Social Europe : many ways, one objective: annual report of the Social Protection Committee on the social situation in the European Union (2013).
Date: 2014-06-24
Institutions: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion
Subjects: activity report, economic recession, marginalisation, poverty, social policy, social security, social situation, unemployment

Table of contents 

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 7 

I. The social situation in the European Union ......................................................... 9 

Macro-economic, labour market and demographic context ......................................................... 9 

Drifting away from the EU 2020 poverty and social exclusion target ........................................ 18 

What  are  the  drivers  behind  the  increasing  poverty  and  social  exclusion  rate  at  the  EU 

level? ............................................................................................................................................................... 21 

Short-term  development  of  the  relative  poverty  risk  are  rather  stable  but  increases  are 

registered in close to half of all Member States in the longer period ....................................... 24 

Deterioration  in  living  standards  and  increasing  depth  of  poverty  are  becoming  a  very 

tangible consequence of the economic crisis in some countries ................................................27 

Reporting  from  Member  States  shows  mixed  trends  in  the  levels  of  household  over-

indebtedness ............................................................................................................................................... 32 

Long-term exclusion from the labour market continues to be a main driver of increasing 

trends in poverty and social exclusion ................................................................................................ 35 

Steady share of working poor with strong divergence across Member States ..................... 36 

What are the most recent trends in child poverty and youth exclusion?..................................37 

Income inequality is growing across and within Member States ................................................ 42 

Mixed  effectiveness  of  income  support  systems  for  those  furthest  away  from  the  labour 

market............................................................................................................................................................ 43 

Consistent and widespread improvement of the employment rate of older workers ......... 48 

Pensions  continue  to  avert  poverty  for  many  though  divergence  in  adequacy  and 

effectiveness remains ................................................................................................................................ 50 

Access to health and health outcomes ............................................................................................... 54 

Developments in access to housing .................................................................................................... 58 

Trends in the take-up of selected social benefits ............................................................................ 64 

1 

II. Examining the 2012 social trends to watch ....................................................... 69 

Key messages from the thematic in-depth reviews ........................................................................ 69 

1. The working poor in Europe ...............................................................................................................72 

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 72 

1.2. Why is in-work poverty relevant? ......................................................................................... 72 

1.3 What are the factors influencing in-work poverty?........................................................... 75 

1.4 Policies, best practices and evidence-based responses ................................................. 88 

1.5. Results of the thematic in-depth review ............................................................................ 94 

1.6 What should be the focus of policy effort? ........................................................................ 96 

2 The poverty risk of the (quasi-) jobless households .................................................................... 98 

2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 98 

2.2. Main factors affecting the poverty risk of the (quasi-) jobless households ............ 100 

2.3. Policies, best practices and evidence-based responses ............................................... 111 

2.4. Results of the thematic in-depth review ........................................................................... 118 

2.5 What should be the focus of policy effort? ....................................................................... 119 

3. Child poverty and social exclusion: investing in children and their well-being ................. 121 

3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 121 

3.2 Main drivers, challenges, evidence-based policies and good practices ................... 127 

3.3. Results of the thematic in-depth review .......................................................................... 150 

3.4. What should be the focus of policy effort? ..................................................................... 152 

III. Keeping the momentum toward Europe 2020 objectives: the 2013 social 

trends to watch .......................................................................................... 154 

IV. Conclusions on the social situation in the EU ............................................... 159 

SPPM dashboard ...................................................................................................... 162 

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Views of the European Social Partners ................................................................ 164 

Country Profiles ........................................................................................................ 174 

Belgium ........................................................................................................................ 175 

Bulgaria ........................................................................................................................ 185 

Czech Republic ............................................................................................................. 195 

Denmark....................................................................................................................... 206 

Germany....................................................................................................................... 217 

Estonia .......................................................................................................................... 226 

Ireland .......................................................................................................................... 237 

Greece ..........................................................................................................................248 

Spain ............................................................................................................................ 258 

France .......................................................................................................................... 268 

Croatia ......................................................................................................................... 279 

Italy .............................................................................................................................. 290 

Cyprus .......................................................................................................................... 299 

Latvia ............................................................................................................................ 310 

Lithuania ....................................................................................................................... 320 

Luxembourg ................................................................................................................. 331 

Hungary ....................................................................................................................... 341 

Malta ............................................................................................................................ 352 

Netherlands ..................................................................................................................364 

Austria .......................................................................................................................... 375 

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Poland .......................................................................................................................... 387 

Portugal ........................................................................................................................ 398 

Romania .......................................................................................................................409 

Slovenia ........................................................................................................................420 

Slovakia ........................................................................................................................ 431 

Finland......................................................................................................................... 442 

Sweden ....................................................................................................................... 454 

United Kingdom .......................................................................................................... 464 

References ................................................................................................................. 477 

Definitions and data sources .................................................................................. 479 

4 

Abbreviation 
EU28 
EU27 
BE 
BG 
CZ 
DK 
DE 
EE 
IE 
EL 
ES 
FR 
HR 
IT 
CY 
LV 
LT 
LU 
HU 
MT 
NL 
AT 
PL 
PT 
RO 
SI 
SK 
FI 
SE 
UK 

Full name 
European Union (28 countries) 
European Union (27 countries) 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czech Republic 
Denmark 
Germany  
Estonia 
Ireland 
Greece 
Spain 
France 
Croatia 
Italy 
Cyprus 
Latvia 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Hungary 
Malta 
Netherlands 
Austria 
Poland 
Portugal 
Romania 
Slovenia 
Slovakia 
Finland 
Sweden 
United Kingdom 

5 

 
 
Acknowledgments 

The  present  report  has  been  prepared  as  part  of  the  mandate  given  to  the  Social  Protection 

Committee (SPC) by the  Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union to monitor the social 

situation  in  the  European  Union  and  the  development  of  social  protection  policies  (art.  160  of 

TFEU).  

The  report  is  prepared  by  the  Secretariat  of  the  Committee  and  its  Indicators'  Sub-group.  The 

Directorate-General  for  Employment,  Social  Affairs and  Inclusion  provided  the  necessary  analysis 

and  calculations  used  in  the  report  with  the  extensive  assistance  and  data  provision  of  Eurostat. 

Directorate D - Europe 2020: Social Policies, led by Dr. Lieve Fransen, hosts the Secretariat of the 

SPC.  The  principal  authors  are  Kornelia  Kozovska,  Dijana  Ror  Boone,  Ionut  Sasu,  and  Dimo  Iliev 

with specific contributions from Maya Carr-Hill, Elodie Fazi, Regina Sauto, Istvan Vanyolos, Celine 

Thevenot,  Magdalena  Grzegorzewska,  Susanne  Conze,  Kasia  Jurszak,  Ettore  Marchetti  and 

Emanuela Tassa. The members of the SPC and its Indicators Subgroup contributed extensively to 

the  drafting  of  the  report  and  its  key  messages.  The  views  of  the  European  social  partners  are 

annexed  to  the  report.  The  report  was  approved  by  the  Social  Protection  Committee  on  19 

February 2014. The Council of the European Union endorsed the conclusions of the report on 10 

March 2014. 

The list of SPC Members appears on the following link:  

http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=758&langId=en 

The list of members of the SPC Indicators' Subgroup appears on the following link: 

http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=830&langId=en 

6 

 
Introduction 
This edition of the annual review of the social situation in the European Union (EU) delivers on the 

core  Treaty  task  of  the  Social  Protection  Committee  (SPC)  to  monitor  the  social  situation  in  the 

Member States and the European Union (art. 160 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European 

Union).  The  SPC  is  an  advisory  policy  Committee  which  provides  representative  forum  for 

multilateral  social  policy  coordination,  dialogue  and  cooperation  at  EU  level.  It  brings  together 

policy makers from all EU Member States and the Commission in an effort to identify, discuss and 

implement the policy mix that is most fitted to respond to the various challenges faced by social 

policies. It uses the social open method of coordination as the main policy framework combining 

all major social policy strands: social inclusion, pensions, health and long-term care. 

This  year's  report  on  the  social  situation  shows  worsening  developments,  especially  in  some 

Member States. The latest figures on living and income conditions in the EU show that the EU is 

not making any progress towards achieving its Europe 2020 poverty and social exclusion target of 

lifting at least 20 million people from poverty and social exclusion by 2020. There are 6,7 million 

more people living in poverty or social exclusion since 2008, a total of 124.2 million people for the 

EU28 or close to 1 in 4 Europeans in 2012. Poverty and social exclusion has increased in more than 

1/3 of the Member States in both 2011 and 2012. 

The fragile emerging recovery evidenced in the economic data at the end of 2013 will not produce 

immediate impact on the employment and social situation of Europeans. Furthermore, there is a 

strong divergence in the evolution of the social situation across different Member States and this is 

likely to persist in the near future  This edition of the annual review of the social situation in the EU 

of  the  SPC  focuses  on  the  results  from  the  latest  edition  of  the  Social  Protection  Performance 

Monitor and has three main objectives: i) analysing the most recent trends in the social situation in 

Europe – increase of the number of working poor in Europe, in child poverty and social exclusion 

and the poverty risk for jobless households; ii) providing an in-depth review of the key challenges 

for the EU identified by the 2012 social trends to watch as endorsed by the SPC, and iii) identifying 

what are the 2013 social trends to watch. 

Chapter 1 analyses the latest available figures for the set of key social indicators as identified by the 

Social Protection Performance Monitor, which present a summary picture of the social situation in 

the  EU.  It  draws  upon  some  additional  context  information  and  specific  administrative  data  on 

benefit  recipients,  over-indebtedness  and  housing  access  collected  through  SPC  delegates  in 

order  to  provide  a  comprehensive  view  on  the  main  developments  in  social  policy  outcomes 

across Member States. 

Chapter 2 focuses on the key quantitative information underlying the three social trends to watch 

identified  in  the  previous  SPC  report  (Social  Protection  Committee,  2012)  (in-work  poverty,  child 

poverty and social exclusion, and the poverty risk of (quasi-) jobless households), their social and 

economic  impact  and  most  importantly  the  policy  measures  with  proven  effect  against  these 

7 

trends. It is the product of a series of in-depth thematic reviews on these policy challenges held in 

2013 which saw Member States engage in analysing their positive and negative performance and 

the potential for transferability of policy measures across different Member States and institutional 

contexts. A first group of countries presented the policy nexus in place enabling these countries to 

be unperturbed by these trends. The countries concerned by the social trends formed the second 

group of countries discussed the key elements of the successful policy approaches and assessed 

their potential transferability.  

Chapter 3 presents the 2013 results of the Social Protection Performance Monitor and the social 

trends  to  watch  based  on  the  latest  available  data  as  well  as  the  topics  for  thematic  in-depth 

reviews in 2014 based on these trends. 

The report ends with country profiles for all Member States which provide a snapshot on the main 

social  indicators  for  each  country,  the  progress  towards  the  national  2020  poverty  and  social 
exclusion target, and the evolution in benefit recipients for a selected number of benefit schemes.1 

The full application of the SPPM offers a new way of bringing policy knowledge forward. This is an 

important building bloc of the policy learning and exchange of good practices embedded in the 

social open method of coordination.  

But  the  2013  social  situation  attracted  further  attention.  The  Council,  upon  a  proposal  from  the 

Commission,  approved  a  scoreboard  on  employment  and  social  indicators  to  be  used  in  the 

context  of  the  European  semester  for  policy  coordination.  The  scoreboard  will  strengthen  the 

social dimension of the Economic and Monetary Union. It consists of 6 indicators presented in a 

single table allowing monitoring the employment and social developments in the EU. It is part of 

the annual so called ‘Joint Employment Report’ which is prepared by the Commission and adopted 

by the Council of the European Union.  

In  addition  to  the  scoreboard,  the  Commission  also  decided  to  use  a  set  of  social  indicators  as 
auxiliary  indicators  in  the  scoreboard  of  the  macroeconomic  imbalance  procedure2.  This 
accumulation of monitoring instruments is expected to enhance the capacity of the EU to better 

anticipate the social impact of its economic policies.  

1 The report is to be read in conjunction with the SPC report on "Social policy reforms for growth and cohesion: Review 
of recent structural reforms 2013", adopted in October 2013, which outlines the most important policy measures taken in 
2013 in the fields of social protection and social inclusion. 

2http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/economic_governance/macroeconomic_imbalance_procedure/mip_scoreboard/i

ndex_en.htm 

8 

                                                           
I. The social situation in the European Union  

Macro-economic, labour market and demographic context 

The short-term outlook for the EU economy remains fragile, but a gradual return to GDP growth is 

projected for 2014. The EU economy has returned to positive GDP growth. GDP rose by 0.1% in 

the euro area (EA17) and by 0.2% in the EU28 during the third quarter of 2013, compared with the 

previous quarter. In the second quarter of 2013, growth rates were +0.3% and +0.4% respectively. 

Compared with the same quarter of the previous year, seasonally adjusted GDP fell by 0.4% in the 

euro  area  and  rose  by  0.1%  in  the  EU28  in  the  third  quarter  of  2013,  after  -0.6%  and  -0.1% 

respectively in the previous quarter. 

However, labour market and social conditions remain extremely challenging. The euro area (EA17) 

seasonally-adjusted unemployment rate was 12% in December 2013, slightly upwards from 11.9% 

recorded  in  the  same  month  of  the  previous  year  The  EU28  unemployment  rate  was  10.7%  in 

December  2013,  compared  with  10.8%  at  the  end  of  the  previous  year.  The  number  of 

unemployed  in  the  EU28  in  December  2013  reached  an  all-time  high  of  26.9  million,  which 

represents  a  total  increase  of  almost  8.4  million  since  2008.  In  the  euro  area  the  number  of 

unemployed reached 19.29 million, compared to 18.2 million the year before.  

The situation of many households remains serious, as poverty and social exclusion are on the rise 

in  most  Member  States,  affecting  particularly  the  working  age  population  and,  by  extension, 

children.  Young  people  suffer  increasingly  from  the  labour  market  exclusion:  nearly  a  quarter  of 

economically active young people in the EU are unemployed and their prospects remain bleak for 

2014 at least. These challenges have been increasing until recently as the situation has worsened in 

many Member States and divergences between countries have been growing, especially within the 

Euro Area. 

Across  the  EU,  but  particularly  within  the  euro  area,  Member  States  have  experienced  widening 

gaps in terms of employment, income, poverty, inequalities, youth employment and many other 

vital  aspects  of  social  situation.  Although  many  factors  have  influenced  the  overall  economic 

performance of different Member States in the past years, much of the current divergence results 

from how labour markets and social systems reacted to the severe global downturn as well as the 

fiscal  consolidation  packages  implemented  in  the  majority  of  Member  States.  The  shockwaves 

from  the  crisis  appear  to  have  been  asymmetric  but  the  different  institutional  setups  saw  very 

different  resilience  to  the  generally  experienced  major  shock  from  the  initial  financial  crisis: 

countries  with  relatively  un-segmented  labour  markets,  solid  industrial  relations  institutions  and 

strong  welfare  systems  have  tended  to  fare  better  than  those  with  highly  segmented  labour 

markets, strained labour relations and weak welfare provisions. 

9 

Among the Member States, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in AT (4.9%), DE (5.1%) 

and LU (6.2%), and the highest in EL (27.8% in October 2013) and ES (25,8%) at the end of 2013. 

Compared with a year ago, the unemployment rate increased in half of the Member States and fell 

in half. The highest increases were registered in CY (13.9% to 17.5% between December 2012 and 

December 2013)), EL (26,1% to 27.8% between October 2012 and October 2013) and the NL (5.8% 

to  7.0%).  The  largest  decreases  were  observed  in  Latvia  (14.0%  in  December  2012  to  12,.1%  in 

December 2013) PT (from 17,3% to 15,4%) and LT (13.0% to 11.4%). 

Figure 1. Monthly change in youth, adult and total unemployment rate in EU, 

2007-2013 

Source: Eurostat, data seasonally adjusted 

More than one in five young people in the labour market are unemployed. The situation of youth 

in  the  labour  market  represents  both  an  economic  and  a  social  emergency,  with  5.63  million 

young  persons  (15-24  years)  unemployed  in  the  EU28  at  the  end  of  2013,  of  whom  3.57  million 

were  in  the  euro  area.  Compared  with  December  2012,  youth  unemployment  decreased  by 

184,000 in the EU28 and by 77,000 in the euro area. In December 2013, the youth unemployment 

rate  was  23.2%  in  the  EU28  and  23.8%  in  the  euro  area,  compared  with  23.6%  and  23.9% 

respectively  in  December  2012.  In  December  2013,  the  lowest  rates  were  observed  in  Germany 

(7.4%) and Austria (8.9%), and the highest in Greece (59.2% in October 2013), Spain (54.3%) and 

Croatia (49.2% in the fourth quarter of 2013). 

The proportion of young people (15-29 years) who are neither in employment, education, nor in 

training  (NEET)  continues  to  increase  and  these  increases  were  higher  in  those  Member  States 

10 

 
which already had higher levels. By the end of 2013, the average rate of NEETs reached 22 % in 

the  south  and  periphery  of  the  euro  area,  whereas  in  the  northern  euro  area  Member  States  it 

reached just half of that level, around 11. Moreover, the gap between the two areas continues to 

increase, following a similar pattern to that of unemployment trends. 

Long-term unemployment has reached alarming highs. At the end of 2012, 11.3 million Europeans 

had  been  unemployed  for  more  than  12  months,  accounting  for  4.6%  of  the  active  population 

across the EU and 5.3% in the euro area. Since 2008 the number of long-term unemployed has 

almost  doubled  in  the  EU-27  and  in  the  euro  area  (an  increase  of  5.1  million  and  of  3.7  million 

respectively). The largest increases in the long-term unemployment rate were recorded in Greece 

(from  3.6%  at  the  end  of  2008  to  14.4%  in  2012),  Spain  (from  2%  in  2008  to  11.1%  in  2012)  and 

Ireland (from 1.7% to 9.1%).  

Figure 2. Long-term unemployment rates in EU28, 2000, 2008 and 2012 

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

Migrants are also more affected by unemployment than the general population, as 19.6% of third-

country nationals living in the EU are without a job. In 2013, the rate of third-country nationals in 

long-term unemployment was twice as high among third-country nationals than for EU nationals. 

The gap between the employment rates of migrant and native workers had already existed before 

the economic downturn but it was further enhanced since then. 

As for intra-EU mobile citizens, they are more likely to be in employment than nationals living in 

the same country (despite the fact that unemployment rates tend to be relatively higher amongst 

intra-EU mobile citizens). This gap can be partly explained by differences in the age composition 

between EU mobile citizens and nationals, with more intra-EU mobile citizens than nationals falling 

11 

 
in the 15-64 age bracket. The overall rate of inactivity among intra-EU mobile citizens has declined 

between  2005  and  2012  –  from  47%  to  33%.  This  happened  despite  an  increase  in  the  rate  of 

unemployment  among  intra-EU  mobile  citizens during  the  economic  crisis.  The  number  of  non-

active intra-EU mobile citizens has only slightly risen during this period (from 0.7% in 2003 to 1.0% 

in 2012). The majority of currently non-active intra-EU mobile citizens have worked before in the 

current country of residence (64%). A third of mobile jobseekers (32%) were employed one year 
before3. 

Figure 3. Unemployment rate breakdown for native workers, EU27 nationals 

and third-country workers 

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

Unemployment  difficulties  faced  by  both  third-country  migrants  and  intra-EU  mobile  citizens  in 

comparison to the nationals are particularly worrisome for employment and growth prospects in 

the  current  demographic  scenario.  In  order  to  attain  the  objective  of  75%  employment  rate  by 

2020, any future employment growth would heavily depend on the annual balance between the 

declining  domestic  workforce  and  the  net  migratory  inflows.  Calculations  based  on  Eurostat 

baseline demographic scenario indicate an average annual shrinking of employment by 0.4%. In 

the Europop2010 demographic convergence scenario, the EU working age population (aged 20-

64  years)  reached  its  highest  potential  at  304  million  people  in  2012  but  since  then  it  has  been 

steadily  declining,  which  means  that  by  2030  the  working-age  population  in  the  EU  will  already 

have  decreased  by  13  million  (a  loss  of  more  than  4%  of  the  total  working-age  population  as 

compared to the year 2012). In turn, this would lead on a medium-term to a higher demographic 

3 European Commission, A fact finding analysis on the impact on the Member States' social security systems of the 

entitlements of non-active intra-EU migrants to special non-contributory cash benefits and healthcare granted on 
the basis of residence, 14 October 2013, pp. 26-30, available at : 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=89&newsId=1980&furtherNews=yes  

12 

 
                                                           
dependency rate, from 1.6 dependent people for each working-age person in 2012 to almost 2 in 
2060.4 

In  the  absence  of  employment  growth,  the  only  source  of  economic  growth  could  come  from 

productivity gains – which then will have to double, compared to the levels obtained during the 

decade  before  the  economic  downturn,  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  foreseen  decline  in 

employment growth. 

The  graph  below  depicts  the  future  potential  for  GDP  growth  in  the  context  of  a  declining 
workforce5.   

Figure 4. GDP growth with declining labour force in EU 27, 2010-2030 

Source: DG EMPL calculations based on Eurostat (LFS) and Europop2010 population projections 

The first part on the left illustrates the pre-crisis situation in terms of employment (blue tab) and 

productivity  (red  tab)  growth  rates.  Thus,  between  2000  and  2008,  the  EU  achieved  an  average 

annual  employment  growth  of  1%,  which,  together  with  an  average  annual  productivity  gain  of 

approximately  1%,  led  to  an  annual  average  GDP  growth  (green  tab)  of  2%.  The  economic 

downturn has interrupted this relatively stable pattern of growth.  

For  the  period  2010-2020,  a  2%  GDP  growth,  which  represents  the  level  deemed  necessary  to 

maintain current welfare standards, would require an annual productivity growth of 1% in a context 

4   Peschner, J., Fotakis, C. (2013), ‘Growth potential of EU human resources and policy implications for future economic 

growth’, European Commission Working Paper 3/2013, Luxembourg, pp. 7-8, available at 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=113&newsId=1970&furtherNews=yes  

5 For more details on Europop2010: 

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Population_projections  

13 

 
 
                                                           
where  the  employment  rate  will  grow  on  average  by  0.9%  per  year.  For  the  following  period, 

2020-2030,  an  average  annual  employment  growth  rate  of  -0.3%  would  require  a  dramatic 

increase in the average productivity rate up to 2.3% per year.  

In  order  to  sustain  this  economic  growth  rate,  the  EU  must  stimulate  the  labour  market 

participation of untapped human resources, which would nonetheless require ever higher rates of 

productivity growth. The strong global growth and a sufficient labour supply fuelled the relatively 

high  employment  growth  rates  observed  until  2008.  However,  in  the  future  decades,  labour 

shortages  may  further  limit  the  employment  growth  because  of  a  combination  of  demographic 

factors, such as an ageing and declining workforce.  

This  would  require  the  implementation  of  efficient,  effective  and  adequate  labour  market  and 

social inclusion policies, which would stimulate participation across all age groups, genders, skills 

and educational attainment levels. In addition, increased net migratory inflows (beyond 40 million 

at 75% employment rate by the year 2060) or a substantial increase in productivity levels from the 

past average level of 1.2% to 2.3% may be needed for sustainable economic growth in the context 
of the current European social model.6 

An additional pressure on the demographic scenarios has come as a consequence of the influence 

of the crisis on fertility. In this sense, in addition to economic and social distress, the crisis has also 

made it more difficult for young adults to find suitable housing and start independent lives. This 
may have contributed to the setback in fertility gains7;  family-forming and fertility are hindered in 
places  where  housing  is  harder  to  secure,  where  there  is  a  narrow  market  for  rented 

accommodation, and few opportunities for mortgages. This has led to a halt in the trend towards 

higher fertility that almost all member States had followed since the early 2000’s. A recent paper 

(Goldstein et al., 2013) provides cross-national evidence of the impact of the Great Recession on 

fertility  in  Europe  during  the  last  ten  years.  In  particular,  countries  that  were  hit  hard  by  the 

recession show reduced fertility rates in comparison with trends taking place before the recession- 

especially  for  the  younger  cohorts.  The  results  indicate  a  strong  relationship  between  economic 
conditions and living conditions (including housing) and fertility. The impact8 was most felt among 
childless  potential  parents  (fewer  first  births),  among  foreign  and  foreign-born  women,  and  not-

employed women. 

The demographic challenges that Europe is facing are particularly relevant in the context of today's 

highly competitive global economic environment in which human resources play a strategic role. A 

fundamental  requirement  for  economic  growth  is  to  keep  employment  growing  in  the  short  to 

medium  term  by  making  an  optimal  use  of  the  available  human  resources.  The  ability  to 

encourage  new  knowledge  and  skills,  promote  innovation  and  geographical  mobility  while 

6 Ibid, p. 30 

7 See http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2011.00411.x/pdf  

8 See http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-13-013/EN/KS-SF-13-013-EN.PDF  

14 

                                                           
successfully  manage  migratory  flows  will  greatly  influence  the  overall  capacity  of  the  European 

countries to sustain economic growth and social progress in the years to come.  

Social  and  labour  market  reforms  to  tackle  structural  unemployment,  encourage  flexibility  in  the 

organisation  of  work  and  promote  employability  across  all  age  groups,  gender,  skills  and 

educational attainment levels are essential if Europe is to reach the target of a 75% employment 

rate  by  2020  and  avoid  the  damaging  consequences  of  a  rapidly,  shrinking  working  age 

population.  Productivity  gains  can  be  achieved  by  setting  up  effective  mechanisms  to  monitor 

labour market needs, to recognise skills and competences and to fight discrimination. Moreover, 

geographical mobility could make a very significant contribution to overall employment and GDP 

growth,  helping  to  address  mismatches  between  skills  needs  and  labour  supply  across  the  EU 

countries and regions, where labour shortages and bottlenecks in high growth areas often coexist 

with areas of persistent high unemployment. 

Disparities in the socio-economic situation between and within Member States are largely mirrored 

in their demographic situation and projections. Higher fertility Member States are now also poles 

of  attraction  for  migrants;  this  leaves  the  other  Member  States  with  populations  that  shrink  and 

grow old fast under the double impact of low fertility and out-migration.  Some rural regions in 

these  Member  States  are  particularly  affected  and  face  a  future  dominated  by  shortages  of 

working-age adults. 

Intra-EU mobility has increased since 2006, especially in terms of nationals of the EU-12 Member 

States who reside elsewhere in the EU-27, whose number has increased almost ten-fold from 2000 

to 2010, to 4.5 million. In the same period, while EU-15 nationals residing abroad have increased 

little,  there  are  signs  that  short-term  and  circular  mobility  among  EU-27  nationals  has  increased 

considerably. 

It is as if populations had turned a corner. In the past, young adults used to migrate from high-

fertility  countries  to  countries  with  shortages  of  manpower;  this  “filling  gaps”  restored  some 

balance in growth. Today, as young adults leave low-fertility countries, they create a vacuum today 

that will usher rapid ageing and a dearth of manpower for their economic and social systems in 

the medium term.  This exodus exacerbates current imbalances. 

15 

Figure 5. Population change 

Source: Eurostat 

The  most  affected  countries,  BG, LV, LT and RO  face  population losses  that  are  projected  to be 

over 10% in the next 20 years; what’s more, adults in prime working age (aged 20-39) will decrease 

by over 30%, while elderly people (aged 60 and above) will increase by over 20%. This will call for 

careful managing the economy and the social services to ensure continuity and prevent a collapse. 

According to the most recent EU-LFS estimates, the total number of intra-EU mobile citizens aged 

15 and above has increased from 1.3% to 2.6% of the total EU-27 population between 2003 and 
2012.9 

As  the  EU  grew  to  include  ten  new  Member  States  in  2004  and  two  more  in  2007,  its  citizens 

found  more  opportunities  for  moving.  Evidence  shows  that  the  vast  majority  of  intra-EU  mobile 

citizens move to find (or take up) employment. Income differentials are  also an important driver 

for mobility, with individuals seeking to improve their financial position and standard of living. The 

importance  of  available  employment  opportunities  motivating  intra-EU  mobility  is  demonstrated 

by recent shifts in mobility patterns resulting from the impact of the crisis. Data show a trend shift 

away  from  East-West  to  more  South-North  intra-EU  mobility,  albeit  East-West  mobility  remains 
most significant in volume terms.10  

9  

European Commission (2013), pp.38-39. 

10  

Ibid., pp. 38-43 

16 

 
                                                           
In  particular,  young people  from  the  EU-12 brought  additional  manpower  to the  EU-15,  relieved 

their congested labour markets, and made new experiences. By estimates, mobility from the EU-2 

(Bulgaria and Romania) during 2004-2009 may have boosted the aggregate EU-27 GDP by about 

0.2%  in  the  short  term  and  0.3  %  in  the  long  term.  For  the  receiving  EU-15 countries,  the  long-

term impact is even stronger (0.4%) and overcompensates for the loss in the sending countries. 

The reverse of this medal is the cost for the sending countries. Four Member States, BG, LV, LT and 

RO saw their population decline by about 5% in the past decade and are projected to see massive 

population losses (about -8%) in the next 20 years. Moreover, the losses will be heaviest among 

the young adults (a one-third loss) and the highly-skilled workers. Although these populations are 

currently  among  the  youngest  in  the  EU,  especially  Romania,  by  2050-2060  they  will  all  rank 

among the oldest.  

Rural regions in many of the EU12 and a few EU-15 regions are to suffer the most from population 

decline and ageing. Many regions risk being caught in a downward spiral where population loss 

and  ageing  can  aggravate  the  infrastructure  gap  with  more  developed  regions;  this  in  turn 

motivates  more  young  adults  to  leave.  Young  adults,  one  or  both  parents,  often  leave  behind 

children or/with elderly relatives; these face difficulties in meeting their education and care need.  

Some cities are also at risk. In Northern and Western Europe, employment rates in urban areas are 

below their respective national averages. This leads to an “urban paradox” whereby migrants are 

attracted  to  job-rich  city  centres  but  where  the  resident  population  suffers  from  a  lack  of  jobs. 

High unemployment among residents puts further pressure on social cohesion in cities, especially 

as  economic  integration  represents  the  most  promising  strategy  for  tackling  social  cohesion 

deficits (e.g. housing, delinquency, slums). 

Immigrants  and  mobile  people,  and  their  descendants  are  more  often  inactive  or  unemployed 

than nationals or EU-born people. In addition, immigrants are on average less-well educated than 

EU-27  born  and  more  often  under-employed.  Their  steep  increase  among  the  working-age 

population will pose challenges that governments and enterprises have to tackle jointly. There are 

also country-specific issues; the Roma, for instance, are projected to increase from 5 to 16% of the 
Hungarian  active-age  population  by  205011;  as  the  Roma  are  currently  characterised  by  low 
education  and  employment  rates,  fostering  their  integration  becomes  a  priority,  gradually  but 

surely. 

11 http://takayama-online.net/pie/stage3/Japanese/d_p/dp2003/dp207/text.pdf 

17 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 6. Share of population with a foreign background, EU-27, % 

Source: Eurostat  

At the same time major differences in life expectancy persist. Large differences in life expectancy 

between Member States are made more acute by differences within populations, where the less-

well  educated  (used  as  a  proxy  of  socio-economic  status),  also  live  shorter  lives  and  this  occurs 

especially in countries with low life expectancy.  

Figure 7. Life expectancy at birth by education level, selected countries, in 

years, 2010 

tertiary

lower secondary

upper secondary

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

PT

HR

SE MK NO DK

FI

SI

HU

CZ

PL

BG

EE

Source: Eurostat 

Drifting away from the EU 2020 poverty and social exclusion target  

The  commitment  made  in  2010  by  the  EU  Heads  of  States  and  Government,  to  lift  at  least  20 

million people out of being at risk of poverty or social exclusion in the context of the Europe 2020 

strategy,  was  a  significant  step  forward.  It  stressed  the  equal  importance  of  inclusive  growth 

18 

 
 
alongside economic objectives for the future of Europe, and it introduced a new monitoring and 
accountability scheme12. 

The definition of the EU poverty and social exclusion headline target is based on a combination of 

three indicators – the at-risk-of-poverty rate, the severe material deprivation rate, and the share of 

people  living  in  very  low  work  intensity  (quasi-jobless)  households.  It  considers  people  who  find 

themselves in any of these three categories and, while very broad, it reflects the multiple facets of 

poverty  and  social  exclusion  across  Europe.  This  definition  extends  the  customary  concept  of 

relative  income  poverty  to  cover  the  non-monetary  dimension  of  poverty  and  labour  market 

exclusion. 

The most recent EU SILC figures available for 2012 show that the EU is not making any progress 

towards  achieving  the  target  but  is  drifting  away  from  the  target  trajectory.  Since  2008  (the 

reference  year,  due  to  data  availability,  for  when  the  target  was  adopted  in  2010)  there  are  6,7 

million more people living in poverty or social exclusion, a total of 123 million people in EU27 or 

close to 1 in 4 Europeans in 2012 (Figure 8). Poverty and social exclusion have increased in more 
than 1/3 of the Member States in both 2011 and 2012.  

Figure 8. Evolution of the EU 2020 poverty and social exclusion target13 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) (extraction date:29.01.2014) 

12 COM (2010) 758 final.   

13 Based on data for EU27 

19 

 
                                                           
Note: AROPE – at risk of poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living 

in very low work intensity households ((quasi)-jobless households); SMD - severe material deprivation rate. For the at-risk-

of  poverty  rate,  the  income  reference  year  is  the  calendar  year  prior  to  the  survey  year  (i.e.  2011)  except  for  the  United 

Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). Similarly, the very low work intensity rate refers to 

the previous calendar year (i.e. 2011) while for the severe material deprivation rate, the reference is the current year (i.e. 

2012). 

This  overall  trend  masks  growing  divergence  between  Member  States.  Increases  between  2008-

2012 have been observed in the countries mostly affected by the economic crisis (EL, IE, ES, IT, CY, 

LV, LT, EE), have persisted in a number of Eastern European countries which have some of biggest 

challenges  related  to  poverty  and  social  exclusion  (BG,  HU)  but  have  started  becoming  a  trend 

also in countries with some of the lowest shares of AROPE and solid welfare systems like DK and 

LU.  AROPE  has  remained  more  or  less  stable  in  CZ,  DE,  FR,  NL,  PT,  SK  and  FI,  while  it  has 

decreased in only two countries in the whole EU - PL and RO (Figure 9). In the most recent year 

for which data is available (2011-2012), these trends are confirmed with further increases (e.g. EL, 

ES, IT, CY, LU, HU, MT) while the Baltic States (LV, LT) have registered some improvements. 

Figure 9. At risk of poverty or social exclusion rate (in %), evolution (in pp) 

2011-2012 and 2008-12   

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

CY
27,1

2,5

3,8

EU28
24,8

EU27
24,8

EA17
23,2

~

n.a.

LV
36,2

-3,9

~

1,1

LT
32,5

-0,6

2,0

4,9

~

1,6

LU
18,4

1,6

2,9

BE
21,6

0,6

0,8

HU
32,4

1,4

4,2

BG
49,3

~

4,5

MT
22,2

0,8

2,6

DK
19,0

~

2,7

AT (ii)
18,5

CZ
15,4

~

~
NL
15,0

-0,7

~

DE
19,6

~

~
PL
26,7

~

-3,8

EE
23,4

~

~
PT
25,3

0,9

~

IE
29,4

n.a

5,7

RO
41,7

1,4

-2,5

EL
34,6

3,6

6,5

SI
19,6

~

~

ES
28,2

0,5

3,7

SK
20,5

~

~

FR
19,1

~

~
FI
17,2

-0,7

~

HR
32,3

~

n.a.

SE
15,6

~

~

IT
29,9

1,7

4,6

UK
24,1

1,4

~

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes:  i) Latest  data  available  for  IE  refers  to  2011  and  changes  are  presented  for  the  period  2008-2011  only.  ii)  AT  has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income/related indicators and by definition 

the target indicator suffer a break in series for 2012 and are therefore not comparable to 2011 and 2008. AT will be able to 

provide a comprehensive back-calculation of the timeline until the base year 2008 at the end of 2014; iii) For UK, changes 

in  the  survey  vehicle  and  institution  might  have  affected  the  results  and  interpretation  of  data  must  therefore  be 

particularly cautious; iv) Provisional data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) The estimations of 

net significance for PT are provisional and are to be confirmed by INE; vi) Only statistically significant changes have been 

marked in green/red (positive/negative changes), using Eurostat computations of significance of net change "~" refers to 

stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant change). vii) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is 

the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the very low work intensity rate refers to the previous calendar year (i.e. 2011) while for the 

severe material deprivation rate, the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

The  major  part  of  the  population  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social  exclusion  (between  57%  in  SE  and 

69%  in  DE,  DE,  EL  and  NL)  is  composed  of  working  age  individuals  (18-64).  Children  (0-17)  

comprise  close  to  one  third  in  IE  and  between  25-28%  in  LU,  FR,  MT,  UK,  SE  and  NL  while  the 

elderly (65+) go from as low as 4-6% in LU, IE and NL to as high as 20% in FI and LT, 21% in HR, 

and 23% in BG.  

20 

 
Figure 10. Distribution of the population at risk of poverty or social exclusion 

across age groups, 2012  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 

Substantial  work  and  focused  policy  effort  need  to  become  a  political  priority  so  that  the  EU 

poverty target remains a credible political commitment. Since current (2012) levels of poverty and 

social  exclusion  are  6.7  million  people  more  than  in  2008,  and  assuming  no  further  negative 

developments, almost 27 million people now need to be lifted out of poverty or social exclusion by 

2020 in order to still achieve the target. This translates into an average decrease of 0.9 % at the EU 

level  each  year  in  a  context  of  an  average  decrease  of  0.5%  since  2005,  including  the  years  of 

economic growth, and an average increase since 2008 of 1.2% each year. 

What  are  the  drivers  behind  the  increasing  poverty  and  social 

exclusion rate at the EU level? 

Table 1 looks at the change in the risk of poverty or social exclusion for the period 2008-2012 for 

different  population  characteristics  and  specific  risk  groups  across  Member  States.  The  main 

stylized facts that emerge are: 

i) 

the  countries  with  the  largest  increase  in  the  population  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social 

exclusion are EL, IE, LT, IT, BG and HU; 

ii) 

 when  taking  into  account  the  population size,  the  countries  contributing  substantially  to 

the increase in the AROPE rate at the EU level are IT, ES and to a lesser extent EL, BG HU; 

iii) 

 relative  poverty  rates  have  remained  relatively  stable  or  with  changes  up  to  2pp  in  the 

period 2008-2012 (with the exception of EL – 3pp and HR – 3.2pp); 

21 

 
iv) 

 severe  material  deprivation  has  seen  some  more  substantial  increases  above  5pp  in 

several countries – LV (12.4pp), HU (5.2pp), LT(6.7pp);  

v) 

labour  market  exclusion  (unemployment,  inactivity)  and  increase  in  (quasi-)  jobless 

households have increased substantially in the countries mostly hit by the crisis – LV, LT, 

ES, EL, IE but also in BG; 

vi) 

children and youth have seen the most important deterioration in their income and living  

conditions while the elderly have fared better across the board, highlighting the important 

role of pension systems; 

vii) 

countries  have  managed  to  protect  households  with  dependent  children  at  risk  (single 

parents, large families) in a very different manner regardless of the extent to which they 

were  affected  by  the  economic  crisis  -    e.g.  behind  the  biggest  AROPE  increase  for  the 

period 2008-2012 which is observed in EL stands an increase of AROPE for single parents 
of  over  20pp  and  for  large  families  of  over  10pp  while  in  LT  which  has  the  3rd  highest 
increase, the AROPE rate for both of these groups has actually decreased (-2,7pp and -

19.3pp respectively). IE has seen a substantial increase for large families (13,2pp) but not 

for single parents (2,5pp). IT, which is another country with a very high AROPE increase, 

also sees the position of large family household stable while for other types of households 

(single persons, single parents, households without dependent children) it has increased.  

Table 1. Evolution of the at risk of poverty or social exclusion rate (2008-

2012) across relevant population characteristics and risk groups, in 

percentage points and % for the at-risk-of-poverty threshold  

AROPE AROP

PL
RO
SI
EE
MT
DK
LV
LU
ES
CY
HU
BG
IT
LT
IE
EL
BE
CZ
DE
FR
NL
AT (iii)
PT
SK
FI
SE
UK
HR

-3,8
-2,5
1,1
1,6
2,6
2,7
2,8
2,9
3,7
3,8
4,2
4,5
4,6
4,9
5,7
6,5
~
~
~
~
~

~
~
~
~
~
n.a.

~
~
1,2
-2
~
1,3
-6,2
1,7
1,4
-1,2
1,6
~
0,7
-1,4
~
3
~
~
~
1,4
~

~
2,3
~
2
-2,5
3,2

AROP 

26,7
14,6
~
~
9,8
5,3
-17,1
~
-9,4
~
12,0
21,6
~
-5,1
-7,4
-17,3
7,9
~
5,5
6,4
~

threshold SMD
-4,2
-3
~
4,5
4
~
7
~
2,2
5,9
7,8
2,9
7
7,5
2,3
8,3
~
~
~
~
~
-2,4
-1,1
-1,3
~
~
3,3
n.a.

~
41,5
9,9
9,5
~
n.a.

VLWI male
-3,8
-1,1
-2,3
~
1,7
~
3,4
3,7
3
~
3,4
2,6
4,9
6,4
3,1
1,4
5
7,6
4,6
1,9
4,5
~
4,6
4,3
4,8
~
6,1
6,2
6,3
10,5
7,6
6,7
1,9
2,3
~
~
~
-1,8
1,1
~
~
~
~
3,8
2
1,8
~
2,6
n.a.

~
~
1,1
~
1,7
n.a.

female
-3,9
-2,7
~
~
2,2
1,9
1,1
2,7
2,4
3,1
4
4,5
4,5
3,7
5,1
5,4
~
~
~
~
~

~
~
-1,5
1,1
~
n.a.

0-17
-3,6
1
1,1
3
6,2
2,6
7,3
3,7
3,2
6
7,5
8,1
4,7
2,5
7,5
6,7
2,1
~
-1,7
1,8
1,4

-1,7
2,3
~
~
1,6
n.a.

18-24
-3,2
1,4
1,4
10
7,4
8,7
11,6
4,5
9,4
8,8
2,8
11,1
6,7
7,4
18,1
14,3
~
1,5
~
~
-1,4

3,8
0,2
~
~
7,9
n.a.

25-54
-3,4
~
1,7
5,9
4
4,3
8,7
2,2
8,7
8,2
5
7,1
6,8
7,8
8
10,5
3,2
~
~
1,7
1,3

1
1,5
1,4
~
3,5
n.a.

55-64
-6,4
-6,8
0,6
5,7
-2,8
~
2,8
5,4
2,1
~
1
~
2,4
3,9
~
5,5
-3,8
~
~
~
~

~
-2
~
~
2,5
n.a.

65+
-3,5
-13,5
-1,6
-19,1
-4,5
-4
-24,1
~
-11,1
-15,9
3,1
-6,4
~
-2,4
-8,7
-4,6
-3,4
-1,7
~
-2,8
-3,5

-5,6
-5,6
-4,4
2,4
-11,6
n.a.

employed unemployed inactive

-3,6
~
~
3,7
3,8
1,2
4
1,3
1,7
5,6
3,6
6
5,7
3,5
1,3
3,8
~
~
~
~
~

-3,2
-1,4
-1,6
~
1,6
n.a.

-0,6
3,7
11,6
-1,2
17,5
-3,1
9,5
9,5
11
20,7
7
1,2
9,9
11,2
5,7
10,4
~
-3,3
6,8
-2,3
-2,2

7,6
~
~
~
-4
n.a.

-4,3
2,2
-7,4
6,7
1,7
3,7
8,6
6,5
-1,5
4,4
6,5
11,4
2,6
0,2
3,8
11,1
3,8
8,5
2,7
5
3,8

3
4,7
5,1
6,1
2
n.a.

HH w/out 
dependent 
children
-3,6
-8,2
0,9
-1,7
-1,3
2,9
-4,1
1,8
2
-1
1,8
-1,1
4,4
4,9
4,7
4,4
-0,1

-0,1
-0,6
-1,4

-1
-0,6
0,1
1,3
-1,6
n.a

single 
person
-4,4
-9,4
-2,4
-16,3
-5,3
3,7
-18,1
2,8
-6,5
-3,5
2,5
-9,9
4,1
-5,7
-9
-1,4
-3,8
-2,5
1,7
~
2,6

-8,2
-4,7
~
5,3
-2,5
n.a.

single 
parents
-6,2
-11,2
-11,3
~
-7,1
5,9
8,4
5,1
1,3
-4,7
2,8
12
8,6
-2,7
2,5
22,9
1,2
-10,7
-3,5
3,9
1,4

-12
1,3
-3,2
2,5
-1,2
n.a.

large 
families
-2
-3
4,2
~
7,7
-6
5,4
-1,1
-6,9
5,5
5,6
~
~
-19,3
13,2
12,4
1,9
2
-3
1,5
-1

5,1
~
1,7
3,3
-3,7
n.a.

% share in the 
EU28 AROPE 
8,2
7,2
0,3
0,3
0,1
0,9
0,6
0,1
10,6
0,2
2,6
2,9
14,8
0,8
1,1
3,1
1,9
1,3
12,9
9,6
2,0
1,3
2,2
0,9
0,7
1,4
12,2
1,1

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); Sorted by the size of the AROPE change between 2008 and 2012. 

Notes: i) "" refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant change) with a 1pp threshold level used; ii) no 2012 

data  for  IE,  so  reference  is  made  to  the  period  2008-2011;  iii)  AT  has  changed  the  source  for  income  from  survey  to 

22 

 
 
administrative data. As a result, income related indicators and by definition the target indicator suffer a break in series for 

2012 and are therefore not comparable 2008; iv) breaks in series for 2012 in UK so evolutions need to be interpreted with 

caution; v) 2012 provisional data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; vi) the AROP threshold refers 

to a single person household and is calculated as the percentage change of the threshold expressed in pps. 

Looking at the country-specific situation, we can note that in EL, which has registered the largest 

(6.5pp) deterioration in AROPE rate for the period 2008-2012, a main driver is the increase in the 

severe  material  deprivation  rate  and  the  share  of  (quasi-)  jobless  households.  Youth  (18-24)  and 

workers  in  prime  age  (25-54)  have  seen  their  income  and  living  conditions  worsen  much  more 

than children and older workers, while the income situation of the elderly has improved relative to 

the rest of the population. While the share of working poor has increased somewhat, the AROPE 

rate for people outside of the labour market (unemployed or inactive) has increased above 10pp. 

Single  parents  and  large  families  have  also  seen  their  situation  deteriorate  substantially  with  the 

number  of  single  parents  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social  exclusion  increasing  by  more  than  20 

percentage points. 

In  IT  which  has  been  another  country  with  a  very  strong  increase  in  AROPE  between  2008  and 

2012  (4.6pp),  the  main  driver  has  been  severe  material  deprivation  (an  increase  of  3.7pp).  The 

working age population has fared worse than the elderly. The AROPE rate for the unemployed has 

risen by close to 10pp while for the inactive it has changed only by 2,6pp. While large families have 

not seen a change in their AROPE rate, single parents have been strongly affected. 

Similarly  to  EL,  LT  also  sees  worsening  levels  of  severe  material  deprivation  and  the  share  of 

(quasi-) jobless households behind its AROPE increase of 4.9pp. Youth and workers in primes age 

see strong increases in their AROPE rates while children and families in general seem to have been 

protected  from  further  increases  in  their  AROPE  rates.  While  LT  has  one  of  the  highest  AROPE 

rates for large families in 2008, it has decreased by close to 1/5 in 2012. 

BG is the country with the highest AROPE rate in the EU and it has increased by close to 5pp since 

2008, mainly driven by an increase in the share of (quasi-) jobless households. Prime age working 

population as well as children have been mostly affected. Single parents have seen a very sharp 

increase in their AROPE rates. While the situation of the unemployed has remained rather stable, 

the AROPE for inactive has increased by over 11pp. 

On  the  other  end  of  the  spectrum,  the  only  two  countries  which  have  registered  a  decrease  in 

their AROPE rates for the period 2008-2012 are PL and RO. A main driver behind this change has 

been the improvement in the severe material deprivation rate. The AROPE for all age groups has 

decreased in PL while in RO this has been the case only for the elderly. Similarly, improvements’ 

across  all  households  types  are  observed  with  large  families  experiencing  smaller  decreases  in 

AROPE rates.  

As can be noted from this analysis, behind changes in the AROPE rates lay very different dynamics 

in terms of where the changes come from. Some countries show quite similar patterns in terms of 

the type of individuals mostly affected but a number of Member States have very heterogeneous 

23 

 
profiles.  This  is  due  not  only  to  the  way  the  economic  crisis  has  affected  countries  and  their 

population but also to the structural challenges they face and the policy mix they implement. 

Short-term  development  of  the  relative  poverty  risk  are  rather 

stable  but  increases  are  registered  in  close  to  half  of  all  Member 

States in the longer period  

Looking at the relative poverty rate in the past 8 years, we can see that the EU27 rate has been 

very  stable  and  has  only  started  to  increase  after  2010.  Behind  this  average,  there  are  two 

interesting  facts  worth  highlighting  –while  the  overall  trend  for  the  average  poverty  rate  of  new 

Member States was downward until 2010 with a slight increase in 2011 and back to a decrease in 

2012, the Euro area poverty rate has been registering a rather consistent increase (Figure 11). 

Figure 11. At-risk-of-poverty rate (EU27, EA17, NMS12), 2005-2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

As  highlighted  by  the  recently  published  Draft  Joint  Employment  Report14,  poverty  rates  have 
increased  significantly  since  2008  in  the  South  and  periphery  of  the  EU,  both  in  EA  and  non-EA 

countries.  This  increase  came  on  top  of  already  high  poverty  risk  levels.  Since  2009  at-risk-of-

poverty rates have also increased in Member States in the North and core of the euro area, albeit 

from  a  much  lower  level.  The  extended  period  of  negative  or  close  to  zero  GDP  growth,  rising 

long-term  unemployment  and  the  weakening  over  time  of  automatic  stabilisers  have  now 

impacted on poverty risks in these countries as well.  

Member States experiencing trends of increasing at-risk-of-poverty rates between 2011 and 2012 

include LU, RO and EL. In the vast majority of countries, the poverty rate has remained stable in 

the most recent period with some minor improvements for few Member States – NL, PT, PL, BG 

and LT. In the longer term, since the start of the crisis in 2008, however, the number of countries 

14 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/pdf/2014/jer2014_en.pdf  

24 

 
                                                           
with  worsening  relative  poverty  rates  increases  substantially  to  11  with  highest  increases  in  HR 

(3.2pp), EL (3pp), SK (2.3pp) and SE (2pp) (see Figure 12). 

Figure 12. Evolution of the at-risk-of-poverty rate, 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) * breaks in series for AT and UK in 2012 so evolutions need to be interpreted with caution ;ii) 2012 provisional 

data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; iii) no 2012 data for IE, so evolutions in second graph 

refer  to  the  period  2008-2011;  iv)**  the  median  income  levels  and  the  poverty  threshold  in  LV  and  LT  dropped 

substantially between 2008 and 2012 leading to some categories with stable incomes or income decreasing less than the 

threshold  being  above  the  threshold  without  significant  improvements  in  their  income  situation;  v)  the  classification  in 

decreasing, stable and increasing is based on Eurostat computations of significance of net change. For the change 2008-

2012, a 1pp threshold has been used. vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is the calendar year 

prior  to  the  survey  year  (i.e.  2011)  except  for  the  United  Kingdom  (survey  year)  and  Ireland  (12  months  preceding  the 
survey); v) currently no 2012 data for IE. 

In periods of sudden changes in the median income of the population, as has been the case in a 

number  of  Member  States  during  the  economic  crisis,  the  poverty  threshold  can  move  quite 

substantially and impact on the real implication of evolutions of the poverty rate. A useful way to 

account for this is to keep the poverty threshold fixed in real terms over a longer period of time, 

25 

 
 
therefore controlling for the effects of a moving poverty threshold, and reflect the evolution of the 

real income of the poor and the effectiveness of social inclusion policies. In the current context this 

method  reflects  better  the  deterioration  of  the  real  income  of  the  poor  and  the  lack  of 

effectiveness of social inclusion policies. 

Figure 13 shows the evolution of the at-risk-of-poverty rates anchored in 2008 poverty threshold 

levels. Results suggest that between 2011 and 2012 the largest increases were observed in EL (10.9 

pp),  LU  (2.9  pp),  CY  (2.3 pp)  and  RO  (2.0  pp),  while  LT  (-4.8  pp)  and MT  (-1.9  pp)  reported  the 

largest  decreases.  When  we  look  at  the  longer  time  period  (2008-2012),  we  can  see  that  with 

reference to the beginning of the crisis and keeping the poverty threshold at 2008 value, EL has 

seen the largest increase in its relative poverty rate (15.7pp), followed by LV (9.9pp), LT (7.4pp), ES 

(7.3), IE (6.2pp), EE (4.7pp), LU(4.1pp) and IT (4pp). The biggest improvements are observed in PL 

and SK – a decrease of 5.1pp and 4.9pp, respectively. 

In absolute terms, 18.2 % of the population in the EU-28 in 2012 were at-risk-of-poverty anchored 

in 2008 poverty threshold levels, which is by 1.2 pp higher than the ordinary rate of 17 %. Similarly 

for the Euro Area the rate is slightly higher at 18.7% versus 16.9% of the normal at-risk-of-poverty 

rate. 

26 

Figure 13. At-risk-of-poverty rate anchored in 2008 for 2008, 2011 and 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) sorted on the anchored-AROP for 2012; ii) breaks in series in 2012 for AT and UK; iii) 2012 provisional data for BE; 

iv) no 2012 data available for IE; v) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is the calendar year prior to 

the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). 

Deterioration  in  living  standards  and  increasing  depth  of  poverty 

are  becoming  a  very  tangible  consequence  of  the  economic  crisis 

in some countries 

Looking  at  the  relative  poverty  rate  set  with  other  thresholds  (40%,  50%  of  equivalised  median 

income) can give further information on the shape of the distribution around the 60% threshold 

and to see what share of the population living below the 60% poverty threshold actually finds itself 

in the very bottom of the income distribution. When many incomes are concentrated around the 

threshold,  the  exact  level  of  the  threshold  can  have  a  considerable  impact  on  the  at-risk-of-

poverty rate. Looking at 2012 data (Figure 14), we can see that overall for countries with equal level 

of poverty risk at the 60% threshold, the share of people at the very bottom, i.e. below the 40% 

threshold is quite similar. The only notable exception is DK whose share of people at the bottom 

(below  40%)  is  twice  as  high  than  that  of  FI  while  they  share  very  similar  poverty  risk  rates.  The 

overall  ranking  of  countries  does  not  change  substantially  with  the  exception  of  FR,  MT  and  LU 

which see their positions improve as they have a stronger concentration of the people around the 

60% threshold. 

27 

 
Figure 14. At-risk-of-poverty rate at different threshold levels (40%, 50% and 

60% of median equivalised income), 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) sorted on the AROP  rate with a 60% threshold ii) Latest data  available for Ireland refers to 2011. iii) provisional 

data for BE  iv) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 

2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). 

It is interesting to look at the evolution of the poverty rate at the different threshold-levels as this 

gives  an  indication  as  to  where  the  major  changes  have  occurred  –  more  people  slipping  into 

more severe forms of poverty or rather more people concentrating at the 60% poverty threshold 

level.  

Table  2  below  shows  the  evolution  in  the  short-term  (2011-2012)  and  long-term  (2008-2012) 

highlighting  only  changes  above  1pp.  The  main  observation  that  we  can  make  is  that  for  the 

countries which have seen the major increases in the relative poverty risk since 2008, the changes 

observed have been more or less of similar magnitude regardless of the threshold level used. 

28 

 
Table 2. Evolution (in pp) of the at-risk-of-poverty rate at different poverty 

threshold levels (40%, 50%, 60%), 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

pp change 2008-2012
50%
n.a.
~
~
0,5
~
~
1,5
~
~
~
3,3
1,9
1,2
n.a.
~
~
-5,2
-2,4
~
1,8
-1,3
~

~
~
~
~
2,1
~
1,3
-2,0

60%
n.a.
~
1,0
0,1
~
~
1,3
~
-2,0
~
3,0
1,4
1,6
3,2
~
-1,2
-6,7
-1,4
1,7
1,6
~
~

~
~
~
1,2
2,3
~
2,0
-2,5

40%
n.a.
~
~
0,4
1,7
~
1,4
~
1,2
2,0
3,9
3,1
~
n.a.
1,0
~
-2,5
~
~
~
-1,3
~

~
~
~
~
1,2
~
~
~

EU28
EU27
EA17
BE*
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL
ES
FR
HR
IT
CY
LV**
LT**
LU
HU
MT
NL
AT*
PL
PT
RO
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK*

pp change 2011-2012
50%
~
~
~
-0,3
-1,1
~
~
~
~
n.a.
1,8
~
~
~
~
~
~
-1,7
~
~
-1,0
~

60%
~
~
~
-0,5
-1,0
~
~
~
~
n.a.
1,7
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
1,5
~
~
~

40%
~
~
~
0,0
~
~
~
~
~
n.a.
2,4
~
~
~
~
~
~
-1,8
~
~
~
~

~
1,1
~
~
~
~
~
~

~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~

~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) * AT has changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators 

suffer a break in series for 2012 and are therefore not comparable to 2011 and 2008. For UK, changes in the survey vehicle 

and  institution  might  have  affected  the  results  and  interpretation  of  data  must  therefore  be  particularly  cautious. 

Provisional data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; ii) **LV and LT shows positive developments 

but the value of the poverty threshold for the period 2008-2012 has decreased substantially so these need to be taken with 

caution. 

The poverty gap is another way of looking at the depth of poverty, indicating the extent to which 

the  incomes  of  those  at  risk  of  poverty  fall  below  the  poverty  threshold  on  average.  In  policy 

terms, it indicates the scale of transfers which would be necessary to bring the incomes of those 

concerned up to the poverty threshold. The poverty gap in the EU27 in 2012 was 23.4% lower than 

the at-risk-of-poverty threshold. This is up by 1.6 pp since 2008 and stable since 2011. The poverty 

gap in the EU27 countries varies between 15% (in FI) to around 30% (RO, LV, HR, EL). It is highly 

29 

 
concerning that the poverty gap has increased in more than half of all Member States since 2008, 

and in some countries quite substantially (DK, EL, BG, EE, HR, CY, HU) (Figure 15). 

Figure 15. Relative median at-risk-of-poverty gap, evolution in pp, 2011-2012 

and 2008-12 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

CY
19,0

~

3,7

EU28
23,5

EU27
23,4

EA17
23,4

~

n.a.

LV
28,4

-3,4

~

~

1,6

LT
22,6

-6,4

~

2,4

LU
15,0

~

-3,1

-1,6

BE
18,1

-0,5

0,9

HU
21,0

2,7

3,7

BG
31,4

2,0

4,4

MT
16,0

-1,7

-4,4

CZ
19,1

1,9

~
NL
17,3

1,8

2,4

DK
22,8

1,4

4,8

AT (ii)
20,1

DE
21,1

~

-1,1

PL
22,2

~

1,6

EE
23,8

-2,2

3,5

PT
24,7

1,5

1,5

IE
17,5

n.a

~
RO
30,9

~

-1,4

EL
29,9

3,8

5,2

SI
19,1

~

~

ES
31,4

~

7,0

SK
20,5

-2,3

2,4

FR
16,2

~

1,4

FI
15,0

1,5

~

HR
28,8

~

3,8

SE
18,6

~

~

IT
25,4

~

2,4

UK
21,0

~

~

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in 

series  for  2012  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  and  2008.  AT  will  be  able  to  provide  a  comprehensive  back-

calculation  of  the  timeline  until  the  base  year  2008  at  the  end  of  2014;  iii)  For  UK,  changes  in  the  survey  vehicle  and 

institution might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; iv) Provisional 

data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) Only statistically significant changes have been marked 

in green/red (positive/negative changes). For the change 2011-2012, Eurostat computations of significance of net change. 

For the change 2008-2012, a 1pp threshold has been used. "~" refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant 

change).  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate,  the  income  reference  year  is  the  calendar  year  prior  to  the  survey  year  (i.e. 
2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). 

After  the  evidence  presented  in  the  previous  sections,  it  comes  to  no  surprise  that  we  observe 

substantial  increases  in  the  severe  material  deprivation  rates  in  some  Member  States  and  clear 

signs of worsening living standards not only in countries with historically high rates. 

30 

 
 
Figure 16. Severe material deprivation rate, 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) breaks in series for AT and UK in 2012 so evolutions need to be interpreted with caution; ii) 2012 provisional data 

for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; iii) no 2012 data for IE, so evolutions in second graph refer to 

the  period  2008-2011;ii))  the  classification  in  decreasing,  stable  and  increasing  is  based  on  Eurostat  computations  of 

significance of net change. For the change 2008-2012, a 1pp threshold has been used. vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, 

the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey 
year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey); v) currently no 2012 data for IE. 

Figure  16  shows  the  evolution  of  the  severe  material  deprivation  rate  both  with  respect  to  2008 

and  2011.  In  the  period  2011-2012  13  Member  States  saw  statistically  significant  increases  in  the 

share of their population living in poverty or social exclusion (highest increases – EL (4.3pp), IT and 

CY (3.3pp). In reference to 2008 they are 12 (highest increases – LV (12.4pp), LT (6.7pp) HU (5.2pp) 

and  EL  (4p)).The  countries  most  affected  by  the  economic  crisis  are  the  ones  seeing  the  worst 

31 

 
 
 
trends – EL, LT, EE, CY, IT, HU but also MT. LV is a specific example as it is the country with the 

highest increase since 2008 but most recent data from 2012 shows a very sharp improvement in 

the  situation  -  a  decrease  of  5.4pp.  PL  and  RO  are  the  countries  with  the  most  important 

improvements since 2008. 

