objectives  at 
the different levels.  

3.3 

Impact on the individual student 

The  main  target  groups  of  the  entrepreneurial  education  strategies  were 
students.  Evidence  was  found  in  relation  to  the  six  objectives  of  strategies  and 
programmes related to individuals: 1) to increase the interest of target group(s) 
in  entrepreneurship;  2)  to  improve  entrepreneurial  knowledge,  in  particular 
knowledge relevant to business creation, 3) to develop entrepreneurial skills and 
abilities, 4) to increase entrepreneurial attitudes and/or behaviour, 5) to increase 
intention  to  start  a  business,  and  6)  to  promote  creativity,  innovation  and 
entrepreneurship  of  young  people.  The  following  sub-sections  summarise  the 
evidence for the different educational levels.   

25 Educar para emprender, regional government of Castilla y León. In: Sanchez Iv. (2013) The Impact of an 
Entrepreneurship Education program on entrepreneurial competences and intention 
26 http://www.seecel.hr/mission-vision-5049 

28 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

3.3.1  Primary education 

Including  primary  school  pupils  in  entrepreneurship  education  may  seem  ‘far-
fetched’,  but  –  provided  that  appropriate  methods  are  used  -  it  has  been  very 
successful.  Evidence  shows  that  at  primary  school  level,  methods  are  more 
important than content.  

FFE-YE in Denmark27 introduced the notion of ‘entrepreneurship as a method’, as 
opposed  to  ‘entrepreneurship  as  an  occupation’.  Entrepreneurship  as  a  method 
(especially  in  primary  school)  strengthens  pupils’  non-cognitive  entrepreneurial 
competences,  such  as  creativity,  generating  new  ideas,  and  how  to  translate 
ideas  into  actions.  It  does  not  necessarily  aim  at  increasing  pupils’  desire  to 
become  an  entrepreneur,  but  aims  to  equip  pupils  with  the  creativity  and 
proactivity  they  need  to  manage  uncertainty  and  change.  To  measure  how  far 
this  was  achieved,  pupils  in  primary  school  were  asked  about  non-cognitive 
entrepreneurial competences: i.e. How to think creatively; How to come up with 
new ideas; How to translate ideas into action; and How to start new activities. 

Applying ‘entrepreneurship as a method’ has had a significant positive effect on 
the pupils’ level of connectedness to school, to classmates, and to teachers and 
on their motivation levels. According to the researchers, the latter indicates that 
the  pupils  are  increasingly  driven  by  curiosity  and  self-motivation  in  their 
learning process. This means that they engage more out of a desire for learning. 
The  study  concludes  that  teaching  of  entrepreneurship  as  a  method  appears  to 
be  more  important  at  primary  school  level  than  entrepreneurship  as  an 
occupation. 

Evidence  shows  that  primary  school  pupils  can  benefit  in  many  regards  from 
entrepreneurship education: 

  To increase interest and awareness:  

  Projects  run  under  the  National  Action  Plan in the  Netherlands  increased 
the understanding of pupils at primary level. After completing the project, 
two out of three pupils state they now know what an entrepreneur is, and 
one  out  of  four  state  they  are  interested  in  becoming  entrepreneurs 
themselves.28 

  To improve entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and attitudes:  

  Programmes that ran under the National Action Plan in Norway positively 
impacted  on  pupils’  entrepreneurial  skills  (collaboration  skills,  creativity 
and problem solving), compared to a control group.29 

 

In  the  Netherlands,  about  one  in  three  students  surveyed  said  s/he 
became ‘more enterprising’ (self-assessment).30 

  According  to  the  201231  and  201332  measurements  of  the  FFE-YE, 
entrepreneurship education in Denmark has increased the entrepreneurial 
skills  and  behaviour  of  primary  and  lower  secondary  students  regarding 
all  skills  related  to  a  ‘self-efficacy’  scale.  Strong  correlations  with  the 
teaching  methods  used  were  observed  -  especially  for  younger  pupils.. 
Entrepreneurial  intentions  of  primary  and  lower  secondary  education 

27 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) - Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
28 Panteia (2013) Spoor I: eindbestemming bereikt? Eindevaluatie ‘spoor 1’ projecten Ondernemerschap en 
Onderwijs 
29 Johansen, V. et al. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i utdanningen og oppnåelse av læringsmål” 
30 Panteia (2013) Spoor I: eindbestemming bereikt? Eindevaluatie ‘spoor 1’ projecten Ondernemerschap en 
Onderwijs 
31 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
32 Young Enterprise Denmark (2014) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2013 

29 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

students were more positively impacted by teaching ‘entrepreneurship as 
a  method’  –  i.e.,  using  methods  stimulating  creativity  and  innovation  - 
rather than as ‘an occupation’ – i.e., teaching business-related skills. The 
studies  conclude  that  pupils  who  have  experienced  an  ‘entrepreneurship 
as  a  method’  have  also increased  their  level  of  connectedness  to  school, 
classmates, and teachers. 

  To increase creativity and flexibility:  

  Evidence  from the ‘Creativity and innovation in school’ programme (UPI) 
in  Slovenia  shows  positive  impact  on  pupils’  creativity  and  flexibility.33 
They  become  more  familiar  with  the innovation  process  from  forming an 
idea to its realisation, and their attitude towards novelty and innovations 
became  more  positive.  Their  ability  to  create  new  ideas  increased  and 
they  became  more  prone  to  the  realisation  of  ideas,  hence  assuming  a 
‘visionary  attitude’. 
the  post-survey,  students  also  assessed 
themselves higher than in the pre-survey regarding their ability to adapt 
to  new  situations  and  to  work  in  teams,  and  regarding  their  general 
motivation  (determination,  persistence  and  dedication).  They  are  also 
more familiar with the innovation process and more open to innovation in 
general.  

In 

In  some  cases,  evidence  was  also  provided  that  entrepreneurship  education 
impacts  on  primary  school  pupils’  general  attitudes  towards  education  and 
learning.  

Greater self-confidence, higher ambitions and more 
interest in learning 

Some evaluations of strategies and programmes provided evidence for greater 
confidence  and  higher  ambitions  of  pupils  in  primary  education  -  a  very 
welcome  ‘side-effect’.  The  ‘Creativity  and  Innovation  in  School’  programme 
(UPI)  led  to  greater  confidence:  in  the  post-survey,  students’  showed  higher 
ambitions regarding their choice of secondary education.34 

The Danish long-term measurement performed by FFE-YE35 provided evidence 
that  students  in  primary/lower  secondary  education  that  have  participated  in 
entrepreneurship  education  have  higher  ambitions  for  their  future  career 
choices (job or further education) than those that have not. They became more 
self-motivating  in  their  efforts  in  the  learning  process  and  they  claimed  to 
engage more out of a desire for learning.  

3.3.2  Secondary education 

Students  in  secondary  education  were  frequently  addressed  in  strategies  and 
impacts  on  them  were  researched  most  often.  Evidence  shows  that  they  were 
positively  affected  by  entrepreneurship  education  regarding:  1)  their  interest  in 
and 
entrepreneurship; 
attitudes/behaviour; and, 3) their intentions to start a business. The same ‘side-
effect’  as  for  primary  pupils  was  observed,  they  became  more  interested  in 
education as such and their grades improved.  

entrepreneurial 

knowledge, 

skills 

their 

2) 

  To increase the interest in entrepreneurship:  

33 Halilović, P. (2013) Doktorska disertacija. Učinki inovacijsko-podjetniškega izobraževanja na spodbujanje 
inovativnosti in smiselnost uvajanja omenjenih vsebin med osnovnošolce v Sloveniji. Maribor: Ekonomsko-
poslovna fakulteta Maribor 
34 ibid 
35 Young Enterprise Denmark (2014) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2013 

30 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Students in secondary vocational education in the Netherlands caught up 
with  university  students  in  that  regard:  While  VET-students  were 
significantly less interested in entrepreneurship than HE-students in 2007 
(35%  VET-students  vs  52%  HE-students);  VET-students  scored  higher 
than  university  students  in  2012  (67%  VET-students  vs  59%  HE-
students).36 

  Dutch  students  in  both  general  and  vocational  secondary  education  also 
changed  their  general  attitude  towards  entrepreneurship:  45%  of 
students interviewed in 2012 said their opinions of entrepreneurship and 
entrepreneurs improved after participating in entrepreneurship  education 
programmes.37 

  Secondary  education  students  in  Germany  that  participated  in  the 
programmes  of  the  Ministry  of  Economy  and  Technology  self-assessed 
that  the  programmes  helped  them  to  understand  the  concept  of 
entrepreneurship  and  the  role  of  entrepreneurs  as  part  of  the  economy 
much  better.  Their  interest  in  questions  of  economy  and  finance  at  the 
micro  and  macro-level  increased,  they  acquired  knowledge  in  both 
regards and they understood better what it takes to found a company and 
to be successful (seven out of ten students reported improvements).38 

  Students that participated in the entrepreneurship education programmes 
in Belgium (Flanders) have very positive views on entrepreneurs as well: 
70.8%  have  a  positive,  and  12.8%  a  very  positive 
image  of 
entrepreneurs.39 

  To  improve  entrepreneurial  knowledge,  skills,  attitudes  and/or 

behaviour: 

 

In  Denmark,  the  number  of 
lower  secondary  students  showing 
entrepreneurial  behaviour  by  leading  or  initiating  a  project  or  an  activity 
outside  of  class  (not  necessarily  a  business)  increased  over  time.  While 
no  correlation  between  extra-curricular  activities  and  entrepreneurship 
education was found  in the 2011 measurement40, the picture changed in 
201241. A 78% increase in leading or founding an extra-curricular activity 
was observed among the entrepreneurship students. 

  Upper  secondary  students  in  Denmark  improved  their  skills  on  all 
dimensions  of  self-efficacy42  both  management  skills  (planning  and 
financial  literacy)  and  skills  that  minimise  barriers  to  entrepreneurship 
(managing uncertainty and marshalling resources).  

36 van der Aa, R. et al. (2012) Ondernemerschap in het onderwijs, Tweemeting, Eindrapport, Rotterdam, 
November 2012 
37 Panteia (2013) Spoor I: eindbestemming bereikt? Eindevaluatie ‘spoor 1’ projecten Ondernemerschap en 
Onderwijs 
38  Josten, M., van Elkan, M. (2010) Unternehmergeist in die Schulen?! Ergebnisse aus der Inmit-Studie zu 
Entrepreneurship Education-Projekten an deutschen Schulen" 
39 No pre-survey undertaken. 
40 Young Enterprise Denmark (2012) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2011 
41 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
42 Entrepreneurial self-efficacy has been selected by the FFE-YE as the main indicator for impact measurement 
in upper secondary and higher education. Self-efficacy is a concept from social learning theory which lends 
itself well to be used in studies as it can be used to scale the extent or strength of a persons’ belief about 
whether or not it lies in his/her own control and ability to complete tasks and reach goals (Bandura 1997). 
According to the Young Enterprise Denmark 2013 publication, self-efficacy is a good indicator ofthe likelihood of 
individuals acting entrepreneurially in the future.  

31 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Students  that  participated  in  the  Spanish  ‘E-Vitamin’-programme  had 
statistically  significant  higher  scores  than  the  control  group  in  self-
efficacy, pro-activeness, risk-taking and locus of control.43 

  As a consequence of the three programmes in Switzerland, students self-
assessed  that  their  skills  relevant  to  developing  a  business  idea  and 
exploiting an opportunity improved – they achieved higher scores in post-
tests than in pre-tests.44   

  The  majority  of  upper  secondary  students  in  Norway  that  have 
participated  in  an  entrepreneurship  education  programme  believed  they 
have  the  necessary  skills  and  knowledge  to  develop  a  business,  in 
particular soft skills like persuasiveness and leadership.45 

  40%  of  students  in  secondary  education  (general  and  vocational)  in  the 
Netherlands  assessed  that  they  show  more  entrepreneurial  behaviour 
after the programmes launched under the Action Plan.46 

education 

entrepreneurship 

  The  evaluation  of  Enterprise  Education  in  UK-England  asked  teachers  to 
rate  the  main  areas  of  impact  on  a  scale  of  one  to  ten.  According  to 
teachers, 
pupils’ 
employability/enterprise  skills  (mean  score  of  7.2  out  of  10);  increases 
pupils’ self-awareness of their own enterprise capabilities (7.1 out of 10), 
increases  pupils’  business  and  economic  understanding  (7.0  out  of  10), 
and increases pupils’ financial understanding (6.6 out of 10). Lower mean 
scores  were  recorded  for:  increasing  understanding  of  the  realities  of 
business  start-up  and  employment  (6.0  out  of  10);  and,  encouraging 
young  people  to  consider  self-employment/setting  up  their  own  business 
(5.9 out of 10).47 

increases 

But increasing interest and more entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and attitudes 
does not necessarily mean that the student in question regard entrepreneurship 
as a suitable career path for them. Students can draw different conclusions from 
an entrepreneurship education experience.  

The demystification’ of entrepreneurship 

Providing knowledge on what being an entrepreneur really means (challenges, 
necessary skills etc.) offers students more realistic views. The evaluation of the 
entrepreneurship  education  programmes  in  Switzerland  showed  a  positive 
impact  on  students  entrepreneurial  knowledge  and  skills,  but  a  slightly 
negative  effect  on 
to  have 
entrepreneurial  intentions  (pre-  and  post-survey).48  Examples  from  the 
to 
literature  confirm 

the  number  of  students  who  declared 

is  a  well-known  effect:  Exposure 

that 

this 

43 Sanchez Ivan. (2013) The Impact of an Entrepreneurship Education program on entrepreneurial competences 
and intention 
44 The study focused on four types of entrepreneurship-related human-capital assets: entrepreneurship-related 
personality traits, beliefs, entrepreneurial knowledge and entrepreneurial competencies. For three out of these 
four areas (excluding entrepreneurial knowledge), key variables were identified and measured through a test 
with multiple self-reported items measured on a five-point Likert scale i.e. answers were rated on a scale of 1 
to 5. 
45 Johansen, V. et al. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i utdanningen og oppnåelse av læringsmål” 
46 Panteia (2013) Spoor I: eindbestemming bereikt? Eindevaluatie ‘spoor 1’ projecten Ondernemerschap en 
Onderwijs 
47 McLarty et al. (2010) Evaluation of Enterprise Education in England 
48 Volery et al. (2013) The impact of entrepreneurship education on human capital at upper-secondary level; 
Journal of Small Business Management 51 (3), pp. 429-0; doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12020 

32 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

entrepreneurship  education 
entrepreneurial intentions of participants.49  

can  also  have 

counter-effects  on 

the 

Such  findings  can  be  interpreted  through  the  ‘demystification  lens’:  Gaining 
better  insights  helps  students  to  make  better  informed  career  choices.  This 
may  mean  that  some  students  decide  that  being  an  entrepreneur  is  not  for 
them. These students might be better placed to become an ‘intrapreneur’ – an 
entrepreneurial employee.  

  To increase the intention to start a business:  

Studies  which  looked  at  entrepreneurial  intentions  found  that  entrepreneurship 
education had an impact on that level.  

  30% of students in  the Netherlands believed that the projects run under 
the  National  Action  Plan  encouraged  them  to  think  about  starting  a 
business.50 

  Students  of  upper  secondary  education  that  participated  in  programmes 
in  Norway  had  a  higher  level  of  intention  than  non-participants  in  being 
self-employed in the future.51 

  Participation in the entrepreneurship education programmes connected to 
the  Action  Plan  in  Belgium-Flanders  led  to  students  having  higher 
entrepreneurial  intentions.  While  half  of  the  students  found  having  their 
own company a compelling thought; 33% of students thought they would 
indeed realise that wish (20% in pre–survey).52 

Links between creativity, risk-propensity and founding 
intentions 

Evidence  from  the  Flemish  Action  Plan  showed  that  graduates  improve  on 
creativity  and  innovation.  The  significance  of  the  effects  seemed  to  be  linked 
with  the  intensity  of  the  programme.  The  more  intense  an  activity  was  -  in 
terms of time and level of engagement - the higher the effect. 

This is an important finding as students’ company founding intentions seem to 
go  together  with  creativity  and  other  indicators  related  to  risk-propensity. 
Those students that state their intention to found a company also self-assessed 
higher values for creativity, willingness to undertake international mobility and 
other variables related to risk-taking than their peers. 

  The  2012  FFE-YE  study  from  Denmark  measured  attitudes  of  upper 
secondary  students  participating  in  a  programme  which  focused  on 
developing  both  cognitive  and  non-cognitive  skills.  Students’  level  of 
entrepreneurial  intentions  increased  after  the  course.  Before  the  course, 
they  perceived  the  following  barriers:  ‘it  takes  too  much  effort’,  ‘the  risk 
of  failure  is  too  high’  and  ‘the  financial  risk  is  too  high’.  These  barriers 
were  connected  to  the  skills  of  ‘Managing  ambiguity’,  ‘Marshalling 
resources’, 
literacy’.  Girls 
participating  in  the  programme  improved  greatly    on  ‘Managing 
ambiguity’  and  ‘Marshalling  resources’,  while  boys  improved  more  on 

‘Planning’,  and 

‘Creativity’, 

‘Financial 

49 Fayolle A., et al. (2006) Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education programmes: a new 
methodology. Journal of European Industrial Training Vol. 30 No.9, 2006; pp. 701-720 
50 Panteia (2013) Spoor I: eindbestemming bereikt? Eindevaluatie ‘spoor 1’ projecten Ondernemerschap en 
Onderwijs 
51 Johansen, V. et al. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i utdanningen og oppnåelse av læringsmål” 
52 Flanders DC Kenniscentrum (2009) Effecto: Stimuleren van ondernemershap in het secundair onderwijs 

33 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

‘Financial  literacy’  and  ‘Planning’.  For  both  groups,  entrepreneurial 
intentions grew – for girls more than for boys.53 

  To increase engagement and achieve better grades: 

As  with  primary  education,  evidence  was  also  found  in  secondary  education 
that entrepreneurship education has very desirable ‘side-effects’:  

 

It  was  found  that  participating  in  programmes  connected  to  the 
Norwegian  Action  Plan  had  a  positive  effect  on  secondary  students’  oral 
and  writing  skills.  The  programmes  also  impacted  slightly  on  pupils’ 
grades in Norwegian, English and mathematics.54 

  Entrepreneurship  education  in  Sogn  og  Fjordane  County  (Norway) 
triggered  a  generally  positive  effect  on  students’  interest  in  school. 
Besides  increased  intentions  to  found  a  company,  students  were  also 
more  interested  in  other  parts  of  the  schoolwork  and  showed  higher 
ambitions to move on to Higher Education.55 

  High  percentages  of  secondary  education  students  in  Germany  who 
participated  in  the  programmes  related  to  the  ‘entrepreneurial  spirit into 
schools’  programme  self-assessed 
improved  on  key 
competences  like  teamwork  (62%),  communication  skills  (55.2%)  and 
presentation skills (54.6%). Teachers rated this improvement even higher 
than the students themselves.56 

they 

that 

  Lower  secondary  education  students  in  Denmark  who  have  been  taught 
using  entrepreneurial  teaching  methods  reported  that  they  feel  more 
connected to school, classmates and teachers and that their motivation to 
learn increased.57 

Entrepreneurship education helps to develop greater 
ambitions for life 

Students  interviewed58  for  the  Evaluation  of  Enterprise  Education  in  England 
(2007-2010),  reported  that  enterprise  education  raised  their  awareness  on 
what  entrepreneurship  means  for  an  individual.  This  strengthened  their 
confidence  and  was  experienced  as  a  trigger  to  subsequently  build  up  their 
capabilities and develop higher aspirations for life. 

3.3.3  Higher Education 

Entrepreneurship  programmes  in  higher  education  seem  to  be  most  likely  to 
have  an 
realise 
immediate  effect.  Students  are  mature  enough 
entrepreneurial ambitions and to put ideas into practice. Indeed, evidence shows 
that  students  were  positively  affected  by  programmes/activities  running  under 
strategies.  

to 

  To increase interest in entrepreneurship:  

53 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
54 Johansen, V. et al. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i utdanningen og oppnåelse av læringsmål” 
55 Rotefoss, B. et al. (2009) - Entreprenørskap på høygir! - en evaluering av satsningen på entreprenørskap i 
grunnopplæringen i Sogn og Fjordane 
56 Josten, M., van Elkan, M. (2010) Unternehmergeist in die Schulen?! Ergebnisse aus der Inmit-Studie zu 
Entrepreneurship Education-Projekten an deutschen Schulen 
57 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
58 Qualitative interviews 

34 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

 

In  Wales,  the  National  Centre  for  Entrepreneurship  in  Education  (NCEE) 
undertook a Higher Education Survey59 to measure the impact of the YES 
Action Plan on higher education students’ engagement in entrepreneurial 
activities. In 2012, the rate of students participating in projects was 26% 
versus 23% in 2010.  

  To  improve  entrepreneurial  knowledge,  skills,  attitudes  and/or 

behaviour:  

 

In  Denmark,  the  2012  measurement  showed  that  students  that  had 
participated  in  entrepreneurship  education  (‘entrepreneurship  students’) 
after one year considerably increased their levels on entrepreneurial self-
efficacy  construct  as  defined  by  FFE-YE60  on  all  dimensions  except 
financial  literacy.  Compared  to  the  control  group,  entrepreneurship 
students  experienced  a  statistically  significant  increase  in  creativity  and 
managing  uncertainty.61  In  the  same  study  the  ‘entrepreneurship 
students’ increased their level of entrepreneurial attitude variable by five 
percentage  points  compared  to  the  control  group  for  whom  it  decreased 
by 0.5 percentage points.62 Moreover, several ‘entrepreneurship students’ 
participated 
that 
entrepreneurship  education  has  an  effect  on  students’  behaviour  outside 
their studies.  

in  extracurricular  activities,  which 

suggests 

 

In  Norway,  recently  graduated  students  who  had  participated  in 
entrepreneurship education considered that their education contributed to 
them  developing  entrepreneurial  skills  and  attitudes.  For  this  group  of 
students,  entrepreneurship  education  was  also  found  to  stimulate 
enhanced creativity and knowledge of innovation processes.63 

  To increase students’ intentions to start a business:  

 

In  Wales,  the  intention  of  under-25-year-olds  to  start  a  business  or  to 
increased  since  2004.  The  Carnegie  Trust 
become  self-employed 
Enterprising  Minds  Survey64  was  used  to  assess  the  YES  Action  Plan’s 
impact on young peoples’ ‘entrepreneurial mind-set’. In 2012, the goal of 
ranking  above  the  UK  average  was  achieved,  53%  of  those  under  25 
years  old  aspired  to  become  self-employed,  an  increase  from  42%  in 
2004.  

  The  Netherlands  National  Action  Plan  also  increased  the  proportion  of 
students  that  are  certain  that  they  want  to  become  entrepreneurs  after 
graduation (from 13% in 2007 to 21% in 2012).65 

3.4 

Impacts on teachers 

In  order  to  achieve  the  objectives  of  strategies,  teachers,  heads  of  schools  and 
other  school  staff  have  to  deliver  high  quality  entrepreneurial  education.  As 

59 National Centre for Entrepreneurship in Education (NCEE) 2012 Enterprise and Entrepreneurship in Higher 
Education Survey 
60 Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is defined by FFE-YE as a combination of competences that affect entrepreneurial 
behaviour. Six dimensions together form this multi-dimensional variable: creativity, planning, marshalling of 
resources, coping with ambiguity, financial literacy and human resource management.  
61 Based on self-assessment.  
62 Young Enterprise Denmark (FFE-YE, 2013) , “Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark – 2012”; 
http://www.ffe-ye.dk/media/45275/Effektmaaling-ef-entreprenoerskabsundervisning-2012.pdf, page 79 
63 Støren, L. A. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i høyere utdanning – erfaringer blant nyutdannede” 
64 Carnegie Trust UK (2012) Enterprising Minds Final Report 
65 van der Aa, R. et al. (2012) Ondernemerschap in het onderwijs, Tweemeting, Eindrapport, Rotterdam, 
November 2012 

35 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

‘agents  of  change’66  they  are  often  mentioned  in  the  objectives  of  strategies. 
Consequently,  several  strategies  included  the  preparation  of  teachers  for 
entrepreneurship education amongst their objectives. 

