COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS THE URBAN DIMENSION OF EU POLICIES – KEY FEATURES OF AN EU URBAN AGENDA
Date: 2014-07-18
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU policy, European cooperation, economic and social cohesion, sustainable development, urban area













EUR-Lex - 52014DC0490 - EN











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52014DC0490

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS THE URBAN DIMENSION OF EU POLICIES – KEY FEATURES OF AN EU URBAN AGENDA /* COM/2014/0490 final */









The urban dimension of EU policies
– key features of an EU urban agenda
Communication to the Council, EP, CoR,
EESC
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 3
1..................... Challenges and potential of an urban Europe........... 3
1.1.................. An urbanised EU with cities driving growth and resource efficiency........ 3
1.2.................. Sub-optimal performance and persistent challenges in European cities...... 4
1.3.................. A fragmented urban system......................................................................... 5
2..................... Urban policy in Europe................................................................ 5
2.1.................. National urban policies................................................................................ 5
2.2.................. Intergovernmental cooperation on urban development............................... 6
2.3.................. A shared understanding of urban development in Europe.......................... 6
2.4.................. EU urban policy today................................................................................. 7
2.5.................. Urban potential can be better used.............................................................. 7
3..................... Calls for an EU urban agenda................................................ 8
3.1.................. A long recognised need an EU urban agenda............................................. 8
3.2.................. Renewed calls for an EU urban agenda...................................................... 8
4..................... The global dimension of urban development............... 9
5..................... Taking the reflections on an EU urban agenda forward   9
5.1.................. Why do we need an EU urban agenda?.................................................... 10
5.2.................. What should the EU urban agenda be?..................................................... 10
5.3.................. Defining the scope and focus.................................................................... 11
5.4.................. Strengthening cities’ engagement and ownership of EU policies............. 11
5.5.................. Better understanding of urban development processes............................. 11
5.6.................. Ensuring the implementation of the EU urban agenda.............................. 12

Introduction

Europe continues to
be faced with challenges related to the economy, the climate, the environment,
and society at large. Most of these challenges have a strong urban dimension;
they either manifest themselves mainly in and around cities - e.g., poverty,
social and spatial segregation; environmental degradation - or find their
solutions in and through cities – e.g.; resource efficiency and CO2
neutral economy; economic development and innovation; social innovation and
integration.
Although cities’ role for economic,
social and cultural development, and their potential for a more resource
efficient habitat, have long been recognised, the policy response at European
and national level has been slow and piecemeal, with many but poorly integrated
sectoral initiatives. A growing number of voices argue that cities need to be adequately
involved in the conception and implementation of EU policies, and that EU
policies need to be better adapted to the urban realities where they will be
implemented. This is expressed by calls for an EU urban agenda coming from a
range of stakeholders at the EU, national and local level. As a response to
these calls the European Commission organised a CITIES Forum[1] to initiate a debate on
the need for an EU urban agenda.
Following the CITIES Forum, Member States
discussed the necessity to develop an
EU Urban Agenda, recognising the
demand and expectations from the European Parliament, the Committee of the
Regions, city associations and cities themselves, and their readiness to engage
in the process. It was suggested that such an agenda
should be taken forward with input from the local, regional, national and EU
levels.[2]

The purpose of this communication is to
widen debate to all stakeholders. Building on the results of the CITIES forum
it proposes a set of questions for consultation aimed at further clarifying the
need for an EU urban agenda, what its objectives should be and how it could
function. The opinions and suggestions from stakeholders and competent
authorities at the national, regional and local level will be an important
input to the new Commission and the new European Parliament, not least in
relation to the future development of the Europe 2020 strategy[3]. 
This communication sets out current urban situation in the EU (section
1); where Europe stand today in terms of urban policy and (section 2); the
calls for an EU urban agenda (section 3); the global dimension of urban
development (section 4); and the potential ways forward with questions for
consultation (section 5). 

