Violence against women : an EU-wide survey : results at a glance.
Date: 2014-10-24
Institutions: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights
Subjects: domestic violence, fundamental rights, report, sexual harassment, sexual violence, social survey, violence, woman, women's rights

DIGNITY

Violence against women: 
an EU-wide survey

Results at a glance

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

This  report  addresses  matters  related  to,  in  particular,  the  right  to  human  dignity  (Article  1),  the  right 
to  the  integrity  of  the  person  (Article  3),  the  principle  of  non-discrimination,  including  on  the  ground  of 
sex (Article 21), the right to equality between women and men (Article 23), the right to an effective remedy 
and  to  a  fair  trial  (Article  47)  falling  under  Titles  I  ’Dignity’,  III  ’Equality’  and  IV  ’Justice’  of  the  Charter  of 
Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers  
to your questions about the European Union.

Freephone number (*):  
00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11

(*) The information given is free, as are most calls (though some operators, phone boxes or hotels may charge you).

Photo (cover & inside): © Shutterstock and iStock

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu).

FRA – European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights 
Schwarzenbergplatz 11 – 1040 Vienna – Austria 
Tel.: +43 158030-0 – Fax: +43 158030-699 
Email: info@fra.europa.eu – fra.europa.eu

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2014

ISBN 978-92-9239-379-3 
doi:10.2811/60683

© European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2014  
Reproduction is authorised, except for commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowledged.

Printed in Luxembourg

Printed on process chlorine-free recycled paper (PCF)

Violence against women:  
an EU-wide survey

Results at a glance

Foreword

This report is based on interviews with 42,000 women across the 28 Member States of the European Union (EU). 
It  shows  that  violence  against  women,  and  specifically  gender-based  violence  that  disproportionately  affects 
women, is an extensive human rights abuse that the EU cannot afford to overlook.

The survey asked women about their experiences of physical, sexual and psychological violence, including incidents 
of intimate partner violence (‘domestic violence’), and also asked about stalking, sexual harassment, and the role 
played  by  new  technologies  in  women’s  experiences  of  abuse.  In  addition,  it  asked  about  their  experiences  of 
violence  in  childhood.  What  emerges  is  a  picture  of  extensive  abuse  that  affects  many  women’s  lives,  but  is 
systematically under-reported to the authorities. For example, one in 10 women has experienced some form of 
sexual violence since the age of 15, and one in 20 has been raped. Just over one in five women has experienced 
physical and/or sexual violence from either a current or previous partner, and just over one in 10 women indicates 
that they have experienced some form of sexual violence by an adult before they were 15 years old. Yet, as an 
illustration, only 14 % of women reported their most serious incident of intimate partner violence to the police, and 
13 % reported their most serious incident of non-partner violence to the police.

There have been repeated calls over several years from different quarters for comprehensive data on violence 
against  women  –  including  various  Presidencies  of  the  Council  of  the  EU,  monitoring  bodies  such  as  the  United 
Nations (UN) Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, and the Council of Europe. It is clear, 
with the publication of these results, that the time is now ripe to address violence against women on the basis 
of the evidence supplied by the survey for 28 countries. Future EU strategies on equality between women and 
men could build on the survey’s findings to address key areas of concern about women’s experiences of violence. 
The survey results also provide ample support for EU Member States to ratify the Council of Europe Convention 
on  preventing  and  combating  violence  against  women  and  domestic  violence  (Istanbul  Convention),  and  for 
the EU to explore the possibility of accession to the convention. The findings further reinforce the need to ensure 
implementation of existing EU measures for victims of crime, most notably through the EU Victims’ Directive. They 
also serve to underline the importance of targeted EU legislation and policies addressing violence against women, 
such as the European Protection Order and the Regulation on Mutual Recognition of Protection Measures in Civil 
Matters, which need to be applied in practice if they are to be effective.

Alongside  responses  to  violence  against  women  at  the  level  of  EU  institutions  and  Member  States,  action  to 
combat violence against women needs to come from different quarters, including employers, health professionals 
and internet service providers – to name just a few. This is particularly important because many women do not 
report  their  experiences  of  abuse  to  the  authorities,  so  that  the  majority  of  violence  against  women  continues 
to be hidden and, as a result, perpetrators are not confronted. Therefore, different avenues for highlighting and 
combating  violence  against  women  need  to  be  explored  further.  With  the  publication  of  the  survey  and  the 
necessary follow-up measures by politicians and policy makers, women who have been a victim of violence and 
have remained silent can be encouraged to speak up. This is crucial in those countries, and among certain groups, 
where it is not yet widespread to openly talk about personal experiences of violence, where reporting of incidents 
to the authorities is low, and where violence against women is not addressed as a mainstream policy issue.

In sum, this report presents the first results from the most comprehensive survey to date at the level of the EU (and 
worldwide) on women’s diverse experiences of violence. It is hoped that the report’s findings – read alongside the 
online data explorer tool – are taken up by those women and men who can advocate and initiate change to address 
violence against women.

Finally, the results presented in this report were only made possible by the participation of women in the survey 
who gave their time to talk about very personal and difficult experiences. It was the first time many of them had 
spoken to anyone about their abuse. For this, the FRA would like to thank them.

Morten Kjaerum  
Director

3

Country codes

Country code

Country

AT

BE

BG

CY

CZ

DE

DK

EE

EL

ES

FI

FR

HR

HU

IE

IT

LT

LU

LV

MT

NL

PL

PT

RO

SE

SI

SK

UK

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Cyprus

Czech Republic

Germany

Denmark

Estonia

Greece

Spain

Finland

France

Croatia

Hungary

Ireland

Italy

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Latvia

Malta

Netherlands

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Sweden

Slovenia

Slovakia

United Kingdom

4

Contents

FOREWORD  .................................................................................................................................................   3

WHY IS THIS SURVEY NEEDED?  .................................................................................................................   7

1 

FRA OPINIONS BASED ON KEY FINDINGS  ..........................................................................................   9

1.1.  Overall extent and nature of violence against women, including intimate partner violence  ................   9

1.2.  Consequences of physical and sexual violence against women,  

including intimate partner violence  ................................................................................................................   10

1.3.  Psychological partner violence against women  ...........................................................................................   11

1.4.  Experiences of stalking  .....................................................................................................................................   12

1.5.  Experiences of sexual harassment  .................................................................................................................   12

1.6.  Experiences of violence in childhood  .............................................................................................................   13

1.7.  Fear of victimisation and its impact  ................................................................................................................   13

1.8.  Attitudes towards and awareness about violence against women  ...........................................................   14

2  WHAT DO THE RESULTS SHOW?  ..........................................................................................................   15

2.1.  Physical and sexual violence  ...........................................................................................................................   15

2.2.  Consequences of violence  ...............................................................................................................................   21

2.3.  Psychological partner violence  ........................................................................................................................   23

2.4.  Stalking  ...............................................................................................................................................................   26

2.5.  Sexual harassment  ............................................................................................................................................   28

2.6.  Childhood experiences of violence  .................................................................................................................   31

2.7.  Fear of victimisation and its effect  .................................................................................................................   33

2.8.  Attitudes and awareness  .................................................................................................................................   33

WAYS FORWARD  ........................................................................................................................................   37

THE SURVEY IN A NUTSHELL  .....................................................................................................................   39

5

Why is this survey needed?

Highlighting violence against 
women as a fundamental 
rights abuse in the EU 

Violence  against  women,  which  encompasses  crimes 
that disproportionately impact on women such as sex-
ual assault, rape and ‘domestic violence’, is a violation 
of  women’s  fundamental  rights  with  respect  to  dig-
nity, equality and access to justice. Its impact stretches 
beyond  those  women  who  are  themselves  victims  of 
violence, since it affects families, friends and society as 
a whole. They call for a critical look at how society and 
the state respond to this abuse.

Civil  society  actors  and  inter-governmental  organisa-
tions, including the United Nations (UN) Committee on 
the  Elimination  of  Discrimination  against  Women  and 
the  Council  of  Europe,  have  sought  in  recent  decades 
to  highlight  the  extent  and  nature  of  violence  against 
women. Initiatives at the level of individual EU Member 
States have supported this process. The publication of 
the FRA survey data demonstrates that violence against 
women  is  as  an  extensive  and  wide-ranging  funda-
mental rights abuse which touches on many women’s 
lives in the EU.

Responding to the need 
for data
Given the significant impact of violence against women, 
policy  makers  and  practitioners  in  many  EU  Member 
States still have to grapple with a lack of comprehen-
sive data on the scale and nature of the problem. Since 
most  women  do  not  report  violence  and  do  not  feel 
encouraged to do so by systems that are often seen as 
unsupportive, official criminal justice data are only able 
to record those few cases that are reported. This means 
that policy and practical responses to address violence 
against  women  are  not  always  informed  by  compre-
hensive evidence. While some EU Member States and 
research  institutions  have  undertaken  surveys  and 
other  research  on  violence  against  women,  a  lack  of 
comprehensive  and  comparable  data  remains  in  this 
field across the EU, compared with other areas, such as 
employment,  where  a  number  of  Member  States  col-
lect data in relation to gender.

The  FRA  EU-wide  survey  responds  to  a  request  for 
data  on  violence  against  women  from  the  European 
Parliament,  which  the  Council  of  the  EU  reiterated  in 
its  Conclusions  on  the  eradication  of  violence  against 

women in the EU. FRA has undertaken 42,000 in-person 
interviews with a random sample of women across the 
28  EU  Member  States.  The  results  from  these  inter-
views  can  be  looked  at  alongside  existing  data  and 
gaps in knowledge at EU and Member State level.

Data to inform and support 
legislation and policy
Measures at European level that can serve to address 
include  the  EU  Victims’ 
violence  against  women 
Directive  (2012/29/EU)  and  the  Council  of  Europe 
Convention  on  preventing  and  combating  violence 
against  women  and  domestic  violence  (Istanbul 
Convention). The EU Victims’ Directive, adopted in 2012, 
establishes  minimum  standards  on  the  rights,  pro-
tection and support of victims of crime in the EU, and 
makes  specific  reference  to  victims  of  gender-based 
violence, victims of sexual violence and victims of vio-
lence  in  a  close  relationship.  The  Istanbul  Convention, 
which was adopted in 2011, is the first legally binding 
regional  instrument  that  comprehensively  addresses 
different  forms  of  violence  against  women,  such  as 
psychological violence, stalking, physical violence, sex-
ual violence and sexual harassment. The convention is 
due to come into force after 10 ratifications. 

Alongside these encouraging legal developments, evi-
dence  from  FRA’s  EU-wide  survey  on  violence  against 
women indicates that the majority of women who are 
victims  of  violence  do  not  report  their  experiences 
to  either  the  police  or  any  victim  support  organisa-
tion.  This  is  a  particular  problem  in  those  EU  Member 
States  where  discussion  about  and  revelation  of  per-
sonal experiences of violence are not yet the norm. As 
a result, most women who are victims of violence do 
not come into contact with the justice system and other 
services, which is exacerbated in those Member States 
where violence against women is not mainstreamed as 
an area for policy intervention. It is therefore clear that 
the needs and the rights of women in the EU are cur-
rently not being met in practice.

Hence,  there  is  a  need  to  review  how  the  law  in  the 
books compares with the law in practice to encourage 
reporting, improve responses to women as victims, and 
ensure  there  are  sufficient  resources  for  targeted  vic-
tim support. Evidence from the survey shows patterns 
in reporting abuse and reasons for women not report-
ing, which can be examined with respect to the situa-
tion in individual Member States.

7

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

FRA opinions – ways forward

Based on the detailed survey findings, FRA has drafted 
a  number  of  opinions  that  suggest  different  ways  in 
which violence against women can be recognised and 
responded  to.  This  includes  action  outside  the  narrow 
confines of the criminal law, ranging from the employ-
ment and heath sectors, through to the medium of new 
technologies,  and  encompassing  targeted  awareness- 
raising initiatives that can encourage reporting.