Eurostat15 points out that the among the material deprivation items16, facing unexpected expenses 
showed the greatest variation in 2012 at EU-28 level compared with 2011. This item measures the 

ability of a household to cover from their own resources an unexpected expense amounting to a 

fraction  (1/12)  of  the  poverty  threshold.  The  amount  varies  between  countries  from  about  EUR 

105.8 in RO to about EUR 1639 in LU. In 2012, 40.2 % of the EU-28 population reported difficulties 

in  facing  such  unexpected  expenses.  This  represents  an  increase  of 2.1  pp  compared  with  2011. 

There is considerable variation among Member States. The percentage of people reporting such 

difficulties ranges from 25 % or less in BE, LU, MT, NL and SE to more than 60 % in BG, HR, LV, LT 

and HU. Compared with 2011, the percentage of people reporting difficulties in facing unexpected 

expenses increased by more than 5 pp in PT (6.8 pp), UK (6.2 pp) and EL (6.1 pp). At the same time 

it decreased by more than 2 pp in LV (-6.9 pp), CY (-2.4 pp) and MT (-2.1 pp).   

Reporting from Member States shows mixed trends in the levels of 

household over-indebtedness 

Reporting from Member States through their SPC delegates shows mixed evidence on trends of 

household indebtedness across countries. In HU, the average number of loans per household has 

declined  from  0.37  in  2010  to  0.33  in  2012.  In  EE,  the  number  of  consumer  loan  contracts 

decreased  by  almost  5%  between  2012  and  2013  In  PT  the  number  of  total  borrowers  (private 

individuals)  decreased  by  4%  between  Q2  2011  and  Q2  2013  and  the  nominal  amount  of  loans 

granted  to  private  individuals  reduced  by  9.5%  between  Q1  2011  and  Q2  2013  after  a  period  of 

increases  between  2009  and  2011.  In  HR,  although  weakened,  the  long-term  process  of 

deleveraging  in  households  continued  at  the  beginning  of  2013,  when  the  total  debt  of  the 

population  stagnated  at  slightly  below  40%,  decreasing  by  almost  1.2%  in  the  last  year  and  the 

ratio of debt to available household income remained at the mid-2012 level. In PL, the percentage 

of surveyed households declaring to have loans or credits to repay decreased from 39% in 2011 to 
35% in 201317. However, the debt of the households was most often above the amount equivalent 
to their yearly income (debt in this amount was declared by almost 24% of households being in 

15 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/People_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion 

16 Material deprivation refers to a state of economic strain and durables, defined as the enforced inability (rather than the 
choice  not  to  do  so)  to  pay  unexpected  expenses,  afford  a  one-week  annual  holiday  away  from  home,  a  meal 
involving meat, chicken or fish every second day, the adequate heating of a dwelling, durable goods like a washing 
machine, colour television, telephone or car, being confronted with payment arrears (mortgage or rent, utility bills, 
hire purchase instalments or other loan payments). 

17 Social Diagnosis 2013 

32 

                                                           
debt18) and the percentage of households with debts equivalent to their yearly income increased 
from 17% in 2009 to 24% in 2013, while there was a significant drop in the number of households 

with debts equivalent to their 1-month income. 

Household indebtedness seemed to intensify in CY where household debt reached 137.3% of GDP 

in Q1 2013 compared to 107.1% of GDP in Q1 2008, continuing its upward trend of the last decade. 

In parallel, the value of households' net financial assets deteriorated from a 151.8% of GDP in Q1 
2008 to 114.4% of GDP in Q1 201319. In FI, half of household-dwelling units had debts in 2012 and 
debts represented an average 111% of household dwelling-units disposable income in 201120. 

Regarding the characteristics of the indebted population, in PL households of married couples with 

2  children  and  households  of  married  couples  with  many  children  represented  over  49%  and 
almost 47% respectively of the total number of households in debt in 201321. In FI, households in 
the 25-44 age group were the most indebted22. In HU, households with two adults and 3 children 
or more had the highest average number of loans per household in 2012. In the NL, problematic 

debts  tend  to  affect  particularly  households  consisting  of  women  and  single  persons  with  a  low 

educational level and living in a rented house. 

Over-indebtedness  might  lead  to  difficulties  in  the  repayment  of  loans  by  households.  In  this 

sense, some negative trends are observed in several countries such as AT, FR, CY, PT, FI and SE.  In 

AT, there has been a continuous rise in the number of persons with severe repayment problems as 

well as in the total number of repayment problems in the period between Q3 2009 and Q3 2012. 

A slight decrease in both categories is however observed in the period 2012-2013, although levels 

by  Q3  2013  are  still  a  12.8%  higher  (for  people  with  severe  repayment  problems)  and  a  14.6% 
higher (for number of repayment problems) compared to Q3 2009 levels23. In FR, the number of 
over-indebtedness  cases  declared  acceptable  by  the  over-indebtedness  committees  (Banque  de 

France)  has  increased  from  the  156,859  cases  in  2007  to  the  202,971  cases  in  2011,  with  a  11.5% 
increase in the last year (2010-2011)24.  In CY, the percentage of non-performing loans on the total 
of outstanding loans to private individuals has almost doubled since 2011, representing a 22% of all 
loans  to  individuals  in  Q3  2013  (it  was  11.4%  in  Q4  2011)25.  The  number  of  new  registered 
bankruptcies of natural persons has however declined since 2009. In particular, its amount in 2012 

was 561, a 42.2% of those registered in 2009, when they peaked. In PT, the percentage of overdue 

loans over total loans of private individuals (families) increased from 2.5% in Q1 2009 to 4.3% in 

Q2 2013. The percentage of borrowers with overdue loans also increased in the same period, from 

18 Social Diagnosis 2013 

19 Central Bank of Cyprus 

20 Statistics Finland 

21 Social Diagnosis 2013 ( http://www.diagnoza.com/index-en.html) 

22 Statistics Finland 

23 Kreditschutzverband 1870 

24 Banque de France 

25 Central Bank of Cyprus 

33 

                                                           
14.2%  to  15.5%26.  Also  the  number  of  insolvency  proceedings  completed  in  court  has  been 
increasing  at  high  rates  since  2007,  so  that  in  2012  their  number  was  5.8  times  that  of  2007.  In 

addition, insolvency proceedings of single natural persons witnessed the highest increase, with  a 
share of 60.9% of all insolvency proceedings in 2012, while they represented a 18.7% in 200727. In 
FI,  the  number  of  people  with  payment  defaults  has  increased  by  between  3-6  pp  per  year 

between 2008-2012, while the number of new payment defaults has considerably increased in the 
period  between  2010-2012,  with  new  defaults  in  2012  being  47.6%  higher  than  in  201028.  In 
addition, the number of debt restructuring petitions increased by 28.4% between 2008 and 201229. 
In  SE,  the  annual  number  of  received  applications  for  debt  restructuring  increased  every  year  in 

the 2008-2012 period (their number in 2012 was a 38.8% higher than in 2008). Approvals of debt 

restructuring have also raised in the 2008-2012 period, and their number in 2012 was a 26% higher 
than in year 2008, having more than doubled since 200530. 

Decreasing  trends  are  found  in  the  last  years  in  EE  and  CZ.  In  EE  the  number  of  hopeless 

consumer loan contracts reduced by 14% between 2012 and 2013, when they represented a 1.4% 
of  all  consumer  loan  contracts31.  In  CZ,  the  percentage  of  credits  to  households  by  the  banking 
sector rated as "risk credits" by Q3 2013 (5.1%) was a 0.1 pp lower than in Q3 2012 and 0.2pp lower 

than in Q3 2011. An important share of household "risk credits" was linked to consumer lending. 

A recent research by Eurofound on "Household over-indebtedness in the EU: The role of informal 
debts32"  shows  that  low-income  groups,  single  parents  and  people  living  in  social  housing  are 
most  likely  to  report  having  informal  arrears.  Such  payment  problems  may  lead  to  delayed 

detection of debt problems by service providers who could help, loss of social support when most 

needed, and the domino effects of default. Most people with arrears in utility bills have informal 

arrears as well, so even when arrears observed in the formal sphere may look small, more financial 

problems may be unseen in the background. Conversely, most people with informal arrears have 

arrears in other areas as well. While it is not clear from the data which come first, it suggests early 

detection may be easier than one might expect. In general, feelings of absolute housing security 

have declined in the EU28. They are especially low for people with informal arrears, 13% of whom 

believe  it  likely  that  they  will  need  to  leave  their  accommodation  because  they  cannot  afford  it; 

relatively  few  find  it  very  unlikely.  People  with  informal  arrears  experience  difficulties  accessing 

healthcare  services  relatively  often  because  of  cost,  which  is  of  particular  concern  because  they 

have  worse  self-reported  health.  People  with  informal  arrears  are  often  confident  that  they  can 

26 Portuguese Central Bank (Banco de Portugal) 

27 Directorate General for Justice Policy, Portuguese Ministry of Justice 

28 Suomen Asiakastieto Oy 

29 Statistics Finland 

30 Swedish Enforcement Authority 

31 Bank of Estonia 

32 http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2013/73/en/2/EF1373EN.pdf 

34 

                                                           
continue relying on relatives or friends when they need to borrow money. Nevertheless, they are 

also particularly likely to have nobody to turn to when they urgently need money.  

Long-term exclusion from the labour market continues to be a 

main driver of increasing trends in poverty and social exclusion 

Unemployment  and  long-term  unemployment  have  been  some  of  the  more  immediate  and 

tangible  impacts  of  the  economic  crisis.  While  the  share  of  (quasi-)  jobless  households  has 

stabilised  in  some  countries  in  2012  (CZ,  DK,  HR,  IT,  LU,  HU,  MT,  NL,  AT,  PL  SI,  SK)  and  has 

improved in some others (DE, EE, FR, LV, LT, FI), it remains a major issue in the countries mostly 

affected  by  the  crisis  (EL,  ES,  CY,  RO,  PT)  but  also  in  BG  and  UK  with  EL  registering  the  biggest 

increases between 2011 and 2012 at 3.2pp (Figure 17.. With reference to 2008, 16 Member States 

have statistically significant increases in their share and for 1/3 of them the increase is above 5pp – 

IE (10.5pp), ES (7.6pp), EL (6.7pp), LV (6.4pp), LT (6.2pp) but the Baltic countries are experiencing 

an  improvement  in  the  most  recent  period.  The  evolution  in  the  long-term  unemployment  rate 

largely supports this picture.  

Figure 17. Evolution of the share of people living in (quasi-) jobless 

households, 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

CY
6,4

1,5

1,9

EU28
10,0

EU27
9,9

EA17
10,4

~

n.a.

LV
11,5

-1,1

~

~
LT
11,3

-1,3

6,4

6,2

~

1,2

LU
6,1

~

1,4

BE
14,0

0,3

2,3

HU
12,7

~

~

BG
12,4

1,4

4,3

MT
7,9

~

~

CZ
6,8

~

~
NL
8,7

~

~

DK
10,9

~

2,6

AT
7,6

~

~

DE
9,8

-1,3

-1,8

PL
6,8

~

-1,1

EE
9,0

-0,9

IE
24,1

n.a

3,7

10,5

PT
10,1

1,9

3,8

RO
7,4

0,7

~

EL
14,1

ES
14,2

2,3

6,7

SI
7,5

~

~

0,9

7,6

SK
7,2

~

2,0

FR
8,4

-0,9

~
FI
9,1

-0,7

1,8

HR
16,1

~

n.a.

SE
5,7

-1,2

~

IT
10,3

~

~
UK
13,0

1,5

2,6

 Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refer to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) There is 

breaks in series for UK for 2012 so evolutions need to be interpreted with caution. iii) Provisional data for BE does not allow 

for  reliable  assessment  of  evolutions;  iv)  Only  statistically  significant  changes  have  been  marked  in  green/red 

(positive/negative  changes).  For  the  change  2011-2012,  Eurostat  computations  of  significance  of  net  change  have  been 

used.  For  the  change  2008-2012,  a  1pp  threshold  has  been  used.  "~"  refers  to  stable  performance  (i.e.  statistically 

insignificant change). v) The (quasi-) jobless households rate refers to the previous calendar year (i.e. 2011). 

Unemployment has worrisome social costs – higher probabilities of lower life-satisfaction, poorer 

health,  a  greater  sense  of  disillusionment  with  economic  and  social  trends  and  a  far  more 

pessimistic assessment of labour market prospects. The important point about all these identified 

social  effects  is  that,  once  established,  they  become  increasingly  difficult  to  eradicate  (Saunders, 

2002).  In  fact,  past  experiences  of  recessions  in  the  EU  and  other  parts  of  the  world  show  that 

long-term  unemployment  continues  to  rise  after  total  unemployment  has  peaked,  and  takes  a 

long  time  before  starting  to  decline.  For  instance,  during  the  1990's  in  the  EU,  while  overall 

35 

 
unemployment  had  already started  to decline  in 1995  (following  the  increases  during  the  period 

1991-94) the number of long-term unemployed decreased only from 1998. There is also evidence 

from previous recessions that sharp increases in unemployment are not only long lasting, but are 

also not completely reversed in subsequent recoveries (OECD, 2009). 

One  of  the  most  significant  challenges  for  social policy  over  the  next  years  will  involve  far  more 

than lowering total unemployment back to its former levels, because this in itself will not unwind 

the  cumulative  long-term  social  effects  that  accompany  the  rise  in  unemployment.  In  some 

countries,  increasing  numbers  of  people  are  moving  onto  long-term  sickness  and  disability 

benefits or early retirement schemes. Of these people, many are likely never to enter or return to 

the  labour  market.  Moreover,  workers  in  some  sectors/occupations  (such  as  in  the  construction 

sector,  where  the  incidence  of  long-term  unemployment  was  previously  limited),  experienced 

double  disadvantage:  higher  probability  of  becoming  unemployed,  and  if  unemployed,  higher 

chance  of  becoming  long-term  unemployed.  This  underlines  the  role  of  job  creation  policies, 

especially  in  growing  sectors,  to  ensure  new  places  for  both  the  short-term  and  long-term 

unemployed as well as of activation measures focusing on re-training in order to adapt workers' 

skills to the new needs of the labour market. Furthermore, there is need for early identification of 

short-term  unemployed  with  an  increased  risk  of  slipping  into  long-term  unemployment  and 

subsequent  provision  of  additional  interventions,  such  as  personal  counselling  and  tailored 

activation  programmes  including  re-training  and  up-skilling.  Even  though  such  targeted 

interventions  tend  to  be  more  costly  in  the  short  run,  their  longer-term  individual  and  societal 

benefits  prevail,  and  their  importance  becomes  pivotal  at  the  moment  when  long-term 

unemployment  threatens  leaving  permanent  scars  on  significant  proportions  of  human  capital 

stock in many EU countries (European Commission, 2013b). 

Steady share of working poor with strong divergence across 

Member States 

Having a job is not always a guarantee against the risk of poverty as the working poor represent 

one  third  of  working-age  adults  at-risk-of-poverty.  In  2012,  9.1%  of  the  people  in  employment 

were  living  under  the  poverty  threshold  in  the  EU  and  the  situation  has  worsened  in  the  period 

2011-2012 in 8 Member States. Most substantial increases are noted in EL (3.2pp) while consistent 
improvement  are  observed  in  PL  and  PT  and  to  some  extent  in  LV  and  LT  where,  however,  the 
median  income  levels  and  the  poverty  threshold  between  2008  and  2012.  Highest  rates  are 

observed in  RO  (18.9%), mostly  driven  by  the  high  poverty  risk  for  the  self-employed,  EL  (15.1%) 

and ES (12.3%). In-work poverty was identified as a social trend to watch in 2012 by the SPC (SPC, 

2012)  and  Chapter  2  presents  detailed  analysis of  the  situation  in  Member  States  and  the  policy 

measures implemented across Member States.  

36 

Figure 18. Evolution of the share of working poor, 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

CY
8,0

0,7

1,7

EU28
9,1

EU27
9,1

EA17
8,9

~

n.a.

LV
9,1

-0,5

-2,1

~

~
LT
7,7

-1,9

-1,8

~

~
LU
10,3

~

~

BE
4,5

0,4

-0,2

HU
5,3

-0,8

~

BG
7,4

-0,8

~
MT
5,7

~

~

CZ
4,6

0,5

1,0

NL
4,6

-0,8

~

DK
5,7

-0,6

~
AT (ii)
8,2

DE
7,7

~

~
PL
10,4

-0,8

-1,1

EE
8,5

~

1,1

PT
9,9

-0,3

-1,4

IE
5,3

n.a

-1,0

RO
18,9

0,3

2,1

EL
15,1

3,2

~
SI
6,5

0,5

1,4

ES
12,3

0,2

1,2

SK
6,2

~

~

FR
8,0

0,4

1,4

FI
3,8

~

-1,3

HR
6,2

-0,7

n.a.

SE
6,7

~

~

IT
11,1

~

2,1

UK
8,8

1,0

~

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in 

series for 2012 and are therefore not comparable to 2011 and 2008; iii) For UK, changes in the survey vehicle and institution 

might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious;;iv) Provisional data for 

BE  does  not  allow  for  reliable  assessment  of  evolutions;  v)  Only  statistically  significant  changes  have  been  marked  in 

green/red  (positive/negative  changes).  For  the  change  2011-2012,  Eurostat  computations  of  significance  of  net  change 

have  been  used.  For  the  change  2008-2012,  a  1pp  threshold  has  been  used.  "~"  refers  to  stable  performance  (i.e. 

statistically insignificant change). vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is the calendar year prior to 

the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey).  

What are the most recent trends in child poverty and youth 

exclusion? 

As we saw in the previous sections, long-term exclusion from the labour market continues to be 

one of the main drivers in the deterioration of income and living standards, alongside the phasing 

out  the  automatic  stabilization  tools  of  social  protection  systems  in  the  face  of  the  prolonged 

economic downturns and persistent levels of in-work poverty. This is particularly important when 

we  discuss  the  situation  of  children  as  unemployment,  low  work  intensity  of  parents  and  low 

earnings,  in  some  countries  coupled  with  low  access  to  services  and  weak  impact  of  income 

support measures, are among the main factors leading to child poverty and social exclusion. 

There are 26.5 million children in Europe who lived in poverty or social exclusion in 2012 or 1/5 of 

all  people  living  in  poverty  or  social  exclusion.  The  situation  is  continuously  worsening,  with  8 

Member  States  which  have  registered  statistically  significant  increases  in  the  most  recent  period 

2011-2012, for some countries with very sharp deterioration above 3pp – EL (5pp), CY (4.1pp), MT 

(3.9pp) and RO (3.1pp). The situation with respect to the longer term is even more alarming with 

19 Member States or 2/3 of all Member States seeing statistically significant increases in the rate of 

child  poverty  and  social  exclusion  between2008  and  2012.  In  a  number  of  countries,  these 
increases in the longer term (2008-2012) are in the range of 6-8pp (BG-8.1pp, IE33 and HU-7.5pp, 
LV-7.3pp, EL-6.7pp, MT-6.2pp, CY-6pp). 

33 Latest data for IE refers to 2011. 

37 

 
                                                           
Only three Member States (DE, PT and PL) recorded a decrease in their child poverty and social 

exclusion for the period 2008-2012. 

In  2012  the  situation  has  stabilised  in  8  Member  States.  Some  countries  have  seen  slight 
improvement, notably the Baltic States. (Figure 19)  

Figure 19. Evolution of the share of children (0-17) at risk of poverty or social 

exclusion between 2008, 2011 and 2012 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

CY
27,5

4,1

6,0

EU28
28,1

EU27
28,0

EA17
25,5

~

n.a.

LV
40,5

-4,1

~

1,4

LT
31,9

-2,7

7,3

2,5

~

1,7

LU
24,6

2,9

3,7

BE
23,4

0,1

2,1

HU
40,9

~

7,5

BG
52,3

~

8,1

MT
29,7

3,9

6,2

CZ
18,8

-1,2

~
NL
16,9

-1,1

1,4

DK
15,3

~

2,6

AT (ii)
20,9

DE
18,4

-1,5

-1,7

PL
29,3

~

EE
22,4

-2,4

3,0

PT
27,8

-0,8

-3,6

-1,7

IE
34,1

n.a

7,5

RO
52,2

3,1

1,0

EL
35,4

5,0

6,7

SI
16,4

-0,9

1,1

ES
33,8

0,6

3,2

SK
26,6

~

2,3

FR
23,2

~

1,8

FI
14,9

~

~

HR
33,8

~

n.a.

SE
15,4

~

~

IT
33,8

1,6

4,7

UK
31,2

4,3

1,6

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); 

Notes:  i) Latest  data  available  for  IE  refers  to  2011  and  changes  are  presented  for  the  period  2008-2011  only.  ii)  AT  has 

changed  the  source  for  income  from  survey  to  administrative  data.  As  a  result,  income-related  indicators  and,  by 

definition, the target indicator suffer a break in series for 2012 and are therefore not comparable to 2011 and 2008. AT will 

be able to provide a comprehensive back-calculation of the timeline until the base year 2008 at the end of 2014; iii) For UK, 

changes in the survey vehicle and institution might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be 

particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) Only statistically 

significant  changes  have  been  marked  in  green/red  (positive/negative  changes).  For  the  change  2011-2012,  Eurostat 

computations of significance of net change have been used. For the change 2008-2012, a 1pp threshold has been used. "~" 

refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant change). vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference 

year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 

months  preceding  the  survey).  Similarly,  the  very  low  work  intensity  rate  refers  to  the  previous  calendar  year  (i.e.  2011) 

while for the severe material deprivation rate, the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

Child  poverty  was  identified  as  one  of  the  social  trends  to  watch  by  the  Social  Protection 

Committee in its previous Annual Report (SPC, 2013) and continues to be a trend to watch based 

on the most recent new figures. It prompted an in-depth thematic review by the SPC. Chapter 2 of 

this report presents the results of this review and gives detailed analysis of the situation of children 
in the EU as well as the ways Member States are addressing it.  

While  the  worrisome  levels  of  child  poverty  and  what  they  imply  in  terms  of  human  capital 

development  pose  an  important  question  on  the  longer-term  future  of  European  countries,  the 

disproportionate ways in which the recent economic crisis has affected youth is an important alarm 

bell for the very short-term. The gloomy outlook for the young implies growing risks of long-term 

unemployment  and  lasting  inactivity.  The  labour  market  situation  of  young  people  and  their 

exclusion from social security rights is becoming an increasingly urgent social matter.  

38 

 
While between 2010 and 2011 the youth unemployment ratio34 had remained rather stable, in 2012 
it has increased in 9 Member States with highest increase in EL (3.1pp) Since the beginning of the 

crisis a significant increase has been witnessed in all but 5 Member States with the highest changes 

observed in EL, ES, PT and CY. Improvement has been registered only in DE (Figure 20). 

Figure 20. Youth unemployment ratio (15-24), 2008, 2011 and 2012 

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

Albeit from relatively low levels, long-term unemployment increased even for the highly educated 

young between 2008 and 2011.  

Analysis  by  the  European  Commission  (2012d)  shows  that  the  difficult  labour  market  situation  is 

reflected in a rise in inactivity among young people of roughly 1.5 pp, most of which took the form 

of labour market withdrawal rather than continued enrolment in education.  

The developments that have taken place since spring 2008 may have serious consequences as the 

delayed transition to the labour market and frequent periods of unemployment during a person's 

34 The reason for looking at both youth unemployment rates and ratios is that a use of only the unemployment rate can 
produce a distorted picture when comparing the youth labour markets of different countries. More precisely, one 
difficulty with using the unemployment rate as an indicator for the labour market performance, especially of young 
people, is that it shows the number of unemployed youth as a percentage of the youth labour force, i.e. those who 
are either employed or unemployed but actively looking for work. Using the youth labour force as a denominator 
can lead to distortions when comparing countries with great differences in youth activity rates or when activity rates 
change significantly over time. For instance, youth unemployment rates for two countries with identical numbers of 
youth  and  unemployed  youth  will  differ  if  one  country  has  a  higher  share  of  youth  not  available  for  the  labour 
market because of, for example, a higher number of youth in education. More concretely, the country with a higher 
share of youth in education (or otherwise inactive) will display a higher youth unemployment rate. 

39 

 
                                                           
early  working  life  may  have  lasting  adverse  effects  on  future  employment  and  wage  prospects. 

Long-term  unemployment,  detachment  from  the  labour  market  and  education  or  training  may 

also intensify, leading to poverty and social exclusion, and other social challenges. 

Young people are particularly vulnerable to social exclusion and poverty as they move towards an 

independent  life  away  from  the  parental  household,  a  key  step  which  involves  looking  for  work 

and establishing their own household. For many, however, this is far from easy. Even if they find 

employment, they often start with low-paid jobs, which can make sustaining a household difficult. 

As Ward et al (2009) highlight, the process of achieving autonomy is influenced by public policies 

in  a  number  of  areas,  including  employment,  education,  housing  and  social  protection,  and  the 

outcomes have important implications for society as revealed in fertility and demographic trends.  

Low  activity  of  youth  as  such  should  not  be  the  major  concern,  given  the  high  proportion  of 

students among the young generation (close to 80% of the youngest age group 15-19) but rather 

the  proportion  of  young  people  who  are  neither  in  employment  nor  in  education  and  training 

(NEET).  Among  the  roughly  7.5  million  young  (an  increase  of  600,000  in  three  years)  who  are 

neither  in  employment  nor  in  education  or  training  (NEET),  there  are  more  and  more  university 

graduates who cannot find a first job. The share of young NEETs in the EU had been shrinking up 

until 2008, but has been growing again since then. Strong deterioration in the NEET rates for the 

period 2008-2012 has been registered in EL, IT, ES, IE, CY, HR, RO, HU, PT and SI while the only 

consistent  albeit  not  very  large  decrease  has  been  observed  in  DE.  LV  and  LT  register  some 

improvement in the last period 2011-2012. 

The  ranking  of  countries  according  to  their  NEET  rates  in  2012  is  topped  by  EL,  IT  and  BG,  all 

above the 25% mark, followed by ES, IE, CY, HR and RO. At the bottom are NL, LU, AT and DK.  

Figure 21. NEET (not in employment, education or training) rates (18-24), 

2008, 2011 and 2012 

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

40 

Early  school  leaving  increases  the  prospect of  young people  entering  the  labour market  without 

adequate skills, who then may face unemployment or in-work poverty. Still, one out of every six 

early school leavers has completed only compulsory education or less. Across Europe, early school 

leaver rates range from as low as around 4-5% in the HR, SI, SK, CZ, PL to as much as 24.9% in ES. 

Changes since 2008 have been positive in many countries with 16 Member States decreasing the 

early school leavers rate by more than 1pp, most notably in Portugal (-14.6pp ), ES (-7pp) and MT 

(-6.7pp). In the latest year for which data is available, 2012, further improvements have occurred 

and  stabilised  (Figure  22).  School  drop-out  rates  are  much  higher  for  children  with  a  Roma  or 

migrant background and also for children with special needs (Social Protection Committee, 2012). 

Early  school  leaving  also  shows  a  strong  correlation  with  poverty-associated  factors  such  as 

learning  difficulties,  discrimination,  rejection  by  peers,  hampered  mobility,  school  accessibility  or 

ghettoization.  

Figure 22. Early leavers from education and training (15-24), 2008, 2011 and 

2012

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

The  2012  SPC  Advisory  Report  on  Tackling  Child  Poverty  and  the  European  Commission  Social 

Investment Package highlighted the importance of following a comprehensive approach to tackle 

early school-leaving. This means integrated multi-level responses linking the home, the child, the 

school, adult education, community and relevant services. Schools, social and employment services 

and  parents  should  combine  their  efforts  and  work  together  to  prevent  early  school  leaving. 

Offering a greater variety of education and training possibilities, both formal and informal as well 

as after school programmes, creating permeable and flexible education pathways, forming smaller 

classes  and  preparing  individualised  education  plans,  may  help  reduce  early  school-leaving. 

Providing  quality  vocational  training  options,  educational  experimental  frameworks  aimed  at 

boosting  the  attractiveness  of  schools  and  enhancing  motivation  of  pupils  as  well  as  special 

programmes  for  children  with  specific  needs  are  vital  to  combat  disadvantages.  Improving 

41 

availability of alternative or non-formal education, raising the compulsory schooling age or making 

secondary schools universally accessible will improve the flexibility of education systems. 

The ability of the EU to tackle the challenges related to child poverty and youth exclusion will be 

decisive in its capacity to guarantee a long-term future to its citizens. As pointed out by European 

Commission  (2013b),  the  positive  link  between  human  capital  and  productivity,  and  therefore 

economic growth, has been clearly established by economic literature. It is, therefore, particularly 

worrying that the economic recession has had an especially strong negative impact on youth and 

children.  More  young  people  and  children  face  poverty  and  exclusion,  which  imperils  the 

development of those generations' human capital. The EU is at risk of creating a "lost generation" 

that might not be able to make use of its full potential in the society and economy. An insufficient 

level  of  human  capital  would  affect  individuals'  employability  and  productivity  and  thereby  their 

prospects  for  future  earnings  and  pension  entitlements.  In  the  context  of  ageing  population, 

younger  generations  would  be  ill-equipped  to  bear  the  expected  burden  of  growing  public 

finance  expenditures.  Such  developments  would  undermine  the  competitive  advantage  in  the 

global  markets  that  Europe  derives  from  its  highly  skilled  human  capital  and  create  significant 

barriers to long-term growth prospects. To avoid such a scenario, sufficient investment in human 

capital at an early age through provision of affordable and quality child care and education, as well 

as healthcare, facilitation of smooth transitions from education to labour market and support for 

career development of younger workers, is a policy imperative. 

Income inequality is growing across and within Member States 
As recently highlighted by the Draft Joint Employment Report35, the crisis has substantially altered 
the  dynamics  of  inequality  and  affected  different  sections  of  the  population  in  different  ways. 
Income  inequality  is  growing  across  and  within  Member  States,  particularly  in  the  South  and 

periphery  of  the  EU.  These  are  also  the  Member  States  that  witnessed  the  largest  increases  in 

unemployment.  In  many  countries,  the  crisis  has  intensified  the  long-term  trends  of  wage 

polarisation  and  labour  market  segmentation,  which  together  with  less  redistributive  tax  and 

benefit  systems  have  fuelled  rising  inequalities.  High  levels  of  unemployment  (with  the  largest 

increases at the bottom of the labour market) and in some cases the impact of fiscal consolidation 

also explain the significant increases in inequalities observed in the countries most affected by the 

jobs crisis 

 A recent OECD report36 highlights the development of income inequality during the initial part of 
the  crisis,  covering  the  period  2007-2010.  It  shows  that  market  income  (i.e.  work  and  capital 

income)  decreased  considerably  during  2007-2010,  but  that  disposable  income  fell  less  strongly, 

due to an offsetting effect stemming from an increase in social transfers and/or lower direct taxes 

and  social  security  contributions.    However,  the  loss  in  income  was  not  evenly  shared  among 

35 http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/pdf/2014/jer2014_en.pdf 

36 OECD (2013), 'Crisis squeezes income and puts pressure on inequality and poverty' 

42 

                                                           
income  groups,  with  the  result  that  income  inequality  (as  measured  by  the  GINI  coefficient) 

continued to edge upwards during the crisis.  

 While  on  average  the  S80/S20  ratio  remained  stable  between  2008  and  2012  in  the  EU-27  and 

has  increased  by  6.7%  in  the  Euro  area,  there  is  a  wide  dispersion  and  growing  divergence  in 

inequality  between  Member  States.  The  inequality  has  grown  in  most  of  the  Southern  Member 

States  (ES,  EL,  IT,  CY)  as  well  as  in  HR,  EE,  DK,  HU,  SK,  SE  and  slightly  in  IE.  Improvements  are 

registered in BG, DE, LV, LT, MT NL and RO. The highest inequalities remain in ES, EL, LV, RO and 

BG where the median equivilised income of the richest 20% of the population is more than 6 times 

that of the poorest 20%. 

Figure 23. Income quintile ratio (S80/S20), evolution 2011-2012 and 2008-

2012 

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

CY
4,7

9,3

9,3

EU28
5,0

EU27
5,0

EA17
5,1

~

n.a.

LV
6,5

~

~

~
LT
5,3

-8,6

-11,0

-10,2

~

6,3

LU
4,1

~

~

BE
3,9

0,0

-4,9
HU
4,0

~

BG
6,1

-6,2

-6,2

MT
3,9

~

CZ
3,5

~

~
NL
3,6

-5,3

11,1

-7,1

-10,0

DK
4,5

~

DE
4,3

~

25,0

-10,4

AT (ii)
4,2

PL
4,9

~

~

EE
5,4

~

8,0

PT
5,8

~

~

IE
4,6

n.a

~
RO
6,3

~

-10,0

EL
6,6

10,0

ES
7,2

~

11,9

26,3

SI
3,4

~

~

SK
3,7

~

8,8

FR
4,5

~

~
FI
3,7

~

~

HR
5,4

~

20,0

SE
3,7

~

5,7

IT
5,6

~

9,8

UK
5,4

~

~

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in 

series  for  2012  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  and  2008.  AT  will  be  able  to  provide  a  comprehensive  back-

calculation  of  the  timeline  until  the  base  year  2008  at  the  end  of  2014;  iii)  For  UK,  changes  in  the  survey  vehicle  and 

institution might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional 

data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) Only statistically significant changes have been marked 

in green/red (positive/negative changes). A 5% threshold has been used. "~" refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically 

insignificant change). vi) income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United 

Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey).  

Mixed effectiveness of income support systems for those furthest 

away from the labour market 

(Quasi-)  joblessness  relates  more  to  income  poverty  risk  than  to  severe  material  deprivation. 

Exclusion  from  the  labour  market  affects  earnings  and  therefore  incomes  but  may  be  only  a 

temporary situation. Material deprivation is more likely to reflect purchasing power over the longer 

term  (since  it  includes  possession of  consumer  durables  which may  have  been  purchased  in  the 

past  when  the  household  had  a  higher  income  level)  (Lelkes  and  Gasior,  2012).  Member  States 

differ  substantially  in  terms  of  the  minimum  safety  nets  they  provide  to  jobless  or  quasi-jobless 

households, especially relative to the at-risk-of-poverty threshold.  

43 

 
The poverty risk for people living in (quasi-)jobless households was identified as a social trend to 

watch in 2012 by the SPC as more than 1/3 of Member States had statistically significant increases 

in their shares. Chapter 2 of this report analyses in-depth both the characteristics of the population 

that is found in this situation as well as the policy instruments put in place in Member States. 

In 2012 the poverty risk for the (quasi-) jobless households ranged between as much as71,7% in SE, 

71.5%  in  BG  and  70.2%  in  LV  to  around  40%  in  DK.  Between  2011  and  2012,  4  Member  States 

experienced a significant worsening of the poverty risk for (quasi-)jobless households with increase 

of 5.3pp in HU and 3,2pp in FR and LV. The trend since the beginning of the crisis (2008) confirms 

this  evolution  with  up  to  9  Member  States  seeing  an  increased  poverty  risk  for  (quasi-)jobless 

households with increases above 10% in EL, HU, SK and PL.  If looked at together with the parallel 

evolution  of  the  (quasi-)jobless  households  rate  and  with  the  evolution  of  the  long-term 

unemployment  rate,  these  trends  suggest  that  income  support  levels  of  last  resort  schemes  are 

continuously worsening while the number of people counting on them is increasing. Furthermore, 

the  adequacy  of  minimum  safety  nets  is  further  affected  by  access  limitation.  In  fact,  significant 

shares of people who are entitled to social assistance do not actually receive these benefits, partly 

due  to  administrative  complexities,  lack  of  information  and  stigma.  However,  few  countries  (BG, 

CZ,  SI)  are  registering  improvement  in  the  most  recent  year  (2011-2012)  suggesting  better 

efficiency of safety nets in terms of income support in these countries.  

Figure 24. At-risk-of-poverty rate for the population living in (quasi-) jobless 

households (in %), evolutions 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

EU28
59,1

1,3

n.a.

LV
70,2

3,2

EU27
59,0

1,3

3,1

LT
65,2

EA17
59,6

~

4,3

LU
44,3

~

~

BE
58,4

-4,5

3,7

HU
61,6

5,3

BG
71,5

-4,2

-6,3

MT
60,3

CZ
54,6

-3,7

~
NL
40,6

DK
41,0

~

~
AT (ii)
53,2

~

~

DE
68,5

~

4,3

PL
59,2

~

CY
45,4

~

-5,0

-12,8

-1,2

-5,1

13,1

~

~
Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

10,0

EE
73,0

~

-9,3

PT
54,5

~

1,3

IE
43,3

n.a.

-3,3

RO
48,1

~

-2,3

EL
56,8

~

16,5

SI
54,8

-3,3

~

ES
63,6

0,6

7,4

SK
69,4

~

16,3

FR
57,5

3,2

7,4

FI
59,5

~

3,2

HR
62,5

~

n.a.

SE
71,7

8,2

IT
55,4

~

~
UK
47,8

~

20,3

-15,3

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in series 

for  2012  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  and  2008;  iii)  For  UK,  changes  in  the  survey  vehicle  and  institution 

might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional data for 

BE  does  not  allow  for  reliable  assessment  of  evolutions;  v)  Only  statistically  significant  changes  have  been  marked  in 

green/red  (positive/negative  changes).  For  the  change  2011-2012,  Eurostat  computations  of  significance  of  net  change 

have  been  used.  For  the  change  2008-2012,  a  1pp  threshold  has  been  used.  "~"  refers  to  stable  performance  (i.e. 

statistically insignificant change). vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is the calendar year prior to 

the  survey  year  (i.e.  2011)  except  for  the  United  Kingdom  (survey  year)  and  Ireland  (12  months  preceding  the  survey). 

Similarly,  the  very  low  work  intensity  rate  refers  to  the  previous  calendar  year  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe  material 

deprivation rate, the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

The impact of social transfers on poverty reduction varies greatly across Member States. In 2012, it 

ranged  from  only  13.8%  in  EL  to  61.6%  in  IE.  These  large  differences  highlight  the  potential  for 

44 

improvement  in  the  size  and  effectiveness  of  social  protection  expenditure.  Between  2011  and 

2012,  there  were  no  significant  changes  in  the  capacity  of  social  transfers  to  reduce  poverty,  an 

improvement  from  the  period  2010-2011  where  there  were  three  countries  with  decreasing 
impact37. 

But the trend for the 2008-2012 period sees CZ, FR, HU, PL, SK and SE, presenting decreases in the 

poverty reduction capacity of social transfers between 5.2%(FR) and 10.9% (HU). At the same time 

improvements were registered in EE, IE, ES, CY, LV, LT and the UK. 

Figure 25. Impact of social transfers (excluding pensions) on poverty 
reduction, 2008, 2011 and 201238 

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

EU28
34,4

~

n.a.

LV
25,7

CY
37,4

~

~

~

6,9

10,4

8,0

EU27
34,7

EA17
32,0

~

~

~
LT
34,5

~
LU
47,9

~

~

BE
46,2

1,2

0,6
HU
48,3

~

-10,9

BG
18,1

CZ
45,5

DK
53,7

DE
33,7

EE
29,4

~

~

~

~

~

~
AT (ii)
67,4

~
MT
36,2

~

~

-9,5
NL
51,0

~

~

~
PL
25,3

~

-7,3

8,4
PT
29,0

~

~

IE
61,6

n.a

7,2
RO
19,3

~

~

EL
13,8

ES
25,0

FR
40,8

HR
32,6

IT
20,5

~

~

~

~

~

~
SI
46,4

~

~

7,5
SK
34,0

~

-6,8

-5,2
FI
50,9

~

~

~
SE
48,0

~

-9,2

~
UK
49,2

~

13,9   

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in 

series  for  2012  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  and  2008.  AT  will  be  able  to  provide  a  comprehensive  back-

calculation  of  the  timeline  until  the  base  year  2008  at  the  end  of  2014;  iii)  For  UK,  changes  in  the  survey  vehicle  and 

institution might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional 

data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) Only statistically significant changes have been marked 

in green/red (positive/negative changes). A 5% threshold has been used. "~" refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically 

insignificant change). vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey 

year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey).  

Recent in-depth research39 done for the Irish government examines the impact of social transfers 
on poverty reduction in IE in the period 2004-2011. The report contributes important insights into 

the  poverty  alleviation  and  income  redistribution  role  of  social  transfers,  using  the  concepts  of 

poverty reduction effectiveness; poverty reduction efficiency; and poverty reduction potential (see 

Box 1). The report notes the need to assess income support in terms of these three concepts but 

also against other policy goals such as, for example, encouraging labour market participation. In 

many  cases,  it  will  be  necessary  to  balance  the  goal  of  increasing  poverty  reduction  efficiency 

37  The  assessment  of  the  impact  of  social  transfers  on  poverty  reduction  is  complex,  as  it  depends  on  various  factors 
such as the effect of pensions' indexation on the poverty threshold and the phasing out of benefits (e.g. for long-
term unemployed). 

38 The impact of social transfers is a theoretical indicator which is calculated using a fixed poverty line and ignores the 
influence  that  social  transfers  have  on  median  income.  This  should  be  taken  into  account  when  interpreting  the 
figures. 

39 http://www.socialinclusion.ie/SocialTransfersandPovertyAlleviation_000.html 

45 

                                                           
against  other  aims  of  policy.  An  accurate  assessment  of  effectiveness  and  efficiency  of  income 

support should also take into account the impact across different life-cycle groups and household 

types. 

The Irish experience: Measuring the impact of social transfers on income 
poverty 

Social transfers include income from state means-tested payments (e.g. jobseekers allowance, non-

contributory state pension), state non-means-tested payments (e.g. child benefit, jobseekers benefit, 

contributory state pension) as well as occupational and foreign pensions (e.g. from public or private 

sector employment).  

Market income comes from employment, self-employment, interest and dividends from savings and 

investments, and property income. 

The market income poverty gap is the gap between the household’s market income and the poverty 

threshold (i.e. the income below which the household would be deemed poor). 

Poverty reduction potential is the aggregate spend on social transfers expressed as a ratio to the 

aggregate market income poverty gap.  

> 1.0 

amount spent would be enough to bridge the market income poverty gap 

< 1.0 

not sufficient to bridge the market income poverty gap 

Poverty reduction effectiveness refers to the extent to which social transfers contribute to a reduction 
in poverty. It can be measured in terms of a reduction in the poverty rate or a reduction in the market 
income poverty gap. The second measure is better since it takes account of how far below the poverty 
threshold people’s incomes lie.  

Poverty reduction efficiency refers to the proportion of social transfers that contribute to reducing the 
market income poverty gap. 

Although efficiency and effectiveness are measured as percentages, reaching 100% should not be seen 

as achievable or as a ‘gold standard’. Among other things, a social transfer system which is 100% 

efficient with respect to poverty reduction would impose a 100% benefit withdrawal rate at the poverty 

threshold. This could create a very undesirable incentive structure in terms of participation in work.  

The research shows that the effectiveness of Irish social transfers has improved since the onset of 

the economic and fiscal crisis; social transfers reduced the pre-transfer poverty rate by 53 per cent 

in 2004, rising to 63 per cent by 2007 and 71 per cent by 2011. The reduction in the poverty gap is 

higher than the reduction in the poverty rate, but the increase over time is more modest: from 84 

per cent in 2004 to 88 per cent in 2011. Because this indicator of effectiveness was already high in 

46 

 
 
 
 
2004,  there  was  less  scope  for  improvement.  The  poverty  reduction  efficiency  of  social  transfers 

remained  at  roughly  the  same  level  over  time  (45-50  per  cent).  When  assessed  as  an  average 

across  households  it  declines  slightly  but  when  assessed  across  individuals  it  increased  slightly 

between 2004 and 2011. 

The  Irish  research  demonstrates  that  compared  to  other  EU15  countries,  Irish  social  transfers 

increased from a relatively lower proportion of income in 2005 (second lowest of the EU15) to a 

relatively  higher  proportion  by  2010  (second  highest).  This  was  partly  due  to  the  fall  in  market 

income as a result of the recession, but there was also a real increase in the levels of social transfer 

payment in Ireland up until 2009. 

Figure 26 shows the association between poverty reduction effectiveness and efficiency, as defined 

by the recent Irish research, for the EU15 countries in 2010. Across the EU15 countries, the levels of 

poverty  reduction  effectiveness  and  efficiency  tend  to  be  positively  associated:  countries  with  a 

higher level of efficiency also tend to have a higher level of effectiveness. This suggests that it is 

possible  to  design  a  social  transfer  system  to  achieve  relatively  high  levels  of  both  poverty 

reduction effectiveness and efficiency. 

Figure 26. Effectiveness and efficiency of social transfers in alleviating 

poverty with respect to the poverty gap in EU15, 2010 

Source: EU-SILC micro-data (to 2010). Unit of analysis = individuals. From Social Transfers and Poverty Alleviation in Ireland 
(2013) http://www.socialinclusion.ie/SocialTransfersandPovertyAlleviation_000.html 

In 2010, IE was towards the top of the range of EU15 countries in poverty reduction effectiveness of 

social transfers (90%). This was an improvement on 2005, when Ireland was only in the middle of 

the EU15 range. In 2010, the poverty reduction efficiency of social transfers in IE was towards the 

middle of the EU15 range (48%), having fallen somewhat since 2005. 

47 

 
In fact, looking at the impact of social transfers does not take into account non-cash benefits such 

as  transfers  in  kind.  A  number  of  Member  States  provide  public  services  to  those  furthest  away 

from  the  labour  market  which  contribute  to  general  welfare  and  are  not  detected  in  purely 

income-based  measures.  However,  if  we  look  into  the  expenditure  on  such  in-kind  services,  we 

can  see  that  the  countries  which  generally  achieve  a  low  impact  of  social  transfers  on  poverty 

reduction  are  also  those  that  tend  to  spend  less  on  in-kind  services.  In  most  countries  the 

spending  on  in-kind  benefits  has  slightly  increased  since  2008  with  the  biggest  increase  in  IE 

(5.2pp) and an average increase of 0.6pp.- 

Figure 27. Social benefits in-kind, as % of GDP, 2008 and 2011 

Source: Eurostat (Esspros) 

Consistent and widespread improvement of the employment rate 

of older workers 

After the launch of the Lisbon strategy, in the years between 2000 and 2010, Member States made 

considerable efforts to improve older people’s labour market outcomes. As can be seen Figure 28, 

there  are  reasons  for  optimism  when  looking  at  people  aged  between  55  and  64  years. 

Employment in that age group has grown by more than 9 million in the EU-27 (over 7 million for 

EU-15). The EU employment rate of older workers increased to 48.8% in 2012, which is an increase 

by 12 pps since 2000 and by 3.3 pps since the beginning of the crisis. The increase since 2008 was 

the highest in DE (+7.8 pps), but also substantial (5 pps or more) and gathering momentum in PL, 

LU,  FR,  IT,  NL  and  HU  in  some  of  which  the  financial  incentives  to  continue  work  at  older  ages 

strongly improved in recent years (IT, NL, DE and FR). Overall, since 2008 15 Member States have 
improved the employment situation of older workers.  

48 

 
 Figure 28. Employment rate of older workers (55-64), evolution 2011-2012 

and 2008-2012 

201 2

201 1 -201 2 
change in pp

2008-201 2 
change in pp

201 2

201 1 -201 2 
change in pp

2008-201 2 
change in pp

EU28
48,8

EU27
48,9

EA1 7
48,7

BE
39,5

BG
45,7

CZ
49,3

DK
60,8

DE
61,5

EE
60,6

IE
49,3

EL
36,4

ES
43,9

FR
44,5

HR
36,7

1,5

1,5

1,6

3,3

3,3

CY
50,7

LV
52,8

LT
51,7

-4,1

2,3

1,5

4,4

LU
41

1,7

~

5

1,1

1,6

1,3

1,6

3,4

~

-3

~

3

~

1,7

2,4

7,8

-1,8

-4,4

-6,4

-1,7

6,3

HU
36,9

MT
33,6

NL
58,6

AT
43,1

PL
38,7

PT
46,5

RO
41,4

SI
32,9

SK
43,1

FI
58,2

1,1

1,8

2,5

1,6

1,8

-1,4

1,4

1,7

1,8

1,2

~

~

SE
73

1

IT
40,4

2,5

6

UK
58,1

1,4

-4,1

-6,6

-1,4

6,9

5,5

4,3

5,6

2,1

7,1

-4,3

-1,7

~

3,9

1,7

2,9

~

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

Note: Only statistically significant changes have been marked in green/red (positive/negative changes) with a 1pp 

threshold. "~" refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant change). 

However, several member States, notably those hit most by the crisis (such as EL, IE, PT, CY and 

ES), saw a decrease, for some such as EL, PT and CY in the range of 4-6 percentage points.  The 

Baltic States see an overall worsening the situation with reference to 2008 but have in  the latest 

year  (2012)  registered  notable  improvements.  There  is,  in  fact,  a  general  trend of  consistent  and 

widespread improvement in the period 2011-2012 which sees most Member States (21) increasing 

the employment rate for older workers. 

Reasons for this trend, which was already on-going before the crisis, include a continuing upward 

shift in the educational achievement levels and the female share of workers aged 55-64 along with 

the  higher  employment  protection  enjoyed  by  older  workers,  but  also  the  impact  of  tax/benefit 

reforms  restricting  access  to  early  retirement  and  encouraging  longer  working  lives  and  some 

changes in age management in work places and labour markets, and thus the effective retirement 

age (European Commission, 2013a).  

Active  ageing  measures  are  of  growing  importance  as  recent  pension  reforms  require  longer 

contributory  periods  to  ensure  an  adequate  pension.  Increased  employment  ensures  the 

accumulation of pension rights and contributes to the sustainability of the pension system. For this 

to be successful however, older workers' employment must guarantee pension rights and pension 

levels  must  be  adequate  in  order  to  combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion  in  old  age.  This  is  of 

particular importance for women. The move towards gender equality in the employment rate of 

older  workers  is  not  mirrored  in  a  broader  move  towards  more  equal  work  patterns.  Women, 

generally, have a lower participation rate, experience a gender pay gap, and more often interrupt 

their working life due to child rearing. Women pensioners have a higher risk of poverty than men 

as a consequence of these gender inequalities; women receive lower pensions than men and often 

fail to qualify for benefits. Active ageing measures, ensuring equal outcomes for men and women, 

are needed to complement pension reforms, as the lack of progress in activity and employment 

49 

 
rates can often be explained by poor employment opportunities and working conditions for older 

workers which can undermine the incentives embedded in pension systems.  

Social protection systems which effectively contribute to maintaining the health of the population 

and provide adequate long-term care also play a key role in enabling participation in society and 

the  labour  market  and  ensuring  an  independent  living  by  older  people.  Beyond  health  services, 

working  and  living  environments  should  also  be  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  older  people, 

including adapted housing and transport services, local libraries, and home support, which enable 

the elderly to live independently for longer. 

Pensions continue to avert poverty for many though divergence in 

adequacy and effectiveness remains 

Pensions constitute by far the main source of income for older Europeans, who represent a large 

and  growing  share  of  the  EU  population.  They  also  represent  the  largest  element  in  social 

protection systems, affecting the primary incomes of more people than any other part. The total 

number of pensioners in EU Member States presently comes to about 120 million or a quarter of 

the  population.  Almost  2/3  of  these  are  women.  The  adequacy  of  pensions  is  measured  by, 

among  others,  their  ability  to  prevent  poverty,  the  degree  to  which  they  replace  income  before 

retirement and how they compare to the average incomes of people below pensionable age.  

As related to the ability of pensions to prevent poverty in old age, since the beginning of the crisis 
the income situation of the elderly has been better than for other age groups of the population in 

many Member States due to the stability of pension income. 19 Member States saw the share of 

elderly at risk of poverty or social exclusion decrease with more than 1pp between 2008 and 2012. 

There are, however, two countries which since 2008 have had increasing rates of poverty or social 

exclusion of the elderly – HU and SE. Several countries saw increases between 2011 and 2012 (EE, 

LT,  LU,  HU,  RO,  SK).  The  share  of  older  people  living  in  poverty  or  social  exclusion  in  2012  was 

close to 60% in BG and slightly above 30% in HR, CY, LV, LT and RO while being below 10% in LU 

and NL. 

50 

Figure 29. At risk of poverty or social exclusion rate for the elderly (65+), 

evolution 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

EU28

19,3

EU27

19,2

EA17

17,4

BE

19,5

BG

59,1

~

n.a.

LV

34,0

~

~

-4,1

LT

35,7

4,8

CY

33,4

-6,4

-15,9

-24,1

-2,4

~

-2,6

LU

6,1

1,4

~

-2,1

-2,0

-6,4

MT

21,9

~

-3,4

HU

20,6

2,6

3,1

CZ

10,8

~

-1,7

NL

6,2

-0,7

DK

14,6

-2,0

-4,0

AT (ii)

16,2

DE

15,8

~

~
PL

23,4

EE

21,8

IE

13,8

EL

23,5

ES

16,6

FR

11,1

4,8

n.a

-5,8

-4,3

-0,4

-19,1

PT

22,1

-8,7

RO

35,7

-4,6

SI

22,8

-11,1

SK

16,3

-2,8

FI

19,5

HR

33,2

-1,9

n.a.

SE

17,7

-1,3

-2,4

0,4

-1,4

1,8

~

~

IT

25,2

~

~
UK

16,9

-5,8

-3,5

-4,5
Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

~

-5,6

-13,5

-1,6

-5,6

-4,4

2,4

-11,6

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators and by definition 

the target indicator suffer a break in series for 2012 and are therefore not comparable to 2011 and 2008. AT will be able to 

provide a comprehensive back-calculation of the timeline until the base year 2008 at the end of 2014; iii) For UK, changes 

in  the  survey  vehicle  and  institution  might  have  affected  the  results  and  interpretation  of  data  must  therefore  be 

particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) Only statistically 

significant  changes  have  been  marked  in  green/red  (positive/negative  changes).  For  the  change  2011-2012,  Eurostat 

computations of significance of net change have been used. For the change 2008-2012, a 1pp threshold has been used. "~" 

refers to stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant change). vi) For the at-risk-of poverty rate, the income reference 

year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 

months  preceding  the  survey).  Similarly,  the  very  low  work  intensity  rate  refers  to  the  previous  calendar  year  (i.e.  2011) 

while for the severe material deprivation rate, the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

Pension systems play a key role in allowing people to maintain their living standards in old age at a 

level comparable to that achieved during working life. The median relative income of older people, 

or the ratio of the median equivalised disposable income of people aged above 65 to the median 

equivalised disposable income of those aged below 65, has been rather stable in most Member 

States in the latest period with few exceptions. The relative median income ratio reached 92% for 

the EU-27 (and EU28) in 2012. There are however substantial differences across countries, both in 

the levels and in the trends. Despite the significant increase in its relative median income ratio over 

the last five years, CY has currently the ratio at 70% (in 2012), followed by EE, BE, BG and DK. . At 

the other end of the spectrum, FR, EL, LU, and RO in 2012 recorded a relative median equivalised 

income for people over 65 that was equal or greater than that for younger cohorts. 

51 

Figure 30. Median relative income ratio for the elderly, 2008, 2011 and 2012 

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

EU28

0,92

EU27

0,92

EA17

0,92

~

n.a.

LV

0,80

~

~

8,2

LT

0,78

5,7

LU

1,10

~

-7,0

-13,3

CY

0,70

~

18,6

48,1

9,9

13,4

BE

0,74

0,0

0,0

HU

0,97

~

~

BG

0,74

CZ

0,84

DK

0,75

~

~

~

7,1

AT (ii)

0,93

12,1

MT

0,80

~

9,6

6,3

NL

0,90

~

7,1

DE

0,88

~

~
PL

0,95

~

~

EE

0,72

~

16,1

PT

0,92

5,7

IE

0,86

n.a

16,2

RO

1,01

~

10,8

18,8

EL

1,01

ES

0,93

FR

1,00

HR

0,86

IT

0,95

24,7

8,1

17,4

SI

0,87

~

~

17,7

SK

0,81

-5,8

~

~

~
FI

0,78

~

8,3

~

~

14,7

SE

0,78

~

~

8,0

UK

0,89

9,9

20,3

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in series 

for  2012  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  and  2008;  iii)  For  UK,  changes  in  the  survey  vehicle  and  institution 

might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional data for 

BE  does  not  allow  for  reliable  assessment  of  evolutions;  v)  Only  statistically  significant  changes  have  been  marked  in 

green/red  (positive/negative  changes).  A  5%  threshold  has  been  used.  "~"  refers  to  stable  performance,  vi)  income 

reference  year  is  the  calendar  year  prior  to  the  survey  year  (i.e.  2011)  except  for  the  United  Kingdom  (survey  year)  and 

Ireland (12 months preceding the survey).  

Since 2008 the ratio increased by more than 15% in eight countries: EE, IE, EL, ES, CY, LV, RO, UK. 

Between 5% and 15% the ratio increased in the following eleven countries: BG, CZ, DK, HR, IT, LT, 

LU, MT, NL, PT, and FI. All the other countries did not show a significant variation.  

When analysing fluctuations of this income ratio indicator, one has to be aware that it is a relative 

measure and its value is influenced by changes in the income of both the elderly (numerator) and 

the  working  age  population  (denominator).  A  decrease  in  the  income  of  the  working  age 

population when the income position of people age 65+ remains stable might give the impression 

that  the  position  of  the  older  cohort  has  improved.  The  indicator  thus  needs  to  be  assessed 

together with some absolute variables, e.g. the evolution in per capita incomes. 

To  assess  the  extent  to  which  pensions  fulfil  their  role  of  replacing  income  after  retirement,  it  is 

important  to  consider  how  many  people  are  covered  by  pension  systems  and  how  large  a 

proportion of their income is derived from pensions. The aggregate replacement ratio measures 

the median individual gross pension (including old-age and other pension benefits of people aged 

65-74) relative to median individual gross earnings (of people aged 50-59). 

52 

 
 
Figure 31. Aggregate replacement ratio, evolutions 2011-2012 and 2008-2012   

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

2012
2011-2012 % 
change
2008-2012 % 
change

EU28

0,56

EU27

0,56

EA17

0,56

~

n.a.

LV

0,48

~

~

12,0

LT

0,45

9,8

LU

0,79

-9,4

-13,5

6,8

CY

0,39

~

18,2

60,0

~

36,2

BE

0,47

6,8

4,4

HU

0,58

~

~

BG

0,42

CZ

0,55

DK

0,42

DE

0,47

EE

0,50

IE

0,43

EL

0,52

~

~

~

-7,8

-7,4

n.a

15,6

ES

0,58

~

18,4

SK

0,60

FR

0,65

~

~
FI

0,49

~

~

HR

0,36

~

-23,4

SE

0,56

IT

0,66

20,0

29,4

UK

0,50

~

~

-9,7

16,3

11,1

PT

0,58

-12,2

RO

0,67

26,8

SI

0,47

~

~

~

~

13,7

36,7

6,8

11,1

23,5

MT

0,49

7,8

NL

0,47

~
AT (ii)

0,58

~

~

16,7

9,3

6,8

PL

0,58

5,5

~

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: i) Latest data available for Ireland refers to 2011 and changes are presented for the period 2008-2011 only. ii) AT has 

changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in 

series  for  2012  and  are  therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  and  2008.  AT  will  be  able  to  provide  a  comprehensive  back-

calculation  of  the  timeline  until  the  base  year  2008  at  the  end  of  2014;  iii)  For  UK,  changes  in  the  survey  vehicle  and 

institution might have affected the results and interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; ;iv) Provisional 

data for BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions; v) Only statistically significant changes have been marked 

in  green/red  (positive/negative  changes).  A  5%  threshold  has  been  used.  "~"  refers  to  stable  performance,  vi)  income 

reference  year  is  the  calendar  year  prior  to  the  survey  year  (i.e.  2011)  except  for  the  United  Kingdom  (survey  year)  and 

Ireland (12 months preceding the survey).  

The ratio reached 56% for the EU-27 (and EU28) in 2012, although there are substantial variations 

across countries both in levels and trends (see Figure 31 ). In general, the aggregate replacement 

ratios show that current median pension levels are very low compared to current median earnings 

in HR and CY (respectively 36% and 39% in 2012) and to some extent in BG, DK, IE and LT (less or 

equal to 45% in 2012 and 2011 for IE). This can be due to low income replacement from statutory 

pension  schemes  (e.g.  BG),  but  it  can  also  reflect  the  immaturity  of  supplementary  pension 

schemes  (e.g.  CY),  low  past  labour  force  participation  rates  and  incomplete  careers  or  under-

declaration of earnings in the past. 

As for its evolution, the value of the ratio for the EU-27 increased by 12%, from 50% in 2008 to 

56% in 2012. This trend is observed in the majority of Member States and is primarily the result of 

the crisis-related decline in wage incomes of people aged 50-59. Only IE, HR, and SE have seen a 

worsening of the income position of pensioners in comparison to the working population 50-59 

since 2008. DE, EE, LV, and LT present however a deterioration between 2011 and 2012. 

In 2012 the SPC adopted its report on Pension adequacy in the European Union (2012-2052) which 

analysed the future adequacy of pensions by assessing theoretical replacement rates (TRRs). Some 

of  the  main  conclusions  related  to  the  fact  that  future  levels  of  pensions  in  relation  to  earnings 

(income  replacement  levels)  will  depend  on  different  factors,  notably  the  pace  of  accrual  of 

pension  entitlements  (which  is  linked  to  developments  in  the  labour  market),  the  maturation  of 

pension schemes and the effect of reforms. Most Member States' reforms of statutory schemes will 

lead to a decrease of replacement rates at given retirement ages. Indeed, measures introduced in 

many Member States in order to cope with increasing longevity and incentivising longer working 

lives  go  in  this  direction:  lowering  future  benefit  levels  at  a  fixed  retirement  age,  increasing  the 

53 

 
statutory retirement age,  tightening and abolishing of the early retirement options, or increasing 

contributory periods needed for a full pension..  

Access to health and health outcomes 

Health  status  is  a  key  determinant  of  the  well-being  and  labour  market  participation  of  the 

individual.  A  healthy  population  is  associated  with  better  educational  attainment,  better  earning 

and wages, higher labour market participation and a higher number of hours worked in adult age. 