1.                                         
Challenges and potential of an urban Europe
1.1.                                   
An urbanised EU with cities driving growth and
resource efficiency

Today, approximately 359 million people -
72 % of the total EU population - live in cities, towns and suburbs. Although
the speed of transformation has slowed down, the share of the urban population
continues to grow, and is likely to reach more than 80% by 2050[4]. 
The concentration of consumers, workers and
businesses in a place or area, together with the formal and informal
institutions that are found in cities, makes urban areas more than just centres
of population. They are the centres of activity of all kinds, and in particular
economic activity. Sixty-seven per cent of Europe’s GDP is generated
in metropolitan regions, while their population represents only
fifty-nine per cent of the total European population. A comparison of
European cities’ economic performance indicates that the major cities are
doing better than the rest,[5]and
capitals and larger metropolitan regions have performed better during the
economic crisis than smaller metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions[6]. Small and medium-sized
cities, however, form the backbone of Europe's territory and have an important
role to play for territorial development and cohesion.
Cities are also where a number of global challenges
can best be tackled. Cities are for instance ideally placed to contribute to
the reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions as the density
of urban areas allows for more energy efficient forms of housing and transport.


1.2.                                   
Sub-optimal performance and persistent
challenges in European cities

A concentration of population and activities
is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for high growth. There is a marked
difference in performance between capital and non-capital cities. There is also
a big difference between western and eastern non-capital cities that cannot be
explained by size alone. Even comparably sized cities, with similar industrial
structures within the same Member State, show significant variations in terms
of economic and social performance.[7]

Despite cities' potential for driving
growth, the highest unemployment rates are found in cities. With globalisation,
the recent crisis and a drop in manufacturing, many cities have experienced a
de-skilling of the workforce, and an increase of low-skilled service sector
jobs and working poor. The share of the population at risk of poverty has
increased.[8]
Many cities face a significant increase in social exclusion, segregation and
polarisation. 
The resource efficiency gains made possible
by compact urban settlements are being undermined by uncontrolled urban sprawl that
puts public services under pressure and reduces territorial cohesion. Walking,
cycling and public transport are not a sufficiently developed alternative to
cars in many cities, resulting in congestion, bad air quality and high energy
use. The rapid urbanisation leading to the big concentration
of population and economic investments in risk prone areas is also a trend that
increases significantly the cities' vulnerability to natural and man-made
disasters.
Many European cities also suffer from an
insufficient capacity to engage in and achieve (needed) structural change. The
economic crisis has significantly weakened many cities, increasing the
challenges that have to be addressed with fewer resources. Many secondary
cities, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, are experiencing complex
shrinkage, with both demographic and economic decline, which can induce a
negative spiral of declining local tax revenues, lower demand for goods and
services, loss of jobs, reduced supply of labour and lower investment, and an
overall loss of attractiveness.[9]
In economically stagnating cities, inner cities have been deserted in favour of
sprawling suburbs.

1.3.                                   
A fragmented urban system

Europe is characterised by more polycentric
and less concentrated urban structures than the USA or China. It has two large urban agglomerations (Paris and London); a considerable number of
large city regions; dense networks of small and medium-sized cities; and areas
with very few urban centres. Its urban structure can be described as a combination
of major urban centres and polycentric urban structures, and dispersed
urbanisation. The emergence of polycentric (mega)-city-regions, which are webs
of medium and small cities without a real functional and political base, is a
growing phenomenon in Europe.[10]
The growing mismatch between administrative and urban structures reduces
cohesion and impairs competitiveness due to inadequate governance and
infrastructures.[11]


2.                                         
Urban policy in Europe 
2.1.                                   
National urban policies

Urban policies vary greatly between Member States
and only a few have dedicated ministries and ministers for urban affairs. Urban
policy is often the implicit result of urban and spatial planning laws and the
combined intervention of sectoral policies, rather than a domain that is given
political and strategic direction. 
The manner in which cities are governed,
their autonomy, empowerment and involvement in national policy also varies
greatly across the Member States: the numbers of administrative tiers or
government levels range from two to four, and the average population size of
the lowest tier (communes or municipalities) ranges from less than 2 000
to over 150 000. In some countries additional intermediary structures,
such as groupings of first-tier government, have been set up to facilitate
joint planning and action around strategic issues or joint infrastructure.[12]
Empowerment of cities within national
government systems in terms of  political autonomy and
control over budget and local taxation also varies
greatly. In some countries,
(major) cities are given a specific status that brings additional resources and
responsibilities[13].
Many Member States have undergone a decentralisation trend during the last
thirty years, even if this process is not always accompanied with a
corresponding increase in resources. 