These opinions build on earlier calls by bodies such as 
the UN and the Council of Europe to take action to com-
bat  violence  against  women.  Uniquely,  FRA’s  opinions 

and  suggestions  for  possible  ways  forward  draw  on 
evidence  gathered  from  face-to-face  interviews  with 
42,000 women across all 28 EU Member States.

In sum, inter-governmental organisations and civil soci-
ety  have  called  for  years  for  robust  and  comprehen-
sive  data  on  violence  against  women  to  formulate 
policy and steer courses of action to address this fun-
damental rights abuse. The publication of the FRA sur-
vey  results  on  violence  against  women  makes  these 
data  now  available  for  use  with  respect  to  the  28  EU 
Member States. 

8

1   

FRA opinions 
based on key findings

The survey findings show that violence against women 
is  an  extensive  but  widely  under-reported  human 
rights  abuse  across  the  EU.  In  response,  FRA  has  for-
mulated  the  following  opinions.  These  aim  to  support 
EU and national policy makers to introduce and imple-
ment comprehensive measures to prevent and respond 
to  gender-based  violence  against  women,  particularly 
in those Member States where these abuses are insuf-
ficiently discussed and addressed.

The  following  presents  a  summary  of  opinions,  which 
are elaborated further at the end of each chapter in the 
survey’s main results report.

1.1.  Overall extent and nature 
of violence against 
women, including 
intimate partner violence

Responding to the scale and specific nature 
of physical and sexual violence 
against women

 ▪ The  scale  of  physical  and  sexual  violence  experi-
enced by women across the EU calls for renewed pol-
icy attention. Some 8 % of women have experienced 
physical and/or sexual violence in the last 12 months 
before the survey interview, and one in three women 
has experienced some form of physical and/or sexual 
assault since the age of 15.

 ▪ Specifically, sexual violence is a pervasive crime that 
calls for concerted action to address attitudes towards 
sexual  violence  against  women.  One  in  10  women 
has experienced some form of sexual violence since 

the age of 15, and one in 20 women has been raped 
since the age of 15.

 ▪ Of  those  women  in  the  survey  who  say  they  have 
experienced sexual violence by a non-partner (since 
the age of 15), almost one in 10 indicates that more 
than one perpetrator was involved in the most serious 
incident. There is a need for enhanced specialist sup-
port for victims of sexual violence, which can include 
incidents involving more than one perpetrator.

 ▪ The  survey  results  indicate  that  young  women,  as 
a  group,  are  particularly  vulnerable  to  victimisation. 
Therefore,  young  women  need  targeted  prevention 
and awareness raising on violence against women.

 ▪ Violence  against  women  can  be  addressed  as  a 
public  issue  of  general  concern.  Campaigns  on  and 
responses  to  violence  against  women  must  be 
directed at men as well as women. Men need to be 
positively  engaged  in  initiatives  that  confront  how 
some men use violence against women.

 ▪ The  Council  of  Europe  Istanbul  Convention  and  the 
EU  Victims’  Directive  both  set  new  standards  for 
responding  to  victims  of  gender-based  violence. 
EU  Member  States  can  be  encouraged  to  ratify  the 
convention. As a minimum, EU Member States need 
to review their legislation to ensure that it is in line 
with the convention and the directive.

Responding to the scale and specific 
nature of violence against women 
by intimate partners

 ▪ The  scale  of  intimate  partner  violence  requires  a 
renewed  policy  focus  at  the  level  of  the  EU  and  its 
Member States. Of women who are or have been in 
a  relationship  with  a  man,  22  %  have  experienced 

9

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

physical  and/or  sexual  violence.  To  effectively 
respond  to  abuse  in  relationships,  the  state  must 
respond to intimate partner violence as a public mat-
ter rather than a private one.

 ▪ Of women in the survey who indicate they have been 
raped by their current partner, about one third (31 %) 
say  they  have  experienced  six  or  more  incidents  of 
rape  by  their  partner.  Marital  rape  is  a  reality  for  a 
number of women, and many have experienced mul-
tiple  incidents.  This  demands  that  the  law  in  all  EU 
Member States responds to married women as victims 
of rape on an equal footing with unmarried women.

 ▪ Evidence shows that a significant number of women 
continue  to  be  vulnerable  to  abuse  in  the  after-
math of violent relationships. Protection needs to be 
offered to them. The European Protection Order and 
the Regulation on mutual recognition of civil law pro-
tection measures need to be reviewed in due course 
with respect to their impact on women’s safety.

 ▪ The FRA survey results show a relationship between 
a woman’s partner’s heavy alcohol use and increased 
violence. Heavy alcohol use needs to be highlighted 
and addressed as a factor contributing to men’s vio-
lence  against  women 
intimate  relationships. 
in 
National  violence  prevention  measures  should  con-
sider  addressing  heavy  alcohol  use.  The  alcoholic 
drinks  industry  could  support  such  measures  when 
promoting  responsible  drinking.  At  the  same  time, 
consideration  could  be  given  to  the  systematic  col-
lection  of  data  by  the  police  on  alcohol  abuse  with 
respect to incidents of domestic violence.

 ▪ The  characteristics  and  behaviour  of  perpetrators 
need to be looked at to explore possible risk factors 
contributing to violence in intimate partnerships. For 
example, the survey shows the impact of some men’s 
controlling behaviour in a relationship, such as plac-
ing  restrictions  on  a  woman’s  use  of  finances  or  on 
seeing friends and family. By asking about the char-
acteristics and behaviour of perpetrators, practition-
ers can be alerted to factors that may be a warning 
sign for violence.

 ▪ Many  women  who  are  victims  of  intimate  partner 
violence experience repeat incidents of violence in a 
relationship. EU Member States should be encouraged 
to review their legislation for its capacity to recognise 
and effectively respond to the impact of repeat vic-
timisation on many women’s lives, with repeat victi-
misation being a particular characteristic of intimate 
partner violence.

Making sure that policies are based 
on evidence

 ▪ Comprehensive data on women’s experiences of vio-
lence  are  essential  for  the  development  and  moni-
toring of policies to combat violence against women.

 ▪ Awareness-raising  campaigns  on  violence  against 
women need to be based on accurate data to ensure 
that they target their messages at the right audience. 
At  the  same  time,  these  campaigns  can  encourage 
open  discussions  about  violence  against  women. 
Such discussions can ultimately enhance reporting to 
the authorities and victim support services.

 ▪ There is a clear need to improve and harmonise data 
collection  on  violence  against  women,  both  in  and 
between EU Member States, to use data more effec-
tively to address this EU-wide abuse. Within the scope 
of EU competence, efforts should be made to collect 
data in key areas where women experience violence, 
for example, with Eurostat taking the lead and draw-
ing on good practices established in Member States 
for data collection on violence against women.

1.2.  Consequences 

of physical and sexual 
violence against women,  
including intimate 
partner violence

Addressing under-reporting to the police 
and other services

 ▪ Reporting  rates  of  incidents  of  violence  against 
women to the police and other services are low and 
need  to  be  increased.  Between  one  in  three  vic-
tims  of  partner  violence  and  one  in  four  victims  of 
non-partner  violence  report  their  most  recent  seri-
ous  incident  to  the  police  or  some  other  service. 
Higher rates for reporting partner violence reflect the 
fact  that  women  often  experience  several  incidents 
of abuse by a partner  before  they  decide to report, 
whereas non-partner violence is more likely to be a 
one-off incident.

 ▪ In  particular,  a  victim’s  lack  of  satisfaction  with  the 
police needs to be addressed by applying and mon-
itoring  in  practice  the  provisions  set  out  for  victims 
under  the  Istanbul  Convention  and  the  EU  Victims’ 
Directive.  Different  models  of  police  intervention  to 
protect victims need to be reviewed to see the extent 
to which they protect victims and meet their needs 
in practice.

10

FRA opinions based on key findings 

The role of healthcare

 ▪ Healthcare professionals can play an enhanced role in 
identifying and helping to prevent cases of violence 
against  women.  For  example,  the  survey  indicates 
that pregnant women are vulnerable to violence; of 
those women who experienced violence by a previ-
ous partner and were pregnant during this relation-
ship, 42 % experienced violence by this partner while 
pregnant.

 ▪ Confidentiality rules should be clarified so that health 
professionals  can  address  and  report  abuse.  In  sup-
port of this, the survey shows that 87 % of women 
would find it acceptable if doctors routinely ask about 
violence if patients exhibit certain injuries or charac-
teristics. At the same time, the development of rou-
tine  questioning  by  health  practitioners  concerning 
signs  of  violence  must  also  ensure  that  appropriate 
checks  are  in  place  to  identify  the  potential  for  any 
abuse by health practitioners themselves.

The role of specialist victim support services

 ▪ Compared  with  the  number  of  women  who  con-
tacted healthcare services as a result of violence, few 
women  contacted  victim  support  organisations  or 
women’s shelters as a result of the most serious inci-
dent  of  physical  and/or  sexual  violence.  For  exam-
ple,  whereas  one  third  of  women  contacted  a  doc-
tor, a health centre or a hospital with respect to the 
most serious incident of sexual violence by a partner, 
only 6 % contacted a women’s shelter and 4 % con-
tacted a victim support organisation. This finding sug-
gests that a number of factors come into play when 
women  report:  awareness  of  these  services,  which 
can  depend  on  where  a  woman  lives  in  a  country 
and the availability of such services in her area; the 
resources  these  organisations  have,  which  affects 
their  ability  to  deliver  a  service;  and  women’s  most 
immediate needs, which may focus on healthcare. In 
line  with  the  EU  Victims’  Directive  and  the  Istanbul 
Convention, there is a pressing need across the EU to 
enhance  resources  for  specialist  victim  support  ser-
vices that are able to respond to the needs of women 
who are victims of violence.

 ▪ About one in four victims of sexual assault, by either 
a partner or a non-partner, did not contact the police 
or any other organisation after the most serious inci-
dent  because  of  feelings  of  shame  and  embarrass-
ment. Responses to women’s victimisation that rein-
force  negative  cultures  of  ‘victim  blaming’  need  to 
be vigorously counteracted. Hence, specialist support 
services are required to address the needs of victims 
who  suffer  from  negative  feelings  in  the  aftermath 
of victimisation, which can include self-blame and a 
sense of shame.

 ▪ Data are essential to measure whether victims’ needs 
are being met in practice by different services, and to 
determine where it would be most efficient to spend 
resources to assist victims.

Joined-up responses to violence 
against women

 ▪ The effectiveness of current legislation, policy initia-
tives and practitioner interventions can be judged by 
looking at the evidence on the ground with respect 
to  women’s  willingness  to  report  abuse,  and  their 
satisfaction  with  the  service  they  receive.  As  there 
is under-reporting in many EU Member States, multi- 
agency  responses  to  violence  against  women  are 
needed to effectively address the needs – and rights 
– of women.

 ▪ Interinstitutional cooperation is essential for harmo-
nised  and  efficient  collection  and  exchange  of  data 
concerning cases of violence against women.

1.3.  Psychological partner 

violence against women

Recognising the scale and specific nature 
of psychological partner violence, and 
responding to it

 ▪ Psychological  violence  by  partners  is  widespread 
and needs to be recognised for the impact it has. For 
example,  the  survey  results  show  that  two  in  five 
women (43 %) have experienced some form of psy-
chological violence by either a current or a previous 
partner.  To  give  just  a  few  examples,  this  includes 
25 % of women who have been belittled or humili-
ated in private by a partner, 14 % whose partner has 
threatened  to  hurt  them  physically  and  5  %  whose 
partner has forbidden them to leave the house, taken 
away their car keys or locked them up.

 ▪ Of  women  who  are  currently  in  a  relationship,  7  % 
have  experienced  four  or  more  different  forms  of 
psychological violence. Multiple and repetitive forms 
of  psychological  violence  by  intimate  partners  need 
to  be  recognised  as  undermining  a  woman’s  auton-
omy, which equates to the loss of an autonomous pri-
vate and family life.