Health is also shown to be positively associated with economic growth and social welfare. Looking 

at both objective and subjective measure of health can offer a snapshot on the health status of the 

society as a whole.  

In general the number of healthy life years (HLY) is slightly higher for women than for men. The EU 

average for the HLY at 65 for women was 8,5 years for EU 27 in 2008 and 8.5 for EU 28 in 2012, 

meaning that the EU average decreased just slightly over time. There was an overall increase in the 

healthy life expectancy for women in the majority of the EU countries. The greatest increase was 

noted in Austria (2 years) followed by Estonia (1.6 years). There were six countries were HLY at 65 

for women decreased (EL, CY, LT, RO, SI, UK), with the biggest decrease noted in RO and SI by 2,8 
and 2,5 years respectively. No change was noted in FI and HU. It should be noted that the 2012 UK 
figure is a provisional estimate only (based on life expectancy data for the previous year) and so 

may not reflect actual trends.  

Figure 32. Healthy life years at 65 for females, 2008 and 2012 

Source: Eurostat; Note: 2012 figures for UK are provisional estimates 

In 2008, HLY at  65  for men was 8.3 years  for EU-27 and for EU 28, it was 8.4 years in 2012.The 

change  in  HLY  at  65  for  men  in  the  years  2008  –  2012  was  quite  varied  between  the  Member 

54 

 
States.  It  increased  in  17  countries,  decreased  in  9,  no  change  was  noted  in  BG.  Similarly  to  the 

situation for females, the greatest decrease was noted in RO and SI (-1,9 years) and the smallest 

decrease of (-0,1) was noted in PT. On the other hand, the greatest increase of 2 years was noted 

in Malta.  

Figure 33. Healthy life years at 65 for males, 2008 and 2012 

Source: Eurostat; Note: 2012 figures for UK are provisional estimates 

On average, 3,4 % of Europeans reported unmet need for medical care in 2012 (they had to wait, 

or it was too expensive or too far away). There are significant differences among Member States, 

with LV as high as 12,3 % and RO – 10.7%,  while LU, NL, AT, SI, ES  are below 1%.  There is a clear 

income  gradient  as  those  in  the  lowest  income  quintiles  more  often  report  an  unmet  need  for 

medical care.  

55 

 
Figure 34. Self-reported unmet need for medical care40, in %, changes 2010-
2011 and 2008-2011 

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

2012
2011-2012 
change in pp
2008-2012 
change in pp

CY

3,5

~

~

EU28

3,4

EU27

3,4

EA17

n.a.

~

n.a.

LV

12,3

-3,8

~

~
LT

2,3

~

2,6

-3,2

n.a.

n.a.

LU

0,7

~

~

BE

1,7

0,2

1,2

HU

2,8

~

~

BG

8,2

-1,6

-7,1

MT

1,1

~

~

CZ

1,0

~

~
NL

0,5

~

~

DK

1,2

~

~
AT

0,3

~

~

DE

1,6

~

~
PL

9,0

1,1

3,0

EE

8,3

1,0

1,0

PT

3,3

1,9

2,2

IE

2,2

n.a

~
RO

10,7

-1,2

~

EL

8,0

~

2,6

SI

0,1

~

~

ES

0,7

~

~
SK

2,2

~

~

FR

2,2

~

~
FI

4,6

~

3,8

HR

3,6

-1,5

n.a.

SE

1,3

~

-1,1

IT

5,6

~

~
UK

1,4

~

~

Source: Eurostat 

Note:    Only  statistically  significant  changes  have  been  marked  in  green/red  (positive/negative  changes)  with  a  1pp 

threshold. "~" stands for stable performance (i.e. statistically insignificant change). 

In  the  period  between  2008–2012,  6  countries  noted  an  increase  in  the  share  of  the  population 

reporting  unmet  needs  for  care  above  1  percenatage  point  (EE,  EL,  LV,  PL,  PT  and  FI).  Only  3 

countries registered improvements in access - BG (-7,1pp), LT (-3,2pp) and SE (-1,1pp). In terms of 

the  most  recent  changes  for  the  period  2011-2012,  there  were  only  3  countries  that  noted  an 

increase  (EE,  PL,  and  PT)  and  as  much  which  showed  some  improvements,  most  notably  LV 

(3,8pp). While in most cases the share of this population has remained rather stable both in the 

latest  available  year  (2011-2012)  as  well  as  since  2008,  in  EE,  PR  and  PL,  increases  seem  to  be 

consistent across time. 

Box 1. Eurofound (2013) study on the Impacts of the crisis on access to 
healthcare services 

The healthcare sector has faced significant cuts in many EU Member States. Per capita healthcare 

expenditure  has  decreased  for  the  first  time  in  years,  especially  in  countries  with  low  levels  of 

expenditure  in  the  first  place.  In  parallel  to  the  reduction  of  healthcare  resources,  health  has 

deteriorated  for  certain  groups  as  a  direct  result  of  the  crisis.  This  concerns  in  particular  mental 

health problems for people at risk of losing their jobs or homes, as well as several communicable 

diseases as a consequence of cuts in prevention. Increased demand for certain healthcare services 

as a consequence of the crisis has coincided with longer-standing trends associated with growing 

demand from ageing populations and availability of new technologies. 

It  is  a  challenge  for  governments  to  balance  their  budgets  while  at  the  same  time  maintaining 

access  to  good  quality  healthcare.  There  is  a  continuous  striving  for  greater  effectiveness  and 

efficiency. Service providers face a similar challenge when confronted with increased demand for 

their  services  but  reduced  resources.  And  users  may  have  less  income  to  pay  for  services.  It  is 

40 This indicator is defined on the basis on self-reported unmet need related to three reasons – too far to travel, waiting 

list, too expensive 

56 

 
                                                           
important to increase efficient use of public resources. However, it is a challenge to do this while 

maintaining or improving access.  

Not  all  impacts  on  health  and  access  to  healthcare  have  been  negative,  but  this  box  highlights 

challenges. Barriers to access healthcare services can lead to unmet medical needs or –in the EU 

more often– to difficulties in accessing them. The impact of a barrier to access may differ among 

individuals,  depending  on  their  specific  circumstances.  Empirical  data  show  that  the  crisis  has 

affected several dimensions of access, and for other dimensions no data are available yet but an 

impact of the crisis is expected: 

- 

Legally covered access: Some countries have reduced coverage for certain services, and for 

some population groups such as undocumented migrants. Furthermore, unemployment has led to 

loss of insurance coverage for certain groups in some countries.   

- 

Affordable  access:  Lack  of  affordability  is  the  most  common  reason  for  unmet  medical 

needs.  The  situation  in  this  regard  worsened,  or  improvements  have  stalled,  in  several  countries 

and among various population groups. This can be due to decreased income, decreased support 

systems, and increased private contributions including under-the-table payments. 

- 

Timely  access:  Increased  demand  for,  and  reduced  supply  of  services  have  has  led  to 

longer waiting times to access services in some countries. 

- 

Physical access: Decreased public investment in transport and closure of service providers 

can make services harder to reach, as can limited funding for improving the access to buildings for 

people with disabilities. 

- 

Informed  access:  Lack  of  awareness  of  entitlements  and  financial  support  are  important 

barriers to access. Resources for information provision may have diminished. 

In  addition  to  problems  with  access,  people  cannot  or  do  not  seek  care  for  other  reasons: 

perceived stigma may inhibit people with mental health problems from seeking care; or care may 

also  not  be  offered  accurately.  There  are  reports  of  crisis-related  increases  in  discrimination, 

coinciding  with  more  migration.  Increased  stress  levels  among  medical  professionals  because  of 

crisis-related personnel cuts, may have resulted in problems with performance or supply. 

Initiatives  aimed  at  enhancing  access  have  been  discontinued  because  of  reduced  resources. 

Nevertheless,  some  governments  and  service  providers,  as  well  as  other  actors  such  as  NGOs, 

have  implemented  or  scaled-up  measures  seeking  to  maintain  or  improve  access  for  groups  in 

vulnerable situations.  Eurofound is currently mapping examples of these initiatives in its project on 

‘the impacts of the crisis on access to healthcare services’  

http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/areas/health/healthcareservices.htm 

57 

Developments in access to housing 

Housing costs represent an important share of a household's income, especially for lower income 

groups.  In  2012,  the  average  share  of  housing  costs  over  disposable  household  income  varied 

among Member States, between  the minimum of 2.5% in MT and the maximum of 33.1% in EL, 

with the median for EU 28 at 11.2%.. 

The  average  share  of  housing  costs  in  disposable  household  income  increased  in  12  EU-27 

countries  between  2008  and  2012.  In  a  number  of  countries  the  increase  has  been  more 

prominent for people living below the poverty threshold, with increases of above 10pp in BG, DK, 

EE,  EL,  ES,  LT,  SK.  For  individuals  with  higher  incomes,  the  housing  cost  overburden  rate  has 

remained relatively stable with the exception of IE where it increased substantially.  

Figure 35. Evolution of the housing cost overburden rate, 2008-2012 (in pp) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Notes: evolutions for IE and AT are for the period 2008-2011, evolutions for EU28, DE and HR are for the period 2011-2012 

An  increasing  burden  of  housing  costs  on  a  household's  income  might  result  on  the  inability  of 

households  to  pay  back  mortgages,  on  an  increased  need  for  social  housing  and  housing 

allowances, or in extreme cases, to evictions and homelessness. 

In  fact,  in  several  countries  (LT,  LV,  FI),  demand  for  housing  allowances  and  social  housing  has 

grown  in  the  last  years  as  reported  by  Member  States.  In  LT,  the  number  of  families  entitled  to 

social housing has been constantly increasing between 2008 and 2012 (in 2012 it was 33% higher 

than in 2008), and multiplied by 3.4 times between 2004 and 2012. However, only a small share of 

the  demand  is  satisfied,  so,  in  2012  only  a  3.4%  of  the  entitled  families  accessed  to  renting  in 

58 

 
municipal  social  housing.  In  LV,  the  number  of  housing  benefits'  recipients  increased  between 

2009 and 2012. In 2012, the number of housing benefit recipients was a 38% higher than in 2009. 

In  FI,  the  number  of  recipients  (households)  of  general  housing  allowances  has  increased  in  the 

2009-2013 period, so that in October 2013 it was a 31.8% higher its amount in January 2009. The 

rise between October 2012 and October 2013 was of 6.9%. Also the number of applicants in social 

rental housing increased between 2008-2012 in FI, reaching over 100,000 applicants waiting for an 

apartment in 2012. However, the situation varies regionally and about 40 % of the population lives 

in the area where there are empty social rental dwellings.  In FR, the total number of beneficiaries 

of  housing  allowances  kept  rather  stable  during  the  2009-2011  period,  and  similar  to  the  2000 

level.  The  amount  of  such  benefits  has  however  been  increasing  every  year  since  2006.    The 

highest  annual  increase  during  the  2000-2011  period  was  in  2008,  when  it  grew  by  7.2%  with 

respect  to  the  previous  year.  Between  2010  and  2011,  the  total  amount  of  housing  benefits  (en 

euro) grew by 3.3% .  In PL, the total number of housing allowances paid out in 2012 was a 0.7% 

higher  than  in  2011,  while  the  total  amount  paid  as  housing  allowances  raised  by  5.2%  as 
compared to the 2011 amount41. 

Regarding  the  ability  of  households  to  pay  back  their  mortgages  and  housing  loans,  a  few 

countries (EE, FR) show an improvement in the last years. In EE between 2012 and 2013, both the 

absolute  number  of  hopeless  housing  loan  contracts  and  their  share  in  the  total  volume  of 

housing  loan  contracts  decreased.  In  particular,  0.6%  of  housing  loan  contracts  were  hopeless 
loans by the end of August 201342 In FR, a 2.7% of owners were unable to pay for their loans in 
2010, a 0.9 pp lower than in 200943.  

In PT, however, the percentage of borrowers with overdue loans for housing increased from 5.5% 

of the total number of borrowers with credit granted in Q2 2011 to 6.2% in Q2 2013. This share is 

nevertheless lower than the 8.3% reached in Q1 2009.In HU, a 5.7% of the number of home loan 

contracts and a 9.4% of the total credit value for home loans were rated as subprime (July 2013). In 

total, a 23.4% of the home loan contracts and a 34.8% of the total credit value were rated as no 

problem free. 

In the last years, a reduction in the number of evictions is reported in some countries (MT, PT, SE, 

AT). Decline in the number of evictions in MT meant that there was none in year 2013. The number 

of  repossessed  homes  is  also  persistently  dropping  in  MT  since  2011,  and  it  was  a  31%  lower  in 

2013 than in 2011. In PT, the yearly number of completed evictions of urban property destined to 

housing by non-payment of rent in 2012 was the lowest since 2008, and a 8.1% lower than in the 

previous year (2011), reaching a total number  of 1,243. Actual evictions have also decreased in SE 

since year 2000. In particular, between 2008 and 2012 their number decreased by 13%. In the same 

41 Central Statistical Office, Local Data Bank (http://www.stat.gov.pl/bdlen/app/strona.html?p_name=indeks) 

42  Source:  Bank  of  Estonia.  (2013).  Lending  Review.  February  2013.  http://www.eestipank.ee/en/publication/lending-

review/2013/lending-review-february-2013  

43 Source: Insee, SRCV 2007-2010, from Commissariat général au développement durable (2013), "L'état du logement en 

2011". 

59 

                                                           
period,  the  number  of  children  affected  by  reduced  by  20.5%.  In  AT,  the  number  of  finally 

executed evictions declined between 2006 and 2012, following a continuous downward trend since 

2008. The number of executed evictions in 2012 was 12.1% lower than in year 2008.. 

More  than  a  10%  increase  in  the  number  of  evictions  between  2011  and  2012  was  however 

reported in NL. Arrears in rent are the reason for eviction in 79.3% of cases. In PL, evictions were 

conducted  in  6,600  dwellings  in  2011.  Eviction  proceedings  conducted  in  court  in  2011  were  in 
about  84%  of  instances  instituted  as  a  result  of  arrears  with  dwelling-related  payments44.  In  HU, 
the total number of evictions from rentals of local governments in 2012 was 966.  

Box 2. Recent trends in homelessness in Europe  

A general trend of increasing homelessness in much of the EU was reported by the SPC in 201245, 
This  was  mainly  based  on  relevant  EU  SILC  indicators,  the  results  of  a  questionnaire  on 

homelessness and housing exclusion sent to SPC members, and a monitoring report published by 
FEANTSA  in  201246,  Nonetheless,  more  recent  data  from  a  variety  of  MS  indicates  an  ongoing 
trend of increasing homelessness in many contexts, and covers some additional countries. In AT, 

the number of persons registered over the course of a year as homeless increased by 8% between 
2008 and 2010, reaching 12,266 people47. In DK, there has been a total increase in homelessness of 
16%  over  the  past  four  years,  rising  from  4,998  in  2009  to  5,820  persons  in  201348.  In  FR,  the 
national  statistics  institute  (INSEE)  reports  that  approximately  141  500  people  were  homeless  in 
metropolitan  France  in  2012.  This  represents  an  increase  of  50%  since  200149  In  parts  of  the  UK, 
recent  statistics  show  sharp  increases  in  homelessness.  In  London,  the  number  of  households 

accepted  as  being  owed  a  main  homelessness  duty  was  4,410  –  an  increase  of  13%  from  3,900 
during the same quarter a year earlier50. However, in England, between 1 July and 30 September 
2013, local authorities accepted 13,330 households as being owed a main homelessness duty. This 

is  a  4  per  cent  decrease  compared  to  the  same  quarter  last  year.  Statistics  produced by  Caritas 

44 Source: Polish Central Statistical Office 

45 SPC (2012) Social Europe Current challenges and the way forward: Annual Report of the Social Protection Committee, 

available at http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=738&langId=fr&pubId=7405  

46 FEANTSA (2012) On the Way Home? FEANTSA Monitoring Report on Homelessness and Homeless Policies in Europe, 

available at: http://www.feantsa.org/spip.php?article854&lang=en  

47  Federal  Ministry  of  Labour,  Consumer  Affairs  and  Social  Protection  Social  Report  2011  -  2012:  Analysis  Section 
at: 

(translated 
http://www.bmask.gv.at/site/Soziales/Allgemeine_Sozialpolitik/Sozialberichte/Sozialbericht_2011_2012  

available 

English), 

into 

48 Benjaminsen, L. & Lauritzen, H. (2013), Hjemløshed i Danmark 2013. National kortlægning. [Homelessness in Denmark 

2013. National mapping], Copenhagen, SFI. 

49  Insee  (2013)  L’hébergement  des  sans-domicile  en  2012  Des  modes  d’hébergement  différents  selon  les  situations 

familiales, available at : http://www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/ipweb/ip1455/ip1455.pdf  

50 Department for Communities and Local Government, Statutory homelessness: July  to September  2013 England, Ref: 
ISBN  9781409840893,  available  at:  https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/statutory-homelessness-in-
england-july-to-eptember-2013 

60 

                                                           
Spain  show  that  the  number  of  homeless  people  using  their  services  increased  by  24%  in  the 
period  between  2007  and  201151.  According  to  the  Spanish  National  Statistics  Institute  (INE) 
spending  in  centres  which  work  with  homeless  people  rose  by  39%  in  the  period  2006-201252. 
Besides,  another  survey  from  INE  shows  that  centres  for  homeless  persons  received  22,930 

homeless  persons  in  2012.  This  compared  to  21,900  homeless  persons  in  2005,  representing  an 

increase of 4.8%.  In LV, the number of clients in municipal shelters increased between 2009 and 

2011, and then reduced in the last year (between 2011 and 2012). In 2012, the number of clients in 

municipal shelters was a 65.8% higher than in 2009. In LT, the total number of occupiers of shelters 

for homeless has increased by 16% between 2009 and 2011. In EE, lack of proper housing was the 

main reason for using shelter service for 38% of its users in 2012, 8pp higher than the percentage 
of users reporting lack of proper housing as their main reason to use such services in 200853. In FI, 
the number of homeless families has increased in the 2008-2012 period, so that in 2012 there were 

49.2% more homeless families than in 2008. At the same time, the number of homeless individuals 

living outdoors, in overnight shelters, temporary accommodation or in institutions has decreased, 
so in 2012 there were 35% less individuals in this situation, compared to their number 200854. In 
2011, a 0.4% of the population in CY lived in either improvised housing units or other housing units 
not built for habitation purposes55.  In NL, a total of 17,500 homeless people were estimated at the 
reference date of 1 January 2009 by the Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics. In RO, a total of 2,429 
persons in 2012 were assisted in day or night shelters, either public or managed by NGOs. 

The particularly dramatic social impact of the crisis in some countries, such as EL, means that levels 

of  homelessness  have  risen  very  dramatically.  Service  providers  estimate  that  Greece’s  homeless 
population  rose  by  25% between  2009  and  2011  when  it  reached  20,00056  The  large  number  of 
households threatened by foreclosure or eviction means that the proportion of the population at 

risk of homelessness has increased. It is estimated that approximately 300.000 families risk to lose 

their homes if the moratorium on repossessions will be lifted next year.   

Increasing  homelessness  amongst  young  people  is  emerging  as  a  cause  for  concern  in  several 

Member States. For example, in DK, there has been an increase in youth homelessness of 80% or 
from  633  persons  in  2009  to  1,138  persons  in  201357.  Similarly,  there  is  a  trend  of  increased 

51  Caritas  Española  (2012)  “Acompañándo…nos”.  Mirada,  acción  y  propuestas  de  Cáritas  con  personas  que  están  sin 

hogar. 

52 

(2013), 

INE 
 Survey 
http://www.ine.es/en/prensa/np761_en.pdf  

on  Homeless 

Persons 

Results 

preview. 

Year 

2012 , 

available 

at: 

53 Source: Ministry of Social Affairs 

54 Source: Housing Finance and Development Centre of Finland 

55 Source: Population Census 2011, CYSTAT 

56 FEANTSA (2012) Op Cit.  

57 Benjaminsen, L. & Lauritzen, H. (2013), Hjemløshed i Danmark 2013. National kortlægning. [Homelessness in Denmark 

2013. National mapping], Copenhagen, SFI. 

61 

                                                           
homelessness amongst families in various Member States. According to INSEE, 25% of homeless 
people  in  France  are  accompanied  by  children58.  The  SPC  highlighted  in  2012  that  integrated 
strategies  to  tackle  homelessness,  whilst  lacking  in  many  instances,  had  been  developed  by  a 

growing  number  of  MS  and  regions.  This  trend  seems  to  continue.  Several  new  strategies  have 

been announced (e.g. LU, CZ).  Some national/regional strategies have achieved impressive results 

in  reducing  homelessness  (e.g.  Scotland,  Netherlands,  Finland  (long-term  homelessness))  Robust 

homelessness  strategies  may    also  have    helped  to  limit  increases  in  homelessness  due  to 

structural  factors  (e.g.  Ireland,  Denmark  (where    those  municipalities  implementing  the  national 

strategy experienced much lower increases than others). Full implementation, monitoring and the 

allocation of adequate resources are required for integrated homeless strategies to succeed. Some 

of  the  strategies  which  have  been  announced  in  recent  years  have  yet  to  be  implemented  and 

therefore are unable to support progress.  

Among  the  factors  influencing  access  to  house  property  are  credit  availability  and  price  levels. 

During the last years, trends in housing credit seem to vary between countries. In some countries 

(HU,  CY,  PT,  FR,  HR),  availability  of  housing  credit  has  decreased.  For  example,  in  HU,  both  the 

number  of  permitted  housing  credits  (contracts)  and  its  volume  (in  HUF)  decreased  dramatically 

between  2008  and  2009,  by  61.5%  and  66.1%  respectively.  In  2012,  the  number  of  permitted 

housing  credits  was  a  further  3.6%  lower  than  in  2009,  and  the  volume  of  housing  credits  was 

35.8%  lower  than  in  2009.  Moreover,  the  share  of  credits  with  state  subsidy  decreased  from  a 

25.1% of the total number of permitted housing credits in 2009 to  a 34.4% in 2012. In CY, bank 

loans to households for house purchase rose annually in the Q1 2008-Q4 2012 period, and then 

started to reduce as from Q1 2013. In Q3 2013 they were a 3.9% lower than in the previous one-
year period.59. According to the latest CBC Bank Lending Survey (July 2013), banks have tightened 
credit standards concerning loans to households for house purchase. In Q3 2013, a 53.4% of total 

loans to the household sector were housing loans, a share rather stable since Q4 2010. This share 
rose by 10.5pp since Q1 200860. In PT, the increasing trend in housing credit since 2009 reversed as 
from  2001.  Between  Q1  2011  and  Q2  2013,  the  nominal  amount  of  loans  granted  to  private 

individuals for housing declined by 6.6%. At the same time, the number of private borrowers for 

housing  decreased  by  3.8%  between  Q2  2011  and  Q2  2013.In  FR,  loans  for  housing  decreased 

between  2011  and  2012  (22.8%  less  for  old  housing,  and  a  17%  reduction  for new  housing).  The 

evolution  of  the  households'  rate  of  property  indebtedness  slowed  down  in  2011,  increasing  by 

3.4% with respect to the 2010 indebtedness rate, after having doubled in the 2000-2011 period (it 
was at 64% of households' disposable income in 2011)61. In HR, housing loans dropped slightly at a 

58 INSEE Op Cit.  

59 Source: Central Bank of Cyprus 

60 Source: Central Bank of Cyprus 

61 Source: Insee, Banque de France, from Commissariat général au développement durable (2013), "L'état du logement 

en 2011" 

62 

 
                                                           
rate  of  about  1%  a  year.  An  opposite  upward  trend  is  observed  in  EE,  where,  after  almost  four 

years of decline, the volume of new housing loans increased by 16% in 2012, as compared to their 
volume in 2011.62. In FI a third of households had a housing loan in 201263. In MT, 22% of dwelling 
owners  had  an  outstanding  loan  on  their  main  dwelling  in  2011.  In  PL,  17%  of  households  used 
their financing for the purchase of a house or apartment in 2013, compared to 14% in 201164.  

As regards price evolution, high price raises in housing were reported in FR and PL during the last 

decade.  So,  in  FR,  house  prices  doubled  between  2000  and  2008,  reduced  during  year  2008-

beginning  of  2009,  but  re-took  growth  again  during  2009  and  2010,  reaching  the  price  levels 
before  the  start  of  the  decline  in  200865.  In  PL,  the  average  price  per  square  meter  increased 
sharply  between  year  2005  and  year  2007,  and  continued  an  upward  trend  until  2010,  when  it 

seemed to stabilise, to start reducing as from 2011. So, average price of one square meter in Q2 

2013  was  a  12.3%  lower  its  Q1  2010  level,  which  was,  at  its  turn,  2.3  times  the  Q1  2005  average 
price66.  Real interest rates on loans are also rising, and reached 5% in 2013 Q1, the highest level 
since 2005 67.  Prices of old sold apartments have also been increasing in FI during the 2009-2013 
period, so that in Q2 2013 prices per square meter in the capital region were a 22.8% higher than 

in  Q2  2009,  while  in  other  parts  of  FI  they  were  a  12.8%  higher  than  in  Q2  2009.  The  rents  of 

apartments  have  also  increased  in  the  2009-2012  period.  In  the  capital  region,  the  rents  of  new 
tenancies increased by about 4% per year and elsewhere in FI by about 3% per year68. However, in 
CY, following the high increases in housing prices that were recorded during the previous decade 

due  to  the  real  estate  sector  bubble,  a  gradual  correction  has  been  in  progress  since  2009.  In 

particular,  the  residential  property  price  index  has  been  continuously  declining  since  Q1  2009 

(except for a period of a stagnation in the first two quarters of 2010). IN Q3 2013 it had declined at 

an annual rate of -6.1%. At the same time, interest rates for housing loans remained relatively high, 
between 5-5.5% in the Q3 2010-Q3 2013 period.69.  

As  regards  to  other  indicators  of  activity  in  the  housing  market,  in  EE,  the  construction  sector 
started showing signs of recovery in 2011 after a downturn period70. The number of transactions in 
the apartment market increased by 15% in Q2 2013, as compared to the previous year71. And while 

62  Bank  of  Estonia. 

(2013).  Lending  Review.  February  2013.  http://www.eestipank.ee/en/publication/lending-

review/2013/lending-review-february-2013  

63 Statistics Finland 

64 Source: Social Diagnosis 2013 

65 Source: indice Insee-Notaires, from Clévenot M (2011)  "Les prix immobiliers en France: une évolution singulière". 

66 Source: ZBP (the Polish Bank Association) 

67 Source: National Polish Bank 

68 Source: Statistics Finland 

69 Source: Central Bank of Cyprus 

70  Source:  Statistics  Estonia. 

(2012).  Economic  and  Social  Overview.  Statistical  Yearbook  of  Estonia,  2012. 

http://www.stat.ee/publication-download-pdf?publication_id=29873  

71 Source: Bank of Estonia. (2013). Financial Stability Review 2/2013. http://www.eestipank.ee/en/publication/financial-

stability-review/2013/financial-stability-review-22013 

63 

                                                           
the number of use permits for new residential housing issued in Q2 2013 was at the same level as 

in  2012,  the  number  of  building  permits  issued  in  Q2  2013  was  13%  higher  than  in  the  previous 
year72.  In SE, a housing shortage is reported in 126 of the 290 municipalities in Sweden, especially 
within the rental market73. 

Trends in the take-up of selected social benefits  

The prolonged crisis has led to an increased dependence upon social transfers in some Member 

States  as  long-term  unemployment  persists  and  employment  growth  is  still  stagnant.  The  SPC 

started  an  ad-hoc  collection  of  administrative  data  on  benefit  recipients  for  different  social 

schemes (unemployment, social assistance, early retirement and disability) in order to get timelier 

information on the pressure on social protection systems in the context of the economic crisis. In 

2013 the SPC continued with this data collection which is very valuable for its timeliness but needs 

to  be  assessed  with  the  due  caution  as  it  does  not  offer  cross-country  comparability  due  to  the 

diversity of concepts and underlying definitions. 

The  following  sections  analyses  the  major  trends  registered  in  the  year  2013  comparing  to  2012 

and the beginning of the crisis – 2008.Detailed country trends on take up of benefit recipients can 

be found in the country profiles of this report. Similarly to last year and although only indicative, 

the  trends  observed  illustrate  that  the  pressure  on  social  security  systems  is  still  growing  as 

Member States are implementing fiscal consolidation measures. 

Mixed trends in the evolution of unemployment benefit recipients  

Similarly to what was observed in the previous SPC report (SPC, 2012), also in 2013 there was still a 

strong pressure on unemployment benefit schemes across the EU as the unemployment situation 

was  not  improving.  In  2013  a  number  of  Member  States  recorded  a  persistent  increase  in  the 
number of unemployment benefit recipients as compared to 2012 (CZ74, CY, LT75, FI, FR, NL, PT). 
LV,  DK  and  UK  were  the  Member  States  who  registered  persistent  decrease  in  the  number  of 

unemployment benefit recipients, which in the case of UK and LV was mirroring slowly the positive 

developments of the unemployment rate. 

72 Source: Bank of Estonia. (2013). Financial Stability Review 2/2013. http://www.eestipank.ee/en/publication/financial-

stability-review/2013/financial-stability-review-22013 

73  Source:  National  Board  of  Housing,  Building  and  Planning,  2013  (http://www.boverket.se/Boende/Analys-av-
bostadsmarknaden/Bostadsmarknadsenkaten-2013/Laget-pa-bostadsmarknaden/Vilken-typ-av-bostader-ar-det-
brist-pa/ 

74 CZ recorded decreasing unemployment in June 2013 comparing to June 2012 (-0,5%) and in August 2013 comparing 

to August 2012 (-1,1%). 

75 LT recorded decreasing unemployment all through the year 2013 comparing to 2012. 

64 

                                                           
Countries undergoing a shift towards social assistance schemes  

Similarly to last year, in CZ sees decrease in unemployment beneficieries together with an increase 

in social assistance recipients. This could suggest there is movement from unemployment benefits 

to social assistance schemes perhaps because long-term unemployment or shortened lengths of 

unemployment benefit receipt. This movement increases pressure on social protection systems. 

Figure 36. Evolution of the number of benefit recipients and number of 

unemployed (in 1000) – the example of CZ 

Source: Data on number of unemployed from Eurostat (ILO definition, in 1000 persons, seasonally adjusted); data on 
number of benefit recipients collected from Member States through the SPC delegates 

Countries with downward trends in both unemployment and social assistance 

benefit recipients 

Overall,  five  countries  reported  on  decreasing  numbers  in  beneficiaries  on  both  unemployment 

benefit and social assistance schemes. UK registered a decrease of -22,5% in social assistance and 

-4,5% in unemployment benefits in January 2013 comparing to January 2012. Spain recorded -1,1% 

in  SA  and  -5%  of  BR  in  August  2013  comparing  to  August  2012.  In  September  2013  Ireland 

registered  a  decrease  of  -20,6%  in  social  assistance  as  well  as  -8%  decrease  in  number  of 

unemployment benefits comparing to September 2012.  

65 

 
Figure 37. Evolution of the number of benefit recipients and number of 

unemployed (in 1000) – the example of the UK 

Source: Data on number of unemployed from Eurostat (ILO definition, in 1000 persons, seasonally adjusted); data on 
number of benefit recipients collected from Member States through the SPC delegates 

Potential gaps in social benefits' coverage in some Member States 

With  the  deterioration  in  the  employment  situation  in  some  Member  States  and  the  growing 

number of unemployed and their longer stay in unemployment, more people are in need of social 

transfers. In some Member States, the growth in unemployment is not always matched by similar 

trends  in  benefit  recipients  which  may  lead  to  a  potential  lack  of  social  benefits  coverage.  This 

continues to be the case in EL, SI, ES, and CY. However, in CY the decrease in take up of public 

assistance can be to some extent  explained by a change in legislation for the creation of a lone 

parent  benefit  which  are  given  by  another  service  and  as  such  are  not  shown  in  the  figures  of 

public assistance.  

66 

 
Figure 38. Evolution of the number of benefit recipients and number of 

unemployed (in 1000) – the example of EL 

Source: Data on number of unemployed from Eurostat (ILO definition, in 1000 persons, seasonally adjusted); data on 

number of benefit recipients collected from Member States through the SPC delegates 

Figure 39. Evolution of the number of benefit recipients and number of 

unemployed (in 1000) – the example of SI 

Source: Data on number of unemployed from Eurostat (ILO definition, in 1000 persons, seasonally adjusted); data on 

number of benefit recipients collected from Member States through the SPC delegates 

67 

 
 
Figure 40. Evolution of the number of benefit recipients and number of 

unemployed (in 1000) – the example of ES 

Source: Data on number of unemployed from Eurostat (ILO definition, in 1000 persons, seasonally adjusted); data on 

number of benefit recipients collected from Member States through the SPC delegates 

Figure 41. Evolution of the number of benefit recipients and number of 

unemployed (in 1000) – the example of CY 

Source: Data on number of unemployed from Eurostat (ILO definition, in 1000 persons, seasonally adjusted); data on 

number of benefit recipients collected from Member States through the SPC delegates 

68 

 
 
II. Examining the 2012 social trends to watch 
The first edition of the Social Protection Performance Monitor (SPPM) identified four main trends 

to watch for 2012 – increase in the overall poverty and social exclusion rate, widespread increase 

of the number of working poor in Europe, alarming increase in child poverty and social exclusion 

and the rising poverty risk for (quasi-) jobless households (SPC, 2012). The SPC undertook in-depth 

thematic reviews on the situation and policy measures tackling the working poor, child poverty and 

social exclusion and the poverty risk of the (quasi-) jobless households in the second half of 2013. 

The  following  thematic  sections  give  a  summary  of  these  reviews  and  provide  some  key 

conclusions in terms of the effectiveness of policy measures in addressing these challenges. 

Key messages from the thematic in-depth reviews 

• 

• 

• 

Individual  characteristics:  Poverty  at  working  age  is  more  strongly  correlated  with  work 

intensity at household level than with the individual labour market status. 

In-work poverty is negatively correlated with education levels for the employed: the higher 

the level of qualification obtained, the lower the incidence of in-work poverty. 

In  addition  to  its  impact  on  the  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  of  the  working-age 

population,  the  educational  attainment  level  is  a  significant  factor  influencing  the  activity 

status.  Thus,  the  inactivity  rate  among  working-age  people  with  low  educational 

attainment is significantly higher than that of high-skilled persons. 

•  The high incidence of temporary and part-time work among the low-skilled considerably 

impacts on their risk of poverty and social exclusion. 

•  Another  persistent  challenge  to  labour  and social  inclusion  is  represented  by the  gender 
gap in labour market participation, pay and the risk of poverty. Women still work shorter 

hours  and  have  lower  hourly  pay  and  less  career  opportunities,  which  ultimately 

contributes to the poverty risk of households with low work intensity. 

•  Household  composition:  The  poverty  risk  of  household  joblessness  can  differ  between 
households  that  contain  only  one  adult  and  households  that  contain  more  people, 

especially dependent children. 

• 

Institutional  factors:  Tax  and  benefits  systems,  particularly  in  countries  with  extensive 

means-testing of social benefits based on household income, impact on the poverty risks 

69 

 
 
of (quasi-) jobless households by creating disincentives for work that lead to dependency 

traps. 

•  Significant shares of unemployed people are not covered by standard safety nets, such as 

unemployment benefits or social assistance. 

•  A gradual reduction of unemployment is unlikely to be enough to reverse the increasing 
trend  in  poverty  levels,  especially  if  wage  polarisation  and  labour  market  segmentation 

continue to pose challenges. 

•  Low  wages  have  an  impact  on  in-work  poverty  because  they  affect  individual  and 
household  income.  However,  the  relationship  between  upward  labour  market  transitions 

and  exits  from  poverty  is  not  straightforward:  even  significant  wage  increases  are 

sometimes not enough to escape poverty. 

•  The key factors influencing low-work intensity are the limited availability and affordability of 

child care and the lack of access to flexible working arrangements. 

•  The  balance  between  cash  and  in-kind  benefits  does  not  have  a  clear  effect  on  poverty 
reduction. The design of the social protection systems and the level of expenditure have a 

greater  impact  on  the  adequacy  and  effectiveness  of  cash  and  in-kind  benefits  for 

stimulating work intensity to the level required to escape poverty and social exclusion. For 

instance,  systems  that  provide  generous  family  allowances  but  relatively  weak  child  care 

services may be more successful in alleviating poverty among one-earner households but 

they discourage the labour market participation of second earners. In systems where both 

child  care  provision  (in-kind  benefits)  and  family  allowances  (cash  benefits)  are  weak, 

children face higher risks of poverty. 

•  Policies  addressing  in-work  poverty  cannot  be  clearly  separated  from  policies  aiming  to 

combat poverty and social exclusion more widely.  

•  Three broad groups of policy instruments to fight poverty and social exclusion in general 
can  be  identified:  supporting  wages  and  income,  stimulating  the  labour  market 

participation of groups at risk of poverty, providing access to enabling services.  

•  Efficient  and  effective  income  support  schemes  and  well-targeted  social  expenditure, 
including  for  households  whose  members  do  have  a  job,  are  needed  in  order  to  allow 

more people to escape poverty and social exclusion. These comprise fiscal measures, such 

as in-work benefits or tax credits paid to those with earnings below a certain level; labour 

market  policies,  such  as  minimum  wages,  wage  policies  in  general,  unemployment 

benefits, unemployment assistance and start-up benefits; family policies; or a combination 

of all of these measures. 

70 

• 

 An  integrated  approach  as  taken  by  most  of  the  presenting  countries  is  needed, 
encompassing  policies  to  increase  employment  among  all  categories  of  working-age 

people, stimulate flexible working conditions, ensure minimum income schemes, invest in 

human  resources  development  and  provide  employment-friendly,  accessible  and 

affordable child care. 

71 

1. The working poor in Europe 

1.1 Introduction 

One  of  the  most  tangible  impacts  of  the  crisis  has  been  the  increase  in  unemployment  and  the 

long-term  labour market exclusion of millions  of Europeans.  However,  the  crisis  has  also  had  an 

impact on people in work. 12 Member States (MS) had registered statistically significant increases 

in  the  number  of  the  working  poor  in  the  period  2010-2011.  The  working  poor  are  defined  as 

individuals who are classified as employed (i.e. being in work for over half of the year) and who are 

at risk of poverty, i.e. live with an equivalised disposable income below 60% of the national median 
equivalised disposable income76. 

Job  creation  has  been  at  the  heart  of  the  Lisbon  Strategy  and  the  follow-up  of  the  European 

Employment  strategy,  with  20  million  additional  jobs  being  created  before  the  current  crisis. 

Analysis has pointed out the need to assess the quality of these jobs and the need to strengthen 

the links between jobs creation policies and those intended to reduce poverty. This has been taken 

up strongly and at the highest political level in the context of the Europe 2020 strategy with the 

headline  objectives  of  increasing  employment  while  reducing  the  number  of  people  living  in 

poverty or social exclusion. 

The Social Investment package77 adopted by the Commission in February 2013 has most recently 
emphasized  the  need  for  well-targeted,  comprehensive  and  enabling  active  inclusion  strategies 

which include both income support and access to services. The investment approach can be used 

in  containing  the  rise  of  the  working  poor  by  placing  the  right  emphasis  on  the  prevention 

dimension.  

1.2. Why is in-work poverty relevant? 

The EU sees very divergent trends in the working poor with some 8 countries which register levels 

below 6%, representing a rather heterogeneous group – FI, BE, CZ, NL, IE, HU, DK and MT, while 

on the other side of the spectrum we have countries like LU, PL, IT, ES, EL with rates above 10% 
and  RO  which  has  the  absolute  highest  level  in  the  EU  of  18.9%78.  (Figure  42)  This  to  a  certain 
extent already gives the intuition of the complexity behind the phenomenon of the working poor 

76  The  in-work  poverty  rate  is  an  individual  measure  but  based  on  household  income,  and  heavily  dependent  on 
household composition and household work intensity. The changes over time should be additionally interpreted in 
relation to changes in the poverty threshold.. 

77 http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=1044&newsId=1807&furtherNews=yes 

78 It is important to highlight that the employed population distinguishes between employees and self-employed. In the 
case of RO, for example, the majority of in-work poor are to be found among the self-employed while the in-work 
poverty risk for the employees is around  the EU average. This points out to the complexity of the interpration of 
the indicator and to the need to analyse in-depth what stands behind the overall figures. 

72 

 
                                                           
which  cannot  be  easily  associated  with  some  usual  distinction  in  performance  levels,  both  in 

relation  to  employment  as  well  as  to  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Overall,  9.1%  of  the  EU 

population at work lives below the poverty threshold in 2012. 

In most countries, policies addressing the working poor cannot be clearly separated from policies 

aiming  to  combat  poverty  and  social  exclusion,  including  those  related  to  the  respective  social 

welfare  systems.  The  complexity  of  the  phenomenon  of  the  working  poor  sees,  in  fact,  the 

interrelation  between  labour  market  and  social  protection  policies  which  interact  at  both  the 

individual and household level. 

Figure 42. In-work at-risk-of-poverty rate in the EU, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC)  

Notes: i) 2011 data for IE, ii) provisional data for BE. 

In  fact,  even  in  the  period  of  employment  growth  in  the  years  before  the  crisis,  the  share  of 

working poor has remained rather stable suggesting that creating jobs is not enough and more 

refined  and  targeted  policies  are  necessary.  The  crisis  has  put  this  problem  at  a  new  level  and 
more so in some Member States.(see Section 1 of the report for most recent evolutions).79  

The share of the working poor in the overall population at risk of poverty or social exclusion varies 

greatly and has significant implications for the achievement of the Europe 2020 headline target – 

from less than 10% in IE and HR, to between 10-15% in HU, BG, BE, LV and FI to above 30% in RO, 

SE and LU where the working poor account for 37.7% of the population at risk of poverty or social 

exclusion. This suggests that in many countries dealing with poverty and making any real progress 

79 Two important caveats need to be taken into account when reading these figures: i) all changes need to be looked 
together with the change in the poverty threshold as general deterioration of the income situation can result in a 
decrease in the poverty threshold and consequent possible decreases in the poverty risk; ii)for the at-risk-of poverty 
rate, the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011 for 2012 figures) except for the 
United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). 

73 

 
                                                           
on  the  agenda  on  reducing  poverty  and  social  exclusion  needs  to  go  hand  in  hand  with 

addressing the problems of the working poor. 

Figure 43. Share of working poor in the population at risk of poverty or 

social exclusion, 2011 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

The in-work poverty risk tends to vary in a similar pattern with the overall risk of poverty. However, 

a large variability arises between the two rates, which can be explained by a mix of factors, such as 

the  incidence  of  poverty  risk  in  each  economic  activity  status  group  of  the  population  and  their 

proportion  of  the  total  population.  Above  all,  the  in-work  poverty  depends  on  the  household 

composition  and  employment  status  and  income  of  all  household  members.  In  particular  it 

depends on the extent to which people in employment with low earnings share households with 

others  in  work,  who  might  earn  more  and  therefore  effectively  share  their  income  as  well  –  as 

opposed  to  living  alone.  FI,  HR  and  BE  have  very  low  share  of  working  poor  among  their 

population at risk of poverty (close to 30%) while on the other end of the spectrum is RO where 

most of the people (83%) at risk of poverty are working poor but also LU (68.2%), EL (65.4%) and 

PL (60.8%) (Figure 44). 

74 

 
Figure 44. In-work at-risk-of-poverty as a share of the at-risk-of-poverty 

rate, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); Note: 2011 data for IE. 

1.3 What are the factors influencing in-work poverty? 

As highlighted by academic and institutional research (most recently European Commission (2011), 

Eurofound (2010), Marx and Nolan (2012), Frazer and Marlier (2010)), the roots of in-work poverty 

are to be found in the interaction of a variety of factors at individual and household level. 

The  main  factors  can  be  grouped  under  four  categories  with  different  implications  in  terms  of 

actions for social protection and labour market policies: 

i) individual characteristics (low education/skills, gender, age);   

ii) household composition, household work intensity  

iii) institutional factors (i.e. duration and type of contract, minimum wage, tax incentives, access to 

services such as childcare, social protection); 

iv) structure of economy/labour market. 

The  following  chart  offers  a  summary  of  the  main  elements  in  understanding  the 
phenomenon of the working poor. 

75 

 
 
 
Figure 45. Factors influencing in-work poverty 

Individual characteristics 

Gender - working women are generally less likely to face poverty risk than men due 

to the household effect 

Although  women  face  a higher  poverty  risk,  statistics show  that,  if  they  are  in  work,  they  are  on 

average across the EU less likely than men to live in households with income below the poverty 

line. Indeed, in 2011 the in-work poverty risk was lower for women (8.3%) than for men (9.4%) for 

the  EU27.  In  the  majority  of  MS  (18)  men  are  more  often  working  poor  than  women,  with  the 

highest gender difference observed in Romania (4.9pp) and MT (4.4pp). In only 5 countries (CZ, 

DE,  EE,  CY,  LU)  the  poverty  risk  is  higher  for  working  women.  Yet,  single  mothers  and  single 

women are particularly at risk of in-work poverty compared to others. 

Age and experience matter – working young people are more at risk of poverty  

Overall  in  the  EU28,  younger  workers  (18-24)  face  the  highest  risk  of  in-work  poverty  (12.2%), 

followed by workers aged 25–54 years (8%) and older workers (7.7%). This can be explained by the 

fact  that  young  people  often  start  their  careers  with  low-paid  jobs  -  more  precarious  jobs 

(temporary, part-time, training).. However, some differences arise among the Member States. The 

EU pattern of young workers facing the highest risk of in-work poverty is evident in 15 MS based 

on 2011 data: BE, BG, DK, DE, EE, IE, FR, HR, IT, CY, LU, NL, RO, SE, FI. While Scandinavian countries 

register very high rate of poverty risk for working young people (e.g. 27% in DK and 16% in SE), 

young  people  there  establish  their  own  households  and  start  living  independently  much  earlier 

and are often combining work and studies. In Southern Europe, on the other hand, young people 

leave their parental home much later (Becker et al. 2010),   which results in them benefiting from 

the  overall  household  income  levels  and  resulting  at  much  lower  risk.  Moreover,  high  (or  rising) 

labour market insecurity is likely to affect household formation and fertility decisions.   

On the other hand, in as many as five Member States – El, IE, LT, PT, ES – older workers face a 

higher  in-work  poverty  risk  than  young  workers.  Becker  et  al.  (2010)  find  that  after  considering 

76 

 
many  other  factors,  higher  youth  job  insecurity is  associated  with  higher  co-residence  rates  with 

parents. 

Education and the associated skills level have a significant influence on in-work 

poverty  

Education  is  an  important  driver  of  personal  and  societal  growth.  Returns  to  education  are 

positive, and usually quite important, in all Member States. In-work poverty is negatively correlated 

with education levels for the employed: the higher the level of qualification obtained, the lower the 

incidence  of  in-work  poverty.  However,  the  ‘returns  to  education’  in  terms  of  the  effect  of 
education on poverty reduction is quite different across countries. In BG, EL, PL, and RO ‑ and to 
some extent in LV, LT, LU, and HU ‑ education markedly reduces the odds of experiencing in-work 
poverty. Low-skilled people are generally experiencing higher inactivity and unemployment rates 

than higher skilled. In countries like DK, SE, FI, and NL, that have safety nets that cover all people 

regardless of their former attachment to the labour market, low-skilled individuals are at a lesser 

risk of in-work poverty People with low educational attainment generally have an employment rate 

significantly lower than that of high-skilled persons, mainly due to high inactivity, even among the 

adult  population  aged  25-64.  Lack  of  opportunities  to  obtain  a  permanent  or  full-time  job  is  a 

significantly  greater  reason  for  the  high  incidence  of  temporary  and  part-time  work  among  the 

low-skilled, which is higher than for other skill groups. Data from the LFS show that 13.5 % of low-

skilled employees hold a temporary contract and almost 80 % of them cannot find a permanent 

job, while one in five low-skilled employees work part-time, including a third who want, but cannot 

find, a full- time job. (European Commission, 2011) 

Household characteristics 

Household composition – the number of dependents in a household is decisive for 

in-work poverty 

Household  composition  is  one  of  the  main  factors  influencing  poverty  risk  in  general  and  the 
working poor in particular80. As poverty is measured at the household level, a working adult can 
live  in  a  poor  household  despite  significant  earnings  and  working  hours.  This  is  most  often  the 

case when there are not enough adults working in the households or a large number of children 

compared  to  the  number  of  earners.  For  this  reason,  single-parent  households  and  single 

households in which the breadwinner is not working full-time, as well as single-earner families face 

the highest risk of in-work poverty. However, there are still notable differences in the EU both due 

to  the  importance  of  the  family  structure  as  well  as  the  ability  of  social  protection  systems  to 

provide an adequate support. Family composition is, in fact, very important in Southern Europe (IT, 

ES, MT), where female employment rate are low and family support (e.g. child benefits, services, 

80And adds to the complexity of the interpretation of poverty rates by individual characteristics  

77 

                                                           
etc.) is weak, while is very little so in Nordic countries (SE, DI, DK and DE) where family allowances 

and services are stronger. 

Figure 46. In-work poverty rate by type of household, EU28, 2012, in % 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Figure 46 shows that the households without children are the ones which are less at risk (around 

7%).  The  presence  of  children  increases  the  risk  to  11%  with  this  figure  being  double  for  single 

parents  (20.2%).  These  patterns  broadly  apply  to  all  MS,  with  some  variations  in  the  relative 

situation of specific households, notably single persons households (European Commission, 2011). 

The  countries  where  the  difference  between  working  poor  living  in  households  with  dependent 

children  and  without  is  largest  are  RO  (9.8pp),  MT  (7.4pp),  ES  (7.2pp),  EL  (7pp),  IT  (6.7pp),  LU 

(6.5pp) in 2012. This is also related to the division of care work between partners. Low support to 

care implies lower probability for women to be in employment and therefore lower family income 

and  higher  risk  of poverty.    On  the  other  hand,  countries  where  consistently  individuals living  in 

households  with  dependent  children  face  a  lesser  risk  of poverty  than  the  ones  without  children 

are only two - DK and CY.   

In most Member States, very high work intensity can reduce the risk of poverty affecting children. 

This, however, is not the case for BG, EE, LT, PL, and PT. This may be due to low levels of child 

benefit and wages. In ES and IT, for example, only high work intensity seems to alleviate the risk of 

poverty,  mainly  because  of  higher  wages  and  largely  due  to  lack  of  family  support.  (European 

Commission,  2011)  In  general,  two  key  factors  influencing  low  work  intensity  are  the  limited 

availability and affordability of child care and the lack of access to flexible working arrangements 

(Frazer and Marlier, 2010). 

How has the crisis affected the in-work poverty trends by household type? 

Some  countries  have  seen  strong  increase  in  the poverty  risk of  working  people  living  in  certain 

type  of  households  –  notably,  single  persons  (DK,  FR,  IT,  DI),  single  parents  (DE,  RO,  LV),  and 

78 

 
households  with  dependent  children  (IT  and  RO).  FI  is  the  only  country  with  stable  tendency  of 

decreasing the poverty risk of the working population across all household types. BG, CZ, EE, IE, 

CY, LT, UK have seen substantial improvement in the situation of single working parents. 

Insufficient work intensity is a key driver of in-work poverty in all Member States 

Overall, the more members of a household there are in work, the lower the risk of poverty (Figure  

47).  Thus,  many  of  the  one-breadwinner  family  household,  in  which  work  intensity  is  low  to 

medium,  are  not  protected  from  the  risk  of  poverty.  In  fact,  across  the  EU,  the  risk  for  such 

households is between 9% (NL) and 57,6% (RO) in 2012.  

Evidence  shows  that  when  household  work  intensity  increases  beyond  20%  of  the  total  work 

potential,  the  risk  of  poverty  begins  to  drop  significantly  (European  Commission,  2011).  Moving 

further  up  the  scale  of  work  intensity,  the  change  is  more  gradual.  Very  high  work  intensity  in 

households brings down the risk of poverty among adults significantly – to around 5% in the 80-

90% work intensity bracket and to around 4% in the households with work intensity of 90-100% of 

the total potential. 

79 

Figure  47. The distribution of household work intensity among the working 

poor (18-64), 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: data for IE refers to 2011 

While it is important to keep in the mind the overall share of the working poor in a country and 

thus, the overall size of the challenge, Figure  47 shows that MS have different profiles in terms of 

the challenges they face with the working poor population. Overall improving the work intensity of 

the  household  may  be  the  main  way  of  decreasing  the  working  poor  but  this  varies  for  some 

countries where even having all household members working fully (high work intensity) or close to 

high does not take them out of the poverty (e.g. DK, RO SE).  

In  general,  two  key  factors  influencing  low  work  intensity  are  the  limited  availability  and 

affordability  of  child  care  and  the  lack  of  access  to  flexible  working  arrangements  (Frazer  and 

Marlier, 2010). 

Institutional factors 

Previous research suggests that labour market institutions play a key role in explaining the extent 
of  low-wage  work  as  well  as  the  distribution  of  wages81.  In  particular,  institutional  features  like 

81 Blau and Kahn, 1996; Teulings and Hartog, 1997; Lucifora et al., 2005 

80 

 
                                                           
centralized and/or coordinated wage setting are likely to affect the incidence of low wages. Many 
studies also show an influence of union density on the distribution of wages82. 

Alongside these, the effectiveness of social protection systems in terms of complementing income 

through  income  transfers  is  a  relevant  variable  to  consider.  In  the  figure  below,  we  can  see  the 

impact  of  social  transfers  on  reducing  in-work  poverty  as  compared  to  the  reduction  in  the 

poverty rate overall. What comes quite clear is that in most countries social transfers have a higher 

poverty reduction impact for the working poor than for the people at risk of poverty overall. This is 

mainly due to the fact that the working poor already have some income from wages and any top-

ups in terms of social transfers make it easier for them to rise above the poverty threshold. One 

exception is DK where the impact of reducing the in-work poverty rate is somewhat lower. Another 

important  consideration  is  the  size  of  the poverty  reduction  effect.  In  some  countries  it  is  above 

60% (SI, BE, CZ, AT, SE, FI) and above 70% in DK and IE. In some countries it is quite similar to the 

overall  impact  of  social  transfers  on  poverty  reduction  (IE,  LU,  NL,  UK)  while  in  others  the 

difference  is  very  large  (EL,  BG,  HR).  This  can  be  explained  by  the  depth  of  poverty  in  these 

countries  which makes  the  overall  poverty  reduction  to  be quite  difficult  but  can  also be due  to 

lesser difficulties in targeting working people. 

82 Freeman, 1993; Di Nardo et al., 1996; Rueda and Pontusson, 2000 

81 

                                                           
Figure 48. Impact of social transfer on reducing in-work poverty vs. reducing 

overall at risk of poverty, 2011 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Structure of the labour market 

Part-time and temporary contracts lead to higher poverty risk in the majority of 

Member States 

In-work  poverty  is  highest  for  people  working  less  than  a  full  year,  for    those  in  temporary 

contracts  or  in  part-time  employment.  Apart  from  DK,  LV,  LT,  MT,  AT,  PT  and  UK,  all  Member 

States  have  in-work  poverty  rates  for  those  on  temporary  contracts  that  are  more  than  double 

those  seen  for  people  with  permanent  employment  (Figure  49).  Only  in  DK  and  LT  is  in-work 

poverty similar for those in permanent and temporary employment. Young people, migrants and 

those  in  low-skilled  labour  are  most  likely  to  be  on  temporary  contracts  and  face  a  high  wage 

penalty  relative  to  permanent  contracts  (for  instance,  in  Poland,  those  on  temporary  contracts 

account  for  up  to  26.8 %  of  total  employment,  working  in  jobs  with  a  wage  penalty  of  27.8 % 

relative  to  permanent  contracts)  (European  Commission,  2011).  Involuntary  part-time  work  is  a 

growing  issue  in  many  countries,  such  as  DE,  where  wider  use  of  non-standard  contracts  has 
increased  flexibility  on  the  labour  market,  but  also  led  to  further  inequalities  among  workers.83 
Eurostat  labour  force  data  shows  that  for  EU28  (annual  data)  between  2008  and  2012  total 

employment recorded a net decrease of 5,429 million; this is the combined effect of a dramatic fall 

83 Commission Staff Working Document, Assessment of the 2012 national reform programme and stability programme 
for Germany, SWD(2012) 305 final. 

82 

 
                                                           
in full-time and an increase in part-time work. The fall in full-time employment has hit men more 

severely than women, while the expansion of part-time employment has affected men and women 

more  evenly.  The  contraction  in  total  employment  and  the  shift  towards  part-time  employment 

has resulted in a dramatic increase in the share of people in involuntary employment (i.e. working 

part-time because they could not find a full-time job. 

Between 2011 and 2012, the most important changes occurred for people in temporary jobs whose 

risk of poverty increased substantially (above 6pp) in BG, CZ, EL and RO while it decreased in DK, 

LV and LT. 

Figure 49. In-work poverty by type of contract, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Figure  50  shows  the  relative  poverty  risk  for  the  employed population  in part-time  and  full-time 

jobs. Overall part-time jobs are associated with a higher poverty risk but the difference is not very 

big in countries like NL, BE, FI, AT and DK.  A much more important difference is observed in RO, 

BG, PT, HR, LV with RO having as much as 42pp difference between the poverty risk of the part-

time  and  full-time  workers  but  with  a  relative  low  incidence  of  part-time  in  overall  employment 
(around 10%). Part-time work is often involuntary, especially for young people. The share of people 
working  part-time  has  increased  significantly  since  2008.  The  shift  from  full-time  to  part-time 

employment  has  involved  a  significant  increase  in  involuntary  part-time,  both  among  men  and 

women.  Particularly  noticeable  is  the  increase  in  female  involuntary  part-time  in  the  countries 

more  severely  hit  by  the  crisis,  like  IE,  ES,  EL,  BG,  CY,  IT  and  LV.  In  2012,  involuntary  part-time 

among women is higher than 40% in eight countries (BG 66.2%, EL 62.2%, ES 58.2%, IT 54.5%, PT 

51.9%, CY 46.8%, LV 42.5%, RO 41.7%) 

83 

 
Figure 50.  In-work poverty by working full-time vs. part-time, 2011 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Low wages are an important driver of in-work poverty across the board 

Low  wages  are  an  important  driver  of  in-work  poverty  because  they  affect  individual  and 

subsequently household disposable income. Low wages are also linked to different labour market 

institutions, as Keese et al. (1998) show, with low wage workers tending to do better in countries 

with  strong  union  movements.  In  these  countries,  the  coverage  of  collective  bargaining 

agreements  may  extend  to  workers  who  might  otherwise  have  very  low-wage,  low-quality  jobs. 

On the contrary, where unions are strong but cover only certain categories of workers they might 

contribute to stronger segmentation. An important element to consider is also the role of statutory 

minimum wage. 

On  the  other  hand,  low  wage  work  can  represent  a  first  stepping  stone  towards  better  paid 

employment especially among young workers, but as mobility between temporary and permanent 

contracts in the EU is not very high, it can also become a persistent feature of a person's working 

life (European Commission, 2011). 

Research on the varying extent of low-wage employment suggests that labour market institutions, 

in  particular  centralized  wage-bargaining,  union  power  and  minimum  wages,  play  a  key  role 

(Lucifora and Salverda, 2008). The characteristics of the workers most likely to experience low pay 

are key. Low pay is generally highly concentrated not just in particular sectors of the economy but 

among particular kinds of workers – with those having low levels of education, those working part-

84 

 
time,  non-nationals,  women  and  young  people  having  rates  well  above  the  average.  This  has 

fundamental implications for the relationship between low pay and household poverty. 

Exploratory analysis by the European Commission (2014) looks at the share of individuals with low 
wages84 among those working full time, both working poor and not (Figure 51). It shows that low 
wage earners are overrepresented among full-time workers85 at risk of poverty. DE is the Member 
State with the highest share of low wages among full-time working poor. At the opposite end, EL 

and PT have the lowest shares of low wage earners among those at risk of poverty and full-time 

employed.  

Figure 51.  Share of low wage earners among full-time workers at-risk-of-

poverty or not 

Source: European Commission (2014) – calculations based on EU SILC 2011 

Getting out of in-work poverty: the role of wage transitions 

This  section  investigates  the  extent  to  which  ‘weaker’  labour  market  positions  provide  steps 

towards  better  ones,  or  whether  they  trap  individuals  in  precarious  jobs.  It  is  based  on  a  new 
analysis  done  in  the  context  of  the  Employment  and  Social  Developments  in  Europe  2013  report 
(European Commission, 2014). 

84 The EU definition of low wage earners relates to those employees earning two thirds or less of the national median 
gross  hourly  earnings.  Hence,  the  threshold  that  determines  low-wage  earners  is  relative  and  specific  to  each 
Member  State.  The  main  survey  used  is  the  European  Structure  of  earnings  survey  (SES).  While  there  are  some 
difficulties in using EU-SILC to calculate hourly wages due to the reference periods, DG EMPL has produced a rough 
estimation,  sufficiently  correlated  with  official  statistics  on  hourly  wage.    It  has  been  computed  by  restricting  the 
population to those who worked full-time over more than 9 moths during  the previous year,  and by applying  to 
them  the  number  of  hours  worked  a  week  declared  at  the  time  of  the  interview.  (Employment  and  Social 
Developments in Europe, 2013) 

85 The reference population is full time workers having worked at least 9 months over the reference period 

85 

 
                                                           
For  those  in  work  but  poor,  exits  from  poverty  may  be  achieved  by  increasing  working  hours, 

moving from a temporary job to a permanent position, increasing wages (not related to one of the 

previous cases) at the individual level, or through an increase in the number of adults working in 

the  household.    But  they  can  also  be  achieved  by  stronger  and  more  efficient  income  support 

(through  cash  transfers,  tax  benefits/credits)  or  improved  availability  of  services  (e.g.  child  care, 

long-term care). The following section analyses the exits related to the labour market. 