The  ‘Entrepreneurship  Spirit  Programme’67,  run  by  the  Walloon  Agency  for 
Economic Stimulation (ASE), includes activities that aim at raising the awareness 
of teachers/educators in primary, secondary and higher education. Results of the 
evaluation  survey  that  targeted  teachers  and  heads  of  schools  demonstrated 
that  the  programme  had  a  positive  effect  on  their  understanding  of 
entrepreneurship,  its  importance  and  the  relevant  teaching  methods.  Overall, 
teachers and heads of schools changed their attitudes and raised their interest in 
entrepreneurship. More specifically, they: 

  showed higher levels of understanding of what entrepreneurship is; 

  acknowledged  that  entrepreneurship  is  useful  in  subjects  related  to  social 
sciences  (88%  considered  this  the  case  versus  70.5%  of  the  non-involved 
teachers); 

  acknowledged  that  teaching  entrepreneurship  is  relevant  to  all  educational 
levels.  Especially  regarding  primary  education,  differences  are  significant: 
84.6%  of 
find 
entrepreneurship  important,  while  only  63.8%  of  the  non-trained  teachers 
did. 

in  entrepreneurship  education 

teachers 

trained 

Under  the  Entrepreneurship  Education  National  Action  Plan  in  the  Netherlands, 
entrepreneurship became part of teacher’s competence profile in all sectors. This 
was  reflected  in  senior  secondary  vocational  education.  The  proportion  of 
secondary  VET-school  teachers  receiving  additional  training  in  entrepreneurship 
grew  from  17%  in  2010  to  22%  in  2012.  Universities  of  Applied  Sciences  were 
also found to provide training more often, while preparation for entrepreneurship 
education was least well reflected in teacher training provisions for primary and 
secondary schools.68 

that 

raising 

indicated 

increases 

teachers  of 
The  evidence 
entrepreneurship 
in 
entrepreneurship, use relevant tools and actions and be more motivated to set-
up  entrepreneurial  activities.  The  evaluation  of  specific  projects  under  the 
Entrepreneurship  Education  National  Action  Plan  in  the  Netherlands69  that 
targeted  primary,  general  secondary  and  secondary  vocational  education 
highlighted that: 

the  awareness  of 

they  will  engage 

likelihood 

that 

the 

 

 

in  primary  education,  teachers’  entrepreneurial  attitude  was  positively 
impacted,  although  there  were  teachers  who  had  reservations  about  the 
benefits of entrepreneurship education; 

in  secondary  education  and  secondary  vocational  education,  teachers  were 
more  convinced  of 
in  promoting 
importance  of 
entrepreneurship  education  after  they  were  provided  with  evidence  on  the 
positive impact that entrepreneurship education has on students.   

their 

role 

the 

66 Cf the Budapest Agenda for the Development of Entrepreneurial Teachers; in: Entrepreneurship Education. 
Enabling Teachers as a Critical Success Factor. European Commission 2011. Online: 
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/promoting-
entrepreneurship/files/education/teacher_education_for_entrepreneurship_final_report_en.pdf 
67 Entrepreneurship spirit has been defined by ASE as “team spirit, self-confidence, creativity, spirit of initiative, 
sense of responsibility and perseverance”.  
68 van der Aa, R. et al. (2012) Ondernemerschap in het onderwijs, Tweemeting, Eindrapport, Rotterdam, 
November 2012 
69 Panteia (2013) Spoor I: eindbestemming bereikt? Eindevaluatie ‘spoor 1’ projecten Ondernemerschap en 
Onderwijs 

36 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Higher commitment of schools to entrepreneurship 
education leads to higher staff motivation 

The  evaluation  of  Enterprise  Education  in  UK-England70  showed  that  schools 
which  report  higher  levels  of  Enterprise  Education  embedded  into  the 
curriculum  also  report  higher  levels  of  staff  motivation.  A  whole-school 
approach  to  Enterprise  Education  helped  to  raise  teachers’  awareness  of  the 
value  and  impact  of  integrating  enterprise  within  different  subjects.  The 
understanding  of  Enterprise  Education  as  a  teaching  and  learning  style 
improved. 

SEECEL tested the opinion of teachers and school management staff71 regarding 
the importance of specific elements of entrepreneurial learning in their particular 
subject and curriculum.72 Differences were observed related to the subjects and 
curricula they work with:  

 

language  curricula:  teachers  and  school  management  staff  working  with 
language  curricula  changed  their  opinion  in  relation  to  the  relevance  of  all 
listed  skills  needed  for  a  new  business  start-up  and  also  in  relation  to 
financing, innovativeness, and business planning; 

  social  science  curriculum:  Only  a  slight  change  in  opinion  was  observed  on 
the  importance  of  skills  needed  for  a  new  business  start-up.  The  largest 
change  occurred  in  relation  to  the  recognition  of  the  importance  of 
innovativeness; 

  science curriculum: The recognition of the importance of finance for starting 

a business was the area with the greatest change; 

  arts,  technical  and  physical  education  curriculum:  Slight  changes  in  the 
opinions  of  participants  were  observed,  on  the  importance  of  skills  needed 
for a new business start-up. 

Interviewees  underlined  that  the  limited  outcomes  for  social  sciences  curricula 
could  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  entrepreneurship  related  concepts  are 
already embedded in the social sciences. Thus teachers with that focus could be 
expected to be more familiar in teaching entrepreneurial concepts already before 
the  project,  which  means  they  did  not  change  their  opinion,  but  adapted  their 
attitude  as  to  aspects  they  did  not  consider  before  (e.g.  innovativeness).  This 
underlines that the pre-conditions of teachers can greatly affect if and how they 
will  be  impacted  by  entrepreneurship  education  projects/initiatives.  Therefore, 
training  on  entrepreneurial learning/entrepreneurship  should  be  adjusted  to  the 
background of the teachers. 

3.5 

Impacts on institutions 

The  strategies  researched  for  this  study  had  three  main  goals  regarding  the 
expected  impact  on  institutions:  1)  to  embed  entrepreneurship  education  in  all 
education  levels;  2)  to  change  the  culture  of  the  institution;  and,  3)  to  engage 
stakeholders. This sub section summarise the evidence in relation to these three 
objectives. 

70 McLarty et al. (2010) Evaluation of Enterprise Education in England 
71 SEECEL (2013) Entrepreneurial learning: School professional toolkit 
72 The questions regarded prerequisites to start a business.  

37 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

3.5.1  Embedding entrepreneurship education in all education levels 

The  Entrepreneurship  Education  National  Action  Plan  in  the  Netherlands  placed 
particular  emphasis  on  influencing  institutions  and  encouraging  them  to  offer 
more  entrepreneurship  education.  Evidence  showed  that  between  2007  and 
2012,  entrepreneurship  became  more  deeply  embedded  in  the  mission 
statements,  programmes  and  curricula  of  educational  institutions  in  all  sectors. 
Entrepreneurship  education  had  become  a  more  common  feature,  and  courses 
were  offered  by  a  growing  number  of  education  institutions.  The  number  of 
institutions  across  sectors  that  have  entrepreneurship  implemented  in  their 
mission statements grew between from 27% (2007) to 33% (2010).73  

  The  largest  growth  from  not  having  enshrined  entrepreneurship  in  the 
curriculum  ‘at  all’  to  having  done  so  ‘a  bit’  took  place  in  primary  education 
(50% of primary schools in 2007, 69% in 2012).  

  The  percentage  of  secondary  schools  with  entrepreneurship  in  the  mission 

and vision grew as well (from 62% in 2007 to 74% in 2012).  

  The sector of upper secondary vocational education started from a high level 
of  implementation  already  (2007:  78%).  In  2012,  96%  of  institutions  this 
sector offered entrepreneurship education programmes or curricula content.    

  In  Universities  of  Applied  Sciences  the  degree  to  which  institutional 
management  got  involved  in  promoting  entrepreneurial  education  increased 
by over 18 percentage points between 2010 and 2012.  

  In  2007,  80%  of  universities  offered  entrepreneurship  education.  In  2012, 

this proportion was 96%.  

Hence,  as  a  consequence  of  the  National  Action  Plan,  entrepreneurship  gained 
momentum  in  Dutch  schools  and  universities  and  the  strategy  led  to  a  broader 
basis of institutions that practice it.  

The ‘Entrepreneurship Spirit Programme’ from the Walloon Agency for Economic 
Stimulation  (ASE)  used  awareness-raising  agents  who  go  to  a  school,  meet  the 
head  of  school  or  teacher(s)  and  present  the  actions  and  tools  on  offer  to 
enhance  entrepreneurial  spirit.  In  2014,  605  out  of  the  653  target  schools 
(secondary/higher  education)  had  a  contact  with  awareness-raising  agents; 
which  was  a  penetration  rate  of  93%.  ASE  measures  the  number  of 
entrepreneurship-related  actions  set  up  in  schools  which  follow  these  visits.  In 
2014,  63%  of  the  653  target  schools  implemented  at  least  one  action  or 
project.74 

3.5.2  Change the culture of the institution 

  The project ‘Creativity and innovation in school (UPI)’ in Slovenia supported 
entrepreneurship courses and clubs. In the opinion of students and mentors, 
the  UPI  activities  managed  to  establish  a  creative  climate  in  the  schools. 
Principals and mentors also agreed strongly that entrepreneurship education 
has  a  positive  impact  on  flexibility,  innovation  process  management  and 
creativity  of  the  students  as  well  the  teachers  and  mentors.  All  questions 

73 Gibcus, P. et al. (2010) Onderwijs en Ondernemerschap, Eenmeting 2010, Petra Gibcus, Maarten Overweel, 
Sita Tan, Michel Winnubst, Zoetermeer, May 2010; and van der Aa, R. et al. (2012) Ondernemerschap in het 
onderwijs, Tweemeting, Eindrapport, Ruud van der Aa, Susan van Geel, Etienne van Nuland, Rotterdam, 
November 2012 . 
74 Newcom (2012) for ASE - Enquête sur l'esprit d'entreprendre dans l'enseignement. Enquête sur la vision des 
enseignants sur l’Esprit d’Entreprendre – Synthèse des résultats 

38 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

related  to  both  statements  received  values  between  4  and  5  on  a  Likert 
scale, with 5 being the highest value.75 

  In 2012, department and faculty heads from Universities of Applied Sciences 
in the Netherlands reported that they see themselves as entrepreneurs more 
often  than  in  2010.  Over  the  same  period,  their  view  that  entrepreneurship 
should  be  part  of  teachers’  competence  profiles  grew  by  11  percentage 
points.76 

  Schools  that  used  the  SEECEL  School  Professional  Toolkit  (SPT)  in  a  pilot 
project  reported  that  the  change  observed  went  beyond  the  introduction  of 
new  teaching  methods.  Schools  in  Bosnia  and Herzegovina  and  Montenegro 
observed a cultural shift in favour of entrepreneurship amongst the teachers 
involved.  Moreover,  the  pilot  project  was  perceived  as  a  means  to  improve 
the overall level of education offered to children.77 

  Impact  in  SEECEL  schools  varied  depending  on  the  focus  of  the  schools’ 
curricula.  Impact  was  stronger  in  schools  with a  curriculum  that  focused  on 
language learning compared with social science curriculum schools and those 
specialising in arts, technical and physical education.78 

75 Halilović, P. (2013) Doktorska disertacija. Učinki inovacijsko-podjetniškega izobraževanja na spodbujanje 
inovativnosti in smiselnost uvajanja omenjenih vsebin med osnovnošolce v Sloveniji. Maribor: Ekonomsko-
poslovna fakulteta Maribor 
76 van der Aa, R. et al. (2012) Ondernemerschap in het onderwijs, Tweemeting, Eindrapport, Rotterdam, 
November 2012 
77 SEECEL (2013) Entrepreneurial learning: School professional toolkit 
78 ibid 

39 

  
 
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

The multiplication effect 

In  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  and  Montenegro,  the  SEECEL  projects  seemed  to 
have contributed to a cultural shift for the entire teaching staff in the  affected 
schools. Teachers involved in the projects self-assessed that they shared their 
good  practices  with  colleagues  in  other  classes  and  levels.  Hence,  a 
multiplication effect was achieved.  

3.5.3  Engage stakeholders 

Evidence from the National Action Plan in the Netherlands79 showed that: 

  In  primary  schools,  parents  were  very  engaged  in  implementing  the 
entrepreneurship curriculum: they helped with concrete actions in about half 
of  the  schools  (51%  of  primary  schools  in  2012).  The  business  community 
was  also  involved  (50%  of  schools  carried  out  actions  with  the  business 
community in 2010, 56% in 2012). 

  70%  of  secondary  schools  organised  specific  entrepreneurial  activities  and 
81%  of  the  schools  invited  guest  teachers  from  the  business  community  to 
give lessons. 

  In Universities of Applied Sciences,  entrepreneurs gave more guest lectures 
and  teachers  had  more  opportunities  to  gain  practical  experience  in 
businesses.  At  the  same  time,  the  business  community  started  playing  a 
much greater role in defining the content and organisation of entrepreneurial 
education. 

Evidence from SEECEL showed that pilot projects encouraged schools to intensify 
their cooperation with the local (business) community and with schools in other 
SEECEL countries.80 

3.6 

Impacts on the economy  

The  strategies and programmes  researched  formulated a range  of goals related 
to  economic  impact.  Above  all,  they  aimed:  1)  to  increase  the  rate  of  start-
up/venture creation; and, 2) to enhance the employability of graduates. 

Through  these  effects,  which  are  connected  to  an  individuals’  entrepreneurial 
skills  and  behaviour,  entrepreneurship  education  strategies  can  have  an  impact 
on  the  economy.  Such  impact  can  however  only  be  measured  after  time  has 
passed.  

3.6.1  Higher start-up rates 

The majority of strategies examined for this study were launched in the last five 
to  seven  years  and  the  observations  on  impact  concerned  change  that  had 
occurred after the first two to four years. This limits the possibility of identifying 
intermediate  outcomes  on  the  economy  that  can  be  linked  to  the  strategies 
overall  or  to  activities  within  them.  Moreover,  the  students  who  are  the  target 
groups of entrepreneurship education strategies are often still in education. This 
applies  particularly  to  measures  in  primary  or  lower  secondary  school;  where  it 
cannot be expected that beneficiaries have yet created companies, demonstrated 
entrepreneurial  behaviour  as  employees  (intrapreneurship)  or  achieved  higher 
employability rates than individuals in control groups.  

79 2012 measurement (‘Tweemeting’)  
80 SEECEL (2013) Entrepreneurial learning: School professional toolkit 

40 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

This  caveat  is  especially  pertinent  in  the  measurements  of  impact  of  the 
Entrepreneurship Education National Action Plan in the Netherlands. The National 
Action Plan was launched in 2007 and one of its main goals was to increase the 
number of students who start up their own business within a period of five years 
after  completing  their  education.  When  the  measurements  took  place  in  2010 
and 2012, success in relation to higher start-up rates was not yet observable. A 
new measurement will be undertaken in  2014/2015 and relevant results can be 
expected then.  

The limited evidence so far available includes: 

  The  YES  Action  Plan  in  Wales  was  specifically  promoted  as  a  means  of 
tackling  youth  unemployment  and  related  economic  challenges.81  It  was 
monitored  through  a  series  of  international  and  UK-wide  surveys  which 
provided evidence that the start-up rate among 18-24 year olds in Wales is 
higher  than  the  UK  average.  The  Global  Entrepreneurship  Monitor  (GEM) 
Report (2013) indicated that 9.5% of young Welsh people engaged in early-
stage  entrepreneurial  activity  in  2012.82  The  UK  rate  was  reported  to  be 
8.3%. While this does not prove causality and provide direct evidence of the 
impact and effectiveness of the YES Action Plan and the GEM sub-sample of 
18-24  year-olds  may  include  persons  that  are  not  in  education,  the  rate  of 
early-stage entrepreneurs potentially reflects the higher level of exposure to 
entrepreneurship education activities.  

  The survival rate of graduate start-up businesses in Wales is higher than the 
UK  average.  The  Higher  Education  Business  and  Community  Interaction 
Survey  (HEBCIS)83  monitors  the  number  of  graduate  start-up  companies 
surviving 3 years across the UK. In 2011 in Wales this was 10.3% compared 
to the UK average at 5%.  

  The  initiatives  measured  by  FFE-YE  in  Denmark  had  similar  impacts. 
Statistically significant differences between entrepreneurship students and a 
control group were observed regarding start-up rates. More higher education 
students that participated in entrepreneurship education ran a business than 
in  a  control  group84.  Between  a  baseline  measurement  carried  out  in  2011, 
and the second measurement in 2012, the ratio of entrepreneurship students 
running  a  company  went  up  by  50  percentage  points.  In  the  same  time 
frame,  the  ratio  of  students  in  the  control  group  who  were  active  as 
entrepreneurs decreased by 49.4 percentage points.85  

3.6.2  Enhanced employability 

The evaluation of the Norwegian Action Plan was informed by an annual national 
survey  on  the  transition  of  higher  education  graduates  to  the  labour  market. 86 
This  survey  asked  recent  graduates  about  their  current  position  and  their 
satisfaction  with  the  education  they  went  through.  Since  2012,  questions  about 
entrepreneurial  skills  and  intentions  were  added  to  the  annual  survey.  The 
results  were  very  positive:  Graduates  from  entrepreneurship  programmes 
connected  to  the  Action  Plan in  Norway  were  less  likely  to  be  unemployed  than 
graduates that did not take up entrepreneurship education; moreover, they were 
found to be more often in steady employment.  

81 http://www.learningobservatory.com/uploads/publications/828.pdf 
82 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Special Report: A Global Perspective on Entrepreneurship Education and 
Training 
83 http://www.hefcw.ac.uk/about_he_in_wales/statistics/business_communities_survey_hebcis.aspx 
84 See Methodology section 6 for details on data collection 
85 ibid 
86 L. A. Støren, L. A. (2012), ”Entreprenørskap i høyere utdanning – erfaringer blant nyutdannede” 

41 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Higher employment rates - steady employment 

Among graduates from  entrepreneurship programmes connected to the Action 
Plan  in  Norway,  the  unemployment  rate  within  engineering  and  business 
management was 2.8% compared to 6.6% for graduates in the control group.  

Entrepreneurship  education  graduates  were  also  found  more  likely  to  be  in 
steady employment (73.6% as opposed to 60.8% in the control group).87 

3.7 

Impacts on society 

Impacts  on  society  that  stem  from  educational  activities  need  time  to  be 
observable  and  measurable.  National  and  regional  strategies  are  likely  to 
generate such impacts because they embody a long-term approach and a variety 
of  input  and  activities.  These  often  include  communication  strategies  and 
awareness raising measures.  

In broad terms the strategies were anticipated to impact on society in two ways: 
1)  To  facilitate  regional  development;  and  2)  To  foster  entrepreneurial  literate 
societies. 

3.7.1  Regional development 

The Norwegian Action Plan saw entrepreneurship as a means to transform skills 
and ideas into activities relevant to the  social, economic and cultural context.  A 
key  priority  of  the  Action  Plan  was  to  stimulate  development  and  growth  in  all 
parts of the country;  especially rural areas. Measures were concentrated in  less 
urbanised  regions  with  low  business  foundation  rates.  Evidence  showed  major 
differences and reverse trends between urban and rural regions: 

 

in  rural  regions,  as  a  consequence  of  the  Action  Plan,  the  proportion  of 
students starting mini-companies is higher than in urbanised regions;  

  the  same  rural  regions  however  still  score  very  low  on  business  foundation 
rates,  while  in  centralised  regions  business  start-up  rates  continues  to 
grow.88 

However, as stated above, the element of time needs to be considered as well. 
Societal  impact  in  the  form  of  regional  development  will  only  become 
measureable in the long term. 

3.7.2  Entrepreneurial literate societies 

The  vision  of  the  Welsh  YES  Action  Plan  explicitly  aimed  to  achieve  a  cultural 
shift  resulting  in  more  entrepreneurial  and  intrapreneurial  young  people.  It 
included  a  campaign  to  inform  students  and  stakeholders  and  to  promote  the 
Action  Plan.  The  Enterprise  Catalyst  data  used  by  YES89  showed  an  increase  in 
awareness  of  enterprise  as  a  training  offer  and  career  option.  Data  in  2011 
showed a 16% increase compared to the baseline survey undertaken in 2007. As 
mentioned  in  the  previous  section,  more  youth  involved  in  entrepreneurial 
activities  and  higher  start-up  rates  were  also  observed.  Yet,  it  remains  to  be 
seen  how  these  results  will  contribute  to  impact  on  the  society  at  large  in  the 
long term.  

87 Støren, L. A. (2012) ”Entreprenørskap i høyere utdanning – erfaringer blant nyutdannede” 
88 ibid 
89 http://wales.gov.uk/about/cabinet/cabinetstatements/2013/yesactionplan/?lang=en 

42 

  
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

SEECEL  explicitly  included  impact  on  society  in  its  objectives.  In  the  long  run, 
SEECEL  aims  to  foster  ‘entrepreneurial  literate  societies’  in  its  eight  member 
countries.90  Evidence  that  this  can  be  achieved  was  found  and  policy  level 
changes were initiated. 

Pilot projects leading to broader policy initiatives  

In  all  eight  SEECEL  countries,  the  activities  of  SEECEL  led  to  policy  initiatives 
which  promoted  the  integration  of  entrepreneurship  education  into  school 
curricula and practices.91 A ‘Charter for Entrepreneurial Learning: the Keystone 
for  Growth  and  Jobs’  was  ratified  in  2012.  This  was  a  notable  success  of 
SEECEL. 

90 Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia, Macedonia and Turkey.   
91 http://www.seecel.hr/; http://www.seecel.hr/eight-seecel-member-states-supported-a-charter-for-
entrepreneurial-learning-the-keystone-for-growth-and-jobs 

43 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

4 

The impact of institutional changes 
prioritising entrepreneurship education  

4.1 

Introduction 

This  section  describes  the  effects  of  entrepreneurship  education  actions  taken 
and  implemented  at  institutional  level  by  schools  (primary  and  secondary 
education as well as vocational education and training) and universities.  

Evidence  was  drawn  from  institutional  initiatives  that  were  realised  with  the 
means and resources of the school or university. In other examples, schools and 
universities took part in governmental programmes and developed projects and 
initiatives based on the programme objectives.   

Prioritising entrepreneurship education 

Entrepreneurship education actions at institutional level cover a broad range of 
interventions of different scale. Actions taken by institutions can include:  

  giving  entrepreneurship  education  a  high  significance  in  their  objectives 

and mission; 

  establishing a horizontal approach which embeds entrepreneurship across 

curricula; 

  establishing  a  subject-specific  approach  which  embeds  entrepreneurship 

in subjects such as economy, business studies, social sciences etc.; 

  modernising the culture of teaching and learning by using innovative  and 
participatory  methods  which  support  entrepreneurial  skills  (for  example, 
self-regulated  learning,  team  work,  project  based  learning,  problem-
solving under real life conditions, simulation, and learning by doing); 

  carrying  out  specific  entrepreneurship  projects  or  implementing  ad-hoc 

entrepreneurship education actions; 

  establishing  greater  cooperation  with  stakeholders  from  the  world  of 

business; 

  providing training and information to teachers and other staff; and 

  providing support to students with entrepreneurial intentions.  

The  section  presents  evidence  of  impacts  at  the  individual  level  (students, 
teachers,  and  other  staff  members),  institutional  level,  the  economy  and  the 
society.  

Table  4.1  gives  brief  characteristics  of  the  four  cases  that  provided  evidence  to 
inform this section. 

44 

  
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Table 4.1  The cases providing evidence on the institutional impact of entrepreneurship education  

Type 

Cases 

Key characteristics 

Evidence on impact 

1  National 
strategy 

The Entrepreneurship 
Education National Action Plan 
2007-2012 (Netherlands), 
http://www.rvo.nl/subsidies-
regelingen/actieprogramma-
onderwijs-en-ondernemen 

2  Governmental 

programme  

Misgav elementary school 
(Israel; 2005-2007), 
http://www.misgav.org.il/ 

3 

Institutional 
initiative 

4 

Institutional 
initiative 

The method of problem-based 
learning (PBL) at the 
University of Aalborg 
(Denmark, 1974-ongoing), 
http://www.en.aau.dk/About
+Aalborg+University/The+Aal
borg+model+for+problem+b
ased+learning+%28PBL%29/ 

The Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology (MIT), 
http://web.mit.edu/ 

In 2007, the Netherlands launched a 
comprehensive National Action Plan that targeted 
all educational levels and funded a variety of 
projects in primary, secondary, secondary 
vocational and Higher Education. One of the 
initiatives related to the strategy was the 
establishment of six ‘Centres of Entrepreneurship’ 
associated to universities. 

The Experimental Department of the Israeli Ministry 
of Education funds a programme for schools that 
want to implement an innovative approach in 
teaching. These schools are regarded as 
experimental. Misgav Elementary School received 
the status of experimental school in 2005. 

Since Aalborg University was first established in 
1974, all university programmes have been based 
on a unique model of teaching and learning: the 
problem-based, project-organized model also 
referred to as “PBL - The Aalborg model”. 

The Centres of Entrepreneurship were 
evaluated as to their efficiency (mid-term 
and end-term evaluation). Other activities 
were evaluated and measured through a 
series of surveys.  

In 2007, an independent impact 
measurement was conducted to assess 
the impact of transformation from 
conventional towards entrepreneurial 
schools. Organisational culture, 
innovativeness of the school, principal’s 
proactivity and pupils’ entrepreneurial 
drives were measured. 

A survey from 2011 measured the skills 
acquired by students and the impact on 
their employability.   

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 
established an entrepreneurial ecosystem that 
provides comprehensive support to students with 
entrepreneurial intentions. 

A study from 2009 measured the role and 
impact of the MIT on the local economy.  

45 

  
 
 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

The main impacts of institutional changes through 
prioritising entrepreneurship education 

Impact on students 

Students in educational institutions prioritising entrepreneurship were found to 
have  higher  entrepreneurial  skills  than  their  peers  in  ‘conventional’  schools. 
Attainment  rates  and  motivation  have  risen,  including  in  some  cases  the 
engagement of parents (for instance in supporting entrepreneurship projects). 
In  the  cases  of  Aalborg  University  (DK)  and  the  Massachusetts’  Institute  of 
Technology (MIT) (USA), improved entrepreneurial skills were found to be the 
result  of  learning  and  working  conditions  which  support  team  work  and 
problem-solving  under  real-life  conditions.  A  guidance  structure  which  forms 
part  of  an  ‘entrepreneurship  ecosystem’  that  helps  students  with  all  steps 
related to creating a venture was also found to be a very positive factor.  

Impact on institutions 

The  engagement  of  heads  of  schools  was  found  to  be  highly  conducive  for 
institutional  change.  At  Misgav  elementary  school  staff  members  were 
rewarded  when  they  engaged  in  entrepreneurial  projects.  MIT  removed  legal 
barriers to enable staff members to found their own companies, if they wished 
to. This supported staff motivation.  

Over  the  years,  an  entrepreneurial  culture  and  ecosystem  emerged  which 
ensures  that  students  have  support  from  experienced  tutors  and  mentors 
available to them at all steps of the start-up process.  

The  importance  of  such  measures  is  evident  as  student  entrepreneurs  single 
out  networking  and  mentoring  as  highly  important  supportive  factors.  This 
includes  benefits  which  stem  from  institutional  business  contacts  and 
information  networks,  and  hence  strengthened  cooperation  with  business 
stakeholders: 

  At  Misgav  elementary  school,  stakeholders  took  on  an  increasingly  active 
role  over  time,  for  instance  in  helping  pupils  to  implement  the  business 
ideas developed in the classroom.  

  The  close  ties  of  the  MIT  with  technology-based industries  allowed  for  the 
development of several spin-offs led by MIT staff and alumni. This ensures 
that  MIT  staff  are  closely  connected  to  the  relevant  business  sectors  and 
are up to date with technological innovation and the state-of-the-art.  

Impact on the economy and society 

The  introduction  of  project  work  and  real–life  work  environments  led  to 
students  acquiring  professional  and  core  employability  skills  at  Aalborg 
University.  