 ▪ Employers  and  trade  unions  should  consider  adopt-
ing  awareness-raising  and  related  training  activities 
for responsible personnel, to help them identify and 
respond to the needs of employees who are suffer-
ing  from  psychologically  controlling  behaviour  by 
a partner.

11

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

 ▪ The  police  and  other  relevant  government  services 
should  be  trained  to  recognise  and  understand  the 
impact of psychological abuse on victims.

 ▪ Controlling and abusive behaviour by offenders may 
require  that  the  police  intervene  directly  to  protect 
victims and to refer them to victim support services, 
rather than wait for a victim to seek assistance her-
self. In parallel, there is a need for services to engage 
with  perpetrators  to  address  their  psychologically 
abusive behaviour, alongside addressing any violent 
behaviour.

 ▪ At  EU  Member  State  level,  legislation  should  be 
reviewed to assess whether it encompasses the var-
ious  forms  and  impact  of  repetitive  psychological 
abuse on victims, which – as the survey results show 
– often goes hand in hand with physical and/or sex-
ual abuse in relationships.

1.4.  Experiences of stalking

Improving responses to stalking 
in law and practice

 ▪ The  survey  results  show  that  one  in  five  women 
have  experienced  some  form  of  stalking  since  the 
age  of  15,  with  5  %  having  experienced  it  in  the 
12 months preceding the survey. However, three out 
of  four  stalking  cases  reported  in  the  survey  never 
come to the attention of the police. Where stalking is 
recognised in law at the national level, women should 
be  encouraged  to  report  it  when  it  occurs.  At  the 
same  time,  the  use  and  effectiveness  of  legal  pro-
visions  on  stalking  should  be  reviewed  at  Member 
State level. Those EU Member States that lack com-
prehensive legislation on stalking should be encour-
aged to put in place legislation that serves the needs 
of victims.

 ▪ Victims  of  stalking  should  receive  adequate  protec-
tion by the state, building on the type of protection 
developed in response to cases of domestic violence.

 ▪ As  one  woman  in  10  has  been  stalked  by  a  previ-
ous  partner,  support  services  should  be  alerted  to 
the realities of stalking in the aftermath of relation-
ships  so  that  these  patterns  of  behaviour  are  not 
overlooked.

 ▪ One  in  five  women  who  have  experienced  stalk-
ing indicates that it lasted for more than two years. 
As with physical and sexual violence, the emotional 
and  psychological  consequences  of  stalking  can  be 
long-lasting  and  deep-seated.  Therefore,  specialist 
victim support services need to be available that can 
assist victims of stalking.

The role of the internet and social media

 ▪ Of  victims  of  stalking,  23  %  indicate  in  the  survey 
that they had to change their email address or phone 
number in response to the most serious case of stalk-
ing.  The  internet  and  social  media  platforms  should 
take steps to proactively assist victims of stalking to 
report abuse, and should also be encouraged to pro-
actively  address  perpetrators’  behaviour.  In  paral-
lel, the police can be encouraged to routinely recog-
nise and investigate cases where cyberstalking plays 
a role.

1.5.  Experiences of sexual 

harassment

Encouraging awareness and reporting 
of sexual harassment

 ▪ Sexual harassment is a pervasive and common expe-
rience for many women in the EU. For example, one 
in five women have experienced unwelcome touch-
ing, hugging or kissing since the age of 15, and 6 % 
of all women have experienced this type of harass-
ment at least six times since they were 15. Of those 
women who have experienced sexual harassment at 
least once since the age of 15, 32 % indicated a col-
league, a boss or a customer as the perpetrator(s). In 
response, employers’ organisations and trade unions 
should promote awareness of sexual harassment and 
encourage women to report incidents.

 ▪ The  survey  results  indicate  that  sexual  harassment 
against women involves a range of different perpe-
trators  and  can  include  the  use  of  ‘new’  technolo-
gies. One in 10 women (11 %) has experienced inap-
propriate advances on social websites or have been 
subjected  to  sexually  explicit  emails  or  text  (SMS) 
messages.  These  modes  of  sexual  harassment  dis-
proportionately  affect  younger  women.  EU  Member 
States  need  to  review  the  existing  scope  of  legis-
lative  and  policy  responses  to  sexual  harassment, 
recognising that it  can occur in various  settings and 
can  use  different  mediums,  such  as  the  internet  or 
mobile phones. As with cyberstalking, the police can 
be encouraged to routinely recognise and investigate 
cases where cyberharassment plays a role.

Vulnerabilities of professional women 
alongside other women

 ▪ Between 74 % and 75 % of women in a professional 
capacity  or  in  top  management  jobs  have  experi-
enced  sexual  harassment  in  their  lifetime,  and  one 
in four of these women have been  confronted  with 
sexual  harassment  in  the  12  months  prior  to  the 

12

FRA opinions based on key findings 

survey. Recognition needs to be given to the fact that 
professional  women  in  management  and  other  top 
positions are at risk of sexual harassment. This could 
be for a variety of reasons, such as their exposure to 
work environments and situations where they are at 
increased risk of abuse, as well as the possibility that 
professional  women  are  more  alert  to  what  consti-
tutes sexual harassment. Employers and other organ-
isations  need  to  raise  awareness  and  take  practical 
initiatives to recognise and address the reality of sex-
ual harassment experienced by women with diverse 
occupational  and  educational  backgrounds,  and  in 
different work settings.

Provision of evidence to highlight 
and combat sexual harassment

 ▪ Administrative  data  and  existing  surveys  on  work 
and  education  should  be  enhanced  to  include  regu-
lar and detailed questions about sexual harassment. 
Data  from  these  can  be  used  to  inform  policy  and 
action to address this abuse.

1.6.  Experiences of violence 

in childhood

The scale of childhood abuse 
and under-reporting

 ▪ Just over one in 10 women (12 %) has experienced 
some  form  of  sexual  abuse  or  incident  by  an  adult 
before  the  age  of  15.  These  forms  of  abuse  typi-
cally  involve  an  adult  exposing  their  genitals  (8  %) 
or  touching  the  child’s  genitals  or  breasts  (5  %).  At 
the extreme, 1 % of women indicate that they were 
forced to have sexual intercourse with an adult when 
they were a child.

 ▪ Some 27 % of women have experienced some form 
of physical abuse in childhood (before the age of 15) 
at the hands of an adult.

 ▪ The EU needs to focus anew on the widespread and 
under-reported abuse that women have experienced 
when they were children. This evidence can be used 
to address both current and past abuse of children.

The characteristics of abuse

 ▪ In 97 % of cases of sexual violence in childhood, the 
perpetrator  was  male,  whereas  in  cases  of  physical 
violence only slightly more cases were attributed to 
men than to women.

 ▪ Detailed  data  on  abuse  in  childhood,  including  sur-
veys that can capture unreported abuse, are needed 

to identify and corroborate evidence about the char-
acteristics  of  abuse,  which  can  be  used  to  target 
interventions  to  prevent  abuse,  protect  victims  and 
punish offenders.

Responding to abuse in childhood

 ▪ The  results  show  that  30  %  of  women  who  have 
experienced sexual victimisation by a former or cur-
rent partner also experienced sexual violence in child-
hood, whereas 10 % of women who have not expe-
rienced sexual victimisation in their current or former 
relationship  indicate  experiences  of  sexual  violence 
in childhood. At the same time, 73 % of mothers who 
have been victims of physical and/or sexual violence 
by a partner indicate that at least one of their children 
has  become  aware  of  such  violence  taking  place. 
Programmes  should  target  children  and  families  at 
risk of violence in order to stop the cycle of abuse.

 ▪ In  line  with  the  Istanbul  Convention,  EU  Member 
States  should  be  encouraged  to  review  their  leg-
islation  to  reassess  the  justification  of  time  limits, 
where these exist, on reporting abuse that occurred 
in childhood.

 ▪ Evidence  based  on  children’s  own  experiences  of 
abuse  is  essential  to  formulate  policies  and  courses 
of action to prevent and protect children from abuse.

1.7.  Fear of victimisation 
and its impact

Fear of gender-based violence affects 
women’s freedom of movement

 ▪ The survey indicates that half of all women avoid cer-
tain situations or places, at least sometimes, for fear 
of being physically or sexually assaulted. In compari-
son, as shown by existing general population surveys 
on crime and victimisation, men’s fear of crime, and 
its impact on their lives, is generally lower than wom-
en’s.  Women’s  fear  of  crime  –  specifically  their  fear 
of  gender-based  violence  –  needs  to  be  recognised 
and responded to at the level of the EU and Member 
States,  and  at  the  local  level  because  of  the  nega-
tive impact it has on women’s everyday freedom of 
movement.

Heightened levels of fear 
can indicate abuse

 ▪ Many  women  who  indicate  heightened  levels  of 
fear  of  assault  tend  to  have  experienced  high  lev-
els of physical or sexual violence. Given that height-
ened levels of fear can reflect experiences of abuse, 

13

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

healthcare  professionals  and  other  relevant  prac-
titioners  can  be  encouraged,  as  appropriate,  to  ask 
about and collect information on fear of victimisation 
in an effort to identify possible abuse.

1.8.  Attitudes towards 

and awareness about 
violence against women

Enhancing awareness of violence 
against women

 ▪ Women  perceive  violence  against  women  as  com-
mon or rare in their country depending on their per-
sonal  experiences  of  partner  and/or  non-partner 
violence,  their  awareness  of  other  women  who  are 
victims of violence and their awareness of campaigns 
addressing  violence  against  women.  The  interplay 
between these factors needs to be taken into account 
when devising policies to raise awareness of violence 
against women in different settings and among dif-
ferent groups of women.

 ▪ Targeted  campaigns  at  EU  Member  State  level  are 
essential  to  enhance  women’s  (and  men’s)  knowl-
edge  about  gender-based  violence,  to  encour-
age  reporting,  protect  victims  and  work  towards 
prevention.

Ensuring that expectations of service 
provision can be met in practice

 ▪ Women  who  are  victims  of  violence  seldom  report 
it to specialist services. If campaigns to raise aware-
ness  about  violence  against  women  and  to  encour-
age reporting of it are to be successful, specialist ser-
vices need to be in place and adequately resourced to 
meet victims’ needs.

Ensuring that campaigns are based 
on existing evidence about violence 
against women

 ▪ In  the  absence  of  data  at  EU  Member  State  level, 
results  from  the  FRA  survey  on  violence  against 
women  can  be  used  to  enhance  awareness  raising 
and  action  by  EU  Member  States  concerning  such 
violence.

14

2  

What do the results show?

The following section outlines a selection of key find-
ings from the survey, which reflect the main areas that 
were covered in the questionnaire.

The  survey’s  main  results  report  and  the  online  data 
explorer tool present the survey findings in detail, with 
the  possibility  for  the  user  to  extract  data  in  different 
ways through the online tool.

Asking  about  experiences  since  the  age  of  15, 
before  15,  and  in  the  12  months  before  the  survey 
interview

Women aged 18 to 74 years took part in the survey. To 
distinguish  incidents  that  took  place  in  childhood,  and 
based on established survey practice, the survey ques-
tions  gave  the  age  of  15  years  around  which  women 
were asked to think about incidents that had occurred 
before and after this age.

Different surveys select different cut-off ages for fram-
ing survey questions. In this regard, the FRA survey is 
in  line  the  World  Health  Organization  (WHO)  survey 
on  women’s  health  and  domestic  violence  which  also 
selected 15 years as the cut-off age.

The FRA survey asked women to distinguish between 
incidents that have occurred since the age of 15 (cover-
ing a lifetime period) and in the twelve months before 
the  survey  interview.  Asking  women  to  think  about 
the last 12 months helps them to distinguish between 
recent and possibly distant events. It also provides data 
that are of direct policy relevance with respect to cur-
rent practice, such as policing responses to victims.