2.2.                                   
Intergovernmental cooperation on urban
development

Member States cooperate on urban
development on an intergovernmental basis, with the Presidency of the Council
organising and chairing meetings. The outcome of the intergovernmental
cooperation consists principally of documents adopted during informal
Ministerial meetings, such as the Leipzig Charter[14] and the Toledo
Declaration[15].
However, as there is no formal Council formation dedicated to urban policy and
the engagement of different Member States has varied over time, the impact of
the intergovernmental cooperation on EU and national policies has also been varied.


2.3.                                   
A shared understanding of urban development in
Europe

In terms of aims, objectives, and values,
there is an explicit agreement at European level on the character of the
European city of the future and the principles on which an ideal European city
should be based. These principles can be found in the objectives of the Treaty,
in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, in the European
Social Model. There is also a consensus among the ministers responsible for
urban development on more specific city objectives and values - as reflected in
the Leipzig Charter[16]
– as well as how these objectives should be attained and the instrumental
role cities can play in implementing Europe 2020 as expressed in the Toledo Declaration.
The same goes for the principles of urban development in the European territory
as expressed in the Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020 (TA2020)[17]. 
EU cohesion policy, through the URBAN
Community Initiatives[18]
and the subsequent mainstreaming of integrated sustainable urban development
into regional and national operational programmes[19], has fed the
intergovernmental process with practical experience. Together they form what is
known as the ‘Urban Acquis'. 
Cities of Tomorrow[20] synthesises
the principles of the European sustainable urban development model drawing
upon the Treaty on the Functioning of the European union, the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the European Social Model, the
Leipzig Charter, the Toledo Declaration and the Territorial Agenda of the
European Union 2020.
European cities
should be
ü 
places
of advanced social progress;
ü 
platforms
for democracy, cultural dialogue and diversity;
ü 
places
of green, ecological or environmental regeneration; and
ü 
places
of attraction and engines of economic growth.
European
urban territorial development should
ü 
reflect
a sustainable development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and
balanced territorial organisation with a polycentric urban structure;
ü 
contain
strong regional centres that provide good accessibility to services of general
economic interest;
ü 
be
characterised by a compact settlement structure with limited urban sprawl; and
ü 
enjoy
a high level of protection and quality of environment around cities.

2.4.                                   
EU urban policy today

The European Commission’s Directorate
General for Regional Policy was renamed "Regional and Urban Policy" in
2012. This was in recognition of the fact that cities must play their full part
in the economic, social and territorial development of the EU, as well as an
acknowledgement of a strong urban dimension in EU policies, not least in
regional policy. At least an estimated 50% of the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF), around 80-90 billion Euro, will be invested in urban areas through
the mainstream operational programmes in the 2014-20 financial period, and a minimum
5% of national allocations of ERDF have been earmarked for integrated
sustainable urban development to ensure that it is a priority in all Member
States. City networking and exchange will continue to be promoted by the next
generation URBACT[21]
programme. 
But urban development is not only supported
through EU regional policy and structural funds. An increasing number of sectoral
EU policies explicitly target urban areas: Energy, Information Society,
Environment, Climate Action, Education and Culture, Transport, etc. support
initiatives such as European Capital of Culture, Smart Cities and Communities
European Innovation Partnership, Green Capital Award, Covenant of Mayors and
Mayors Adapt. Many other EU initiatives and directives implicitly target urban
areas, e.g., noise and air quality directives, migration policies, measures to
reduce congestion, etc., which although not urban per se, chiefly concern urban
areas or are implemented by cities[22]. 

2.5.                                   
Urban potential can
be better used 

Cities play a key role
in implementing EU policies, including the Europe 2020 strategy. But current
policy making practice at both national and EU level do not always fully
exploit expertise available at city level, or recognise the essential role that
local authorities can play in delivering on policy objectives set at other
levels of governance.
Although cities are
gaining recognition as key players and the urban dimension is gaining
visibility, the situation remains problematic. Multi-level governance is not
always functioning well and integration of policies across sectors and
administrative borders is difficult to achieve. The strong sectoral focus of
policy objectives reduces the opportunity for synergies between sectors and
weakens ownership by the cities themselves. Compartmentalised policymaking is
entrenched at all governance levels and is hard to break as objectives and
targets, as well as indicators to measure results, also tend to be sectoral.
Insufficient coordination between different areas of sectoral legislation and
layers of governance (local, regional and national) can make it difficult for
cities to comply with EU directives, e.g., in areas such as air quality.[23]