In EU-SILC, the labour market transitions can be captured through the following changes: moving 

from a temporary contract to a permanent contract, moving from a part time job to a full time job, 

wage transitions, either measured as individuals moving to a higher estimated hourly wage decile 

or from a low-wage job to a non-low wage job.  

The frequency of labour market transitions varies by type. At EU level, some 20% of the in-work 

poor  experienced  at  least  one  of  the  labour  market  transitions  listed  above in  a  given year.  The 

types of transition are indicated below: 

•  The  most  frequent  transition  involves  changes  in  the  wage  decile  (14%  of  those  in-work 

poor). 

•  The least frequent concerns a transition from part time to full time job (achieved by only 

5% of part-time workers at risk of poverty). 

The likelihood of each type of transition occurring also varies across countries (Figure 52) with the 
highest rates of transitions among the in-work poor found in AT, BG and SI. Among the in-work 

poor employed on a temporary contract, the largest transitions to permanent jobs occurred in SI 

and in FI, where more than 20% of temporary workers moved to permanent jobs.  

Transitions from part-time to full time were also more frequent in FI (16% of part-time workers), in 

SE and the NL (10%). This share was also high in BG, RO and EE, where 8% of part-time workers 

moved to full-time work.  

The transitions from low paid jobs to better paid jobs were high in AT, BG, SK, LV and CZ. They 

were much rarer in the NL and RO.. Lastly, transitions to a higher wage decile - the most frequent 

transition - occurred more often among the in-work poor in AT, BG, SI, LV, and CZ. 

86 

Figure 52.  Share of individuals at risk of poverty experiencing one of the 

labour market transitions  

Source: European Commission (2014) - calculations based on EU SILC 2010 longitudinal data 

Note: MS are ordered by increasing share of in-work poor experiencing any transitions 

Even significant wage increases are sometimes not enough to escape poverty 

Analysis done by the European Commission (2012) even upward labour market transitions for the 

in-work  poor  do  not  necessarily  translate  into  exits  from  poverty.  At  EU  level,  the  average 

experience of making one transition (from, say, temporary to permanent contract, or part time to 

full time work) occurred in the case of 24% of those who were in-work poor between 2008 and 

2009.  However,  only  half  of  these  escaped  poverty  during  this  period.  Figure  53  shows  the 

incidence of labour market transitions among the in-work poor and related exits from poverty for 

Member  States.  It  shows  no  single  or  simple  relationship  between  upward  labour  market 

transitions  and  exits  from  poverty.  In  Member  States  such  as  AT,  a  high  level  of  transitions  is 

associated with exits from poverty. In BG, on the other hand, the number of transitions among the 

in-work poor is high, but they do not translate into exits from poverty. In Member States such as 

DK or the UK a lower rate of transitions is observed, but these are associated with large exits from 

poverty. Lastly, in Member States such as EL or RO, transitions are relatively rare, and do not result 

in exits from poverty. 

87 

 
Figure 53. Share of in-work poor experiencing a labour market transition 

and exit rate out of poverty 

Source: DG EMPL calculations based on EU SILC 2010 longitudinal data 

Reading note: between 2008 and 2009, in Bulgaria, 34% of in-work poor experienced a labour market transition (ie from 

temporary to permanent, from part time to full time, from low paid to non-low paid, or toward a higher wage decile). Of 
these, 30% got out of poverty. 

1.4 Policies, best practices and evidence-based responses 

Policies addressing the working poor cannot be clearly separated from policies aiming to combat 

poverty and social exclusion more widely, including those related to the respective social welfare 

systems. Nevertheless, in the form of various transfer payments and social benefits, certain policies 

specifically tackle in-work poverty. 

Three  broad  groups  of  policy  instruments  can  be  identified:  supporting  wages  and  income, 

supporting  the  labour  market  participation  of  groups  at  risk  of  poverty,  providing  access  to 

enabling services (European Commission, 2011). These comprise fiscal measures, such as in-work 

benefits  or  tax  credits  paid  to  those  with  earnings  below  a  certain  level;  labour  market  policies, 

such  as  minimum  wages,  wage  policies  in  general,  unemployment  benefits,  unemployment 

assistance and start-up benefits; family policies; or a combination of all of these measures.  

The  working  poor  do  not  constitute  a  well-delineated,  homogenous  group,  visible  and  easily 

‘targetable’  for  policy..While  for  example  social  assistance  recipients,  or  more  generally  people 

wholly  reliant  on  transfers,  are  unambiguously  at  a  very  high  risk  of  poverty  and  (seen  to  be) 

deserving  of  policy  intervention,  the  working  poor  are  more  heterogeneous.  Only  a  small 

percentage of workers are at risk, and even the risks for low paid workers, or for that matter, part-

time or atypical workers are not uniformly high. It is only within specific household configurations 

88 

 
that workers face a substantial risk. They are also less visible, leading ‘below the radar’ normal lives, 

going out to work and raising children. 

In-work  poverty  in  Europe,  as  it  is  conventionally  measured,  is  to  a  considerable  extent 

concentrated among low work intensity households, for example dual adult households with only 

one  working  adult.  Whether  their  at  risk  of  financial  poverty  status is construed  as  a problem  of 

insufficient  breadwinner  earnings  or  as  a  problem  of  partner  non-participation  makes  a 

fundamental difference as to what type of policy action is to be examined and possibly favoured. 

Table 3. A toolbox of policy options for addressing in-work poverty 

Source: Adapted from Marx and Nolan (2012) and Frazer and Marlier (2010) 

The  main  policy  approaches  to  address  in-work  poverty  can  be  grouped  under  three  broad 

headings. First, there are policies to increase low net wages, secondly there are policies to increase 

work  intensity  and  reduce  labour  market  segmentation  and  lastly  the  provision  of  enabling 

services. It is important to get the right balance between them depending on the situation in each 

country. Thus, for instance, in countries where net wages are not particularly low but where work 

intensity of families with children is low there is a need to pay more attention to increasing work 
intensity.86 

The majority of Member States have national minimum wages set by government (often following 

negotiations with the social partners), whereas a minority (e.g. AT, DK, FI, DE, IT, and SE) regulate 

minimum  pay  rates  just  through  collective  agreements  on  a  sectoral  basis.  However,  there  is  a 

significant variation in the level of minimum wages as a proportion of average monthly earnings 

86  Frazer,  H.  and  Marlier,  E.  ed.  (2010).  "In-work  poverty  and  labour  market  segmentation  in  the  EU."  EU  Network  of 

Independent Experts on Social Inclusion. Pp. 12. 

89 

 
 
                                                           
though minimum wages tend to be set below the at-risk-of-poverty line. Their impact on reducing 

in-work  poverty  varies  significantly  across  Member  States.  In  many  countries,  minimum  wage 

provisions and/or collective agreements are an important element in reducing in-work poverty, or 

at least its intensity. However, in several countries (e.g. BG, EL, LV, RO) minimum wage levels are 
set  so  low  that  they  have  quite  a  limited  impact  on  in-work  poverty.87  The  effectiveness  of 
minimum  wages  in  providing  a  wage  floor  also  depends  on  the  collective  bargaining  level, 

structure  and  coverage,  and  on  the  laws  relating  to  the  extension  of  collective  agreements.  The 

incidence of low pay is generally higher in countries where bargaining takes place predominantly 

at  a  company  level,  e.g.  BG,  EE,  LT,  LV  which  are  also  the  countries  with  the  lowest  level  of 

bargaining coverage. (European Commission, 2011) A recent paper focusing on the specific case of 

SI highlights the need for carefully assessing the structure of the income distribution (e.g. more or 

less equal) when deciding on levels of minimum wage in relation to the national poverty threshold. 

In  some  cases,  the  minimum  wage  can  increase  the  probability  of  poor  households  escaping 

poverty but it may also increase the probability of non-poor households entering poverty due to a 

decline in employment and hours worked. (Stovicek, 2013) 

In contrast to minimum wages, benefits granted through the tax and social security systems can 

make it easier to target specific groups of people and family types. Countries like FI, NL, BE have 

low levels of in-work poverty both before and after social transfers, suggesting that the policies in 

these countries are designed in such a way that they manage to achieve low levels without having 

to  redistribute  among  people.  The  impact  of  social  transfers  on  reducing  in-work  poverty  is 

highest in IE, HU, CZ and lowest in EL, RO and ES (Error! Reference source not found.). 

One  way  to  support  low  wage  earners  is  through  the  so-called  earned  income  (or  working)  tax 

credit.  A  tax  credit  works  as  a  negative  income  tax:  low  wage  earners,  instead  of  paying  taxes 

receive tax credits that are usually (negatively) related to the level of income earned. This approach 

brings together the need to boost the incomes of low-earning households while at the same time 

promoting employment by able working-aged adults. In the US, the Earned Income Tax Credit is 

the primary tool to combat poverty among the working poor. The programme has had a relatively 
high  take-up  rate  (around  80-86%  according  to  Scholtz  1994),88  and  considerable  poverty 
reduction  potential.  Most  recent  research89  suggests  that  the  benefits  of  EITC  go  beyond  the 
limited time that families claim the credit. The empirical evidence shows that EITC, in combination 

with other policy reforms and several increases in the minimum wage, has produced some striking 

results, including marked increases in labour market participation and declines in poverty among 

some  segments  of  the  population,  especially  single  parent  households  (Hotz  and  Scholz  2003; 

Eissa  and  Hoynes  2004).The  research  indicates  that  children  of  EITC  recipients,  for  instance,  do 

better in school, are more likely to attend college, and earn more as adults. The United Kingdom 

87 Idem. 

88  Scholtz, J., K. (1994). "Participation, compliance, and anti-poverty effectiveness." National Tax Journal 47, pp. 63-87. 

89  Marr, Charite, and Huang (2013). "Earned Income Tax Credit promotes work, encourages children's success at school." 

Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 

90 

                                                           
has  also  implemented  and  extended  several  schemes,  culminating  in  the  Working  Tax  Credit 

(WTC) of 2003.  

Focusing on in-work (or employment-conditional) benefits, which represent features of both social 

benefit  support  for  low-income  workers  at  risk  of  in-work  poverty,  and  an  incentive  payment 

designed  to  increase  the  financial  return  to  work  has  gained  interest  in  a  number  of  countries. 

Several European countries have contemplated introducing tax credits, or have done so in some 

form. Examples here include the ‘Prime Pour l’Emploi’ (PPE) and the ‘Revenue de Solidarité Active’ 

(rSa)  in  France,  the  ‘Combination  Credit’  in  the  Netherlands,  and  a  ‘Low  Wage  Tax  Credit’  in 

Belgium (Marx and Verbist 2008a). Yet the reality is that most of these schemes exhibit only a faint 

resemblance to the EITC or the WTC. The UK Working Tax Credit, to be replaced by the Universal 

Credit,  remains  the  most  important  measure  of  its  kind  in  Europe,  both  in  terms  of  scope  and 

budget. 

Some researchers claim that EITC/WTC-type of policies, means-tested on household income, are 

suspected to increase work incentives for single workers but to discourage married women with a 

working  partner.  It  is  typically  argued  that  this  efficiency  loss  is  outweighed  by  the  equity  gains 

from  targeting  families  in  need.  In  contrast,  individualized  schemes  appear  to  combine  clearer 

incentive effects with less efficient targeting, since resources may be transferred to workers in well-

off families. Overall, whether redistributive and efficiency objectives can be reconciled in a single 

policy measure remains an open question. (Bargain and Orsini, 2005) Marx et al. (2012), in a micro-

simulation study for Belgium, suggests that in order to be effective as an anti-poverty device and 

at the same time affordable within reasonable limits, such measures need to be strongly targeted. 

Some  researchers,  notably  Figari  (2011),  question  the  potential  transferability  in  terms  of  similar 

results  in  southern  European  countries,  where  the  presence  of  extended  families  stands  into  the 

way of such measures being well targeted to the poorest. 

Back-to-work  benefits  and  earnings  disregards  make  participation  in  the  labour  market  more 

viable. Several countries, CY, DE, LT, FR, PT, RO, SI, SE and IE make use of various forms of back-

to-work  or  tax  allowances,  with  gradual  phasing  out  of  social  assistance  payments.  Similarly, 

earning disregards are a common practice in CY, DE, AT, BE, LU, MT, NL, SK, CZ, DK  and LT. In 

many cases, around 30 % of earnings are disregarded when calculating social benefits. In addition, 

special  allowances,  e.g.  for  single  parents  and  children  (MT)  and  compensation  payments  for 

voluntary work (NL) can top up incomes. 

For Member States, designing social benefits without eroding incentives to take up work is a key 
concern.90 Schemes are increasingly designed to avoid creating unemployment and inactivity traps, 
as well as low wage traps for people in work and in receipt of minimum income benefits. Member 

90 The Employment package (COM(2012) 173 final), launched in April 2012, is a set of policy documents looking into how 
EU employment policies intersect with a number of other policy areas in support of smart, sustainable and inclusive 
growth. It identifies the EU’s biggest job potential areas and the most effective ways for EU countries to create more 
jobs. Measures are proposed in the areas of supporting job creation, reforming labour markets, investing in skills, 
improving EU governance, etc. 

91 

                                                           
States have, for instance, adopted measures to reduce the tax wedge (direct labour taxation plus 

social security contributions) on lower wages, to raise minimum wages, to offer in-work benefits, 
and they have reviewed the design of out-of-work benefits, including social assistance.91 

A  recent  example  of  policy  reform  that  combines  income  support  with  activation  (including 

support of low wage earners is the Revenu de Solidarité Active (RSA) in France. The RSA can be 

seen  as  a  cornerstone  of  France’s  current  antipoverty  policy,  in  combination  with  the  minimum 

wage  and  employment  subsidies.  The  declared  objectives  are  to  integrate  and  simplify  existing 

benefit schemes, to combat poverty more efficiently and to foster the transition into work. The RSA 

scheme is equivalent to a negative income tax. A basic benefit of € 410 (for a single adult) or € 590 

(for a couple with no children) applies to claimants who do not work; for those who work, earnings 

are topped up by an in-work RSA supplement in such a way that 62 % of their net earnings are 

exempted. The implicit tax rate is set so as to make the benefit expire as the claimant’s earnings 

approach the poverty threshold (SMIC = approx. € 1 200 gross/ € 950 net). In comparison with the 

pre-existing  schemes,  the  RSA  focuses  more  on  the  lowest  income  group  and,  above  all, 
strengthens the work incentive component.92 

Measures  to  increase  access  to  and  intensity  of  employment  are  widespread,  particularly  in 

response  to  the  economic  and  financial  crisis.  These  measures  usually  fall  under  the  broad 

category  of  active  labour  market  policies  (ALMPs).  Shared  characteristics  of  ALMPs  in  Member 
States  are  profiling,  job  counselling,  educational  training  and  (re-)qualification.93  Subsidised 
employment,  public  work programmes,  short-term paid  employment,  traineeships  and  voluntary 

work are among ways of reintegrating people into work. While all Member States have policies for 

the  unemployed  and  job  seekers  generally,  the  degree  to  which  these  target  those  who  are 

furthest  from  the  labour  market  (e.g.  social  assistance  recipients)  varies  substantially.  However, 

some  Member  States  (BE,  DE,  AT,  FI,  LU,  SI)  specifically  target  these  recipients  by  means  of 

separate programmes. 

ALMPs94 account for only a small share of Member States’ GDP in the EU-27 (0.85 % of the GDP 
on average), and these policies are mostly financed through unemployment insurance funds. DK, 

BE, NL, and SE had the highest share of ALMP spending in 2010. Sometimes ALMPs go hand in 

hand  with  passive  labour  market  policies,95  as  in  DK,  providing  an  effective  tool  for  both 

protection  and  activation.  Most  eastern  European  countries  spend  little  (see  the  chart  below)  on 

91 See also European Commission (2009) ‘Recent reforms of the tax and benefit systems in the framework of flexicurity’ 

European Economy Occasional Papers 43, Feb 2009. 

92 Ides Nicaise (2011): Building the tools to fight in-work poverty, Synthesis report, France. Available at: www.peer-review-

social-inclusion.eu. 

93  For a classification by type of action see Eurostat (2010). Labour market policy — expenditure and participants.  

94    In  EU  ALMPs  include  labour  market  services,  training,  job  rotation  and  sharing,  employment  incentives,  supported 

employment and rehabilitation, direct job creation, and start-up incentives. 

95  Passive labour market policies include various unemployment benefits and early retirement. 

92 

                                                           
labour market policies, whether active or passive. There has been no significant rise in funding for 

ALMPs in recent years. 

An overwhelming majority of Member States96 link the right to income support to the willingness 
to work and a minimum commitment to seeking a job, vocational or occupational training. In SK, 

proving one’s willingness to work and to accept a suitable job is only compulsory when applying 
for the highest level of income support benefit.97 

The conditions under which job seekers have to accept a job offer vary across Member States. In 

CZ and DE, job seekers are required to accept any job, even if it is short-term, or a mismatch with 

their skills. In LV, EE, SK, MT and NL, job seekers are obliged to accept suitable work only (subject 

to the relevant authority’s assessment). 

If  a  job  seeker  is  unable  to  find  work,  most  Member  States  offer  vocational  or  occupational 

training. Some also provide various counselling services which can cover advice to manage debt or 

addiction  or  psychological  support  (DE)  during  drug  or  alcohol  rehabilitation  (MT).  In  SI,  job 

seekers  may  have  to  sign  a  contract  with  the  Social  Work  Centre  to  take  part  in  social  and/or 

health programmes (SI). In other countries such as LU, an ‘integration allowance’ is available only if 

job seekers take part in an ‘integration activity’. 

If  occupational  or  vocational  training  is  not  successful,  some  public  administrations  provide 

(mandatory) measures to ensure activation (NO, RO, BG, NL, LV, HU). This may mean compulsory 

involvement  in  public  works  (e.g.  providing  social  services,  cleaning).  This  dimension  should  in 

many  cases  be  complemented  by  improving  job  seekers’  prospects  of  finding  work,  to  avoid 

locking them into such schemes (LV, HU).98 In NL, a young person who is not in employment or 

education (NEET) has the right to request a job or an offer of a place in education from the local 

municipality.99 

Policy responses can only be effective if they take account of the fact that low-paid work and in-
work poverty do not always overlap.100 Low-paid work is only one of the factors contributing to in-
work poverty.101 Thus, if the goal is to reduce in-work poverty, there is limited scope in using tax 

96  MISSOC Analysis (2011). Guaranteed Minimum Resources, MISSOC Secretariat for the European Commission, Contract 

nr. VC/2010/1131 .Pg 17. 

97  MISSOC Analysis (2011). 

98    Commission  Staff  Working  Documents,  Assessment  of  the  2012  national  reform  programme  and  convergence 
programme for Hungary and Latvia, SWD(2012) 317 final, SWD(2012) 320 final. . 

99 The recently adopted Youth Employment Package aims to tackle the phenomenon of NEET at Member State level. For 
more information see: COM(2012) 727 final. 

100 Evidence suggests that the overlap is rather low — between 5 to 10 per cent in most industrialised economies Nolan, 

B. and Marx, I. 1999. ‘Low pay and household poverty’, Luxembourg Income Study, Working Paper, No 216. . 

101  See  chapter  on  in-work  poverty  of  European  Commission  (2011):  Employment  and  Social  Developments  in  Europe 

2011. A summary of the results is included in the beginning of this section. 

93 

                                                           
and benefit support on low-wage earners. Instead, targeting should focus on particular household 
types, chiefly single-earner households, or households with dependent children.102 

In  many  cases,  in-work  poverty  is  strongly  associated  with  single-earners,  or  with  secondary 

earners  who  are  women  that  may  want  to  work  part  time.  So  supporting  the  latter  through 

childcare provisions for working parents would yield good results. 

Tax  and  benefit  incentives  should  be  primarily  targeted  towards  low-income  single-earner 

households,  to  encourage  them  to  take  full-time  jobs.  Offering  tax  and  benefit  allowances  to 

families  with  children  or  dependents  would  raise  the  likelihood  of  parents  taking  jobs,  reducing 

child poverty.  This  should  be  complemented  by  affordable  childcare  services,  very  important  for 

households with small children and crucial for single parents 

General  access  to  services  such  as  affordable  transport,  childcare,  healthcare,  education,  and 

housing can increase the  incentives for higher employment participation and reduce the burden 

on the household budget. Countries have implemented various policies to increase the amount of 

day care available, supporting alternative forms of care, creating childcare facilities at work places, 

and  introducing  mandatory  pre-school  education  in  order  to  liberate    care  takers  from  care 

responsibilities and allow them to participate more actively in employment. Childcare services are 

in  some  countries  integrated  with  support  services  like  transport  to  nursery/school  at  the 

neighbourhood level.  

1.5. Results of the thematic in-depth review  

Following the SPPM methodology as endorsed by the Council, the thematic in-depth reviews are 

structured  around  the  idea  of  countries  with  good  outcomes  being  reviewed  by  countries  with 

challenging  situation  in  order  to  foster  mutual  learning.  The  first  thematic  review  of  the  SPPM 

trends to watch focused on the situation of the working poor in terms of their participation in the 

labour market and of the access to and design of social protection benefits.  

The presenting countries (AT, BE, CZ and FI) gave a summary of the key employment and social 

indicators  relevant  for  the  discussion  and  outlined  in  their  presentations  the  factors  behind  their 

comparatively  low  rates  on  in-work  poverty,  distinguishing  between  exogenous  (e.g.  macro-

economic  conditions,  demography)  and  endogenous  factors  (e.g.  policy  design,  expenditure 

levels,  etc.).  Then  they  presented  an  overview  of  policy  approaches  undertaken  by  public 

authorities in their countries aimed at addressing in-work poverty. 

In their interventions, the 4 presenting countries identified the key factors behind in-work poverty: 

unemployment spells and low-work intensity in households with more than one person of working 

age  (AT,  BE,  CZ  and  FI),  non-standard  working  hours,  part-time  and  temporary  employment 

102 Marx, I., Vanhille, J., Verbist, G. (2012). "Combating in-work poverty in Continental Europe: An investigation using the 

Belgian case." Journal of Social Policy, 41/1.  

94 

                                                           
(especially  in  AT,  BE  and  FI),  insufficient  access  to  child  care  facilities  which  especially  affects  the 

labour market participation of women (CZ), and health impairments (AT). 

The review confirmed the evidence examined earlier in this section. It appears that the causes of 

in-work  poverty  are  to  be  found  in  the  interaction  of  a  complex  set  of  factors  at  individual  and 

household  level,  such  as  low  education  and  skills,  employment  status  (self-employment, 

temporary/part  time  work)  and  household  structure.  Moreover,  in-work  poverty  is  strongly 

associated with a variety of factors at institutional level, including gender inequalities (especially in 

labour  market  participation),  minimum  wage  and  tax  arrangements  and,  finally,  labour  market 

regulation and social policies as well as the role of collective bargaining.  

These  multiple  factors  draw  a  very  heterogeneous  picture  of  the  working  poor  in  each  of  the  4 

countries, which explains in part why the national authorities in these countries did not opt for a 

policy approach specifically targeting this group. Instead, they implemented a policy mix consisting 

of  measures  to  foster  labour  market  participation,  such  as  investments  in  active  labour  market 

policies (AT, BE, CZ and FI) and support for the labour market participation of second earners, who 
are  generally  women103,  by  pursuing  measures  to  reconcile  work  and  family  life  (AT)  and  by 
introducing flexible arrangements for parental allowance (CZ).  

In  addition  to  labour  market  policies,  the  presenting  countries  also  focused  on  social  policies 

aimed at enabling the access of people in a situation of in-work poverty to social and health care 

services (AT, BE, CZ and FI) as well as specific child care support (AT, BE and FI) and social housing 

schemes (AT, BE and CZ).  

The  third  aspect  of  the  policy  approaches  that  was  mentioned  by  the  presenting  countries  is 

related  to  efforts  to  promote  adequate  income  support,  either  in  the  form  of  tax  credits  and 

reductions  in  the  social  security  contributions  for  low-wage  earners  (BE  and  FI),  minimum  wage 

schemes at national level (CZ) or agreed in collective arrangements at sectoral level (AT, BE and 

FI), family and social assistance benefits (AT, BE, CZ and FI), automatic indexation mechanisms (BE 

and  FI).  In  all  the  4  countries,  the  role  of  the  social  partners  in  concluding  binding  collective 

arrangements  for  decent  wages  either  at  national  or  at  sectoral  level  and  in  preventing  wage 

dumping was highlighted. 

The reviewing countries (LT and RO) focused in their presentations on challenges common to both 

the presenting and the reviewing countries as well as on their own challenges. They also identified 

key  elements  in  the  policy  approaches  of  the  presenting  Member  States  which  could  be 

transferred  to  the  policy  contexts  in  their  countries  as  well  as  those  without  potential  for 

transferability. 

103 Statistics show that large majority of second earners in all Member States are women. For more details see the Report 
of an EU Presidency Conference organised in April 2013: “Women’s Economic Engagement and the Europe 2020 
Agenda” available at: 
http://www.genderequality.ie/en/GE/IE%20PRES%20REPORT.pdf/Files/IE%20PRES%20REPORT.pdf 

95 

                                                           
LT asserted that most policies aiming at ensuring adequate income support, providing vocational 

training  and  enabling  access  to  quality  social  and  health  care  services  had  a  good  potential  for 

transferability,  whereas  the  policies  in  the  field  of  taxation  and  reduction  of  social  security 

contributions were not to be envisaged in the short and medium-term.  

However, in the case of RO, the only policy that was deemed not transferrable in the short-term 

was raising the level of the minimum wage at national level. 

1.6 What should be the focus of policy effort? 

From a policy perspective, in-work poverty risks are influenced by a broad set of factors, ranging 

from labour market specificities (wage-setting mechanisms, collective bargaining, minimum wage 

policies), household income support arrangements (tax incentives, child care provisions) to the set-
up of social protection systems104. 

The country differences regarding in-work poverty risks highlight the multi-dimensional nature of 

in-work poverty  and  explain  in  part  why  in-work  poverty  is pervasive  across  Europe  and  why  its 

extent does not simply reflect the size of the low-wage sector. While in-work poverty is strongly 

associated with low work intensity households, it also depends on various institutional factors that 

affect  labour  market  participation patterns  and  effectiveness  of  social  protection  systems in  their 

income support and service provision functions, both at individual and at household level.  

Therefore, the policy responses to address in-work poverty should also be multidimensional.  One 

dimension  of  differentiation  is  whether  the  policy  in  question  seeks  to  have  a  direct  or  indirect 

impact  on  income.  Minimum  wages,  social  benefits  and  tax  measures  have  a  direct  impact  on 

individual or household income. Indirect measures can either seek to increase individual earnings 

potential (education, training) or to promote higher work intensity at the individual or household 

level  (e.g.  child  care  policies).  Another  policy  dimension  could  include measures  to  stimulate  the 

demand  for  labour  force  through  changes  in  the  institutional  settings,  tax  provisions  and  labour 

market  arrangements  (subsidised  employment,  wage  cost  subsidies,  service  cheques)  as  well  as 

measures  to  boost  the  supply  side  of  the  labour  force  (gender-equality  policies,  empowerment, 

fiscal reforms) which in turn may help individuals and households increase their work intensity.  

Minimum wages effectively serve a kind of benchmark purpose in many countries. While in some 

countries  there  may be  scope  for increases  in  their level  relative  to  average  earnings,  this might 

not  in  all  cases  have  a  sufficiently  significant  impact  on  in-work  poverty  risks.  Even  in  countries 

104 An analysis by the European Commission (2011) on the determinants of in-work poverty shows that at the EU level the 
most  important  determinants  are  low  work  intensity  and  low  wage.  Working  less  than  half  of  the  potential  of  the 

household leads to a more than 5 times higher risk of being working poor, with single parents or those in households 

with a single earner and dependent children facing much higher poverty risks than those in households. Similarly, having 

a low wage increases the odds of being poor in work by 5 times. Marx et al. (2011) suggests that increasing work intensity 

decreases poverty more than increasing low wages.  

96 

 
                                                           
where  minimum  wages  are  comparatively  high,  they  are  not  enough  to  keep  single-earner 

households  out  of  poverty,  especially  when  there  are  dependent  spouses  or  children.  While 

minimum wages can help to prevent poverty among workers and support living standards for the 

low  skilled,  the  OECD  (2011)  has  cautioned  that  a  balance  needs  to  be  struck  when  setting  a 

minimum wage. If set too low, it may miss its targets. When too high with respect to the average 

wage, it may discourage the hiring of low-skilled workers or encourage hiring them informally.  

An  alternative  policy  measure  would  entail  not  increasing  the  minimum  wage  itself  but  rather 

reducing the taxation and social contributions at individual or household level. Measures aiming at 

improving the income support given to low-wage households through cuts in social contributions 

and income taxes may be more effective in reducing poverty risks as they can stimulate people to 

take up employment or increase their working hours, thus boosting the household work intensity. 

This supposes focusing labour tax reductions on groups that face the strongest disincentive effects 

on  their  labour  supply  and  labour  demand,  in  particular  the  low  skilled.  This  could  stimulate 

employment, thus raising economic performance and generating social inclusion without affecting 

revenue significantly. One common way to support the working poor is to provide tax credits. In 

this way the incentive to work is maintained while at the same time providing income support. 

Thus, it appears that employment-oriented policies are centre stage in the fight against in-work 

poverty, as this is to a large extent associated with low-work intensity at the household level. This 

brings into view a wide variety of potential policies that can help households to optimize, if not 

maximize their work intensity.  

Social  and  employment  policies  that  address  the  barriers  to  labour  market  participation  are  a 

crucial  elements  in  increasing  the  low-work  intensity  of  households  -  affordable  quality 

childcare/long  term  care  services,  which  prevent  parents  (mainly  women)  from  entering 

employment,  job  training  possibilities,  more  effective  income  support  measures  (e.g.  direct 

household  income  supplements,  tax  credits),  human  capital  investments  facilitating  prospects  of 

finding better-paid jobs in the form ALMPs, up-skilling, on-the-job-trainings. 

97 

 
2 The poverty risk of the (quasi-) jobless households  

2.1. Introduction 

Poverty  risk  among  (quasi-)  jobless  households  has  been  identified  as  one  of  the  main  social 

trends to watch in the EU (SPC, 2012). The situation of the (quasi-) jobless households, i.e. those 

furthest away from the labour market, is at the core of the interrelation between activation policies 

and access to services, effectiveness of social protection schemes and the tax and benefit system 

and is directly influenced by general labour market conditions. 

Household joblessness has received a good deal of attention since Gregg and Wadsworth (1996, 

1998)  pointed  out  that  jobs  in  many  Western  countries  have  become  concentrated  in  certain 

households.  In  the  period  of  employment  growth,  this  leads  to  parallel  static  or  even  increasing 

numbers  of  working-age  households  with  no  one  in  work.  This  can  have  a  range  of  negative 

consequences, not only in terms of poverty and deprivation but also for psychological well-being, 

social  relations  and  integration  into  the  workforce  and  wider  society  (de  Graaf-Sijl  and  Nolan, 

2011).  The  economic  crisis  and  the  sustained  high  unemployment  rates  make  the  issue  of  the 

situation  of  individuals  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  households  all  the  more  problematic  and  wide-

spread. 

The definition of the Europe 2020 poverty and social exclusion headline target with the inclusion of 

(quasi-)  jobless  households  as  one  of  its  components  puts  an  important  emphasis  on  the  policy 

attention  necessary  for  this  specific  group.  The  (quasi-)  jobless  households  at  risk  of  monetary 

poverty  are  indeed  a  sub-component  of  the  Europe  2020  target  and  specific  analysis  can  shed 

some light also on broader strategies for achieving the headline target. 

Around 13.5 million Europeans live in households at risk of poverty where household members are 

not in the labour market in 2012. This share has been increasing in the past years at the EU level. 

Differences in the poverty risk for households outside the labour market across the Member States 

are quite big, ranging from between 40-50% in NL, DK, IE, LU, CY, UK, RO to more than 70% in BG 

and EE (Figure 54).  

98 

Figure 54. At-risk-of-poverty rate for the (quasi-) jobless households, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); Note: 2011 data has been used for IE. Data for BE is provisional. 

An important consideration when looking at the poverty risk for (quasi-) jobless households is the 

share  of  the  (quasi-)  jobless  population  in  a  country,  i.e.  the  incidence  of  joblessness.  Figure  17 

shows the levels and recent evolutions of the share of this population. 

In  comparing  the  poverty  risk  of  (quasi-)  jobless  households  for  households  with  and  without 

children (see Figure 55), the overall trend is that (quasi-) jobless households with children have a 

much higher poverty risk with RO, FR, EL and SK where the difference is largest (between 36-42 

pp). DK, and to a lesser extent DE and EE, which are the only Member States where (quasi-) jobless 

households  with  dependent  children  are  more  protected  from  poverty  risk.  Single  people  and 

single  parents  in  particular  represent  a  larger  share  of  those  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor 

households.  

99 

 
 
Figure 55.  At-risk-of-poverty rate for the (quasi-) jobless by household type, 

2012  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); 

Note: i) data for IE refers to 2011; ii) provisional data for BE and SE. 

European  Commission  analysis  (European  Commission,  2014)  shows  women,  young  and  older 

workers, the low skilled, migrants, people with disabilities and single adults, including single parents 

are over-represented among the people living in (quasi-) jobless and poor households. 

2.2. Main factors affecting the poverty risk of the (quasi-) jobless households 

Effectiveness of social protection systems 

Adequate income support aims at income smoothing in cases of job loss or temporary inability to 

work (replacement income) and to ensure access to minimum resources that are necessary to lead 

a  life  in  dignity  for  those  who  cannot  work  or  have  no  access  to  other  replacement  schemes 

(Nelson, 2013) 

Adequate income support for the able bodied of working age can be seen as a two level system of 

safety nets. The first level aims at covering risks that temporary prevent the individual from working 

(e.g.  becoming  unemployed  or  sick)  with  unemployment  benefits  typically  providing  a  level  of 

income  replacement  sufficient  to  also  enable  the  unemployed  to  search  for  appropriate  work 

(European  Commission,  2011,  Acemoglu  and  Shimer,  1999;  Zolibotti,  1999).  The  second  level  of 

safety  nets  provides last  resort  financial  assistance  for  those  who  do  not  work  or  cannot  rely  on 

any other resources, and typically includes unemployment assistance and social assistance. 

100 

 
In this context, policies and institutions promoting inclusive labour markets aim at facilitating access 

and  return  to  employment  and  ensuring  a  living  wage,  especially  for  those  who  are  the  most 

disadvantaged in terms of accessing the labour market, serve to reduce joblessness and in-work 

poverty. Inclusive labour markets are seen to result from positive interactions between activation 

policies,  labour  market  institutions  that  prevent  segmentation  and  limit  entry  barriers,  and  well-

designed  tax  and  benefits  systems.  Enabling  services  support  labour  market  participation  by 

addressing  barriers  to  entry  into  employment  (such  as  care  obligations,  low  skill  levels  or  health 

problems) and are seen as especially important for parents, including lone parents, the low-skilled, 

migrants or disabled. Examples of positive interactions between different policy dimensions include 

cases where strong labour market activation and conditionality compensate for any disincentives 

potentially created by the existence of relatively generous benefits. (European Commission, 2014) 

The effectiveness of income support in working age depends on the characteristics of the benefit 

system,  which  can  be  described  in  terms  of:  coverage,  adequacy,  duration,  eligibility  rules  and 

labour  market  friendliness,  which  can  be  judged  in  terms  of  the  financial  incentives  they  offer 

relative to labour market outcomes (wage levels, working arrangements, etc) and associated tax-

benefit treatments. 

The  second  level  of  safety  nets  (unemployment  assistance  or  social  assistance)  is  generally 

available for those who are out-of-work but not eligible for unemployment benefits (because they 

have never worked, did not work long enough to be eligible, etc) or because they have exhausted 

the duration of their entitlement. They are an essential element for guaranteeing minimum income 

to  households  which  are  outside  of  the  labour  market.  Assessing  the  coverage  (or  lack  of 

coverage)  of  this  type  of  benefit  is  complicated  because  most  surveys  do  not  contain  enough 

information to test whether a person out of work (inactive or long-term unemployed) is actually in 

need  of  (and/or  eligible  for)  such  a  ‘last  resort’  income  support.  The  means-tests  associated  to 

such schemes generally require detailed information on income and assets which are not available 

in  the  EU  Statistics  on  Income  and  Living  Conditions  (EU-SILC).  An  exploratory  analysis  by  the 

European Commission (2014) on looking at non-coverage based on the share of people aged 18-

59  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  households  at  risk  of  poverty  but  receiving  little  or  no  benefits 

(accounting for less than 10% of their disposable incomes) shows that at EU level, 15 % of those 

living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor  households  receive  no  more  than  10  %  of  their  income  from 

social benefits. The share of individuals not receiving income support is especially large in EL, CY, 

IT,  BG  and  PT,  where  more  than  40  %  of  those  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor  households 

receive 10 % or less of their income from social transfers. By contrast, this share is less than 10 % in 

FI,  SE,  NL,  DK  and  FR.  (Figure  56).  Lack  of  coverage  of  these  people  would  suggest  a  lack  of 

effectiveness of the benefit system in reaching the most vulnerable.  A large number of individuals 

not  covered  by  social  transfers  are  found  in  countries  with  large  number  of  multi-generational 

households  suggesting  high  levels  of  reliance  on  family  solidarity.  This  can  cause  difficulties  in 

facilitating  return  to  the  labour  market  for  working  age  individuals  as  those  without  income 

support might also be excluded from access to rights and obligations associated with the receipt 

101 

of  working  age  benefits  (job  search  requirement,  training,  etc.).  Another  coping  strategy  which 
cannot be monitored by standard survey data is resorting to the informal economy105. 

Figure 56. Proportion of 18-59 individuals living in (quasi-) jobless 

households at risk of poverty, whose total benefits received is less than 10% 

of total net disposable household income, 2010 

Source: European Commission (2014); DG EMPL calculations based on EU SILC 2011 (IE 2010) Note: Reference population: 

Individuals aged 18-59 living in a (quasi-) jobless (very low work intensity) household. 

In  order  to  assess  the  capacity  of  safety  nets  to  provide  effective  income  support  to  those  who 

need  it,  information  on  coverage  needs  to  be  complemented  by  information  on  the 

adequacy/generosity  of  benefits.  The  adequacy  of  unemployment  benefits 

is  generally 

approached  through  the  net  replacement  rates,  in  so  far  as  unemployment  benefits  are 

considered as replacement income, while the adequacy of social assistance is assessed in relation 
to  the  poverty  threshold.  The  OECD  tax-benefit  model106  produces  two  theoretical  indicators  to 
reflect this: the net replacement rates of unemployment benefits107 and the net income of people 
on social assistance relative to the poverty threshold108.  

105European Commission (2014), "Chapter 4: Undeclared work: recent developments  

106  The  OECD  tax-benefit  model  aims  at  assessing  benefit  generosity,  work  incentives  and  income  adequacy. 

http://www.oecd.org/els/benefitsandwagesoecdindicators.htm 

107  The  net  replacement  rate  compares  net  income  while  out  of  work  to  net  income  while  in  work.  The  benefits  may 
cover unemployment benefits, social assistance, family and housing benefits. Person assumed to be aged 40 with 
22-years  employment  history.  For  married  couples  the  percent  of  AW  relates  to  one  spouse  only;  the  second 
spouse is assumed to be "inactive" with no earnings in a one-earner couple and to have full-time earnings equal to 
67% of AW in a two-earner couple. Children are aged 4 and 6 and neither childcare benefits nor childcare costs are 
considered. 

108 Next to the net replacement rates, the OECD calculates the level of income of people who receive social assistance 
(non contributory) relative to the poverty threshold; it would be another measure to reflect the adequacy of second 
safety net. 

102 

 
                                                           
In most Member States the theoretical adequacy of unemployment benefits, as measured by the 

net replacement rates, varies widely (from a range of between around 40-50% depending on the 

household  type  in  MT  and  CZ  to  as much  as  85-90%  in  LU)  and decreases with  unemployment 

spells.  (Figure  57).  The  presence  of  children  in  the  household  corresponds  to  relatively  higher 

replacement rates across all Member States, but there are big differences in terms of the position 

of  single  parents  and  two-earner  couples.  For  example,  in  countries  like  LT,  UK,  PL,  DK  single 

parents are better protected and register higher replacement rates.  In most other countries, they 

are on the contrary receiving less benefits. 

Figure 57. Net replacements rates of unemployment benefits for some 
household types (7th month of unemployment), 2012 

Source: OECD-EC tax-benefit model 

Note: data available for 25 MS 

The  theoretical  adequacy of  social  assistance  can be  measured  by  the  net  income  of people  on 

social assistance relative to the poverty threshold (Figure 58). Countries differ substantially in terms 

of the minimum safety nets they provide to workless households, even relative to the at-risk-of-

poverty  threshold,  which  depends  on  the  living  standards  within  each  country.  Only  a  few 

countries provide households with a minimum income and related benefits (for example housing) 

that are sufficient to lift them close to, or above, the 60% median income threshold, and this is true 

only for some family types. (European Commission, 2014)  

103 

 
Figure 58. Net income of people living on social assistance relative to 

median income (including cash housing assistance), 2010 

Source: OECD-EC tax-benefit model 

The  ability  of  social  transfer  to  reduce  poverty  overall  in  many  ways  mirrors  the  adequacy  of 

benefits  and  offers  yet  another  element  in  understanding  the  link  between  effective  social 

protection  systems  and  providing  support  to  the  households  furthest  away  from  the  labour 

market.  In  countries  with  low  rates  of  poverty  risk  for  the  (quasi-)  jobless  households,  the 

effectiveness  of  social  transfers  is  very  high  –  IE,  NL,  DK,  AT,  LU,  UK  (Figure  59),  but  this  is  not 

always the case. For example, countries like MT, BE and SE have relatively good poverty reduction 

impact of social transfers but with rather high poverty risk for the (quasi-) jobless households.  

104 

 
 
Figure 59. Impact of social transfers (excluding pensions) on poverty 

reduction, in %, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC);  

Note: 2011 data has been used for IE; provisional data for BE 

Inclusive labour market policies 

Activation policies help ensure that unemployment benefit recipients and other jobseekers have a 

better  chance  of  finding  employment  than  they  would  otherwise  have.  Key  features  of  such 
policies109  are  to  establish  and  enforce  work-availability  and  mutual  obligation  requirements, 
meaning  that  benefit  recipients  are  expected  to  engage  in  active  job  search  and  improve  their 

employability  in  exchange  for  receiving  efficient  employment  services  and  benefit  payment.  By 

improving  skills,  they  are  better  able  to  return  to  "reduce  the  risk  of  long  term  marginalization 

from the labour market." (Gallie and Paugam, 2000). Overall, the effective integration of activation 

policies  and  unemployment  benefit  systems  are  seen  as  crucial  in  containing  the  potential 
disincentive effects of benefits110. 

109 See www.oecd.org/els/employment/almp  

110  This  is  confirmed  by  various  macro-econometric  evaluation  studies  that  found  evidence  for  interactions  between 
activation  policies  and  other  policies,  for  instance  that  spending  on  activation  policies  mitigates  the  impact  on 
higher unemployment benefits in rising unemployment (Bassaninin and Duval 2006). 

105 

 
                                                           
Figure 60. ALMP expenditure (as % of GDP and in PPS per person wanting to 

work) and life-long learning (% of unemployed/ inactive in education or 

training), 2010 

Source: European Commission (2014) using Eurostat (EU-LFS and LMP database). No reliable LMP data for the UK for 

categories 2-7. The UK spends mostly on category  

Activation  policies  can  be  analysed  in  terms  of  expenditure  in  active  labour  market  policies  and 
participation in activation measures, including lifelong learning.111  

Nordic countries score better in applying activation measures than do Southern and new Member 

States (except ES and PT), with DK and SE being particularly strong in terms of life-long learning 

and BE making particularly important efforts in terms of expenditure on activation measures.  

The  characteristics  of  activation  policies  vary  considerably  across  countries  ranging  from  high 

spending and high participation in Nordic countries and Continental Europe to low spending and 

low participation in the new Member States. 

111 However, these measures do not take into account apprenticeship schemes, which are of special importance in Austria 
and  Germany;  they  benefit  mainly  the  young  who  experience  much  better  school  to  work  transitions,  and  are  better 

integrated on the labour market than in other countries. 

106 

 
 
                                                           
Enabling  services  are  those  services  which  support  labour  market  participation  by  addressing 

issues  that  can  be  barriers  to  people  entry  into  employment,  such  as  having  care  obligations, 

lacking  skills  or  health  problems.  Such  services  are  therefore  seen  as  especially  important  for 

working parents (i.e. working mothers, given that in all countries women devote much more time 

caring for children than men), including lone parents (more likely to be women according to the 

UNECE data for 2010), the low-skilled, migrants or disabled. 

Accessible services are crucial to effective labour market participation, mobility, work and family life 

reconciliation, and social participation. However, a combination of various barriers - costs, coming 

from a deprived area, limited access or availability - might lead to a ‘social gradient’ in access to 

services.  Research  has  shown  that  many  collective  services  are  more  intensively  used  by  people 

with higher educational attainment than by others, which serves to reinforce inequalities – a fact 
re-enforced if poorer areas have poorer quality services in the first place112.  On the other hand, 
some collective services have been identified as pro-poor, such as bus services113 in cities. 

Areas that fall under the heading  ‘enabling services’ include access to early childcare, education 

and  training,  health  care  and  housing  which,  whatever  their  original  purpose,    serve  to  facilitate 

labour  market  participation  and  returns  to  work,  in  particular  for  parents,  those  with  care 

responsibilities, young people and those who are particularly disadvantaged such as  the disabled 

and the low-skilled. 

Tax-benefits  systems  are  an  important  element  for  reducing  reliance  on  social  benefits  and 

increasing  self-sufficiency  by  supporting  labour  market  participation  and  making  work  pay.  The 

combination  of  low  wages  and  inadequate  benefits  and  taxes  may  indeed  produce  the  risk  of 

restrained  incentives  to  take  up  work  and  perpetuate  labour  market  exclusion.  The  effect  of 

increased 

taxes  and  withdrawn  benefits  deducted  when  experiencing 

transitions 

from 

unemployment/  inactivity  to  paid  employment  are  captured  through  the  implicit  marginal  tax 

rates.  These  are  the  unemployment  trap  and  the  inactivity  trap  (European  Commission,  2014, 

forthcoming). The OECD reports that such ‘traps’ vary across various types of stylized households 

(single  earner,  one-earner  couple,  two-earner  couple,  each  without  children  and  with  two 

dependent children) and different wage levels (here 67% and 100% of average workers earning). 

The  average  unemployment  trap  is  estimated  to  range  from  less  than  50%  in  SK  and  the  UK  to 

well in excess of 80% in LV and LU. As regards inactivity traps, i.e. people who are inactive often 

times due to unfavorable tax incentive, (with potentially associated effect of losing unemployment 

benefits), these range from between 25% in EL and IT to over 75% in DK (European Commission, 

2014, forthcoming).  

However this does not, in practice, mean that countries with the poorest welfare schemes achieve 

higher levels of employment since the countries that provide the most generous unemployment/ 

social  benefits  (wide  coverage  and  high  level)  tend  to  achieve  a  good  level  of  labour  market 

112 See Bramley and Besemer (2011), Ward and Ozdemir (2012). 

113 Ibidem. 

107 

                                                           
participation and low poverty outcomes due to the integration of their benefit systems with well-

design  activation  policies  and  strictly  enforced  job  search  conditionality  terms,  which  more  than 

offset the potential disincentives. 

It  is  important  to  highlight  that  such  traps  are  theoretical  by  nature  and  whether  their  realize 

themselves  in  reality  depends  on  the  factors  indicated  above,  as  well  as  more  general 

determinants,  not  least  the  prevailing  state  of  the  economy  and  the  general  efficiency  of  the 

labour  market.  The  policy  tools  used  to  lower  the  potential  financial  disincentives  are  generally 

concentrated on low-wage workers, and include seeking to reduce the tax wedge by adjusting  the 

marginal  tax  rates,  reducing  social  security    contributions  on  lower  wages,  increasing  minimum 

wages,  reducing  the  level  or  duration  of  unemployment    benefits,  increasing  conditionality, 

introducing  in-work  benefits  or  earnings  disregards,  and  reviewing  the  design  of  out-of-work 

benefits  (social  assistance,  child/family  benefits,  housing  benefits,  disability  schemes).    However, 

while  some  of  these  tools  have  no  impact  on  benefit  adequacy  (in-work  benefits,  lower  the  tax 

wedge, increased minimum wage), others may lead to poverty and exclusion if the return to work 

is not achieved or fails to last.  

Access to services 

Data on access to services, especially for people in more vulnerable situations, is very scarce, not 

allowing  for  a  comprehensive  monitoring.  Analyzing  some  of  the  standard  indicators  can  give 

some indicators on potential areas of problems. For example, looking at the self-reported unmet 

need  for  care  for  people  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  households,  we  can  see  that  compared  to  the 

rates for the overall population (see Figure 34), some Member States have similarly low shares also 

for people out of the labour market. This highlights the potential good accessibility of health care 

services  for  people  who  are  temporary/permanently  not  participating  in  the  labour  market. 

However, in some other countries, like RO, BG and  LV, the share of individuals, living in (quasi-) 

jobless households, declaring difficulty in accessing medical care goes as high as between close to 

20% and 30%. An important policy concern is, in fact, the extent to which being excluded from the 

labour market leads to bigger challenges regarding the accessibility of basic services. 

108 

Figure 61. Self-reported unmet need for care for the population living in 

(quasi-) jobless households, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); unreliable data for AT, UK, CZ 

Another  potentially  useful  way  of  looking  at  the  issue  of  services  is  the  extent  to  which  housing 

access  can  be  a  challenge  for  people  who  are  both  monetary  poverty  and  (quasi-)  jobless.  The 

following figures suggest the ways in which Member States might address this issue with housing 

cost being more than 40% of the total disposable household income (net of housing allowances) 

for only between 15% and 30% of the (quasi-) jobless and poor in countries like FI, CY, MT, IE, FR, 

SE, HU, SE and going to as much as close to 100% in EL and 80% in DK. 

Figure 62. Housing cost overburden rate for the (quasi-) jobless households 

living at risk of poverty, 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC); Note: data for IE refers to 2011 

109 

 
 
What do (quasi-) jobless households at risk of poverty live off? 

The analysis by the European Commission (2014) shows that working age adults living in (quasi-) 

jobless households which are at risk of poverty have an equivalised disposable income equal to an 

average  of  around  60%  of  the  poverty  threshold  with  a  range  of  between  50  and  85%.  Most 

(quasi-) jobless households are living mainly on social transfers. They represent about 70 % of the 

annual  gross  disposable  income  of  those  living  in  a  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor  household,  as 

opposed  to  8  %  of  the  income  of  those  not  at  risk  of  poverty.  The  share  of  annual  gross 

disposable  income  coming  from  social  transfers  received  by  individuals  of  working  age  living  in 

(quasi-) jobless and poor households varies greatly across the Member States. This share is lowest 

in BG, EL and IT where (quasi-) jobless and poor households are living with no more than 40–50 % 

of their annual income coming from social transfers. The level of support to (quasi-) jobless and 

poor  households  is  much  higher  in  AT,  BE,  DE,  FI,  SE  and  the  UK,  where  those  living  in  (quasi-) 

jobless and poor households typically receive more than 85–90 %.  

Income  of  individuals  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor  households  consist,  on  average,  in  the 

largest  share  of  social  cash  transfers,  with  the  bulk  of  benefits  received  consisting  of 

unemployment benefits (23 % of income on average. Sickness and disability benefits, family and 

education  related  allowances,  housing  and  pensions  also  represent  significant  shares  of  the  net 

disposable  income  on  average.  In  BE,  ES,  FR  and  DE,  for  example,  a  large  part  of  the  benefits 

received by individuals living in (quasi-) jobless and poor households comes from unemployment 

benefits. In PT, and to a lesser extent in FR, BE and UK, social exclusion benefits account for a large 

part of support to those in this situation, while in PL, RO and the CZ, sickness and disability benefits 

form the major component. Pensions represent a large share of income support of those living in 

(quasi-)  jobless  and poor households  in  EL,  RO,  and  PL,  while  housing benefits  are  significant  in 

the UK and DE, with family and education related allowances also large in UK, FR, BE and the CZ. 

These elements are essential in understanding the profile of people who find themselves in such 

situation and the necessary policy levers and potential gaps in the structure of safety nets that can 

address this. 

What can we expect from the future? 

The  autumn  European  Commission  forecast  (European  Commission,  2013)  points  out  that  the 

legacy  of  the  crisis  –deleveraging,  financial  fragmentation,  elevated  uncertainty  and  rebalancing 

needs – will continue weighing on growth. Unemployment has stabilised at high levels for the past 

half year, as employment losses have petered out. An early turnaround of the labour market is not 

expected. Employment in the EU and the euro area is projected to expand by ¼% in 2014, which 

will  not  yet  be  sufficient  to  curb  high  unemployment.  In  2015,  employment  growth  is  set  to 

accelerate  to  ¾  %  in  both  the  EU  and  the  Euro  area,  resulting  in  a  slight  reduction  of 

unemployment  to  10¾%  in  the  EU  and  11¾%  in  the  euro  area.  The  differences  in  labour-market 

performance  across  Member  States  are  expected  to  remain  extremely  large.  This  suggests  that 

increasing  shares  of  (quasi-)  jobless  households  may  still  characterise  the  short-term  with  the 

110 

associated probability of increased poverty risk for those households who remain away from the 

labour market for larger periods of time 

Moreover, while rising rates of long-term unemployment and joblessness are recognised as strong 

drivers of rising working age poverty, falling unemployment and rising employment rates do not 

necessarily  lead  to  any  immediate  exits  from  poverty  and  reduction  in  poverty.  Analysis  of  the 

European Commission (European Commission, 2014) shows that in the EU, around 20 % of those 

who are unemployed or inactive and at risk of poverty are in employment the following year. This 

proportion ranges from 15 % or less in MT, BE, RO, to more than 25 % in SE, AT, HU, CY and DK. 

2.3. Policies, best practices and evidence-based responses 

There  is  evidence114  that  well-designed  policies  can  make  a  difference  when  it  comes  to 
transitioning  out  of  unemployment.  For  instance,  participation  in  lifelong  learning  (education  or 

training) by unemployed persons improves their transition rates out of unemployment. However, 

participation in lifelong learning is currently limited in many Member States, particularly among low 

and  medium  skilled  workers.  Another  finding  is  the  positive  effect  of  being  registered  with  the 

public employment service, particularly when receiving unemployment benefits. In this context, the 

following section will look at the role of active labour market policies (with a specific emphasis on 

public works programmes), unemployment benefits, and finally it will examine the importance of 

comprehensive  policy  responses  (including  access  to  services  such  as  life-long  education).  It  is, 

however,  possible  to  envisage  also  additional  interventions  taking  into  account  the  peculiarity  of 

household  jobelessness,  namely  the  fact  that  these  families  normally  cumulate  multiple 

disadvantages and therefore require a combination of policy measures. 

Active Labour Market Policies 

Measures  to  increase  access  to  and  intensity  of  employment  are  widespread,  particularly  in 

response  to  the  economic  and  financial  crisis.  These  measures  usually  fall  under  the  broad 

category  of  active  labour  market  policies  (ALMPs).  Shared  characteristics  of  ALMPs  in  Member 
States  are  profiling,  job  counselling,  educational  training  and  (re-)qualification.115  Subsidised 
employment, public work programmes, short-term paid employment, traineeships  and voluntary 

work are among ways of reintegrating people into work. While all Member States have policies for 

the  unemployed  and  job  seekers  generally,  the  degree  to  which  these  target  those  who  are 

furthest  from  the  labour  market  (e.g.  social  assistance  recipients)  varies  substantially.  However, 

some  Member  States  (BE,  DE,  AT,  FI,  LU,  SI)  specifically  target  these  recipients  by  means  of 

separate programmes. 

114  European Commission (2012). Employment and social developments in Europe 2012.  

115  For a classification by type of action see Eurostat (2010). Labour market policy — expenditure and participants.  

111 

 
                                                           
Among the unemployed and recipients of social assistance and activation policies, Member States 

identify different sub-targets for ALPMs, among which young and older workers, low-skilled and 

long-term  unemployed,  migrants  and  people  with  disabilities.  For  example,  IE  targets  older 

workers, while the UK targets young people within the Jobseeker’s Allowance scheme. DK and SE 

have  separate  schemes  for  older  workers  and young  unemployed  people. Measures  currently  in 

place in DE, SK, SI and ES tend to focus on the long-term unemployed. Few efforts are made to 

provide special support to integrate migrants into the labour market, although Vienna is a notable 

exception. 

An overwhelming majority of Member States116 link the right to income support to the willingness 
to work and a minimum commitment to seeking a job, vocational or occupational training. In SK, 

proving one’s willingness to work and to accept a suitable job is only compulsory when applying 
for the highest level of income support benefit.117 

The conditions under which job seekers have to accept a job offer varies across Member States. In 

CZ and DE, job seekers are required to accept any job, even if it is short-term, or a mismatch with 
their skills. In LV, EE, SK, MT and NL, job seekers are obliged to accept suitable work only (subject 
to the relevant authority’s assessment). 

‘Reluctant behaviours or attitudes’ such as refusing a job offer or refusing to take part in ALMPs 

are  generally  penalised  by  sanctions.  These  vary,  and  include  withdrawal  of  benefits  and  grants 

(e.g. in EE, SI, LT, CZ, EE, LV), withdrawal of benefits (e.g. BG, CY, HU), suspension of benefits (e.g. 

LT, DK) or lowering the level of benefits ( IE). 

If  a  job  seeker  is  unable  to  find  work,  most  Member  States  offer  vocational  or  occupational 

training. Some also provide various counselling services which can cover advice to manage debt or 

addiction  or  psychological  support  (DE)  during  drug  or  alcohol  rehabilitation  (MT).  In  SI,  job 

seekers  may  have  to  sign  a  contract  with  the  Social  Work  Centre  to  take  part  in  social  and/or 

health programmes (SI). In other countries such as LU, an ‘integration allowance’ is available only if 

job seekers take part in an ‘integration activity’. In NL, a young person who is not in employment 

or  education  (NEET)  has  the  right  to  request  a  job  or  an  offer  of  a  place  in  education  from  the 
local municipality.118 

If  occupational  or  vocational  training  is  not  successful,  some  public  administrations  provide 

(mandatory) measures to ensure activation (NO, RO, BG, NL, LV, HU). This may mean compulsory 
involvement  in  public  works119  (e.g.  providing  social  services,  cleaning).  This  dimension  should  in 

116    MISSOC  Analysis  (2011).  Guaranteed  Minimum  Resources,  MISSOC  Secretariat  for  the  European  Commission, 

Contract nr. VC/2010/1131 .Pg 17. 

117  MISSOC Analysis (2011). 

118 The recently adopted Youth Employment Package aims to tackle the phenomenon of NEET at Member State level. For 

more information see: COM(2012) 727 final. 

119  European Commission (2013). Public works – does it work? Issue paper prepared by DG EMPL, unit E5.  

112 

                                                           
many  cases  be  complemented  by  improving  job  seekers’  prospects  of  finding  work,  to  avoid 
locking them into such schemes (LV, HU).120  

In general, there is emerging evidence that public works programmes are not effective activation 

tools. A large majority of evaluations (Card et. al (2010), Kluve (2010), Kluve (2006), Martin (2001), 

J.Csoba, Z.E.Nagy (2011), Leigh-Doyle (2012) Matković et el. (2012) Kraus et. al (1998) (Heyer et al. 

(2011),  Hujer  and  Thomsen  S.  (2006),  Caliendo  (2005),  Kluve  et.  al.  (2006),  Hujer  et.  al  (2004)) 

conclude  that  public  works  programmes  have  not  been  successful  in  terms  of  helping  the 

unemployed to enter the open labour market compared to other  types of ALMPs (services and 

sanctions,  training,  wage  subsidies  etc.).  Matković  et  el.  (2012)  also  found  that  the  public  works 

programme  increases  the  likelihood  of  being  unemployed.  However,  some  positive  effects  were 

found  in  terms  of  activation,  e.g.,  more  participants  of  the  public  works  programme might  have 

left  unemployment  for  inactivity  if  they did  not participate  in  the programme.  Heyer  et.  al  (2011) 

argue that direct job creation schemes may improve the labour market prospects of hard-to-place 

individuals,  but  they  can  be  damaging  for  the  employment  prospects  other  groups  of 

unemployed. What can be inferred from the debate is that the problem is not limited to direct job 

creation schemes but it concerns ALMPs at large. As a matter of fact, ALMPs can have unintended 

consequences, such as crowding-out effects, substitution effects and lock-in effects (see Boeri and 

van Ours, 2008; European Commission, 2012) 

Lock-in effect (for example, (Kraus et. al (1998), (J.Csoba, Z.E.Nagy (2011)), Heyer et al. (2011) and 

others),  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  low  performance  of  the  public  works 

programme. Lock-in effect refers to the situation when the participants of the programme search 

less intensively for a regular job than unemployed non-participants. The possible reasons for lock-

in effect are lack of time or lack of motivation (the participants regard public works as a job and 

hence see no pressing need to look for another employment). For example, the participant surveys 

of  the  Latvian  Public  Works  programme  confirm  that  many  participants  did  not  look  for  job 

because they were already involved in the programme.    

Evaluators  (for  example  L.J.Rotar  (2011),  Schweighofer  (2013))  also  believe  that  stigmatization 

provides  additional  explanation  of  the  low  success  of  the  public  works  programmes.  J.Csoba, 

Z.E.Nagy  (2011)  hold  the opinion  that  public  works  programs contribute  to creating  dependency 

and loss of self-initiative.  

As a response to the economic crisis, most governments recognise the need to step up efforts to 

develop  measures  tailored  to  specific  vulnerable  groups,  notably  the  young,  older  unemployed 

people, and women. The main priorities for ALMPs in NRPs are expanding educational measures 

(including  on-the-job  and  vocational  training)  to  reduce  skills  mismatches,  expanding  and 

improving job (search) counselling for the unemployed to improve the matching process, and tax 

120    Commission  Staff  Working  Documents,  Assessment  of  the  2012  national  reform  programme  and  convergence 

programme for Hungary and Latvia, SWD(2012) 317 final, SWD(2012) 320 final. 