2.1.  Physical and sexual 

violence

 ► Physical violence:  

An estimated 13 million women in the EU have expe-
rienced physical violence in the course of 12 months 
before  the  survey  interviews.  This  corresponds  to 
7% of women aged 18–74 years in the EU.1

 ► Sexual violence:  

An estimated 3.7 million women in the EU have expe-
rienced sexual violence in the course of 12 months 
before  the  survey  interviews  –  corresponding  to 
2% of women aged 18–74 years in the EU.

Overall prevalence of physical and 
sexual violence

 ► One  in  three  women  (33  %)  has  experienced 
physical  and/or  sexual  violence  since  she  was 
15 years old.

 ► Some  8  %  of  women  have  experienced  physical 
and/or sexual violence in the 12 months before the 
survey interview (Figure 1 a).

 ► Out  of  all  women  who  have  a  (current  or  previ-
ous) partner, 22 % have experienced physical and/
or sexual violence by a partner since the age of 15 
(Table 1).

1 

According to the Eurostat online database, 186,590,848 women 
aged 18-74 years lived in the EU-28 on 1 January, see: http://
epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_
database (data code demo_pjan, extracted on 16 August 2013).

15

 
 
Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

READING THE RESULTS 

Levels of violence reported vary between Member States. More detail is in the online ‘data explorer’ accom-
panying this report. Here are some possible explanations for these differences.

Recognising differences between countries

Just as official criminal justice data on recorded crime vary significantly between countries, there are often 
large  differences  between  countries  in  levels  of  reported  victimisation  when  people  are  interviewed  for 
a  victimisation  survey.  This  applies  to  crime  in  general,  and  in  particular  to  incidents  of  violence  against 
women, which are particularly sensitive topics to talk about in a survey.

Variations between countries in the prevalence of violence reported in the FRA survey need to be looked 
at in relation to a number of factors. For example, official crime data show significant differences between 
countries in levels of overall violence, including levels of violence against women where this data are avail-
able. General crime survey data, and also surveys specifically on violence against women, always show dif-
ferences between countries in rates of violence. On the other hand, the FRA survey shows less variation 
between  EU  Member  States  in  rates  of  domestic  violence  than  the  World  Health  Organization’s  (WHO’s) 
10-country study on women’s health and domestic violence (data collected in 2000–2003). When compar-
ing the FRA survey results on the prevalence of rape with those of the United States’ national intimate part-
ner violence and sexual violence survey, which covers all 50 US states (data collected in 2010), there is less 
variation between EU Member States than between the US states. The FRA survey results are also broadly 
in line with results from existing national surveys on violence against women in the EU Member States, 
where these are available.

Possible explanations for differences between countries

Although differences between countries in the survey results on rates of violence against women are to be 
expected, in line with other survey findings, it is harder to explain and generalise from these differences 
across 28 diverse countries. Here are five possible explanations of observed differences between countries 
in prevalence rates for violence against women. They require further exploration for corroboration and can 
be looked at with respect to other possible explanations at the country level.

1)  In different countries, it may be more or less culturally acceptable to talk with other people about expe-
riences of violence against women. When looking at the survey results, consideration needs to be given 
to the possibility that, in societies in which intimate partner violence is considered largely a private mat-
ter, incidents of violence against women are unlikely to be shared with family and friends and are also 
rarely reported to the police. Such reticence may inhibit talking to survey interviewers.

2)  Gender equality could lead to higher levels of disclosure about violence against women. Incidents of vio-
lence against women are more likely to be openly addressed and challenged in societies with greater 
equality.

3)  Women’s exposure to risk factors for violence can be examined at the Member State level with respect 
to factors that might increase exposure to violence. These include patterns in employment (working out-
side the home), as well as socialisation and lifestyle patterns (going out and dating).

4)  Differences between countries in overall levels of violent crime need to be looked at alongside findings 
on violence against women. For example, more urbanisation in a Member State is generally related to 
higher crime rates.

5)  The survey revealed evidence of the relationship between perpetrators’ drinking habits and women’s 
experiences of intimate partner violence (‘domestic violence’). Different drinking patterns in Member 
States may help to explain certain aspects of violence against women, which, in turn, need to be looked 
at alongside patterns in individual perpetrators’ violent behaviour, which may not be limited to violence 
against women.

These  and  other  factors  need  to  be  explored  further  when  looking  at  findings  at  the  level  of  individual 
Member States.

16

Figure 1 a:  Women experiencing physical and/or sexual violence since the age of 15 and in the 12 months 

before the interview, EU-28 (%)

What do the results show? 

67 %

33 %

No physical and/
or sexual violence
since the age of 15

Yes, victimised more
than 12 months ago

Yes, victimised in
the past 12 months

25 %

8 %

Note:  Based on all respondents (N = 42,002).
Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Box 1:  What the survey asked – physical and sexual violence

Physical violence
Since  you  were  15  years  old  until  now/in  the  past 
12 months, how often has someone:
• Pushed you or shoved you?
• Slapped you?
• Threw a hard object at you?
• Grabbed you or pulled your hair?
• Beat you with a fist or a hard object, or kicked 

you?

• Burned you?
• Tried to suffocate you or strangle you?
• Cut or stabbed you, or shot at you?
• Beat your head against something?
Sexual violence
Since  you  were  15  years  old  until  now/in  the  past 
12 months, how often has someone:

• Forced you into sexual intercourse by holding you 
down or hurting you in some way? [IF NEEDED: 
By sexual intercourse we mean here forced oral 
sex, forced anal or vaginal penetration]
• Apart from this, attempted to force you into 
sexual intercourse by holding you down or 
hurting you in some way? [IF NEEDED: By sexual 
intercourse we mean here forced oral sex, forced 
anal or vaginal penetration]

• Apart from this, made you take part in any form 
of sexual activity when you did not want to or 
you were unable to refuse?

• Or have you consented to sexual activity because 
you were afraid of what might happen if you 
refused?

The questions on physical and sexual violence were 
asked  separately  regarding  the  current  partner, 
previous partner and other persons.

17

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

Figure 1 b: Physical and/or sexual partner violence since the age of 15, EU-28 (%)

MT

CY

EU-28     22 %

10 %–19 %

20 %–29 %

30 %–39 %

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Table 1:  Women who have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by a current or previous partner, 

or by any other person since the age of 15, by EU Member State (%)a,b,c

EU Member State

Any partner  
(current and/or previous)b 

Non-partnerc 

Any partner  
and/or non-partnerc 

AT

BE

BG

CY

CZ

DE

DK

EE

EL

13

24

23

15

21

22

32

20

19

12

25

14

12

21

24

40

22

10

20

36

28

22

32

35

52

33

25

18

EU Member State

Any partner  
(current and/or previous)b 

Non-partnerc 

Any partner  
and/or non-partnerc 

What do the results show? 

ES

FI

FR

HR

HU

IE

IT

LT

LU

LV

MT

NL

PL

PT

RO

SE

SI

SK

UK

EU-28

13

30

26

13

21

15

19

24

22

32

15

25

13

19

24

28

13

23

29

22

16

33

33

13

14

19

17

16

25

17

15

35

11

10

14

34

15

22

30

22

22

47

44

21

28

26

27

31

38

39

22

45

19

24

30

46

22

34

44

33

Notes:  a 

b 

c 

 The results in the first two columns of the Table do not sum up to the results in the third column due to the different computational 
base of the results (results on partner violence are based on respondents who have or have had a partner, as opposed to all women) 
and the fact that some respondents have experienced violence by both their partners and non-partners.
 Out of all women who were either married, living together with someone without being married, or involved in a relationship 
(without living together) at the time of the interview, or at any time in the past (n = 40,192).
 Out of all respondents (N = 42,002).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Characteristics of physical violence

 ► Some  31  %  of  women  have  experienced  one  or 
more acts of physical violence (see Box 1) since the 
age of 15 (Table 2). While women are most likely to 
indicate that they were pushed or shoved, excluding 
this form of violence has only a limited effect on the 
overall  prevalence  of  physical  violence,  bringing  it 
down from 31 % to 25 %. This result reflects the fact 
that many women who say they have been pushed 
or  shoved  have  also  experienced  other  forms  of 
physical violence.

 ► The  most  common  forms  of  physical  violence 
involve pushing or shoving, slapping or grabbing, or 
pulling a woman’s hair.

Characteristics of sexual violence

 ► In  total,  11  %  of  women  have  experienced  some 
form of sexual violence (see Box 1) since they were 
15 years old, either by a partner or some other per-
son. While some women indicate they have expe-
rienced one form of sexual violence, other women 
indicate  they  have  experienced  multiple  forms  of 
sexual violence. 

19

 
 
Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

Table 2:  Women who have experienced various forms of physical violence by a partner or by other persons 

since the age of 15, EU-28 (%)a,b,c

Type of physical violence

Current partnera

Previous 
partnerb

Non-partnerc

Any partner and/
or non-partnerc

Pushed or shoved

Slapped

Hard object thrown at them

Grabbed or pulled by the hair

Beat with a fist or a hard 
object, or kicked

Burned

Tried to suffocate or strangle

Cut, stabbed or shot

Beat head against something

Any of the above

Any of the above, excluding 
‘pushed or shoved’

5

4

2

2

1

0

1

0

1

7

5

19

15

 8

10

 9

 1

 5

 1

 5

24

20

13

 8

 4

 7

 5

 0

 1

 1

 2

20

15

23

17

 9

13

10

 1

 4

 1

 4

31

25

Notes:  a   Out of all women who were either married, living together with someone without being married, or involved in a relationship (without 

living together) at the time of the interview (n = 30,675).

b   Out of all women who had, in the past, either been married, living together with someone without being married, or involved in a 

relationship (without living together) at least once (n = 25,870).

c   Out of all respondents (N = 42,002).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

The extent of rape

One in 20 women (5 %) has been raped since the 
age of 15. This figure is based on responses to the 
question: “Since you were 15 years old until now, 
how  often  has  someone  forced  you  into  sexual 
intercourse  by  holding  you  down  or  hurting  you 
in some way?” 

In a number of EU jurisdictions, the legal definition 
of rape extends beyond the requirement that the 
perpetrator  uses  physical  force.  In  this  regard, 
the  extent  of  rape  in  the  EU  could  be  in  excess 
of  5  %.  Some  incidents  of  rape  may  also  have 
been  encompassed  within  women’s  responses 
to  another  survey  question:  “Since  you  were 
15  years  old  until  now,  how  often  has  someone 
made you take part in any form of sexual activity 
when you did not want to or you were unable to 
refuse?”

experienced, if any. The following describes the results 
of women’s experiences since the age of 15:

 ► 5  %  of  women  have  been  forced  into  sexual 

intercourse;

 ► 6  %  of  women  indicate  that  somebody  has 
attempted to force them into sexual intercourse;
 ► 6  %  of  women  say  that  somebody  has  made 
them take part in sexual activity when they did 
not want to or when they were unable to refuse;
 ► 6  %  of  women  have  agreed  to  sexual  activity 
because they were afraid what would happen if 
they did not.

 ► Of those women who indicate they have been vic-
tims  of  sexual  violence  by  a  non-partner,  almost 
one in 10 women indicates that more than one per-
petrator was involved in the incident when describ-
ing the details of the most serious incident of sexual 
violence they have experienced.

The survey results for rape need to be looked at along-
side findings to other survey questions on sexual vio-
lence. The FRA survey asked women about their expe-
riences  with  regard  to  four  forms  of  sexual  violence. 
Women  could  indicate  which  of  the  forms  they  have 

20

 
 
What do the results show? 

Table 3:  Sex of the perpetrators of physical and sexual violence since the age of 15 when perpetrator was other 

than a current or previous partner, EU-28 (%)

Physical violence

Sexual violence

Male

Female

Both

No answer

n

   67

   26

    7

    1

7,207

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Repeated incidents of sexual violence

Over  half  of  the  women  who  have  been  raped 
by their current partner, or whose current partner 
has attempted to rape them or to make them take 
part in sexual activity when they were unable to 
refuse,  has  experienced  more  than  one  incident 
of  sexual  violence.  In  the  case  of  rape,  about 
one third of victims (31 %) has experienced six or 
more incidents by their current partner. 