In  the  case  of  MIT,  the  entrepreneurship  ecosystem  established  had 
measurable economic results:  

  The  total  annual  revenues  (estimated  $2  trillion)  and  the  employment 
footprint  (estimated  3.3  million  employees)  of  MIT  alumni-founded  firms 
are equivalent to the 11th largest economy in the world. 

  The  impact  of  MIT  alumni  goes  beyond  the  US:  The  majority  of  the  MIT 
alumni  firms  are  founded  in  the  US,  but  790  MIT  alumni  firms  were  also 
created in Europe (mainly in England, France and Germany in the software 
and consulting sectors). 

  MIT alumni companies are often set in highly active and innovative sectors 
such  as  software,  electronics  (including  instruments,  semiconductors,  and 

46 

  
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

computers) and biotechnology.  

  Many  of  the  MIT  alumni  companies  are  knowledge-based  and  operate  in 
sectors  where  patents  and  research  are  important.  These  companies  are 
more likely to hold at least one patent and are more  export-oriented than 
other companies. Therefore, they are considered more likely to have long-
term growth potential than companies in other sectors/industries. 

4.2  The objectives of institutional changes prioritising 

entrepreneurship education  

Schools  and  universities  connect  several  expectations  to  entrepreneurship 
education. The programmes and actions have objectives related to impact on all 
four  levels  addressed  by  this  study:  individual,  institutional,  economy  and 
society. 

4.2.1  Objectives seeking impact on individuals  

When  institutions  take  an  initiative  to  promote  and  prioritise  entrepreneurship, 
they  do  not  necessarily  aim  to  achieve  institutional  change  in  the  first  place. 
Most programmes and actions target first and foremost students. They aim: 

  To  enhance  entrepreneurial  skills  and  attitudes  of  students:  The 
changes implemented in Misgav elementary school were based on the belief 
that  an  entrepreneurial  school  environment  can  impact  positively  on  pupils’ 
beliefs, values and attitudes and can cause a preference for innovation and a 
proactive disposition. 

  To provide students  with  a better  learning environment: The Problem 
Based  Learning  (PBL)-Aalborg  Model  aimed  to  give  students  the  possibility 
for independent learning and working with the business community to solve 
real-life problems. The PBL learning model also intended to help the students 
in  analysing  problems,  working  in  a  result-oriented  manner  and  developing 
team working competences.92 

  To  provide  support  and  guidance  to  students  with  entrepreneurial 
intentions:  The  MIT  ensured  that  aspiring  students,  but  also  faculty,  are 
supported  in  turning  their  business  ideas  into  start-ups.93.  Aspiring 
entrepreneurs  get  continuous  guidance,  coaching,  access  to  seed  funding 
and networking opportunities. The Centres of Entrepreneurship (CoEs) which 
were  established  as  part  of  the  Entrepreneurship  Education  National  Action 
Plan  in  the  Netherlands  had  similar  objectives.  Students  find  guidance  and 
training opportunities for all questions related to venture creation.94  

4.2.2  Objectives seeking impact on the institution  

Naturally, institutional initiatives go together with objectives regarding impact on 
the 
level.  Through  measures  promoting  and  prioritising 
entrepreneurship, institutions aimed: 

institutional 

  To  establish  an  entrepreneurial  ecosystem:  The  support  measures 
established by the MIT in the USA and the CoEs in the Netherlands aimed at 
establishing  a  comprehensive  support  system  that  goes  beyond  individual 
student  counselling.  The  MIT  ecosystem  comprised  academic  courses, 

92http://www.en.aau.dk/About+Aalborg+University/The+Aalborg+model+for+problem+based+learning+%28P
BL%29/ 
93 http://www.mitef.org/s/1314/interior-2-col.aspx?sid=1314&gid=5&pgid=471; cited 31/3/2014 
94 Progress Report on the Education and Entrepreneurship Programme; 2008. 

47 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

centres,  programmes  and  student  groups.95  The  Dutch  CoEs  focused  on 
directing,  organising  and 
institution-wide 
entrepreneurship  education  with  the  goal  of  encouraging  entrepreneurship 
across  educational  institutions  and  sectors.96  The  activities  addressed 
students as well as university staff members.  

facilitating  multidisciplinary, 

  To enhance the level of innovation and entrepreneurial culture of the 
institution:  The  Israeli  concept  of  experimental  schools  implemented  at 
Misgav elementary school was based on the idea that schools transform the 
conventional  curriculum  by  focusing  on  a  subject  such  as  arts,  music, 
ecology or entrepreneurship and established this as a horizontal topic across 
the  curriculum.  Experimental  schools  received  additional  funding  and  a 
mentor  was  appointed  who  assisted  the  school  make  changes  to  the 
curricula and to implement the whole programme over a five-year period. By 
introducing PBL, Aalborg University aimed to redefine the role of the teacher 
in the learning process.97 Rather than communicating knowledge to students, 
often in a lecture setting, the teacher  was instead to act as an initiator and 
transfer  and 
the  collaborative  process  of  knowledge 
in 
facilitator 
development. 

  To improve or maintain the collaboration with stakeholders: All cases 
included  an  element  that  aimed  at  improving  the  institutions’  collaboration 
with business stakeholders. Misgav elementary school provided children with 
the  opportunity  to  approach  external  partners  to  implement  their  ideas  (for 
example  companies  where  their  parents  are  working).  Aalborg  University 
maintained  active  relationships  with  key  external  organizations  that 
supported  the  effective  implementation  of  the  problem  and  project  based 
model (businesses, social agencies, governmental agencies, foundations, and 
other  academic  institutions).  These  external  contacts  provide  a  source  for 
student  problem  formulations  and  project  work,  and  the  institution’s 
research and project work also benefits from these external organizations.98 
The Dutch CoE aimed at facilitating collaboration with the business world as 
well as with other educational institutions. For the MIT, the local community 
is  a  very  important  means  to  understand  and  to  keep  in  touch  with market 
needs.  

  To  enhance  their  reputation  and  get  better  access  to  funding: 
Innovative projects with positive results can be disseminated and presented 
to  parents  and  private  investors.  In  the  case  of  Aalborg  University,  the  MIT 
and  the  Dutch  CoE,  the  measures  taken  were  expected  to  enhance  the 
visibility  and  reputation  of  the  universities  and  to  bring  in  additional 
resources  in  the  form  of  higher  numbers  of  students,  private  investments 
and  public  funding.  Additionally,  they  might  also  help  to  keep  high-profile 
staff members on board or attract new staff recruits with high potential.  

4.2.3  Objectives seeking impact on economy and society 

Two  initiatives  formulated  explicit  expectations  as  to  impact  on  economy  and 
society:  

  To  enhance  the  employability  of  students:  The  PBL  model  aims  to 
enhance students employability by focusing on project work, real  - life work 
experiences and team working competences.  

95 http://www.mitef.org/s/1314/interior-2-col.aspx?sid=1314&gid=5&pgid=471; cited 31/3/2014 
96 Progress Report on the Education and Entrepreneurship Programme; 2008. 
97 Shinde V. and Kolmos An.: Students' experience of Aalborg PBL model - A case study. Paper presented at 
SEFI annual conference 2011, Lisbon, Portugal. 
98http://www.en.aau.dk/About+Aalborg+University/The+Aalborg+model+for+problem+based+learning+%28P
BL%29/ 

48 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  To  fertilise  the  local  economy:  The  MIT  sees  itself  as  part  of  the  local 
economy and defines its role as feeding into the (local) business structure.  

4.3 

Impact on the individual student 

This  sub  section  discusses  the  findings  on impact  against the  objectives  related 
to the individual as formulated by the initiatives.  

4.3.1  Enhanced entrepreneurial skills and attitudes among pupils 

Evidence collected suggests that pupils exposed to entrepreneurship education in 
an  entrepreneurial  school  or  university 
to  have  better/higher 
entrepreneurial  skills  than  pupils  in  schools  that  do  not  prioritise  and  promote 
entrepreneurship  education.  Students’  entrepreneurial  skills  seem  to  improve 
when  entrepreneurship 
initiatives. 
Institutional  entrepreneurship  education  initiatives  can  also  impact  on  students’ 
motivation.  

institution-wide 

is  promoted 

through 

tend 

  Misgav  elementary  school  activities  included  teacher  training  activities 
through  lectures  and  workshops,  as  well  as  activities  targeting  students 
(courses,  participation  in  ‘entrepreneurship  centres,  i.e.  working  groups, 
mentoring  younger  pupils).  The  measures  included  an  ‘entrepreneurship 
centres’ project and lessons on developing an innovative and alternative way 
of  thinking.  The  outcomes  were  measured  by  a  survey  which  contained  42 
statements  and  used  a  five-point  Likert  scale.99  The  survey  questions 
covered  five  different  dimensions  of  the  ‘Entrepreneurial  Drive’:  proactive 
disposition,  preference  for  innovation,  self-efficacy,  achievement  motivation 
and  non-conformity  (using  simple  and  age-appropriate  language).  The 
results  were  compared  with  a  “conventional”  elementary  school 
in 
geographical  proximity  and  with  socio-demographic  similarities.  Misgav 
pupils  achieved  higher  values  on  most  elements  of  ‘entrepreneurial  drive’, 
but had a lower value for non-conformity than their peers. According to the 
main researcher100 this could be explained by the fact that these pupils were 
very engaged in school activities which could have led them to identify with 
school regulations and procedures as such. This argument is supported by an 
increased attainment rate. 101   

  Anecdotal  evidence  also  points  to  improved  parental  engagement  at  Misgav 
elementary  school  –  for  instance,  many  parents  engaged  in  students’ 
entrepreneurial  projects  and,  as  a  consequence,  also  provided  support  to 
activities connected to it. It is worth mentioning though that parents of those 
pupils  who  were  following  the  regular  curricula  without  any  difficulty  were 
reportedly  more  supportive  of  the  ‘entrepreneurship  centres’  initiative  than 
those whose children faced challenges in following the regular activities. 102 

  The  introduction  of  a  horizontal  model  of  PBL  in  mechanical  engineering  at 
the  University  of  Aalborg  in  Denmark  enhanced  students’  skills  related  to 
employability. Based on self-assessment, 79 % of the respondents confirmed 
that their team work and problem-solving skills improved.103 

99 Options available were: ‘Strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘undecided’, ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ 
100 Interview with Sibylle Heilbrunn conducted by ICF on 24  April 2014  
101 Sibylle Heilbrunn, ibid 
102 Sibylle Heilbrunn, ibid 
103 Shinde V. and Kolmos An.: Students' experience of Aalborg PBL model - A case study. Paper presented at 
SEFI annual conference 2011, Lisbon, Portugal. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

4.3.2  Better learning environment  

  An  essential  feature  of  the  Aalborg  PBL  model  is  team  work.  To  facilitate 
team work, Aalborg University  provides each project group with work  space 
and  internet  access  for  the  duration  of  the  academic  term.  This  space  may 
be  individual  rooms  for  each  group  or  larger  rooms  divided  into  individual 
work areas for each group.  . The work space  can be regarded as offices  for 
students, simulating the working conditions of practicing engineers.  Physical 
space  may  be  supplemented  by  virtual  space.  The  survey  showed  that 
students consider group rooms as one of the important success factors of the 
PBL model.104 

  The measurement of the  impact of the  PBL model also showed that 93% of 
respondents agreed that this form of entrepreneurial learning enhanced their 
motivation.105 

  Measurement  of  the  effect  of  introducing  PBL  in  mechanical  engineering  at 
the University of Aalborg showed that students are happy with their studying 
conditions and that dropout rates decreased. Hence the university benefitted 
on an organisational level from the introduction of PBL.106 

  MIT  alumni  also  stated  that  the  institutional  entrepreneurial  culture  had  an 
impact  on  their  confidence  that  problems  can  be  solved  by  high-calibre 
teams.107 

4.3.3  Support and guidance to students with entrepreneurial intentions 

  The  survey  of  MIT  alumni  shows  that  the  MIT  entrepreneurship  ecosystem 
encouraged students to become risk-takers and entrepreneurial. The survey 
also highlights the importance attributed to each element of the ecosystem, 
whether  part  of  the  formal  curriculum  and  other  learning  opportunities  or 
informal interaction with faculty and students.108 

4.4 

Impact on institutions 

The section below discusses the findings against the objectives related to change 
in the institution that were targeted by the initiatives.  

4.4.1  An enhanced level of innovation and entrepreneurial culture of 

the institution  

A  comprehensive  entrepreneurial  culture  and  environment  is  important  to 
support  an  entrepreneurship  education  initiative  in  a  school  or  university.  This 
was  often  found  to  be  a  result  of  the  interest,  enthusiasm  and  commitment  of 
the  school  leadership  towards  entrepreneurship  education.  The  relationship 
between  teachers  and  the  school  leadership  is  then  an  important  factor  to 
facilitate buy-in and engagement from staff members.  

  This  is  the  case  for  instance  in  the  Misgav  elementary  school.  Qualitative 
interviews showed that the involvement and support of the school leadership 
was  ensured  because  the  initiative  to  change  a  ‘regular’  school  into  an 
entrepreneurial school stemmed from the school principal.109 

104 ibid 
105 ibid 
106 ibid 
107 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Kauffman Foundation of Entrepreneurship (2009) Entrepreneurial 
Impact: The Role of MIT 
108 ibid 
109 Heilbrunn, S. (2010) Advancing Entrepreneurship in an Elementary School: A Case Study 

50 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  The evaluation of the CoE that were part  of the Entrepreneurship Education 
National Action Plan 2007-2012 in the Netherlands looked at the effects of all 
six  centres  combined.110  A  large  range  and  scope  of  activities  was  carried 
out. More than 300 activities were organised to make the students aware of 
the  possibilities  of  entrepreneurship,  to  help  them  acquire  the  necessary 
knowledge and skills and to support them in starting their own business. This 
can serve as proof that the guidance structure improved largely.  

  The  study  on  the  role  of  the  MIT111  reported  that  entrepreneurship  (defined 
as  venture  creation),  has  been  promoted  for  several  decades  in  MIT.  The 
motto of MIT (‘Mens et Manus’ - mind and hand) underlined the importance 
attributed to developing applicable knowledge. Faculty was also  encouraged 
to transmit knowledge to industry. Although entrepreneurship has not been a 
formal institutional policy, MIT has an entrepreneurial ecosystem in place, to 
ensure that aspiring students, but also faculty, are supported in turning their 
business ideas into start-ups. 

Staff motivation as a success factor: Teachers and tutors 
as entrepreneurial role models 

Trust  in  the  principal  and  a  formal  and  informal  reward  system  in  place  at 
Misgav  elementary  school  in  Israel  were  reported  to  enhance  staff  motivation 
and  engagement.  This  was  a  major  success  factor  for  the  shift  towards  an 
entrepreneurial  school.  Consequently,  the  ‘Entrepreneurial  school’  programme 
encouraged the school staff to act innovatively, which in turn can be taken as a 
precondition for the reported increase of pupils’ entrepreneurial skills. 

At  MIT,  besides  students,  staff  were  also  encouraged  to  be  entrepreneurial. 
The  rules  and  regulations  of  the  faculty  were  changed  to  make  it  possible  for 
faculty  and  research  staff  to  start  their  own  business;  and  the  support  the 
university  offers  to  budding  entrepreneurs  was  opened  to  faculty  members  as 
well.  

4.4.2  Establishing an entrepreneurial ecosystem for students 

The  study  measuring  the  impact  of  the  MIT  stressed  the  importance  of  an 
entrepreneurial  ecosystem  to  support  entrepreneurship  education  in  higher 
education.  Interestingly  enough, 
institutional  strategy  on 
there 
entrepreneurship  as  such  in  MIT.  An  entrepreneurial  ecosystem  has  been 
gradually,  and  systematically  developed  since  the  establishment  of  the 
institution  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  Activities  as  part  of  the  MIT 
entrepreneurial ecosystem include the provision of academic courses, innovative 
approaches to teaching, i.e. centres, programmes and students groups. In terms 
of  resources,  students/aspiring  entrepreneurs  have  access  to  continuous 
guidance, coaching, seed funding and network opportunities.  

is  no 

Entrepreneurship  is  ‘in  the  flesh  and  bone’  of  the  institution,  which,  over  the 
years,  has  led  to  the  development  of  an  entrepreneurship  ecosystem  with 
several means of support to enterprise founders.112 

110 Evaluatiecommissie Centres of Entrepreneurship (2012) Evaluatie Centres of Entrepreneurship, Den Haag 
111 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Kauffman Foundation of Entrepreneurship (2009) Entrepreneurial 
Impact: The Role of MIT. available on 
http://www.kauffman.org/~/media/kauffman_org/research%20reports%20and%20covers/2009/02/mit_impact
_full_report.pdf 
112 ibid  

51 

  
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Networking and mentoring prove to be important means of 
support to students 

The  survey  tried  to  uncover  which  part  of  the  institution’s  entrepreneurial 
ecosystem proved to be most useful for each particular alumni entrepreneur.  

It showed that the MIT’s Entrepreneurial Network (alumni and other members 
of  the  local  business  community)  and  informal  interaction  with  faculty 
members  was  taken  to  be  very  important  by  the  respondents  This  highlights 
the importance that budding student entrepreneurs attribute to networking and 
mentoring,  which includes  learning  from  personal  experiences as  well  as 
benefitting  from  business  contacts  and  information  networks.  The 
respondents  also  rated  a  recently  introduced  business  plan  contest  as  very 
useful. This shows the importance respondents attribute to practical experience 
in a safe environment with limited risk.  

The example of the CoE in the Netherlands113 can be used to underline that the 
century-long  process  of  organic  growth  that  the  entrepreneurial  ecosystem  at 
the  MIT  went  through  cannot  be  replicated  within  a  limited  time  frame  of  a 
national  strategy.  The  evaluation  of  the  CoE  showed  that  five  years  after  their 
implementation, only 15% of students in the associated universities were aware 
of the services the CoEs have on offer. Hence, the visibility of the CoEs was not 
yet  high  and  some  of  the  Centres  did  not  yet  advertise  their  provisions  to  an 
optimal  extent  (e.g.  insufficient  information  on  websites,  lack  of  clarity  on  how 
students can get access to services).  

The evaluation of the CoEs also tackled the question of whether or not the level 
of  integrating  entrepreneurship  and  related  actions  in  universities  would  be  the 
same  without  the  CoE  grants  from  the  government.  The  evaluation  found  that 
without subsidies, the level of progress would not have been achieved – or would 
have  been  achieved  much  more  slowly.  The  subsidies  enabled  the  Centres  to 
develop new curricular courses and a range of extra-curricular activities.  

Notably, five of the seven rejected grant applicants  created their own Centre of 
Entrepreneurship, despite the rejection of grants. It is not known whether these 
CoEs received grants from counties or municipalities, nor is it known whether the 
services  of  these  CoEs  are  similar  to  the  services  of  the  government  supported 
CoEs.  However,  the  evaluation  committee  took  this  as  a  sign  that  the  mere 
existence  of  the  national  grant  scheme  has  worked  as  a  catalyst  for  developing 
concrete  plans  to  establish  a  CoE,  regardless  of  whether  the  Centres  received 
the grants they applied for or not. 

4.4.3  Improved collaboration with stakeholders 

Stakeholders’ engagement also proved to be key to the visibility of the initiative 
and, if successful, its effects. 

  The approach of the Misgav elementary school relied on having stakeholders 
on-board,  with  a  gradual  involvement  of  ‘immediate’  stakeholders  such  as 
parents,  local  public  authorities  (municipalities)  and  representatives  of 
industry.  A  couple  of  years  after  the  start  of  the  programme,  these 
stakeholders  started  to  play  a  greater  role  in  the  programme,  i.e. 
participating  pupils  approached  external  partners  (e.g.  companies  in  which 
their  parents  worked)  to  implement  the  business  ideas  developed  in  the 
classroom.114 

113 Implemented as one of the tracks of the National Action Plan 2007-2012 
114 Heilbrunn, S. (2010) Advancing Entrepreneurship in an Elementary School: a Case Study 

52 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  The  MIT  established  close  ties  with  technology-based  industries  from  the 
start.  This  was  further  reinforced  in  the  institutional  culture  by  encouraging 
faculty and research staff to invest part of their time in developing their own 
companies.  This  allowed  for  the  development  of  several  spin-offs,  which 
ensured  that  MIT  staff  is  closely  connected  to  the  relevant  business  sectors 
and is up to date with state-of-the-art developments.115 

4.4.4  Enhanced reputation and better access to funding 

An  important  reason  for  institutions  to  engage  in  entrepreneurship  can  be 
examples of other institutions that benefit from the measures taken.  

  The renowned Charney/Libecap study116 provided evidence of impact from an 
entrepreneurship  course  provided  by  the  University  of  Arizona  in  a  span  of 
18  years  and  shows  that  the  Eller  College  of  Business  and  Public 
Administration  of  Arizona  received  34%  more  external  funding  than  in 
previous  years;  and  hence  benefitted  on  an  organisational  level  from  the 
introduction of the courses. For Misgav elementary school, the dissemination 
of  results  was  part  of  the  projects’  obligations.  Experimental  schools  were 
required to ‘spread’ their innovative ideas to other schools after four years of 
running  the  programme.  Impact  on  other  schools  was  expected  to  enhance 
the  return-on-investment  for  the  Experimental  Department  of  the  Israeli 
Ministry of Education. In turn, this requirement also enhanced the reputation 
of  Misgave  elementary  school  and  helped  to  communicate  the  outcomes  of 
the project.  

  The MIT Enterprise Forum was specifically founded to ensure the visibility of 
MIT’s  work,  it  increased  the  positive  feedback  received  and  promoted  the 
gradual  collaboration  and  creation  of  a  forum  for  interaction  with  investors. 
However,  MIT  alumni  tend  to  be  very  faithful  to  their  Alma  Mater.  Good 
contacts are maintained and many of them invest in the university, not least 
the successful entrepreneurs.117 

Supporting entrepreneurship education will likely attract 
the more entrepreneurially motivated 

The  study  on  the  role  of  the  MIT  over  the  decades  showed  that,  as  the 
reputation of MIT as an entrepreneurship-promoting institution increased, more 
entrepreneurial students and staff members were attracted. This self-selection 
process  significantly  contributed  to  the  development  of  the  ‘entrepreneurial 
ecosystem’.118 

4.5 

Impact on the economy and society  

Usually educational institutions see their role as preparing students for the world 
of work by helping them to acquire the necessary skills. Aalborg University is an 
example of a Higher Education Institution that uses methods from the spectrum 
of entrepreneurship education to achieve this objective.  

The MIT is a rather unusual case as it regards itself as part of the local economy 
and defines its generic role as feeding into the (local) business structure. Hence, 

115 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Kauffman Foundation of Entrepreneurship (2009) Entrepreneurial 
Impact: The Role of MIT 
116 Charney, A.,; Libecap, G.D. (2000): Impact of entrepreneurship education. Eller College of Business and 
Public Administration, University of Arizona. USA 
117 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Kauffman Foundation of Entrepreneurship (2009) Entrepreneurial 
Impact: The Role of MIT 
118 ibid 

53 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

as  suggested  by  the  theory  of  change  introduced  in  section  2.3,  it  provides  an 
example of an educational institution that sees itself rather as a player than as a 
stakeholder and explicitly expects to directly impact on the economy.  

4.5.1  Enhanced employability of students 

In  the  study  related  to  the  PBL  model  used  at  Aalborg  University119  80%  of 
students responded that they learned more while working on their study project 
compared to instruction and lecture-based learning in a classroom. They felt that 
the  project  work  and  the  learning  associated  with  it  were  related  to  real–life 
work  environments  and  found  the  project  work  useful  in  acquiring  professional 
and core employability skills.  

4.5.2  Fertilisation of the economy 

Findings  from  the  study  on  MIT  alumni120  showed  that  the  MIT  had  a  very 
positive impact on its alumni’s start-up/venture creations rate.  

  MIT’s  support  in  entrepreneurship  was  identified  by  the  researchers  as  the 
‘defining  contribution  to  the  Greater  Boston  entrepreneurial  culture’.  MIT 
alumni company sales constitute 26% of all Massachusetts (MA) companies. 
These  companies  are  high-tech,  providing  a  substantial  part  of 
Massachusetts’s  high-tech  environment,  helping  to  attract  highly  skilled 
professional and other firms to the state. 

  A virtuous cycle emerges: founders stayed in MA after graduation; and most 
of  them  started  their  business  at  that  location.  While  less  than  10%  of  MIT 
undergraduates were from MA, about one third of alumni companies are. MIT 
alumni  companies  used  cutting-edge  technologies  in  their  fields,  so 
reinforcing  the  high-tech  ‘cluster’  that  attracts  more  people  with  relevant 
profiles  and  relevant  companies.  This  is  most  obvious  in  the  knowledge-
based technology  sector  (software, biotechnology, internet,  electronics etc). 
Almost two fifths (37%) of the newly founded companies were located in MA 
in the past 5 years (2000-2005). Other clusters have also been developed in 
the area (e.g. energy and biotechnology) that, according to the researchers, 
developed around and centred on MIT alumni companies.  

study 

stressed 

the  MIT 

However, 
the 
entrepreneurs/alumni  that  affect  the  economy  cannot  be  directly  linked  to  the 
learning experience in MIT (i.e., causality was very challenging to prove). It was 
stressed  that  other  factors,  such  as  attending  other  high-profile  institutions 
before  studying  at  MIT,  had  probably  also  supported  MIT  alumni  to  launch 
sustainable and high-calibre firms.  

the  achievements  of 

that 

119 Shinde V. and Kolmos An.: Students' experience of Aalborg PBL model - A case study. Paper presented at 
SEFI annual conference 2011, Lisbon, Portugal. 
120 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Kauffman Foundation of Entrepreneurship (2009) Entrepreneurial 
Impact: The Role of MIT 

54 

  
 
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

The  box  below  summarises  the  main  dimension  of  the  impact  of  MIT  alumni 
entrepreneurs and their companies.  