3.                                         
Calls for an EU urban agenda
3.1.                                   
A long recognised need an EU urban agenda

Already in its 1997 Communication
“Towards an urban agenda in the European Union”[24] the European
Commission argued that new efforts were necessary to strengthen or restore the
role of Europe’s cities as places of social and cultural integration, as
sources of economic prosperity and sustainable development, and as the bases of
democracy. Since then there has been an evolution in terms of the scope of EU
policy interventions in urban areas and urban
development has become a more prominent feature of EU policymaking. In
addition, the Lisbon Treaty has added territorial cohesion to the objectives of
the EU and has strengthened multi-level governance. However,
policy fragmentation persists, the complexity of urban challenges has
increased, and the role of the local level in EU policymaking and
implementation continues to be an issue for debate. This is reflected in the
renewed calls for an EU urban agenda in the recent years.

3.2.                                   
Renewed calls for an EU urban agenda

In 2011 the European Parliament
adopted a resolution arguing for a strengthening of the urban dimension of EU
policies and the intergovernmental co-operation on urban development policies,
calling for a joint working programme or European Urban Agenda. The European
Parliament also stressed the need for a stronger involvement of cities in these
processes. In mid-2013 a group of Member States led by the Netherlands and Belgium made a proposal for an urban agenda in the context of the intergovernmental
cooperation on urban development, which has been taken forward by the
Lithuanian, Greek and Italian Presidencies of the Council.  
In late 2013 the Committee of the
Regions initiated its own initiative opinion entitled "Towards an
integrated urban agenda for the EU". The opinion calls for a new
Integrated Urban Agenda for the EU giving the urban dimension a structural
basis in European policies and legislation. In early 2014 Eurocities argued
for an EU urban agenda to ensure better policy coordination, integration of
urban development objectives in a larger number of policies; better balance
priorities in European investment programmes; strengthen direct dialogue
between cities and the Commission, and give a stronger coordinating role for
the Commissioner for regional policy.
Several stakeholder organisations came
forward after the CITIES Forum with explicit calls through position papers. The
Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR) calls for an EU
urban agenda that should facilitate the access and active involvement of all
types of cities - small, medium-sized and large cities - in the policy
making process, recognise the role of functional regions and the need for
better policy coordination. Energy Cities affirms the need to formulate
and implement an EU Urban Agenda in order to leverage local authorities’
full potential and to place territorial cohesion at the heart of EU policies. 
Ministers responsible for Cohesion policy
met in Athens in April 2014 to discuss an EU urban agenda. The Member States
also recognised the demand and
expectations from a range of stakeholders to develop an EU Urban Agenda and
their readiness to engage in the process. 

4.                                         
The global dimension of urban development

In 2050 it is expected that 67% per cent of
the World population will be urban. Urban areas will gain 2.6 billion and rural
areas will lose 300 million people, and this will take place mainly in the
developing world[25].
This urbanisation has the potential to bring wealth and welfare to large
populations but also risks creating slums and pockets of extreme deprivation,
unsustainable social, environmental and territorial development patterns. It is
vital that this is steered in an as sustainable direction as possible, as these
developments will have global impacts on the economy, the climate and on the
social stability that will also be felt in Europe. 
The growing awareness of the potential of
urban development is reflected in EU external relations, international
cooperation and development aid. In its recent Communication “Empowering
Local Authorities in partner countries for enhanced governance and more
effective development outcomes”[26],
the European Commission underlines the decisive role of local authorities in
urban areas to address development challenges. 
In the negotiations on the post-2015
development agenda urban development has become a key topic. The United Nations
Human Settlement Programme, UN Habitat, has also asked the EU to contribute for
the first time to a global debate on the future of urban development, in a joint
contribution to the HABITAT III conference.[27]
Such a contribution would naturally build on the EU's reflections on an EU
Agenda for its own cities, which would provide a basis for a common
contribution to the international debate. In addition, the on-going
negotiations on a future global climate agreement within the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) show an increasing interest in
urban development and the role of cities.