The results concerning sexual violence by previous 
partners show a similar pattern. Depending on the 
type of sexual violence, one third to one quarter of 
victims has experienced more than one incident.

Details of intimate partner violence

 ► One third of victims (34 %) of physical violence by a 
previous partner experienced four or more different 
forms of physical violence.

 ► Whereas in most cases violence by a previous part-
ner  occurred  during  the  relationship,  one  in  six 
women (16 %) who has been victimised by a previ-
ous partner experienced violence after the relation-
ship had broken up.

Violence during pregnancy

Of those women who experienced violence by a 
previous  partner  and  were  pregnant  during  this 
relationship,  42  %  experienced  violence  by  this 
previous  partner  while  pregnant.  In  comparison, 
of  those  women  who  experienced  violence  by 
their current partner, 20 % experienced violence 
by  their  current  partner  while  pregnant.  The 
difference  in  these  figures  could  reflect  the  fact 
that  women  are  less  able  or  willing  to  report 
violence  by  current  partners  when  interviewed 
–  although  this  assumption  requires  further 
exploration.

   97

    2

    0

    0

2,296

Details of non-partner violence

 ► One in five women (22 %) has experienced physical 
violence by someone other than their partner since 
the age of 15.

 ► Out of those women who have experienced phys-
ical  violence  by  someone  other  than  their  partner, 
67 % say that the perpetrator was male and a fur-
ther  7  %  say  they  have  experienced  physical  vio-
lence by both male and female perpetrators. In the 
case  of  sexual  violence,  97  %  of  women  say  that 
the perpetrator was male (Table 3).

2.2. Consequences 
of violence

Effects of violence on the victim

 ► When  talking  about  the  most  serious  incident  of 
sexual  violence,  women  say  that  their  emotional 
responses  at  the  time  were  mostly  those  of  fear, 
anger  and  shame  about  what  has  happened  to 
them. Women who experienced sexual violence by 
someone who was not their partner also indicated 
high levels of shock.

 ► With respect to the long-term psychological conse-
quences of violence (see Table 4), victimisation by 
partners or other persons made victims suffer from 
a  loss  of  self-confidence,  and  it  left  them  feeling 
vulnerable and anxious.

 ► Victims of sexual violence indicate that they often 
suffer  from  a  higher  number  of  psychological 
consequences.

 ► Women are more likely to experience various long-
term  psychological  consequences  as  a  result  of 
partner  violence  than  those  who  experience  vio-
lence by a perpetrator who was not a partner. This 
may reflect not only reactions to the most serious 
incident of violence by a partner, as asked about in 

21

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

the survey, but also the fact that violence by a part-
ner is more likely to have involved several incidents 
over a long period of time.

Contact with police and other services

 ► One  third  of  victims  of  partner  violence  (33  %) 
and  one  quarter  of  victims  of  non-partner  vio-
lence  (26  %)  contacted  either  the  police  or  some 
other organisation, such as a victim support organ-
isation, following the most serious incident of vio-
lence. The higher reporting rate for partner violence 
may  reflect  a  common  situation  where  women 
have experienced several incidents of violence in a 
relationship before they decide to report the most 
serious  incident  in  an  effort  to  stop  the  violence 
from  recurring  or  escalating,  whereas  non-partner 

violence is more likely to involve isolated incidents 
with  less  risk  of  reoccurrence.  Table  5  provides  a 
breakdown  of  information  concerning  contact  and 
non-contact with services by perpetrator and type 
of violence.

 ► In total, victims reported the most serious incident 
of  partner  violence  to  the  police  in  14  %  of  cases 
and  the  most  serious  incident  of  non-partner  vio-
lence in 13 % of cases.

 ► For  about  one  quarter  of  victims,  feeling  ashamed 
or embarrassed about what has happened was the 
reason for not reporting the most serious incident of 
sexual violence by a partner or a non-partner to the 
police or any other organisation.

Table 4:  Long-term psychological consequences of the most serious incident of violence since the age of 15, 

by type of violence and perpetrator (%)a,b

Any partner  
(current and/or previous)

Non-partner

Physical 
violence

Sexual 
violence

Physical 
violence

Sexual 
violence

Type of psychological consequence

Depression

Anxiety

Panic attacks

Loss of self-confidence

Feeling vulnerable

Difficulty in sleeping

Concentration difficulties

Difficulties in relationships

Other

Number of categories selected

None

1

2–3

4 or more

No answer

n

   20

   32

   12

   31

   30

   23

   12

   24

    3

   28

   26

   27

   17

    2

5,415

   35

   45

   21

   50

   48

   41

   21

   43

    5

    9

   21

   31

   38

   (1)

1,863

    8

   23

    8

   17

   24

   13

    7

    9

    4

   43

   28

   19

    8

    2

4,237

   23

   37

   19

   40

   47

   29

   16

   31

    4

   16

   25

   35

   24

    1

1,847

Notes:  a   Respondents were able to give more than one answer, so categories may total to more than 100 %.

b   Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable, so observations based on fewer than 30 responses are put 

in brackets and observations based on fewer than five responses are suppressed (denoted with ‘-’).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

22

   
 
What do the results show? 

Unmet needs of victims

Overcoming the violence

 ► When  asked  which  type  of  help  would  have  been 
useful, women indicate that, as a result of the most 
serious  incident  of  violence,  first  and  foremost 
they wanted to have someone to talk to and sup-
port them (33 %–54 %) depending on the type of 
violence  and  perpetrator),  followed  by  protection 
(12 %–25 %) and other practical help (13 %–21 %).

 ► Most victims (57 %–60 % depending on the perpe-
trator and type of violence) have shared their expe-
riences with someone concerning the most serious 
incident that they have experienced (Table 5). About 
one third of victims of partner violence (35 %) cred-
ited the support of their family and friends in help-
ing them to overcome the violence.

Table 5:  Contacting services and talking to other people about the most serious incident since the age of 15, 

by type of violence and perpetrator (%)a

Respondent contacted the police or other 
services

Talked to somebody else

Did not talk to anyone

No answer

n

Any partner
(current and/or previous)

Non-partner

Physical 
violence

Sexual 
violence

Physical 
violence

Sexual 
violence

   31

   36

   32

    1

5,415

   39

   28

   32

   (0)

1,863

   24

   44

   31

    1

4,237

   30

   37

   33

    1

1,847

Note: 

a   Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable, so observations based on fewer than 30 responses are put 

in brackets and observations based on fewer than five responses are suppressed (denoted with ‘-’).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

2.3.  Psychological partner 

violence

 ► One in three women (32 %) has experienced psy-
chologically abusive behaviour by an intimate part-
ner, either by her current partner or a previous part-
ner.  This  includes  behaviour  such  as  belittling  or 
humiliating the respondent in public or private; for-
bidding  her  to  leave  the  house  or  locking  her  up; 
making  her  watch  pornographic  material  against 
her wishes; scaring or intimidating her on purpose; 
and threatening her with violence or threatening to 
hurt someone else the respondent cares about.

 ► Overall,  43  %  of  women  have  experienced  some 
form of psychological violence by an intimate part-
ner  (Figure  2  a).  This  may  include  psychologically 
abusive behaviour and other forms of psychological 
violence such as controlling behaviour (for example, 

trying to keep a woman from seeing her friends or 
visiting her family or relatives), economic violence 
(such  as  forbidding  a  woman  to  work  outside  the 
home) and blackmail (Table 6).

 ► The most common forms of psychological violence 
involve a partner belittling or humiliating a woman 
in  private,  insisting  on  knowing  where  she  is  in  a 
way that goes beyond general concern, and getting 
angry  if  she  speaks  to  other  men.  One  woman  in 
four has experienced each of these in their intimate 
relationships.

 ► Some  5  %  of  women  have  experienced  economic 
violence  in  their  current  relationship,  and  13  %  of 
women have experienced some form of economic 
violence in past relationships. This includes the part-
ner preventing her from making independent deci-
sions on family finances, or forbidding her to work 
outside the home.

23

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

Box 2: What the survey asked – psychological violence

How  often  does  your  current  partner/Did  any 
previous partner ever...
• Try to keep you from seeing your friends?
• Try to restrict your contact with your family of 

birth or relatives?

• Insist on knowing where you are in a way that 

goes beyond general concern?

• Get angry if you speak with another man? (or 
another woman, if the partner is a woman)
• Become suspicious that you are unfaithful?
• Prevent you from making decisions about family 
finances and from shopping independently?

• Forbid you to work outside the home?
• Forbid you to leave the house, take away car 

keys or lock you up?

How often would you say that your current partner 
has/Has any previous partner ever...

• Belittled or humiliated you in front of other 

people?

• Belittled or humiliated you in private?
• Done things to scare or intimidate you on 

purpose, for example by yelling and smashing 
things?

• Made you watch or look at pornographic material 

against your wishes?

• Threatened to take the children away from you?
• Threatened to hurt your children?
• Hurt your children?
• Threatened to hurt or kill someone else you care 

about

How often has something like this happened to you? 
Your  current  partner/any  of  your  previous  partners 
has...
• Threatened to hurt you physically?

Table 6:  Psychological partner violence, by type of abuse and by type of partner (%)a

Current 
partnerb

Previous 
partnerc

Any partner  
(current and/or previous)d

Controlling behaviour

Economic violence

Abusive behaviour

Blackmail with/abuse of children

Any psychological abuse

16

 5

15

 2

23

40

13

37

14

48

35

12

32

 8

43

Notes:  a   For current partners, the percentage refers to women who say that they have experienced a particular form of psychological violence 

at least sometimes during the relationship. In the case of previous partners, the survey asked if respondents have ever experienced 
each of the forms of psychological violence by any previous partner. The column ‘Any partner’ refers to the combination of these 
two figures, that is, women who have experienced psychological violence at least sometimes in the current relationship or ever by any 
previous partners.

b   Based on all women who have a current partner, that is who were married, living together with someone without being married, or 

involved in a relationship at the time of the interview (n = 30,675), except the item on blackmail with/abuse of children, which is based 
on all women who have a current partner and who have or have had children in their care (n = 24,770).

c   Based on all women who have a previous partner, that is who had been married, living together with someone without being married, 
or involved in a relationship at least once in the past (n = 25,870), except the item on blackmail with/abuse of children, which is based 
on all women who have a previous partner and who have or have had children in their care (n = 14,469).

d   Out of all women who were married, living together with someone without being married, or involved in a relationship at the time 
of the interview, or at any time in the past (n = 40,192), except the item on blackmail with/abuse of children, which is based on all 
women who have a current or previous partner and who have or have had children in their care (n = 31,418).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

24

 
 
 
Figure 2 a:  Psychological violence by a partner since the age of 15, EU-28 (%)

MT

CY

What do the results show? 

EU-28     43 %

30 %–39 %

40 %–49 %

50 %–59 %

60 %–69 %

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

25

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

Figure 2 b:  Psychological violence by current partner during the relationship and the number of different forms 

of psychological violence experienced by women, EU-28 (%)a,b

No psychological
violence
77 %

One or more forms
of psychological
violence
23 %

9 %

1 form

8 %

2–3 forms

7 %

4 or more forms

Notes:  a   Based on all respondents who have a current partner (n = 30,675).

b   Taken individually, the sum of the categories ‘one form’, ‘2–3 forms’ and ‘4 or more forms’ totals 24 %, while on the whole 23 % of 

women have experienced one or more forms of psychological violence. This difference is due to rounding.

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

 ► Of women who are currently in a relationship, 7 % 
have  experienced  four  or  more  different  forms  of 
psychological  violence  by  their  current  partner 
(Figure 2 b).

 ► Most women who experience several (four or more) 
forms of psychological violence also indicated in the 
survey  that  their  current  partner  has  been  physi-
cally and/or sexually violent against them.