Eight key facts about MIT alumni entrepreneurs and their 
companies  

1.  The  annual  revenues  (estimated  $2    trillion121)  and  employment 
footprint  (estimated  3.3  million  employees)  of  the  MIT  alumni-founded 
firms were the equivalent of the 11th largest economy in the world122; 

2.  New  company  formation  by  MIT  alumni  is  accelerating.  Among  the 
alumni  group  reached,  alumni  from  recent  years  (1990’s)  started 
companies at a younger age and closer to their graduation year than ‘older’ 
alumni (1950’s); 

3.  Recent  MIT  alumni  were  more  often  ‘serial’  entrepreneurs’  than  alumni 
from  earlier  years  (reflecting  a  general  trend  towards  shorter  longevity  of 
businesses); 

4.  The  economic  impact  per  graduate  was  higher  for  1990’s  alumni  than 
for  alumni  from  earlier  decades  (reflecting  the  economic  prosperity  of  the 
decade);123 

5.  The  impact  of  MIT  alumni  goes  beyond  the  US.  The  majority  of  the  MIT 
alumni  firms  were  founded  in  the  US,  but  not  only:  for  example,  790  MIT 
alumni  firms  have  been  created  in  Europe,  mainly  in  England,  France  and 
Germany in the software and consulting sectors. 

6.  MIT  alumni  companies  could  be  found  in  a  wide  range  of  sectors, 
including  highly  active  and  innovative  sectors  such  as  software, 
electronics  (including  instruments,  semiconductors,  and  computers)  and 
biotechnology,  as  well  as  sectors  that  are  not  the  most  ‘active’  in  the  US 
economy.  About one third of employees in MIT alumni founded firms were 
in manufacturing, whilst in the USA, manufacturing firms employ less than 
11% of total employment. 

7.  MIT  alumni’s  companies  are  highly  innovative  and  export-oriented. 
Many of the MIT alumni companies were knowledge-based, as they operate 
in  sectors  where  patents  and  research  are  important.  These  companies 
were more likely to hold at least one patent and were more export-oriented 
than other companies. Therefore, they were considered more likely to have 
long-term economic growth than companies in other sectors/industries. 

8.  MIT  alumni  company  sales  constituted  a  quarter  of  the  sales  of  all 

companies in Massachusetts. 

121 EUR 1.52 trillion at the time the case study was written. This is a conservative estimate as very strict 
selection criteria were applied – the founders had to be alive, and companies were excluded if they had merged 
or were acquired. Based on this strict selection, companies like Hewlett-Packard, Campbell Soup, Intel and AMP 
were excluded.  
122 As in 2006, year of measurement, (when the records on the companies were updated using Compustat and 
Dun & Bradstreet). 
123 Those who have founded more than one company. To be included in the sample, all of the companies had to 
be active when the survey took place. 

55 

  
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

5 

The impact of individual entrepreneurship 
education measures and initiatives  

5.1 

Introduction 

The previous two sections presented evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship 
education  policy  strategies  and  measures  taken  at  the  institutional  level.  This 
section  considers  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  practice  –  hence 
individual  courses,  measures  and  initiatives  of  entrepreneurship  education 
identified during the study.  

Similar  to  the  previous  sections,  this  section  considers  the  objectives  and 
inputs/activities  of  the  measures  and  initiatives  and  presents  evidence  of  their 
impact on: students, the economy; and, society.  

Individual entrepreneurship education measures and 
initiatives 

Entrepreneurship  education  practice  can  take  several  forms  of  delivery  which 
include: 

  business master studies;  

  curricular modules, courses or projects; (at all levels of formal education); 

  extracurricular  courses  or  projects  (at  all  levels  of  formal  and  non-formal 

education);  

  creativity classes on diverse topics; and 

  variants in teaching methods.  

Working  methods  from  entrepreneurship  education  are  applied  in  various 
subjects;  the  approach  is  not  at  all  limited  to  business  subjects.  For  the 
student,  creativity  courses  and  variants  in  teaching  methods  especially  might 
not even be evidently ‘entrepreneurship education’.  

This  section  presents  evidence  from  29  different  studies,  academic  articles  and 
other  types  of  sources  (see  overview  in  Annex  3).  This  includes  evidence 
gathered  in  the  case  studies  undertaken  for  this  study.124  One  case  study  was 
undertaken on JA-YE, a provider of entrepreneurship education with 39 national 
and regional Member organisations in Europe and a strong representation in the 
USA and Canada.  

The JA-YE case study provided many relevant examples of impact measurement 
carried out across Europe and is therefore referred to extensively.  

124 The case studies are available as a separate document.  

56 

  
 
                                                      
The main impacts of individual entrepreneurship education 
measures and initiatives  

Impact on students 

Impact on the individual students’ entrepreneurial skills and attitudes is one of 
the  best  researched  aspects  of  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education.  Many 
studies provided evidence of impact on the individual: 

  Entrepreneurship  education  leads  to  enhanced  entrepreneurial 
skills: Entrepreneurship programmes in Swiss VET schools were found to 
have  a  positive  impact  on  students’  entrepreneurial  skills  such  as  the 
ideas, 
capacity  to  exploit  an  opportunity  and  develop  business 
persuasiveness and leadership, team work, persistence, self-organisation, 
delegation of tasks, meeting deadlines and problem-solving. 

  Entrepreneurship  education  helps  to  boost  entrepreneurial 
attitudes  and  intentions:  The  study ‘Business  skills. A survey of JA-YE 
Participants’  found  that  almost  one  third  (27%)  of  respondents  claimed 
the  programme  made  them  change  their  plans  for  the  future.  Amongst  
those 27% about half of the students anticipated taking a different career 
path  from  what    they  thought  before  the  course,  25%  had  become 
interested  in/eager  to  launch  their  own  business  later,  about  10%  had  a 
clearer  view  about  the  type  of  profession  they  wanted  to  follow  and 
another 15% stated they would pursue a career in business.  

  Entrepreneurship  helps  to  boost  career  ambitions  in  general: 
Alumni 
from  entrepreneurship  programmes  were  more  ambitious 
regarding  occupations  and  Higher  Education  attendance  than  students  in 
a control group, and were also more likely to take initiative and to take up 
leadership  roles.  Participation  in  the  programme  changed  their  career 
aspirations,  impacted  positively  on  taking  up  further  education  and 
boasted higher ambitions for jobs and/or entrepreneurial intentions. 

Pedagogic  elements  such  as  simulation  and  project-based  learning  were 
assessed  very positively by teachers, volunteers  and staff members.  Students 
in JA-YE programmes considered simulation to be the most important learning 
element in understanding core economic concepts. 

Impact on the economy and society 

Evidence  of  impact  on  the  economy  and  society  was  identified  through 
enhanced  employability  of  entrepreneurship  education  alumni.  This 
is 
particularly  well-documented  for  alumni  of  the  company  programme  of  Junior 
Achievement  Sweden.  Students  who  ran  a  training  company  between  1994-
1996  became  much  better  established  on  the  labour  market  than  a  control 
group:  

  12% of alumni have a higher annual income;  

  44% more alumni are in managerial positions;  

  alumni have a 20% less likelihood of being unemployed;  

  alumni have a 20% increased likelihood of becoming self-employed. 

Participation  in  entrepreneurship  education  also  has  a  positive  impact  on 
company founding activity. Overall, studies show that participants create more 
start-ups and ventures than control groups: 

  For  instance,  according  to  a  study  on  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship 
education programmes in higher education in the US, graduates who have 
taken entrepreneurship courses are about five times more likely to select 

57 

 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

careers  in  entrepreneurship  than  non-participants  (43%  participants 
against 6-10% non-participants).  

Entrepreneurship  courses  also  offer  a  high  return-on-investment:  A  Canadian 
study  measured  a  45:1  annual  return  on  ‘societal  prosperity’  per  dollar 
invested. 

5.2  The objectives of individual entrepreneurship education 

measures 

5.2.1  Objectives seeking impact on the individual student  

Individual measures and initiatives of entrepreneurship education can be seen as 
educational  practice  targeting  the  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  of  the 
individual.  In  contrast  to  strategies  and  institutional  changes,  they  seek  to 
achieve  impact  mainly  on  the  student  and  his  or  her  knowledge,  skills  and 
attitudes.125 Hence this section focuses on presenting evidence of impact on this 
level. 

The  entrepreneurship  education  courses  and  modules  investigated  through  the 
research collected for this study expect:  

  To teach knowledge about entrepreneurship: Learning to understand 
entrepreneurship (This covers knowledge of the workings of the economy, 
background knowledge on the world of work, ethical aspects, business plan, 
accounting  and  marketing  processes).  Several  examples  from  the  Higher 
Education  sector  target  the  knowledge  of  entrepreneurship.  For  example,  
Business Master studies and business modules on entrepreneurship (e.g. the 
Economy  and  Management  Course  offered  by  the  Università  Bocconi  di 
Milano  (IT),  or  elective  modules  on  entrepreneurship  available  to  Science 
and Engineering Students at the University of Grenoble (FR)). 

  To  enhance  participants’  entrepreneurial  skills:  Learning  to  become 
an  entrepreneur  This  covers  planning,  organisation,  management, 
analysis, communication, negotiation, working individually and in teams, risk 
assessment,  connecting  ideas,  mobilising  commitment  and  lateral  thinking. 
This  type  of  approach  is  chosen  by  programmes  and  modules  that  promote 
an  awareness  of  self-employment  as  a  career  option  and  motivate  young 
people  to  begin  equipping  themselves  with  the  skills,  knowledge  and 
experience  required  for  effective  business  ownership.  Widespread  examples 
are  the  Junior  Achievement  –  Young  Enterprise  (JA-YE)  Company 
Programme126  and  business  plan  competitions;  e.g.  as  offered  by  the 
Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE).127  

JA-YE  Company  Programmes  and  NFTE  business  plan 
competitions 

A very popular way of delivering entrepreneurship education are the Company 
Programme  offered  by  the  worldwide  network  of  Junior  achievement  –  Young 
Enterprise  (JA-YE);  and  the  business  plan  competition  model  offered  by  NFTE 
organisations  worldwide.  These  initiatives  lead  students  through  the  entire 
process  of  developing  a  business  idea,  developing  a  business  plan,  setting  up 

125 Cf.: Framework Contract No EAC 19/06 Order 129: Mapping of teachers' preparation for entrepreneurship 
education. Final Report by GHK for DG EDUCATION AND CULTURE, 2011. P 6-7. Available online: 
http://ec.europa.eu/education/more-information/doc/2011/mappingsum_en.pdf 
126 http://ja-ye.org/about-ja-ye-europe 
127 http://www.nfte.be/index.php?id=24&L=2, https://www.nfte.com/ 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

the  company,  offering  their  services  and  selling  their  products,  doing  budgets 
and bookkeeping and closing it down  (or transferring it to a real-life venture). 
The programmes often run over an entire school year.   

Volunteers  from  local  businesses  take  part  as  mentors  or  experts  and  share 
their  expertise  in  the  classrooms.  At  the  end  of  the  course,  the  students  can 
take  part  in  a  series  of  business  plan  competitions  (competition  among  their 
peers, regional competition, and national competition). 

In  some  countries  this  type  of  education  has  a  long  tradition.  For  instance,  in 
the  UK,  the  US  and  Canada  JA-YE  and  NFTE  programmes  have  been 
implemented  for  many  years  and  have  reached  a  large  number  of  students 
(e.g. Young Enterprise UK: 3.8 million people from 4 to 25 years-old in the last 
50 years; JA-YE Canada: around 2.5 million over a period of 50 years).  

In the Nordic countries, the penetration rate is high – for instance, in Sweden 
and  Norway,  up  to  20%  of  schools  and  student  cohorts  participate in  a  JA-YE 
programme per year.128 

  To  promote  participants  entrepreneurial  attitudes  and  behaviour: 
and learning to become entrepreneurial in a broad sense (i.e. sense of 
initiative,  independence,  innovation,  creativity,  ambition  and  drive,  self-
efficacy,  pro-activity,  sense  of  empowerment  and  determination  to  meet 
objectives).  Examples  for  this  are  creativity  classes  (e.g.  as  offered  by  the 
UK  provider  Creativity,  Culture  and  Education  (CCE)129)  which  aim  at 
enhancing  self-efficacy  and  empowerment,  increasing  confidence  and  self-
esteem  of  children.  Similarly,  this  change  is  achieved  through  using 
participatory  teaching  methods  and  learning  in  ‘real-life’  situations.  This  is 
regarded  as  conducive  to  stimulate  ‘deep  level  learning’;  which  in  turn  is 
deemed a pre-condition for behavioural or attitudinal change that affects the 
entire personality of an individual.130  

5.2.2  Objectives seeking impact on economy and society 

Indirectly  –  through  the  individual  trained  and  prepared  for  entrepreneurship  – 
measures  and  initiatives  of  entrepreneurship  education  also  seek  to  impact  on 
the economy and the society.  

Many  initiatives  explicitly  formulate  the  expectation  that  the  training  provided 
will eventually have an impact on the economy and society as well. They argue 
that entrepreneurship education courses and modules will help:  

  to  raise  start-up  rates  and  help  create  successful  ventures:  Teaching 
entrepreneurship  aims  to  help  in  raising  start-up  rates.  Moreover,  thorough 
training  of  future  or  budding  entrepreneurs  should  help  to  avoid  failure  and 
increase the longevity of companies.  

  to  enhance  the  employability  of  participants:  There  are  initiatives  that 
work  with  a  broader  concept  of  entrepreneurship  and  which  include 
employability in their goals. For instance, JA-YE Europe states that it ‘aims to 
inspire and prepare young people to succeed in a global economy’.131 

  to  increase  economic  and  social  impact:  The  JADE  student  network132 
aims  to  help  students  in  developing  technical  and  interpersonal  skills  for 

128 As stated in interviews with ICF. 
129 Creativity, Culture and Education. 
http://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/http://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/ 
130 Ferre Laevers, University of Leuven, as stated in interview with ICF.  
131 http://ja-ye.org/about-ja-ye-europe 
132 http://www.jadenet.org/, http://www.jadenet.org/ 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

entrepreneurship  and  to  practice  corporate  social  responsibility.  This  is 
expected  to  impact  on  the  productivity  of  the  workforce  and  to  have  a 
positive  impact  on  the  business  world.  NFTE  supports  social  inclusion  by 
specifically  addressing  youth 
from  disadvantaged  neighbourhoods  or 
unemployed young people; aiming to support  them in finding their paths to 
better 
through 
personal 
entrepreneurship. 

circumstances 

economic 

social 

and 

5.3 

Impact on the individual student 

This  sub-section  summarise  evidence  of  impact  on  students’  entrepreneurial 
skills,  attitudes,  behaviour  and  intentions  to  start  a  company.  It  also  gives 
examples of the importance of appropriate teaching methods.  

5.3.1  Participation in entrepreneurship education facilitates the 

development of entrepreneurial skills 

Evidence  was  drawn  from  several  studies  conducted  by  members  of  the  JA-YE 
network  that  the  company  programme  contributes  to  enhancing  the  level  of 
economic and business knowledge of participants: 

  The Canadian study ‘Making an impact’133 highlighted that more than 80% of 
the alumni regarded Junior Achievement Canada as important in developing 
their  analytical  capabilities  and  business  sense;  and  more  than  70%  cited 
Junior  Achievement  as  significantly  impacting  on  the  advancement  of  their 
skills in financial literacy and budgeting; 

  The same study also measured students’ skills development, especially ‘how 
to  manage  money’.  Students  also  indicated  that  overall  they  felt  better 
prepared for the future; 

  They  achieved  a  more  thorough  understanding  of  and  insight  in  certain 
business,  financial  and  economic  topics  (namely,  marketing  and  market 
economy) and what is needed to start a company. Students also indicated 
that they better understood the importance of certain aspects of business 
life  (e.g.  strategy  and  leadership)  and  the  attitudes  needed  (e.g. 
perseverance and being responsible); 

  Around two thirds (between 57% and 68%, depending on the country) of 
students  agreed/strongly  agreed  that  their  participation  in  Junior 
Achievement  programmes  contributed  to  the  development  of  their 
business and life skills.  

  Students’ test scores seemed to be linked to their level of agreement with 
the statement ‘Participation in Junior Achievement Programmes has given 
me  a  very  good  insight  into  what  business  is  all  about’  (68%  average 
agreement). 

  Similarly, through tests, the transnational study ‘Financial literacy. A survey 
of  JA-YE  participants’134  found  that  among  the  respondents  to  the  survey 
(2,943  secondary  school  students  in  12  countries  across  Europe  which 
participated in programmes of the national JA-YE network members):  

  70.5%  of  the  students  understand  the  key  influence    of  education  and 

skills on their future income; 

  74.5% found it easy to understand basic money management (budgeting 

to save a certain amount of money); 

133 The Boston Consulting Group (2011) ‘Making an impact’. Assessing Junior Achievement of Canada’s valued 
creation” The Boston Consulting Group (2011)  
134 JA-YE Europe (2010): Financial literacy. A survey of JA-YE participants 

60 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Between  62%  and  71%  of  students  agreed/strongly  agreed  with  the 
statements,  participation  ‘has  given  me  a  very  good  insight  into  what 
business  is  all  about’;  ‘taught  me  very  well  how  to  manage  my  money’; 
‘has  improved  considerably  my  problem-solving  capacities’;  and  ’helped 
me  to  prepare  for  the  future’.  The  most  frequently  mentioned  learning 
effect was ’how to manage money’. 

  The  Italian  study  ‘Youth,  economy  and  entrepreneurial  spirit’135  found  that 
83%  of  participants  considered  that  the  entrepreneurship  programme 
contributed to develop team working skills. 

  The UK study ’Impact. 50 Years of Young Enterprise’136 reported that alumni 
claimed the courses of Young Enterprise UK improved their ability to achieve 
objectives,  cope  with  problems,  deal  with  change,  do  business  planning, 
start  up  a  company,  build  business  relationships  and  networks,  innovate, 
spot opportunities and evaluate ideas. 

  A  cross  country  study  in  six  European  countries  that  compared  experiences 
from participation in the national JA-YE Company Programmes137 highlighted 
that:  

  The  majority  of  respondents  found  the  Company  Programme  useful  with 

regard to the development of entrepreneurial skills; 

  70  %  of  respondents  stated  that  the  Company  Programme  had 

strengthened their team work skills; 

  Two  thirds  of  respondents  claimed  that  their  problem-solving  skills  were 

increased; 

  Half  (52%)  of  respondents  believed  that  their  decision-making  abilities 

had improved; 

  Two  thirds  of  respondents  stated  that  the  Company  Programme  had 

strengthened their ability in economic thinking; 

  More  than  half  (55%)  felt  that  their  qualification  to  run  a  business  had 

improved. 

Similar courses from other providers were found to have similar effects: 

  A  Swiss  study138  showed  that  entrepreneurship  programmes  in  upper 
secondary  education  have  a  positive  impact  on  students’  entrepreneurial 
competencies  such  as  the  capacity  to  exploit  an  opportunity  and  develop 
business  ideas,  persuasiveness  or  leadership,  team  work,  persistence,  self-
organisation, delegation of tasks, meet deadlines and to deal with problems 
and find solutions.  

  A  US–study139  tested  the  effect  of  entrepreneurial  training  on  a  persons’ 
ability  to  generate  business  ideas  and  provided  evidence  that  the  right 
training  can  indeed  lead  to  the  enhanced  opportunity  identification  and  the 
development of innovative business ideas. 

135 IARD (2007) Giovani, economia e spirito imprenditoriale 
136 Kinston University London / Young Enterprise UK (2012) Impact - 50 years of Young Enterprise 
137 JA-YE (2007) “What experience did participants in Company Programmes have during their time as company 
founders – and what happened next?” 
138 Volery et al. (2013); The impact of entrepreneurship education on human capital at upper-secondary level; 
Journal of Small Business Management 51 (3), pp. 429-0; doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12020  
139 DeTienne, D.R., and Chandler, G.N. (2004) - Opportunity Identification and Its Role in the Entrepreneurial 
Classroom: A Pedagogical Approach and Empirical Test. ‘ 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  The Dutch study ‘The effect of early entrepreneurship education’140 examined 
the effect of entrepreneurship education on primary school pupils’ skills and 
attitudes.  The  study  measured  improvements  of  pupils  regarding  self-
efficiency,  need  for  achievement,  risk  taking,  persistence,  analysing,  pro-
activity,  creativity  and  found  a  significant  positive  effect  especially  on  non-
cognitive entrepreneurial skills of primary school children. 

Developing entrepreneurial skills at primary level as a 
basis for life 

The Dutch study ‘The  effect of  early entrepreneurship education’141 concluded 
that the development of entrepreneurial skills and attitudes at early stages of 
life  would  be  a  significant  influence  on  subsequent  entrepreneurial  behaviour 
in later life. Though this contention remains a hypothesis since the  behaviour 
of participants has not yet been traced over a sufficiently long period.  

5.3.2  Participation in entrepreneurship education has a positive impact 

on educational attainment and grades 

  The  study  ’The  effects  of  education  and  training  in  entrepreneurship’142 
conducted by Young Enterprise Sweden143 found that a higher percentage of 
programme  alumni  started  university  level  programmes  compared  to  the 
control  group.  Participation  in  the  programme  changed  their  career 
aspirations,  impacted  positively  on  taking  up  further  education  and  boasted 
higher ambitions for jobs. 

  The  project  ‘Inventing  the  Future’  at  Harvard  University  collected  and 
analysed  data  on  programmes  provided  by  the  National  Foundation  for 
Teaching  Entrepreneurship  (NFTE).144  It  was  found  that  students  who 
participated in a NFTE programme are likely to be more ambitious regarding 
occupations  and  college  attendance  than  students  in  a  control  group,  and 
were also more likely to take initiative and take up leadership roles. 

  99.3%  of  NFTE  alumni  over  the  age  of  25  who  were  taking  part  in  another 
US  study  have  a  minimum  of  a  high  school  diploma;  which  is  above  the 
national  average  of  85%  of  Americans  over  the  age  of  25  with  a  minimum 
high  school  diploma.  When  looking  at  the  group  of  NFTE  alumni  who  are 
African  American  and  over  the  age  of  25,  the  ratio  is  even  better  for  NFTE 
alumni: (98.2 vs. 81.4%).145 

  The  same  study  shows  that  the  drop-out  rate  for  NFTE  alumni  in  the  age 
group of 16–19 year-olds is less than the national average (1% NFTE alumni 
versus  3.4%  national  average).  Hence,  the  courses  seem  to  correlate 
positively  with  students’  motivation  to  stay  in  education.  This  tendency  is 
particularly  strong  for  the  group  of  male  African-American  students  in  that 
age  group:  Among  those  high  school  students  that  participated  in  a  NFTE 

140 Rosendahl Huber, L. et al. (2012) The effect of early entrepreneurship education 
141 ibid 
142 The effects of education and training in entrepreneurship – A long-term study of JA Sweden Alumni labour 
potential and business enterprise. 
143 Please note: While the official name of the organisation is ‘Young Enterprise Sweden’, the report ‘The Effects 
of Education and Training in Entrepreneurship’ refers to Junior Achievement (JA) Sweden.  
144 Nakkula et al. (2004): Initiating, leading and feeling in control of one’s fate: Findings from the 2002-2003 
study of NFTE in six Boston Public High Schools. Harvard University. Graduate School of Education 
145 Beary, Vanessa E. (2013): The NFTE Difference: Examining the Impact of Entrepreneurship Education. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

course,  the  dropout  rate  is  0%,  while  the  national  average  for  African-
American students is 5% (both sexes combined).146  

  The  UK  provider  Creativity,  Culture  and  Education  CCE  conducted  a  study 
which  found  that  young  people  who  have  attended  Creative  Partnerships 
activities have better grades than their peers: On average, they achieve the 
equivalent of 2.5 grades better progress in primary and secondary education 
final exams.147  

5.3.3  Participation in entrepreneurship education courses and modules 

can lead to behavioural and attitudinal change  

Behavioural  and  attitudinal  changes  of  students  following  an  entrepreneurship 
course  belong  to  the  most  widely  researched  phenomena  in  the  field.  Many  of 
the research examples identified address this question. 

As  stated  in  previous  sections,  researchers  often  link  ‘entrepreneurial  attitudes’ 
to concepts from social learning theory. These lend themselves well to be used in 
measuring exercises since they can be used to scale the extent or strength of a 
persons’  belief  about  whether  or  not  it lies  in his/her  own  control  and  ability  to 
complete tasks and reach goals. One of these concepts is ‘self-efficacy’ (Bandura 
1997,  cf.  section  3)  another  one  is  ‘locus  of  control’  (Rotter  1954);  hence  the 
extent  to  which  individuals  believe  in  their  own  ability  to  change  things,  and 
control events affecting them. This can increase students’ ambitions. 

Through  research  for  this  study,  many  examples  from  the  domain  of  academic 
research  were  identified  which  aim  to  develop  these  concepts  further  and 
provide  evidence  that  self-efficacy  or  locus  of  control  of  students  improves 
through entrepreneurship education. 

  The  Swiss  study  ‘The  Impact  of  Entrepreneurship  Education  on  Human 
Capital  at  Upper-Secondary  Level’148  showed 
that  entrepreneurship 
programmes  have  a  statistically  significant  effect  on  attitude  and  beliefs 
towards  entrepreneurship.  Students  attending  the  programmes  improved 
their  knowledge  and  views  about  the  business  world  in  general  and  were 
found  more  likely  to  consider  entrepreneurship  as  a  valid  career  option 
(perceived desirability). They also tend to feel more capable to start and run 
a company (perceived feasibility). 

  The  Italian  study  ‘Economic  and  managerial  training  and  provision  psycho-
cognitive  entrepreneurial  behavior’149  showed 
interviewees  who 
attended  economics-management  studies  showed  higher  average  scores  in 
general  enterprising  tendency  (GET2)150  and  self-efficacy  perception. 
Moreover, it was found that education, thanks to the simultaneous impact on 
knowledge  and  attitudes,  is  the  most  efficient  variable  in  the  stimulation  of 
the  entrepreneurial  phenomenon  –  more 
than  having 
entrepreneurs in the family. 

important 

that 

  The study ‘Business skills. A survey of JA-YE Participants’151 found that 27% 
of students participating in JA-YE courses changes their career plans for the 
future. 40% of those are now sure they aim at higher education studies, and 

146 ibid 
147 http://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/the-evidence 
148 Volery et al. (2013); The impact of entrepreneurship education on human capital at upper-secondary level; 
Journal of Small Business Management 51 (3), pp. 429-0; doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12020 
149 Gigliotti, F.M. (2011) Formazione economico-manageriale e disposizione psico-cognitiva al comportamento 
imprenditoriale: uno studio empirico 
150 http://www.get2test.net/ http://www.get2test.net/ 
151 JA-YE Europe (2010) Business skills. A survey of JA-YE participants 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

one third of this 40% intends to study business or economics at a university 
or other higher education institutions. 