5.                                         
Taking the reflections on an EU urban agenda
forward

Before taking the urban agenda forward, there
is still need to clearly establish its purpose and rationale, the form it could
take and how it could operate. An EU urban agenda cannot be formulated in a
vacuum but should be fully in line with the EU’s overall objectives and
strategy, particularly the revised Europe 2020 strategy. It should also dovetail
with national policies and national urban agendas. A shared opinion amongst the many stakeholders is that an EU urban agenda has to respect the subsidiarity principle and not
be built on new legislation.

5.1.                                   
Why do we need an EU urban agenda? 

An EU urban agenda could respond to several
objectives. An EU urban agenda could serve to enhance the quality, efficiency
and effectiveness of policies through better coordination of policies,
actors and governance levels and a better understanding of urban
development contexts in the conception and implementation of policies. It could
strengthen cities’ engagement and ownership of EU and national
policymaking and implementation. It could support cities’ capacity
for transition and structural change to ensure viable urban economies and a
socially, environmentally and territorially sustainable development of urban
areas. By being linked to holistic local development objectives it could bring
EU policymaking closer to the citizens. Finally, it could be instrumental
in EU’s development aid policies and be a vehicle to promote global
sustainability issues.
The majority of EU
policies have an urban dimension, directly or indirectly. However, there is a
potential for improvement and a stronger engagement and interaction between the
various governance levels and a stronger focus on urban policy priorities in
national and European policymaking. A key first step in the possible definition
of an EU urban agenda will be to identify where there are shortcomings that need
to be addressed at EU level. 
Q1.       
What
are the main rationales for an EU urban agenda?  Where can EU action bring most
added value? What elements of urban development would benefit from a more
concerted approach between different sectors and levels of governance? 

5.2.                                   
What should the EU urban agenda be?

Those who have contributed to this debate
so far have suggested that the "agenda" might rather imply a new
working method to ensure coherence. Others have proposed that it should take
the form of a strategy with priorities for the long-term and operational
guidelines for the short term. 
An EU urban agenda could focus on a limited
set of major European societal challenges, such as CO2 reduction,
climate adaptation, inclusion or demographic change. Challenges may be
considered that have specific urban relevance and urgency, or for which
cities’ engagement is of prime importance for achieving results. Member States have for instance welcomed the Greek
Presidency’s initiative to promote “Urban Poverty” as a
specific working field for the intergovernmental cooperation’s
contribution to the EU urban agenda. The Covenant of
Mayors has often been cited as a model for engaging cities in delivering EU objectives that could potentially be used
in other areas.
However, a more ambitious EU urban agenda might
seek to provide a framework to bring coherence to a diversity of initiatives
and policies, e.g., by ensuring that sectoral policies and instruments are consistent
and mutually reinforce each other.
Q2.       
Should
an EU urban agenda focus on a limited number of urban challenges? Or, should an
EU urban agenda provide a
general framework to focus attention on the urban dimension of EU policies
across the board, strengthening coordination between sectoral policies, city,
national and EU actors?

5.3.                                   
Defining the scope and focus 

A substantial body of work has already been
undertaken to define a European model of urban development, through the
intergovernmental cooperation on urban development and notably through the
Commission's own reflection process Cities of Tomorrow"[28], which commands a
broad consensus. It would be possible to envisage taking this work further to
define more clearly objectives and task for specific sectors and actors.  
Q3.       
Is
the European model of urban development as expressed in "Cities of
Tomorrow" a sufficient basis to take the work on the EU urban agenda
further?

5.4.                                   
Strengthening cities’ engagement and
ownership of EU policies 

Many city stakeholders and stakeholder
organisations view an EU urban agenda as an instrument to better involve cities
and their political leaders in EU policymaking and policy implementation. Several
issues are at stake; one is to ensure that the concerns of urban stakeholders
are considered in the development of sectoral policy initiatives at EU level. This
could be achieved by better using the already existing tools to engage and
consult stakeholders in the conception of EU policies (such as impact
assessments, stakeholder consultations or evaluations). Some have suggested the
option of a stakeholder platform to assess the coherence and impact of policies
at EU level on urban areas, in particular in relation to the revised Europe
2020. Another aspect is the role cities could play in setting policy objectives
at both national and EU level and to what extent EU and national objectives
reflect the needs at city level. This concerns both the way global objectives
(such as those of Europe 2020) are translated into specific sectoral objectives,
as well as how they are transposed into national policies. 
Q4.       
How
can urban stakeholders better contribute to the policy development and
implementation processes at EU level? Do cities need to be more involved in
policymaking at regional, national and EU level? How?