 ► The likelihood of psychological violence in a wom-
an’s  current  relationship  increases  together  with 
an increase in her partner’s heavy alcohol use. The 
more often a current partner drinks so much that he 
gets drunk, the more common it is for the relation-
ship to involve psychological violence.

2.4.  Stalking

 ► In  the  EU-28,  18  %  of  women  have  experienced 
stalking since the age of 15 (Figure 3 a), and 5 % of 
women have experienced it in the 12 months before 
the  survey  interview.  This  corresponds  to  about 
9 million women in the EU-28 experiencing stalking 
within a period of 12 months.

 ► Some  14  %  of  women  have  received  offensive  or 
threatening  messages  or  phone  calls  repeatedly 
from the same person, and 8 % have been followed 
around or experienced somebody loitering outside 
their  home  or  workplace.  Out  of  all  women  sur-
veyed, 3 % have experienced stalking that involved 
the same person repeatedly damaging her property.

 ► One in 10 women (9 %) has been stalked by their 

previous partner (Figure 3 b).

Box 3: What the survey asked – stalking

You  may  have  been  in  a  situation  where  the 
same  person  has  been  repeatedly  offensive  or 
threatening towards you. For the next questions 
I would like to ask you to think about both your 
current  and  previous  partners  as  well  as  other 
people.  Since  you  were  15  years  old  until  now/
in  the  past  12  months,  has  the  same  person 
repeatedly  done  one  or  more  of  the  following 
things to you:
• Sent you emails, text messages (SMS) or 
instant messages that were offensive or 
threatening?

• Sent you letters or cards that were offensive 

or threatening?

• Made offensive, threatening or silent phone 

calls to you?

• Posted offensive comments about you on the 

internet?

• Shared intimate photos or videos of you, on 

the internet or by mobile phone?

• Loitered or waited for you outside your home, 
workplace or school without a legitimate 
reason?

• Deliberately followed you around?
• Deliberately interfered with or damaged your 

property?

26

 
Figure 3 a:  Prevalence of stalking, women’s experiences since the age of 15, EU-28 (%)

MT

CY

What do the results show? 

 %

 %

 %

 %

 %

Note:  Based on all respondents (N = 42,002).
Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Figure 3 b:  Prevalence of stalking since the age of 15, by type of perpetrator (%)

25

20

15

10

5

0

1

9

7

8

Current partner

Previous partner

Known person

Unknown person

Notes: 

 Current partner n = 31,007; previous partner n = 25,936; known person N = 42,002; unknown person N = 42,002. 
Based on the incident(s) they have experienced, women could indicate more than one perpetrator.

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

27

 
 
 
 
Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

 ► Cyberstalking  –  stalking  by  means  of  email,  text 
messages  or  the  internet  –  affects  young  women 
in particular. Four per cent of all 18 to 29-year-old 
women,  or  1.5  million,  in  the  EU-28  have  experi-
enced  cyberstalking  in  the  12  months  before  the 
interview, compared with 0.3 % of women who are 
60 years old or older.2

 ► Out  of  all  women  victims  of  stalking,  one  in  five 
(21  %)  has  experienced  stalking  that  has  lasted 
over two years.

 ► One  in  five  victims  of  stalking  (23  %)  has  had  to 
change  her  phone  number  or  email  address  as  a 
result of the most serious incident of stalking.

 ► Three quarters of stalking cases (74 %) never came 
to  the  attention  of  the  police,  even  though  this 
involved the most serious case of stalking that the 
respondents referred to in the survey.

2.5.  Sexual harassment

Research  has  shown  that  individuals  differ  in  their 
perception  of  what  constitutes  ‘sexual  harassment’. 
Variation in the subjective meaning given to behaviour 
is also a reflection of prevalent social and cultural val-
ues, norms and attitudes concerning gender roles and 
appropriate interaction between the sexes.

 ► Depending on the number of different forms of sex-
ual harassment that were asked about in the survey, 
an estimated 83 million to 102 million women (45 % 
to 55 % of women) in the EU-28 have experienced 
sexual harassment since the age of 15.

 ► An estimated 24 million to 39 million women (13 % 
to 21 %) in the EU-28 have experienced sexual har-
assment  in  the  12  months  before  the  interview 
alone.

Overall prevalence of sexual harassment

 ► Based on all 11 items used in the survey to meas-
ure sexual harassment (see Box 4 for a list of these 
items), every second woman (55 %) in the EU has 
experienced sexual harassment at least once since 
the age of 15, and one in five women (21 %) in the 
12 months before the survey interview (Figure 4).

2 

In the survey, women could indicate that they do not use a mobile 
phone, email, social media or internet in general. The results on 
cyberstalking, as well as those on cyberharassment later in this 
report, are based on the experiences of those women who do 
use these modes of communication. The survey results therefore 
accommodate for the differences between EU Member States in 
the extent to which people have access to the internet and use 
mobile phones.

 ► When  looking  only  at  six  specific  forms  of  sexual 
harassment  (see  Box  4  for  a  list  of  these  selected 
six items), which have been identified in the survey 
as more threatening and serious for the respondent: 
45 % of women in the EU have experienced these 
forms  of  sexual  harassment  at  least  once  in  their 
lifetime, and 13 % in the last 12 months before the 
survey interview.

 ► Among women who have experienced sexual har-
assment  at  least  once  since  the  age  of  15,  32  % 
indicate  somebody  from  the  employment  context 
– such as a colleague, a boss or a customer – as a 
perpetrator.

Box 4:  What the survey asked –  
sexual harassment

Some  questions  about  experiences  that  women 
may have.

At  times  you  may  have  experienced  people 
acting  towards  you  in  a  way  that  you  felt  was 
unwanted  and  offensive.  How  often  have  you 
experienced any of the following? How often has 
this happened to you in the past 12 months?
• Unwelcome touching, hugging or kissing?*
• Sexually suggestive comments or jokes that 

made you feel offended?*

• Inappropriate invitations to go out on dates?
• Intrusive questions about your private life that 

made you feel offended?

• Intrusive comments about your physical 
appearance that made you feel offended?
• Inappropriate staring or leering that made you 

feel intimidated?

• Somebody sending or showing you sexually 

explicit pictures, photos or gifts that made you 
feel offended?*

• Somebody indecently exposing themselves to 

you?*

• Somebody made you watch or look at 

pornographic material against your wishes?*

• Unwanted sexually explicit emails or SMS 

messages that offended you?*

• Inappropriate advances that offended you on 
social networking websites such as Facebook, 
or in internet chat rooms?

The  asterisk  (‘*’)  indicates  six  items  which 
could  be  considered  as  the  most  serious  (out 
of  the  total  list  of  11  items  asked  about).  The 
results  concerning  these  six  items  have  been 
analysed separately in order to assess the effect 
of the selection of items to the extent of sexual 
harassment, as measured in the survey.

28

Figure 4:  Prevalence of sexual harassment in the 12 months before the survey, based on full and short sets of 

items measuring sexual harassment, by EU Member State (%)a,b,c

What do the results show? 

DK

SE

NL

FR

BE

SK

UK

LU

FI

DE

EU-28

CZ

MT

IE

ES

IT

HU

HR

EE

PT

EL

AT

CY

LV

BG

SI

PL

RO

LT

26

37

32

32

30

30

29

22

22

18

17

19

16

14

15

15

25

25

23

22

21

21

20

19

13

12

12

12

11

10

12

11

11

18

18

18

17

16

15

15

15

14

14

14

8

9

8

11

11

11

11

9

9

9

7

7

5

6

Any sexual harassment
in the last 12 months
based on 11 items

Any sexual harassment
in the last 12 months
based on 6 items

Notes:  a   Out of all respondents (N = 42,002).

b   Full set includes all 11 items used in the questionnaire to measure sexual harassment (see Box 4).
c   The short set includes the following six items: “Unwelcome touching, hugging or kissing”, “Sexually suggestive comments or jokes 
that made you feel offended”, “Somebody indecently exposing themselves to you”, “Sexually explicit emails or SMS messages that 
offended you”, “Sending or showing sexually explicit pictures, photos or gifts that made you feel offended”, “Someone making you 
watch or look at pornographic material against your wishes”.

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Characteristics of sexual harassment

Sexual  harassment  is  multidimensional,  ranging  from 
physical forms through verbal acts to non-verbal forms 
such as cyberharassment. Some examples are:

 ► physical forms of harassment – 29 % of women 
in  the  EU-28  have  experienced  unwelcome 
touching,  hugging  or  kissing  since  they  were 
15 years old;

 ► verbal  acts  of  harassment  –  24  %  of  women 
have  been  subjected  to  sexually  suggestive 
comments or jokes that offended them;

 ► non-verbal  forms  including  cyberharassment  – 
11 % of women have received unwanted, offen-
sive  sexually  explicit  emails  or  SMS  messages, 
or  offending,  inappropriate  advances  on  social 
networking sites (referring to experiences since 
the age of 15).

 ► Looking at repeat victimisation, one in five women 
(19 %) has experienced unwelcome touching, hug-
ging or kissing at least twice since she was 15 years 
old, and 6 % of women have been subjected to this 
physical  form  of  harassment  more  than  six  times 
since  the  age  of  15.  Some  37  %  of  all  victimised 

29

 
 
Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

women  have  been  confronted  with  two  or  three 
different forms of sexual harassment since the age 
of  15,  27  %  with  four  to  six  different  forms,  and 
8 % with seven or more different forms of sexual 
harassment.

Details of sexual harassment

 ► Generally,  the  risk  of  exposure  to  sexual  harass-
ment is above average for women aged between 18 
and 29 years, and between 30 and 39 years. More 
than one in three women (38 %) aged between 18 
and 29 years experienced at least one form of sex-
ual harassment in the 12  months before the inter-
view, as well as almost one in four women (24 %) 
between 30 and 39 years of age.

 ► The risk of young women aged 18–29 years becom-
ing a target of threatening and offensive advances 
on the internet is twice as high as the risk for women 
aged  40–49  years,  and  more  than  three  times 
higher  than  the  risk  for  women  aged  50–59  years 
(Figure 5).

 ► Sexual harassment is more commonly experienced 
by women with a university degree and by women 
in the highest occupational groups: 75 % of women 
in the top management category and 74 % of those 
in  the  professional  occupational  category  have 
experienced  sexual  harassment  in  their  lifetime, 

compared  with  44  %  of  women  in  the  occupa-
tional category ‘skilled  manual worker’ or  41 % of 
women who state that they have never done paid 
work. This finding could result from a variety of rea-
sons, such as professional women being more alert 
to  what  constitutes  sexual  harassment,  as  well  as 
professional  women’s  exposure  to  work  environ-
ments  and  situations  where  they  are  at  enhanced 
risk of abuse.

 ► In most cases of sexual harassment since a woman 
was 15 years old (68 %), the perpetrator was some-
body she did not know. Other perpetrators of sex-
ual  harassment  include  people  whom  the  woman 
knows (without specifying it further) (35 %), some-
one  related  to  a  woman’s  employment  such  as  a 
colleague, boss or customer (32 %), or a friend or 
an acquaintance (31 %).

 ► Out of all women who described the most serious 
incident  of  sexual  harassment  that  has  happened 
to them, 35 % kept the incident to themselves and 
did not speak about it to anyone, 28 % talked to a 
friend, 24 % spoke to a family member or a relative 
and 14 % informed their partner. Only 4 % reported 
the incident to the police, 4 % talked to an employer 
or boss at their workplace, and less than 1 % con-
sulted a lawyer, a victim support organisation or a 
trade union representative.

Figure 5:  Forms of sexual cyberharassment since the age of 15 and in the 12 months before the survey, 

by age groups (%)a

20

25 %

20 %

15 %

10 %

5 %

0 %

13

11

11

6

5

6

3

3

2

11

5

18–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

60+

Total

Since the age of 15

In the last 12 months

Notes:  a   Out of all women excluding cases where the answer to the questions on cyberharassment was not applicable (n = 35,820);  

6,084 respondents answered ‘‘not applicable’ on both items; information on age was missing for 98 cases).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

30

What do the results show? 