A few studies look at impacts from a gender-specific perspective:  

  A  study  on  gender  effects  from  Israel152  provided  evidence  that  among 
secondary  students,  boys  benefited  from  the  entrepreneurship  training 
(company  programme)  much  more  than  girls:  their  entrepreneurial  self-
efficacy  grew  stronger,  while  that  of  the  girls  diminished.  Also,  boys’ 
entrepreneurial knowledge gain was higher than that of the girls, compared 
to  respective  gender  differences  within  the  control  group.  The  researchers 
attributed  this  effect  to  boys’  and  girls’  perception  of  what  it  means  to  be 
competitive. While girls were reluctant to compete, boys enjoyed it.  

  A  Norwegian  study153  also  indicated  that  the  JA-YE  Norway  company 
programme  has  more  impact  on  the  male  start-up  activity  as  compared  to 
women. 

  On  the  other  hand,  the  2012  FFE-YE  study  from  Denmark  showed  that, 
encouraged  by  the  programmes,  girls  can  catch  up  quickly:  While  they 
perceived  barriers  like  ‘entrepreneurship  takes  too  much  effort’,  ‘the  risk  of 
failure  is  too  high’  and  ‘the  financial  risk  is  too  high’  stronger  than  boys 
before  the  programme,  their  entrepreneurial  skills  and  intentions  grew 
comparatively more than for boys.154 

The intensity of changes however depends to a certain extent  on students’ own 
activity and compliance: 

  The  study  ‘Making  ideas  work’  conducted  in  Liechtenstein155  examined  the 
effect  of  the  Junior  Enterprise  company  programme  on  the  ability  of  VET 
students  to  think  and  act  entrepreneurially.  The  results  showed  that  a 
competence  development  during  the  junior  enterprise  or  junior  projects 
(about  6  months),  takes  place  which  is  expressed  in  an  increase  in  the 
activity  and  action  competence.  On  average,  among  the  surveyed 
adolescents  (16-19  years)  this  competence  shift  was  moderate.  But  when 
focusing  on  the  young  people  who  have  voluntarily  assumed  a  leadership 
role,  the  development  of  activity  and  action  skills  is  much  higher.  In  short: 
those who lead, learn. 

5.3.4  Participation in entrepreneurship education courses and modules 

increases the intention to start a business  

The  question  if  entrepreneurship  education  courses  and  modules  lead  to  raised 
awareness  about  entrepreneurship,  interest  in  entrepreneurship,  and  ultimately 
in an intention to found a company  was in the focus  of many  studies that were 
identified  through  this  mapping  exercise.  Evidence  that  this  is  indeed  the  case 
could be found in several examples.  

  The evaluation of the JA-YE Company Programme in compulsory education in 
Sogn  og  Fjordane  County  (Norway)156  addressed  primary  as  well  as 
secondary  students.  In  this  case,  15.7%  of  the  participating  students  in 
primary school state that they have the intention to establish business when 
they have graduated and, out of these, 44.4% want to establish business in 

152 Bergman, N., Rosenblatt, Z. Erez, M. and De-Haan, U. (2011) - Gender and the effects of an 
entrepreneurship training program on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial knowledge gain in 
Journal Entrepreneurship and Small Business Vol. 13 No. 1 38-54/ 2011  
153 Johansen, V. (2013) - Entrepreneurship education and start-up activity: a gender perspective  
154 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
155 Baldegger, U. et al. (2012) „Wie Ideen laufen lernen“ 
156 Rotefoss, B., Ovesen, S., Nyvold, C.E. (2009) Entreprenørskap på høygir! - en evaluering av satsningen på 
entreprenørskap i grunnopplæringen i Sogn og Fjordane 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

the  county.  Corresponding  figures  for  students  in  secondary  education  are 
respectively 14.8% and 43.3% - hence a little lower. 

  A comparative academic study conducted in the UK and France157 found that 
students  in  the  ‘programme’  group  increased  their  intention  towards  self-
employment,  whereas  students  in  the  control  group  did  not.  However, 
results  showed  that  intention  towards  self-employment  was  not  related  to 
actual  nascence  of  a  firm  at  the  end  of  the  programme.  This  could  be 
attributed  to  the  time  lag  between  intention  towards  entrepreneurship  and 
action. The same study further analysed that 

  Even  if  they  were  not  decisive  for  a  start-up  decision,  entrepreneurship 
programmes  can  have  a  triggering  effect  or  contribute  to  the  process  of 
reflection. They allowed to confront pre-established ideas with the reality; 
and  to  assess  the  feasibility  of  the  project.  They  also  equipped 
participants with specific knowledge and skills.  

  The  programmes  were  also  found  to  have  a  positive  effect  on  the 
professional career of those that do not have the intentions to engage in 
entrepreneurial  activities: 
they  acquire  knowledge  on  project 
management  and  are  more  open  to  the  professional  and  entrepreneurial 
world. 

  The  academic  study  ‘Entrepreneurship  in  Israel:  Theory  and  Practice’158 
showed that the willingness of MBA students' to engage in entrepreneurship 
rose  significantly  after  taking  part  in  an  elective  entrepreneurship  course. 
Students  in  the  sample  also  indicated  that  experience  in  entrepreneurship 
would potentially increase their future engagement in entrepreneurship. The 
researchers  found  it  particularly  notable  that  participation  in  just  one 
entrepreneurship  course  had  such  a  significant  impact  on  students' 
perception of entrepreneurship and personal intentions. 

  The  transnational  study  ‘Business  skills.  A  survey  of  JA-YE  Participants’159 
found  that  almost  one  third  (27%)  of  respondents  (across  the  15  countries 
involved)  claimed  the  programme  made  them  change  their  plans  for  the 
future.  From  those  27%:  About  half  of  the  students  anticipated  to  take  a 
different  career  path  as  they  thought  before  the  course,  25%  had  become 
interested  in/eager  to  launch  their  own  business  later,  about  10%  had  a 
clearer view about the type of profession they wanted to follow and another 
15% stated they would pursue a career in business.  

5.3.5  The importance of teaching methods 

Since entrepreneurship is regarded as a key competence, the learning outcomes 
of  entrepreneurship  education  also  contain  an  important  set  of  entrepreneurial 
attitudes (sense of initiative, independence, innovation, creativity, ambition and 
drive,  self-efficacy,  pro-activity,  sense  of  empowerment,  determination  to  meet 
objectives  and  others).160  To  nurture  such  attitudes,  it  is  important  to  use 
suitable teaching methods which vary from classical instructor-oriented teaching. 
Variants are presented in the box below.  

157 Souitaris et al. (2007). Do entrepreneurship programmes raise entrepreneurial intention of science and 
engineering students? The effect of learning, inspiration and resources. Journal of Business Venturing 22 (2007) 
566–591’ 
158 Almor, T., Heilbrunn, S. (2013) - Entrepreneurship in Israel: Theory and Practice 
159 JA-YE Europe (2010) Business skills. A survey of JA-YE participants 
160 Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007)), “Curriculum reform and entrepreneurship education”, Opetusministeriön 
julkaisuja 2007:28. Yliopistopaino, Helsinki  

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Examples of variants in teaching methods 

Several pedagogical methods are particularly popular in entrepreneurship 
education. These include:  

  Participatory  methods:  Group  and  peer  work,  project  work  or  twin 

classes, role play; 

  Learning  by  doing  and  self-organised  learning:  Co-operative  learning, 
problem-based  learning,  real  world  simulation  and  creative  problem 
solving techniques;  

  Learning outside of the classroom: Study tours and field visits; 

  Bringing the real world into the classroom: Inviting visitors to school; 

  Helping students to unlock their creative and innovative potential. 

Evidence that this is indeed the case was provided by several studies. 

  The Swedish study ‘Developing entrepreneurial competencies’161 adopted the 
view that becoming entrepreneurial requires direct experience, and explores 
how learning-by-doing can be put to use in Higher Education through action-
based  approaches  (learning  by  doing).  By  measuring  the  effect  of  action-
based  entrepreneurial  education  in  incubators  at  Chalmers  School  of 
Entrepreneurship,  it  proves  that  the  on-going  creation  of  a  real-life  venture 
should  be  the  primary  learning  method  for  entrepreneurship;  as  learners 
become  more  entrepreneurial  through  experiencing  emotional  events 
throughout the learning experience. 

  The 2012 measurement of the FFE-YE study from Denmark162 showed that in 
primary  and  lower  secondary  school,  entrepreneurship  is  best  taught  as  a 
method,  hence  as  innovative  teaching  in  general.  As  of  upper  secondary 
level, it is best taught as an occupation, hence concretely in relation to being 
and acting entrepreneurial. However, the highest impact is achieved in upper 
levels  of  education  (including  Higher  Education),  if  both  aspects  –  method 
and occupation - are combined.  

  The  evaluation  of  the  Junior  Achievement  ‘Titan  Program’  in  the  USA163 
brought to light that particular pedagogic elements of the programme (such 
as simulation, project-based learning etc.)  were assessed  very positively by 
teachers,  volunteers  and  staff  members.  Students  identified  simulation  as 
the  most  important  learning  element  in  understanding  core  economic 
concepts. 

  In  the  literature164,  an  effect  on  students’  entrepreneurial  attitudes  and 
behaviour was assumed by solely using varying innovative teaching methods 
– even if the teaching content is not related to entrepreneurship.  

  Evidence  for  this  can  be  also  drawn  from  the  evaluation  of  an  arts  and 
cultural  activities  project,165  which  proved  impact  on  children  in  foster 
homes.  Four  elements  of  the  project  were  hypothesized  –  attractive  arts 
activities  taught  by  a  skilled  artist,  the  involvement  of  foster  carers  and 
siblings  in  activities,  and  targeted  planning  and  design  -  would,  through  a 

161 Martin Lakéus (2013) Developing entrepreneurial competencies 
162 Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) - Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in Denmark 2012 
163 Junior Achievement Titan Program; 2007 Evaluation 
164 Seikkula-Leino J., Ruskovaara, E., Ikävalko M., Mattila, J. and Rytkölä, T. (2009), “Teachers as Learners 
Promoting Entreprenuership Education”, Paper submitted to the 20th Biannual NFF Conference “Business as 
Usual” Turku/Åbo, Finland, August 19-21, 2009, URL: http://developmentcentre.lut.fi/files/muut/NFF_2009.pdf 
165 OPM (2013) - Evaluation of CCE/NCB arts and cultural activities project with looked after children 

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series  of  change  mechanisms,  result 
empowerment; increased confidence and self-esteem:   

in 

increased  self-efficacy  and 

 

In  general  the  evidence  indicates  that  the  arts  and  cultural  activities 
resulted in a marked improvement in the self-efficacy and empowerment 
of many of the children involved. After the project, scores went up by 0.4 
points on a 0-5 point scale for ‘mastering new skills’ and by 0.3 points for 
‘belief in abilities’).  

  Similarly,  the  project  resulted  in  an  increase  in  the  confidence  and  self-
esteem of many of the children (scores on a scale of 0-5 points went up 
by 0.8 points for positive self-image, by 0.3 points for confidence and by 
0.7 points for ‘deals well with set-backs’).  

5.4 

Impact on economy and society 

Entrepreneurship  education  seems  to  be  effective  in  leading  participants  to 
create ventures at higher rates compared to control groups. Evidence was found 
in many cases that modules and initiatives help to raise start-up rates.  

5.4.1  Raising start-up rates and helping creating successful ventures 

The  impact  of  entrepreneurship  courses  on  start-up  activities  among  alumni 
has been shown in many cases. Evidence shows a trend that entrepreneurship 
alumni  

  Are more likely to start a business than other graduates; 

  Found their company at a younger age; and 

  Are more successful with their business.  

  Already  in  1997,  a  Norwegian  study166  confirmed  that  graduates  from 
business schools with a major in entrepreneurship are about three times as 
likely as other graduates to start a business. The effect of having a major in 
entrepreneurship seems to be weaker in most recent surveys undertaken by 
the same team (2001 and 2003), but entrepreneurship majors remain more 
than  twice  as  likely  to  start  and  own  a  business  than  graduates  with  other 
majors.167 

  According  to  the  Swedish  study  ‘The  effects  of  education  and  training  in 
entrepreneurship’168  participation  in  the  JA  company  programme  increased 
the probability that an individual starts a firm later in life by at least 20%; 

  According  to  a  study  on  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education 
programmes  in  higher  education  in  the  US,169  graduates  who  have  taken 
entrepreneurial courses were about five times more likely to select careers in 
entrepreneurship  than  non-participants  (43%  participants  against  6-10% 
non-participants). 

166 Kolvereid, L. and Moen, Ø. (1997), ‘Entrepreneurship among business graduates: does a major in 
entrepreneurshipmake a difference?’, Journal of European Industrial Training, 21 (4/5), 154–60. 
167 Kolvereid,L. and Bjørn Willy Åmo (2007): Entrepreneurship among graduates from business schools: a 
Norwegian case. In: Handbook of Research in Entrepreneurship Education, Volume 2: Contextual Perspectives. 
Edited by Alain Fayolle, University of Lyon.  
168 Wennberg, K., Elert, N. (2012) - Effekter av utbildning i entreprenörskap 
169 Summit Consulting (2009) Toward Effective Education of Innovative Entrepreneurs in Small Business: Initial 
Results from a Survey of College Students and Graduates. Washington, DC: Small Business Administration 
Office of Advocacy 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  The  study  ‘Making  an  impact.  Assessing  Junior  Achievement  of  Canada’s 
value creation’170 found that JA alumni are 50% more likely to start their own 
business.  Moreover,  JA  alumni  firms  usually  had  higher  longevity  than  the 
average Canadian new venture; 

  According  to  the  study  ‘Impact.  50  Years  of  Young  Enterprise’171,  more 
Young Enterprise alumni end up running their own business: 42% of alumni 
surveyed started firms compared to 26% in the control group of non-alumni. 

  The  study  ‘Experiences  from  participation  in  JA-YE  Company  Programmes: 
What experience did participants in Company Programmes have during their 
time  as  company  founders  –  and  what  happened  next?’172  assessed  the 
results  of  the  JA-YE  Company  Programme  in  Belgium,  Denmark,  Estonia, 
Finland,  Romania,  Norway  and  Slovak  Republic.  By  the  time  they  are  25 
years  old,  JA-YE  Company  Programme  alumni  demonstrate  start-up  rates 
which  are  about  three  times  as  high  (15%)  than  among  the  average 
population in Europe (5-6%).  

  The  Norwegian  study  ‘Entrepreneurship  education  and  start-up  activity:  a 
gender perspective’173 evaluated whether former participants in the company 
programme (CP) in upper secondary school are more likely to be involved in 
start-up  activity  compared  to  non-participants.  Results  from  econometric 
analyses indicate a positive correlation between participation in CP and start‐
up  activity.  The  analyses  also  indicate  that  CP  has  more  impact  on  male 
start‐up activity as compared to women.  

  The  measurement  of  the  Enterprise  Ireland  National  Student  Enterprise 
Scheme  (1984-1988)174  showed  that  the  participants  to  the  courses  had 
started  their  businesses  at  a  younger  age  than  those  in  the  control  group, 
were  employing  a  greater  number  of  people  and  had  substantially  higher 
turnover. 

  Young  Enterprise  Sweden  Alumni  were  much  more  likely  to  start  more 
ambitious  firms  (interpreted  as  corporations  versus  proprietorships  or 
partnerships).  The  rate  of  those  starting  a  corporation  differs  significantly 
between  Young  Enterprise  Sweden  Alumni  and  the  control  group:  male 
Young Enterprise Sweden Alumni are 60% more likely than the males of the 
control  group  to  engage  in  entrepreneurship  by  starting  a  corporate  firm; 
female  Young  Enterprise  Sweden  Alumni  are  80%  more  likely  than  the 
females of the control group.175 

  The  Charney/Libecap 

the 
entrepreneurship  programme  at  the  Arizona  University  were  three  times 
more likely to get involved in creating new business ventures than their non-
entrepreneurship course peers.  

graduates 

showed 

that 

of 

study176 

  The  comparative  study  ‘Impact  of  Entrepreneurship  Education’177  showed 
that  the  entrepreneurship/venture  creation  courses  had  a  positive  impact 

170 The Boston Consulting Group (2011) Making an Impact. Assessing Junior Achievement of Canada's Value 
Creation 
171 Kingston University London / Young Enterprise UK (2012) Impact - 50 years of Young Enterprise 
172 Experiences from participation in JA-YE Company Programmes. What experience did participants in Company 
Programmes have during their time as company founders – and what happened next? (2007) 
173 Johansen, V. (2013) - Entrepreneurship education and start-up activity: a gender perspective 
174 Fleming, P. (1996) Entrepreneurship education in Ireland: a longitudinal study in academy of 
entrepreneurship journal: European Edns, 2(1). 94-118. 
175 Wennberg, K., Elert, N. (2012) - Effekter av utbildning i entreprenörskap 
176 Charney, A,,; Libercap G.D. (2000): Impact of entrepreneurship education. 2000. Eller College of Business 
and Public Administration, University of Arizona. USA 
177 Lee et al. (2005) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education: A Comparative Study of the U.S. and Korea. 
International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal 1, 27-43, 2005 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

both  on  Korean  and  US  students,  compared  to  control  groups.  The  study 
demonstrated  statistically  significant  differences  between  target  and  control 
groups in both countries. The results imply that the cultural context plays a 
role: American students start from a different level: they are already inclined 
in  creating  a  venture,  have  higher  self-confidence  and  recognise  the 
importance  of  entrepreneurship  education.  The  Korean  students,  although 
starting  from  lower  levels  of  knowledge,  intention  etc.  reached  the  level  of 
US students after entrepreneurship education.  

  Results imply that the impact of  entrepreneurship courses will be greater in 
countries  with  an  emerging  entrepreneurship  culture  (Korea)  than  in 
countries with a strong entrepreneurship culture (USA). 

Two studies suggested that the effect of entrepreneurship education is enhanced 
if students are additionally active in voluntary, non-curricular activities related to 
entrepreneurship, such as entrepreneurship clubs and networks: 

  A  study  discussing  the ‘Effects  and  impact  of  entrepreneurship  programmes 
in  Higher  Education’  (JADE  career  survey)178 
the  European 
Confederation  of  Junior  Enterprises  (JADE  –  an  international,  non-profit 
umbrella-organisation of student enterprises across Europe; established and 
managed  solely  by  students)  found  that  the  share  of  entrepreneurs  among 
JADE alumni  was three times higher than among Higher Education students 
which were not JADE members.  

from 

  Alumni  from  NFTE  (Network  for  Teaching  Entrepreneurship)  participated  in 
an  average  of  five  start-up  activities  in  a  year.  For  comparison,  a  group  of 
university science and engineering students who also took part in a curricular 
entrepreneurship  programme  participated  in  an  average  of  three  start-up 
activities in the same time frame.179 

5.4.2  Enhancing the employability of participants 

Evidence  was  identified  that  entrepreneurship  programmes  impact  on  the 
employability of participants in several ways. Entrepreneurship alumni  

  Are better prepared to find a job; 

  Are less likely to be unemployed;  

  Are more often self-employed;  

  Achieve better positions; and  

  Have a higher income.   

  A study on the Enterprise Challenge programme in Ireland180 found that after 

the programme: 

  Three  quarters  of  secondary  students  could  correctly  recognise  the  most 

appropriate behaviour for interviews; 

  87% of primary students and 65% of secondary students could correctly 
recognise  the  characteristics  that  employers  regard  as  important  and 
seek in their employees; 

  87% of primary students and 73% of secondary students understood the 

purpose of a CV. 

178 ibid 
179 Vanessa E. Beary (2013): The NFTE Difference: Examining the Impact of Entrepreneurship Education.  
180 Junior Achievement Ireland. Enterprise Challenge programme 2010/2011. National Evaluation Report 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  A US study on alumni of the NFTE programme181 showed that 88% of NFTE 
alumni between the ages of 25–40 with a high school diploma are employed 
(compared to 69% national average).   

  From the same study it appeared that among NFTE alumni, one out of every 
individuals  is  self-employed.  With  this,  NFTE  alumni 
five  employed 
outperform  the  U.S.  self-employment  rate  where  one  out  of  every  nine 
employed individuals is self-employed.182 

  The same study provided evidence that NFTE alumni in the US have a higher 

income:  

  The average annual income of NFTE graduates over the age of 25 with a 
minimum  of  a  high  school  diploma  was  $38,000  USD  per  year  ($24,000 
national average for the same group).  

  Male  NFTE  alumni  over  the  age  of  25  made  $43,000  a  year  on  average 
(national  average  of  $30,600  for  the  same  population).  Female  NFTE 
alumnae  over  the  age  of  25  made  $34,000  a  year  (national  average  of 
$18,000 for the same population).183 

  The  Swedish  long-term  study  ‘Practice  makes  perfect’184  showed  that 

students who ran a JA training company between 1994-1996  

  were more likely to become managers: 7.4% of Young Enterprise Sweden 
Alumni  were  found  to  be  managers  16  years  after  secondary  school, 
versus  5.1%  for  the  control  group.  This  means  that,  Young  Enterprise 
Sweden Alumni had a 44% higher probability of becoming managers than 
the control group; 

  were  more  strongly  established  in  the  labour  market:    In  2010,  10%  of 
Young  Enterprise  Sweden  alumni  and  12%  of  the  control  group  were 
“weakly  established”.  The  probability  of  a  weak  establishment  was 
therefore 12 percentage points lower for alumni compared to the control 
group; 

 

the mean number of days of unemployment was lower for alumni than for 
the  control  group.  In  2010,  the  mean  number  of  these  days  was  7.9  for 
alumni  and  10.1  for  the  control  group.  It  was  concluded  that  Young 
Enterprise  Sweden  Alumni  were  more  than  20  percentage  points  less 
likely to be unemployed than the control group. 

  The  Canadian  study  ‘Making  an  impact’185  finds  that  JA  alumni  were  three 
times  more  likely  than  the  control  group  to  hold  senior  and  middle 
management positions, and JA alumni are 25% less likely to be unemployed 
than individuals in the control group. 

  The  Charney/Libecap  study186  also  showed  that  entrepreneurship  graduates 
at the University of Arizona were more often employed full-time in high-tech 
industries than their peers. 

  Based  on  a  compilation  of  data  from  several  studies,187  the  2010  FFE-YE-
measurement  in  Denmark  stated  that  people  who  have  been  trained  and 

181 ibid 
182 ibid 
183 ibid 
184 Wennberg, K. (2008): Practice Makes Perfect? A Longitudinal Investigation of Junior Achievement (JA) 
Sweden - Alumni and Their Entrepreneurial Careers, 1990-2007”  
185 The Boston Consulting Group (2011) Making an Impact. Assessing Junior Achievement of Canada's Value 
Creation 
186 Charney, A., Libecap, G.D. (2000) Impact of entrepreneurship education. Eller College of Business and Public 
Administration, University of Arizona. USA ibid 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

educated  in  entrepreneurship  have  a  considerably  higher  income  than 
untrained. The more training and education, the higher the income.188  

Hence, participants to entrepreneurship courses may benefit from the training in 
more than one way.  

Paradoxically,  the  high  chances  of  entrepreneurship  graduates  to  get  into  well-
paid positions as employees can have a detrimental effect on foundation rates of 
alumni:  The  Swedish  study 
‘The  effects  of  education  and  training  in 
entrepreneurship’  found  that  entrepreneurship  alumni  have  a  higher  probability 
of  attaining  a  good  salary  and  managerial  position  as  employees,  compared  to 
the  control  group.  They  would  thus  have  a  somewhat  greater  motivation  than 
the  control  group  to  terminate  their  (student)  firms  and  choose  a  career  as 
employees, even if their (student) firms tend to be more successful than those of 
the control group. 

5.4.3  Enhancing protective factors against social exclusion 

On  the  long  run,  impact  on  society  could  also  stem  from  changes  on  attitudes 
and behaviour which have the potential to better protect students against social 
exclusion. 

  Evidence from evaluation of an arts and cultural activities project in England 
(UK)  with  children  at  risk  of  social  exclusion  resulted  in  a  marked 
improvement in the self-efficacy and  empowerment of many of the children 
involved  (see  section  5.3.3).  The  researchers  hypothesised  that  by 
enhancing self-esteem and self-efficacy of these children, who were living in 
foster  homes  at  the  time,  the  project  on  the  long-term  will  contribute  to 
social inclusion. 189 

  The  evaluation  of  the  ENTRANCE  project  came  to  similar  conclusions 
regarding  the  protective  effect  of  entrepreneurship  education  against  social 
exclusion. The ENTRANCE project had a significant impact upon the affective 
domain  of  the  young  people  involved  (motivation,  self-confidence  and  locus 
of  control); and its effect was found to be greatest for those  students most 
at-risk of social exclusion. Here as well, the researchers conclude the impact 
on  entrepreneurial  attitudes  such  as  commitment,  determination,  creativity 
and  planning  will  help  young  people  to  move  away  from  being  at  risk  of 
exclusion  as  these  are  exactly  the  attitudes  that  are  needed  to  begin  this 
process.190 

Yet,  both  evaluations  did  not  take  on  a  longitudinal  approach;  hence  this 
hypothesis could not be tested. 

5.4.4  Global economic and social impact   

Demonstrating  links  between  an  educational  programme  and  economic  or 
societal change is methodologically challenging. Global impact on the society and 
the economy was measured mostly in relation to the type of ventures created by 
entrepreneurship education alumni, their innovative potential and their turnover.  