113 

                                                           
reforms  that  benefit  low-wage  earners  to  support  labour  market  participation  even  during  high 

unemployment, as implemented recently by e.g. AT and LU. 

Back-to-work benefits (such as gradual phasing out of income support, tax allowances and in-work 

benefits)  and  earnings  disregards  (income  that  is  disregarded  when  it  comes  to  assessing  tax 

liability) complement ALMPs in making it more attractive to take a job. Taxing labour income is a 

prominent  element  of  every  Member  State’s  tax  policy.  So  it  is  important  to  understand  the 

underlying  relationship  between  taxation  and  labour  supply.  Evidence  suggests  that  secondary 

earners,  mostly  women,  are  much  more  responsive  to  wages  (and  thus  taxes)  than  primary 
earners121.  If  the  tax  burden  is  too  high,  secondary  earners  might  decide  they  are  better  off  not 
working, or (more rarely), working fewer hours.122 Disincentives can also stem from joint taxation. 

The role of unemployment benefits 

Besides  activation  measures  there  is  a  need  to  provide  income  support  for  individuals  and 

households that have just lost their jobs and incomes. Unemployment benefits (both contributory 

and  non-contributory)  act  as  a  cushion  to sudden  income losses.  In  this  respect,  unemployment 

benefits are vital to keep households on a lifeline and avoid loss of human capital.  

A  recent  assessment  of  the  unemployment  benefit  systems  in  the  EU123  reveals  some  interesting 
dynamics on the structure and nature of unemployment benefit systems. Within the EU, there are 

groups of countries with relatively homogenous benefit systems. Nordic and Continental countries 

are  characterised  by  relatively  generous  unemployment  benefit  systems  both  in  terms  of 

entitlement conditions and income support per unemployed. In both groups, activation and active 

labour market policies have a prominent role, with job search conditionality being strong especially 

in  Nordic  countries.  In  Anglo-Saxon  countries,  unemployment  insurance  benefits  are  relatively 

modest,  while  unemployment  assistance  plays  a  major  role.  Monitoring  of  job-search  activity  is 

strict whilst active labour market policies play a less important role. In Southern countries, access to 

unemployment  insurance  is  strict  and  benefit  generosity  varies  widely  depending  on  age  and 

contribution period. Activation policies have a relative low share of spending, while participation in 

active labour market policies is widespread. Finally, Central and Eastern countries tend to exhibit a 

tight unemployment benefit system both in terms of benefit support per unemployed and benefit 

coverage. Although replacement rates at the beginning of the unemployment spell can be high in 

121 For a review of the empirical literature, see: Bargain O., Orsini K., Peichl A. (2011), “Labor Supply Elasticities in Europe 
and the US”, IZA Discussion Paper No. 5820; Evers M., De Mooij R., Van Vuuren D. (2008),  “The wage elasticity of labour 
supply: a synthesis of empirical estimates”, De Economist ,156 (1): 25–43. DOI 10.1007/s10645-007-9080-z. 
122 In the US, for every 10 % reduction in after-tax wages, primary earners work about 1 % fewer hours, for an elasticity of 
labour supply with respect to after-tax wages of 0.1. Secondary earners are much more responsive to wages (and 
thus  taxes),  with  elasticities  of  labour  supply  with  respect  to  after-tax  wages  estimated  to  range  from  0.5  to  1. 
Source: Gruber (2011) Public finance and public policy, Third edition, Worth Publishers, pp. 628. 

123 Stovichek, K. and Turrini, A. (2012). Benchmarking unemployment benefit systems. European Commission, Economic 

Papers 454. 

114 

                                                           
some  cases,  benefits  drop  sharply  over  the  unemployment  spell.  Strict  conditions  on  job  search 

and availability often apply. 

The overall generosity of unemployment benefit systems exhibits a high degree of variation across 

EU countries, with BE, AT, DK, IE, FI and PT having much more generous benefit systems than EU 

average while opposite is the case in the CZ, LT, SK, IT, PL, HU, LV and EE. 

A  somehow  different  picture  emerges  when  the  overall  generosity  of  unemployment  benefit 

systems is benchmarked against the prediction from multivariate regressions that take into account 

differences in fundamental factors affecting unemployment benefit systems. While unemployment 

benefit  systems  in  MT,  BE  and  PT  appear  even  more  clearly  highly  generous,  the  evidence 

becomes  weaker  for  DK  and  FI.  The  reason  is  that  high  income  per  capita,  strong  activation 

policies, and sufficient fiscal space in these countries, justify more generous benefit systems. These 

benchmarks strengthen the case that Luxemburg and Sweden are characterised by relatively tight 

benefit  systems,  while  for SK,  EL,  PL  and  HU  results  become more  nuanced: benefit  systems  are 

still relatively tight, but, in light of a combination of low income per capita, fiscal deficits, and high 

long-term unemployment, not as much as coming out from a simple comparison with EU average. 

The role of minimum income schemes 

Minimum income schemes (MI) provide cash benefits to ensure a minimum standard of living for 

individuals (and their dependants) that have either no other means of financial support, or whose 

resources fall short of a given level, despite including contributory cash benefits and support from 

other  family  members.  MI  schemes  are  considered  as  ‘schemes  of  last  resort.’  They  provide  a 

safety net to protect people from destitution if they are not eligible for social insurance benefits, or 

are no longer entitled to such benefits. They play an even more important role in a crisis, when the 
rise in unemployment has already had an impact on social assistance schemes.124 

Almost all EU countries have some form of MI scheme at national level. Member States that do not 

have one, such as Italy, have some sort of scheme at regional or local level. These are generally 

conceived  as  a  short-term  form  of  assistance,  though  in  most  Member  States,  they  are  not 

formally  time-limited.  They  are  means-tested  and  funded  through  the  tax  system  (i.e.  non-

contributory). They are intended mainly for people out of work, but some Member States (CY, DE, 

LT, FR, PT, RO, SI, SE and IE) have extended their scope to provide in-work income support. 

In most Member States, MI schemes are designed at national level, while delivery is delegated to 
the local authorities.125 An examination of various national definitions126 shows that most Member 

124  Social  assistance  (SA)  schemes  represent  the  broader  category  including  MI  benefits  together  with  other  types  of 

benefits such as housing benefits, child benefits and unemployment assistance benefits. 

125 In a few Member States, like Austria and Hungary, responsibility for policy decisions on SA benefit levels and eligibility 

conditions is partly delegated to regional/local governments. 

126 MISSOC Analysis (2011). Guaranteed Minimum Resources, MISSOC Secretariat for the European Commission, Contract 

nr. VC/2010/1131. 

115 

                                                           
States use a statutory minimum level of income, fixed by the (national, regional, local) legislator or 

government.  Further  classifications  are  possible  along  territorial  arrangements,  type  of  benefits 

(cash  vs.  in-kind),  and  existence  of  top-ups  (or  income  tapers).  Minimum  income  benefits  in 

general  are  adjusted  periodically.  Most  Member  States  do  automatic  adjustments  following 

changes  in  the  consumer  price  index  (in  some  countries  an  increase  will  only  take  place  if  the 

consumer  index  is  raised  by  a  certain  percentage  (CZ,  LU,  BE)).  Some  Member  States  will  only 

adjust at irregular intervals after a decision by the government (LT, EE), while in other countries this 

will depend on the available budgetary resources (BG, LV). However, the periodicity of adjustment 

varies from every 6 months (SI, NL), to each year (almost all Member States), up to once every 3 
years (PL), or at irregular intervals (LT, EE)127.  

The  design  of  MI  schemes  varies  widely  among  Member  States.  In  terms  of  comprehensiveness 

(i.e. the extent to which MI schemes are non-categorical, thus applying to those on low incomes in 

general,  rather  than  to  specific  subgroups), 
distinguished.128 

four 

‘broad’  groups  of  countries  can  be 

-  Group 1 (AT, BE, CY, CZ, DE, DK, FI, NL, PT, RO, SI, SE) is characterised by relatively simple and 

comprehensive MI schemes, generally open to those without sufficient means to live in dignity. 

-  Group 2 is smaller (EE, HU, LT,  LV, PL, SK). It has simple and non-categorical129 MI schemes 

accompanied by more restricted eligibility conditions. 

-  Group  3  (ES,  FR,130  IE,  MT,  UK)  is  characterised  by  a  complex  set  of  different  and  often 
categorical schemes that sometimes overlap but generally cover most of those with insufficient 

means. 

- 

Finally, there is a small group of countries with limited, partial or piecemeal arrangements only 

covering narrow categories of people (BG, IT, EL). 

Eligibility  conditions  (commonly  related  to  age,  nationality,  residence,  lack  of  financial  resources 

and  availability  for  work)  vary  significantly.  In  some  Member  States,  where  there  are  only 

piecemeal  and  categorical  schemes,  there  are  people  on  very  low  incomes  that  do  not  have 

access to any form of MI scheme. 

Over the past years many Member States have tightened eligibility conditions.131 Conditionality has 
generally been increased and availability for work has usually been more tightly enforced for those 

are fit to work. There are often sanctions if beneficiaries fail to comply with the requirement that 

127 MISSOC Analysis 2011 

128 Frazer H. and E. Marlier (2009) ‘Minimum income schemes across EU Member States. Synthesis Report’ . 

129  Access  to  categorical  benefits  is  restricted  based  on  some  personal  characteristics  (single,  with  children,  etc.)  non-

categorical benefits are benefits with no restriction based on personal characteristics. . 

130 This has improved with the introduction of the Revenu de solidarité active in 2009. 

131  A  follow-up  survey,  conducted  in  autumn  2011  and  spring  2012,  on  the  implementation  of  the  active  inclusion 
strategies at national level (based on pre-filled questionnaires complemented by MS information) found that more 
countries have  implemented stricter eligibility  criteria for minimum income (CZ, FR HU, PT, RO, UK) compared to 
those that relaxed eligibility (MT, LT) in the examined period (2008-2012). 

116 

                                                           
they must be available for work. Sanctions may lead to reductions in benefits, and to the loss of 

the  right  to  SA  benefits  in  more  extreme  cases.  There  is  also  a  trend  towards  a  stronger  link 

between  income  support  through  MI  schemes  and  activation  measures  including  vocational 

training, job search assistance, and counselling. 

MI  schemes  are  of  unlimited  duration  in  all  Member  States.  They  are  granted  for  as  long  as  a 

person is in need of support, and need is monitored by regular checks that beneficiaries do indeed 

fulfil eligibility conditions. National MI schemes differ as regards the duration for which benefits are 

available after each application, so the frequency with which a claimant has to reapply varies. For 

example, in FR the Revenu de solidarité active (RSA) has to be renewed after three months, in BG, 
SI and LV after six months, while in PT, the period is 12 months.132 

Considering overall income support, it should be noted that in some Member States, MI claimants 

also receive additional assistance for specific needs, such as housing benefits, contributions to fuel 

costs and means-tested child benefits. Though not formally classified as ‘guaranteed MI benefits’ 

these do contribute to the level of income that is actually guaranteed to people supported by MI 

schemes. 

The need for a comprehensive policy approach  

The  recent  assessment  of  the  active  inclusion  strategies133  at  national  level  highlights  the 
importance  of  comprehensive  policy  response  to  the  rising  unemployment  and  the  resulting 

poverty. The assessment clearly shows that Member States with robust social protection systems 

characterised by adequate income support, high coverage of unemployment and social assistance, 

access to enabling services, and strong activation policies have weathered much better the crisis.  

The  particular  case  of  the  (quasi-)  jobless  households,  which  often  times  combine  a  number  of 

disadvantages,  is  a  good  example  of  the  need  for  comprehensive  measures  to  address  the 

problem.  It is important to contrast the social isolation and reach out to these families in order to 

connect them to the community. To these aim social services and particularly family centres offer 

good  opportunity  of (first)  contact.  Support  for  improving parenting  and  life capacities can be  a 

first  step  to  improve  employability,  as  often  times  these  households  are  households  with 

dependent children  

Employment services should be  tailored  around  the  clients'  needs  and  offer  options  which meet 

their skills and interests and avoid placing individuals into predetermined employment pathways. A 

correct assessment of skills and placement into different streams could allow to better tailor these 

services.  Clients  must  be  transparently  informed  and  aware  of  each  step  concerning  their 

reinsertion path in order to improve their sense of ownership.  

132 MISSOC database for 2011. 

133  European  Commission  Communication  of  20  February  2013  Towards  Social  Investment  for  Growth  and  Cohesion  – 

including implementing the European Social Fund 2014-2020, CSWD 39 final. 

117 

                                                           
2.4. Results of the thematic in-depth review  

The  second  thematic  review  of  the  SPPM  'trends  to  watch'  focused  on  the  poverty  risk  of  the 

people  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  households,  which  is  at  the  core  of  the  interrelation  between 

activation  policies  and  access  to  services,  effectiveness  of  social  protection  schemes  and  the  tax 

and benefit system and is directly influenced by general labour market conditions.  

The presenting countries (DK, FR and NL) outlined their specific macroeconomic context and the 

main employment and social indicators relevant for the situation of people living in (quasi-) jobless 

households and gave an overview of policy approaches undertaken by public authorities in their 

countries aimed at addressing the poverty risk to which those furthest from the labour market are 

exposed.  

These countries use a different mix of tax instruments and cash benefits for delivering support to 

households  with  dependent  children.  Cash  benefits  can  be  universal  or  means-tested  targeting 

low-income households, whereas tax instruments can take the form either of tax allowances or of 

tax  credits  specifically  aimed  at  households  with  dependent  children.  Enabling  services  as  those 

found in the presenting countries can also help address the poverty risk of people living in (quasi-) 

jobless  households,  by  removing  barriers  to  people’s  entry  into  employment  and  by  facilitating 

mobility, work and family life reconciliation, and social participation. They include access to early 

childcare, education and training, health care and housing. 

The best performing countries in reducing the poverty risks of jobless households combine direct 

income support with housing allowances and social assistance top-ups, especially for low-income 

households  with  dependent  children.  People  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  households  receive  about 

70% of their annual gross disposable income in social transfer, as opposed to 8 % of the income of 

people  not  at  risk  of  poverty,  but  the  level  of  support  to  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor  households 

varies widely across the Member States. The share of individuals not receiving income support is 

especially large in EL, where more than 40% of those living in (quasi-) jobless and poor households 

receive 10% or less of their income from social transfers, whereas this share is less than 10% in NL, 
DK,  FR  and  SE.134  Moreover,  people  living  in  (quasi-)  jobless  and  poor  households  receive,  on 
average, the largest share of social cash transfers, with the bulk of benefits received consisting of 

unemployment benefits (such as in FR), followed by social inclusion benefits (sickness and disability 

benefits, family and housing allowances etc.). 

Nonetheless, measures to promote activation and labour market participation are seen as key to 

reducing  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  Activation  policies  encompass  a  range  of  measures:  job 

search  training  and  education  for  the  unemployed  and  inactive,  employment  incentives  and 

subsidies for job taking as well as job creation activities. The presenting countries seem particularly 

adept  at  applying  activation  measures.  For  instance,  NL  introduced  tax  credits  with  the  aim  of 

providing incentives for individuals to move into employment, which work in effect as tax reliefs on 

134 Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2014 

118 

                                                           
individual income and are thus similar to reductions in individual social protection contributions. In 
FR, the 2009 reform of the social assistance scheme towards a 'revenu de solidarité active' focused 
on job security, on improving access to employment and to life-long learning and training, as well 

as on individual income support support to people already in employment. In the case of DK, the 

focus  of  the  forthcoming  reforms  of  cash  benefits  and  of  flexjobs  will  be  put  on  direct  income 

support  for  people  living  in  low-income  households  irrespective  of  the  employment  status, 

combined  with  activation  measures  targeting  especially  the  youth  as  well  as  with  rehabilitation 

measures for disabled people of working age. 

Taking  up  a  job can  have  different  implications  and  lead  to  different  outcomes  in  terms  of  exits 

from  poverty,  depending  on  the  labour  market  characteristics  (segmentation,  temporary  or 
permanent  contract  arrangements,  wage  polarisation  etc.)  which  also  differ  quite  widely  both 
between  and  among  the  presenting  and  the  examining  countries.  For  instance,  labour  market 

segmentation  based  on  contractual  arrangements  is  more  of  a  concern  in  EL  and  FR,  whereas 

wage polarisation and rigidities are more common in DK or NL.  

The main conclusion that  was drawn from the interventions of the presenting countries is that a 

policy  mix  that  combines  relatively  broad  coverage  with  high  income  replacement  rates,  as 

implemented in DK, FR and NL, tends to achieve low rates of entry into poverty, high returns to 

employment, and high exit rates out of poverty. 

Afterwards, the examining countries (EL, SK, SE, LV) took the floor and discussed the findings put 

forward by the presenting countries, focusing in particular on the common challenges for both the 

presenting  and  the  examining  countries,  as  well  as  on  the  potential  for  transferability  of  those 

policy  approaches  that  were  identified  in  the  preceding  discussion,  notably  the  reforms  of  the 

minimum income and social assistance schemes, measures to stimulate labour market participation 

and child care programmes. A greater focus on work incentives was identified by all the examining 

countries  as  the  policy  with  the  greatest  potential  for  transferability,  whereas  improving  the 

adequacy of social benefits and of the minimum income support targeting jobless households was 

desirable but also likely to deepen dependency traps and to come at considerable costs for their 

social protection budgets. 

2.5 What should be the focus of policy effort? 

The  prevalence  of  household  joblessness  varies  significantly  across  the  EU.  Understanding  the 

cross-country variation should help to identify the potential causes of household joblessness. The 

level  of  household  joblessness  is  related  to  the  overall  state  of  the  labour  market,  the 

characteristics of  (quasi-) jobless household members (their age, level of education, the age and 

number of children, and the health status of adults and children), and the tax and benefit systems 

operating in different countries.  

More  generally,  poverty  at  working  age  is  more  strongly  correlated  with  work  intensity  at 

household level than with the individual labour market status. Tax and benefits systems, particularly 

119 

in countries with extensive means-testing of social benefits based on household income, may also 

impact on the poverty risks of jobless households by creating disincentives for work that lead to 

dependency traps.  

In assessing the impact of household joblessness, an important distinction may be drawn between 

households that contain only one adult and households that contain more than one. For an adult 

living in a one-adult household, individual joblessness obviously equates to household joblessness; 

the phenomenon of jobless individuals being clustered together in a household is a distinct one, 

though each gives rise to a jobless household. 

A significant increase in the risk of poverty among the working age population is one of the most 

tangible social consequences of the economic crisis in Europe. Even if unemployment is gradually 

reduced  as  currently  projected,  this  may  not  be  enough  to  reverse  rising  poverty,  especially  if 

wage polarisation continues, notably due to a rise in part-time work. Poverty is especially likely to 

remain a growing problem if polarisation between high and low wages continues, and if more and 

more people are obliged to work only part-time. 

For an adult to exit poverty, it is usually necessary to find a job. However, much depends on the 

type  of  job  found,  the  level  of  pay  and  the  number  of  hours  worked.  It  also  depends  on  the 

composition  of  the  household  and  the  working  situation  of  the  partner.  A  gradual  reduction  of 

unemployment is unlikely to be enough to reverse the increasing trend in poverty levels. In many 

Member States, significant shares of unemployed people are not covered by standard safety nets, 

such as unemployment benefits or social assistance. 

Another  persistent  challenge  to  labour  and  social  inclusion  is  represented  by  the  gender  gap  in 

labour  market  participation,  pay  and  the  risk  of  poverty.  Although  gender  gaps  have  decreased 

since  the  start  of  the  crisis,  as many  traditionally male-dominated sectors  were  most  affected  by 

the  downturn,  persistent  gender  inequalities  can  still  be  encountered  on  the  labour  market. 

Women  still  work  shorter  hours  and  have  lower  hourly  pay  and  less  career  opportunities,  which 

ultimately contributes to the poverty risk of households with low work intensity. 

Therefore, policy-makers need to foster both job creation and inclusive labour markets and decent 

working  conditions.  Moreover,  efficient  and  effective  income support schemes  and  well-targeted 

social expenditure, including for households whose members do have a job, are needed in order 

to allow more people to escape poverty and social exclusion. This would require an effective policy 

mix consisting of measures to stimulate flexible working conditions, investment in human resources 

development, activation, as well as employment-friendly accessible and affordable childcare. 

120 

 
3. Child poverty and social exclusion: investing in children and their 

well-being 

3.1. Introduction 

Europe's social and economic future greatly depends on its capacity to break the transmission of 

disadvantage  across  generations.  Recent  years  have  seen  a  partly  dramatic  increase  in  child 

poverty.  

Children growing-up in poverty and social exclusion are less likely than their better-off peers to do 

well  in  school,  enjoy  good  health  and  realise  their  full  potential.  Research  evidence  shows  that 

children  born  into  severe  poverty  are  disproportionally  exposed  to  factors  that  impede  their 

psycho-motor  development,  socio-economic  growth  and  cognitive  processes.  Significant 

differences in cognitive outcomes between children from disadvantaged backgrounds and children 
growing up in more favourable conditions exist already at age five.135 When linked with deprived, 
neglectful  or  low  education  family  backgrounds,  poverty  becomes  the  single  greatest  barrier  to 
educational achievement,136 affecting career prospects and increasing the likelihood that children 
from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  become  disadvantaged  adults.  68.9%  of  adults  declaring 
difficulties  to  make  ends  meet  faced  similar  situations  in  their  childhood137.  There  is  also  much 
evidence that the socioeconomic status of a child is a good predictor of adult health: growing up a 

disadvantaged  environment  can  have  a  long-lasting  negative  impact  on  health,  which  is  barely 
undone by upward social mobility138.  

Reducing child poverty and breaking the transmission of disadvantage across generations implies 

investing early on by developing integrated strategies focused on children and families, combining 

prevention and support, seeking both to enhance the development and well-being of all children 

and  to  specifically  improve  the  situation  of  the  most  vulnerable.  It  also  has  to  take  into  account 

changing  family  patterns  with  an  overall  increase  of  single  parent  families,  who  face  specific 

economic vulnerability. 

Child  poverty  and  the  transmission  of  disadvantage  across  generations  produce  significant  costs 

not  only  for  those  concerned,  but  also  for  society  as  a  whole.  It  is  broadly  acknowledged  that 

135  Bradbury  et  al.  (2011);  Geoffroy  &  al.,  2010,  Dearing  and  al.,  2009,  Hansen&  Hawkes,  2009.  A  $1,000  increase  in 
income raises combined math and reading test scores by 6% of a standard deviation in the short-run. Test gains are 
larger for children from disadvantaged families and are robust to a variety of alternative specifications. G. Dahl (2006) 
The Impact of Family Income on Child Achievement: Evidence from the Earned Income Tax Credit 

136 J. Bennet (2012), Early childhood education and care (ECEC) for children from disadvantaged backgrounds: Findings 
from  a  European  literature  review  and  two  case  studies.  Study  commissioned  by  the  European  Commission, 
available at: http://ec.europa.eu/education/more-information/doc/ecec/report_en.pdf 

137 Eurostat, Statistics in focus 27/2013 

138 European Commission, 2012 

121 

                                                           
public  expenditure  linked  to  mitigating  the  adverse  effects  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  at  an 

early  age  would  be  lower  than  those  of  dealing  with  the  consequences  of  childhood  poverty 
across a persons’ life-span.139  

Especially in time of crisis, the cost-effectiveness of policies needs to be further enhanced, whereby 

two factors can play a major role:  

•  Stronger focus on early childhood years: The early mastery of a range of cognitive, social, 
and emotional competencies makes learning at later ages more efficient, easier and more 

likely  to  continue;  it  also  contributes  to  better  health  and  psycho-social  benefits.  The 
highest rate of return to human capital investment is found in early childhood years,140 and 
yet public expenditure is typically lowest for this age group.141  

•  Refining  policy  design:  The  approach  found  in  countries  with  lower  levels  or  decreasing 
levels of child poverty and social exclusion are embedded in a wider system that addresses 

poverty,  social  exclusion  and  inequality  more  generally.  This  entails  several  broad  policy 

instruments  –  supporting  the  labour  market  participation  of  (both)  parents,  supporting 

wages  and  income  (including  through  effective  tax  and  social  protection  systems),  and 

ensuring access to services utilised by families. 

This  document  gives  an  overview  of  the  main  facts  and  figures  as  well  as  policy  challenges  and 

approaches related to the tackling of child poverty and social exclusion in Europe. It also presents 

the main findings of in-depth thematic review on child poverty and social exclusion conducted by 

the SPC on 19.12.2013. 

Children (defined here as persons below the age of 18) are more exposed to the risk of poverty or 

social exclusion than the overall population with a rate of 28% against 24.8% for EU28 in 2012, and 

highest rates are in BG (52.3%), RO (52.2%), HU (40.9%) and LV (40%,). The lowest rates between 

15% and 17% are found in FI, DK, SI and NL.  

Only  in  five  Member  States  are  children  less  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social  exclusion  than  the  total 

population (DK, SI, FI, DE and EE).  

139 Providing an exact estimation of such costs appears challenging. However, a 2008 UK study highlighted that, in the 
longer term, about £13 billion might be gained yearly from ending child poverty, through economies linked to the 
direct costs of services to remedy the consequences of childhood deprivation such as poor health, low educational 
attainment,  crime  and  anti-social  behaviour.  Hirsch,  2008; Estimating  the  costs  of  child  poverty.  Joseph  Rowntree 
Foundation. 

140 Heckman, 2008, The case for investing in disadvantaged young children. 

141  Presentation  given  to  World  Bank  on  Benefits  of  Early  Child  Development  Programme  by  Jacques  van  der  Gaag 
(2004). See SPC Report 2012, Tackling and preventing child poverty, promoting child wellbeing.  

122 

                                                           
Figure 63. People at risk of poverty or social exclusion (AROPE), children (0-

17) and total population, %, 2012 

Source Eurostat (EU-SILC) 
Note: 2011 data for IE 

In 2012 the at-risk-of-poverty rate among children (defined as the proportion of children living in 

households  with  an  income  lower  than  60%  of  the  median  equivilised  national  income)  varies 

significantly across Member States, from 10.2% in DK, 11.1% in FI, 13.2% in NL and 13.5% in SI up 

to 34.6% in RO, 29.9% in ES, 28.2% in BG and 26.9% in EL.  

123 

 
Figure 64. Children at-risk-of-poverty rate, severe material deprivation rate 

and share living in (quasi-) jobless households 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

The  labour  market  situation  of  parents  is  evidently  one  the  most  important  determinant  of  the 

material situation in which children grow up. Yet 9% of children in the EU live in (quasi-) jobless 

households,  ranging  from  3.2%  in  Slovenia  and  4%  in  Luxembourg  to  25,9%  in  IE,  16,6%  in  BG, 

15.7% in HU and 14.9% in HR.  

The rate of children in severely materially deprived households varies from 1.3% in SE to as much 

as 46.6% in BG and 37.9% in RO against an EU average of 11.7%.  

Where has child poverty increased most?  

Since the beginning of the crisis the highest increase in child poverty was recorded in BG, RO, HU, 

LV,  EL,  MT  and  IT.  Even  though  BG  recorded  a  stabilising  trend  between  2011  and  2012  and  LV 

decreasing share in AROPE for the same period (-4,1 pp), the 7 MS remain with the highest AROPE 

for children in 2012. 

How long do children live in poverty?  

More than 20% of children in RO, BG and PT are at persistent risk of poverty, i.e. are poor today 

and have been poor in at least 2 of the previous 3 years. On the other end of the spectrum are 

countries like SE, FI, AT, CZ and DK where this is the case for only around 5%. In a number of MS, 

children  have  a  higher  or  much  higher  risk  of  being  in  persistent  poverty  than  the  overall 

population.  This  is  especially  the  case  in SK,  NL,  HU,  PT.  Only  in FI,  AT,  SE, CZ  and  DK,  children 

seem to be more protected against long periods in poverty risk than the total population  

124 

 
 
Figure 65. Persistent at-risk-of-poverty rate for children, 2011 

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC 

Note: no 2011 data for IE and FR 

How deep is child poverty and social exclusion in Europe? 

The poverty gap, one measure of the depth of poverty, indicates the extent to which the situation 

of  children  at  risk  of  poverty  falls  below  the  poverty  threshold  on  average.  In  policy  terms,  it 

indicates the scale of transfers which would be necessary to bring the incomes of those concerned 

up  to  the  poverty  threshold.  The  poverty  gap  for  children  in  the  EU28  in  2012  was  25.2%  lower 

than  the  at-risk-of-poverty  threshold.  This  is  up  by  1.6  pp  since  2008  and  stable  since  2011.  The 

child poverty gap in the EU28 countries varies between 12.9% (FI) to more than 30% (HR, EL, BG, 

ES, RO and LV) in 2012. 

125 

 
Figure 66. Relative median at-risk-of-poverty gap for children, 2011-2012 

Figure 67. Relative median at-risk-of-poverty gap for children, 2008-2012 

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC 

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC 

Note:i) 2011 data used for IE,ii)  AT has changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, 

income related indicators and by definition the target indicator suffer a break in series for 2012 and are therefore not 

comparable to 2011 and 2008. AT will be able to provide a comprehensive back-calculation of the timeline until the base 

year 2008 at the end of 2014 iii) For UK, changes in the survey vehicle and institution might have affected the results and 

interpretation of data must therefore be particularly cautious; iv) Provisional data for BE does not allow for reliable 
assessment of evolutions; v) 

126 

 
 
3.2 Main drivers, challenges, evidence-based policies and good practices 

In order to be effective policies aimed at addressing child poverty and break the transmission of 

disadvantage need to be embedded in a wider policy approach that addresses poverty and social 

exclusion  more  generally.  This  entails  several  broad  policy  instruments  –  supporting  the  labour 

market  participation  of  preferably  both  parents,  supporting  wages  and  income,  and  ensuring 

access to services utilised by families.  

The  most  common  approach  found  in  countries  with  lower  levels  or  decreasing  levels  of  child 

poverty  consists  of  redistributive  policies  which  ensure  that  parents  have  an  adequate  income, 

either through accessing decent jobs or through adequate income support. The systems typically 

aim  to  redistribute  wealth  fairly  through  effective  tax  and  social  protection  systems,  and  ensure 

access to good-quality services and opportunities to the majority of children and their families. 

Access to adequate resources 

Parents’ participation in the labour market 

Quality parental employment is the main safeguard against child poverty. Household composition 

and  the  combined  employment  participation  of  all  adults  in  the  household  contribute  to  the 

income situation and living standards.  

Overall,  in  most  Member  States  people  in  households  with  dependent  children  are  much  more 

likely  to  be  working  poor  than  households  without.  Compared  to  a  childless  household  with  two 
adults, a two adult household with two children cost about 40% more142. Only in CY, IE, DK and SE 
this is not the case. CY is also the only MS where working households (with dependent children) 
are  less at-risk  of  poverty  (6.8%  in  2012)  compared  to  households  without  dependent  children 
(9.2%  in  2012),  highlighting  a  social  protection  system  which  is  especially  tailored  to  protect 

households with children. 

142 The needs of a household grow with each additional member but – due to economies of scale in consumption– not 
in a proportional way. With the help of equivalence scales each household type in the population is assigned a value in 
proportion to its needs. The 40% is calculated using an equivalence scale of 1.5 for two adults without children and 2.1 
for two adults with two children. 

127 

                                                           
Figure 68. In-work poverty risk for different household types, 2012 

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC 

Note: no 2012 data for BE, AT, IE and UK 

Lone  parents  and  their  children  are  particularly  exposed  to  higher  risk  of  (in-work)  poverty  and 

need targeted support, which appear as a particular challenge in EL, LU, IT, RO, LV, DE and LT. In 

Greece, close to 50% of working lone parents are at risk of poverty. In RO working lone parents 

(28.7%) and households with dependent children (23.4%) are facing almost equal risk of poverty, 

comparing to a much lower rate for households without dependent children (13.4%). Similar trends 

are observed in ES.  

Besides this, the work intensity within the household plays a determining role. In most countries, 

the  one  breadwinner  family  model  no  longer  protects  against  poverty.  The  risk  of  poverty  for 

individuals  in  households  with  low  to  medium  work  intensity  ranges  between  15  %  and  50  % 

(European  Commission,  2012).  Families  with  dual  earner  couples  are  less  likely  to  be  at  risk  of 

poverty.  

In  this  context,  work  intensity  within  the  household  can  be  strongly  influenced  by  disincentives 

resulting from a trade-off between the expected earnings, the taxes to be paid due to the increase 

in  gains,  and  the  reduction  of  tax  credits  and  welfare  entitlements:  the  combination  of  these 

parameters (called the effective marginal tax rate) might make the uptake of work or an increase in 

hours  not  worthwhile.  This  shows  how  making  work  pay  requires  looking  at  the  design  and 

integration  of  tax  and  benefits  systems.  A  steep  effective  marginal  tax  rate  can  result  in 

unemployment  or  inactivity  traps.  To  counteract  such  traps,  some  Member  States  have,  for 

instance, adopted measures to reduce the tax wedge (a combination of direct labour taxation plus 

social  security  contributions)  on  lower  wages,  raise  minimum  wages,  offer  in-work  benefits  (see 

128 

 
box  below  on  Earned  income  tax  credit),  and/or  they  have  reviewed  the  design  of  out-of-work 
benefits, including social assistance.143  

For  parents,  the  cost  of  childcare  acts  as  an  additional  major  barrier  to  work  and  can  be 
particularly influential in the determination of the net income gains for second earner. 144 In BG, CZ, 
IE, LV, LT, MT and SI for instance, lone parents with low prospective wages are financially better off 

staying  at  home  and  caring  for  their  children  themselves.  Inactivity  traps  also  exist  in  countries 

where  childcare  is  much  more  affordable  for  low  wage  lone  parents,  such  as  in  the  CZ  and  SI, 

where they can be imputed as well to the articulation between in and out of work benefits.  

Many countries with low levels of joblessness (LU, SI, FI, AT, NL, SE, CY) and several with medium 

levels (CZ, DK, MT, DE, IT, PL, PT, EE) have given significant attention to policies to make work pay 

for parents and avoid inactivity traps. In LU, a high share of working single parents and a decrease 

of  low work intensity in single parents households have been achieved in particular by improving 

availability and affordability of childcare services (through high investment in supply and childcare 

vouchers  and  reduced  fees  for  families  at  risk  of  poverty),  in  combination  with  investment  in 

education for the low skilled. In many of the countries with high (SK, FR, LV, HR, RO, BE) or very 

high  (LT,  EL,  ES,  HU,  UK,  BG,  IE)  levels  of  joblessness,  making  work  pay  for  parents  remains  an 
important  challenge  to  be  addressed145.  LV  has  addressed  disincentives  to  work  for  parents  by 
introducing from 2014 a right to work and receive childcare and parental benefits simultaneously.  

Earned income tax credit (EITC) 

One way to support low wage earning parents is through the so-called earned income (or 
working) tax credit (EITC/WTC).146 This approach brings together the need to boost the incomes of 
low-earning households while at the same time promoting employment by able working-aged 

adults. Empirical evidence from the US shows that EITC, in combination with other policy reforms 

and increases in the minimum wage, has produced some striking results in increased in labour 

143 See also European Commission (2009) ‘Recent reforms of the tax and benefit systems in the framework of flexicurity’ 

European Economy Occasional Papers 43, Feb 2009. 

144  An  OECD  study  (OECD,  2011)  shows  that  across  all  countries  net  childcare  costs  are  a  critical  factor  for  parents' 
employment decisions. Compared to a no childcare scenario, the financial reward from employment is substantially 
reduced by childcare costs. At low earnings levels, childcare costs reduce the returns to lone parents by as much as 
40 % and for second earners by up to 50 %. The study also demonstrates weak work incentives over a significant 
part of the female full time earnings distribution. Before childcare is considered, many mothers of young children 
working  full  time  are  unable  to  increase  their  family  income  by  even  50%.  Even  those  working  full  time  at  the 
median wage achieve only a 50% increase. When childcare costs are included median earning mothers across the 
EU countries manage to increase their family income by only 40 %. A single mother has to command a full time 
wage in the top 40 % of the earning distribution and a second earner must be able to earn a wage in the top 25 % 
to achieve a 50 % increase in her family's income. 

145 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en. 

146 A tax credit works as a negative income tax: low wage earners, instead of paying taxes receive tax credits that are 

usually (negatively) related to the level of income earned. 

129 

                                                           
market participation, reduced poverty among some segments of the population, especially single 
parent households, and better educational and employment outcomes for children.147,148  

The United Kingdom has also a Working Tax Credit established in 2003. Several Member States 

have introduced tax credits, including the ‘Prime Pour l’Emploi’ (PPE) and the ‘Revenue de 

Solidarité Active’ (RSA) in France, the ‘Combination Credit’ in the Netherlands, and a ‘Low Wage 
Tax Credit’ in Belgium.149 The UK Working Tax Credit, to be replaced by the Universal Credit, 
remains the broadest measure of its kind in Europe, both in terms of scope and budget. 

An example of policy reform that combines income support with activation (including support of 

low wage earners) is the Revenu de Solidarité Active (RSA) in France. The RSA can be seen as a 

cornerstone  of  France’s  current  antipoverty  policy,  in  combination  with  the  minimum  wage  and 

employment  subsidies.  The  declared  objectives  are  to  integrate  and  simplify  existing  benefit 

schemes,  to  combat  poverty  more  efficiently  and  to  foster  the  transition  into  work.  The  RSA 

scheme is equivalent to a negative income tax. A basic benefit of € 410 (for a single adult) or € 590 

(for a couple with no children) applies to claimants who do not work; for those who work, earnings 

are topped up by an in-work RSA supplement in such a way that 62 % of their net earnings are 

exempted. The implicit tax rate is set so as to make the benefit expire as the claimant’s earnings 

approach  the  poverty  threshold  (SMIC  =  approx.  €  1  200  gross/  €  950  net).  In  comparison  with 

pre-existing  schemes,  the  RSA  focuses  more  on  the  lowest  income  group  and,  above  all, 
strengthens the work incentive component.150 

Some  researchers  claim  that  EITC/WFTC-type  of  policies  which  are  means-tested  on  household 

income (and not on personal income) increase work incentives for single workers but discourage 

married women with a working partner. It is typically argued that this efficiency loss is outweighed 

by the equity gains from targeting families in need. In contrast, individualized schemes appear to 

combine clearer incentive effects with less efficient targeting, since resources may be transferred to 

workers  in  well-off  families  (Bargain  and  Orsini,  2005).  In  a  micro-simulation  study  for  Belgium, 

Marx et al. (2012) suggests that in order to be effective as an anti-poverty device and at the same 

time affordable within reasonable limits, measures means-tested at the household level need to be 

strongly targeted. Some researchers, notably Figari (2011), question the potential transferability in 

terms of similar results in southern European countries, where the presence of extended families 

comes into the way of such measures being well targeted to the poorest. 

While part-time work can provide opportunities for parents to work, it is important to ensure the 

provision  of  care  services  for  those  seeking  full  time  employment.  Looking  after  children  or 

147 Hoynes, 2007, http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/hoynes/working_papers/Chicago-Fed-Final.pdf  

148 Marr, Charite, and Huang (2013). "Earned Income Tax Credit promotes work, encourages children's success at school." 

Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. http://www.cbpp.org/files/6-26-12tax.pdf  

149 Marx and Verbist 2008 

150  Ides  Nicaise  (2011):  Building  the  tools  to  fight  in-work  poverty,  Synthesis  report,  France.  Available  at:  www.peer-
review-social-inclusion.eu.  For  a  review  of  recent  policy  reforms  in  the  family  policy  area  in  all  countries  see  also 
EPIC country profiles section (http://europa.eu/epic/countries/index_en.htm ) 

130 

                                                           
incapacitated adults is the main reason for part-time employment in 2012 for more than 1/3 of the 

working age population in the UK, NL, AT, and FR. Increases in part-time employment in 2012 due 

to  care  responsibilites  was  recorded  in  MT  (from  15%  in  2008  to  20%  in  2012)  and  in  BE  (from 

17.9% in 2008 to 18.7% in 2012). The percentage of population deciding to work part-time due to 

look after a child or an incapacitated adult decreased notably in 2012 comparing to 2008 especially 

in NL (from 39.8% in 2008 to 34.4% in 2012), in IT (from 26.5% in 2008 to 18.6% in 2012), ES (from 

17.7% in 2008 to 11.6% in 2012) and in EL (from 11.8% in 2008 to 5.6% in 2012). In Member States 

where  there  is  a  high  rate  of  mothers  in  part-time  employment,  family  households  often 
experience  in-work  poverty  and  child  poverty.151  While  part-time  work  can  provide  opportunities 
for parents to work, it is important to ensure the provision of care services for those seeking full 

time employment.  

Figure 69. Part-time employment of population (15-64) due to looking after 

children or incapacitated adults responsibilities, 2011 – 2012 

Source: Eurostat (EU-LFS) 

Note: no 2011 and 2012 data for BG, LT 

151 Bosch et al., 2009 

131 

 
 
                                                           
Figure 70. Part-time employment of population aged 15 to 64 due to 

looking after children or incapacitated adults (2008 – 2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-LFS) 

Note: no 2008 data for HR and 2012 data for BG, LT  

As well as an optimal design of the tax and benefit system and of employment policies, supporting 

parental employment also requires  labour market policies responding to parents’ specific needs 

(see chapter 2 for more details on effective ALMPs).  Most Member States with low and medium 

levels of joblessness give significant attention to increasing the employability and participation of 

parents, especially single parents and second earners in paid work, and support their reintegration 

after parental leave and some countries with high level of joblessness (e.g. BE, IE, FR) are taking 

additional  measures.  However  in  many  Member  States  efforts  could  be  strengthened  in  the 

direction of better targeting and more outreach to single parents or jobless couples and to parents 

from  disadvantaged  and,  especially,  migrant  or  ethnic  minority  background.  It  also  appears 

important to provide further opportunities for parents to participate in subsidised employment or 

training  programmes,  tailor-made  assistance  and  back  up  services  as  well  as  improve  access  to 
information about programmes152. In CY, BG and LV, active labour market policies are targeted to 
the  needs  of  parents  by  providing  training,  job-search  assistance,  counselling  and  subsidized 

employment,  but  also  looking  at  ways  to  improve  reconciliation  of  work  and  family  life.  LV  has 

introduced a profiling system in 2013 to better adapt support to job seekers.   

152 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

132 

 
                                                           
Findings suggest  that  already  disadvantaged parts  of  the  workforce  have  difficulties  in  accessing 
any advantages conveyed by flexible work scheduling.153 For childcare, opening hours of services 
need to adapt to diverse and changing working patterns. Such measures would help address the 

social gradients that exist in many Member States regarding children attending childcare.  

.Parental leave policies are also considered an important buttress to maintaining the attachment of 

parents, often specifically mothers, to the labour market. The provision of paid leave in Member 

States has a positive effect on the employment rates of mothers and has contributed to reducing 

the  gender  employment  gap.  Evidence  shows  that  short  periods  of  paid  parental  leave  (six 
months) do not have a negative effect on labour force participation.154  

However,  maternity  and  paternity  leave  allowances  and  parental  leave  allowance  must  be 
considered together when analysing their impact. According to the OECD155 extending paid leave 
beyond two years has a counterproductive effect on female employment rates and, by the same 

token, on the gender employment gap. It is possible to take prolonged period of leave (at least 2 

years  or  around  100  weeks)  either  as  parental  leave  alone  or  by  taking  parental  leave  in 
conjunction with separate child/home care provisions in AT, CZ, EE, FR, FI, DE, HU, NO, PL156, SK 
and ES.157 This could represent a significant negative impact on female reinsertion into the labour 
market. This negative impact can also be evident in some Member States with shorter periods of 

paid leave if there is the added element of low levels of accessible childcare services. Joseph et al. 

(2012)  find  that  in  France  part-time  leave  options  are  more  likely  to  be  taken  up  by  highly 

educated women. Compared to full-time short paid leave, part-time longer options may work out 
negatively on post-parental leave wage levels.158  

Length,  compensation  level  and  share  of  leave  between  parents  vary  considerably  among  EU 

Member  States.  Recent  reforms  in  the  EU  include  extensions  of  (paid)  parental  leave  in  some 

Member States (LU, MT, PL, UK). In DK and MT self-employed parents were granted equal (vis-à-

vis employed parents) rights to parental leave. New measures in AT, EE and PL aim at encouraging 

the uptake of paternity leave. Similarly, new rules for parental leave were introduced in FR, aiming 

at  improving  take-up  of  parental  leave  by  fathers.  AT  reformed  its  childcare  leave  regulation  to 

facilitate  a  better  work-life  balance  of  parents  living  in  non-traditional  family  forms  while  HR 
harmonised  the  Law  on  Maternity  and  Parental  Benefits  with  the  EU  acquis  communautaire. 

153  Forthcoming  report:  Mills  et  al.  (2013)  Gender  equality  in  the  workforce:  reconciling  work,  private  and  family  life  in 

Europe  

154Joseph et al. 2012 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927537113000547#  

155http://www.oecd-

ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5k8xb6hw1wjf.pdf?expires=1382368510&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=E9A90
22C7D1537AF8B05C8F81F823A70  

156  According  to  Polish  Labour  Code,  the  person  employed,  for  at  least  6  months,  is  entitled  to  up  to  36  months  of 

childcare leave in order to provide personal care to a child under 5 years old. 

157 PF2.1: Key characteristics of parental leave systems last update 10/10/2012 

158 Joseph et al. 2012 

133 

                                                           
Parental leave has also been reformed in Latvia by increasing the amounts of parental benefit and 

child-care benefit and improving granting conditions for employed parents. 

Effectiveness and efficiency of social protection in reducing child poverty 

The  financial  situation  of  family  households  is  of  significant  importance  for  child  outcomes. 

Evidence clearly shows that children living in low-income households have worse cognitive, social-

behavioural and health outcomes in part because they are poorer, and not just because poverty is 

correlated  with  other  household  and  parental  characteristics.  This  is  mainly  because  of  the 

associated impact of worse physical living environment (inability to invest in goods and services) 

and the stress associated with living on low income (worse maternal mental health and parenting 
behaviour).159 Social transfers can help mitigate these effects. 

Social protection as a whole has a significant impact on reducing child poverty. On average, social 

protection  expenditure  reduces  the  child  poverty  risk  by  40%  in  the  EU,  but  the  impact  varies 

greatly across Member States. Countries most effective at reducing child poverty are IE (reduction 

of the share of children at risk of poverty by 32 %), HU (by 27 %) and the UK (by 24 %). Countries 

with  the  lowest  child  poverty  rates  are  those  in  which  families  with  children  benefit  a  good  deal 

from  overall  social  transfers.  Health  care  and  unemployment  benefits  also  play  a  significant  and 

indirect role in alleviating child poverty. 

Within the whole set of social protection instruments, child/family benefits play a particular role. In 

countries where family and child benefits are most effective at reducing child poverty (AT, HU, FI, 

LU DE, UK), child poverty is almost halved by family and children benefits. At the opposite, family 

and children benefits do not reduce child poverty by more than 3pps in ES, EL and PT. (European 

Commission, 2012, updated figures) 

Kerris  Cooper  and  Kitty  Stewart  (2013)  Does  money  affect  children’s  outcomes:  A  systematic  review.  York:  Joseph 
Rowntree Foundation. October 2013. http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/does-money-affect-childrens-outcomes

159

134 

 
 
                                                           
Figure 71. Poverty reduction effect of family and child benefits for children 

aged 0-17 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC UDB 2011), Calculations by DG EMPL 

The adequacy of benefits should be promoted as a primary tool against child poverty and social 

exclusion. Integrating strong activation measures and tapering into the benefit system can ensure 

that an adequate level of benefits does not result in steep effective marginal tax rates and inactivity 

traps.  

In this way the design of social spending plays a significant role and requires careful shaping in the 

balance  between  universal  and  targeted  benefits,  as  well  as  the  trade-off  between  cash  and  in-

kind benefits.  

Targeting  support  on  those  families  in  disadvantaged  situations  can  help  improve  the  poverty 

reduction  impact,  while  universal  schemes  can  achieve  additional  poverty  reductions  because 
otherwise excluded children receive the benefit.160 Universal schemes can be less efficient in the 
short  run  to  reduce  child  poverty  as  they  give  income  support  to  all  households  with  children 

across  the  income  distribution,  regardless  of  households  levels  of  income.  However,  in  the  long 

run,  they  also  have  many  advantages:  limited  cost  of  ‘production’,  larger  take  up,  and  low 

disincentives.  Therefore  targeting  of  support  within  a  broader  universal  system  can  improve  the 

effectiveness  of  the  benefit  system;  most  EU  countries  have  integrated  “targeting  within 

universalism” (Skocpol 1991) such as targeting benefits towards low income families and/or single 

parents.  

160  Notten,  G.  and  F.  Gassmann  (2008),  “Size  matters:  poverty  reduction  effects  of  means-tested  and  universal  child 
260-74. 

benefits 
http://gerandanotten.wordpress.com/research/size-matters-poverty-reduction-effects-of-means-tested-and-
universal-child-benefits-in-russia/  

European 

Russia”, 

Journal 

Policy, 

Social 

(3), 

18 

of 

in 

135 

 
                                                           
Van Lancker et al. 2012161 show that the design and the generosity of child benefits also make a 
genuine difference when discussing poverty in single parent households. Within the framework of 
an ‘adult worker model’,162 with welfare policies enabling mothers to work and providing adequate 
minimum income protection for those not able to work, NO and DK succeed in reducing poverty 

by means of targeted child benefits by more than 40%.  

Despite large variations across Member States, a trend towards an increased use of means-tested 

measures can be observed. In 2009, child benefits were not means-tested at all in some countries, 

such as in EE, LU or SE. SI, while IT and PT means-tested more than 60% of child benefits. In DE 

and PT, all child benefits provided in kind were means-tested. IE means-tested a significant part of 

their  cash  child  benefits,  but  provided  all  in-kind  benefits  without  means-testing.  The  balance 

between  means-tested  and  non-means-tested  benefits  depends  on  the  exact  design  of  social 

protection spending.  

Notten  and  Gassmann  (2008)  argue  that  size  ultimately  matters  more  than  design;  only  by 

increasing  benefit  levels  considerably  can  more  substantial  poverty  reductions  be  achieved.  In 

addition, they argue universal child benefits have an immediate impact on poverty – both among 

those  who  depend  on  earnings  and  those  on  benefits  without  adversely  affecting  work 
incentives.163  

Most  countries  with  a  low  risk  of  poverty  provide  relatively  high  level  of  benefits,  generally 

combining  universal  benefits  with  more  targeted  ones.    In  AT  monetary  transfers  to  families  (in 

particular through rather generous universal family allowances) reduce material child-poverty to a 

very large degree. In SI an efficient targeting and a relatively high level of benefits redistributing 

income  significantly  reduce  poverty  and  income  inequality.    In  LU,  low  level of  child  poverty  are 

achieved by combining universal measures (family allowance, birth allowance) with more targeted 

(single  parent  tax  credit)  and  means  tested  ones  (such  as  a  cost  of  living  allowances).  The  low 

adequacy of benefit is a key feature of many countries with high rates of child poverty or social 

exclusion  (such  as  BG,  EL,  ES,  HR,  IT,  LT,  LV,  PL,  PT)  and,  in  many  instances,  systems  have 
deteriorated  during  the  crisis164.  However  some  recent  reforms  tried  to  ensure  adequate 
livelihoods for families. In EE, a needs-based family allowance reform was partly (with the increase 

of allowances foreseen from 2015) implemented from July 2013. In LV, in order to support families 

with  children  who  are  under  1.5  year  of  age,  minimum  monthly  parental  benefits,  child-care 

benefits and child-care benefit supplements for multiple children born in one birth were increased 

to EUR 140 and EUR 171 from 2014, including for parents without social insurance 

161 

http://www.centrumvoorsociaalbeleid.be/sites/default/files/CSB%20Working%20Paper%2012%2003_Maart%202012.
pdf 

162 Lewis 2006 

163 Marx et al 

164 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

136 

                                                           
A  move  to  more  means-tested  measures  has  taken  place  in  a  number  of  countries  which  have 

introduced  income  ceiling  for  previously  universal  measures,  as  illustrated  by  the  SPC  in  depth 

review.  Means testing has been introduced in the child benefit scheme in the UK, moving from its 

previously  universal  design.  In  Lithuania,  means  testing  was  introduced  for  the  main  non-

contributory  benefit  "Child  Benefit".  CY  has  introduced  a  means  test  for  child  benefits  in  2012 

based on both income and assets, however with a high income threshold which maintains a large 

coverage.   

In  this  context,  an  important  consideration  is  whether  the  distribution  of  family  benefits  across 

quintiles  is  proportional  to  the  share  of  children  within  the  income  quintiles.  Child  poverty  and 

social  exclusion  is  unlikely  to  be  reduced  unless  the  share  of  benefits  received  by  the  lower 

quintiles  is  proportional  according  to  their  share  of  children.  The  progressive  nature  of  family 

benefits  across  income  quintiles  differs  between  EU  Member  States  (see  Figure  72).  In  many  EU 

Member States each income quintile receives a share of family benefits proportional to the share 

of children population in the given quintile (AT, BE, BG, CZ, DE, DK, FI, HU, LU, PT, SI, SK). In some 

the distribution of family benefits is rather unfavourable to the poor, i.e. the poorer quintiles of the 

population receive less family benefits than  is their  share of children (EE, ES,  EL, LT, LV, RO, SE). 

However,  in  some  countries  family  benefits  are  more  favourable  to  the  poor,  i.e.  the  poorer 

quintiles of the population receive a larger share of family benefits than is their share of children 
(CY, FI, FR, IT, MT, NL, PL, UK).165 (European Commission, 2012, updated results).  

Besides  means  testing,  a  variety  of  measures  were  taken  to  make  tax  incentives,  child/family 

benefits  and  social  assistance  more  progressive.  Tax  exemptions  for  families  with  children  have 

been reduced for high income households in FR, where a greater variation of childbirth allowance 

according  to  income  was  introduced  and  the  means  tested  “family  supplement”  will  increase  by 

8.4%.    Reforming  current  schemes  to  better  support  families  at  particular  risk  has  also  been  a 

priority in a number of countries. CY introduced in 2012 a means tested single parent benefits. FR 

has  initiated  a  debate  to  increase  redistribution  towards  single-parents  and  large  families. 

However, refining the design of support measures to better reflect changing family patterns (raise 

in  single  parent  households,  decrease  in  number  of  marriages)  remains  a  challenge  for  many 
countries, including some at lower risk of poverty166.  

166 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

137 

 
                                                           
Figure 72. Distribution of family benefits of the child population by income 

groups 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC UDB 2011) ; Calculations by DG EMPL 

Note:  The  graph  includes  only  child/family  benefits.  However,  in  some  countries  (e.g.  SE),  housing  benefits  are  an 
important  and  substantial  transfer  and  are  regarded  as  a  family  benefit,  especially  relevant  to  specific  household  types 
such  as  single  parent  families.  This  can  lead  to  a  significantly  different  profiles  across  the  income  distribution  as  oftern 
these households are found in the bottom quintiles. 

The case of ES illustrates this point, where the average spending per child increases with income. 

The regressive distribution of benefits is partly due to the focus of the measures on newborns and 

young  children  who  tend  to  be  over-represented  in  higher  income  quintiles  due  to  higher  birth 
rates.167  Among  several  Southern  Europe  Member  States  many  poor  families  with  children  are 
ineligible  for  income  support  under  social  security  (as  is  the  case  in  EL  and  IT)  or  receive  low 
benefits (as in ES and, to some extent, in PT).168 This effect is even more pronounced with respect 
to tax benefits, as non-refundable schemes exclude poor families by design. 

167 Levy et al. 2008 

168 Matsaganis et al. (2004) 

138 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Data  also  show  a  significantly  lower  take-up  amongst  those  which  need  it  most  because  not  all 

individuals claim the social benefits to which they are entitled. In particular, although universal and 

contributory  benefits  (e.g.  social  insurance  pensions  or  unemployment  benefits)  tend  to  be 

received by all eligible claimants, the take up of means-tested benefits is known to be significantly 

less  than  complete.  Non-take  up  of  social  benefits  may  be  due  to  a  variety of  factors,  including 

high  claiming  costs,  administrative  errors,  fear  of  stigma,  lack  of  information  about  entitlements 
etc.  (Atkinson,  1996;  Duclos,  1995).169  In  this  context,  reaching  out  to  families  with  children  in 
poverty  black-spots  and  marginal  communities  appears  to  be  a  particular  challenge  in  some 
countries with high risk of child poverty and social exclusion (such as PT, RO)170.  

In-kind versus cash benefits 

The  more  a  given  Member  State  is  spending  on  social  protection  relative  to  its  GDP,  the  more 

(child)  benefits  it  tends  to  provide  in  kind.  There  is  though  no  clear  relationship  between  the 

performance  of  states  in  terms  of  poverty  reduction  and  the  share  of  in-kind  benefits  in  social 

protection  expenditure  (excluding  pensions).  An  OECD  study  shows  how  both  cash  and  in-kind 
transfers are redistributive while reducing poverty to different extents in different countries.171  

The adequacy (and effectiveness) of the balance between cash and in-kind benefits also depends 

on the exact design of the social protection expenditure. The design and level of in-kind support 

(i.e. services) provided by the welfare system to families with children impacts on the prevalence of 

"low or medium work intensity households" and in the average level of work intensity required to 

escape  poverty.  For  example,  in  countries  with  broad  child  care  provision  (e.g.  the  Nordic 

countries, FR, SI), the incidence of one earner couple is weak and a greater share of lone parents 

are  working.  Countries  with  generous  family  allowances,  but  relatively  weak  child  care  provision 

(e.g.  DE)  may  alleviate  poverty  among  one-earner  families  better  but  discourage  second  earner 

participation. In countries where both child care provision and family allowances are weak, children 
face higher risks of poverty.172  

Beside  childcare,  a  number  of  countries  do  provide  in  kind  benefits  specifically  targeted  to 

children, such as free school meals (HU, CY where breakfasts for children in need were introduced 

169 UK official estimates for 2009-2010  show that the take up of universal  child benefits tended to be higher than that of 
means  tested  schemes  (~95%  for  the  child  benefit  in  the  UK  against  75  to  83%  for  the  child  tax  credit).  The  UK 
example also shows that while the take-up of most benefits (housing, unemployment) has gone down over time, 
the take-up rate of low income families in the UK has increased from ~50% in the 80s, to ~70% in the 90s to reach 
~80%  or  more  in  the  last  ten  years,  with  notable  improvements  after  each  reforms  of  the  scheme. 
http://www.hmrc.gov.uk/stats/personal-tax-credits/cwtc-take-up-09-10.pdf; Figari et al, 2009 

170 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

171 Foerster and Verbist, OECD 2012  

139 

 
 
                                                           
in 2013), books (LV, HU), public transports (LV for children under 6, LU) or health services (dentistry 

in LV). Many of these schemes are targeted specifically to disadvantaged children.  The provision 

of  in-kind  benefits  appears  particularly  necessary  for  countries  with  high  and  very  high  levels  of 

child  poverty  and  social  exclusion  (e.g.  ES,  HU,  RO).  Yet  some  schemes  have  been  withdrawn 

recently (school meals ES). Besides, while the balance between cash and in kind benefits does not 

appear to be problematic, in kind benefits should remain a complement rather than a substitute to 
support in cash173.  

Access to affordable and quality services 

Childcare is most beneficial for those accessing it the least 

The  age  between  0  and  6  years  and  especially  the  early  years  between  0-3  are  crucial  for 

children's  healthy  cognitive,  emotional,  behavioural,  physical  and  social  development.  This  is  a 

sensitive  and  irreplaceable  period  of  the  lifecycle  when  development  of  the  brain,  body  and 

interpersonal skills are taking place and where the mid- and long-term returns of investment many 

times outweigh the cost. The different roles of ECEC services (education, care and play) should also 

be complementary and mutually reinforcing. 

The European Education and Training 2020 benchmark on early childhood education participation 

says that by 2020 at least 95% of children aged between four and the age for starting compulsory 

primary  education  should  participate  in  early  childhood  education.  While  some  Member  States 

have  achieved  this  figure,  a  significant  number  of  countries  are  still  far  behind.  This  diversity  in 

performance  was  also  reflected  in  the  recent  progress  report  on  the  Barcelona  targets,  which 

showed that most Member States failed to reach the target of 33% provision for the of 0-3 years-
olds  in  ECEC  by  2010.174  Among  those  who  managed  to  reach  the  target  there  is  considerable 
cross-country  variation  as  regards  to  hours  used.  In  some  countries,  such  as  DK,  PL,  EE  and  LT, 

there is a predominantly full-time use (over 30 hours) of formal childcare provision, whereas in NL, 
the UK, and CZ parents mostly use childcare on a part-time basis(under 30 hours).175 

173 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

174 Only 10 Member States had achieved the objective: DK, SE, NL, FR, ES, PT, SI, BE, LU and UK.  

175 See EPIC policy brief "Childcare in Europe" available on line at www.europa.eu/epic  

140 

                                                           
Figure 73. Percentage of children under 3 cared for in formal structures (and 

by weekly time spent in care) 2010-2011 

Figure 74: Percentage of children between the age of 3 and the mandatory 
school age cared for in formal structures (and by weekly time spent in care) 
2010-2011176 

176 PL administrative data (source: Central Statistical Office, Local Data Bank) gives very different picture - the percentage 
of children between the age of 3 and mandatory school age (6) covered by formal childcare was: 70,8% – 2011 and 

71,6% - 2012 - http://www.stat.gov.pl/bdlen/app/dane_podgrup.dims?p_id=131430&p_token=0.1114633583603839 

141 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Social gradient in access to and use of childcare  

Children  0-3  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds,  who  would  benefit  the  most  from  quality  early 

childhood education and care, are unfortunately making far less use of such services. This holds for 

several  socio-economic  variables,  such  as  the  parent’s  level  of  education,  their  labour  market 

position, the income distribution and the risk of poverty.  