2.6.  Childhood experiences 

of violence

 ► Overall, considering physical, sexual and psychologi-
cal violence, 35 % of women indicate that they have 
experienced at least one of the three forms of vio-
lence before the age of 15 by an adult perpetrator.

 ► Prevalence of sexual violence:  

Of  all  women  surveyed,  12%  of  women  indicate 
that  they  experienced  some  form  of  sexual  abuse 
or  incident  by  an  adult  before  the  age  of  15.  This 
corresponds  to  about  21  million  women  in  the  EU 
(Table 7).

Box 5:  What the survey asked – 
childhood experience of 
sexual violence

Before the age of 15 how often did an adult who 
was 18 years or over the following to you, when 
you did not want them to:
• Expose their genitals to you?
• Make you pose naked in front of any person or 
in photographs, video or an internet webcam?

• Touch your genitals or breasts against your 

will?

• Forced you to have sexual intercourse?

 ► Prevalence of physical violence: 

On  average,  27  %  of  women  have  experienced 
physical violence by an adult in childhood – that is, 
before they were 15 years of age.

 ► Prevalence of psychological violence: 

Some 10 % of women indicate that they have expe-
rienced some form of psychological violence by an 
adult family member.

Box 6:  What the survey asked –  
childhood experience of 
physical violence

Before the age of 15 how often did an adult who  
was 18 years or over the following to you:
• Slap or pull you by the hair so that it hurt?
• Hit you very hard so that it hurt?
• Kicked you very hard so that it hurt?
• Beat you very hard with an object like a stick,  

cane or belt?

• Stabbed or cut you with something?
What the survey asked – childhood 
experience of psychological violence
Before the age of 15 how often did an adult family  
member the following to you:
• Said, that you were not loved?
• Said, that they wished you had never been born?
• Threatened to abandon you or throw you out of 

the family home?

• Any adult: threatened to hurt you badly or 

kill you?

Table 7:  Childhood experience of any violence before the age of 15, by adult perpetrators (%)a,b

EU 
Member 
State

Physical 
violence

Sexual 
violence

Any physical 
or sexual violence

Psychological violence 
by a family member

Any physical, sexual 
or psychological 
violence

AT

BE

BG

CY

CZ

DE

DK

EE

EL

ES

FI

FR

HR

27

14

28

10

30

37

36

43

20

21

46

33

28

 5

14

 3

 4

 3

13

13

10

 5

11

11

20

 2

30

25

29

12

32

42

42

48

23

28

51

44

30

 9

11

 5

 5

 8

13

12

 9

 7

 6

10

14

 5

31

30

30

15

34

44

46

50

25

30

53

47

31

31

 
 
 
Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

EU 
Member 
State

Physical 
violence

Sexual 
violence

Any physical 
or sexual violence

Psychological violence 
by a family member

Any physical, sexual 
or psychological 
violence

HU

IE

IT

LT

LU

LV

MT

NL

PL

PT

RO

SE

SI

SK

UK

EU-28

20

21

25

15

35

30

16

16

14

24

23

33

 8

33

25

27

 5

 9

11

 6

15

 7

10

20

 4

 3

(1)

15

 6

 4

18

12

24

26

31

18

43

33

21

30

17

25

23

41

12

34

36

33

 8

 5

 9

 8

13

 8

 4

14

 5

 5

 4

12

 7

 8

11

10

27

27

33

20

44

34

23

35

18

27

24

44

16

36

40

35

Notes:  a   Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable, so observations based on fewer than 30 responses are put 

in brackets and observations based on fewer than five responses are suppressed (denoted with ‘-’).

b   Multiple response possible – at least one incidence of physical or sexual or psychological violence occurred (N = 42,002).

Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Details on the perpetrators of violence 
in childhood

Relationship between violence in childhood 
and later experiences

 ► Perpetrators  of  physical  violence 

in  childhood 
mainly came from within the family. More than half 
of the women who have experienced some form of 
physical violence before the age of 15 identify their 
father  as  a  perpetrator  (55  %),  and  almost  half  of 
women name the mother as a perpetrator (46 %) 
(women could indicate one or more perpetrators).

 ► Close  to  one  third  (30  %)  of  women  who  experi-
enced  sexual  victimisation  in  a  former  or  current 
relationship indicate experiences of sexual violence 
in childhood, compared with 10 % of women who 
have  not  experienced  sexual  victimisation  in  their 
current  or  former  relationship  indicating  experi-
ences of sexual violence in childhood (Figure 6).

 ► Almost all (97 %) perpetrators of sexual violence in 
childhood are men. Every second woman who was 
a victim of sexual violence in childhood states that 
the perpetrator was a man she did not know before.

Forms of physical violence

 ► Some  22  %  of  all  women  surveyed  say  that  an 
adult, aged 18 years or over, “slapped or pulled her 
hair so that it hurt”. The majority of women states 
that  this  happened  more  than  once  (16  %  of  the 
total surveyed).

Forms of psychological violence

 ► One  in  10  women  (10  %)  refers  to  forms  of  psy-
chological victimisation in childhood within the fam-
ily; 6 % of women remember having been told they 
were not loved. This was the most common form of 
psychological violence out of those included in the 
survey (see Box 6).

Children’s exposure to violence 
in the family

 ► Overall, 73 % of women who have been victims of 
violent incidents by their previous or current partner 
indicate that children living with them were aware 
of the violence.

32

 
What do the results show? 

Figure 6:  Relationship between physical and sexual violence before the age of 15 and experiences of 

physical and sexual violence by a partner later in life (%)a

Experienced any form
of physical violence
by any partner
(current and/or previous)
since the age of 15

Yes

No

Experienced any form
of sexual violence
by any partner
(current and/or previous)
since the age of 15

Yes

No

Experienced physical violence before the age of 15 in %

Never

Once

More than once

57

7

35

77

5

18

Experienced sexual violence before the age of 15 in %

Never

Once

More than once

69

12

18

90

6

4

Note: 
Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

a  Out of all women (N = 42,002).

2.7.  Fear of victimisation 

and its effect

 ► Women  who  have  heightened  levels  of  fear  of 
assault  tend  to  have  also  experienced  physical  or 
sexual violence in their lives.

 ► One  in  five  women  (21  %)  has  worried  (at  least) 
sometimes  in  the  12  months  before  the  interview 
about the possibility of being physically or sexually 
assaulted by someone.

 ► Women were most worried about a possible assault 
by strangers – 15 % of women have worried about 
this at least sometimes in the 12 months before the 
interview.

 ► Of  all  women  surveyed,  7  %  indicate  they  have 
worried  about  the  possibility  of  physical  or  sex-
ual assault by a previous partner in the 12 months 
before the interview.

 ► Slightly  more  than  half  of  all  women  in  the  EU 
(53  %)  avoid  certain  situations  or  places,  at  least 
sometimes,  for  fear  of  being  physically  or  sexu-
ally  assaulted  (Table  8).  In  comparison,  as  shown 
by existing general population surveys on crime and 
victimisation, men’s fear of crime, and its impact on 
their lives, is generally lower than women’s.

 ► Across  the  28  EU  Member  States,  8  %  of  women 
say that in the 12 months before the interview they 
have,  at  least  sometimes,  carried  something  for 
self-defence purposes.

 ► Younger  women  worry  more  than  older  women 
about  physical  or  sexual  assault  in  public  places, 
and they are more worried than older women about 
assault by strangers.

2.8.  Attitudes and awareness

When  looking  at  the  survey  results,  consideration 
needs to be given to the possibility that in societies in 
which intimate partner violence is considered largely a 
private matter, incidents of violence against women are 
unlikely to be shared with family and friends, and are 
also rarely reported to the police.

 ► Eight in 10 women (78 %) in the EU think that vio-
lence against women is very common or fairly com-
mon in their country (Figure 7); Figure 8 shows the 
breakdown by EU Member State.

33

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

Table 8:  Women who have avoided at least sometimesa certain places or situations in the 12 months before 

the survey for fear of being physically or sexually assaulted

Public domain

Avoided leaving your home on your own

Avoided taking certain streets or going to certain areas

Avoided going to places where there are no other people

Private domain

Avoided opening your door when home alone

Avoided going home because of what might happen there

Avoided being alone with a colleague or boss at work

At least one of the above

nb

41,812

41,818

41,751

nb

41,822

41,664

23,647

%

14

37

40

%

31

 4

 3

53

Notes:  a   Includes women who say that they avoid the situations or places ‘sometimes’, ‘often’ or ‘all the time’.

b   Based on all respondents, excluding those who declined to answer. For category ‘Avoided being alone with a colleague or boss at 
work’ the results are based on all respondents for whom the question was applicable (that is, who has been working in the past 
12 months in a job involving colleagues or a boss).
Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

Figure 7:  Women’s overall perception on the frequency of violence against women (%)a,b,c

27

32

51

51

FRA survey 2012

Eurobarometer 2010

Very common

Fairly common

Not very common

Not at all common

Don’t know

16

12

1

1

5

4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Notes:  a   FRA survey, out of all respondents (N = 42,002).

b   Special Eurobarometer 344 (2010), out of all female respondents (n = 13,853).
c   The wording of the FRA survey question refers to ‘violence against women by partners, acquaintances or strangers’, while the question 

in Special Eurobarometer 344 asked about ‘domestic violence against women’.

Sources: FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012; Special EB Domestic violence against women data set, 2010

 ► On  average,  39  %  of  women  in  the  EU  indicate 
that  they  know  of  other  women  who  are  victims 
of  ‘domestic  violence’  in  their  circle  of  friends  and 
family. More than one in five women (22 %) know 
someone at their current or previous place of work 
or studies who has been a victim of intimate part-
ner violence.

specific  legislation  on  domestic  violence  in  their 
country  of  residence  or  that  they  do  not  know  if 
there is (Figure 9).

 ► On  average,  almost  one  in  five  women  (19  %)  in 
the EU is not aware of any of the support services 
for victims of violence against women in their coun-
try that were listed in the questionnaire.

 ► On  average,  every  second  woman  in  the  EU  is 
aware  of  existing  legislation  concerning  protec-
tion  and  prevention  of  domestic  violence.  Half  of 
the  women  surveyed  state  either  that  there  is  no 

 ► Every  second  woman  in  the  EU,  on  average,  has 
recently  seen  or  heard  campaigns  addressing  vio-
lence against women.

34

 
 
 
What do the results show? 

 ► Close  to  nine  in  10  women  (87  %)  would  support 
the  practice  whereby  doctors  routinely  ask  about 
violence  when  they  see  women  with  certain  inju-
ries in their practice.

Figure 8:  Women’s perception of the frequency of violence against women, by EU Member State (%)a

9

11

11

11

15

16

17

18

19

19

20

22

24

25

26

26

27

27

27

29

31

31

32

33

33

35

35

39

FI

EE

DK

CZ

SK

PL

LU

HU

EL

DE

AT

BG

SE

NL

BE

CY

EU-28

LV

SI

RO

FR

ES

LT

MT

IE

IT

UK

HR

PT

55

51

50

43

53

45

51

50

48

53

48

38

57

59

60

32

24

33

35

21

25

4

19

24

26

23

24

18

6

2

13

2 3

6

7

8

3

9

11

5

2

4

5

3

2

7

15

16

39

26

51

47

49

48

59

53

51

50

56

46

42

55

9

4 3

9

3

3

6

16

1 5

14

14

10

10

9

12

9

11

10

7

8

3

3

9

13

8

4

8

8

6

7

60

33

3 3

Very common

Fairly common

Not very common

Not at all common

Don't know

Note: 
Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

a   Out of all respondents (N = 42,002).

35

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

Figure 9:  Level of awareness of specific laws or political initiatives in the EU-28 (%)a

Yes

No

Don't know

15

13

49

59

36

28

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Prevention: laws or initiatives for preventing domestic violence against women

Protection: laws or initiatives for protecting women in cases of domestic violence

Note: 
Source:  FRA gender-based violence against women survey data set, 2012

a   Out of all respondents (N = 42,002).