  The  Charney/Libecap  study191  showed  that  graduates  from  the  Berger 
Entrepreneurship  Programme  at  the  University  of  Arizona  were  significantly 

187 Charney/Libecap 2000, GEM, Young Enterprise Denmark  
188 Other factors were taken into consideration, such as gender, age, other education, and employment. 
189 ibid 
190 Peffers J., Huddleston P., Banfalvy C., Weiss Sh., Aparisi J. (2002). Enterprise and its transfer to combat 
social exclusion- ENTRANCE. Final Report 
191 Charney, A., Libecap, G.D. (2000) Impact of entrepreneurship education. Eller College of Business and Public 
Administration, University of Arizona. USA ibid 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

more apt to be involved in developing new products, and to have spent more 
time in Research and Development related activities.  

  The  Swedish  study  ‘Practice  makes  perfect?’192  found  that  the  firms  started 
by Young Enterprise Sweden Alumni led to more job creation. The mean size 
of  firms  started  by  alumni  as  sole  proprietorships  or  partnerships  was  two 
employees,  and  the  mean  size  of  corporations  started  by  Young  Enterprise 
Sweden  Alumni  was  nine  employees.  Both  figures  are  significantly  larger 
than the overall mean size of new firms in the Swedish economy in terms of 
employment.  According  to  the  results  from  the  first  four  years  of  research, 
alumni-founded  corporations  were  on  average  7.5%  larger  in  terms  of  job 
creation  than  the  ones  in  the  control  group.  The  respective  difference  for 
proprietorships/partnerships  was  again  in  favour  of  JA  alumni  and  reached 
3.5%.   

  The same study also provided evidence of higher revenues. The revenues of 
alumni-funded  corporations  were  on  average  20%  higher  than  the 
comparable 
for 
proprietorships/partnership  firms  (6%  higher  for  the  Young  Enterprise 
Sweden alumni). 193 

control  group.  The 

same  held 

firms  of 

the 

  A  similar  approach  was  taken  by  the  study  ‘Impact.  50  Years  of  Young 
Enterprise’  from  the  UK194,  which  showed  that  the  YE  programmes  had 
significant economic and societal impact. 

Facts and figures from 50 years of Young Enterprise in the 
UK 

  YE  Alumni  firms  have  a  larger  turnover:  12%  of  alumni  firms  turn 
over  £500,000  compared  3%  of  the  control  group’s  firms.  Three  percent 
of Alumni firms turn over more than £1 million, compared to none in the 
control group. 

  YE  Alumni  companies  employ  more  people:  11%  have  51-99 
employees  compared  to  9%  of  the  control  group.  Two  per  cent  of  the 
alumni have 100-249 employees compared to none in the control group.  

  YE  Alumni  firms  are  more  innovative:  21.2%  of  alumni  firms  were 
digital  and  ‘cloud’-based  firms  compared  to  3%  of  firms  in  the  control 
group.  Alumni  firms  were  more  diverse.  Alumni  firms  ranged  from 
internet  sales  to  advanced  engineering,  corrosion  control  and  ‘retro’ 
tourism.  Control  group  firms  were  concentrated  in  fewer  sectors, 
particularly healthcare and education.  

  YE Alumni are more likely to be serial entrepreneurs: They are less 
deterred  by  the  prospect  of  failing.  49.6%  of  alumni  said  boosting  sales 
was the top priority in the downturn while only 5% opted for internal cuts.  

The  positive  impact  that  entrepreneurship  education  can  have  on  society  was 
rarely  explicitly  measured,  but  rather  inferred  from  other  types  of  impact.  For 
example, increased numbers of new ventures or the creation of job opportunities 
(which  concern  economic  impact)  can  be  expected  to  have  positive  effects  on 
society too, as society benefits from lower rates of unemployment. 

192 Wennberg, K. (2008): Practice Makes Perfect? A Longitudinal Investigation of Junior Achievement (JA) 
Sweden - Alumni and Their Entrepreneurial Careers, 1990-2007”  
193 Wennberg, K. (2008): Practice Makes Perfect? A Longitudinal Investigation of Junior Achievement (JA) 
Sweden - Alumni and Their Entrepreneurial Careers, 1990-2007”  
194 OPM (2013) - Evaluation of CCE/NCB arts and cultural activities project with looked after children 

72 

 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Nonetheless, there have been attempts to prove direct impact on societal level. 

  The study ‘Making an impact’195 found that JA Canada delivers a 45:1 annual 
return on ‘societal prosperity’ per dollar invested. Researchers estimated the 
Return  on  Investment  (ROI)  of  each  dollar  that  the  state  spent  on 
entrepreneurship education. They took into account not only contributions of 
alumni/entrepreneurs, but also the costs that are avoided by the state (e.g. 
social assistance to unemployed), due to the positive career developments of 
the alumni. The estimates drew on data from national databases relevant to 
social  policy  and  the  labour  market.  They  clearly  demonstrated  the 
significance of entrepreneurship education for other policy areas. 

  Society also benefited from positive changes in attitudes towards interaction 
between  communities  with  different  backgrounds  that  was  found  in  a  study 
conducted by Junior Achievement Ireland.196  

  The  study  ‘Effects  and  impact  of  entrepreneurship  programmes  in  higher 
education’ showed that the alumni of the student entrepreneur JADE network 
were  more  often  engaged  in  volunteer  work  than  members  of  a  control 
group.  Fifty  per  cent  of  JADE  alumni  were  engaged  in  this  form  of  active 
citizenship, as opposed to 38% in a control group.197 

  The same study showed that JADE alumni were also more often engaged in 
starting a non-commercial project or initiative (social entrepreneurship). Fifty 
eight  per  cent  of  JADE  alumni  did  so,  as  opposed  to  38%  in  a  control 
group.198 

195 The Boston Consulting Group (2011) Making an Impact. Assessing Junior Achievement of Canada's Value 
Creation 
196 Junior Achievement (2013) Evaluation of KEY and LET programmes, 2012/2013. 
197 European Commission, DG ENTR (2012) Effects and impact of entrepreneurship programmes in Higher 
Education. 
198 Ibid, page 72 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

6 

How can the impact of entrepreneurship 
education be measured?  

6.1  What methods and tools can be used to measure what 

type of impact?  

Many  types  of  tools  can  be  used  to  measure  the  impact  of  all  modes  of 
entrepreneurship  education  delivery.  For  example,  a  survey  can  be  used  to 
measure the impact of an ad hoc initiative (at any educational level), as well as 
the  impact  of  a  strategy.  The  case  study  evidence  underlines  that  what  mostly 
shapes  the  tools  and  methodology  used  are  the  goals  of  the  measurement  and 
the  breadth  of  what  is  measured.  So,  the  choice  of  tools  should  be  adjusted  to 
the  goals  of  the  programme/initiative,  the  goals  of  the  measurement  and  the 
target group, among other factors. 

The six questions below may be used as a compass when selecting the tool and 
deciding  on  its  content,  focus,  structure  of  questions,  length  and  other 
characteristics. 

Compass for selecting research tools 

  What  do  we  want  to  measure  (e.g.  the  impact  of  the  content  or  of  the 

teaching method)? 

  Are we interested in collecting qualitative feedback on top of quantitative?  

  Will  this  measurement  take  place  again  next  year  (i.e.  will  it  regard  the 

systematic measurement of a recurring programme)? 

  If  we  are 

interested 

the  effect  on  participants’ 
knowledge/skills,  which  questions  are  suitable?  Which  are  the  most 
significant skills to check and how will we check their development due to 
the programme/strategy? 

in  assessing 

  Are  there  any  existing  theoretical  models  that  could  be  used  as 

inspiration/basis for our impact measurement? 

  Is  one 

type  of 

the 
programme/initiative  at  all  levels  (if  aiming  at  more  than  one  levels  of 
impact, e.g. individual and institutional)? 

tool  sufficient 

impact  of 

to  grasp 

the 

The analysis based on the examples collected for this study highlights that more 
than one questionnaire may be needed to grasp the impact of one initiative (e.g. 
the Misgav case study), since several of the above questions were addressed.  

range  of 

the  broad 

impact  measurement  examples 

In 
reviewed, 
surveys/questionnaires  were  used  in  most  cases.  Surveys  are  flexible  tools, 
as  they  can  be  easily  constructed  and  adjusted  to  each  educational 
programme/measure/strategy. Online surveys also allow participants to reply at 
a  time  that  is  convenient  to  them  and  are  more  cost-effective  than  paper 
questionnaires.  

  The questionnaires used in the examples analysed included both closed and 
open-ended  questions.  Closed  questions  (i.e. where  participants  can choose 
between pre-defined choices) offer quantifiable results. These are especially 
useful  when  questionnaires  are  run  both  before  and  after  the  programme; 
quantifiable results allow the identification of any changes in responses that 
could then be attributed to the programme/measure.  

The  construction  of  questionnaires  was  often  based  on  well-established  and 
validated theoretical models/approaches. For example, the questionnaire used in 
the  SEECEL  case  study  was  linked  to  Bloom’s  Taxonomy,  as  were  the 

74 

  
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

entrepreneurial learning outcomes that SEECEL developed. When questionnaires 
aimed  at  measuring  levels/intensity  (for  example,  of  individuals’  intention  to 
start  a  business),  researchers  often  used  scales  (e.g.  Likert-type  scales-  in  the 
Misgav  case  study199,  in  Boissin  and  Emin  (2006)200,  in  Aouni  and  Pirnay 
(2009)201  and  in  Jones  et  al.  (2008)202).  Other  types  of  scales  were  also  used, 
which were constructed by the researchers (for example, in the case of Nakkula 
et  al  (2004)203  that  measured  the  impact  of  an entrepreneurship  programme  in 
schools  in  Boston).  Such  scales  may  be  inspired  by  existing  literature  (for 
example, as in the case of DeTienne and Chandler (2004).204 

However,  open-ended  questions  that  offer  more  qualitative  information  have 
also  been  used  and  found  to  be  beneficial.  They  allow  the  grasping  of 
participants’/stakeholders’  reactions  and  views  on  the  programme  or  the 
methodology/tools  that  were  used  to  measure  the  impact  (e.g.  for  the  impact 
measurement of the E-Discovery Challenge in the USA).205 

Other tools identified include:   

  Interviews (with participants, educators or other stakeholders); 

  Observation  of  participants  (e.g. 

l'esprit 
d'entreprendre’  (FR)206;  the  ‘Enterprise  and  its  transfer  to  combat  social 
exclusion-  ENTRANCE  programme’  (ENG,  HU,  IL,  ES)207,  and  the  STEP 
project (BE-nl)208); 

‘Développement  de 

in  the 

  Journals/diaries/portfolios  (e.g.  in  DeTienne  D.R.  and  Chandler  G.N.,  2004 

and the evaluation of the ENTRANCE project)209; 

  Other methods: for example, the experimental method ‘Think Aloud protocol’ 

(in Dunchev B., 2012)210. 

In  some  cases,  researchers  combined  questionnaires  with  other  tools  (e.g. 
qualitative  interviews).  Examples  are  the  impact  study  launched  by  Young 
Enterprise UK, “Impact - 50 years of Young Enterprise”  211; the measurement of 

199 Heilbrunn S. (2008) - Advancing Entrepreneurship in an Elementary School: A Case Study. See Annex 2 for 
more details. 
200 Boissin and Emin (2006), in Xvème Conférence Internationale de Management Stratégique, Annecy / 
Genève 13-16 June 2006. 
201 Aouni Z., Pirnay, F. (2009): L'Impact de l'exposition a des modeles d'emtrepreneurs sure les antecedents de 
l'intention entrepreneuriale. 
202 Jones et al (2008) Student attitudes towards enterprise education in Poland: a positive impact; Education 
+Training Vol.50 No. 7, pp.597-614. 
203 Nakkula M. et al..; Lutyens M.; Pineda C., Dray A., Gaytan F. Huguley J. (2004) Initiating, leading and 
feeling in control of one’s fate: Findings from the 2002-2003 study of NFTE in six Boston Public High Schools. 
Harvard University. Graduate School of Education. 
204 DeTienne, D.R., and Chandler, G.N. (2004) Opportunity Identification and Its Role in the Entrepreneurial 
Classroom: A Pedagogical Approach and Empirical Test. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 
2004, Vol. 3, No. 3, 242–257. 
205 Hustedde. R.J.,. and Denham. M. (2013) E-Discovery Challenge. More information on the programme on: 
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CLD/KECI/edisc/ 
206http://www.experimentation.jeunes.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/FEJ_Esprit_d_entreprendre___Rapport_d_evaluation_C
REDOC_FINAL.pdf 
207 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/finalreport/soe2ct983068-final-report.pdf 
208 Laurynenko, D.,. and Vanderaerden, E. (2011), Een voorstudie met betrekking tot een interventieonderzoek 
rond het educatieve pakket: Een koffer vol Ondernemingszin (STEP project). 
209 DeTienne, D.R., and Chandler, G.N.(2004) Opportunity Identification and Its Role in the Entrepreneurial 
Classroom: A Pedagogical Approach and Empirical Test. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 
2004, Vol. 3, No. 3, 242–257; and Peffers J., Huddleston P., Banfalvy C., Weiss Sh., Aparisi J. (2002). 
Enterprise and its transfer to combat social exclusion- ENTRANCE. Final Report, Internet: 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/finalreport/soe2ct983068-final-report.pdf 
210 Dunchev, B. (2012) Measuring the impact of entrepreneurial education at Aarhus School of Business and 
Social Sciences. Aarhus School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus, Denmark. 
211 Athayde, R. (2012) Impact - 50 years of Young Enterprise. 

75 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

the School Professional Toolkit of SEECEL; and, the measurement of the societal 
impact of the National Action Plan 2010-2014 in Norway212. 

Such  mixed  methods  are  more  often  used  when  the  goal  is  to  address  several 
aspects/types  of  impact  and/or  to  assess  more  than  one  programme  (as  in  the 
case  of  a  strategy).  The  following  sub-section  highlights  examples  of  such 
approaches, especially regarding entrepreneurship education strategies.  

When  the  goal  is  to  assess  the  impact  of  a  programme  on  participants’ 
knowledge/skills, tests can also be helpful. For example, tests with questions on 
entrepreneurial  skills/knowledge  were  used  in  several  studies  conducted  by 
members of the JA-YE network213, the SEECEL case study, to assess the shift in 
teachers’ knowledge, as well as the UPI case study, where statements regarding 
creativity were used as indicators of students’ understanding of the topic.  

6.1.1  Measuring the impact of an entrepreneurship education strategy 

The  measurement  approach  needs  to  be  more  complex  when  measuring  the 
overall  impact  of  a  strategy,  as  the  latter  may  touch  upon  different  education 
levels, institutions, programmes etc.  

In the Netherlands, the National Action Plan 2007-2012 was evaluated by a 
series  of  commissioned  surveys  and  independent  evaluations.  Separate 
evaluations ran for primary,  secondary and secondary VET (“Track 1) and for 
higher  education  (“Track  2”).  The  commissioned  surveys  included  specific 
questions for each education level. An e-survey and qualitative interviews also 
took  place  to  assess  the  penetration  rate  of  entrepreneurship  in  educational 
institutions.  

Also,  the  goals  of  a  strategy  can  be  broader  and/or  focus  more  on  the  macro-
level  compared  to  an  individual  programme.  The  measurement  methods/tools 
should reflect that.  

The Wales Strategy used several tools (surveys) to identify the impact of its 
programmes/initiatives.  The  Strategy  aims  to  have  an  impact  on  individuals 
(e.g.  raise  awareness  of  entrepreneurship)  amongst  whom  relevant  surveys 
are  used.  Given  that  the  overall  goal  of  the  YES  Strategy  was  to  create  a 
cultural  shift  in  favour  of  entrepreneurship,  different  surveys  were  used  to 
assess  views  on  entrepreneurship  of  different  age  groups  (e.g.  the  Children’s 
Omnibus  Survey  (for  people  aged  7-18  years  old)  and  the  Annual  Wales 
Omnibus Survey that targets adults). To assess impact on the economic level 
(perceived  as  number  and  viability  of  new  businesses  created),  the  Strategy 
assessment  process  used  the  results  of  surveys  such  as  the  Global 
Entrepreneurship  Monitor  (GEM)  and  the  Higher  Education  Business  and 
community interaction survey (HEBCIS). 

The  measurement  of  the  impact  of  the  National  Action  Plan  in  Norway 
(2010-2014) focused on the impacts on individuals and on society. Impact on 
individuals  (pupils/students)  was  assessed  by  targeted  surveys.  The  societal 
impact  was  assessed  by  using  results  of  the  individual  impact  assessments, 
combined with qualitative interviews. 

212 Johansen V. et al.and Mathisen T. (2012) - Entreprenørskap i utdanningen og oppnåelse av læringsmål; 
Internet: http://www.ostforsk.no/images/rapporter/142012.pdf 
213 “Business skills. A survey of JA-YE participants” and “Financial literacy. A survey of JA-YE participants” 

76 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

6.1.2  Impact measurement on the four levels: individual, institutional, 

economic, societal  

This study provides evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education at four 
levels:  the  individual,  the  institutional,  the  economic  and  the  societal. 
Measurement approaches  can differ between the four types, although the same 
tool (e.g. a questionnaire) may be used. 

Individual 

The vast majority of the literature and country examples that have demonstrated 
impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  have  considered  the  impact  on  the 
individual, with the focus on participants in the educational programme/initiative. 
Impact  on  the  individual  can  also  consider  impacts  on  teachers/school  staff  (as 
in the case of SEECEL). The methods used mainly involve questionnaires. 

Institutional 

The impact on the school/institution has been measured by assessing changes to 
teachers/other  school  staff.  This  is  justified  because  it  is  the  attitudes  and 
behaviour of teachers/school staff that significantly impact on the atmosphere in 
the  school,  and  the  acceptance,  promotion  and  efficiency  of  entrepreneurship 
education (through relevant teaching methods and learning outcomes).  

The  positive  impact  of  the  initiative  implemented  by  ASE  (Wallonia, 
Belgium)  on  schools  was  measured  through  the  increased  engagement  and 
interest of teachers in entrepreneurship education.  

The  UPI  courses (Slovenia)  seem  to  have  established  a  creative  climate  in 
the classrooms, according to a survey that focused on principals, mentors and 
students.  

In  the  Netherlands,  the  impact  of  the  National  Action  plan  on  the 
engagement  of  institutions  was  measured  by  using  an  e-survey  and  in-depth 
interviews  in  a  representative  sample  of  educational  institutions  across  all 
education levels.  

Society and Economy 

Measuring  and  demonstrating  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  on  the 
economy and society is challenging. It is difficult to isolate the effect of a single 
educational programme or even of an education strategy on the  wider economy 
and  society.  There 
influence 
large  number  of 
questions/indicators  that  consider  economic  or  societal  impact.  However, 
measurement on these levels is feasible.  

factors  that  can 

is  a 

The  role  of  definitions  plays  a  key  role  here  (see  sub-section  2.3.1  for  more 
information  on  the  importance  of  definitions).  This  is  evident  from  the 
measurement approaches identified in the research.  

The  impact  on  economy  has  been  measured  by  surveys  that  interpret  impact 
as: 

  development  of  start-ups/firms  by  alumni  (e.g.  the  MIT  case  study,  studies 
from  JA-YE  network  members  such  as  the  “Impact.  50  Years  of  Young 
Enterprise”; and, the Wales strategy that uses a relevant indicator from the 
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor annual survey) 

  creation of jobs by the alumni-founded companies (e.g. the MIT case study, 

and the Swedish study “Practice makes perfect?”)214 

214 Wennberg, K. (2008): Practice Makes Perfect? A Longitudinal Investigation of Junior Achievement (JA) 
Sweden - Alumni and Their Entrepreneurial Careers, 1990-2007” 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  other characteristics of the alumni-founded firms, such as the sector they are 

active in, and the innovativeness of these sectors etc. 

In  these  cases,  results  from  the  surveys  to  inform  impact  measurement  are 
compared  to  relevant  data  from  national  statistics  (e.g.  ‘Impact.  50  Years  of 
Young  Enterprise’  (UK);  ‘Practice  makes  perfect?’  (SE)).  Other  studies  use 
external databases, e.g. in the MIT case study, databases Compustat and Dun & 
Bradstreet for data on public and private companies respectively.  

Impact  on  Society  is  rarely  measured,  given  the  methodological  challenges  of 
demonstrating  a  link  between  a  programme  and  societal  change.  Nonetheless, 
there have been attempts to measure and to prove impact on societal level. 

The  study  “Making  an  impact.  Assessing  Junior  Achievement  of 
Canada’s valued  creation”  offers  an interesting methodological approach  to 
measuring societal impact. Based on the hypothesis that positive developments 
in  individuals’  careers  bring  about  benefits  for  society  (viewed  as  the  local 
community and the state/country overall) these individuals live in, researchers 
calculated the Return on Investment (ROI) of one dollar that the state spent on 
entrepreneurship education. They took into account not only  the contributions 
of alumni/entrepreneurs, but also the costs that are avoided by the state (e.g. 
social  assistance  to  unemployed),  due  to  the  positive  career  development  of 
the alumni.  

The estimates drew data from national databases relevant to social policy and 
the  labour  market.  In  this  way,  researchers  not  only  achieved  an  estimate  of 
ROI of investing in JA entrepreneurship education (they estimated an annual 
return  of  45:1  in  terms  of  societal  prosperity  for  every  dollar  spent  in 
JA),  but  also  clearly  demonstrated  the  significance  of  entrepreneurship 
education for other policy areas.  

it 

is 

rarely  explicitly  measured, 

Although 
that 
entrepreneurship education can have on society can be inferred from other types 
of impact. For example, increased number of new ventures or the creation of job 
opportunities (which concern economic impact) can be expected to have positive 
effects on society too, as society benefits from lower rates of unemployment.  

the  positive 

impact 

Hence, even if impact on society is not systematically measured, implicit effects 
on additional impact types/levels can be identified. 

6.2  Measuring impact of entrepreneurship education: 14 

points for consideration  

When  measuring  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  it  is  useful  to  take 
into  consideration  elements  of  good  practice  and  points  to  avoid,  so  that 
evidence  collected  may  lead  to  robust  conclusions.  Academic  research  and  in-
depth analysis of the case studies conducted for this study has provided insights 
on the overall approach and how to design, implement an impact measurement 
methodology.  These  insights  aim  at  supporting  policy  makers,  institutional 
authorities,  educators  or  any 
the 
insights/lessons  offered  in  this  sub  section  aim  at  being  inspiring,  not 
prescriptive.  As  with  all  education-related  measurement  issues,  the  importance 
of  country/region/school  characteristics  should  be  always  be  considered. 
Additionally, to identify impact, the data collected needs to be analysed by using 
statistical  methods  and  tools.  This  means  there  is  a  need  to  include  specialised 
researchers/statisticians in the measurement/analysis team.  

stakeholder.  However, 

interested 

Impact measurement of entrepreneurship education is a relatively young field of 
research  and  implementation.  Although  each  measurement  should  be  adjusted 
to  the  context  of  the  country/region/institution  within  which  the  programme  or 
strategy runs, as well as to characteristics of the target group (e.g. age group of 

78 

  
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

respondents),  there  are  some  key  points  that should  be  kept into  consideration 
and that apply in most cases.  

1) Decide on the definition of key terms 

Entrepreneurship  education  covers  a  broad  range  of  elements  and  its  impacts 
are linked to changes in attitudes, skills and behaviour. So, before choosing the 
methodological  approach  and  designing    the  tool(s)  to  be  used  for  data 
collection,  the  key  stakeholders  should  agree  on  what  they  mean  by 
entrepreneurship  impact  (e.g.  is  it  firm  creation?  creative  thinking?  both?  etc.). 
Other  definitions  are  also  important.  If  the  goal  is  to  measure  the  shift  in 
entrepreneurial  spirit,  what  does  this  mean  specifically  in  the  context  of  the 
programme/initiative/strategy  in  question?  Likewise,  all  key  terms  should  be 
defined.  As  entrepreneurship  can  also  have  indirect  effects  (for  example  on 
individuals’  perceptions  and  possibly  behaviour)  definitions  will  inform  the 
questions/measurement indicators to be used.  

Definition of key terms: ‘Entrepreneurial 
skills/attitudes/competences’ 

to 

terms 

related 

The  key 
the  definition  of  entrepreneurship  and 
entrepreneurial  behaviour  were  not  used  consistently  across  the  examples  of 
the  measurement  of  the  impact  of  entrepreneurial  education  reviewed.  For 
instance,  whilst  in  some  examples  ‘risk-taking’  was  mentioned  as  a  ‘skill’  (in 
some  cases referring to ‘transversal skills’), in others it was mentioned as an 
‘attitude’  or  ‘competence’.  The  report  has  made  clear  where  appropriate  the 
definitions provided by the researchers undertaking the measurement or  used 
by the developers of the initiative.  

2) Decide on the goals of the measurement 

The goals of the measurement will define the focus and so, the characteristics of 
the tools used, the time of launch, stakeholders involved etc. For example, if the 
goal  of  the  measurement  is  to  prove  impact  on  students’  knowledge  level  of 
entrepreneurship, the measurement should include tools, sample etc. that serve 
that goal, such as tests rather than self-assessment.   

3) Align the goals of the measurement with the goals of the programme, 
initiative or strategy 

If the goals of the education programme/strategy and those of the measurement 
of  impact  are  not  aligned,  the  measurement  results  are  unlikely  to  be  either 
robust or useful. 

4) Align the measurement tools with the key definitions and goals of the 
measurement 

If  the  measurement  tools  used  treat  entrepreneurship  from  a  different  point  of 
view/definition,  then  it  may  not  be  possible  to  collect  meaningful  data  at  the 
end.  Also,  the  goals  of  the  measurement  of  impact  should  influence  how  the 
measurement will be undertaken.  

In the UPI case study in Slovenia, four distinct samples, reflecting different 
target groups were developed to serve the goal of the measurement of impact, 
which was to assess the impact of the UPI courses on students and mentors. 

5) Adjust and test the tools and questions used to the target group 

It is important to adjust the questions’ content and language to the target group 
(age;  educational  background  etc.).  For  example,  in  the  UPI  case  study,  the 
questionnaire was first tested to ensure it was suitable for pupils. Changes were 
made  before  launching  the  final  survey  instrument.  Different  questionnaires  for 

79 

  
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

different  age  groups  were  used  in  all  examples  that  included  more  than  one 
target group (e.g. the ASTEE project215, the surveys used for the assessment of 
the Wales Strategy, and the Norwegian National Action Plan).  