Across the EU, several patterns emerge (see Figure 75). In Northern countries, such as DK or SE, 
the take-up of childcare is high, even among the most disadvantaged. In FR, BE and ES, there is 

evidence of a clear social gradient across the various dimensions, combined with high levels of use 

of  childcare  services.  In  other  Member  States,  such  as  IE,  the  social  gradient  is  combined  with 

limited overall levels of childcare use. Last, some Member States have a very low use of childcare, 

such as Poland or Germany, with little evidence of a social gradient. 

Figure 75. Social gradient in the use of childcare in the EU across several 

breakdowns, 0-2 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC), Calculations by DG EMPL; European Commission (2013) 

High  quality  ECEC  can  usefully  support  and  complement  home  based  learning  and  social 

experiences.  Social  gradients  are  therefore  particularly  concerning  as  evidence  shows  that 

combined  with  tailored  interventions  delivered  by  trained  staff,  high  quality  integrated  ECEC 

services  can  compensate  for  linguistic,  educational  and  other  gaps  that  may  arise  in  the  home-

learning  environment  due  to  structural  and  individual  circumstances,  including  parents’  low 

educational  attainment  or  factors  arising  from  multiple  disadvantages.  Another  benefit  is  that 

ECEC supports parents and families in a non-stigmatising and non-judgemental way.  

142 

 
Poor quality ECEC however may actually result in negative outcomes especially for disadvantaged 
children.177  The  pedagogical  content  and delivery  of programmes  is  crucial  to their  success.  Low 
intensity in terms of offer and participation and late starting diminishes the overall effectiveness of 

ECEC and a negative social-emotional climate may cause more harm than good to participating 
children.178  

Already at the age of 3 there are large differences between children from low-income and better-

off  households,  which,  if  not  addressed,  continue  to  widen.  Statistical  evidence  clearly 

demonstrates the advantages of centre-based ECEC for the linguistic and cognitive development 
of  children  with  a  migrant  background179  and  that  the  use  of childcare  can  make  a  difference  in 
mitigating  structural  inequalities.180  Geoffroy  &  al.  (2010)  have  shown  that  while  children  whose 
mothers have a low level of education display lower cognitive performance at six and seven than 

those of highly educated mothers, this is no longer the case when children from a disadvantaged 

background  received  formal  childcare.  Using  a  cohort  of  19,000  children  Hansen  and  Hawkes 

(2009)  showed  that  less  advantaged  groups,  such  as  children  with  teenage  mothers  and  those 

living  in  households  claiming  benefits,  were  among  the  most  positively  impacted  by  quality 

childcare.  Dustmann  et  al.  (2012)  show  that  the  benefits  of  universal  childcare  programmes 

particularly  improves  the  school  readiness  of  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  and 

children  with  immigrant  background.  They  argue  it  is  a  successful  measure  for  narrowing  the 

achievement  gap  between  native  children  and  those  with  immigrant  background,  and  therefore 
may help the latter to integrate better into society.181  

Therefore, in order to be able to fulfil their redistributive role, and as put forward by the SPC 2012 
Report,  quality  ECEC  services  should  be  made  universally  available  from  conception.182  Universal 
provision of ECEC promotes participation by all children thereby removing the need to engage in 

the complex and often unsuccessful task of identifying and targeting the disadvantaged and non-

disadvantaged children separately. Research has also shown that ECEC services involving children 

from a wide range of social backgrounds and abilities can better support the overall development 

and inclusion of children, while limiting stigmatisation and segregation. Ensuring provision to and 

take-up of children under the age of three is essential to address socio-economic disparities and 

support the mothers’ return to the labour market. In regards to tackling in-work poverty, universal 

177 Evidence from the United States suggests this was the case for lower quality Head Start centres, and similar findings 
emerged from  the UK’s EPPE  3-7  (1997-2003)  and EPPE  3-11  (2003-2008)  studies.  R.  Haskins, W.  S.  Barnett, Eds., 
Investing in Young Children: New Directions in Federal Preschool and Early Childhood Policy, New Brunswick, 2010. 
As  of  October  2013:  http://nieer.org/pdf/Investing_in_Young_Children.pdf;  see  also  Sylva  et  al.,  2012: 
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/184087/DFE-RR202.pdf  

178 See Early Childhood Education and Care in Europe: Tackling Social and Cultural Inequalities. EACEA P9 Eurydice 2009 

179 Commission Communication, "Early Childhood Education and Care- Providing all our children with the best start for 
the world of tomorrow", COM(2011) 66 final  

180 Geoffroy & al., 2010, Dearing and al., 2009, Hansen& Hawkes, 2009 

181 http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctpb21/Cpapers/KiGa_october22_final.pdf  

182 SPC Annual Report 2012 

143 

                                                           
child benefits is used as an example of a measure that can have substantial impact on poverty – 

both  among  those  who  depend  on  earnings  and  those  on  replacement  benefits  –  without 
adversely affecting work incentives.183 

There have been mixed signs in recent reforms undertaken by Member States regarding access to 

early  childhood  education  and  care.  There  has  been  a  recent  worsening  in  access  to  early 

childhood education and care (ECEC) in many Member States (CY, EE, ES, IE, HU, LT, LU, PT, and 

RO). Still some Member States (DE, LV, PL, UK) took initiatives aimed at extending child enrolment 

in ECEC as part of their strategies to improve opportunities for children. DE introduced a right to 

childcare  for  children  below  the  age  of  three,  while  guaranteeing  child-rearing  benefits.  PL  has 

expanded  the  list  of  companies  able  to  apply  for  funding  from  the  state  budget  for  the 

establishment and operation costs of care institutions. Other countries (SK, LV, UK) took steps to 

improve the affordability of ECEC services, for example the UK announced a new scheme for tax-

free childcare for working families. In LV, the state now co-finances the cost for the enrolment in 

private facilities of children from 1-4 years in cases where there is a waiting list for public facilities. 

Various Member  States  have  also  taken  measures  to  strengthen  child  protection  in  their  welfare 

systems (DK, ES, FI, PL, and SE). In LV, in order to support poorer families, child-care benefits and 

child-care  benefit  supplements  for  children  born  in  multiple  births  were  increased,  including  for 

parents without social insurance. Additional resources were allocated to ensure that all-day ECEC 

facilities operate with more flexible opening hours (DE, FI, MT, PL). IE guaranteed additional after 

school places for primary school children from low income families and in MT additional centres 

were  opened.  HR  introduced  compulsory  pre-school  education  while  both  CZ  and  HR  changed 
their  legislation  on  non-standard  forms  of  childcare  provisions.184  A  number  of  Member  States 
have lowered the age of compulsory school attendance (from the age of 3 in kindegartens in HU, 

4 years in LU in elementary schools).  

Health 

Adequate  access  to  quality  health  care  for  children  and  their  families  is  essential  to  guarantee 

positive health outcomes of the population. In the context of child's health the focus should be on 

early interventions and public health and preventive measures. Evidence shows that social factors 

are  particularly  critical  in  the  early  years  of  life,  which  have  a  strong  impact  on  a  child's  future 

health,  as  a  result  of  major  changes  in  their body structure  and  functions  (Shonkoff  et  al.  2000). 

Starting from the ante-natal and parenting support, through child vaccinations and promotion of 

healthy  nutrition  and  physical  activity  among  older  children  these  measures  can  offset  negative 

health effects.  

183 Marx, I., Vanhille, J., Verbist, G. (2012), ‘Combating in-work poverty in continental Europe: An investigation using the 

Belgian case’, Journal of Social Policy, Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 19–41.  

184  Many  other  examples  of  practices  in  support  of  children  from  disadvantaged  background  are  available  on 
www.europa.eu/epic.  The  available  databases  allows  searching  by  pillar  of  the  Recommendation  “Investing  in 
Children-  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage  (access  to  adequate  resources;  access  to  affordable  quality  services 
and children's right to participate) or by their level of demonstrated evidence for evaluated practices. 

144 

                                                           
A number of countries have put a strong emphasis on prevention and parenting support in early 

years  through  a  combination  of  universal  measures  (free  provision  of  preventive  services  and 

immunization in CY, regular health checks and screenings in LU, regular checks provided through 

local  Organisme  National  de  l’Enfance  in  BE)  and  more  targeted  ones  (access  to  social  offices, 

support to families in distress in LU).  

In several of the very high risk countries (BG, RO, HU) access to adequate health care for children 

from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  appears  as  a  specific  challenge,  especially  for  children  in 

vulnerable situations such as Roma children. The most common barriers appear to be insufficient 

provision of medical care (especially in rural areas, for instance in LV) and cost barriers (including 
those linked to medicines even when prevention services are provided free of charge, e.g. LV185). 
Children  from  rural  areas  and  low-income  households  are  clearly  under-exposed  to  medical 

services, especially to preventive health care.  

Outreach  services  for  disadvantaged  communities  and  groups,  the  training  of  staff  to  work  in  a 

multi-cultural environment and taking special Initiatives to assist immigrants and ethnic minorities 
when  accessing  health  services  are  examples  of  effective  measures.186  Schools  can  play  a  major 
role in complementing these efforts: in CY health professionals provide health checks and health 

education to all children attending public school.  

Figure 76. Unmet need for medical care (for reasons of cost, waiting time or 

distance), 2012, total vs. population 16-24 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: 2011 data for ES, BE, SK, EU27, EU28, UK, IE, SE, RO, IT, FR, HR 

185 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

186 SPC Report, 2012, Child poverty and child well-being 

145 

 
                                                           
Housing  

Access  to  decent  housing  is  an  important  aspect  of  household  well-being  and  appropriate 

environment for child development. The situation in Europe varies widely across countries but also 

across  different  dimensions  of  housing  such  as  cost,  over-crowdedness  and  housing  quality. 

Households  with  children,  especially  single-parent  families  face  in  general  a  higher  incidence  of 

being overburdened by housing costs than other households, which may be counterbalanced with 

adequate level of social - family and housing- support. A considerable share of children is affected 

by both poverty  risk  and housing  deprivation or  severe  housing deprivation,  which  is  associated 

with  health  risks.  Children  at  risk  of  poverty  are  especially  suffering  from  overcrowding.  As  a 

consequence, the share of households where at least one child does not have access to a suitable 

place to do homework is much higher in the population at risk of poverty. 

The  share  of  children  living  in  households  overburdened  due  to  housing  costs  has  generally 

increased in most Member States since 2008, in some countries as much as 11pp (EL) and 6pp (SK). 

The  range  also  varies  substantially  between  countries  from  below  5%  of  children  to  as  much  as 

20%. In EL close to 40% of all children grow up in households overburdened by housing costs.  

Figure 77. Share of children living in households overburdened due to 

housing costs  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: 2011 data for BE, AT and IE 

The  share  of  children  living  in  overcrowded  households  has  generally  improved  in  the  period 

2008-2013 but is still above 50% in SK, LV, HR, PL, BG, HU and RO.  

146 

 
Figure 78. Share of children living in overcrowded household 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: 2011 data for AT and IE 

Improvements have been also registered for the period 2008-2012 when it comes to the housing 

deprivation  of  households  with  children  in  countries  like  CZ,  PL,  EL,  ES,  BG,  HU,  LT,  RO,  SK)  but 

substantial worsening is observed for DK (10,3pp), EE and CY (5,3pp) and PT (4,8pp).   

Targeted measures are needed to improve housing quality. Ensuring that families with children can 

live  in  adequate  and  affordable  housing  creates  stability  within  the  child's  environment.  Policies 

should  try  to  raise  housing  quality  standards,  to  diminish  the  impact  of  the  mortgage  crisis  and 

provide  assistance  to  young  parents  and  low-income  families  in  areas  suffering  of  multiple 

disadvantages.  

The provision of social housing is instrumental in a number of Member States (BE, DK, NL), where 
it  should  however  be  combined  with  sustained  efforts  to  avoid  social  segregation187.  Besides,  a 
number  of  Member  States  are  supporting  families  on  low  income  through  specific  housing 

allowances or by promoting lower rental payments. LU has undertaken a comprehensive housing 

strategy including the provision (sale and rental) of affordable housing through public promoters, 

social  offices  helping  people  at  risk  of  poverty  to  pay  housing  costs,  housing  subsidies.  CY 

implements a Low Income Housing Scheme including both grants and low interest rates loans.  

In a challenging context marked by increased evictions and risk of homelessness (ES, IT, HU, IE) for 

families, debt management services are called to pay a particular role.  In ES, new measures were 

187 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

147 

 
                                                           
introduced  to  support  families  in  difficulties  keep  up  mortgage  payments  and  a  new  Social 
Housing Fund was introduced.    

Social services 

Preventive  social  services  and  family  support  services  which  take  an  integrated  approach  across 

services  and  contact  points  (social  services,  school,  youth  organisations,  health  workers)  can 

provide effective prevention and support social inclusion of the child.  

Parenting  support  programmes  have  gained  attention  from  policymakers  in  Europe  since  the 

1990s  They are typically delivered through children’s centres and family information centres that 

offer  a  wide  range  of  community  health  and  social  services.  Most  programmes  are  available  for 

families  with  young  children  in  the  pre-school  age,  as  services  targeting  this  age  group  have 

proved  to  be  the  most  cost-effective  and  efficient.  A  growing  body  of  evidence  suggests  that 

when evidence-based parenting programme interventions are implemented at scale with families 

that  need  them,  significant  population-wide  benefits  can  be  achieved.  These  include  significant 

reductions in behavioural and hyperactivity problems, school failure, youth crime, adolescent drug 
and alcohol misuse and child maltreatment.188 Good parenting can help by maximising children’s 
potential  and  promoting  resilience.  For  being  effective,  parenting  programmes  need  to  be 

evidence-based and delivered by skilled practitioners. Effects are generally largest for children with 

more  severe  problems,  suggesting  that  targeted  treatment  of  referred  individuals  can  be  more 
cost-effective  in  the  short  term  than  primary  prevention  for  whole  communities.189  Evidence  also 
suggests that directly accessible support, such as counselling and provision of information, is a key 

element  of  parenting  support  and  that  early  interventions  lead  to  better  outcomes  for  children, 

whereas late interventions can still influence positive change in children and may help parents to 

deal  with  parenting  under  stress.  Universal  services appear  to  be mostly  effective  for  less  severe 

types  of  parenting  problems,  while  targeted  interventions,  usually  tackle  more  complex  types  of 
parental difficulties190.  

Examples  of  such  programmes  include  parenting  shops  introduced  in  Flanders  (BE)  in  2007  to 

strengthen the competences and capacities of those involved in parenting and reinforce the social 

network  around  parents  and  their  children.  Positive  parenting  is  also  one  of  the  five  objectives 

pursued by the Children and Families Strategy 2012-2020 in EE. In Scotland (UK), a new National 

Parenting Strategy adopted in October 2012 sets out to ensure that parents have access to clear 

and  concise  information  on  their  parental  concerns,  offer  support  to  enable  parents  to  develop 

188 Asmussen et al, 2010, Evaluation of the National Academy of Parenting Practitioners’ Training Offer in evidence based 
parenting programmes. Research Report DFE-RR186 

189 Scott, 2010 National dissemination of effective parenting programmes to improve child outcomes  

190 European Alliance for Families Policy Brief: Parenting Support, December 2012, see also European Foundation for the 

Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Parenting Support in Europe, 2013 

148 

 
                                                           
their parenting skills, improve the availability of and access to early learning, childcare and out-of-

school care provide targeted support to vulnerable families.    

This  trend  towards  prevention  can  also  be  seen  in  the  child  protection  field,  where  many  EU 

countries  have  progressively  dismantled  their  institutional  care  systems,  aiming  at  decreasing 

reliance  on  institutional  and  residential  care,  with  a  complementary  increase  in  family  and 

community-based  care  and  services.  Despite  clear  commitment  and  progress 

in 

this 

desinstitutionalisation process (in BG, RO, HR, HU) challenges remain, in particular as regards the 

capacity of local social services and child protection services, and enhancing the outreach capacity 
of services191. 

Regarding  children  out  of  parental  care,  alternative  care  settings  such  as  small  foster  homes 

provide more individualised support than institutional care.  

191 Frazer, H. and Marlier, E. (forthcoming), EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion, Synthesis Report on 
'Investing  in  Children:  breaking  the  cycle  of  disadvantage'  An  updated  and  finalised  version  will  be  published  in 
Spring 2014. It will be available from: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1025&langId=en  

149 

 
                                                           
Ensuring an integrated approach 

Relevant  dimensions of  an  integrated  approach  may  include  addressing  child poverty  as  specific 

policy  objective,  ensuring  children  overall  receive  specific  attention  in  a  context  of  budget 

consolidation, and ensuring children facing multiple disadvantages receive specific attention.  

Belgium has recently adopted a comprehensive national action plan comprising 140 actions across 

and within several levels of government and regions and spanning different partnerships.  

Other examples demonstrate the relevance of cooperation with local communities. The UK’s Sure 

Start  programme  was  initially  targeted  towards  families  with  children  aged  below  4  in 

disadvantaged areas. Sure Start Centres or (later) Children's Centres interact with communities in 

various ways, notably through the improvement of existing services or provision of home visiting, 
learning and childcare, etc.192  

The  Step  by Step  (SbS) programme  was  launched by  the  Open  Society Foundations  (OSF) in  15 

Central European and Eurasian countries in 1994, and is now active in 30 countries. It fosters social 

inclusion  and  child-centred  practices  by  strengthening  local  communities  to  help  them  provide 

quality  ECEC  with  a  focus  on  disadvantaged  children,  and  promoting  child-centred  teaching, 

among  other  elements.  Some  evaluations  of  the  programme  have  shown  that  disadvantaged 

children attending Step by Step programmes had made greater gains than wealthier students and 

been able to enter primary school equally well prepared in countries including Romania, Bulgaria 

and  Ukraine  (Moss,  Tankersley,  and  Klaus,  2012).  Case  studies  have  found  that  about  1.5  million 

children were exposed to the child-centred approach advocated by the Step by Step programme 

over the years, with 68,000 educators being trained (Moss, Tankersley, and Klaus, 2012) 

3.3. Results of the thematic in-depth review 

Following the SPPM methodology as endorsed by the Council, the thematic in-depth reviews are 

structured around the idea of countries with good outcomes being reviewed by countries with 

challenging situation in order to foster mutual learning.  

The  presenting  countries  (CY,  LU  and  FR)  gave  a  summary  of  the  key  indicators  and  current 

situation of child poverty in their countries, outlined the factors explaining their relatively low rates 

of child poverty and social exclusion and  main policy initiatives. Their presentations were followed 

by  presentations  from  BG,  LV,  HU,  IE,  ES  and  IT,  commenting  on  the  main  findings  and  the 

transferability of practices from presenting countries to their respective situation. 

The  review  confirmed  the  evidence  examined  earlier  in  this  section.  All  countries  reported  on  a 

partly  dramatic  increase  of  child  poverty  during  the  crisis;  child  poverty  has  (again)  become  a 

political priority in many countries.  

192 House of Commons Children, Schools and Families Committee, 2010; NESS 2010 

150 

                                                           
Social transfers help to reduce child poverty, but their impact varies in the different countries and 

is especially low in ES. Households with children currently face a higher risk of poverty and social 

exclusion;  this  is  especially  the  case  for  single  parent  families.  Especially  the  FR  example  showed 

the  need  of  social  support  systems  to  adapt  to  the  changed family structures:  While  in  the  past 

large  families  often  needed  additional  social  support,  single  parent  families  are  now  over-

proportionally affected by poverty. Some countries reacted already to this and introduced special 

support measures to single parent families such as the single parent tax credit (LU) and the single 

parent benefit in CY which is a monthly allowance to support single parents based on income and 

assets criteria. 

Country  presentations  also  confirmed  that  the  unemployment  of  parents  and  in-work  poverty 

plays  a  major  role  in  the  understanding  of  increasing  child  poverty  rates.  Supporting  parents  in 

their  access  to  labour  market  is  therefore  a  cornerstone  of  policies  to  reduce  child  poverty. 

Targeted  measures  to increase  the  employability  of  parents  and  especially  of  low-skilled parents 

have been taken by FR, ES, and BG. Also LU and CY increased efforts to assist parents in their job 

search,  provide  guidance,  counselling  and  training.  They  also  offer  subsidised  employment  for 

parents to ease their access to the labour market and help them to become self-employed.  

The provision of childcare, a necessary complement to allow employment of parents, continues to 

create  challenges  for  some  countries  (CY,  LV).  Also  with  regard  to  the  low  employment  rate  of 

women  and  of  single  parents,  LU  offers  reduced  fees  for  ECEC  for  disadvantaged  families  (see 

below).  

The  current  situation  has  called  for  adaptations  in  the  way  children  and  families  are  supported. 

Means-tested measures are more frequently used to direct support to those most in need of it. CY 

introduced  an  income  threshold  for  child  benefits  in  2012,  moving  away  from  a  more  general 

provision. Also FR recently reduced child benefits for higher income families while at the same time 

introducing  more  support  for  low-income  families.  LU  combines  a  universal  approach  with 

targeted measures for families and children in need such as reduced fees for ECEC, training and 

support, and allowances and CY implements an ESF project which aims to integrate into the labour 

market inactive or unemployed women and includes the reimbursement of part of the cost of care 

services for children, older people and persons with disabilities.  

Adequate  income  support  for  families  is  crucial  and  several  countries  (FR,  LV,  BG)  increased 

benefits (actual amounts) during the crisis to better protect families and children. ES allocated an 

extra of 17 Mio Euro to address the needs of severely deprived households and support families' 

access to social housing. Also the situation of families who cannot pay their mortgages due to the 

crisis has been addressed.  

Also the combination of different benefits with paid work and the increase of minimum wages play 

an important role (LV). It was emphasised that child poverty is strongly linked to the effectiveness 

of the welfare system and the interaction between its different support mechanisms. IE presented 

its  'whole  family  approach'  as  a  mean  to  better  link  different  benefit  schemes.  IT  is  currently 

151 

experimenting ways to better combine social benefits for families with individual programmes for 

active inclusion. Conditional cash transfers tend to play a more important role in the provision of 

benefits  for  instance  in  BG  where  the  provision  of  household  benefits  is  linked  to  the  school 

attendance of children.  

ECEC services are offered free of charge or at reduced costs for disadvantaged families in e.g. ES 

and  LU.  Also  other  services  for  families  are  often  subsidized  to  improve  accessibility  (FR,  LV).  ES 

highlighted  its  nationwide  consolidated  network  of  social  services  (ES);  there  is  also  a  need  to 

develop more quality community-based social services including ECEC. BG aims at developing a 

better structure of integrated services. A Social Inclusion Project (financed also by the World Bank) 

provides  integrated  social,  education  and  health  services  to  children  up  to  the  age  of  7.  Other 

support  mechanisms  especially  targeted  at  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  are  free 

school  meals,  education  support  for  children  with  special  needs,  free  public  transport  to  school 

and regular health checks and screenings. 

The in-depth review showed that while means-tested measures and a better targeting of benefits 

appears to be an important approach and certainly an area in which the exchange of experiences 

and good practices is helpful, the revision of the governance structures such as introducing central 

coordinating  bodies  is  a  less  transferable  practice.  One-stops-shops  and  better  combination  of 

benefit  schemes  was  an  important  point  raised  by  several  presentations  as  measures  which 

improve outreach and take up.  

3.4. What should be the focus of policy effort? 

employment 

Access to resources:  
Parental 
benefits 
Low effective 
marginal tax rate 

Policy toolbox 

Access to services 

and 

family 

Effective and 
adequate benefits 

ECEC (affordable, 
accessible, inclusive, 
high quality) 

Integrated 
services 

Progressive and 
individualised 
taxation  

Balance between 
universal and 
targeting 

Parental leave, 
paternity leave 

Balance between 
cash and in-kind 

Housing (adequate 
and affordable) 

Health 
(preventive health; 
parenting support) 

Progressive across 
quintiles 

152 

Integrated  anti-
poverty strategy 

Data, targets 

Multi-sectoral, 
multi-agency  

Multi-level 

Cross-
departmental 

One entry access 
points 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The review highlighted the following policy priorities.  

Particular emphasis should be put on supporting second earners’ and single parents’ access to the 

labour  market  and  remove  persisting  disincentives,  whereby  low  effective  marginal  tax  rate 

(through  schemes  such  as  Earned  Income  Tax  Credits),  progressive  and  individual  taxation  are 

pivotal tools.   

Maintaining a combination of universal and targeted income support measures appears essential 

to efficiently reduce child poverty whilst at the same time addressing inactivity traps and low take-

up. Besides, there is in several Member States some scope for making income support measures 

(and  in  particular  child  and  family  benefits) more progressive  and  redistributive,  through  various 

mechanisms:  better  adapting  them  to  reflect  the  evolution  of  socio-demographic  characteristics 

(e.g.  number  of  single  parent  families),  degressivity  according  to  income,  means  tested  benefits. 

They should also be combined with in kind support related to transports, schooling, health.  

More can be done to address strong social gradients in access to early childhood education and 

care,  thus  allowing  more  disadvantaged  children  to  benefit.  In  most  Member  States,  supply 

(investment  in  infrastructure,  particularly  in  rural  areas,  training  of  professionals)  and  demand 

policies  (differentiated  pricing  policy,  free  provision  for  low  income  families,  childcare  vouchers) 

should  go  hand  in  hand.  They  should  also  be  combined  with  more  active  outreach  and 

awareness-raising towards inactive and unemployed parents.   

In  a  challenging  context  marked  by  increasing  evictions,  housing  cost  overburden  and  housing 
deprivation, the provision of debt management services, social housing and lower rental payments 
to families with children is particularly important.  

Prevention  programmes,  especially  in  early  childhood  years,  have  proved  to  bring  significant 

benefits  for  children  and  their  families  and  their  use  could  be  stepped  up.  In  this  context,  the 

development  of  integrated  services  combining  social,  educational,  health  support  and  parenting 

support  should  be  encouraged,  and  contributes  to  better  access  to  information  and  take  up  of 

benefits. .  

The review highlighted the need to monitor child poverty in the EU and to continue the exchange 

on  policy  practices.  An  integrated  approach  as  taken  by  most  of  the  presenting  countries  is 

needed,  encompassing  policies  to  increase  employment  of  parents,  reduce  in-work  poverty  and 

ensure minimum income schemes which protect families and children against poverty. Access to 

high quality and affordable ECEC services, to health care, to education support and to other social 

services is especially important for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. 

The efficiency and effectiveness of the different benefit schemes and support mechanisms will be 

an  important  point  of  further  policy  work.  The  number  of  single  parent  families  is  increasing 

everywhere and their specific vulnerability poses new challenges to the social support systems. 

153 

III. Keeping the momentum toward Europe 2020 

objectives: the 2013 social trends to watch  
This  year’s  results  from  the  analysis  of  the  key  social  indicators,  part  of  the  Social  Protection 

Performance Monitor, show the following main trends to watch for the most recent period (2011-

2012): 

-  increase  in  poverty  and  social  exclusion  for  the  overall  population  (registered  in  10  MS)  and 

driven by a significant increase in the severe material deprivation rate (registered in 13 MS) and the 

share of (quasi-) jobless households (registered in 7 MS) 

- increasing depth of poverty as proxied by the poverty gap (registered in 8 MS) 

- increase in the number of children living in poverty and social exclusion (registered in 8 MS) 

- increase in youth unemployment (registered in 9 MS) 

- increasing in the housing cost overburden rate (in 12 MS) 

- increase in the working poor (8 MS). 

These social trends to watch are balanced by positive developments in the following areas: 

- labour market participation of the elderly (increase of the employment rate for 55-64 in 21 MS) 

- income and living conditions situation of the elderly (improvements in 12 MS) 

- some improvement in the situation of the working poor in 9 MS. 

Similarly to the results from the last year edition of the SPPM, there are signs of clear deterioration 

in the living conditions of the population and increasing depth of poverty with children remaining 

especially affected. The increasing number of MS facing higher share of the population faced with 

a housing cost overburden rate is a new trend that appears in more than half of all MS in the latest 

period (2011-2012). 

154 

 
Figure 79. Social trends to watch and areas of improvement for the period 

2011-2012 

Source: Social Protection Performance Monitor 

Note:  i)  no  2012  data  for  IE  so  IE  has  not  been  considered  for  these  evolutions.,  ii)  for  2012  SILC-data  AT  changed  the 

source  for  income  from  survey  to  administrative.  As  a  result,  income  related  indicators  suffer  a  break  in  series  and  are 

therefore  not  comparable  to  2011  for  this  country  and  AT  has  not  been  considered  in  the  trends  to  watch  for  these 

indicators, iii)) For UK, changes in the SILC survey vehicle and institution might have affected the results and interpretation 
of  data  must  therefore  be  particularly  cautious  but  evolution  for  UK  for  all  SILC  indicators  has  been  considered..  iv) 
Provisional  data  for  BE  does  not  allow  for  reliable  assessment  of  evolutions,  so  BE  has  not  been  considered  in  the 

assessment of the trends to watch. 

Figure  2  shows  the  evolution  since  the  beginning  of  the  Europe  2020  strategy.  For  most  social 

areas,  the  situation  has  worsened  substantially  as  a  result  of  the  economic  crisis.  The  areas  with 

most substantial deterioration are: 

- youth exclusion (significant increases in NEETs and youth unemployment ratio in almost all MS) 

- (long term) exclusion from the labour market (increases in the long term unemployment rate in 

2/3 of MS and in the share of (quasi-) jobless households in more than a half) 

155 

 
- child poverty and social exclusion ( with 19 MS registering increases with reference to 2008) 

- increasing income inequality (in 10 MS) 

- increase in the housing cost overburden rate for households (in 12 MS) 

- increase in the level and the depth of poverty and deterioration in the living conditions (increases 

in the at-risk-of-poverty rate, severe material deprivation rate and the poverty gap in more than 

1/3 of all MS, increases in the overall at risk of poverty or social exclusion rate in more than ½ of all 

MS). 

There have been also a number of improvements, notably in the areas of increasing the number 

of healthy life years and decreasing significantly the number of early school leavers in Europe (in 16 

MS). The situation of the elderly also shows clear improvement with decreases in the number of 

elderly  living  in  poverty  or  social  exclusion  as  well  as  the  improvement  of  their  situation  with 

respect to the rest of the population. However, this trend should be taken with great caution as it 

does  not  necessarily  show  improvements  in  absolute  terms.  As  pension  income  remained  stable 

during the economic crisis while the working age population suffered from substantial income loss 

(wage decreases, job loss, decrease in benefit levels), the relative, but not necessarily the absolute, 

position of the elderly has improved, highlighting the important role of pension systems.  

Figure 80. Social trends to watch and areas of improvement for the period 

2008-2012 

Source: Social Protection Performance Monitor 

156 

 
Note: i) no 2012 data for IE so reference has been made to 2011 data;, ii) for 2012 SILC-data AT changed the source for 

income from survey to administrative. As a result, income related indicators suffer a break in series and are therefore not 

comparable to 2011 for this country and AT has not been considered in the trends to watch for these indicators, .iii)) For 

UK,  changes  in  the  SILC  survey  vehicle  and  institution  might  have  affected  the  results  and  interpretation  of  data  must 
therefore be particularly cautious but evolution for UK for all SILC indicators have been considered. iv) Provisional data for 
BE does not allow for reliable assessment of evolutions, so BE has not been considered in the assessment of the trends to 

watch 

The  following  Figure  81  shows  the  share  of  the  key  social  indicators  included  in  the  SPPM 

dashboard  for  which  a  given  country  has  registered  statistically  significant  deterioration  in  both 

2010-2011  and  2011-2012.  The  MS  with  the  most  worrisome  outcomes  are  EL,  HU  and  ES  with 

deterioration for both years on 11 indicators for EL, 6 indicators for HU and 5 indicators for ES.  

Figure 81. Share of SPPM key social indicators with a statistically significant 

deterioration for both 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 by Member State 

Reading note: 0 means. the MS has not registered statistically significant deterioration in two consecutive years 

(2010-2011  and  2011-2012)  for  any  of  the  key  social  indicators,  while  1  means  that  the  MS  has  registered 

statistically significant deterioration in two consecutive years (2010-2011 and 2011-2012) for all of the SPPM key 

social indicators. 

157 

 
 
On  this  basis  and  taking  into  consideration  the  already  undertaken  thematic  in-depth  reviews  in 

2013,  the  SPC  has  decided  to  carry on  thematic in-depth  reviews on  the  following  topics during 

2014: 

  depth of poverty; 

 

 income inequality; 

  youth exclusion; 

 

long-term labour market exclusion. 

158 

 
IV. Conclusions on the social situation in the EU 
On  the  basis  of  this  report,  the  Council  of  the  European  Union  (EPSCO)  adopted  the  following 
conclusions at its meeting on 10th March 2014:   

The  Council  stresses  that  the  key  factor  for  achieving  the  Europe  2020  objectives  for  smart, 

sustainable and inclusive growth is working toward policy coherence between the economic and 

social  objectives  of  the  Union.  Further  to  their  impact  on  income  and  living  conditions,  growing 

economic  and social  imbalances  weaken  the  economic  strength  of  the  Union  and  put  at  test  its 

core values. 

A. 

The social situation in the Union 

The crisis leaves behind the legacy of fragile growth, too little and often low quality jobs and more 

people exposed to poverty and social exclusion. The report on the Social Situation in the European 
Union193 and the scoreboard of employment and social indicators194 show that the social situation 
in the European Union is not improving while in some countries the situation is even worsening: 

 

 

 

 

 

2012 survey data indicate that poverty has reached its 6 year-high : close to 25% of 

the European population was at risk of poverty or social exclusion; 

Since the adoption of Europe 2020 in 2010, there are 6,6 million more people living in 

poverty or social exclusion (an increase in more than 1/3 of Member States); 

In  some  Member  States  the  annual  growth  of  the  relative  poverty  exceeds  2 

percentage points; 

Rising  material  deprivation  drives  down  living  standards  of  significant  parts  of  the 

population in some countries; 

Income  inequality  is  growing  across  and  within  Member  States,  particularly  in  the 

countries that witnessed the largest increases in unemployment. 

The Council notes however that the employment rate of older workers grew in 21 Member States. 

Owing  to  the  structural  role  of  pensions,  in  more  than  ¾  of  Member  States  the  elderly  in  2012 

were – in relative terms - less exposed to poverty or social exclusion as compared to 2008. 

193   Social Europe: many ways, one objective, doc. 6663/14, not yet distributed. 

194   See Chapter 3 of the 2013 Joint Employment Report. 

159 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
B. 

Staying on course with Europe 2020 strategy 

The Council recalls that in 2010 the European Council set a headline target to lift by 2020 at least 

20 million people from the risk of poverty or social exclusion. With its impact on income and living 

standards,  the  financial  and  economic  crisis  diminished  the  prospects  of  reaching  this  target. 

Further,  the  three  key  functions  of  welfare  policies  (investment,  automatic  stabilisation  and 
protection)  promoted  also  by  the  Social  Investment  Package195  were  weakened  due  to  the  fiscal 
constraints  and  protracted  recession.  Under  those  circumstances,  progress  in  achieving  the  EU 

social inclusion target could not materialise. 

The Council emphasises that the current situation requires stronger resolve to stay on course with 

Europe  2020  strategy  and  strive  to  deliver  on  the  target.  It  is  important  that  Member  States 

strengthen their efforts to contribute to the achievement of that essential EU commitment. 

C.  Ways forward 

Effective  social  protection  and  higher  employment  rates  will  further  a  more  competitive  and 

cohesive Europe. Policy efforts should prioritise effective prevention to avoid further worsening of 

the  social  situation  in  the  EU,  spur  human  capital  investments  and  support  labour  market 

activation. 

In  the  short  and  medium  terms,  the  Council  considers  that  improvements  of  the  social  situation 

should come from more employment particularly for young people and from reduced poverty and 

social exclusion. To achieve this, growth and social investments are needed. Wage and tax policies 

should  allow  earnings  and  social  benefits  to  interact  in  a  way  lifting  people  out  of  poverty  and 

making  work  pay.  This  is  particularly  important  for  low-earnings  households  with  dependent 

children  and  for  single  parents,  in  particular  single  mothers.  Investing  in  children  and  in  young 

people should be a political priority given the long-term gains stemming from their higher labour 

market  participation  and  educational  performance.  Policies  should  facilitate  women's  entry  into 

professional life and boost their labour market participation. Active labour market policies should 

be  used  to  enhance  the  employability  of  those  social  groups  exposed  to 

long-term 

unemployment. 

Further,  the  effectiveness  of  social  protection  should  be  enhanced  also  with  a  view  to  better 

address the demographic imbalances that will affect the growth potential, social protection needs 

and  public  spending  of  Member  States  in  different  ways,  balance  the  social  risks  between 

generations and along the life-course, and reduce growing inequalities that weaken cohesion and 

hold back upward mobility and growth. 

195  Council conclusions "Towards social investment for growth and cohesion", 20th June 2013. See 

also Council document 13958/2/13 REV2. 

160 

 
 
 
                                                           
Policies should focus on making sure that improving the social situation across the Union becomes 

a  widely  shared  priority.  Structural  reforms  need  to  take  into  account  social  and  employment 

concerns. Reforms, particularly major ones, should be impact-assessed and sequenced to minimise 

adverse  effects.  Where  reforms  entail  trade-offs,  those  at  greater  risk  of  poverty  and  social 

exclusion should not bear the brunt of economic adjustment. 

The Council shall assess the social situation in the  EU annually and provide guidance on how to 

address the social trends to watch. It reiterates its request to the Commission to propose a joint 

social protection  report  as  a  further  reinforcement  of  the  social  dimension  of  the  Economic  and 

Monetary Union. 

The Council invites: 

  Member States to review and strengthen their efforts to reduce poverty; 

 

the  Social  Protection  Committee  to  prepare  a  report  on  the  social  dimension  of  the 

Europe  2020  strategy.  The  Council  shall  hold  a  first  discussion  on  this  issue  in  June 

2014. 

161 

 
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Views of the European Social Partners  

164 

 
165 

 
166 

 
167 

168 

 
169 

 
European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 

The ETUC broadly shares the analysis found in the annual SPC report with alarming trends towards 

more in work poverty, a worsening situation for those already at the lowest poverty levels, and a 

general increase of poverty and social exclusion in more than one third of Member States. 

The ETUC’s major concern is how to transform the end of recession into a robust process of self-

sustained  growth  with  a  job-rich  recovery.  According  to  different  national  realities,  the  ETUC’s 

assessment  differs  between  the  view  that  the  Annual  Growth  Survey  (AGS)  provides  a  wrong 

estimation of economic recovery and the fact that the growth perspectives are not sufficient.  

The ETUC’s forecast is based on the assumption that a low growth scenario is more likely to be the 

reality over the coming years and therefore calls for additional investments between 1-2 % of GDP 

as laid down in the ETUC’s investment plan.  

Job  rich  recovery  is  crucial  –  employment  creation  must  be  the  core  priority.  For  the  ETUC  this 

means  creation  of  ‘good  jobs’  which  are  ‘normal’  jobs  and  which  contribute  to  the  social 

protection system. 

We  see  more  divergences,  not  only  between  countries,  but  polarization  trends  within  societies. 

Rising poverty and inequalities are shifting Europe away from its own objectives laid down in the 

EU 2020 strategy.   

Long-term  unemployment  becomes  structural  and  has  already  been  identified  as  a  long-term 

trend in the SPC report last year. Quality of work is under attack, more precarious jobs – including 

involuntary  part  time  -  are  on  the  rise  and  as  a  consequence  less  contribution  is  paid  into  the 

social protection systems.  

Social protection in general is a useful tool to prevent poverty. In this respect, the ETUC would like 

to  remind  decision  makers  about  two  important  aspects:  adequacy  of  benefit  levels  and  real 

coverage in the sense of entitlement to social security benefits among those who really need them.  

The ETUC will further reflect on the implications of Convergence and Competitiveness Instruments 

(CCIs)  and  automatic  stabilisers.  The  ETUC  agrees  that  every  European  should  be  guaranteed  a 

social  protection  floor  with  universal  access  to  health  care,  income  support,  subsistence  security 

and decent pension on the basis of minimum standards.  

The ETUC supports the introduction of a social minimum income in every Member State on the 

basis of common European principles. 

170 

 
 
Social Investment Package 

The ETUC welcomed the approach taken in the social investment package. 

We would encourage the SPC and the Commission to further examine the relationships between 

the  level  of  social  transfers  (cash  benefits)  and  the  level  of  in-kind-services  provided  to  people 

most in need as started in this report.  

The social scoreboard must become binding and be integrated into the semester. The proposed 

scoreboard,  while  possibly  improving  analysis  of  social  issues,  will  be  powerless  to  correct 

economic policy even when the analysis shows that this will lead to negative consequences for the 

employment  and  social  situation.  The  ETUC  continues  to  insist  that  a  mechanism  must  be 

introduced that enables macroeconomic policy to be corrected as necessary.  

The  ETUC  proposes  that  the  following  indicators  should  be  considered  for  inclusion  in  the 

scoreboard:  employment  /  (long-term)  unemployment  figures,  in-work  poverty  rate,  the  ratio  of 

low wages, involuntary part-time or fixed-term employment; expenditure on active labour market 

policies;  wage  inequality  between  women  and  men.  This  list  is  not  exhaustive.  The  European 

Parliament  has  also  called  for  a  ‘decent  work  index’.  All  indicators must be gender  sensitive  and 

the data supporting them should be gender disaggregated to demonstrate relevant gender gaps 

and gender-specific impacts. 

The ETUC is open to discuss what can be done to give weight to social indicators. 

Pension policy 

Pension  related  issues  remain  high  on  the  social  policy  and  macroeconomic  debate.  It  is 

considered that the EU member states face similar challenges in pension adequacy.  

The  ETUC  shares  the  concerns  again  expressed  in  this  report  and  wishes  to  emphasise  the 

following aspects: 

•  Pension  adequacy  does  not  rely  on  the  demographic  dependency  ratio  alone  (as 
expressed  in  the  EU  White  Paper  on  Pensions)  but  is  much  more  geared  towards  the 
economic  dependency  ratio  which  links  the  question  of  sustainable  and  adequate 
pensions  directly  to  the  discussion  how  active  labour  market  policies  in  each  member 
state  are  shaped  and  how  the  access  to  employment  -especially  for  those  who  are 
farthest away from full employment - can be achieved and promoted. 

•  Growing concern must be expressed with regard to major future long term challenges 
for  the  next  generation  to  achieve  an  adequate  pension.  Recent  reforms  put  in  place 
generally  extend  the  number  of  contribution  years  for  acquiring  full  pension  rights. 
Delayed  labour  market  entry,  long-term  unemployment,  increasing  job  insecurity  and 
precariousness do not provide the necessary framework conditions to achieve a full and 
adequate pension. The risk of old age poverty is on the rise. 

•  Pension adequacy must be orientated on the aim/objective to maintain living standard 
in  old  age  –  a  major  ETUC  concern  which  lost  some  credence  in  the  crisis  period  but 
which is more and more acknowledged in recent declarations by policy makers. 

171 

•  More  generally  the  ETUC  supports  the  SPC’s  view  that  raising  the  effective  retirement 
age  within  the  actual  boundaries  of  the  legal  pension  age  is  crucial  while  developing 
more  and  better  employment  opportunities  for  older  workers.  The  ETUC  does  not 
support any automatic alignment of the pensionable age with life expectancy.  
Pension  reforms  must  be  brought  in  over  time  to  be  socially  acceptable  and  must  be 
negotiated with social partners at national level to be successful.             

Jobless households and in-work poverty 

Firstly, holding a job significantly decreases the risk of poverty, but it is not a guarantee (8.5% of 

employed  are  at-risk-of-poverty)  and  even  becoming  less  so,  and  likewise  living  in  a  jobless 

household  does  not  necessarily  imply  living  in  poverty.  The  interlinkages  are  complex  and 

multidimensional and depend on the structure of the labour market, structure of households and 

in  particular  setup  of  the  social  security  and  social  assistance  system.  Thus  a  focus  on  jobless 

households with the usual call for structural reforms to create the right incentives seems misplaced 

in a time when jobs are scarce and social benefits are being scaled down. 

Secondly, a focus on households blurs the individual right to employment as well as access to the 

welfare  state.  From  a  gender  perspective  focusing  on  jobless  households  seems  like  a  setback 

where the notion of the breadwinner model is promoted. On a general basis one can dispute the 

notion  of  household  to  define  income  poverty  and  material  deprivation,  but  in  particular 

joblessness  should  not  be  assessed  on  a  household  basis  but  on  an  individual  basis  in  order  to 

clearly promote the ideas of equal access, equal opportunities and equal outcome. 

In  the  Annual  Report  it  is  stated  that  the  in-work  risk  of poverty  is  on  the  rise  across  Europe.  In 

ETUC’s  view,  all  in  all  an  alarming  development  as  a  result  of  structural  reforms  put  in  place 

causing a deterioration of labour markets and as a direct result of the living conditions of millions 

of EU working age people.  

When  it  comes  to  policy  answers  the  SPC  analysis  points  out  that  increasing  work  intensity  and 

wage levels together with the implementation of minimum wages at living wage level are the key 

factors  in  reducing  in-work  poverty.  The  ETUC  underlines  that  these  have  to  be  supported  by 

collective bargaining.  Encouraging mainly women to increase their work intensity and to get out 

of  the  part-time  trap  is only  possible  if  sufficient  enabling  services  such  as  childcare  facilities  are 

available. This might reduce the in-work poverty rate by increasing the overall household income.  

The  ETUC  insists  that  any  kind  of  toolbox  needs  to  be  discussed  and  negotiated  in  depth  at 

national level with social partners.    

Consultation with social partners 

The ETUC welcomes the emphasis on the need to strengthen the role of social dialogue at EU and 

national  level  and  to  better  involve  the  social  partners  in  economic  governance.  The  joint 

172 

 
declaration on the social partners’ involvement in European economic governance should act as a 

reference in this respect.  

While scope for improvement remains, some progress has been made at European level. For the 

past two years the European social partners have been consulted prior to the publication of the 

AGS. We also welcome the improved dialogue with the Employment Committee (EMCO) and the 

Social  Protection  Committee  (SPC)  and  their  willingness  to  explore  how  to  further  develop  this. 

However,  it  would be  fruitful  to  have  such  an  exchange  on  a  regular  basis, and  not only  at  one 

meeting and one exchange of written contributions per year. We hope that the SPC will improve 

its cooperation with the social partners in the coming years. Similar dialogue is taking place with 

EMCO and it would be good if parallel working methods could be developed. 

173 

Country Profiles 

174 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BELGIUM 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Belgium is aspiring to reduce the number of people faced with poverty and social exclusion by 

380,000 in the year 2020, compared with the reference year (2008)." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) 2012 EU-SILC data for BE is provisional, so interpretations of changes including 2012 data must therefore be particularly cautious; 
ii) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; iii) AROPE 
-  at-risk-of-poverty  or  social  exclusion  rate;  AROP  -  at-risk-of-poverty  rate;  VLWI  -  share  of  population  living  in  (quasi-)jobless 
households,  i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iv)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate 
(AROP), the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey 
year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity 
rate (VLWI) refers to the income reference year prior to the survey (i.e. 2011) while for the severe material deprivation rate (SMD), the 
reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

175 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC), provisional data for 2012 

BE 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

14,7 

14,6 

14,6 

15,3 

14,8 

1.554 

1.549 

1.566 

1.657 

1.616 

11,7 

12,3 

12,6 

13,7 

14,0 

967 

1.021 

1.053 

1.152 

1.185 

5,6 

595 

3,0 

320 

1,3 

137 

2,0 

211 

0,4 

44 

5,2 

555 

3,5 

372 

1,1 

116 

2,1 

219 

0,5 

55 

5,9 

628 

3,3 

352 

1,2 

128 

2,2 

232 

0,6 

68 

5,7 

615 

4,5 

483 

1,3 

141 

2,2 

242 

0,4 

45 

6,5 

708 

3,7 

406 

0,9 

98 

2,6 

286 

0,7 

79 

change  

change  

EU28 

 2011-
2012 

2008-
2012 

2011 

2012 

-0,5 

-2,5 

0,3 

2,9 

0,8 

15,1 

-0,8 

-15,9 

-0,4 

-30,5 

0,4 

18,2 

0,3 

75,6 

0,1 

4,0 

2,3 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

22,5 

39.465 

39.431 

0,9 

8,9 

9,9 

19,0 

44.362 

49.671 

0,7 

2,9 

2,7 

26,9 

14.577 

13.456 

-0,4 

2,6 

2,9 

-28,5 

13.013 

14.345 

0,6 

1,7 

1,9 

35,5 

8.248 

9.294 

0,3 

0,6 

0,6 

79,5 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC), provisional data for 2012;  

176 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

BE 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
1,0 
1,8 
7,0 
3,3 
26,7 

2009 
-2,8 
-0,2 
7,9 
3,5 
29,1 

2010 
2,3 
0,7 
8,3 
4,1 
28,6 

2011 
1,8 
1,4 
7,2 
3,5 
29,0 

2012 
-0,1 
0,2 
7,6 
3,4 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

BE 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

2008 
26,7 
7,6 
1,9 
8,7 
2,1 
2,1 
3,3 
0,2 
0,7 

2009 
29,1 
8,3 
2,1 
9,5 
2,2 
2,2 
3,8 
0,2 
0,8 

2010 
28,6 
8,2 
2,1 
9,2 
2,1 
2,2 
3,8 
0,2 
0,8 

EU28 

2011 
29,0 
8,3 
2,2 
9,5 
2,1 
2,3 
3,7 
0,2 
0,7 

2010 
28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

2011 
27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

1,4 
0,0 
0,5 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,5 

25,3 
7,6 
1,5 
8,6 
2,1 
2,1 
3,3 
0,0 
0,2 

1,4 
0,0 
0,5 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,6 

27,6 
8,3 
1,6 
9,3 
2,2 
2,2 
3,8 
0,0 
0,2 

1,5 
0,0 
0,5 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,6 

27,1 
8,2 
1,6 
9,0 
2,1 
2,2 
3,8 
0,0 
0,2 

1,4 
0,0 
0,5 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,5 

27,6 
8,3 
1,7 
9,3 
2,1 
2,2 
3,7 
0,0 
0,2 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

177 

  
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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5

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-

2050)

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

38 years career: average income

Low / high income

74

85,2

54,2

75,9

82,1

53,1

74,3 / 77,8

84,4 / 52,6

51,3      
(90/0/10)*
59,2 
(91/0/9)*
34,3 
(87/0/13)*

52,7     
(78/0/22)*
57,8 
(80/0/20)*
33,34 
(75/0/25)*

1,9

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-1,1

1,4

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51,6 / 54,1

58,7 / 36,5

72,9

69,41

-3,5

50,1

47,85

-2,3

74,7 / 48,3

42 years career: average income

76,7

77,82

Low / high income

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

86,1 / 56.81

70,5

74,2

72,5

66,3

2050

38,3

:

67,5

73,7

69

67,2

2010

39,2

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52.1 / 31.13

54,2

55,73

60,7 / 35.5

46,8

51,1

46,3

40,8

47,9

51,6

49,0

40,7

1,5

1,1

0,5

2,7

-0,1

1,1

3,0

0,5

3,5

-0,9

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-0,9

:

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

BE

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

63,3
64,2
10,4
10,4
76,9
82,6
17,3
20,9
0,5
73,9

63,9
63,7
10,6
10,3
77,3
82,8
17,5
21,1
0,6
73,5

63,4
63,6
9,8
10,3
78
83,3
18
21,6
1,5
73,5
2.807,54 2.865,01 2.976,89 3.048,64
10,53

64
62,6
10,4
9,7
77,6
83
17,6
21,3
0,4
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10,60

10,51

9,91

64,4
65,4
10,7
11,1
77,8
83,1
17,7
21,3
1,7
74,3
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
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:
3,4
68,2
:
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

183 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS196 

BE 
definition 
unit 

source 

link 

comment 

Unemployment benefit 

number of full-time unemployed with an unemployment benefit 
number of recipients 
Administrative data National Employment Office; FPS Social Security on the basis of the 
NEO website 
http://www.rva.be/Frames/frameset.aspx?Path=D_stat/&Items=1&Language=FR 

This number is the sum of a number of different administrative categories of 
unemployed: after full-time employment, after studies, after voluntary part-time 
employment, different categories of early retirement and unemployed with social or 
familial difficulties 

Social assistance benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

link 

number of social assistance recipients (right to social integration) 
number of recipients 
Federal Public Service for Social Integration 
http://www.mi-is.be/be-fr/etudes-publications-et-chiffres/le-droit-a-lintegration-
sociale-dis 

Overdue debt repayments 

definition 

unit 

source 

number of persons with a invalidity allowance (schemes for employees and self-
employed) 
number of recepients 
Bron RIZIV: tot 2007 van het RIZIV zelf rechtstreeks (OESO vragenlijst). Vanaf 2008: 
zoals gepubliceerd in FOD SZ De SZ in een oogopslag. Kerncijfers 2011. 

Collective debt settlements 

definition 
unit 
source 
link 

number of admissible demands for collective debt settlement 
number of admissible demands 
National Bank of Belgium, Central Credit Register, credits for individuals 
http://www.nbb.be/pub/04_00_00_00_00/04_00_00_00_00.htm?l=en 

196  These  data  have  been  collected  by  the  SPC  in  the  context  of  monitoring  the  social  impact  of  the  crisis.  It  includes  only  a 
selection of benefits which have been considered most reactive to the crisis. The numberof unemployed (standard definition 
by the ILO) are given as a background. 

184 

 
  
  
  
                                                           
BULGARIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Reducing the number of people living in poverty by 260.000 people" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

185 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

BG 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

21,4 

21,8 

20,7 

22,2 

21,2 

1.632 

1.657 

1.564 

1.672 

1.559 

8,1 

470 

6,9 

399 

7,9 

453 

41,2 

41,9 

45,7 

11,0 

623 

43,6 

12,4 

676 

44,1 

3.151 

3.184 

3.459 

3.277 

3.242 

0,3 

23 

0,4 

29 

0,3 

21 

13,8 

14,3 

13,5 

1.055 

1.091 

1.024 

4,5 

343 

0,9 

69 

3,7 

285 

0,5 

39 

4,3 

325 

0,8 

63 

0,5 

36 

11,7 

882 

5,8 

435 

1,2 

90 

0,8 

58 

11,1 

813 

5,8 

426 

1,8 

134 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) ;  

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-1,0 

-6,8 

1,4 

8,5 

0,5 

-1,1 

0,3 

61,1 

-0,6 

-7,8 

0,0 

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0,6 

48,9 

-0,2 

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4,3 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

43,8 

39.465 

39.431 

2,9 

2,9 

0,5 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

152,2 

14.577 

13.456 

-2,7 

2,6 

2,9 

-22,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,3 

1,7 

1,9 

24,2 

8.248 

9.294 

0,9 

0,6 

0,6 

94,2 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

186 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

BG 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2011 

2012 

6,2 
2,4 
5,6 
2,9 
15,0 

-5,5 
-1,7 
6,8 
3,0 
16,7 

0,4 
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10,3 
4,8 
17,6 

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6,3 
17,2 

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12,3 
6,8 
: 

1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

BG 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

15,0 
4,4 
1,2 
6,7 
0,7 
1,3 
0,3 
0,0 
0,3 

0,7 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 

14,3 
4,4 
1,2 
6,7 
0,7 
0,9 
0,3 
0,0 
0,1 

16,7 
3,9 
1,4 
7,8 
0,8 
2,0 
0,5 
0,0 
0,2 

0,7 
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0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
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3,9 
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7,8 
0,8 
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0,5 
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0,6 
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0,3 

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8,2 
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0,6 
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7,7 
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1,9 
0,6 
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0,2 

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0,0 
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0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 

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1,4 
7,7 
0,9 
1,3 
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0,1 

28,1 
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2,2 
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1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 

of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

187 

  
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

62,3

62,9

56,3

67,5

68,0

50,6

65,5 / 70,5

71,7 / 64,3

5,2

5,1

-5,7

48,8      
(100/0/0)*
49,3 
(100/0/0)*
44,1 
(100/0/0)*

-3,6

-3,5

-4,8

52,4     
(74/26/0)*
52,8 
(74/26/0)*
39,3 
(74/26/0)*

50,4 / 54,7

55,6 / 49,9

38 years career: average income

53,1

65,1

12,0

42,7

50,5

7,8

Low / high income

56,9 / 53,1

65,6 / 48,8

8,7 / -4,3

48,5 / 39,1

50,9 / 37,9

2,3 / -1,2

42 years career: average income

70,3

75,7

5,4

55,1

58,7

3,6

Low / high income

71,1 / 62,7

76,3 / 57

4,8 / -5,7

55,7 / 49,1

59,2 / 44,2

3,5 / -4,9

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

52,8

42,7

50,3

10 years out of the labour market

43

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

2010

46,1

49,8

59,3

60,5

63,5

51,1

2050

38,6

50,8

6,5

17,8

13,2

8,1

40,9

33,8

40,5

33,7

46

46,9

49,3

39,7

5,1

13,1

8,8

6,0

Difference

-7,5

1,0

EU27 2010
44,7

48,0

EU27 2050 Difference

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

BG

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

62,1
65,7
8,7
9,4
69,8
77
13,5
16,7
15,3
62,2
:
:

62,1
65,9
8,5
9,3
70,1
77,4
13,8
17
10,3
65,2
:
:

63
67,1
8,8
9,9
70,3
77,4
13,6
17
10,5
67,2
:
:

62,1
65,9
8,6
9,7
70,7
77,8
14
17,3
9,8
67,1
:
:

62,1
65,7
8,7
9,5
70,9
77,9
13,9
17,3
8,2
66,6
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA)

193 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS197  

BG 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  U benefits beneficiaries 
unit 
source 

thousands of beneficiaries 
National Social Security Institute 
The number of the unemployed benefits beneficiaries increased due to the economic 
crisis and the higher unemployment rate. 

comment 

Social assistance benefit 

definition  Monthly social assistance benefit recipients 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
Social assistance Agency 
There are not big differences in the number of the monthly social assistance benefit 
recipients. 

comment 

Disability benefit 

definition  Monthly disability benefit recipients  
thousands of recipients 
unit 
Social Assistance Agency 
source 
There is a little increase in the number of the monthly disability benefit recipients 
comment 

197 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a selection of 
benefits which have been considered most reactive to the crisis. The number of unemployed (standard definition by the ILO) and the 
number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

194 

 
 
  
  
  
                                                           
CZECH REPUBLIC 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"-  to  keep  the  number  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty,  material  deprivation,  or  living  in  jobless 

households in 2020 at the same level as in 2008;  

-  to  reduce  the  number  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty,  material  deprivation,  or  living  in  jobless 

households by 30, 000." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

195 

 
 
 
reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

CZ 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

9,0 

925 

7,2 

581 

6,8 

696 

1,8 

183 

1,4 

140 

8,6 

885 

6,0 

482 

6,1 

635 

1,6 

162 

1,4 

144 

9,0 

9,8 

936 

1.022 

6,4 

520 

6,2 

644 

1,5 

156 

1,3 

138 

6,6 

531 

6,1 

641 

1,7 

177 

1,1 

115 

9,6 

990 

6,8 

536 

6,6 

683 

1,6 

164 

1,6 

163 

1,4 

1,1 

1,4 

1,3 

1,2 

139 

0,3 

35 

113 

0,2 

21 

143 

0,2 

24 

132 

0,4 

39 

129 

0,4 

45 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

-0,2 

-3,1 

0,2 

0,9 

0,5 

6,6 

-0,1 

-7,3 

0,5 

41,7 

-0,1 

-2,3 

0,0 

15,4 

196 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

0,6 

7,0 

-0,4 

-7,7 

-0,2 

-1,9 

-0,2 

-10,4 

14.577 

13.456 

0,2 

2,6 

2,9 

16,4 

13.013 

14.345 

-0,2 

-7,2 

0,1 

28,6 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

CZ 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
3,1 
2,3 
4,4 
2,2 
17,5 

2009 
-4,5 
-1,8 
6,7 
2,0 
19,7 

2010 
2,5 
-1,0 
7,3 
3,0 
19,5 

2011 
1,8 
0,0 
6,7 
2,7 
19,8 

2012 
-1,0 
0,4 
7,0 
3,0 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

CZ 

2008 

2009 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

17,5 
5,8 
1,4 
7,3 
0,7 
1,4 
0,6 
0,1 
0,2 

0,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 

17,1 
5,8 
1,4 
7,3 
0,7 
1,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,1 

19,7 
6,4 
1,5 
8,3 
0,8 
1,4 
1,0 
0,1 
0,2 

0,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 

19,3 
6,4 
1,5 
8,3 
0,8 
1,2 
1,0 
0,0 
0,2 

2010 
19,5 
6,3 
1,5 
8,5 
0,7 
1,3 
0,8 
0,1 
0,2 

0,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 

19,2 
6,3 
1,5 
8,5 
0,7 
1,2 
0,8 
0,0 
0,1 

EU28 

2011 

2010 

2011 

19,8 
6,3 
1,5 
8,9 
0,7 
1,2 
0,7 
0,1 
0,3 

0,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 

19,4 
6,3 
1,5 
8,9 
0,7 
1,1 
0,7 
0,0 
0,2 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

197 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

70,6

87,2

42,5

43,1

54,9

26,6

-27,5

-32,3

-15,9

55,1     
(100/0/0)*
72,1 
(100/0/0)*
31,5 
(100/0/0)*

43,1 / 43,1

43,1 / 43,1

-21,6

-27,1

-12,0

33,4     
(100/0/0)*
45 
(100/0/0)*
19,5 
(100/0/0)*

33,4 / 33,4

33,4 / 33,4

38 years career: average income

60,3

34,2

-26,1

47

26,5

-20,5

Low / high income

74,9 / 35,4

44 / 20,8 (-30,8/-14,6) 61,9 / 26,1

36,1 / 15,2 (-25,8/-10,9)

42 years career: average income

80,2

53,9

-26,3

63,1

41,8

-21,3

Low / high income

94,3 / 46,3

68 / 33,6 (-26,3/-12,8) 77,2 / 34,7

55,7 / 24,6 (-21,5/-10,1)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

61,1

51,5

57,6

50,1

2010

26,2

28,5

37,9

59,5

58,8

28,9

2050

25,2

25,4

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8,0

1,2

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47,3

33,8

43,8

39,1

29,4

46,1

45,6

22,4

-17,9

12,3

1,8

-16,7

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-1,0

-3,2

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

CZ

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care
Self-percieved general health
Total health care expenditure (PPS)
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

61,1
62,7
8,1
8,5
74,2
80,5
15,2
18,8
0,6
61,30

61,2
63,4
7,5
8,2
74,1
80,5
15,3
18,8
0,7
61,40

62,2
64,5
8,5
8,8
74,5
80,9
15,5
19
1,0
62,20
1.433,78 1.588,23 1.451,44
7,41

8,24

7,11

62,3
64,1
8,3
8,9
75,1
81,2
15,7
19,2
1,0
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62,2
63,6
8,4
8,7
74,8
81,1
15,6
19,2
1,1
59,5
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
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3,4
68,2
:
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

203 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS198 

CZ 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 
comment 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
eurostat 
Eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  Unemployment Benefits recipients 
thousands of recipients 
unit 
source 

comment 

www.mpsv.cz 
Unemployment benefits - due to worse economic situation, there was a significant 
growth of number of unemployment benefits recipients at the end of 2008 (e.g. from 
the reason of mass laying-off) and during the 1st quarter of 2009. The declines in 
summer months of the following years were induced mainly by the impact of 
traditional element – seasonal works. On the other hand, increased numbers at the 
turn of years have been connected rather with layoffs at the end of the year. Since June 
2011, the numbers of beneficiaries have been nearly similar to those ones in before-
crisis years. Annual decrese in 2012 was partly caused by relevant legislative changes. 
On the other hand, annual increase of recipients in 2013 has related with higher 
number of newly registered job seekers. 