36

Ways forward

The  survey  presents  the  EU  and  its  Member  States 
with the most comprehensive EU-wide dataset on vio-
lence against women, which can serve to inform policy 
responses and action on the ground.

The  FRA  survey  findings  show  that  violence  against 
women  is  an  extensive  but  widely  under-reported 
human rights abuse across the EU. FRA has formulated 
a series of opinions that are outlined at the beginning 
of this report. They are presented in more detail at the 
end  of  each  chapter  in  a  separate  main  results  report 
accompanying the survey. These opinions aim to sup-
port EU and national policy makers, where relevant, to 
introduce  and  implement  comprehensive  measures  to 
prevent and respond to gender-based violence against 
women.

General considerations can be summarised as follows. 
They  give  possible  ‘ways  forward’  for  responding  to 
violence against women and can be taken into account 
when looking at the survey results.

 ■ Future  EU  strategies  on  equality  between  women 
and  men  could  build  on  the  survey’s  findings  to 
address  key  areas  of  concern  with  respect  to 
women’s  experiences  of  violence.  Examples  could 
include new or newly recognised forms of violence 
against women, such as stalking or abuse through 
the medium of new technologies, as well as aspects 
of  violence  that  are  under-reported  by  women  to 
the police and victim support organisations.

 ■ Given the scale of violence against women reported 
in the survey, the EU’s post-Stockholm Programme 
landscape  in  the  field  of  justice  and  home  affairs 
should  ensure  that  violence  against  women  is 
acknowledged  and  addressed  as  a  fundamen-
tal  rights  abuse  within  the  framework  of  the  EU’s 
responses to crime and criminal victimisation.

 ■ The EU Victims’ Directive applies to all crime victims 
and makes reference specifically to victims of gen-
der-based violence alongside other vulnerable vic-
tims. It provides a solid base on which to build tar-
geted responses, at the Member State level, to meet 
the  needs  of  women  as  victims  of  violence  with 
respect to victim support and criminal justice inter-
ventions.  As  part  of  the  review  of  the  implemen-
tation of the directive undertaken by the European 
Commission, a component could assess whether the 
directive meets – in practice – the needs and rights 
of women who are victims of violence.

 ■ The  EU  should  explore  the  possibility  of  accession 
to  the  Council  of  Europe’s  Convention  on  prevent-
ing  and  combating  violence  against  women  and 
domestic  violence  (Istanbul  Convention).  At  pres-
ent,  it  is  the  most  comprehensive  regional  instru-
ment addressing violence against women. The FRA 
survey results can also support EU Member States in 
ratifying the convention.

 ■ EU  Member  States  are  encouraged  to  develop 
specific  national  action  plans  on  violence  against 
women,  which  should  use  the  results  of  the  sur-
vey  in  the  absence  of  data  at  the  national  level. 
Civil  society  actors  working  with  women  who  are 
victims of violence can usefully be involved in the 
development  of  action  plans  to  help  ensure  that 
these  can  deliver  practical  results  for  victims  and 
are sustainable.

 ■ EU  policy  in  the  fields  of  employment,  education, 
health,  and  information  and  communication  tech-
nology  should  address  the  impact  of  violence 
against women in their respective fields. This should 
be  reflected  at  the  Member  State  level  in  specific 
policy  interventions  and  national  action  plans  that 
address these different fields.

 ■ The  EU  should  ensure  that  funding  mechanisms 
that  continue  the  work  of  DAPHNE  and  other  pro-
grammes, which variously contribute to the protec-
tion of children, young people and women against 
all forms of violence, can be used to further support 
research  and  work  by  civil  society  organisations 
addressing  violence  against  women.  In  particu-
lar, funding is needed for the work of targeted vic-
tim support services in the field of violence against 
women.

 ■ A  victim-centred  and  rights-centred  approach  to 
women  as  victims  of  violence  needs  to  be  rein-
forced  at  the  EU  and  Member  State  level.  Positive 
examples have emerged in recent years in a num-
ber of Member States that recognise ‘domestic’ or 
‘intimate  partner’  violence  as  a  matter  for  state 
intervention rather than a private matter.

 ■ The EU and Member States could signify their com-
mitment to the collection of data, on a regular basis, 
on different forms of violence against women. This 
can  provide  evidence  for  the  development  of  pol-
icy  responses  and  action  on  the  ground.  This  pro-
cess could be supported by Eurostat and its relevant 

37

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey – Results at a glance

expert  groups,  and  could  be  used  to  feed  data  to 
the  specific  monitoring  bodies  of  the  UN  and  the 
Council of Europe, as well as the European Institute 
for Gender Equality.

 ▪ EU  and  Member  State  policies  and  national  action 
plans  to  combat  violence  against  women  must  be 
developed  on  the  basis  of  evidence  that  draws 
directly from women’s experiences of violence. Data 

on  women’s  experiences  of  violence  should  be  col-
lected in addition to administrative and criminal jus-
tice data, which do not capture the majority of unre-
ported  victimisation.  The  EU  and  Member  States 
should  promote  and  fund  surveys  in  a  concerted 
effort  to  uncover  information  on  the  extent  and 
nature  of  violence  experienced  by  women.  These 
surveys can be repeated every few years to measure 
developments over time.

38

The survey in a nutshell

The survey in a nutshell

The FRA survey on violence against women – based on 
face-to-face  interviews  with  42,000  women  –  is  the 
most  comprehensive  survey  to  date  in  the  European 
Union,  and  worldwide,  on  women’s  experiences  of 
violence.

Given  that  official  data  collection  mechanisms  do  not 
reflect  the  real  extent  and  nature  of  violence  against 
women,  various  international  and  national  bodies 
and  organisations  have  repeatedly  called  for  the  col-
lection  of  data  on  this  specific  human  rights  abuse. 
With the publication of the results from the FRA’s sur-
vey, the EU and its Member States have – for the first 
time – EU-wide comparable data on which to formulate 
policies  and  take  concrete  action  to  address  violence 
against women.

Why did FRA undertake 
a survey on violence against 
women?

FRA  developed  the  survey  following  a  request  by  the 
Spanish Council Presidency of the EU in 2010, and also 
by the European Parliament, to collect comparable data 
on gender-based violence against women.

Who took part in the survey?

In each EU Member State, a minimum of 1,500 women 
took  part  in  the  survey  –  from  1,500  interviewees  in 
Estonia  to  1,620  in  the  Czech  Republic  –  with  the 
exception  of  Luxembourg,  where  908  women  were 
interviewed.

The survey targeted the general population of women 
aged 18–74 years who live in the EU and speak at least 
one  of  the  official  languages  of  their  country  of  resi-
dence.  All  respondents  were  selected  randomly  and 
the  survey  results  are  representative  at  both  EU  and 
national level.

How was the survey 
developed and conducted?
FRA  consulted  with  key  policy  makers,  practitioners, 
researchers  and  survey  experts  on  the  design  of  the 
survey and the issues to be covered.

Draft  survey  questions  were  tested  in  six  EU  Member 
States:  Finland,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  Poland  and 

Spain. The results of the pretest informed the develop-
ment of the final survey questionnaire for the survey in 
all 28 EU Member States.

All  interviews  were  conducted  face  to  face  by  female 
interviewers in interviewees’ homes. A standard ques-
tionnaire was used, which was developed by FRA build-
ing on established survey instruments, and which was 
translated  into  the  main  languages  used  in  the  EU 
Member States. Questionnaires were filled out by inter-
viewers using either pen and paper interviewing (PAPI) 
or  computer  assisted  personal  interviewing  (CAPI), 
whereby interviewers use laptops to fill out the ques-
tionnaire. The interviews took place between April and 
September 2012.

The  fieldwork  was  managed  by  Ipsos  MORI,  a  large 
international  survey  company,  working  in  partnership 
with HEUNI (the European Institute for Crime Prevention 
and Control, which is affiliated with the United Nations) 
and UNICRI (the United Nations Interregional Crime and 
Justice  Research  Institute).  The  project  was  under  the 
overall management of FRA staff.

What did the survey ask?

The survey covered women’s personal experiences of 
physical and sexual violence, psychological partner vio-
lence, sexual harassment and stalking. Most questions 
referred  to  women’s  experiences  since  the  age  of  15, 
but  the  survey  questionnaire  also  included  a  set  of 
questions on women’s experiences of violence in child-
hood – before the age of 15 – in cases where adult per-
petrators were involved. The survey also included ques-
tions  on  women’s  opinions  and  perceptions  regarding 
violence against women and domestic violence.

The  survey  questions  addressed  incidents  of  violence 
by  partners  and  by  other  perpetrators.  Women  were 
also  asked  a  number  of  background  questions  about 
their  age,  education  and  employment  situation  (for 
example), which can be used to analyse in more detail 
the correlates and risk factors of victimisation.

All women were asked the same questions in the sur-
vey, translated into Member States’ languages.

For  more  details  about  the  development  and  mon-
itoring  of  the  fieldwork,  see  the  full  survey  technical 
report  at:  http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/
vaw-survey-technical-report.

39

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights

Violence against women: an EU-wide survey  
Results at a glance

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union

2014 — 39 pp. — 21 × 29.7 cm

ISBN 978-92-9239-379-3 
doi:10.2811/60683

A great deal of information on the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights is available on the internet.  
It can be accessed through the FRA website at fra.europa.eu.

HOW TO OBTAIN EU PUBLICATIONS

Free publications:
•  one copy:  

via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu);

•  more than one copy or posters/maps:  

from the European Union’s representations (http://ec.europa.eu/represent_en.htm);  
from the delegations in non-EU countries (http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/index_en.htm);  
by contacting the Europe Direct service (http://europa.eu/europedirect/index_en.htm) or  
calling 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (freephone number from anywhere in the EU) (*).

(*)  The information given is free, as are most calls (though some operators, phone boxes or hotels may charge you).

Priced publications:
•  via EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu).

Priced subscriptions:
•  via one of the sales agents of the Publications Office of the European Union (http://publications.europa.

eu/others/agents/index_en.htm).

T
K
-
0
2
-
1
3
-
7
9
2
-
E
N
-
2

d
o

.

i
:
1
0
2
8
1
1
/
6
0
6
8
3

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

HELPING TO MAKE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS A REALITY FOR EVERYONE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

Violence  against  women  undermines  women’s  core  fundamental  rights  such  as  dignity,  access  to  justice  and  gender 
equality.  For  example,  one  in  three  women  has  experienced  physical  and/or  sexual  violence  since  the  age  of  15;  one 
in five women has experienced stalking; every second woman has been confronted with one or more forms of sexual 
harassment. What emerges is a picture of extensive abuse that affects many women’s lives but is systematically under-
reported  to  the  authorities.  The  scale  of  violence  against  women  is  therefore  not  reflected  by  official  data.  This  FRA 
survey  is  the  first  of  its  kind  on  violence  against  women  across  the  28  Member  States  of  the  European  Union.  It  is 
based on interviews with 42,000 women across the EU, who were asked about their experiences of physical, sexual and 
psychological  violence,  including  incidents  of  intimate  partner  violence  (‘domestic  violence’).  The  survey  also  included 
questions on stalking, sexual harassment, and the role played by new technologies in women’s experiences of abuse. In 
addition, it asked about their experiences of violence in childhood. Based on the detailed findings, FRA suggests courses 
of action in different areas that are touched by violence against women and go beyond the narrow confines of criminal 
law, ranging from employment and health to the medium of new technologies.

FRA – EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Schwarzenbergplatz 11 – 1040 Vienna – Austria
Tel.: +43 158030-0 – Fax: +43 158030-699
fra.europa.eu – info@fra.europa.eu
facebook.com/fundamentalrights
linkedin.com/company/eu-fundamental-rights-agency
twitter.com/EURightsAgency