6) Collect quantitative data 

Qualitative  data  can  be  beneficial  to  gain  insight  into  factors  affecting  impact, 
but  quantitative  information  allows  for  the  clearer  attribution  and  scaling  of 
impact. 

7) Carefully select the sample: 

in  the  Netherlands,  the  evaluations  that 

Size:  samples  need  to  be  sufficiently  large,  to  offer  statistically  robust  results 
(e.g. 
first/basic 
measurement  identified  the  need  to  enlarge  the  sample).  This  study  has 
identified  impact  measurement  examples  where,  despite  strong  methodologies, 
small samples raise concerns on the robustness of findings (e.g. in Fretscher et 
al.  (2013)  in  Germany216,  Dziurzańska,  A  (2010)  in  Poland217  and  Dunchev 
(2012) in Denmark218); 

followed  the 

Self-selection bias: In order to identify and demonstrate impact a clear, causal 
link  should  be  evident  between  the  input  (programme/initiative)  and  the 
outcome/result.  To  achieve  this  it  is  important  to  eliminate  the  effects  of  other 
factors, besides the entrepreneurship education input. Self-selection may involve 
focusing  on  or  including in  the  sample individuals  that  are  already  interested  in 
entrepreneurship.  So,  if  positive  impact  is  proved,  one  could  argue  that  it  was 
not 
towards 
entrepreneurship  that  made  the  difference.  To  avoid  this,  especially  when 
focusing  on  students/pupils,  it  is  advisable  to  include  students  that  attend  an 
entrepreneurship  programme  because  it is  compulsory  and  does  not  depend  on 
their choice. 

individuals’  pre-disposition 

input  per  se,  but 

the 

the 

Addressing the self-selection bias 

The limitation of possible self-selection bias was addressed in some examples, 
for example in “The impact of entrepreneurship education on human capital at 
upper-secondary  level”  in  Switzerland219,  the  UPI  case  study  (concerning  the 
control group), and in Stritar, R. (2006)220 in Slovenia). Also in the surveys  of 
primary  and  secondary  students  in  the  context  of  the  Norwegian  Action  Plan 
measurement,  researchers  singled  out  students  who  had  attended  mandatory 
and voluntary entrepreneurship education.  

8) Include a control group, where possible 

To  make  results  more  robust,  it  is  advisable  to  use  control  groups,  where 
possible221.  Control  groups  (usually,  individuals  that  did  not  participate  in  the 

215 http://asteeproject.eu/the-project- 
216 Fretscher et al. (2013) Measuring and understanding the effects of entrepreneurial awareness education; 
Journal of Small Business Management 51(3), pp. 410-428; doi:10.1111/jsbm.12019 
217 Dziurzańska, A. (2010) Wyniki z badania ankietowego Doświadczenia z kształcenia w przedmiocie „Podstawy 
przedsiębiorczości” wersja skrócona. 
218 Dunchev, B. (2012): Measuring the impact of entrepreneurial education at Aarhus School of Business and 
Social Sciences. Aarhus School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus, Denmark. 
219 Volery et al. (2013); The impact of entrepreneurship education on human capital at upper-secondary level; 
Journal of Small Business Management 51 (3), pp. 429-0; doi: 10.1111/jsbm.12020 
220 Stritar, R. (2006) Factors influencing the formation of entrepreneurial intentions of university students: The 
impact of teamwork, Master thesis - University of Ljubljana. Internet: www.cek.ef.uni-
lj.si/magister/stritar3147.pdf 
221 Including a control group may not be possible due to the nature/focus of an impact measurement (e.g. in 
the case study on MIT, where the measurement focused only on MIT, it would not be possible to include a 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

entrepreneurship  education  programme  under  scrutiny)  can  substantiate  that 
any  observed  impact  on  the  sample/  treatment  group222  came  from  the 
entrepreneurship  education  programme  and  not  from  traits/personal  factors  of 
individuals. Comparing the results of questionnaires/tests of people that did not 
participate  in  the  programme  can  lead  to  such  conclusions.  Therefore, 
researchers should: 

  ensure  the  control  group  is  matched  to  the  main  sample:  a  control  group 
should  bear  significant similarities  with  and  not  differ  substantially  from  the 
treatment group. This will help ensure that results are robust; 

  make  the  control  group  sufficiently  large  and/or  of  similar  size  to  the 

treatment group; 

  Include control variables: Taking into consideration key variables/factors that 
affect  entrepreneurial 
intentions/attitudes/behaviours  (e.g.  prior  work 
experience,  demographic  characteristics  such  as  parents’  entrepreneurial 
experience) helps to establish the causality between the programme/training 
and the observed change. Relevant limitations have been identified in some 
measurement attempts (e.g. Garalis A. and Strazdiene G. (2007)223, Jones 
et al. (2008)224, Lee et al (2005)225 and Summit Consulting (2009)226). 

9) Rely on renowned statistical tools and techniques  

To facilitate the sound analysis of the data, it is preferable to rely on renowned 
statistical tools and techniques.  

10) Ensure a high number of responses 

High  response  rates  can  be  achieved  by  making  the  measurement  tools 
(especially  questionnaires)  more  appealing  to  respondents,  by  avoiding  long 
questionnaires and many open-ended questions, as participants are reluctant  to 
give long answers. 

11) Recognise the benefits and limitations of self-assessment 

The  vast  majority  of  surveys  used  for  impact  measurement  rely  on  self-
assessment:  participants  are  asked  to  evaluate  their  level  of  entrepreneurial 
knowledge/initiative  to  start-up  a  firm  etc.  Individuals’  perceptions  are  a 
significant element in understanding the effect of an entrepreneurship education 
programme,  because  perceptions  and  self-assessment  are  linked  to  self-
confidence and can be a good indicator of possible actions to be taken. However, 
self-assessment  is  not  ‘objective’  and  changes  in  perceptions  do  not  mean  that 
actual  changes  in  behaviour  will  occur227.  This  limitation  has  been  identified  in 
parts  of  the  questionnaires  used  in  some  of  the  case  studies,  such  as  the 

similar group of non-MIT students; or the SEECEL case study, where including a control group would be 
challenging. Please see Annex 2 for more information on the case studies).  
222 In the literature, the participants in programme are often called “treatment group”, to be distinguished from 
the control group.  
223 Garalis, A.,. and Strazdiene, G.(2007)Entrepreneurial skills development via Simulation Business Enterprise. 
224 Jones et al (2008) Student attitudes towards enterprise education in Poland: a positive impact; Education 
+Training Vol.50 No. 7, pp.597-614. 
225 Lee et al (2005) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education: A Comparative Study of the U.S. and Korea. 
International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal 1, 27-43, 2005. 
226 Summit Consulting (2009) Toward Effective Education of Innovative Entrepreneurs in Small Business: Initial 
Results from a Survey of College Students and Graduates. Washington, DC: Small Business Administration 
Office of Advocacy. 
227 For example, if students declare they have the intention of starting a business, this cannot be translated to 
actual rate of businesses that will be created.  

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

SEECEL, the Netherlands Action Plan, the ASE, the Misgav,  and other  examples 
from desk research228. 

12) Include a pre- and post- survey: The longitudinal approach  

Pre-  and  post-measurement  can  provide  strong  evidence  of  impact  and 
demonstrate that change took place. This is important for measuring behavioural 
impact, which implies action, but such change needs time to become evident229. 
Pre-  and  post-  questionnaires  can  also  eliminate  some  of  the  disadvantages  of 
self-reported results.  

If  the  aim  is  to  monitor  the  effect  of  the  programme/strategy  in  the  long  run, 
then  more  than  one  post-questionnaire  should  be  used.  Such  a  longitudinal 
approach,  involves  the  same  sample/panel  of  respondents  being  followed  and 
their  attitudes  and  behaviour  being  measured  systematically.  This  is  the 
approach of the Foundation for Entrepreneurship - Young Enterprise (FFE-YE) in 
Denmark  when  measuring 
impact  of  entrepreneurship  education. 
Longitudinal approaches can facilitate the measurement of economic and societal 
impact, as these types  of impact  concern more macro  changes (e.g. number  of 
firms created, their sustainability etc.).  

the 

However,  all  examples  found  in  the  research  that  adopted  a  longitudinal 
approach identify the decrease in response rates as the main challenge (e.g. in 
the  case  of  the  2nd  evaluation  of  the  Dutch  National  Action  Plan,  except  for 
Universities of Applied Sciences). This was especially relevant for alumni, whose 
tracking  becomes  more  difficult  after  graduation230.  Other  reported  challenges 
are lack of resources to undertake such work. 

13) Adjust the number of measurements to the programme’s duration 

A  one-off,  short  programme  cannot  be  expected  to  have  strong  impact  after  a 
prolonged  period  of  time.  The  impact  of  longer  programmes  (for  example  one-
year Master programmes) and strategies can be expected to endure longer.  

Literature231 suggests that the impact of a short programme should be measured 
before  and  after;  but  longer  programmes  should  be  monitored  before; 
immediately after the end; some months after the end; and even several years 
after. 

14) Causality is challenging to prove 

Ideally  impact  measurement  should  prove  causality,  i.e.  that  entrepreneurship 
education  led  to  specific  changes/results.  However,  establishing  causality  is 
challenging  for  the  education  sector  as  a  whole.  A  broad  range  of  other  factors 
influence  an  individual’s  actions  and  perceptions  as  well.  As  perceptions  and 
actions  may  need  time  to  change,  attributing  a  clear  causal  link  becomes  even 
more  challenging.  Some  of  the  lessons/insights  offered  in  this  section  (e.g.  use 
of  control  groups  and  control  variables,  avoiding  self-assessment  and  self-
selection etc.) can help prove causality.  

Relevant  to  causality  is  self-efficacy232,  which  measures  an  individual’s  or  a 
society’s  belief  on  his/her  ability  to  achieve  goals.  Individuals  with  high  self-
efficacy  can  be  expected  to  be  more  likely  to  take  over  challenging  tasks  and 

228 Junior Achievement Titan Program; 2007 Evaluation, Internet: 
http://www.myja.org/programs/evaluation/reports/ja_titan_evaluation.pdf; Oosterbeek H., van Praag M., 
Ijsselstein A. The impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurship skills and motivation. European 
Economic Review 54 (2010) 442-454 
229 According to academic researchers interviewed for the purpose of this study.  
230 Volery et al. (2013). 
231 Fayolle et al (2006). 
232 See Bandura, A. (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

have  high  performance  aspirations233.  So,  when  designing  a  questionnaire  and 
analysing impact measurement data, the potential bias from self-efficacy should 
be taken into consideration.  

When  interpreting  results,  it  is  also  important  not  to  confuse  correlation  with 
causality: for example, if the number of start-ups has increased during the same 
period that an entrepreneurship education programme or even strategy has been 
launched, this does not automatically prove that the programme/strategy led to 
the  increase  in  start-ups.  The  correlation  can,  however,  be  used  as  basis  for 
further research on causality.  

233 http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/efficacy.html 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

7 

Key lessons learnt 

7.1  The evidence base for the impact of entrepreneurship 

education  

Previous  sections  have  reviewed  and  demonstrated  evidence  of  impact 
measurement  across  a  diverse  range  and  level  of  entrepreneurship  education 
activity in Europe and across the world.   

The  examples  have  measured  impact  in  relation  to  a  broad  range  of  inputs  on 
different  policy  levels  (national,  regional,  local),  by  different  actors  (providers, 
institutions,  stakeholders).  Despite  this  diversity,  all  initiatives  shared  the  core 
aim of creating entrepreneurial action by individuals and institutions throughout 
the economy and society.  

Whilst  sharing  this  aim,  the  programmes  and  projects  reviewed  differed  in 
content, focus, duration, qualification they lead to, etc. A broad range of impact 
assessment  approaches,  measurement  tools,  indicators,  etc.  have  also  been 
used.  There  is  increasing  evidence  in  line  with  stronger  common  understanding 
of  the  role  and  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education234  of  convergence  around 
forms  of  impact  assessment,  including  the  use  of  stronger  evaluation 
methodologies such as sampling, control groups and longitudinal analysis.  

The  richness  and  diversity  of  studies  identified  inevitably,  make  comparison 
challenging, and has precluded the presentation of common impact data. 

7.1.1  Clusters of impact measured  

Drawing  on  the  impact  mapping  structure  introduced  in  Section  2  (see  Figure 
2.2),  an  overview  of  clusters  of  evidence  for  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship 
education can be constructed.  

In total, 91 examples of input and impact measurement were identified.  

  Classes,  courses,  programmes  and  modules  (i.e.  individual  measures  and 
initiatives)  were  measured  most  often  (including  innovative  teaching  and 
learning).  51  out  of  the  91  examples  identified235  measured  impact  of  this 
type  of intervention. Among those,  programmes  offered by members of  the 
worldwide JA-YE network (in particular the company programme, cf. section 
5) stand out as well researched.  In total, 16 studies measured the impact of 
programmes offered by JA-YE network members.  

  Impact of national or  regional strategies or initiatives implemented across a 
region,  a  country,  or  even  across  several  countries  (e.g.  SEECEL)  was 
measured  in  34  examples.  These  included  entrepreneurship  training  for 
teachers and other staff and stakeholder engagement strategies.  

  Institutional  changes 

through  prioritising  entrepreneurship  education 
(curriculum  changes,  horizontal  approaches,  strategy  development)  were 
measured less often. Only 5 out of 91 examples of this type were identified 
through research for this study.  

The  measurements  covered  different  aspects  of  impact.  Mostly  these  related  to 
the  objectives  of  the  activity.  As  with  the  inputs,  certain  types  of  impact  were 
more often the centre of attention of research projects than others.    

  On  the  level  of  immediate  results,  the  following  aspects  of  impact  were 

well evidenced: 

234 ICF for European Commission: Expert Group on Indicators on Entrepreneurial Learning and Competence: 
Final Report. DG Education and Culture Framework Contract 02/10 – Lot 1, Order 63. April 2014 
235 When studies measured impact of several types of input, they were counted more than once.  

84 

  
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  entrepreneurial  learning  outcomes  –  i.e.  a  change  of  knowledge,  skills 

and attitudes;  

  Change of level of interest in entrepreneurship; 

  Change of level of entrepreneurial intentions; and 

 

Increased student and staff motivation.  

  On  the  level  of  intermediate  outcomes,  changes  in  the  rate  of  start-ups 
and  venture  creation  were  best  evidenced,  followed  by  evidence  for 
enhanced employability; 

  On  the  level  of  global  impact,  there  was  evidence  of  higher  levels  of 

innovation in alumni companies.236 

Others aspects of the typology provided in the detailed theory of change (Figure 
2.2) were measured less often. Consequently, less evidence was available.   

Figure  7.1 
entrepreneurship education currently exist.  

indicates  which  clusters  of  evidence 

for 

the 

impact  of 

236 The terminology provided by the original studies was maintained; no judgement was made. It should 
however be borne in mind that the terms used in impact mapping are not used consistently across case 
studies: for example, ‘entrepreneurial learning outcomes’ may embrace different concepts. 

85 

  
 
                                                      
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Figure 7.1 

Clusters of evidence for the impact of entrepreneurship education  

Inputs – examples of measurements:  
30-50 examples – dark red 
10 to 30 examples – medium red 
0 to 10 examples – light red 
No examples - white 

Results, outcomes, impacts –  
examples of evidence:  
50 or more examples – black blue 
30 - 50 examples – dark blue 
10 – 30 examples - middle blue  
0 - 10 examples – light blue 
No examples - white 

86 

 
Entrepreneurship Education – A road to success 

7.2  What type of input leads to what impact?  

When looking at the entire body of research conducted to date, it is striking that 
all types of impact may be expected from all types of input.  

Sections  3-5  have  shown  that  national  and  regional  strategies  as  well  as  broad 
initiatives led to impact on the individual, the institutional, the economic and the 
societal  level.  The  same  held  true  for  institutional  change  and  individual 
measures and initiatives. Impacts (to the extent that they persist over time) are 
sequential from the key initial impact of creating the potential for entrepreneurial 
action by an individual.  

Change  at  the  broader  societal  and  economic  level  may  be  expected  to  occur 
indirectly  and  in  due  time  as  a  secondary  outcome  of  the  initial  measure  (as 
outlined  in  the  theory  of  change  in  section  2  and  summarised  in  Figure  7.2 
below).   

Figure 7.2 Simple theory of change triggered by entrepreneurship education 

Entrepreneurship 
education 

.. .has an effect 
on the 
individual 
receiving it 

 ...changes the 
institution 
prioritising it 

Individuals and 
institutions 
cause societal 
and  economic 
change 

Figure  7.1  showed  that  available  evidence  is  most  common  for  impacts  on  the 
individual;  in  the  form  of  results  and  outcomes  on  the  immediate  and 
intermediate level. Global impact on economy and society is less well-evidenced 
–  partly  because  of  time  needed  to  pass  between  input  and  impact  measured, 
partly because of the methodological challenges of such impact assessment and 
partly  because  entrepreneurship  education  remains  a  relatively  recent  policy 
field.  Policy  interventions  may  have  impact  on  different  cohorts  of  student  but, 
as  evidenced  by  some  of  the  national  strategies  reviewed,  demonstrable 
evidence  of  impact  of  economy  and  society  requires  substantial  and  long  run 
interventions.  

Evidence is provided that measures and initiatives at all levels of education, from 
primary  to  post-graduate,  may  have  significant  impacts.  Furthermore,  a  large 
number and variety of education and training offers for different age groups may 
increase  effectiveness.  Countries  which  offer  entrepreneurship  education  at 
several  educational  levels  (e.g.  Denmark,  Norway,  and  the  Netherlands),  and 
providers which offer a broad range of programmes for different age levels (e.g. 
JA-YE network) observed that effects tend to cumulate and lead to acceleration:  

  those  who  participate  in  a  higher  number  of  measures  benefit  more  over 

time;  

  with  the  number  of  entrepreneurship  classes,  courses  and  programmes 
attended,  the  likelihood  increases  that  alumni  will  turn  their  acquired 
entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and attitudes into action; 

87 

 
 
 
Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  the  number  of  actions  started  will  make  a  school  or  university  more 
investors,  stakeholders,  high-profile  students  and  staff 

attractive  to 
members – in short: Entrepreneurship leads to more entrepreneurship.  

Figure 7.3 shows how the effects of entrepreneurship education accumulate over 
time and over educational levels.  

Figure 7.3 Accumulation of effects over time and educational levels 

Source: FFE-YE237, adapted to this study 

Figure 7.3 does not show impact on society because (aside from evidence for the 
‘side  effect’  of  greater  engagement  of  stakeholders  in  education)  very  little 
evidence was found of how entrepreneurship education supports broader activity 
in the social sphere.  

However,  as  stated  in  Section  6,  the  positive  impact  that  entrepreneurship 
education can have  on  society  can be inferred  from other types  of impact. New 
ventures  or  creation  of  job  opportunities  (which  concern  economic  impact)  can 

237 http://eng.ffe-ye.dk/media/45510/pact-of-Entrepreneurship-Education-in-Denmark-2010.pdf 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

be  expected  to  have  positive  effects  on  society  too,  as  society  benefits  from 
lower rates of unemployment. 

7.3  Maximising the impact of entrepreneurship education: 

Lessons learnt 

When  aiming  to  maximise  the  impact  of  entrepreneurship  education,  the 
following lessons should be considered: 

  Students can benefit from entrepreneurship education in many regards. They 
develop  entrepreneurial  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  but  also  become 
more  self-confident  in  general.  Their  scholarly  and  professional  ambitions 
rise, their attitude towards learning improves and they develop more intense 
relations with the school and their peers. Given these positive findings, it can 
be  concluded  that  entrepreneurship  education  should  address  all 
students, not just those who are interested.  

  Effects  accumulate  over  time,  and  are  higher  when  students  make 
several  consecutive  entrepreneurial  learning  experiences  during 
their  learning  pathway.  Hence,  students  should  be  offered  at  least  one, 
but  preferably  many  entrepreneurial  learning  experiences  throughout  their 
studies.  

  Training  on  entrepreneurship  should  be  tailored  to  age  groups  and 
educational  sectors.  One  size  (training)  does  not  fit  all.  Approaches  to 
entrepreneurship education need to be adjusted to age groups, subjects and 
educational  sectors.  A  longitudinal  study  from  Denmark  showed  that  in 
primary  and  lower  secondary  school,  entrepreneurship  is  best  taught  as  a 
method, hence as innovative and activating teaching in general. As for upper 
secondary level, it is best taught as a form of ‘occupation’, hence concretely 
in  relation  to  being  and  acting  entrepreneurially.  However,  the  highest 
impact  is  achieved  in  upper  levels  of  education  (including  Higher 
Education),  if  both  aspects  –  method  and  ‘occupation’  -  are 
combined.  

  Entrepreneurial  training  programmes  are  gender-sensitive.  Evidence 
suggests  that  often  male  students  benefit  more  from  ‘conventional’  training 
programmes than female students. Hence, developing differentiated training 
programmes considering gender differences would be worthwhile.  

  Entrepreneurship  is  best  taught  through  methods  that  include 
learning 
that 
entrepreneurship  education  is  most  successful  if  it  includes  practical 
experience. Students benefit very much from simulations and tasks requiring 
concrete problem-solving.  

conditions. 

Evidence 

real-life 

under 

shows 

  Teachers are key actors. Students become inspired by role models such as 
teachers  and  mentors.  Awareness-raising  activities  for  teachers  need  to  be 
followed-up by tailored training offers. This increases the likelihood that they 
will  engage  in  entrepreneurship.  Activities  should  go  together  with  the 
dissemination  of  relevant  tools  and  methods  to  further  support  teachers’ 
motivation and capacity to set-up entrepreneurial activities. 

  A  whole-school  approach  to  entrepreneurship  education  helps  to 
raise  teachers’  awareness  of  the  value  and  impact  of  integrating 
enterprise  within  different  subjects.  Schools  in  the  UK  with  higher  levels  of 
Enterprise Education embedded into the curriculum reported higher levels of 
staff  motivation.  The  understanding  of  entrepreneurship  education  as  a 
teaching  and  learning  style  improved.  Teachers  and  educational  institutions 
that implement entrepreneurship education  overcome their initial scepticism 
when they see the positive effect on students. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Institutional  change  towards  entrepreneurialism  is  most  effective 
when  both  management  and  teaching  staff  are  ‘on-board’.  Evidence 
shows  that  a  coordinated  approach  to  establish  teacher’s  trust 
in 
management  is  a  key  success  factors  for  the  establishment  of  an 
entrepreneurial  culture  in  educational  institutions.  An  incentive  system  to 
reward 
the 
entrepreneurship education strategy was found to be helpful.  

implementation  of 

towards  effective 

teachers’  actions 

  To fully achieve economic impact, entrepreneurship education should 
in  an  entrepreneurship  ecosystem.  Students’ 
be  embedded 
entrepreneurial  intentions  will  be  more  sustainable  if  entrepreneurship 
education  is  complemented  by  guidance,  access  to  funding,  business 
networks etc. which support their plans and ideas. Model cases like the MIT 
through  a  comprehensive  entrepreneurship  ecosystem  and  a 
excel 
supportive climate for start-ups.  

  Networking  and mentoring prove to be important means of support. 
The  case  of  the  MIT  shows  that  students  appreciate  the  ‘Entrepreneurial 
Network’  (alumni  and  other  members  of  the  local  business  community)  and 
informal  interaction  with  faculty  members.  This  highlights  the  importance 
that  budding  entrepreneurs  attribute  to  networking  and  mentoring,  which 
includes  learning  from  personal  experiences  as  well  as  benefitting  from  the 
business contacts and information networks.  

  High  visibility  of  support  and  guidance  offers 

is  of  crucial 
importance,  especially  in  the  development  period.  New  services  and 
learning  opportunities  need  to  be  promoted  –  especially  when  they  are 
innovative.  An  investment  in  communication  and  dissemination  measures 
needs to be made to support the uptake and intended change. 

  Supporting entrepreneurship will bring more entrepreneurship. While 
the  reputation  of  an  educational  institution  as  an  entrepreneurship-
promoting  institution  increases,  more  entrepreneurial  students  and  staff 
members  will  be  attracted.  This  self-selection  process  significantly 
contributed to the development of the entrepreneurial ecosystem at MIT. 

  ‘What  gets  measured  gets  done’:  Entrepreneurship  education  should  be 
an  indicator  that  is  part  of  the  official  quality  assurance  procedures  of 
schools  and  universities.  In  many  cases,  educational  institutional  are  more 
likely  to  embed  entrepreneurship  education  when  they  need  to  report  on  it 
and are therefore accountable. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Broad-scale measures for all ages, quality assurance, and 
measurement of results and impact 

Hence, it can be concluded that policy makers and institutional leaders aiming 
to establish or accelerate entrepreneurship education should aim at: 

  Comprehensive national, regional and institutional strategies; 

  Broad-scale initiatives; 

  Compulsory initiatives at all levels of education – starting with primary; 

  Consecutive  entrepreneurial  learning  experiences  tailored  to  the  specific 

educational sector;  

  Initiatives which support institutions and staff members in the process of 

change (including staff training and motivation);  

  High visibility of the activities taken; 

  Continuous improvement through quality assurance processes on system 

level as well as on the level of educational institutions; 

  Regular  measurement  of  results  and  impact  through  surveys  and 

evaluation which suitable to the input and the age groups targeted.  

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Entrepreneurship Education – A road to success 

Annex 1  Work steps carried out 

A1.1  Phases of the study 

Research and analysis connected to the study were conducted in four phases:  

1. Preliminary research phase (September-October 2013): 

The  preliminary  research  phase  was  conducted  as  an  explorative  exercise. 
Interviews  with  key  experts  were  conducted  and  literature  was  reviewed.  This 
allowed  identifying  a  number  of  studies,  evaluations  and  other  literature,  but 
also  possible  contacts  which  provided  a  starting  point  for  the  desk  research 
phase. Conclusions were drawn which allowed for a refinement of the method to 
this  study.  The  preliminary  research  phase  was  concluded  with  an  inception 
report.  