198 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) are given as a background. 

204 

 
 
 
  
                                                           
definition 
unit 
source 

comment 

Social assistance benefit 

Social assistance beneficiaries 
thousands of beneficiaries 
MoLSA 
After the introduction of the new System of Assistance in Material Need (starting 
2007), there was a slight decrease of the number of beneficiaries of assistance in 
material need benefits (or more precisely of allowance for living) since the 2nd quarter 
of 2007 mainly due to favourable economic development. The impact of global 
economic crisis became evident in this statistics since the end of 2008, more intensively 
during 2009 and in the 1st half of 2010. After stagnation in the 2nd half of 2010, there 
has been another significant increase since February 2011. It may be explained by 
legislative changes in the system of State Social Support (the reduction of entitlement 
to social allowance affected the System of Assistance in Material Need in the form of 
growth of its number of beneficiaries). With regard to full cancelation of social 
allowance in State Social Support since 2012 and increase of amounts of the 
subsistence minimum and the existence minimum, number of beneficiaries has 
increased significantly (except specific situation in January 2012 when new IS was 
introduced). Following increse has been affected mainly by income situation of 
households and by higher number of job-seekers without entitlement to 
unemployment benefit.   

The curve for „social assistance beneficiaries“ is in the graph provided only for the 
period of time 2007-2013 and reflects the development of the number of allowance for 
living recipients (see the Act No. 111/2006 Coll., on Assistance in material need, as 
amended, that has been in effect since 01/01/2007); till the end of 2006 the system of 
social assistance benefits was regulated in absolutely different way. Because of this 
fact, there is no reasonable comparability. 

Disability benefit 

definition  Number of pensioners (disability benefits 1st, 2nd and 3rd degree) 
unit 
source 

thousands of persons 
MoLSA 
From the beginning of 2010 the new types of disability were implemented to the social 
system. Currently three levels of disability are differentiated (the 1st, 2nd , 3rd )  
instead of the former two levels (full disability, partial disability). The 3rd level is equal 
to the full disability while the partial disability was split in the current 1st and 2nd level. 
From January 2010 all receivers of disability pension older than 65 years of age are no 
more implicated in the number of disability pensioners. They are implicated in the 
number of old age pensioners. This change is displayed in the drop of number of 
disability pensioners in January 2010. According to these changes, new data (starting 
January 2010) are being presented separately. 

comment 

205 

  
 
  
DENMARK 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Reduce the number of people in households with low work intensity by 22,000 towards 2020." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

206 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

DK 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

11,8 

13,1 

643 

8,3 

347 

2,0 

107 

2,3 

125 

0,4 

21 

0,3 

19 

0,5 

26 

716 

8,5 

360 

2,3 

124 

2,4 

129 

0,5 

29 

0,5 

29 

0,4 

22 

13,3 

728 

10,3 

433 

2,7 

145 

2,7 

148 

0,4 

22 

0,8 

44 

0,8 

41 

13,0 

715 

11,4 

480 

2,6 

146 

3,1 

172 

0,6 

34 

0,5 

27 

0,8 

42 

13,1 

731 

10,9 

464 

2,8 

157 

2,6 

147 

0,7 

39 

0,8 

43 

0,4 

23 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,1 

2,2 

-0,5 

-3,3 

0,2 

7,5 

-0,5 

-14,5 

0,1 

14,7 

1,3 

16,9 

17,0 

13,7 

84.586 

84.999 

2,6 

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10,4 

33,7 

39.465 

39.431 

0,8 

8,9 

9,9 

46,7 

44.362 

49.671 

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2,7 

17,6 

14.577 

13.456 

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2,9 

85,7 

13.013 

14.345 

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0,5 

1,7 

1,9 

59,3 

-0,4 

-45,2 

126,3 

8.248 

9.294 

-0,1 

0,6 

0,6 

-11,5 

2.785 

3.236 

207 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

DK 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
-0,8 
1,7 
3,5 
0,5 
29,2 

2009 
-5,7 
-3,4 
6,0 
0,6 
33,1 

2010 
1,4 
-2,5 
7,5 
1,5 
32,8 

2011 
1,1 
-0,2 
7,6 
1,8 
32,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,3 
7,5 
2,1 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

DK 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

29,2 
6,5 
3,7 
12,7 
0,0 
4,0 
0,9 
0,6 
0,8 

1,4 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,6 
0,4 

27,8 
6,5 
3,6 
12,6 
0,0 
3,9 
0,9 
0,0 
0,4 

33,1 
7,3 
4,1 
14,0 
0,0 
4,5 
1,6 
0,7 
0,9 

1,6 
0,0 
0,2 
0,1 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,7 
0,5 

31,5 
7,3 
4,0 
13,9 
0,0 
4,4 
1,6 
0,0 
0,4 

32,8 
7,0 
4,2 
13,8 
0,0 
4,3 
1,8 
0,7 
1,0 

1,6 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,7 
0,5 

31,2 
7,0 
4,0 
13,8 
0,0 
4,2 
1,8 
0,0 
0,4 

32,8 
6,9 
4,1 
14,2 
0,0 
4,1 
1,8 
0,7 
1,0 

1,7 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,7 
0,6 

31,1 
6,9 
3,9 
14,2 
0,0 
3,9 
1,8 
0,0 
0,4 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

208 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross 2010 Gross 2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

69,4

97,3

44,5

67,3

89,9

43,7

64,1 / 71,2

75,4 / 62,8

-2,1

-7,4

-0,8

48,8      
(72/14/14)*
70,9 
(76/15/9)*
26,5 
(64/13/23)*

7,4

4,2

5,9

56,2     
(45/8/47)*
75,1 
(56/9/35)*
32,4 
(34/7/60)*

53,3 / 59,9

61,5 / 52,1

38 years career: average income

68,8

63,3

-5,5

53,1

52,6

-0,5

Low / high income

97,2 / 43,6

89,4 / 38,8 (-7,8 / -4,8) 78,3 / 27,7

74,5 / 28,4

(-3,8 / 0,7)

42 years career: average income

73,2

73,4

0,2

53

61,9

8,9

Low / high income

102,9 / 46,8 97,3 / 48,4

(-5,6 / 1,6)

77,2 / 28,6

82,2 / 36,1

5,0 / 7,5

10 years after retirement

65,9

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

2010

35,8

:

66,4

68,4

68,3

61,9

2050

30,5

:

0,5

46,5

8,2

54,7

57,3

57,1

51,3

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-0,9

:

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

DK

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

62,1
61
12
12,4
76,5
81
16,6
19,5
0,6
74,1

61,8
60,4
11,3
12,1
76,9
81,1
16,8
19,5
1,5
72,3

62,3
61,4
11,8
12,8
77,2
81,4
17
19,7
1,1
71,0
3.158,94 3.273,28 3.462,39
11,08

11,53

10,26

63,6
59,4
12,4
13
77,8
81,9
17,3
20,1
0,9
70,8
:
:

60,6
61,4
10,6
12,9
78,1
82,1
17,5
20,2
1,2
70,8

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

214 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS199  

Note: numbers of benefit recipients are not seasonally adjusted.

199 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection of benefits which have been considered most reactive to the crisis. The number of unemployed (standard 
definition by the ILO) is given as a background. 

215 

 
 
                                                           
DK 

Number of unemployed 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

Unemployment recipients 

definition  U benefits recipients, full time recipients. 
unit 
source 
comment 

full time persons recipients (both passive and active recipients) 
http://www.jobindsats.dk/sw167.asp 
The monthly recipients of 2012 are also listed. If the recipients are only to be based on 
a whole year basis, these can be ignored and only 2011 data be used. 

definition 
unit 
source 
comment 

Social assistance benefit 

numbers of recipients of cash benefits  
both passive and active recipients 
http://www.jobindsats.dk/sw9990.asp 
Both recipients and full time recipients are listed as the numbers can then be compared 
(with unemployment benefits) as these are measured in full time recipients. The 
update includes a change in the numbers back in time due to the abolishment of the 
lowest cash benefits by January 1st 2012. As it is a headcount, all recipients of the 
lowest cash benefits are now listed as recipients of the same cash benefit back in time 
as it would otherwise mean a change in the level of recipients as from 1/1 2012 when 
all recipients became recipients of the same level of benefit. 

Disability benefit 

definition  Number of pensioners (disability benefits full+partial ) 
unit 
comment 

thousands of pensioners 

Figures do not include people who reached statutory retirement age due to 
comparability reasons; the data until January 2011 represent an estimation, because 
the calculation of the accurate share of disability pensioners only existed for one month 
(December). 

216 

 
  
  
  
 
GERMANY 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Germany  has  defined  the  quantitative  target  related  to  the  number  of  people  living  in 

households  affected  by  long-term  unemployment.  The  number  of  long-term  unemployed 

people  (unemployed  for  more  than  one  year)  shall  be  reduced  by  20%  until  2020  (taking  the 

2008  average  as  a  basis).  Taking  the  current  data  this  corresponds  to  a  reduction  of  320.000 

long-term  unemployed  (annual  average  2008:1.62  million).  If  there  are  two  people  living  in  a 

job-less household- in a conservative approach- the number of people at- risk-of-poverty will 

be reduced by 640.000 people." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2012) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (LFS) 

217 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

 DE 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

15,2 

15,5 

15,6 

15,8 

16,1 

12.389  12.590  12.648  12.814  13.030 

11,6 

10,8 

11,1 

11,1 

9,8 

7.044 

6.538 

6.695 

6.637 

5.866 

5,5 

5,4 

4,5 

5,3 

4,9 

4.442 

4.360 

3.672 

4.323 

3.937 

3,8 

3,6 

3,9 

3,7 

3,4 

3.113 

2.944 

3.183 

3.026 

2.762 

1,4 

1,3 

1.142 

1.024 

1,7 

1,8 

1,1 

917 

1,6 

1,7 

1,6 

1.349 

1.292 

1,9 

1,6 

1.408 

1.450 

1.333 

1.542 

1.279 

-17,1 

0,6 

460 

0,5 

402 

0,4 

286 

0,3 

242 

0,4 

312 

0,1 

28,9 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

change   change  
 2011-
2012 

2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,3 

1,7 

-1,3 

-11,6 

-0,4 

-8,9 

-0,3 

-8,7 

-0,1 

-4,2 

-0,3 

0,9 

16,9 

17,0 

5,2  84.586  84.999 

-1,8 

10,3 

10,4 

-16,7  39.465  39.431 

-0,6 

8,9 

9,9 

-11,4  44.362  49.671 

-0,4 

2,9 

2,7 

-11,3  14.577  13.456 

0,2 

2,6 

2,9 

13,1  13.013  14.345 

-0,1 

-9,2 

-0,2 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

-32,2 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

218 

 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

DE 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
1,1 
1,2 
7,5 
4,0 
27,0 

2009 
-5,1 
0,1 
7,8 
3,5 
30,2 

2010 
4,0 
0,5 
7,1 
3,4 
29,4 

2011 
3,3 
1,4 
5,9 
2,8 
28,3 

2012 
0,7 
1,1 
5,5 
2,5 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

DE 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

27,0 
8,3 
2,2 
9,4 
2,1 
2,8 
1,4 
0,6 
0,1 

3,3 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
1,0 
0,8 
0,6 
0,1 

23,7 
8,2 
1,6 
9,3 
2,1 
1,8 
0,7 
0,0 
0,0 

30,2 
9,8 
2,3 
10,0 
2,2 
3,2 
1,9 
0,7 
0,1 

3,6 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
1,1 
0,8 
0,7 
0,1 

26,6 
9,6 
1,7 
10,0 
2,2 
2,1 
1,1 
0,0 
0,0 

29,4 
9,6 
2,3 
9,7 
2,1 
3,2 
1,7 
0,7 
0,1 

3,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
1,1 
0,8 
0,7 
0,1 

25,9 
9,4 
1,6 
9,7 
2,1 
2,1 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 

28,3 
9,4 
2,2 
9,4 
2,0 
3,1 
1,3 
0,6 
0,1 

3,4 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
1,2 
0,7 
0,6 
0,1 

24,9 
9,3 
1,6 
9,3 
2,0 
2,0 
0,7 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

219 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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5

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

59,1

53,9

51,1

63,7

59,7

49,5

61,2 / 66,5

67,7 / 60,6

4,6

5,8

-1,6

41,9     
(100/0/0)*
41,9 
(100/0/0)*
31,4 
(100/0/0)*

3,8

3,8

2,9

45,7     
(73/0/27)*
45,7 
(73/0/27)*
34,3 
(73/0/27)*

43,8 / 47,9

48,8 / 43,3

38 years career: average income

52,1

57,2

5,1

37

40,1

3,1

Low / high income

47,5 / 45,8

56,9 / 45

9,4 / -0,8

37 / 28

43,2 / 30,2

6,2 / 2,2

42 years career: average income

69,5

70,6

1,1

49,3

51,7

2,4

Low / high income

63,4 / 60,1

67,7 / 54,7

4,3 / -5,4

49,3 / 37,6

51,7 / 38,9

2,4 / 1,3

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions) 
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions) 

59,1

62,1

57

44,3

2010

47,0

40,5

61,2

72,5

68

47,7

2050

38,1

34,5

2,1

10,4

11,0

3,4

41,9

44,0

40,5

31,4

43,7

53,7

49,5

33,5

1,8

9,7

9,0

2,1

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-8,9

-6,0

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

DE

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

56,3
57,7
6,3
6,7
77,6
82,7
17,5
20,7
2,2
64,4

57,1
58,1
6,5
6,7
77,8
82,8
17,6
20,8
2,1
65,1

57,9
58,7
6,7
7,3
78,4
83,2
18,2
21,2
1,7
64,8
3.131,92 3.197,47 3.386,97 3.499,25
11,26

57,9
58,7
6,9
7,1
78
83
17,8
20,9
1,8
65,2

10,69

11,73

11,51

57,4
57,9
6,7
6,9
78,6
83,3
18,2
21,2
1,6
65,3
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
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3,4
68,2
:
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

225 

 
 
 
ESTONIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Reducing  the  at-risk-of-poverty  rate  after  social  transfers  to  16.5%  by  2015  and  to  15%  by 

2020." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Note:  For the at-risk-of poverty rate (AROP), the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2011). 

226 

 
 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

 EE 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

19,5 

259 

19,7 

262 

5,3 

55 

4,9 

65 

2,2 

30 

2,0 

26 

1,1 

15 

0,1 

1 

5,6 

58 

6,2 

83 

1,8 

24 

2,1 

28 

1,4 

19 

0,1 

1 

15,8 

211 

8,9 

92 

9,0 

119 

2,9 

39 

2,8 

38 

1,9 

26 

0,4 

5 

17,5 

232 

9,9 

102 

8,7 

115 

3,2 

43 

2,3 

31 

2,4 

32 

0,4 

6 

17,5 

233 

9,0 

93 

9,4 

124 

2,7 

36 

2,7 

36 

2,4 

31 

0,3 

4 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,0 

0,4 

-0,9 

-8,8 

0,7 

7,8 

-0,5 

-16,3 

0,4 

16,1 

0,0 

-3,1 

-0,1 

-2,0 

16,9 

17,0 

-10,0 

84.586 

84.999 

3,7 

10,3 

10,4 

69,1 

39.465 

39.431 

4,5 

8,9 

9,9 

90,8 

44.362 

49.671 

0,5 

2,9 

2,7 

20,0 

14.577 

13.456 

0,7 

2,6 

2,9 

38,5 

13.013 

14.345 

1,3 

1,7 

1,9 

106,7 

8.248 

9.294 

0,2 

0,6 

0,6 

-33,3 

300,0 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the changes are indicated in percentage change (%).  

227 

 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

EE 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
-4,2 
0,2 
5,5 
1,7 
14,8 

2009 
-14,1 
-9,9 
13,8 
3,8 
18,8 

2010 
2,6 
-4,8 
16,9 
7,7 
17,8 

2011 
9,6 
7,0 
12,5 
7,1 
15,9 

2012 
3,9 
2,1 
10,2 
5,5 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS)  
Note: social protection expenditure does not include administrative costs 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

EE 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

14,8 
4,8 
1,5 
6,2 
0,1 
1,8 
0,3 
0,0 
0,1 

0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

14,7 
4,8 
1,5 
6,2 
0,1 
1,8 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 

18,8 
5,3 
1,9 
7,9 
0,1 
2,2 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

18,7 
5,3 
1,9 
7,9 
0,1 
2,2 
1,2 
0,0 
0,0 

17,8 
4,8 
1,9 
7,8 
0,1 
2,3 
0,8 
0,0 
0,1 

0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

17,7 
4,8 
1,9 
7,8 
0,1 
2,3 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 

15,9 
4,4 
1,8 
6,9 
0,1 
2,0 
0,5 
0,0 
0,1 

0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

15,7 
4,4 
1,8 
6,9 
0,1 
2,0 
0,5 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) - Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based 
only on Housing. The total figures of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

228 

  
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

46,2

64,9

26,6

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(100/0/0)*
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20,4 
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3,8

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46,3 
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27,1 
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38,5 / 42,3

41,9 / 39,7

38 years career: average income

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4,3

31,9

36

4,1

Low / high income

57,5 / 22,9

50,6 / 31,1

(-6,9 / 8,2)

46,6 / 17,5

41,5 / 24,5

(-5,1 / 7)

42 years career: average income

57,9

58,9

1,0

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47,4

1,8

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66 / 40,7

(-17,5 / 5,4) 67,7 / 27,1

54,2 / 31,9 (-13,5 / 4,8)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions) 
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions) 

40,9

43,9

44,1

39,2

2010

38,7

36,0

39,6

48,4

47,4

41,2

2050

23,0

22,4

-1,3

4,5

3,3

2,0

32,8

34,6

34,8

30,9

32,3

38,9

38,1

33,1

-0,5

4,3

3,3

2,2

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-15,8

-13,6

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EE

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

53
57,5
4
4,2
68,7
79,5
13,6
18,9
7,3
54,5

55
59,2
5,6
5,4
69,8
80,2
14
19,2
4,3
51,5
1.038,12 1.030,83
6,93

6,06

54,1
58,2
5,3
5,5
70,6
80,8
14,2
19,4
4,8
52,7
979,91
6,32

54,3
57,9
5,6
5,7
71,4
81,3
14,8
20,1
7,3
51,8
998,79
5,83

53,1
57,2
5,4
5,5
71,5
81,6
14,9
20,3
8,3
52,4

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

234 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS200 

EE 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  Unemployment insurance benefit recipients 
thousands of recipients (monthly) 
unit 
Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund 
source 
http://www.tootukassa.ee/sites/tootukassa.ee/files/TKH_0.xls 
link 
Definition: Unemployment insurance benefit recipients - unemployed persons who 
received a payment of unemployment insurance benefit during the specified period. 
Unemployment insurance is a type of compulsory insurance, unemployment insurance is 
financed from unemployment insurance premiums paid by the insured persons 
(employees) and the employers. The unemployment insurance benefit is paid to 
unemployed persons whose unemployment insurance period in the three preceding 
years is at least 12 months and whose last relationship did not end on their own initiative 
or mutual agreement. 

comment 

200 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

235 

 
 
 
  
 
                                                           
Social assistance benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

Subsistence benefit (to maintain subsistence level) receivers 
Number of granted applications (thousands, cumulative during the year) 
Ministry of Social Affairs 
http://www.sm.ee/meie/statistika/sotsiaalvaldkond/sotsiaalhoolekanne/toimetulekuto
etus.html 

link 

http://pub.stat.ee/px-
web.2001/I_Databas/Social_life/15Social_protection/02Social_assistance/05Subsistenc
e_benefits/05Subsistence_benefits.asp 

comment 

A person living alone or a family whose monthly disposable income, after deduction of 
the fixed expenses connected with permanent dwelling during the current month, is 
below the subsistence level has right to receive a subsistence benefit. The subsistence 
level increased (by 20%) from the beginning of 2011. The subsistence level will increase 
also in 2014.  
Note: In April 2010, a new social services and benefit register was introduced. 
Therefore the data from the 2nd quarter 2010 is not fully comparable with the previous 
data. 

Disability benefit 

definition  Recipients of benefits for disabled persons 
unit 
source 
link 

Thousands of recipients at the end of quarter 
Source: Social Insurance Fund  
http://www.ensib.ee/?lang=en 
Disability is the loss of or an abnormality in an anatomical, physiological or mental 
structure of function of a person, which in conjunction with different relational and 
environmental restrictions prevents participation in social life on equal bases with 
others. From 2008 the disabled adult allowance was replaced by disability allowance for 
a person of working age and disability allowance for a person of retirement age. 
Therefore the indicator since 2008 includes recipients of three types of benefits: 
recipients of the allowance for disabled persons of at least 16 years of age, for disabled 
persons of working age and for disabled persons of retirement age.  

comment 

Incapacity for work 

definition  Receivers of pension for incapacity for work  
Thousands of recipients at the end of quarter 
unit 
Social Insurance Board 
source 
http://www.ensib.ee/?lang=en 
link 
The right for the pension for incapacity for work has a person, who is at least 16 years 
of age and has been declared to be permanently incapable to work, loss of whose 
working capacity is 40 to 100 per cent and who by the initial date of granting of the 
pension has acquired the following pensionable service or accumulation period in 
Estonia. 

comment 

236 

 
  
 
 
  
  
IRELAND 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

Revised Headline Target201: To reduce consistent poverty to 4% by 2016 (interim target) and to 
2% or less by 2020, from the 2010 baseline rate of 6.3%.  

The Irish contribution to the Europe 2020 poverty target is to reduce by a minimum of 200,000 
the  population  in  combined  poverty  (either  consistent  poverty,  at-risk-of-poverty  or  basic 
deprivation).  

Note: The IE combined poverty population is defined by combining two national poverty indicators: at-risk-
of-poverty and basic deprivation. This approach captures a similar percentage of the population as the EU 
‘at risk of poverty or social exclusion’ measure. There is an overlap of c80 per cent. 

Source: National Reform Programme (2013) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE EUROPE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION 

OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION2008-2011 (IE AND EU INDICATORS) 

Source: Social Inclusion Monitor 2011 (CSO), 

Note: For further analysis of the two methodologies, see Watson, D and Maître, B (2012) Technical Paper on Poverty Indicators, Dublin: 

Department of Social Protection. The EU AROPE target figure in 2020 is indicative. The percentage targets are also indicative and based 

on 2010 population figures. 

201 Ireland’s Former Headline Target: To reduce the number experiencing consistent poverty to between 2-4% by 2012, with the 
aim of eliminating consistent poverty by 2016, which will lift at least 186,000 people out of the risk of poverty and exclusion.  

237 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION USING IRISH 

INDICATORS (2011) 

Source: Social Inclusion Monitor (CSO SILC) 

IE 

Combined 
poverty 

Consistent 
poverty 

At-risk-of-poverty 

Basic deprivation 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

% of total population 
1,000 persons 
% of total population 
1,000 persons 
% of total population 
1,000 persons 
% of total population 
1,000 persons 

24.0 
1,076 
4.2 
188 
14.4 
646 
13.8 
619 

25.7 
1,165 
5.5 
249 
14.1 
639 
17.1 
775 

31.0 
1,412 
6.3 
287 
14.7 
670 
22.6 
1,029 

33.6 
1,537 
6.9 
316 
16.0 
732 
24.5 
1,121 

238 

 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION USING EU INDICATORS 

(2011) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note:  AROPE  -  at-risk-of-poverty  or  social  exclusion  rate;  AROP  -  at-risk-of-poverty  rate;  VLWI  -  share  of  population  living  in  (quasi-

)jobless households, i.e. very low work intensity households; SMD - severe material deprivation rate; the red overlap indicates the share of 

the population which accumulates all three conditions. For the at-risk-of poverty rate (AROP), the income reference year is the calendar 

year  prior  to  the  survey  year  (i.e.  2011)  except  for  the  United  Kingdom  (survey  year)  and  Ireland  (12  months  preceding  the  survey). 

Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income reference year prior to 

the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe  material  deprivation  rate  (SMD),  the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e.  2012). 

 IE 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

15,5 

686 

13,6 

509 

5,5 

245 

3,8 

168 

0,6 

26 

1,6 

69 

1,3 

58 

15,0 

670 

19,8 

739 

6,1 

274 

5,8 

260 

0,6 

26 

1,9 

86 

1,7 

75 

15,2 

682 

22,8 

846 

5,7 

256 

6,1 

271 

0,4 

17 

2,1 

94 

2,0 

89 

15,2 

680 

24,1 

886 

7,8 

352 

6,5 

291 

0,4 

19 

2,1 

94 

2,3 

101 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

239 

change  
 2008-
2011 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,3 

-0,9 

10,5 

74,1 

2,3 

43,7 

2,7 

73,2 

-0,2 

16,9 

-100 

10,3 

-92 

8,9 

-88 

2,9 

-75 

2,6 

17,0 

-100 

10,4 

39.431 

9,9 

49.671 

2,7 

13.456 

2,9 

-26,9 

-242 

14.345 

0,5 

36,2 

1,0 

74,1 

1,7 

-61 

0,6 

-27 

1,9 

9.294 

0,6 

3.236 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

IE 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
-2,2 
-0,6 
6,4 
1,7 
20,3 

2009 
-6,4 
-7,8 
12,0 
3,5 
25,1 

2010 
-1,1 
-4,1 
13,9 
6,8 
27,3 

2011 
2,2 
-1,8 
14,7 
8,7 
28,3 

2012 
0,2 
-0,6 
14,7 
9,1 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

IE 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

20,3 
7,9 
1,1 
4,6 
0,9 
3,1 
1,8 
0,4 
0,4 

5,3 
1,2 
0,6 
0,8 
0,0 
1,1 
0,7 
0,4 
0,4 

15,1 
6,7 
0,5 
3,8 
0,9 
2,0 
1,1 
0,0 
0,0 

25,1 
9,8 
1,3 
5,3 
1,1 
3,6 
3,0 
0,4 
0,6 

6,7 
1,5 
0,7 
0,9 
0,0 
1,3 
1,3 
0,4 
0,6 

18,4 
8,3 
0,6 
4,4 
1,1 
2,3 
1,7 
0,0 
0,0 

27,3 
11,4 
1,3 
5,5 
1,1 
3,6 
3,5 
0,4 
0,6 

7,6 
1,7 
0,7 
1,0 
0,0 
1,4 
1,8 
0,4 
0,6 

19,8 
9,7 
0,6 
4,5 
1,1 
2,2 
1,7 
0,0 
0,0 

28,3 
12,8 
1,2 
5,6 
1,1 
3,4 
3,3 
0,4 
0,6 

7,8 
1,8 
0,7 
1,0 
0,0 
1,4 
1,9 
0,4 
0,6 

20,6 
10,9 
0,6 
4,6 
1,1 
2,0 
1,4 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

240 

  
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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S

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

85,8

99,1

61,9

69,0

83,8

49,6

-16,8

-15,3

-12,3

73,1      
(38/0/62)*
88,3 
(48/0/52)*
46,4 
(30/0/70)*

65,4 / 73,3

75 / 64,5

-14,5

-15,4

-9,3

58,6     
(47/0/53)*
72,9 
(58/0/42)*
37,1 
(38/0/62)*

54/64,2

66,4 / 52,7

38 years career: average income

82

67,5

-14,5

71,2

56,6

-14,6

Low / high income

96,1 / 60,8

82,4 / 47,7 (-13,7/-13,1) 86,8 / 45,6

70,9 / 35,6

(-15,9/-10)

42 years career: average income

87,7

71,4

-16,3

75,2

61,7

-13,5

Low / high income

99 / 61,4

85,9 / 52,4

(-13 / -9)

89,7 / 47,2

76 / 39,4

(-13,6/-7,8)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions) 
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions) 

78,7

81,3

79,7

74,1

2010

:

37,3

65,5

66,8

66,8

61,8

2050

:

38,0

-13,2

-14,5

-12,9

-12,3

66,6

69

67,1

62,3

54,1

55,7

55,7

49,2

-12,5

-13,3

-11,4

-13,1

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

:

0,7

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

IE

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

63,5
65
9,3
10,3
77,8
82,4
16,8
20,3
1,8
84,3
:
:

63,9
65,2
10,2
10,5
77,7
82,7
17,4
20,8
2,0
83,1
:
:

65,9
67
11,1
11,2
78,7
83,2
18,1
21,1
2,1
82,8
:
:

66,1
68,3
10,9
11,8
78,6
83
17,9
20,9
2,2
83,1
:
:

66,1
68,3
10,9
11,9
78,7
83,2
18
21,1
:
:
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

246 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS202 

IE  

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

definition  Unemployment Benefit and Assistance recipients  
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
The Department of Social Protection  

Unemployment benefit 

Social assistance benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

Emergency Social Assistance recipients 
thousands of beneficiaries 
Social Welfare Quarterly Statistical Reports 

Disability benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

Illness, Disability & Caring recipients 
thousands of beneficiaries 
Social Welfare Quarterly Statistical Reports 

202 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

247 

 
 
 
  
  
  
 
                                                           
GREECE 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Greece  sets  a  target  of  reducing  the  number  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty  and/or  social  exclusion  by 
450.000 by 2020" (Source: National Reform Programme (2011)) 

the tendency is to diverge rather than to converge to the targets set in the end of 2010 within the 

framework of the Europe 2020 Strategy, as far as the reduction of poverty and/or social exclusion is 

concerned, indicating that efforts should be made to reverse this situation, but also that a revision of the 
targets is required. (Source: National Reform Programme (2013)) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

248 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

 EL 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

20,1 

19,7 

20,1 

21,4 

23,1 

2.187 

2.149 

2.205 

2.349 

2.536 

7,4 

611 

6,5 

539 

7,5 

619 

11,8 

14,1 

978 

1.158 

11,2 

11,0 

11,6 

15,2 

19,5 

1.213 

1.198 

1.269 

1.667 

2.141 

1,1 

122 

5,2 

564 

1,1 

124 

0,3 

31 

1,0 

107 

5,3 

576 

0,8 

85 

0,2 

26 

1,2 

134 

6,1 

669 

2,1 

226 

6,3 

693 

2,4 

260 

8,2 

900 

1,0 

2,8 

3,6 

108 

0,4 

43 

303 

0,6 

67 

396 

0,8 

86 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

1,7 

8,0 

2,3 

18,4 

4,3 

28,4 

0,3 

15,0 

1,9 

29,9 

0,8 

30,7 

0,2 

28,4 

3,0 

16,9 

17,0 

16,0 

84.586 

84.999 

6,7 

10,3 

10,4 

89,5 

39.465 

39.431 

8,3 

8,9 

9,9 

76,5 

44.362 

49.671 

1,3 

2,9 

2,7 

113,1 

14.577 

13.456 

3,0 

2,6 

2,9 

59,6 

13.013 

14.345 

2,5 

1,7 

1,9 

219,4 

8.248 

9.294 

0,5 

0,6 

0,6 

177,4 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

249 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

EL 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
-0,2 
1,2 
7,7 
3,6 
25,4 

2009 
-3,1 
-0,6 
9,5 
3,9 
27,4 

2010 
-4,9 
-2,6 
12,6 
5,7 
28,2 

2011 
-7,1 
-5,6 
17,7 
8,8 
28,9 

2012 
-6,4 
-8,3 
24,3 
14,4 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

EL 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

25,4 
7,4 
1,2 
10,8 
2,1 
1,6 
1,3 
0,5 
0,6 

1,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,5 
0,0 
0,5 
0,1 

23,5 
7,4 
1,0 
10,4 
2,0 
1,0 
1,3 
0,0 
0,4 

27,4 
8,0 
1,3 
11,3 
2,2 
1,8 
1,6 
0,5 
0,6 

2,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,5 
0,1 

25,4 
8,0 
1,1 
11,0 
2,1 
1,3 
1,6 
0,0 
0,4 

28,2 
8,2 
1,3 
11,9 
2,2 
1,8 
1,7 
0,4 
0,6 

1,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,4 
0,2 

26,3 
8,2 
1,1 
11,6 
2,0 
1,2 
1,7 
0,0 
0,5 

28,9 
7,5 
1,4 
12,7 
2,3 
1,8 
2,1 
0,4 
0,7 

1,8 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,4 
0,2 

27,0 
7,4 
1,2 
12,4 
2,2 
1,2 
2,1 
0,0 
0,5 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

250 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

121,3

130,8

101,8

87,0

93,0

64,6

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109,3

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83,1

87 / 87

76,5 / 99,1

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67,9    
(100/0/0)*
74,4 
(100/0/0)*
47,8 
(100/0/0)*

67.9 / 67.9

58,5 / 80

38 years career: average income

126,4

81,5

-44,9

108,8

63,2

-45,6

Low / high income

133,5 / 110,9

88,4 / 60  - 45,1 / -50,9 111,1 / 91,1 69,9 / 43,5  - 41,2 / -47,6)

42 years career: average income

126,1

88,9

-37,2

105

69,9

-35,1

Low / high income

141,2 / 105,3 92,7 / 64,3 ( - 48,5 / -41) 114,2 / 86,3 86,3 / 47,5  - 27,9 / - 26,7

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions) 
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions) 

114,6

121,3

121,3

96,7

2010

35,9

59,3

71,6

87

87

63,8

2050

29,0

52,4

-43,0

-34,3

-34,3

-32,9

93,7

100,8

100,8

76,4

53,7

68

68

47,3

-40,0

-32,9

-32,9

-29,1

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-6,9

-6,9

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EL

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

65,8
66,1
9
8,3
77,7
82,3
17,8
19,8
5,4
76,0
:
:

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66,8
7,9
7,3
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82,7
18,1
20,2
5,5
75,4
:
:

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67,7
8,8
8,1
78,4
82,8
18,5
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5,5
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66,9
9
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78
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64,9
8,6
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78
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21
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8,6
8,6
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8,5
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

256 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS203 

EL 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 
Unemployment benefit 
Registered  at the National Manpower Agency (OAED)  receiving an unemployment 
benefit  
thousands of receivers 
National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG), Labour Force Survey 
Note on the unemployed receiving or not an unemployment benefit:  
In the above data, the unemployed are defined according to the Eurostat definition.  
Therefore, it should be underlined that the above figures for the registered 
unemployed (receiving or not an unemployment benefit) are lower enough than the 
figures of the National Manpower Agency for the registered unemployed, largely due 
to the fact that only recipients classified as “unemployment” according to the Eurostat 
definition are taken into account.  ” 

definition 

unit 
source 

comment 

203 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a selection of 
benefits which have been considered most reactive to the crisis. The number of unemployed (standard definition by the ILO) and the 
number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

257 

 
 
 
  
                                                           
SPAIN 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

''Spain  has  adopted  the  objective  of  reducing  by  1.4-1.5  million  (in  2009-2019)  the  number  of 
people at risk of poverty or social exclusion on the basis of an aggregate indicator that includes 
people living below the relative poverty threshold, people suffering severe material deprivation 
and people in households with low or zero work intensity" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

258 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

ES 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

20,8 

20,1 

21,4 

22,2 

22,2 

9.415 

9.223 

9.881 

10.257 

10.276 

6,6 

7,6 

10,8 

13,3 

14,2 

2.351 

2.725 

3.900 

4.810 

5.137 

3,6 

4,5 

4,9 

4,5 

5,8 

1.625 

2.066 

2.264 

2.100 

2.708 

2,4 

2,6 

4,0 

5,2 

5,0 

1.089 

1.180 

1.822 

2.407 

2.340 

1,5 

673 

1,4 

659 

1,9 

868 

0,5 

1,0 

1,0 

229 

0,1 

47 

450 

0,1 

41 

475 

0,2 

88 

1,1 

511 

1,3 

624 

0,5 

210 

1,5 

711 

2,0 

925 

0,3 

129 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change   change  
 2011-
2012 

2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,0 

0,2 

0,9 

6,8 

1,3 

29,0 

-0,2 

-2,8 

0,4 

39,1 

0,7 

48,2 

-0,2 

1,4 

9,1 

7,6 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

118,5 

39.465 

39.431 

2,2 

8,9 

9,9 

66,6 

44.362 

49.671 

2,6 

2,9 

2,7 

114,9 

14.577 

13.456 

0,0 

5,6 

1,5 

2,6 

2,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,7 

1,9 

303,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,2 

0,6 

0,6 

-38,6 

174,5 

2.785 

3.236 

259 

 
  
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

ES 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
0,9 
-0,1 
11,3 
2,0 
21,7 

2009 
-3,8 
-6,5 
18,0 
4,3 
24,9 

2010 
-0,2 
-2,2 
20,1 
7,3 
25,3 

2011 
0,1 
-1,9 
21,7 
9,0 
25,6 

2012 
-1,6 
-4,2 
25,0 
11,1 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

ES 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

21,7 
6,8 
1,6 
7,1 
2,0 
1,4 
2,5 
0,2 
0,2 

2,9 
0,0 
0,4 
1,1 
0,3 
0,3 
0,4 
0,2 
0,2 

18,8 
6,8 
1,2 
6,0 
1,7 
1,0 
2,1 
0,0 
0,0 

24,9 
7,3 
1,7 
8,1 
2,1 
1,5 
3,7 
0,2 
0,2 

3,6 
0,0 
0,4 
1,4 
0,3 
0,4 
0,6 
0,2 
0,2 

21,3 
7,3 
1,3 
6,6 
1,9 
1,1 
3,1 
0,0 
0,0 

25,3 
7,2 
1,8 
8,6 
2,2 
1,5 
3,6 
0,2 
0,2 

4,0 
0,0 
0,5 
1,5 
0,3 
0,4 
0,9 
0,2 
0,2 

21,3 
7,2 
1,3 
7,1 
1,9 
1,1 
2,7 
0,0 
0,0 

25,6 
7,0 
1,8 
8,9 
2,3 
1,4 
3,7 
0,2 
0,2 

4,2 
0,0 
0,5 
1,6 
0,3 
0,3 
1,1 
0,2 
0,2 

21,4 
7,0 
1,3 
7,4 
2,0 
1,0 
2,7 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)   

260 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

94,5

94,6

77,7

86,5

86,5

68,0

86 / 86

96 / 77,5

-8,0

-8,1

-9,7

86,5      
(100/0/0)*
86,5 
(100/0/0)*
69,2 
(100/0/0)*

-7,4

-7,4

-9,9

79,1     
(100/0/0)*
79,1 
(100/0/0)*
59,3 
(100/0/0)*

80,4 / 80,4

91,2 / 71,1

38 years career: average income

83

63,4

-19,6

74,2

55,4

-18,8

Low / high income

88,5 / 71,7

65,2 / 51,2 (-23,4/-20,4)

75,2 / 63

55,4 / 41,5 (-19,9/-21,5)

42 years career: average income

98,2

92,3

-5,9

90,9

85,4

-5,5

Low / high income

99,7 / 81,3

92,9 / 72,5

(-6,8/-8,8)

91,6 / 73,4

85,4 / 64

(-6,2/-9,4)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

86

94,5

92,3

86,1

2010

55,3

72,4

78,2

86,5

84,7

-7,8

-8,0

-7,6

71,5

79,1

77,5

-7,1

-7,4

-6,9

78,6

86,5

84,4

77,8

2050

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

46,4

56,6

-8,8

-15,9

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

ES

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care
Self-percieved general health
Total health care expenditure (PPS)
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

64,1
63,6
9,9
8,7
78,2
84,5
18,1
22,1
0,4
72,80

62,9
62,2
9,2
8,4
78,7
84,9
18,3
22,4
0,4
71,10

65,4
65,8
9,7
9,3
79,5
85,6
18,8
23
0,6
75,10
2.228,99 2.239,30 2.244,58 2.195,16
9,45

64,4
63,9
9,6
8,9
79,1
85,3
18,6
22,7
0,3
71,90

9,64

9,64

8,94

64,7
65,7
9,2
9
79,5
85,4
18,6
22,8
0,7
74,3

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

266 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS204 

ES 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

definition 

Unemployment benefit 
Number of Unemployment Benefits Total (In Thousands)                                                            
1) Contributory Unemployment Benefit 2) Social Assistance Unemployment Benefit 3) 
Programme of active insertion income 

unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
Ministry of Employment and Social Security 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

definition 
unit 
source 

RMI : Minimum Income for Insertion (holders) 
thousands of beneficiaries 
Ministry of Health,  Social Services and Equality 

Disability benefit 

definition  Number of invalidity pensions 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
Ministry of Employment and Social Security 

204 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

267 

 
 
  
  
  
 
                                                           
FRANCE 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

The national poverty target is fully aligned with the objective at the European level and aims at 
reducing by 1/6th the population living in poverty or social exclusion by 2020 which represents 
1.9 million fewer people living in poverty or social exclusion (baseline year: 2007) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2007 and target data year 2017; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low 

work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income reference year prior to the survey (i.e. 2011) while for the severe material deprivation rate 

(SMD), the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

268 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

FR 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

12,5 

12,9 

13,3 

14,0 

14,1 

7.554 

7.820 

8.112 

8.605 

8.707 

8,8 

8,3 

9,8 

9,3 

8,4 

4.069 

3.873 

4.585 

4.346 

3.902 

5,4 

5,6 

5,8 

5,2 

5,3 

3.253 

3.372 

3.530 

3.211 

3.256 

2,1 

2,0 

2,6 

2,6 

2,3 

1.282 

1.213 

1.559 

1.573 

1.426 

1,1 

662 

1,2 

745 

0,5 

292 

1,6 

944 

1,5 

903 

1,6 

960 

1,3 

816 

1,2 

1,5 

1,3 

1,3 

721 

0,4 

265 

922 

0,3 

209 

789 

0,3 

211 

815 

0,4 

232 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,1 

1,2 

-0,9 

-10,2 

0,1 

1,4 

-0,3 

-9,3 

-0,3 

1,6 

16,9 

17,0 

15,3 

84.586 

84.999 

-0,4 

-4,1 

-0,1 

0,1 

0,2 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

11,2 

14.577 

13.456 

0,2 

2,6 

2,9 

-15,0 

23,3 

13.013 

14.345 

0,0 

3,3 

0,1 

0,1 

9,4 

-0,1 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

10,0 

-20,5 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

269 

 
  
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

FR 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
-0,1 
0,5 
7,8 
2,9 
29,7 

2009 
-3,1 
-1,3 
9,5 
3,4 
31,9 

2010 
1,7 
0,1 
9,7 
3,9 
32,0 

2011 
2,0 
0,6 
9,6 
4,0 
31,9 

2012 
0,0 
0,0 
10,2 
4,1 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

FR 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

29,7 
8,6 
1,8 
11,5 
1,8 
2,6 
1,9 
0,8 
0,6 

3,3 
0,1 
0,3 
0,5 
0,3 
0,6 
0,2 
0,8 
0,6 

26,4 
8,6 
1,5 
11,1 
1,5 
2,0 
1,7 
0,0 
0,0 

31,9 
9,2 
1,9 
12,4 
1,9 
2,7 
2,1 
0,8 
0,7 

3,6 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,3 
0,6 
0,2 
0,8 
0,7 

28,3 
9,1 
1,6 
11,9 
1,6 
2,1 
2,0 
0,0 
0,0 

32,0 
9,2 
2,0 
12,5 
1,9 
2,7 
2,2 
0,8 
0,8 

3,6 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,8 
0,8 

28,5 
9,1 
1,6 
12,0 
1,6 
2,1 
2,1 
0,0 
0,0 

31,9 
9,1 
2,0 
12,6 
1,9 
2,6 
2,1 
0,8 
0,8 

3,6 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,8 
0,8 

28,4 
9,0 
1,6 
12,1 
1,5 
2,1 
2,0 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

270 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

77,6

78,5

63

58,8

59,0

48,0

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-19,5

-15,0

63,9      
(100/0/0)*
64,3 
(100/0/0)*
47,9 
(100/0/0)*

58,8 / 58,8

69,4 / 50,8

-16,6

-17,0

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47,3    
(100/0/0)*
47,3 
(100/0/0)*
37,4 
(100/0/0)*

47,3 / 47,3

56,7 / 40,2

38 years career: average income

66,6

51,3

-15,3

53,9

40,6

-13,3

Low / high income

66,9 / 54,5

50,5 / 43,6 (-16,4 /-10,9) 54,4 / 41,4

40,6 / 32,6 (-13,8/-8,8)

42 years career: average income

80,9

65,4

-15,5

66,9

53,2

-13,7

Low / high income

82 / 66,1

66,9 / 55,1 (-15,1 /-11) 67,3 / 50,5

53,7 / 41,7 (-13,6 /-8,8)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

65,5

76,4

76,9

56,5

2010

39,8

58,8

51

61,2

58,5

42,3

2050

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53,2

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53,6

62,9

63,3

45,2

40,4

49,4

46,8

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Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

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-5,6

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

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-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

FR

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

62,8
63,5
9
9,5
78
85
18,7
23,2
1,9
68,6

62,7
64,6
8,7
10,1
77,8
84,8
18,5
23
1,9
69,1

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63,6
9,7
9,9
78,7
85,7
19,3
23,8
2,3
67,6
2.980,35 3.033,01 3.115,69 3.195,62
11,61

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63,4
9
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

276 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS205 

205 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

277 

 
 
                                                           
FR 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

definition 

unit 
source 

link 

definition 

unit 
source 

link 

comment 

definition 

unit 
source 

link 

comment 

Unemployment benefit 1 

persons entitled to U unemployment insurance scheme : ARE (Allocation de Retour à 
l'Emploi)  
thousands of beneficiaries  Seasonnaly adjusted (France Métropolitaine) 
Fichier National des Assédics (FNA) 
http://www.unedic.org/etude-et-prevision/situations-detaillees-de-l-assurance-
chomage-pour-l-annee-2013 

Unemployment benefit 2 

persons entitled to U assistance scheme ASS PER YEAR: (Allocation de Solidarité 
Spécifique) 
thousands of beneficiaries -  Seasonally adjusted (the whole of France) 
Cnamts, Cnaf, MSA, Drees, Pôle Emploi, FSV, Cnav, CDC, régime des caisses des DOM 
SHEET RSA 
http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=natsos04604 
http://www.drees.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/minima_sociaux_2013.pdf 
na: not available with the same filed (the whole of France)                                                           

Social assistance benefit 
Households entitled to social assistance Benefit (RSA since Q2/2009) RSA Socle & RSA 
Activité 
thousands of beneficiaries (the whole of France) 
CNAF 
http://www.caf.fr/etudes-et-statistiques/donnees-statistiques/solidarite-et-insertion 

RSA definition: A new social assistance scheme, revenu de solidarité active (RSA), has 
been introduced in June 2009.  It replaces two former social assistance benefits, the 
former minimum income scheme (revenu minimum d’insertion, RMI), and the lone 
parents benefit (allocation de parent isolé, API), and the various in-work benefits which 
were related to these two social assistance benefits. Notably for these reasons, the 
data on RMI and the data on RSA are not fully comparable. Moreover, only one part of 
RSA (RSA socle) is a social assistance scheme. Within the attached data, the whole of 
beneficiaries are covered:  
- « RSA socle » only  
- « RSA activité » only. This case (RSA activité) completes the amount of ARE in the case 
of a low income. 
- and « RSA socle + activité ». This case represents the beneficiaries who receive only 
the RSA socle (when they have not work income) or beneficiaries who are in a situation 
of full cumulation RSA socle+activité for 3 months following the resumption of 
employment during the last twelve months. 

278 

 
  
  
  
  
  
 
CROATIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION  

Number of people in poverty and social 

Number of people in poverty and social 

exclusion (2011) 

exclusion (2020) 

1,382,000 

1,282,000 

Source: Economic Programme (2012) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

279 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

HR 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

17,3 

17,9 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

20,5 

871 

13,7 

436 

14,3 

606 

4,1 

174 

3,6 

152 

21,3 

906 

15,4 

491 

14,8 

627 

3,9 

164 

3,8 

160 

20,5 

872 

16,1 

515 

15,4 

655 

3,6 

152 

3,5 

148 

3,1 

3,5 

4,0 

134 

0,4 

16 

149 

0,7 

32 

170 

0,7 

31 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

-0,8 

-3,8 

0,7 

4,9 

0,6 

4,5 

-0,3 

-7,3 

-0,3 

-7,5 

0,5 

14,1 

0,0 

-3,1 

3,2 

16,9 

17,0 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

: 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

14.577 

13.456 

2,6 

2,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

280 

 
  
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

HR 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
2,1 
3,1 
8,4 
5,3 
18,2 

2009 
-6,9 
-1,8 
9,1 
5,1 
20,2 

2010 
-2,3 
-5,1 
11,8 
6,7 
20,5 

2011 
0,0 
-2,3 
13,5 
8,6 
20,2 

2012 
-2,0 
-3,9 
15,9 
10,3 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

HR 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

18,2 
6,3 
3,2 
4,9 
2,0 
1,5 
0,2 
0,0 
0,1 

1,2 
0,0 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

17,0 
6,3 
2,9 
4,9 
2,0 
0,6 
0,2 
0,0 
0,0 

20,2 
7,1 
3,5 
5,4 
2,1 
1,6 
0,4 
0,0 
0,1 

1,3 
0,0 
0,3 
0,1 
0,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

18,9 
7,1 
3,2 
5,4 
2,1 
0,7 
0,4 
0,0 
0,0 

20,5 
7,0 
3,6 
5,6 
2,1 
1,7 
0,5 
0,0 
0,1 

1,3 
0,0 
0,3 
0,1 
0,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

19,2 
7,0 
3,3 
5,6 
2,1 
0,7 
0,5 
0,0 
0,0 

20,2 
6,8 
3,5 
5,6 
2,1 
1,6 
0,5 
0,0 
0,1 

1,4 
0,0 
0,3 
0,1 
0,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

18,8 
6,8 
3,2 
5,5 
2,1 
0,7 
0,5 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)   

281 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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5

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

HR

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

:

:
:
:
:
73
79,7
14,5
17,9
:

:

57,3
60,7
6,4
6,4
73,5
79,9
14,6
18,2
6,1
46,5
:

59,9
61,8
7,5
7,1
73,8
80,4
15,1
18,6
5,1
45,0
:

62
64,5
7,7
8,2
73,9
80,6
15
18,7
3,6
47,2

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

287 

 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS206 

206 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

288 

 
 
                                                           
HR 

definition 

According to the Act on Employment Mediation and Unemployment Rights an 
unemployed person is a person fully or partly capable of work, aged between 15 and 
65, not employed and actively seeks employment and is available for employment. 

Unemployment 

unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Croatian Employment Service 

definition 

Unemployed persons on the CES register are entitled to unemployment benefit in the 
reporting month based on the stipulations of the Act on Employment Mediation and 
Unemployment Rights.  

Unemployment benefit  

unit 
source 
link 

thousands of beneficiaries 
Croatian Employment Service  
http://www.hzz.hr 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 
Social assistance is a means-tested social benefit which is granted to single persons or 
household members for satisfaction of basic living needs in the amount identified in the 
Social Welfare Act (Official Gazette RC no. 33/12) , who do not have funds for such 
purposes for reasons which they could not or may not influence, and they are unable to 
earn them by work, income, assets, benefits or receipts, funds of the persons obliged to 
support them or income earned in other ways. On guaranteed minimum income, have 
the right to a social benefit, depending on the family structure. 

definition 

unit 
source 
link 

number of pearsons of social assistance beneficiaries, in thousands 
Ministry of Social Policy and Youth of the Republic of Croatia 
www.mspm.hr 

comment 

 Social  assistance  may  be  granted  wholly  or  partially  as  allowance  in  kind,  when  it 
establishes  that  it  is  more  favourable  for  the  beneficiary  or  that  beneficiary  does  not 
use, or it is very probable that the allowance will not be used for intended purposes. 

Disability benefit 

definition 

unit 
source 
link 

Disability benefit is a personal disability allowance, allowance for assistance and care, 
jobseekers allowance under the Social Welfare Act (Official Gazette RC no. 33/12) that 
are a means - tested. 
number of pearsons , in thousands 
Ministry of Social Policy and Youth of the Republic of Croatia 
www.mspm.hr 

comment 

Personal disability allowance is a cash benefit is provided to persons with severe 
disability or other severe permanent changes in their health condition, for the purpose 
of satisfying their living needs to be included in the life of the community. Allowance for 
assistance and care is a cash benefit for persons who cannot satisfy their basic living 
needs independently and thus indispensably require assistance and care from another 
person.  Jobseekers allowanceis is provided to persons with disabilities under the 
conditions of the Social Welfare Act, after graduation (elementary, secondary and 
tertiary education) to the employment. 

289 

 
  
  
  
 
ITALY 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"To reduce the number of people at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion by 2.2 million by 2020" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

290 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC)  

IT 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

18,7 

18,4 

18,2 

19,6 

19,4 

11.149  11.077  10.938  11.877  11.810 

9,8 

8,8 

10,2 

10,4 

10,3 

4.344 

3.922 

4.514 

4.631 

4.592 

7,5 

7,0 

6,9 

11,2 

14,5 

4.494 

4.211 

4.173 

6.771 

8.810 

2,6 

2,1 

2,7 

2,8 

2,2 

change   change  
 2011-
2012 
-0,2 

2008-
2012 
0,7 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

16,9 

17,0 

-0,6 

-0,1 

-0,8 

3,3 

30,1 

-0,6 

5,9  84.586  84.999 

0,5 

10,3 

10,4 

5,7  39.465  39.431 

7,0 

8,9 

9,9 

96,0  44.362  49.671 

-0,4 

2,9 

2,7 

1.553 

1.284 

1.641 

1.718 

1.355 

-21,1 

-12,7  14.577  13.456 

2,7 

2,7 

2,3 

3,6 

4,7 

1.635 

1.596 

1.369 

2.208 

2.881 

1,1 

30,5 

2,0 

2,6 

2,9 

76,2  13.013  14.345 

1,3 

752 

0,3 

197 

1,0 

623 

0,4 

248 

1,4 

836 

0,3 

187 

1,6 

944 

0,6 

352 

2,0 

0,4 

0,7 

1,7 

1,9 

1.187 

0,7 

408 

25,7 

0,1 

57,8 

8.248 

9.294 

0,4 

0,6 

0,6 

15,9 

107,1 

2.785 

3.236 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

291 

 
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

IT 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
-1,2 
0,3 
6,7 
3,1 
26,4 

2009 
-5,5 
-1,6 
7,8 
3,5 
28,5 

2010 
1,7 
-0,7 
8,4 
4,1 
28,6 

2011 
0,5 
0,3 
8,4 
4,4 
28,4 

2012 
-2,5 
-0,3 
10,7 
5,7 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

IT 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

26,4 
6,9 
1,6 
13,6 
2,4 
1,3 
0,5 
0,0 
0,1 

1,8 
0,0 
0,3 
0,4 
0,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

24,7 
6,9 
1,2 
13,2 
2,4 
0,4 
0,5 
0,0 
0,0 

28,5 
7,3 
1,7 
14,5 
2,6 
1,4 
0,8 
0,0 
0,1 

2,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,4 
0,0 
1,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

26,5 
7,3 
1,4 
14,1 
2,6 
0,4 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 

28,6 
7,3 
1,7 
14,8 
2,6 
1,3 
0,8 
0,0 
0,1 

1,8 
0,0 
0,4 
0,4 
0,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

26,8 
7,3 
1,3 
14,3 
2,6 
0,4 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 

28,4 
7,1 
1,6 
14,8 
2,6 
1,4 
0,8 
0,0 
0,1 

1,8 
0,0 
0,3 
0,4 
0,0 
1,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

26,6 
7,1 
1,3 
14,4 
2,6 
0,4 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

292 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

89,5

89,8

86,5

69,1

70,5

55,8

69,1/69,1

81,7/59,8

-20,4

-19,3

-30,7

80,2

80,2

76,1

-21,4

-21,4

-31,6

58,8

58,8

44,5

58,8/58,8

71,3/49,3

38 years career: average income

83,4

63,4

-20,0

73,8

52,9

-20,9

Low / high income

84/81,4

65,2/51,2 (-18,8 / -30,2) 73,8/70,3

52,9/40,4 (-20,9 / -29,9)

42 years career: average income

89,3

75,6

-13,7

80

65,6

-14,4

Low / high income

89,6 / 86,7

76,6 / 61,6 (-13 / -25,1)

80 / 76,4

65,6 / 49,8 (-14,4 / -26,6)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

84,4

78,7

85,6

70,5

2010

48,5

79,5

60,9

69,6

76,1

55,1

2050

45,4

66,0

-23,5

-9,1

-9,5

-15,4

74,9

68,3

81,5

60,3

50,3

59,3

71,8

44,3

-24,6

-9,0

-9,7

-16,0

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-3,1

-13,6

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

IT

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

63
61,9
7,6
7,1
79,1
84,5
18,2
22
5,2
63,5
:

63,4
62,6
8
7,2
79,4
84,6
18,3
22,1
5,3
63,8
:

67,6
67,6
10,2
10
79,8
85
18,6
22,4
5,0
66,8
:

63,4
62,7
8,1
7
80,1
85,3
18,8
22,6
5,9
64,7
:

62,1
61,5
7,8
7,2
:
:
:
:
5,6
68,4

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

298 

 
 
CYPRUS 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Reduce  the  number  of  people  at  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  by  27.000  people  or 

decrease the percentage of people at-risk-of-poverty and social exclusion from 23.3% in 2008 

to 19,3% by 2020" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2013) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

299 

 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

CY 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

15,9 

124 

15,8 

126 

4,5 

29 

9,1 

71 

1,2 

9 

2,5 

20 

0,7 

5 

0,5 

4 

4,0 

26 

9,5 

76 

0,9 

7 

2,3 

18 

0,7 

6 

0,3 

3 

15,6 

128 

4,8 

33 

14,8 

124 

4,9 

33 

11,2 

11,7 

92 

1,5 

12 

3,4 

27 

0,5 

4 

0,4 

3 

98 

1,3 

11 

3,2 

27 

0,5 

4 

0,4 

3 

14,7 

127 

6,4 

45 

15,0 

129 

1,5 

13 

3,8 

33 

0,9 

8 

0,8 

7 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,1 

2,4 

1,5 

36,4 

3,3 

31,6 

0,2 

18,2 

0,6 

22,2 

0,4 

100,0 

0,4 

133,3 

-1,2 

2,4 

1,9 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

55,2 

39.465 

39.431 

5,9 

8,9 

9,9 

81,7 

44.362 

49.671 

0,3 

2,9 

2,7 

44,4 

14.577 

13.456 

1,3 

2,6 

2,9 

65,0 

13.013 

14.345 

0,2 

60,0 

0,3 

75,0 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

300 

 
  
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

CY 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
3,6 
2,0 
3,7 
0,5 
19,5 

2009 
-1,9 
-0,4 
5,4 
0,6 
21,1 

2010 
1,3 
-0,2 
6,3 
1,3 
22,1 

2011 
0,4 
0,4 
7,9 
1,6 
22,8 

2012 
-2,4 
-4,2 
11,8 
3,6 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

CY 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

18,6 
4,5 
0,7 
7,3 
1,1 
2,1 
1,0 
0,8 
1,1 

2,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,8 
0,8 

16,4 
4,5 
0,7 
6,7 
1,1 
2,1 
1,0 
0,0 
0,4 

20,8 
5,1 
0,8 
8,1 
1,2 
2,2 
1,0 
1,1 
1,4 

2,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,7 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
1,1 
1,0 

18,0 
5,1 
0,8 
7,4 
1,2 
2,2 
1,0 
0,0 
0,4 

21,8 
5,0 
0,7 
8,9 
1,2 
2,1 
1,1 
1,1 
1,5 

3,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
1,1 
1,0 

18,8 
5,0 
0,7 
8,1 
1,2 
2,1 
1,1 
0,0 
0,5 

22,2 
5,0 
0,7 
9,4 
1,3 
2,0 
1,2 
1,0 
1,6 

2,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
1,0 
1,1 

19,3 
5,0 
0,7 
8,6 
1,3 
2,0 
1,2 
0,0 
0,5 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

301 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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9

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

57

60

48

70

66

55

70 / 70

70 / 70

13

6

7

50      
(100/0/0)*
56 
(100/0/0)*
38 
(100/0/0)*

60     
(100/0/0)*
59 
(100/0/0)*
44 
(100/0/0)*

60 / 60

60 / 60

38 years career: average income

57

67

10

50

57

10

3

6

7

Low / high income

60 / 48

64 / 53

(4 / 5)

56 / 38

58 / 42

(2 / 4)

42 years career: average income

56

72

16

49

61

12

Low / high income

60 / 51

68 / 58

(8 / 7)

56 / 41

61 / 47

(5 / 6)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

56

53

53

42

2010

43,3

45,3

68

64

66

54

12

11

13

12

50

49

46

37

54

56

56

46

4

7

10

9

2050

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

45,2

52,3

1,9

7,0

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: 

Joint 

SPC/EC 

report 

on 

Pension 

Adequacy 

in 

the 

European 

Union 

(2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EU28

CY

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (good and very good) (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

64,5
65,4
9,4
7,8
78,2
82,9
17,8
20,3
2,8
75,7
1.401,57
5,83

64,9
65,6
10,1
8,5
78,5
83,5
18,0
20,7
3,4
74,9
:
:

65,1
64,2
10,2
8,1
79,2
83,9
18,3
21
3,9
73,8
:
:

61,6
61
8
5,9
79,3
83,1
18,2
20,3
4,4
74,9
:
:

63,4
64
8,8
7,7
78,9
83,4
17,9
20,4
3,5
76,5
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

307 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS207 

207 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

308 

 
 
                                                           
CY 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

Unemployment benefit (1) 

definition  Number of applicants for unemployment benefit  
unit 
source 

thousands of applicants 
Social Insurance Services, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Cyprus 
CY UB applicants refer to the number of applicants for unemployment benefit from 
Social Insurance Services. Some of those applicants can be rejected due to the 
qualifying contribution conditions of the unemployment benefit. The unsmoothness of 
the number of applicants is due to the seasonality effect of the hospitality industry. 

comment 

definition  Number of beneficiaries for unemployment benefit  
unit 
source 

thousands of applicants 
Social Insurance Services, Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Cyprus 

Unemployment benefit (2) 

comment 

CY UB beneficiaries refer to the number of beneficiaries for unemployment benefit 
from Social Insurance Services at the corresponding period. The unsmoothness of the 
number of beneficiaries is due to the seasonality effect of the hospitality industry. 