5.5.                                   
Better understanding of urban development
processes

One aim of an EU urban agenda should be
policy making that better reflects urban realities. Cities are constantly
evolving and good policymaking needs to build on a deeper understanding and a
more effective sharing of knowledge and experience. A range of EU and MS driven
initiatives already exist, such as Horizon 2020, ESPON, URBACT, the Joint
Programming Initiative Urban Europe, the European Urban Knowledge Network
(EUKN), etc. The Commission has worked closely with OECD to develop a
harmonised definition of urban areas, as well as better understanding of
metropolitan dynamics. It also develops geodata to monitor the development of
urban areas. Availability of knowledge and data does not seem to be the major
problem. Rather, it is the use, shared understanding and exchange of knowledge
by policymakers at all governance levels that need strengthening. Also the
coordination of the development of the knowledge base may have scope for
improvement. 
Q5.       
What
are the best ways to support a stronger urban and territorial knowledge base
and exchange of experience? What specific elements of the knowledge base need
to be strengthened in order to better support policymaking?

5.6.                                   
Ensuring the implementation of the EU urban
agenda

The implementation of an EU urban agenda
cannot be done solely at EU level. Many issues are best addressed at local,
regional or national level, and some issues are not within the competences of
the EU. The implementation of an EU urban agenda should also rely on the
interaction between different policy levels and between different policy
sectors. Thought needs to be given as to how the intergovernmental cooperation and
other policy processes can work better together to achieve more impact.
Consideration needs to be given to what roles different players should play at
different governance levels and how interaction and exchange best can be
supported. 
Q6.       
What
should be the roles of the local, regional, national and EU levels in the
definition, development and implementation of an EU urban agenda? 
If you wish to contribute to the debate on
an EU urban agenda, please do so electronically by following the instructions
found here: 
http://ec.europa.eu/eusurvey/runner/pc_eu_urb_agenda
Please note that this consultation will be
open until September 26, 2014.
[1]          http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/conferences/urban2014/index_en.cfm 
[2]       Informal meeting of Ministers
responsible for Cohesion Policy organised by the Hellenic Presidency, Athens, April 24 2014
[3]          "Taking stock of the Europe 2020
strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth". COM(2014) 130 final
[4]        European Commission (JRC, EFGS, DG REGIO)
[5]        ‘State of European Cities Report’, European Commission 2010;
[6]        ‘8th Progress Report on Economic, Social and
Territorial Cohesion’,
European Commission 2013
[7]      http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/studies/pdf/citiesoftomorrow/citiesoftomorrow_economic.pdf
[8]        ‘8th Progress Report on Economic, Social and
Territorial Cohesion’,
European Commission 2013
[9]        "Impact
of the European demographic trends on regional and urban development." Hungarian Presidency of the Council of the European Union, Budapest 2011.
[10]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/conferences/urban2014/doc/presentations/dg_urban_sandrobalducci.pdf 

[11]       "What Makes Cities More
Productive? Evidence on the Role of Urban Governance from Five OECD Countries".
OECD Regional Development Working Papers, 2014/05
[12]       Second
‘State of European Cities Report’, European Commission 2010
[13]        Ibid.
[14]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/themes/urban/leipzig_charter.pdf
[15]       http://www.eukn.org/dsresource?objectid=165782  
[16]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/themes/urban/leipzig_charter.pdf
[17]       http://www.eu-territorial-agenda.eu/Reference%20Documents/Final%20TA2020.pdf 
[18]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/urban2/index_en.htm 
[19]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/2007/working/urban_dimension_en.pdf
[20]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/conferences/citiesoftomorrow/index_en.cfm 
[21]       http://urbact.eu/ 
[22]       http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/urban/portal/index_en.cfm 
[23]       http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-implementation-pilot-2013 
[24]       “Towards an urban agenda in
the European Union”, COM(97)197 final
[25]       World Urbanization Prospects:
The 2011 Revision’, United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs/Population Division, New York 2012
[26]       COM(2013) 280 final
[27]       http://mirror.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=831  
[28]     Ibid. p.3.