2. Desk research phase (November-January 2013): 

The desk research was organised as a systematic country research in all 28 EU-
Member  States  plus  14  Non-EU-countries,  combined  with  a  high  level  mapping 
(interviews  with  high-level  experts  and  identification  of  robust  academic 
examples  of  impact  measurement  in  entrepreneurship  education).  Aim  of  this 
phase was to identify and screen examples of entrepreneurship education impact 
measurement  (including  causal  links).  The  results  were  compiled  in  an  Excel 
database.  This  database  provided  the  source  for  further  analysis  and  for 
selection of the case studies.  

3. Case study phase (February-April 2014):  

Following  desk  research,  15  examples  were  selected  to  undertake  in-depth 
research  for  case  studies.  Interviews,  review  of  literature  in  the  original 
language, and, in some cases, on-site visits were undertaken. Case studies were 
drafted  which  described  and  analysed  impacts  as  observed  by  the  examples  of 
impact  measurement.  The  case  studies  also  highlighted  the  strengths  and 
weaknesses of the methods used to identify impacts.  

4. Final analysis (May-September 2014) 

During  the  final  analysis  phase,  the  findings  were  compared  and  analysed  to 
highlight  and  discuss  impact  observed.  Conclusions  were  drawn  about  causality 
and or links to impact factors.  

Key  points  as  to  what  constitutes  a  robust  methodology  were  summarised  and 
recommendations on how to measure the impact of  entrepreneurship education 
were given.  

A1.2  General approach to the desk research 

Two strands of desk research were carried out:  

1.  Systematic  country  research  in  all  28  EU-Member  States  plus  15  Non-EU-

countries (literature research plus interviews); and 

2.  High  level  mapping  including  interviews  with  high-level  experts  and 

academics.  

The  aim  of  this  phase  was  to  identify  examples  of  impact  measurement  in 
entrepreneurship education, including causal links – if possible. The results were 
compiled  in  an  Excel  database.  This  database  provided  the  source  for  further 
analysis and for selection of the case studies. 

A1.2.1  Country research 

Through this study, all 28 EU member States and 15 additional Non-EU countries 
were screened. This was carried out as follows: 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  All EU Member States were covered (28 countries); 

  SEECEL,  the  South  East  European  Centre  for  Entrepreneurial  Learning  was 
contacted, and research carried out under the transnational SEECEL umbrella 
was  examined.  Furthermore,  it  was  asked  in  how  far  the  SEECEL  Member 
countries (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia (the 
Former  Yugoslav  Republic),  Serbia  and  Turkey  have  undertaken 
measurement  on  a  national  level.  Following  this,  Croatia  and  Turkey  were 
also researched on national level. 

  Additionally, eight Non-European countries were researched: Canada, Israel, 

Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Palestine, Norway, Russia, and the USA. 

Consequently, 43 countries  were covered,  37 of  which were researched 
on national level.   

As  agreed,  a  snowball  approach  was  used,  starting  with  one  interviewee  and 
asking  to  provide  additional  contacts  -  aiming  to  conduct  3-6  interviews  per 
country with relevant experts well familiar with the topic and its implementation, 
such as  

  Policy  makers  (involved  in  the  implementation  of  strategies  and  measures, 

and ideally, their measurement); and/or 

  Experts  (education  specialists  or  entrepreneurship  education  specialists); 

and/or 

  Researchers/analysts, and/or 

  Stakeholders (e.g. business or employers’ organisations); and/or 

  Providers of entrepreneurship education (NGOs, training institutions etc.) 

Researchers  able  to  conduct  interviews  and  screen  documents  in  the  native 
language were assigned to the different countries and provided with a guidance 
note,  describing  their  tasks.  Additionally,  they  were  provided  with  two 
templates: 

1.  An Excel file to record the examples identified against specific criteria, which 
was used to build up a database presenting all examples. The compilation of 
examples led to building the database of examples; 

2.  A word template to record the number of persons approached; their reactions 

and the number of interviews conducted.  

The interviewees were asked to  

  Identify and share examples where impact has been measured, and  

  Provide  other  knowledgeable  contacts  (policy  makers,  analyst/experts,  and 

practitioners/providers).  

It  was  anticipated  that  the  efforts  could  lead  to  a  dead  end  if  none  of  the 
interviewees  knew  about  relevant  examples.  In  these  cases,  to  ensure  sensible 
use  of the time resources, the  ICF  researchers ceased their efforts after the 3rd 
interview that did not lead to the identification of a relevant example in the given 
country.  

In  parallel  to  conducting  interviews,  the  country  researchers  were  asked  to 
undertake desk research for literature in the native language.  

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

The box below summarises the ‘protocol’ for the country research:  

Protocol for country research 

Step  1:  Identification  of  1-2  relevant  policy  makers  or  experts  with  a  good 
overview  per  country  (ideally  with  knowledge  about  different  educational 
levels); 

Step 2: Interviews with the 1-2 identified persons, including a query to provide 
additional contacts; 

Step 3: More interviews with contacts provided by them; 

Step  4:  Desk  research  -  search  for  examples  in  national  literature  and 
databases, screening for further examples – e.g. as cited in identified cases; 

Step 5: Recording of examples identified in Excel database.  

It  was  assumed  that  a  minimum  of  three  and  a  maximum  of  six  interviews 
would  be  conducted  for  each  of  the  countries;  expecting  a  total  of  ca.  160 
interviews.   

In  a  few  countries  (e.g.  Bulgaria,  Cyprus,  Malta),  despite  considerable  efforts 
from  the  researchers,  no  interviews  could  be  conducted.  This  is  due  to  the 
following reasons: 

  Despite several reminders, the contacted persons did not respond; 

  An  interview  could  not  be  arranged  in  the  time  period  available  for  the 

research; or  

  The  contact  persons  were  not  granted  permission  to  carry  out  an  interview 

with us. 

In total, for the country research,  

  218 persons were contacted;   

  114  interviews  were  conducted  (mainly  phone  or  e-mail  interviews.  In  a 

few occasions the opportunity for face-to-face interviews was taken).  

Through  the  interviews  and  additional  desk  research,  66  examples  of 
measuring impact of entrepreneurship education were identified. These 
were  recorded  against  specific  criteria  in  a  database.  The  database  with  the 
examples  identified  was  used  to  make  a  selection  for  the  case  studies  to  be 
carried out.  

A1.2.2  High-Level Mapping 

The high-level mapping supported two key aims of this study: 

  To examine methods and instruments for evidence collection and evaluation; 

and  

  To  identify  quantifiable  effects  and  where  possible  compare  them  across 

countries. 

For  the  high  level  mapping,  we  reviewed  academic  literature  that  provided 
information  and  insights  on  all  study  objectives.  This  high-level  literature  not 
only offered examples where the impact of entrepreneurship education has been 
measured,  but  also  highlighted  state  of  the  art  methodologies,  which  we 
will use to offer guidance to policy makers (for example, the methodology used 
by Souitaris et al., 2007); and included  literature  review  on core elements of 
entrepreneurship,  drawing  the  links  between  what  is  important  to  have  an 
impact; what is taught, and what is measured. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Hence,  the  findings  from  this  part  of  the  research  allowed  us  to  meet  another 
goal,  namely  to  provide  educators  and  policy  makers  with  key  points  of 
consideration  on  what  impact  measurement  of  entrepreneurship  education 
should  include,  what  challenges  should  be  taken  into  consideration  etc.  to 
facilitated decision making; responding e.g. to questions like the following: 

  What impact is being measured regarding entrepreneurship education?; 

  Which are the main challenges for measuring its impact?; 

  What are the key trends identified by international, high level literature?; 

  Does one size fit all? Is one type/model of impact assessment suitable for all 

 

forms of entrepreneurship education? 

  education levels or age groups?  

 

institutions/countries? 

  What  should  educators/institutions/government  authorities  keep 

into 
consideration  when  designing,  selecting  and  launching  an  assessment 
method? 

The research was based on findings and well-known sources (literature) from the 
inception  phase.  The  meta-analysis  of  Martin  et  al.  (2013)  was  used  as  a 
blueprint  for  identifying  robust  examples  of  entrepreneurship  education  impact 
measurement.  Additional  sources  were  drawn  from  interviewees,  aiming  at 
covering as many sources as possible from global literature. Annex 3 provides an 
overview  of  the  literature  that  was  reviewed  for  the  high-level  mapping. 
Additionally,  interviews  with  experts  and  leading  academics  were  carried  out. 
Some of the interviewees had already been identified during the inception phase 
but  were  not  available  at  that  time.  Additional  interviewees  were  contacted, 
based on their high level of expertise in the topic of entrepreneurship education.  

For the High Level mapping 

  9 interviews were conducted; and 

  27  academic  articles  (two  of  them  only  available  as  abstracts)  and  other 

literature were consulted. 

Through 
entrepreneurship education were identified. 

the  High  Level  mapping,  15  examples  of  measuring 

Hence,  81  examples  in  total  were  identified  through  the  first  two  research 
phases.  

A1.2.3  Case studies 

Following desk research, 13 examples were selected for case studies. Additional 
research was undertaken (interviews, review of literature in original language, if 
appropriate,  on-site  visits).  Case  studies  were  drafted  which  describe  and 
analyse impacts as observed by the examples of impact measurement.  

The cases  selected all undertook the  endeavour to show how a type of input (a 
policy  strategy,  an  entrepreneurship  education  class  in  general  or  higher 
education,  an  extra-curricular  activity  etc.)  -  led  to  immediate  results, 
intermediate outcomes and/or global impacts in one of the areas above; using a 
solid research approach and methodology. All cases selected stand for measuring 
the  impact  of  a  specific  type  of  initiative  (e.g.  a  national  strategy  for 
entrepreneurship  education,  an  initiative  to  achieve  institutional  change  in  a 
school, a compulsory module on entrepreneurship in VET-schools, an initiative of 
teacher education etc.).  

The aim of the case studies was to  

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

  Collect  facts  and  figures  about  the impact  of  entrepreneurship  education  on 
(one or several) different levels (individual, organisation, society, economy): 
What change was achieved?); 

  Collect  concrete  examples  of  how  concrete  strategies  and  initiatives  led  to 

results: How was that change achieved?); 

  Gather examples for the use of the measurements results for the review and 
sustainability  of  strategies  and  initiatives:  How  were  the  results  of  the 
measurements used?); and 

  Present  more  detailed  insights  into  the  methodology  used 

for  the 

measurement (how were the data collected?).   

Hence,  the  Case  Studies  focused  on  the  results  of  the 
impact 
measurement, but also presented information about the input and the way the 
data  obtained  were  or  will  be  used.  Hence,  they  tell  the  ‘story’  of  the 
strategy/initiative  in relation  to  the  policy  cycle  (planning  / implementation  / 
evaluation / review).  

To be able to tell this story, the Case Studies explored the following questions in 
detail: 

  What  type  of  intervention  (policy  strategy  or  educational  initiative)  was 

undertaken and by whom?  

  What were the aims of the intervention (policy objectives and/or educational 

aims)?  

  Who implemented it? How, with what scope and on what educational level?  

  What  type  of  impact  was  achieved  and  on  what  level?  What  concrete  data 

are there? 

  How were the data measured? Who initiated the measurement? Who carried 

it out? 

  Based  on  the  measurement  results:  Can  the  intervention  be  considered 

successful? Did it reach its aims and objectives?  

  How  are/were  the  results  of  the  measurement  used:  Did  they  (or  will they) 
support  a  review  of  the  intervention  and/or  sustainable  implementation?  If 
yes, how?  

Figure A1.1 gives an overview. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Figure A1.1 

Questions related to phases of the policy cycle 

•What type of 
intervention  was 
undertaken and by 
whom?  
•What were the aims 
of the intervention? 

•Was the 
intervention 
successful?  
•Was the 
measurement 
used for a review 
- or will be in the 
future? If yes, 
how? 

Planning 

Implemen-
tation 

Review 

Evaluation 

•Who implemented it ? 
•How, with what scope 
and on what 
educational level?   

•What type of impact 
was achieved and on 
what level?  
•How were the data 
obtained? Who 
initiated the 
measurement? Who 
carried it out?  

For  the  Case  Studies,  a  total  of  47  in-depth  interviews  were  undertaken. 
Study visits and on-site interviews were carried out in three cases.  

Through  the  interviews  and  research  for  the  case  studies,  10  additional 
examples of measuring entrepreneurship education were identified. 

A1.3  Final Analysis 

During  the  final  analysis  phase,  the  findings  were  compared  and  analysed.  A 
final report (this document) was drafted which highlights and discusses: 

  Key forms of entrepreneurship education strategies and initiatives measured; 

  Impact  observed  on  four  levels  (Individual,  institutional,  economy,  and, 

society); 

  Causality  and  links  to  impact  factors  -  what  input  has  been  found  to  cause 

what impact, and under what conditions; 

  Transferability  and  generalizability  of  the  impact  (taking  account  of  context 

conditions);  

  Conclusions  and 

lessons 
entrepreneurship education; 

learnt  as 

to  maximising 

the 

impact  of 

  Key points as to what constitutes a robust methodology; and 

  Key points for consideration when measuring the impact of entrepreneurship 

education. 

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Entrepreneurship Education: A road to success 

Annex 2  The cases informing Chapter 5  

Table A2.1 provides background information to those 29 cases that were used to provide 
evidence  for  impact  of  individual  entrepreneurship  education  initiatives  and  measures 
(Chapter 5).  

It  shows  the  educational  sector  addressed  and  the  country  in  which  the  initiative  was 
carried  out,  describes  the  key  characteristics  of  the  pedagogical  intervention  and 
summarises the type of evidence on impact collected.  

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Table A2.1 The cases providing evidence on the impact of individual entrepreneurship education measures and initiatives  

Educational 
sector 

Cases 

1  Higher 

education 

2  Higher 

education 

3  Higher 

education 

Ferdinando Maria Gigliotti (2011) - 
Economic and managerial training 
and provision psycho-cognitive 
entrepreneurial behaviour: an 
empirical study  

Souitaris et al. (2007). Do 
entrepreneurship programmes raise 
entrepreneurial intention of science 
and engineering students? The 
effect of learning, inspiration and 
resources.  

ALMOR, T., HEILBRUNN, S. (2013) - 
Entrepreneurship in Israel: Theory 
and Practice 

Country 

Key characteristics  

Evidence on impact 

Italy 

Economy and Management Course 
offered by the Università Bocconi 
di Milano  

UK/ 

France 

Different elective modules on 
entrepreneurship available to 
Science and Engineering Students 
at the University of Grenoble 

Israel 

Compulsory and elective modules 
on business subjects in HE 

Measured if a university course in 
economics and management has an effect 
on psychological and behavioural aspects 
that make individuals more willing to 
identify and exploit business opportunities. 

Measured if entrepreneurship education 
programmes raise entrepreneurial attitudes 
and intention of students; and investigated 
in more detail which programme-derived 
benefits raise entrepreneurial attitudes and 
intention.  

Measured if student's personal 
entrepreneurial propensity and willingness 
to engage in entrepreneurship increased 

4  Higher 

education 

Martin Lakéus (2013) - Developing 
entrepreneurial competencies  

Sweden 

Business education in Higher 
Education with the on-going 
creation of a real-life venture as 
part of formal curriculum 

Measured changes in knowledge, skills, 
attitudes, and how entrepreneurial 
competencies are developed – with a focus 
on the role of the real-life experiences 

5  Higher 

education 

Charney/Libecap: Impact of 
entrepreneurship education. 2000. 

USA 

Specialised programmes in Higher 
Education 

USA 

A strategic management course in 
Higher Education 

Measured impact through combining data 
from personal characteristics, educational 
and employment history, new venture 
activity and experience with technology 
transfers and perceptions 

Tested any impact of entrepreneurship 
education/training on the number and 
innovativeness of opportunities identified. 

EU 

Entrepreneurship programmes at 
universities (and JADE - Student 
organisation) 

Measured how programmes and JADE 
engagement impacts on entrepreneurial 
knowledge, skills and attitudes, and on 
becoming an entrepreneur 

6  Higher 

education  

7  Higher 

education 

DeTienne D.R. and Chandler G.N. 
(2004) - Opportunity Identification 
and Its Role in the Entrepreneurial 
Classroom: A Pedagogical Approach 
and Empirical Test.  

European Commission, DG ENTR 
(2012) Effects and impact of 
entrepreneurship programmes in 
Higher Education (JADE career 
survey) 

99 

 
 
 
 
Educational 
sector 

Cases 

Country 

Key characteristics  

Evidence on impact 

8  Higher 

education 

FLEMING, P (1996) 
Entrepreneurship education in 
Ireland: a longitudinal study  

Ireland 

Measured long-term effects of programmes 
and modules on students. 

Several programmes and modules 
across Ireland that promote an 
awareness of self-employment as 
a career option and motivate 
young people to begin equipping 
themselves with the skills, 
knowledge and experience 
required for effective business 
ownership 

9  Higher 

education 

Lee et al (2005) Impact of 
Entrepreneurship Education: A 
Comparative Study of the U.S. and 
Korea. International  

USA / 
Korea 

Entrepreneurship/venture creation 
course(s) in Higher Education 

Measured differences in intention for 
venture creation between student groups of 
heterogeneous cultural backgrounds and 
between students who have taken 
entrepreneurship-related courses and those 
who have not taken them 

10  Higher 

education 

11  Secondary 

12  Secondary 

13  Secondary 
(and 
primary) 

Kolvereid L. and Moen Ø. (1997) 
Entrepreneurship among business 
graduates:does a major in 
entrepreneurship make a 
difference? 

Nakkula et al (2004) -Initiating, 
leading and feeling in control of 
one’s fate: Findings from the 2002-
2003 study of NFTE in six Boston 
Public High Schools.  

Vanessa E. Beary (2013) The NFTE 
Difference: Examining the Impact of 
Entrepreneurship Education 

Rotefoss, B. Ovesen, S. and Nyvold, 
C.E. (2009) – Evaluation of The 
Company Programme in in 
compulsory education in Sogn og 
Fjordane County  

Norway 

An entrepreneurship major in 
Higher Education (focussing on 
business formation, innovation 
and strategy).  

The study measured graduation rates of 
entrepreneurship alumni by asking them 
how many firms they had created since 
graduation. 

USA 

Classroom-based projects with 
entrepreneurship curricula that 
teach career skills in the context 
of developing a business plan 
(NFTE programme). 

USA 

NFTE programme 

Norway 

Engaging students in a "real life" 
project and start a student 
company in order to develop skills 
and knowledge related to business 
start-up and (JA-YE Company 
programme).  

Measured entrepreneurial attitude of 
students participating in courses 

Examines the impact of NFTE programmes 
on the academic achievement and 
professional success of alumni.  

Measured the rate of established student 
companies, the rate of individuals that have 
become self-employed or have the intention 
to. 

100 

 
 
 
 
Country 

Key characteristics  

Evidence on impact 

Educational 
sector 

Cases 

14  Secondary 

15  Secondary 

16  Secondary 

Lodestar Management/Research 
Inc.: Junior Achievement Titan 
Program; 2007 Evaluation. 

Bergman, N. Rosenblatt, Z. Erez, M. 
and De-Haan, U. (2011) - Gender 
and the effects of an entrepreneur-
ship training program on 
entrepreneurial self-efficacy and 
entrepreneurial knowledge gain.  

Johansen, V. (2013) - 
Entrepreneurship education and 
start-up activity: a gender 
perspective 

USA 

JA-YE Company programme (Titan 
programme) 

Israel 

JA-YE Company programme 

Norway 

JA-YE Company programme 

17  Secondary 
VET 

Urs Baldegger, Ruth Jochum-
Gasser, Daniel Mueller (2012) – 
Making ideas work 

Liechtens
tein 

JA-YE company programme 

18  Secondary  Wennberg, K. (2007) - Practice 

Sweden 

JA-YE-company programme 

19  Secondary 
(and 
primary) 

20  Secondary 

Makes Perfect - A long-term study 
of UF-employed entrepreneurial 
careers in Sweden 1990-2007 

Junior Achievement Ireland (2011). 
Enterprise Challenge programme 
2010/2011. National Evaluation 
Report 

The Boston Consulting Group 
(2011) Making an Impact. Assessing 
Junior Achievement of Canada's 
Value Creation  

Ireland 

JA-YE-company programme 

Canada 

JA-YE Company programme 

21  Secondary 

(and higher 
education) 

Kinstgon University London / Young 
Enterprise UK (2012) Impact - 50 
years of Young Enterprise  

UK 

JA-YE Company programme 

101 

Measured if students helped students to 
develop knowledge, skills and attitudes to 
become ‘productive citizens and workers’ 

Measured the effects of an entrepreneurship 
training program on entrepreneurial self-
efficacy and entrepreneurial knowledge gain 
from a gender perspective 

Investigated whether entrepreneurship 
education in upper secondary schools has 
an impact on start-up activity 6-8 years 
after participation and compares the impact 
on male and female business start-ups. 

Examined the effect of a mini-company 
programme on ability of VET students to 
think and act entrepreneurially. 

Measured the long term behaviour of 
participants in relation to the public in 
general with regards to creating and 
maintaining business. 

Measured the effects of the programme in 
terms of business knowledge and skills and 
employability 

Measured how many alumni started their 
own business and the influence of JA in 
developing ability and desire to do so.  

Measures what alumni do, what types of 
businesses do run, and what contribution 
the course made to their entrepreneurial 
skills 

 
 
 
 
Educational 
sector 

Cases 

Country 

Key characteristics  

Evidence on impact 

22  Secondary  

IARD (2007) – Youth, Economy and 
entrepreneurial spirit  

Italy 

JA-YE Company Programme 

Measures the development on intention to 
start-up and entrepreneurial skills as an 
employee or in personal life 

23  Secondary 

Financial literacy. A survey of JA-YE 
participants 

Cross-
country 

JA-YE Company programmes and 
other programmes 

Measured impact specifically on financial 
literacy 

(12 EU 
countries) 

24  Secondary 

Business skills. A survey of JA-YE 
Participants 

Cross-
country 

JA-YE Company programmes and 
other programmes 

Measured impact specifically on business 
skills 

25  Secondary  What experience did participants in 
Company Programmes have during 
their time as company founders – 
and what happened next? (2007) 

26  Secondary 
VET 

Volery et al. (2013); The impact of 
entrepreneurship education on 
human capital at upper-secondary 
level.  

(15 EU 
countries) 

Cross-
country 
(6 EU 
countries) 

Switzer-
land 

27  Primary 

Laura Rosendahl Huber, Randolph 
Sloof and Miriam Van Praag (2012) 
The effect of early entrepreneurship 
education  

The 
Nether-
lands 

28  Non-formal 
education  

OPM (2013) - Evaluation of  
CCE/NCB arts and cultural activities 
project with looked after children  

UK 

102 

JA-YE Company Programme 

Stimulate entrepreneurial skills 
such as spirit of initiative, 
dynamism and risk bearing and 
offer insights into the way the 
social market economy works 
through curricular content.  

Several activities that aim at 
developing knowledge and a 
variety of cognitive and non-
cognitive entrepreneurial skills, 
increase awareness of 
entrepreneurship as a possible 
career opportunity, and help pupils 
assess whether entrepreneurship 
is a suitable career path for them 

Creativity courses to enhance self-
efficacy and empowerment, 
increase confidence and self-
esteem of children 

Measured experiences and consequences 
from participation in JA-YE Company 
Programmes. 

Measured effect of several programmes on 
students’ entrepreneurial skills and 
intentions 

Measured in how far the activities had an 
effect on pupils (awareness and 
entrepreneurship as a career option) 

Examined the effect of the creativity course 
on the well-being and resilience of looked-
after children. 

 
 
 
 
Educational 
sector 

Cases 

29  Non-formal 

education 

Peffers J., Huddleston P., Banfalvy 
C., Weiss Sh., Aparisi J. (2002). 
Enterprise and its transfer to 
combat social exclusion- 
ENTRANCE. Final Report 

Country 

Key characteristics  

Evidence on impact 

Cross- 
Country 
(4 
countries: 
UK-
England, 
Israel, HU 
and ES) 

The ENTRANCE model/programme 
targeted 14-19 year-olds in 
selected institutions in the four 
countries. A model of "enterprising 
education", was developed, viewed 
as both business creation, but also 
develop knowledge, skills and 
behaviour that relates to 
autonomy, creativity, 
collaboration, decision making 
skills etc. 

Aimed to develop understanding if and how 
an "enterprise model of learning" can 
promote the engagement and motivation of 
youth at risk of social and 
education/training exclusion. The project 
also analysed transferability of the model 
between countries.   

103 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Entrepreneurship Education – A road to success 

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Entrepreneurship Education – A road to success 

  Young Enterprise Denmark (2013) Impact of Entrepreneurship Education in 

Denmark 2012 

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Denmark 2013 

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  http://business.wales.gov.uk/bigideas/ 

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  http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/entrepreneurship-

2020/index_en.htm 

  http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm 

  http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/making-it-happen/country-specific-

recommendations/ 

  http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/finalreport/soe2ct983068-

final-report.pdf 

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Denmark-2010.pdf 

  https://developmentcentre.lut.fi/files/muut/Yritt%C3%A4jyyskasvatuksen_m

ittaristo_englanninkielinen_versio.pdf 

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  http://wales.gov.uk/about/cabinet/cabinetstatements/2013/yesactionplan/?l

ang=en 

  http://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/ 

  http://www.en.aau.dk/About+Aalborg+University/The+Aalborg+model+for+

problem+based+learning+%28PBL%29/ 

  http://www.experimentation.jeunes.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/FEJ_Esprit_d_entrepren

dre___Rapport_d_evaluation_CREDOC_FINAL.pdf 

  http://www.get2test.net/ 

  http://www.hefcw.ac.uk/about_he_in_wales/statistics/business_communities

_survey_hebcis.aspx 

  http://www.jadenet.org/ 

  http://www.learningobservatory.com/uploads/publications/828.pdf 

  http://www.mitef.org/s/1314/interior-2-
col.aspx?sid=1314&gid=5&pgid=471 

  http://www.nfte.be/index.php?id=24&L=2, https://www.nfte.com/ 

  http://stats.nerdydata.com/trepeducation.com 

  http://www.seecel.hr/ 

  http://www.seecel.hr/mission-vision-5049 

  http://www.seecel.hr/seecel-s-publication-school-professional-toolkit 

  http://www.young-enterprise.org.uk/about-us/annual-review/ 

109 

 
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