Social assistance benefit 

definition  Number of public assistance beneficiaries 
thousands of beneficiaries 
unit 
Social Welfare Services,  Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Cyprus  
source 
The decrease shown in the number of public assistance beneficiaries in June 2012 is 
due to a change of the relevant legislation. More specifically, until May 2012 financial 
assistance to lone parents was provided in the context of the Public Assistance 
Legislation and from June 2012 a single parent benefit has been introduced in the Child 
Benefit Law. In addition, the cases of public assistance with the nature of distress 
“unemployment” have been increased over the last years from 1.292 in August 2012 to 
2.512 in September 2013.  

comment 

309 

 
  
  
  
 
LATVIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"To lift 121,000 people out of the risk of poverty or exclusion by 2020" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

310 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC)  

LV 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

25,9 

559 

5,4 

91 

19,3 

416 

1,3 

29 

9,3 

26,4 

563 

7,4 

122 

22,1 

472 

1,8 

39 

8,3 

20,9 

437 

12,5 

200 

27,6 

578 

2,0 

41 

7,2 

19,0 

388 

12,5 

195 

31,0 

634 

1,8 

36 

7,1 

19,2 

388 

11,7 

178 

25,6 

518 

2,0 

40 

6,1 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,2 

0,0 

-0,8 

-8,7 

-5,4 

-6,7 

16,9 

17,0 

-30,6 

84.586 

84.999 

6,3 

10,3 

10,4 

95,6 

39.465 

39.431 

6,3 

8,9 

9,9 

-18,3 

24,5 

44.362 

49.671 

0,2 

11,1 

-1,0 

0,7 

2,9 

2,7 

37,9 

14.577 

13.456 

-3,2 

2,6 

2,9 

201 

178 

150 

145 

123 

-15,2 

-38,8 

13.013 

14.345 

2,2 

47 

0,1 

3 

2,9 

62 

0,3 

6 

4,9 

102 

1,1 

23 

4,6 

94 

1,4 

28 

4,2 

84 

1,0 

21 

-0,4 

-10,6 

-0,4 

-25,0 

2,0 

78,7 

0,9 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

600,0 

2.785 

3.236 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

311 

 
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

LV 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
-2,8 
0,9 
7,7 
2,0 
12,5 

2009 
-17,7 
-13,2 
17,5 
4,7 
16,7 

2010 
-1,3 
-13,9 
19,5 
8,8 
17,6 

2011 
5,3 
1,5 
16,2 
8,8 
14,8 

2012 
5,2 
1,4 
15,0 
7,8 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

LV 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

12,5 
3,7 
0,9 
5,4 
0,2 
1,4 
0,5 
0,2 
0,1 

0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,0 

12,2 
3,7 
0,9 
5,4 
0,2 
1,4 
0,5 
0,0 
0,1 

16,7 
3,9 
1,3 
7,6 
0,3 
1,7 
1,6 
0,1 
0,1 

0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 

16,4 
3,9 
1,3 
7,6 
0,3 
1,7 
1,5 
0,0 
0,1 

17,6 
3,7 
1,3 
9,1 
0,3 
1,5 
1,3 
0,1 
0,2 

0,7 
0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,1 
0,2 

16,9 
3,5 
1,3 
9,1 
0,3 
1,5 
1,1 
0,0 
0,1 

14,8 
3,2 
1,3 
7,9 
0,3 
1,1 
0,7 
0,1 
0,3 

0,7 
0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,2 

14,1 
3,0 
1,3 
7,9 
0,3 
1,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,1 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

312 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

80,4

86,8

57

55,3

58,5

39,8

-25,1

-28,3

-17,2

63,9      
(100/0/0)*
63,9 
(100/0/0)*
47,5 
(100/0/0)*

52,8 / 58,3

59,5 / 52,2

-20,3

-20,3

-14,7

43,6     
(61/39/0)*
43,6 
(61/39/0)*
32,8 
(61/39/0)*

41,2 / 46,5

47,7 / 40,5

38 years career: average income

65,9

50,2

-15,7

48,2

38,6

-9,6

Low / high income

65,6 / 46,7

51,7 / 35,9 (-13,9/-10,8) 48,2 / 36,2

38,6 / 29

(-9,6/-7,2)

42 years career: average income

77,6

61,2

-16,4

58,3

49,4

-8,9

Low / high income

82 / 54,9

65 / 44,3

(-17/-10,6)

58,3 / 43

49,4 / 37,1

(-8,9/-5,9)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

68,8

56,8

59,4

63,5

2010

:

48,2

47,5

44,8

44,9

43,7

2050

:

15,8

-21,3

-12,0

-14,5

-19,8

51,1

40,3

42,3

47,5

35,9

33,2

33,4

32,2

-15,2

-7,1

-8,9

-15,3

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

:

-32,4

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EU28

LV

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care
Self-percieved general health
Total health care expenditure (PPS)
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

51,8
54,6
4,9
5
67
77,8
13
17,9
9,7
44,50
930,57
6,59

52,8
56,2
4,8
5,7
68,1
78
13,4
18,2
9,6
47,50
823,92
6,84

53,5
56,7
4,9
5,6
68,6
78,4
13,3
18,2
14,8
49,1
:
:

53,7
56,6
4,8
5
68,6
78,8
13,4
18,7
16,1
46,8
:
:

54,8
59,1
5,3
6,4
68,9
78,9
13,6
18,5
12,3
47,6

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

318 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS208 

LV 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

persons receiving unemployment benefit 
thousands of recipients 
State Social Insurance Agency 

Social assistance benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

persons in household receiving municipal GMI benefit 
thousands of recipients 
annual statistical reports from local municipalities 

Disability benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

persons receiving disability pension 
thousands of pensioners 
State Social Insurance Agency 

208 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a selection of 
benefits which have been considered most reactive to the crisis. The number of unemployed (standard definition by the ILO) and the 
number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

319 

 
 
 
  
  
  
 
                                                           
LITHUANIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Lithuania  commits  to  reduce  the  number  of  individuals  living  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social 

exclusion from the current 984,000 to 814,000 by 2020, which constitutes 170,000 people." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

320 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

LT 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

20,0 

20,6 

20,2 

671 

5,1 

135 

12,3 

414 

1,4 

47 

4,6 

687 

6,9 

184 

15,1 

502 

1,9 

64 

5,0 

672 

9,2 

241 

19,5 

648 

2,1 

71 

5,2 

19,2 

586 

12,6 

296 

19,0 

580 

3,1 

94 

4,0 

18,6 

559 

11,3 

259 

19,8 

596 

2,1 

63 

4,1 

154 

165 

172 

122 

124 

1,3 

42 

0,2 

6 

2,1 

69 

0,6 

21 

2,6 

85 

1,2 

38 

3,2 

99 

1,3 

39 

3,5 

106 

1,3 

40 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

Note: breaks in series in 2011 

-0,6 

-4,6 

-1,3 

-12,5 

0,8 

2,8 

-1,0 

-33,0 

0,1 

1,6 

0,3 

7,1 

0,0 

2,6 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

14.577 

13.456 

2,6 

2,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

321 

 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

LT 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
2,9 
-0,7 
5,8 
1,1 
15,6 

2009 
-14,8 
-6,8 
13,8 
3,2 
20,6 

2010 
1,6 
-11,9 
17,8 
7,5 
18,3 

2011 
6,0 
0,5 
15,4 
8,0 
16,4 

2012 
3,7 
1,8 
13,4 
6,6 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS);  
Note: breaks in series for 2011 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

LT 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

15,6 
4,6 
1,6 
6,4 
0,5 
1,8 
0,4 
0,0 
0,2 

0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 

15,3 
4,6 
1,6 
6,4 
0,5 
1,7 
0,4 
0,0 
0,0 

20,6 
5,5 
2,1 
8,3 
0,7 
2,8 
0,9 
0,0 
0,4 

0,5 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 

20,1 
5,5 
2,1 
8,3 
0,7 
2,7 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 

18,3 
4,8 
1,8 
7,4 
0,6 
2,2 
0,8 
0,0 
0,7 

1,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,7 

17,4 
4,8 
1,8 
7,4 
0,6 
1,9 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 

16,4 
4,5 
1,6 
6,7 
0,5 
1,7 
0,6 
0,0 
0,8 

1,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,7 

15,4 
4,5 
1,6 
6,7 
0,5 
1,5 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

322 

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

61,5

78,9

39,2

60,3

74,7

38,1

59 / 62

62,2 / 58,9

-1,2

-4,2

-1,1

47,7      
(96/4/0)*
63,1 
(97/3/0)*
29,8 
(94/6/0)*

-0,6

-2,9

-0,7

47,1     
(87/13/0)*
60,2 
(90/10/0)*
29,1 
(84/16/0)*

46,3 / 48,2

48,6 / 46

38 years career: average income

54,4

52,3

-2,1

40,7

40,8

0,1

Low / high income

67,6 / 36,9

64,7 / 33

(-2,9 / -3,9) 52,3 / 26,8

52,1 / 25,2 (-0,2 / -1,6)

42 years career: average income

76,8

72,5

-4,3

59,7

56,7

-3,0

Low / high income

95,7 / 51,1

89,9 / 45,8 (-5,8 / -5,3) 76,8 / 38,8

72,5 / 34,9 (-4,3 / -3,9)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

67,6

49,8

51,1

48

2010

38,7

38,2

58,6

58,6

56,1

46,2

2050

34,9

35,7

-9,0

8,8

5,0

-1,8

52,6

36,3

38,2

37,3

45,7

45,8

43,8

36,1

-6,9

9,5

5,6

-1,2

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-3,7

-2,5

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EU28

LT

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

54,8
59,9
5,8
6,5
65,9
77,6
13,6
18,4
5,5
48,3
1107,5
6,6

57,2
61,2
6,1
6,8
67,1
78,7
13,6
18,8
3,1
49,6
1041,0
7,5

57,8
62,4
6,3
6,7
67,6
78,9
13,8
18,8
2,5
51,9
1074,9
7,1

57,0
62,0
6,2
6,7
68,1
79,3
14,0
19,2
2,8
43,9
1164,0
6,9

56,6
61,6
5,6
6,1
68,4
79,6
14,1
19,2
2,3
44,3

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

328 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS209 

209 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

329 

 
 
                                                           
LT 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 
link 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
eurostat 
http://nui.epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=lmhu_m&lang=en 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  Unemployment benefit recipients 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
National Labour Exchange. 
The unemployed have possibility to receive unemployment benefit if he has a minimum 
period of insurance: 18 months within 3 years preceding unemployment. (there are 
exceptions for certain groups of unemployed people who contributed but have not 
acquired the necessary social insurance record due to important reasons). The duration 
of payment of Unemployment Insurance Benefit depends on the length of the 
insurance record: Service years Duration less than 25 years 6 months; 25 - 30 years -7 
months, 30 - 35 years- 8 months; 35 years and over-9 months. The duration of payment 
is prolonged for additional 2 months for elderly persons within 5 years till pension age. 
Since 1 January 2013 unemployment benefits are paying from the State Social 
Insurance Fund (‘’Sodra”). 
The statistical data of on the website at www.sodra.lt or on the special website at 
http://atvira.sodra.lt  

comment 

Social assistance benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

comment 

number of recipients of social benefit 
thousands of recipients 
Ministry of Social Security and Labour, The Social Assistance Information System. 
Families and single residents are entitled to Social Benefit if either single resident or 
one spouse works or does not work because they are full-time students or pensioners, 
or individuals above retirement age, or disabled, or nursing a disabled or sick family 
member, or registered at the local office as unemployed and receiving Unemployment 
Benefit or are long-term unemployed (more than 6 months), or taking care of a child 
under the age of 3 years or under the age of 8 years, or family is raising three or more 
children, etc. 

definition 
unit 

All disability pensions 
thousands of pensioners 

Disability benefit 

Early Retirement 

definition 
unit 

comment 

The number of recipients of early retirement pensions, thousand 
thousands of pensioners 
Persons are eligible for early retirement pension if: they acquired an insurance period 
of 30 years, they are registered as unemployed for at least 12 months,  the age is less 
than 5 years to retirement age,  have no other incomes, do not receive any other 
pension or benefit. Since 2012, the requirement for pre-retirement age persons to be 
registered in the Labour Exchange has been cancelled. 

330 

 
  
  
  
  
 
LUXEMBOURG 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Luxembourg aims to reduce the number of persons under the threat of poverty or social 

exclusion by 6,000 people by 2020" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2012) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

331 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

LU 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

13,4 

14,9 

14,5 

13,6 

15,1 

62 

4,7 

18 

0,7 

3 

1,6 

8 

0,3 

1 

0,2 

1 

0,0 

0 

71 

6,3 

24 

1,1 

5 

2,1 

10 

0,5 

2 

0,3 

2 

0,0 

0 

71 

5,5 

22 

0,5 

3 

2,0 

10 

0,3 

1 

0,1 

1 

0,0 

68 

5,8 

24 

1,2 

6 

1,8 

9 

0,6 

3 

0,1 

1 

0,1 

78 

6,1 

26 

1,3 

7 

2,0 

10 

0,5 

3 

0,2 

1 

0,0 

0 

0 
Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

0 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

1,5 

14,7 

0,3 

8,3 

0,1 

16,7 

0,2 

11,1 

-0,1 

0,0 

0,1 

0,0 

-0,1 

1,7 

16,9 

17,0 

25,8 

84.586 

84.999 

1,4 

10,3 

10,4 

44,4 

39.465 

39.431 

0,6 

8,9 

9,9 

133,3 

44.362 

49.671 

0,4 

2,9 

2,7 

25,0 

14.577 

13.456 

0,2 

2,6 

2,9 

200,0 

13.013 

14.345 

0,0 

0,0 

0,0 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: In Luxembourg, poverty risk rate has increased from 13.6% in 2011 to 15.1% in 2012. This statistic is an indicator of 
income inequality rather than actual poverty or precariousness. So, income inequality has indeed increased as a result of 
the evolution of specific income components. The weight of capital income (rents and income from financial investments) is 
much higher at the top than at the bottom of the income distribution (9.4% in the 10th decile vs. 2.5% in the 1st decile). 
Capital income has increased sharply between 2011 and 2012 (+26%). As to the income components that make most of 
the revenue of low-income households, they have very slightly increased or have even decreased. 

332 

 
  
  
  
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

LU 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
-0,7 
5,0 
4,9 
1,6 
21,0 

2009 
-5,6 
0,9 
5,1 
1,2 
23,9 

2010 
3,1 
1,8 
4,6 
1,3 
22,6 

2011 
1,9 
2,9 
4,8 
1,4 
22,2 

2012 
-0,2 
2,5 
5,1 
1,6 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

LU 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

21,0 
5,3 
2,4 
5,6 
1,9 
4,2 
1,0 
0,2 
0,4 

0,6 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,4 

20,4 
5,3 
2,4 
5,6 
1,9 
4,2 
1,0 
0,0 
0,0 

23,9 
6,1 
2,7 
6,5 
2,1 
4,3 
1,3 
0,4 
0,5 

0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,5 

23,0 
6,1 
2,7 
6,5 
2,1 
4,3 
1,3 
0,0 
0,0 

22,6 
5,8 
2,6 
6,2 
2,0 
4,0 
1,3 
0,3 
0,5 

0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 
0,5 

21,8 
5,8 
2,6 
6,2 
2,0 
4,0 
1,3 
0,0 
0,0 

22,2 
5,6 
2,6 
6,3 
2,0 
3,6 
1,2 
0,3 
0,5 

0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 
0,5 

21,3 
5,6 
2,6 
6,3 
2,0 
3,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

333 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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,

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

99,9

105,6

77,7

83,0

86,4

64,9

83,0/83,0

83,0/83,0

-16,9

-19,2

-12,8

91,2      
(100/0/0)*
97,6 
(100/0/0)*
65,5 
(100/0/0)*

-19,5

-20,7

-14,1

71,7     
(100/0/0)*
76,9 
(100/0/0)*
51,4 
(100/0/0)*

71,7/71,7

71,7/71,7

38 years career: average income

95,4

78,9

-16,5

85,7

67,4

-18,3

Low / high income

100,6 / 73,9 82,2 / 61,9 (-18,4 / -12) 92,0 / 61,3

72,5 / 48,2 (-19,5 / -13,1)

42 years career: average income

99,9

83,0

-16,9

91,2

71,7

-19,5

Low / high income

105,6/77,7

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

99,9

99,9

97

86,9

2010

58,7

78,3

80,4

71,5

2050

53,7

63,2

86,4 / 64,9 (-19,2 / -12,8 97,6 / 65,6
-21,6

91,2

78,3

83,0

-16,9

91,2

87,7

76,0

-16,6

-15,4

76,9 / 51,4  (-20,7 / -14,2)

66,6

71,7

68,9

59,7

-24,6

-19,5

-18,8

-16,3

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-5,0

-15,1

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EU28

LU

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care
Self-percieved general health
Total health care expenditure (PPS)
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

64,8
64,4
10,7
11,6
78,1
83,1
17,4
21
0,6
74,00
4.678,93
6,75

65,1
65,9
10,8
11,5
78,1
83,3
17,6
21,4
0,6
74
:
:

64,4
66,4
10,5
12,4
77,9
83,5
17,3
21,6
0,6
75,2
:
:

65,8
67,1
11,5
11,8
78,5
83,6
17,8
21,6
0,6
72,5
:
:

65,8
66,4
11,6
11,9
79,1
83,8
18,4
21,4
0,7
73,8

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

339 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS210 

LU 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

definition 

unit 
source 

Total of beneficiary households of the guaranteed minimum revenu (complementary 
allocation) 
thousands of beneficiaries 
IGSS 

Disability benefit 
 Total of disability pensions of the general pension scheme (permanent, transitory and 
"indemnité d'attente") 
thousands of beneficiaries 
IGSS 

definition 

unit 
source 

Early retirement  

definition  Early retirement beneficiaries 
unit 
source 

thousands of beneficiaries 
IGSS 

210 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a selection of 
benefits which have been considered most reactive to the crisis. The number of unemployed (standard definition by the ILO) and the 
number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

340 

 
 
 
  
  
  
                                                           
HUNGARY 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Hungary aims to reduce the level of poverty among families with children, the number of people living in 

severe material deprivation, and the number of people living in households with low work intensity by 20 

per  cent  each.  Taking  the  overlaps  into  consideration,  this  means  that  Hungary  plans  to  reduce  the 

number  of  those  affected  by  the  three  indicators  by  approximately  5  percentage  points,  or  by  450 

thousand people, to 23.5 per cent by 2020." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

341 

 
 
 
reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

HU 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

12,4 

12,4 

12,3 

13,8 

14,0 

1.226 

1.229 

1.211 

1.363 

1.379 

12,0 

943 

17,9 

11,3 

870 

20,3 

11,8 

909 

21,6 

12,1 

925 

23,1 

12,7 

964 

25,7 

1.771 

2.009 

2.129 

2.278 

2.527 

2,0 

195 

2,8 

276 

2,7 

263 

1,5 

149 

1,5 

152 

3,4 

341 

2,8 

273 

1,5 

145 

1,5 

149 

3,3 

321 

3,4 

331 

1,7 

169 

1,3 

125 

4,6 

450 

4,0 

396 

1,5 

148 

1,1 

113 

4,6 

457 

4,9 

481 

1,5 

151 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,2 

1,2 

0,6 

4,2 

2,6 

10,9 

-0,2 

-9,6 

0,0 

1,6 

0,9 

1,6 

16,9 

17,0 

12,5 

84.586 

84.999 

0,7 

2,2 

7,8 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

42,7 

44.362 

49.671 

-0,9 

2,9 

2,7 

-42,1 

14.577 

13.456 

1,8 

2,6 

2,9 

65,6 

13.013 

14.345 

2,2 

1,7 

1,9 

21,5 

82,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,0 

2,0 

0,0 

1,3 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

342 

 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

HU 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
0,9 
-1,8 
7,8 
3,6 
22,5 

2009 
-6,8 
-2,5 
10,0 
4,2 
23,9 

2010 
1,1 
0,8 
11,2 
5,5 
22,6 

2011 
1,6 
0,3 
10,9 
5,2 
22,8 

2012 
-1,7 
0,1 
10,9 
4,9 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

HU 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

22,5 
5,6 
2,1 
8,8 
1,3 
2,9 
0,8 
0,7 
0,1 

1,2 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,3 
0,7 
0,0 

21,2 
5,5 
2,1 
8,8 
1,3 
2,8 
0,6 
0,0 
0,1 

23,9 
5,7 
2,1 
9,9 
1,4 
3,0 
1,0 
0,7 
0,1 

1,2 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,3 
0,7 
0,0 

22,6 
5,6 
2,1 
9,9 
1,4 
2,9 
0,7 
0,0 
0,1 

22,6 
5,7 
1,9 
9,1 
1,3 
3,0 
0,9 
0,5 
0,1 

1,1 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,3 
0,5 
0,0 

21,5 
5,6 
1,9 
9,1 
1,3 
2,9 
0,7 
0,0 
0,1 

22,8 
6,3 
1,7 
9,3 
1,3 
2,9 
0,8 
0,4 
0,1 

1,0 
0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,3 
0,4 
0,0 

21,8 
6,2 
1,7 
9,2 
1,3 
2,7 
0,5 
0,0 
0,1 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

343 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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,

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

100,1

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75

75

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49 
(100/0/0)*

62,3     
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62,3 
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46,8 
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58,9 / 66,3

69,4 / 57

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83,3

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4,3

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71,8 / 76,7

65,5 / 49,3 (-6,3/-27,4) 51,5 / 42,6

54,4 / 40,9

(2,9/-1,7)

42 years career: average income

111,5

87,2

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67

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96 / 102

87,2 / 65,4 (-8,8/-36,6) 68,8 / 56,7

72,4 / 54,4

(3,6/-2,3)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

107,3

66,1

81,0

48,2

2010

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38,4

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70,8

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55

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2050

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

26,6

40,3

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1,9

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

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Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

HU

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care
Self-percieved general health
Total health care expenditure (PPS)
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

55,9
58,2
5,7
5,7
70,3
78,4
14
18,2
2,1
55,90

54,8
58,3
5,6
6,4
70
78,3
13,9
18,1
3,4
55,10

57,6
59,1
6
6
71,2
78,7
14,3
18,3
2,6
55,90
1.224,26 1.218,47 1.318,59 1.346,95
7,96

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5,9
70,7
78,6
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1,7
55,00

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7,46

59,2
60,5
6,4
6,4
71,6
78,7
14,3
18,1
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8,6
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67,9
:
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

349 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS211 

Note: Purple line - the number of people eligible to regular social assistance, from 1 January the number of people eligible 

to benefit for persons in active age (regular social assistance + employment substituting benefit + those whose benefit is 

suspended (e.g. because of taking part in public work). In the period between February and December 2011, no data has 

been  collected  on  the  suspended  benefits;  Blue  line  -  the  number  of  people  eligible  to  benefit  for  persons  in  active  age, 
excluding those whose benefit is suspended. 

HU 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 
link 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 
http://nui.epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=lmhu_m&lang=en  

Unemployment benefit 

definition 

unit 
source 

Unemployment Benefit recipients - Recipients of jobseekers' allowance and jobseekers' 
assistance 
thousands of recipients 
National Employment Office (www.munka.hu) 

211 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

350 

 
 
  
                                                           
comment 

At the end of 2010 data from 2008 till 2010 about jobseekers' allowance were modified 
because of the changes in the functioning of the IT system, which revised the number of 
recipients of unemployment benefit.  
On the other hand data of 2006, 2007 were also modified because we have found significant 
differences between this number of HU jobseekers allowance, assistance receivers and 
number of recipients of jobseekers allowance, assistance (were registered by PES).  

Social assistance benefit 

definition 

definition  Recipients of regular social assistance 
thousands of recipients 
unit 
Hungarian Treasury  
source 
Regular social assistance is an income supplement provision in the form of cash, provided 
by the local government of the settlement. Its aim to guarantee a minimal standard of 
living for those who have no income. From the 1 July 2006 the conditions of the provision 
and the way of calculation of the amount of support changed. Before that the local 
government awarded regular social assistance to a person who was over 18 years of age, 
was of active age, and had lost at least 67 per cent of his or her working ability or 
received blind persons’ benefit, or to a person who was of active age but not in 
employment, in the case that their subsistence was not provided by other means.  
By the new terms for the support is entitled only one person in a family. The assessing of the 
entitlement and the amount of the assistance based on the income projected to the 
consumer unit instead of the previous income per capita. The consumer unit is the rate which 
shows the structure of consumption within a family. The first major member of the family and 
the disabled child’s rate is 1,0 while the ratio of the companion (spouse) and a child is lower 
(0,9-0,7). The amount of support is variable and supplements the family’s effective total 
income to the limit of the entitlement. The regular social assistance from 1 January 2009 was 
changed to benefit for active aged which consist of the regular social assistance and the 
"support for to be ready to work" (from 1st September 2011 employment substituting 
benefit). The change in the benefit system was built up completely until 31 March 2009. 
Persons capable of performing work are entitled to employment substituting benefit. Persons 
who belong to this scope are obliged to cooperate with the Public Employment Service and to 
take part in public work. The employment substituting benefit is paid, when the person is not 
involved into public work. The amount of the benefit is fixed it is equal to the 80 % of the 
minimum old-age pension. 
 Persons incapable of performing work are entitled to regular social assistance (health 
impaired, people who have less than five years to the retirement age, as well as persons who 
bring up a child under 14, and the attendance of the child at an institution providing daily care 
is not ensured. Furthermore, the competent municipality may set other conditions in its local 
decree connected to the family circumstances, health or mental status of the claimant, in 
which case the person entitled to benefit for persons in active age is defined as a person 
incapable of performing work.). The calculation of regular social assistance is determined on 
the grounds of the composition and income of the family.Only one person in a family can be 
eligible to the benefit for persons in active age, except for the case when two claimants are 
entitled to different cash benefits (one person is entitled to employment substituting benefit, 
the other to regular social assistance.  

comment 

Disability benefit 

definition  Disability subsidy recipients 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
Hungarian Treasury (www.allamkincstar.gov.hu) 
Financial support for severely disabled persons over the age of 18, who are unable to 
care for themselves or need permanenet assistance from others. 

definition 

351 

  
  
MALTA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Malta’s proposed national target will be to lift around 6,560 people out of risk of poverty and 

exclusion." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

352 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

MT 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

15,0 

15,3 

15,0 

15,4 

15,0 

61 

8,2 

26 

4,0 

16 

2,8 

11 

0,4 

2 

1,2 

5 

0,4 

1 

62 

8,4 

27 

4,7 

19 

2,7 

11 

1,0 

4 

1,1 

5 

0,5 

2 

62 

8,4 

27 

5,7 

23 

2,8 

11 

1,2 

5 

1,3 

6 

0,3 

1 

64 

8,3 

27 

6,3 

26 

2,8 

12 

1,4 

6 

1,1 

5 

0,3 

1 

62 

7,9 

25 

8,0 

33 

2,2 

9 

1,2 

5 

1,5 

6 

0,5 

2 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

353 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

0,0 

1,6 

-0,3 

-3,8 

4,0 

106,3 

44.362 

49.671 

-0,6 

2,9 

2,7 

-18,2 

14.577 

13.456 

0,8 

2,6 

2,9 

150,0 

13.013 

14.345 

0,3 

20,0 

0,1 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

-0,4 

-3,1 

-0,4 

-7,4 

1,7 

26,9 

-0,6 

-25,0 

-0,2 

-16,7 

0,4 

20,0 

0,2 

100,0 

100,0 

2.785 

3.236 

 
  
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

MT 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
3,9 
2,5 
6,0 
2,5 
17,9 

2009 
-2,8 
-0,2 
6,9 
3,0 
19,4 

2010 
3,3 
2,1 
6,9 
3,2 
19,2 

2011 
1,7 
2,5 
6,5 
3,0 
18,7 

2012 
0,9 
2,4 
6,4 
3,0 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

MT 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

17,9 
5,3 
1,0 
7,6 
1,7 
1,2 
0,5 
0,2 
0,4 

2,5 
0,9 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,4 
0,3 
0,2 
0,1 

15,4 
4,4 
0,8 
7,3 
1,7 
0,8 
0,2 
0,0 
0,2 

19,4 
6,0 
0,9 
8,3 
1,8 
1,2 
0,6 
0,2 
0,4 

2,6 
1,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,4 
0,4 
0,2 
0,1 

16,8 
5,0 
0,7 
8,0 
1,8 
0,8 
0,2 
0,0 
0,3 

19,2 
5,6 
0,8 
8,7 
1,8 
1,2 
0,5 
0,2 
0,3 

2,5 
1,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,4 
0,4 
0,2 
0,1 

16,6 
4,7 
0,7 
8,4 
1,8 
0,8 
0,2 
0,0 
0,2 

18,7 
5,5 
0,8 
8,4 
1,8 
1,2 
0,5 
0,2 
0,3 

2,5 
0,9 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,5 
0,4 
0,2 
0,1 

16,1 
4,6 
0,6 
8,1 
1,8 
0,7 
0,2 
0,0 
0,2 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

354 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

79,7

77,7

43,2

70,5

71,1

39,6

70,5 / 70,5

76,8 / 61,1

-9,2

-6,6

-3,6

67,3      
(100/0/0)*
67,3 
(100/0/0)*
32,9 
(100/0/0)*

-7,8

-5,4

-3,1

59,5     
(100/0/0)*
61,9 
(100/0/0)*
29,8 
(100/0/0)*

59,5 / 59,5

64,6 / 51,7

38 years career: average income

79,7

67,4

-12,3

67,3

56,5

-10,8

Low / high income

77,7 / 43,2

67,6 / 37,9 (-10,1/-5,3) 67,3 / 32,9

58,8 / 28,3

(-8,5/-4,6)

42 years career: average income

79,7

70,5

-9,2

67,3

59,5

-7,8

Low / high income

77,7 / 43,2

71,1 / 39,6

(-6,6/-3,6)

67,3 / 32,9

61,9 / 29,8

(-5,4/-3,1)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

73,8

79,7

79,7

79,7

2010

51,2

58,5

68,2

70,5

70,5

-5,6

-9,2

-9,2

57,4

59,5

59,5

-4,4

-7,8

-7,8

61,8

67,3

67,3

67,3

2050

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

47,6

51,6

-3,6

-6,9

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

MT

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

69
72,3
10,5
11,7
77,1
82,3
17
20,1
0,7
74,1
:

69,4
71
11,4
11,6
77,9
82,7
16,8
20,6
1,3
69,2
:

70,2
71,6
12
11,9
79,2
83,6
18,4
21,1
1,6
68,1
:

70,3
70,7
11,8
11
78,6
83
17,7
21
1,0
70,8
:

71,8
72,4
12,5
12,2
78,6
83
17,6
21
1,1
73,7

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

360 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS212 

MT  

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 
link 
comment 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 
http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=une_nb_m&lang=en 

definition 

1) Unemployment Benefit - UB; 2) Special Unemployment Benefit - SUB; 3) 
Unemployment Assistance - UA 

Unemployment benefit 

unit 
source 
link 

comment 

thousands of recipients 
Ministry of the Family and Social Solidarity 

https://secure2.gov.mt/socialpolicy/socprot/mjdf_page/disclaimer.aspx 
1) Unemployment benefit is paid to persons who are registering as unemployed under the 
Part 1 register as held by the Employment & Training Corporation who have paid or 
credited an accumulation of fifty (50) social security contributions in total and an average of 
twenty (20) social security contributions in the preceding two (2) years prior to their claim. 
The unemployment benefit rate which is paid for a maximum of six (6) months may be 
increased to a special unemployment benefit rate; 2)  If a person who is in receipt of 
Unemployment Benefit satisfies the conditions for the award of unemployment assistance, 
his benefit is increased to a Special Unemployment Benefit.; 3) Head of household who is 
seeking employment and is registering for work under Part 1 of the register with ETC is 
eligible for this benefit. 

212 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

361 

 
 
 
  
  
 
                                                           
MT 

definition 

unit 
source 
link 

comment 

definition 

source 
link 

comment 

Social assistance benefit 

1) Social Assistance - SA; 2) Social Assistance for Carers - SAF;  3) Supplementary 
Allowance - SPA (only low income earners are being considered as related to the crisis); 
4) Social Assistance for Drug Addicts - DAD 
thousands of beneficiaries 
Ministry of the Family and Social Solidarity 

https://secure2.gov.mt/socialpolicy/socprot/mjdf_page/disclaimer.aspx.       
1) Head of Households, who are incapable of work due to medical reasons, or are 
unemployed and seeking employment, given that they fulfill the means and capital 
resources tests; 2) ATo be entitled for this benefit, claimant must either be single or a 
widow (male or female), who are taking care of a sick relative by themselves on a full 
time basis. Relatives must be the parents, grand-parents, brothers, sisters, uncles, 
aunts, brothers or sisters’ in-laws and father/mother in laws. Claimants and patients 
are to give proof that they are residing in the same residence. Case will be referred for 
a medical examination; 3) Supplementary Allowance is payable to households where 
the total income of the members falls below the limits outlined by the Social Security 
Act from time to time.  In this regard, not all Supplementary Allowance beneficiaries 
here are related to the economic crisis but only beneficiries on low household income.  
SPA is paid every 13 weeks (roughly each 3 months), being Dec/Jan, Mar/Apr, Jun/Jul, 
and Sep/Oct; 4) A person who is undergoing a drug or alcohol rehabilitation therapeutic 
programme is eligible for this benefit. An official document from the institution 
concerned is received by the Department confirming date when programme was 
initiated. 

1) Disability Pension - SHP; 2) Pension for the visually impaired - BLD; 3) Disablement 
Pension (termed as Injury Pension in Social Security Act CAP 318)- DP; 4) Invalidity 
Pension - IP 

Disability benefit 

Ministry of the Family and Social Solidarity 

https://secure2.gov.mt/socialpolicy/socprot/mjdf_page/disclaimer.aspx.      
1) Payable to citizens of Malta over 16 years of age. Various types of disabilities are 
listed under the Social Security Act; 2) Claimant must be 14 years of age or over, and 
provide a medical certificate from an ophthalmologist from Mater Dei Hospital 
explaining the patient’s visual medical condition. This Benefit is means tested. 
Claimant’s income, together with the rate of Pension 
for the Visually Impaired must not exceed the National Minimum Wage as applicable to 
an 18-year-old person; 3) Payable if injury or disease caused or contracted whilst at 
work is considered to cause a loss of physical or mental faculty calculated between 20% 
& 89%.  Rates awarded according to degree of Disability.  Where the degree of 
disablement is assessed at 90% and over, the person concerned is automatically 
awarded an Invalidity Pension at the full rate. 4) Payable to persons deemed 
permanently incapable for suitable full-time or regular part-time employment.  Various 
rates according to different conditions. 

362 

  
The Maltese economy recorded an increase of 0.9 per cent in real GDP during 2012 
emanating mainly from the external side of the economy as the external sector 
contributed 2.8 percentage points towards overall growth while domestic demand 
contributed to 0.1 percentage points. On the other hand, the stock building component 
together with a significant statistical residual, acted as a drag on economic growth as it 
contributed negatively by 2.0 percentage points. According to latest data by NSO, real 
GDP growth expanded by 2.2 per cent in the first three quarters of 2013. According to 
the latest forecasts by the Ministry for Finance, the Maltese economy is expected to 
register positive growth rates, whereby for 2013, real GPD is expected to increase by 
around 1.2 per cent . The labour market continued to perform well during 2012, with 
the unemployment rate at 6.4 per cent, 0.1 p.p. lower than the rate recorded a year 
earlier. The latest data indicates that during the first three quarters of 2013, the 
seasonally adjusted unemployment rate stood on average at 6.4 per cent. According to 
the above-mentioned forecasts, the unemployment rate is expected at around 6.3 per 
cent in 2013. 

Due to the favourable conditions in the registered economic activity a declining trend in 
the number of unemployment benefit recipients was observed from the second quarter 
2010 and continued well throughout 2011. As from the third quarter 2011 till the third 
quarter 2013, the number of persons eligible for unemployment related benefits 
gradually increased. Data from the EMployment and Training Corporation (ETC) 
indicates that the number of persons registered as unemployed, as at the end of 
December 2013 stood at 7,401, an increase of 590, or 9,0 per cent over the 
corresponding month in 2012. With regards to the numbers of persons in receipt of 
Social Assistance (SA) and other related benefits, there was a decline in benefits from 
2010 to 2011, while in the twelve months to 2012 this non-contributory benefit 
recorded in increase. 

comment 

comment 

363 

 
NETHERLANDS 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

''The  government’s  aim  is  to  have  more  people  actively  involved  in  society  by  reducing  the  number  of 

people in households with low work intensity. This will reduce the number of people at risk of poverty and 

social  exclusion.  Based  on  a  CPB  estimate  of  labour  participation  in  2020,  the  government  has  set  the 

following  target:  to  reduce  the  number  of  people  (aged  0  to  64)  in  a  jobless  household  by  100,000  by 

2020." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

364 

 
 
 
 
reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

NL 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC)  

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

10,5 

11,1 

10,3 

11,0 

10,1 

1.713 

1.816 

1.694 

1.816 

1.678 

8,1 

8,3 

8,2 

8,7 

8,7 

1.053 

1.083 

1.068 

1.128 

1.133 

1,5 

252 

2,0 

332 

0,2 

37 

0,5 

85 

0,3 

46 

1,4 

237 

2,8 

456 

0,3 

55 

0,3 

50 

0,3 

41 

2,2 

366 

1,8 

292 

0,2 

41 

0,6 

100 

0,7 

111 

2,5 

407 

2,0 

337 

0,4 

72 

0,9 

144 

0,3 

55 

2,3 

387 

2,3 

391 

0,6 

97 

0,4 

70 

0,5 

78 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

365 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,9 

-7,6 

0,0 

0,4 

-0,2 

-4,9 

0,3 

16,0 

0,2 

34,7 

-0,5 

-0,4 

-2,0 

0,6 

7,6 

0,8 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

53,6 

44.362 

49.671 

0,3 

2,9 

2,7 

17,8 

14.577 

13.456 

0,4 

2,6 

2,9 

162,2 

13.013 

14.345 

-0,1 

1,7 

1,9 

-51,4 

-17,6 

8.248 

9.294 

0,2 

41,8 

0,2 

69,6 

0,6 

0,6 

2.785 

3.236 

 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

NL 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
1,8 
1,5 
3,1 
1,1 
26,9 

2009 
-3,7 
-0,7 
3,7 
0,9 
29,7 

2010 
1,5 
-0,4 
4,5 
1,2 
30,3 

2011 
0,9 
0,7 
4,4 
1,5 
30,5 

2012 
-1,2 
-0,2 
5,3 
1,8 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

NL 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

26,9 
9,4 
2,4 
9,7 
1,2 
1,2 
1,0 
0,4 
1,7 

3,9 
0,1 
0,4 
0,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,4 
1,7 

23,0 
9,3 
2,0 
8,8 
1,2 
1,0 
0,7 
0,0 
0,0 

29,7 
10,4 
2,5 
10,4 
1,2 
1,3 
1,4 
0,4 
2,0 

4,5 
0,1 
0,5 
0,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,4 
0,4 
2,0 

25,2 
10,3 
2,0 
9,5 
1,2 
1,1 
1,0 
0,0 
0,0 

30,3 
10,7 
2,5 
10,7 
1,2 
1,2 
1,6 
0,4 
2,0 

4,6 
0,0 
0,5 
1,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,5 
0,4 
2,0 

25,7 
10,6 
2,0 
9,6 
1,2 
1,1 
1,1 
0,0 
0,0 

30,5 
10,9 
2,4 
10,8 
1,2 
1,2 
1,5 
0,4 
2,2 

4,7 
0,0 
0,5 
1,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,5 
0,4 
2,2 

25,7 
10,8 
1,9 
9,8 
1,2 
1,0 
1,0 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
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24,8 
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1,7 
10,6 
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0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

366 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

105

101

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103,3

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101 / 101

101 / 101

1,8

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84,5      
(48/0/52)*
87,4 
(69/0/31)*
84,2 
(25/0/75)*

86,3     
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92,7 
(68/0/32)*
61,8 
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86,3 / 86,3

86,3 / 86,3

38 years career: average income

98,1

98,7

0,6

77,9

84,1

6,2

Low / high income

105,5/87,9

101,9/71,4 (-3,6/-16,5) 83,4 / 74,7

91,2 / 59,8

7,8 / -14,9

42 years career: average income

109,6

108,3

-1,3

88,9

93,4

4,5

Low / high income

107,7/102,6 107,6/78,7 (-0,1/-23,9) 90,1 / 90,5

97,3 / 68,3

7,2 / -22,2

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

105

101,5

102,7

93,4

2010

:

:

101

97,5

97,5

89,5

2050

:

:

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84,5

81,2

82,3

73,5

86,3

83

83

75,2

1,8

1,8

0,7

1,7

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

:

:

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

NL

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

61,7
60,1
9,5
10,4
78,7
82,9
17,6
21
0,3
77,7

62,4
59,9
9,9
9,7
78,4
82,5
17,4
20,7
0,3
77,3

64
59
10,4
9,9
79,4
83,1
18,1
21,2
0,4
76,3
3.762,90 3.765,88 3.869,39 3.893,27
12,00

61,3
60,2
9,4
9,5
78,9
83
17,7
21
0,4
78,0

11,88

12,11

10,99

63,5
58,9
10
10,1
79,3
83
18
21
0,5
75,6
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

372 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS213 

213 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

373 

 
 
                                                           
source 

link 

comment 

definition 

unit 
source 
link 

comment 

NL 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 
link 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Statline  
http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=80590NED&D1=12&
D2=0&D3=0&D4=39-50,52-63,65-76,78-89,91-102,104-115,117-128,130-
138&HD=131017-1043&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2,G3 

comment 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  Unemployment Benefit recipients (uitkeringen Werkloosheidswet - WW) 
unit 

thousands of recipients, end of month 
Institute for Employee Benefit Schemes (Uitvoeringsorganisatie 
werknemersverzekeringen - UWV) 
http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=37789KSZ&D1=0,7,9
&D2=104-115,117-128,130-141,143-154,156-167,169-180,182-193,195-
203&HD=131017-1022&HDR=T&STB=G1 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

Social assistance recipients (uitkeringen Wet Werk en Bijstand - WWB en Wet 
Investeren in Jongeren - WIJ) 
thousands of recipients, end of month 
Statistics Netherlands (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek - CBS) 
http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=37789KSZ&D1=0,7,9
&D2=104-115,117-128,130-141,143-154,156-167,169-180,182-193,195-
203&HD=131017-1022&HDR=T&STB=G1 

Disability benefit 

definition  Disability benefit recipients (uitkeringen Arbeidsongeschiktheidswetten - AO) 
unit 

thousands of recipients, end of month 
Institute for Employee Benefit Schemes (Uitvoeringsorganisatie 
werknemersverzekeringen - UWV) 
http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=37789KSZ&D1=0,7,9
&D2=104-115,117-128,130-141,143-154,156-167,169-180,182-193,195-
203&HD=131017-1022&HDR=T&STB=G1 

source 

link 

comment 

374 

 
  
  
  
AUSTRIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"To reduce the number of individuals living in poverty or at risk of poverty within the next ten 

years by at least 235,000." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2012) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

375 

 
 
 
AROPE
AROP
SMD
VLWI

2008
1532
1018
524
503

2009
1406
993
395
461

2010
1373
1004
356
497

2011
1407
1051
325
519

2012
1542
1201
335
490

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018
1297

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) AT has changed the source for income from survey to administrative data. As a result, income-related indicators 

and by definition the target indicator suffer a break in series for 2012 and are therefore not comparable to previous years. 

Austria  will  be  able  to  provide  a  comprehensive  back-calculation  of  the  timeline  until  the  base  year  2008  at  the  end  of 

2014. 

ii) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018;  

iii) AROPE - at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in 

(quasi-)jobless  households,  i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  

iv) For the at-risk-of poverty rate (AROP), the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) 

except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) 

jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income reference year prior to the survey (i.e. 

2011) while for the severe material deprivation rate (SMD), the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

376 

 
 
 
 
 
 
AT 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2011 

2012 

EU28 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

12,4 

1.018 

7,8 

503 

6,4 

524 

1,6 

136 

1,3 

103 

1,4 

116 

0,5 

42 

12,0 

993 

7,2 

461 

4,8 

395 

1,5 

121 

1,3 

106 

1,2 

97 

0,3 

21 

12,1 

1.004 

12,6 

1.051 

14,4 

1.201 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

7,7 

497 

4,3 

356 

2,0 

166 

1,2 

97 

1,2 

100 

0,2 

20 

8,0 

519 

3,9 

325 

2,2 

181 

1,0 

80 

1,2 

100 

0,3 

26 

7,6 

490 

4,0 

335 

2,2 

188 

1,3 

111 

0,9 

73 

0,5 

39 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

14.577 

13.456 

2,6 

2,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

0,6 

2.785 

9.294 

0,6 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

AT 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2011 

2012 

EU28 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 

Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 

Unemployment rate 

Long-term unemployment rate 

1,4 

2,0 

3,8 

0,9 

-3,8 

-0,7 

4,8 

1,0 

1,8 

1,0 

4,4 

1,1 

2,8 

1,7 

4,2 

1,1 

0,9 

1,3 

4,3 

1,1 

1,6 

0,2 

9,7 

4,2 

-0,4 

-0,5 

10,5 

4,7 

Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

27,6 

29,8 

29,7 

28,7 

: 

27,8 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

377 

  
 
 
  
 
MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS  

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

AT 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

2008 
27,6 
7,3 
2,1 
11,7 
1,9 
2,8 
1,4 
0,1 
0,3 

2009 
29,8 
7,7 
2,2 
12,7 
2,0 
3,0 
1,7 
0,1 
0,3 

2010 
29,7 
7,6 
2,2 
12,8 
2,0 
3,1 
1,7 
0,1 
0,3 

EU28 

2011 
28,7 
7,2 
2,2 
12,6 
1,9 
2,8 
1,5 
0,1 
0,3 

2010 
28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

2011 
27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

2,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,6 
0,1 
0,2 
0,2 
0,1 
0,2 

25,7 
7,2 
1,7 
11,1 
1,8 
2,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

2,2 
0,1 
0,5 
0,7 
0,1 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,2 

27,6 
7,6 
1,8 
12,0 
1,9 
2,8 
1,5 
0,0 
0,1 

2,2 
0,1 
0,5 
0,7 
0,1 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,2 

27,5 
7,5 
1,7 
12,1 
1,9 
2,8 
1,4 
0,0 
0,1 

2,2 
0,0 
0,5 
0,7 
0,1 
0,2 
0,3 
0,1 
0,3 

26,5 
7,2 
1,7 
11,9 
1,8 
2,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 

of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

378 

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
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3

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

85

83,7

77,2

88,7

83,8

72,1

88,7 / 88,7

87 / 89,4

3,7

0,1

-5,1

69,9      
(100/0/0)*
69,9 
(100/0/0)*
63,9 
(100/0/0)*

-1,1

-1,1

-12,1

68,8     
(100/0/0)*
68,8 
(100/0/0)*
51,8 
(100/0/0)*

68,8 / 68,8

69,1 / 68,2

38 years career: average income

77,2

79,3

2,1

60,7

59,5

-1,2

Low / high income

73 / 68,2

75 / 64,8

( - 2 / -3,4) 

59,7 / 54

59,9 / 45,5 ( 0,2 / -8,5) 

42 years career: average income

87,9

97,7

9,8

73,4

78,3

4,9

Low / high income

88 / 80,4

95,5 / 80,4

( - 7,5 / 0) 

71,9 / 66,5

78,3 / 59,2 ( - 6,4 / -7,3) 

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

75,2

83

84,4

70,1

2010

42,3

47,7

80,3

87,9

86,8

70,7

2050

36,5

40,3

5,1

4,9

2,4

0,6

60,4

67,5

69,2

52,5

59,4

67,9

66,8

51,6

-1,0

0,4

-2,4

-0,9

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-5,8

-7,5

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

AT

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

59,5
60,8
8,3
8,2
77,6
83,2
17,7
21,2
0,5
70,0

58,3
59,7
7,4
7,5
77,8
83,3
17,7
21,1
0,7
69,6

59,8
60,3
8,3
8,3
78,3
83,8
18,1
21,7
0,4
69,4
3.263,39 3.293,80 3.459,41 3.508,11
10,83

59,5
60,7
8,5
7,9
77,9
83,5
17,9
21,4
0,6
69,5

10,49

11,17

11,08

60,2
62,5
8,9
9,5
78,4
83,6
18,1
21,3
0,3
70,0

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

384 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS214 

Recipients of means-tested minimum income*

Recipients

September

2012

149,729

2013

168,644

Change 09/2012-
09/2013 in %

+12.6%

Source: Federal Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Consumer Protection

* Due to the nationwide introduction of the means-tested minimum income scheme, 
the comparison was started anew in 2012.

AT 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

definition  Unemployment Benefit recipients ; Unemployment assistance recipients 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
Public Employment Service Austria (AMS) 

Unemployment benefit 

214 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

385 

 
 
 
 
  
                                                           
comment 

An unemployed person is defined as someone without employment who has registered 
as seeking work with the public employment service (AMS) and is both willing and able 
to work. Claims for transfer payments can only be made by those who have made 
employment insurance contributions for an appropriate period. For example, those 
who have interrupted their working careers for a long period of time (in particular 
returners) and school leavers receive no unemployment insurance benefit. In order to 
receive benefit a person must be registered with the AMS. To be entitled to claim 
unemployment benefit, a person must be able and willing to work, available for work 
but unemployed and have been in insured employment for the appropriate qualifying 
period. Unemployment assistance, which is payable on expiry of entitlement to 
unemployment benefit, combines the principles of social insurance and welfare. Firstly, 
the rate of the income support is calculated on the basis of the unemployment benefit 
previously received. Secondly, applicants must be in serious need of financial support, 
after taking the income of the partner and exemption limits into account. 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

definition  Number of recipients of Social Assistance Benefits/means-tested minimum income 
unit 
source 

Quarterly data (changes in % to the previous year) 
Social Departments of the Federal Provinces 
Figures include between six and nine Federal Provinces; the data of the cities with 
municipal departments is missing in one of them. The provinces register very diverse 
trends. - Social assistance is defined, implemented and administered by the Federal 
Provinces (Bundesländer); according to the Austrian Constitution each province has its 
own Social Assistance Act, but there are some common basic principles: social 
assistance is granted in individual situations of need if a person’s own resources and 
payments from third parties are not longer sufficient to allow for a decent way of life. 
Eligibility depends on household resources, other relatives have a duty under family law 
to provide financial support. All resources are considered in the means and income test 
(apart from family benefits). In order to realize the objective of combating poverty in all 
relevant fields of policy, a means-tested minimum income has been introduced as a 
reform of the social assistance scheme. The federal government and the provincial 
governments laid down the salient points of a means-tested minimum income which 
has been subsequently implemented in the corresponding national and provincial 
legislation. Since the 1st of September 2010 the laws for the means-tested minimum 
income were introduced in in 7 of 9 federal provinces. The other two provinces have 
introduced the minimum income scheme until October 2011. - Due to the nationwide 
introduction of the means-tested minimum income scheme, the comparison was 
started anew in 2012. 

comment 

Disability benefit 

definition 
unit 
source 

comment 

Disability benefit recipients 
thousands of recipients 
Federal Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Consumer Protection 
Figures do not include people who reached statutory retirement age due to 
comparability reasons; the data untill January 2011 represent an estimation, because 
the calculation of the accurate share of disability pensioners only existed for one month 
(December). 

386 

  
  
POLAND 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Lowering of people at risk of poverty and/or exclusion and/or living in households of working 

people or of low labour intensity by 1.5 million" 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

387 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

PL 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

16,9 

17,1 

17,6 

17,7 

17,1 

6.353 

6.435 

6.588 

6.623 

6.478 

7,9 

6,9 

7,3 

6,9 

6,8 

2.444 

2.102 

2.211 

2.073 

2.063 

17,7 

15,0 

14,2 

13,0 

13,5 

6.680 

5.625 

5.331 

4.885 

5.108 

1,3 

499 

4,7 

1,3 

492 

4,6 

1,5 

568 

4,3 

1,6 

608 

4,0 

1,5 

571 

3,9 

1.758 

1.728 

1.616 

1.490 

1.496 

1,9 

1,7 

1,8 

1,5 

1,7 

704 

0,9 

322 

655 

0,5 

177 

684 

0,4 

168 

571 

0,4 

145 

651 

0,4 

152 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,6 

-2,2 

-0,1 

-0,5 

3,8 

4,6 

-6,3 

-6,1 

-2,5 

0,4 

13,3 

14,0 

0,0 

4,8 

0,2 

2,0 

-1,1 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

-15,6 

39.465 

39.431 

-4,2 

8,9 

9,9 

-23,5 

44.362 

49.671 

0,2 

2,9 

2,7 

14,4 

14.577 

13.456 

-0,8 

2,6 

2,9 

-14,9 

13.013 

14.345 

-0,2 

-7,5 

-0,5 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

-52,8 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

388 

 
  
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

PL 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
5,1 
3,9 
7,1 
2,4 
18,2 

2009 
1,6 
0,4 
8,1 
2,5 
18,8 

2010 
3,9 
0,5 
9,7 
3,0 
18,8 

2011 
4,5 
1,0 
9,7 
3,6 
18,7 

2012 
1,9 
-3,4 
10,1 
4,1 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

PL 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

18,2 
4,5 
1,5 
9,0 
2,0 
0,7 
0,4 
0,1 
0,2 

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0,1 
0,0 
0,0 
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0,0 
0,1 
0,1 

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1,5 
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2,0 
0,3 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 

18,8 
4,7 
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9,4 
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0,8 
0,4 
0,1 
0,2 

0,7 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 

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9,4 
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0,3 
0,4 
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0,0 

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1,5 
9,3 
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0,1 

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0,1 
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18,7 
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0,2 

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17,6 
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1,6 
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28,1 
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2,2 
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1,7 
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1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
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0,5 
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0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
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1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
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0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

Note: i) For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total 

figures of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs; ii) from 2011 expenditure on public 

kindergartens has been added to the Family/Children benefits.  

389 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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,

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

75,5

87,1

60,7

43,3

48,2

32,2

-32,2

-38,9

-28,5

65,2      
(100/0/0)*
75,8 
(100/0/0)*
52,3 
(100/0/0)*

41,7 / 45,3

47,6 / 40,1

-30,6

-37,5

-26,3

34,6     
(54/46/0)*
38,3 
(59/41/0)*
26 
(54/46/0)*

33,2 / 36,3

38,3 / 31,8

38 years career: average income

70,5

41,2

-29,3

60,8

32,8

-28

Low / high income

81,7 / 56,4

48,2 / 30,6 (-33,5/-25,8) 71,1 / 48,4

38,3 / 24,6 (-32,8/-23,8)

42 years career: average income

78

48,6

-29,4

67,5

39,1

-28

Low / high income

89,7 / 63,1

49,3 / 36,2 (-40,4/-26,9) 78,1 / 54,4

39,1 / 29,4

(-39/-25)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

58,4

67,7

72,3

62,9

2010

46,7

49,1

35,1

32,4

40,8

33,9

2050

22,4

19,6

-23,3

-35,3

-31,5

-29,0

50,2

58,4

62,4

54,1

27,5

25,3

32,4

26,5

-22,7

-33,1

-30,0

-27,6

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-24,3

-29,5

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

PL

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

58,3
62,5
6,9
7,7
71,5
80,1
14,8
19,2
7,6
56,1

58,5
63
7
7,7
71,3
80
14,8
19,1
6,0
57,7

59,1
63,3
7,6
8,3
72,6
81,1
15,4
19,9
7,9
57,6
1.026,54 1.095,18 1.152,83 1.198,07
6,87

58,5
62,3
6,7
7,5
72,1
80,7
15,1
19,5
8,3
57,8

7,21

6,89

7,02

59,2
62,9
7,4
7,8
72,7
81,1
15,4
19,9
9,0
57,7
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Note: breaks in series for the Healthy life years indicator in 2009; breaks in series for total health care expenditure in 2010 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

395 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS215 

215 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) are given as a background. 

396 

 
 
                                                           
PL 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  UB recipients - stock 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
ddministrative data, Ministry of Labour and Social Policy 
http://www.psz.praca.gov.pl./main.php?do=ShowPage&nPID=867997&pT=details&sP=
CONTENT,objectID,867970 
Table 23, Column F 

link 

comment 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

definition 
unit 
source 

Social assistance beneficiaries 
total number of beneficiaries of monetary and non-monetary assistance (annual) 
GUS, Statistical Yearbook 2002-2012 & Local Data Bank 

link 

Local Data Bank: 
http://www.stat.gov.pl/bdlen/app/dane_podgrup.hier?p_id=826030&p_token=-
1971022414 
Statistical Yearbook: http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/yearbooks_ENG_HTML.htm 

definition  Disability benefits Recipients 

Disability benefit 

unit 

source 
link 

total number of beneficiaries of pensions resulting from an inability to work (annual 
averages), from both non-agricultural  social security system and farmers social 
insurance system 
GUS, Statistical Yearbook 2002-2012 & Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland. 
http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/5840_737_ENG_HTML.htm 

397 

 
  
  
  
 
PORTUGAL 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"The national target is to reduce the number of poor by at least 200 thousand people by 2020." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

398 

 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

PT 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

6,3 

517 

9,7 

1000 persons 

1.029 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

1,4 

153 

3,2 

337 

1,1 

122 

0,2 

22 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

18,5 

17,9 

17,9 

18,0 

17,9 

1.967 

1.898 

1.903 

1.919 

1.883 

6,9 

567 

9,1 

965 

1,9 

197 

2,9 

311 

8,6 

700 

9,0 

958 

2,1 

223 

2,2 

239 

8,2 

666 

8,3 

881 

2,1 

224 

2,9 

311 

10,1 

791 

8,6 

910 

2,5 

263 

2,6 

275 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,1 

-1,9 

1,9 

18,8 

0,3 

3,3 

0,4 

17,4 

-0,3 

-0,6 

-4,3 

3,8 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

53,0 

39.465 

39.431 

-1,1 

8,9 

9,9 

-11,6 

44.362 

49.671 

1,1 

2,9 

2,7 

71,9 

14.577 

13.456 

-0,6 

2,6 

2,9 

-11,6 

-18,4 

13.013 

14.345 

1,2 

1,7 

1,3 

1,6 

123 

0,3 

29 

184 

0,4 

39 

140 

0,5 

50 

168 

0,4 

44 

0,3 

20,0 

-0,1 

0,5 

37,7 

0,2 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

-12,0 

100,0 

2.785 

3.236 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC)

399 

 
 
  
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

EU28 

PT 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change)* 
Unemployment rate* 
Long-term unemployment rate* 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 
Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS; National Statistics Office, labour force survey);  

2012 
-3,2 
-2,4 
15,7 
8,5 
: 

2008 
0,0 
0,2 
7,6 
3,8 
23,2 

2010 
1,9 
-0,8 
10,8 
5,9 
25,4 

2009 
-2,9 
-1,8 
9,5 
4,4 
25,5 

12,9 
6,8 
25,0 

2011 
-1,3 

: 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Note: (*) Labour Force Survey, National Statistics. (Break in series in 2011) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

PT 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

23,2 
6,5 
2,1 
10,3 
1,7 
1,3 
1,0 
0,0 
0,3 

2,3 
0,0 
0,2 
0,6 
0,0 
1,0 
0,2 
0,0 
0,3 

20,9 
6,5 
2,0 
9,7 
1,7 
0,2 
0,9 
0,0 
0,0 

25,5 
7,3 
2,1 
11,1 
1,8 
1,4 
1,4 
0,0 
0,4 

2,6 
0,0 
0,2 
0,7 
0,0 
1,1 
0,3 
0,0 
0,4 

22,9 
7,3 
2,0 
10,4 
1,8 
0,3 
1,1 
0,0 
0,0 

25,4 
7,0 
2,1 
11,3 
1,8 
1,4 
1,4 
0,0 
0,4 

2,5 
0,0 
0,2 
0,7 
0,0 
1,1 
0,2 
0,0 
0,3 

22,8 
7,0 
1,9 
10,6 
1,8 
0,3 
1,2 
0,0 
0,0 

25,0 
6,3 
2,1 
11,9 
1,8 
1,2 
1,4 
0,0 
0,3 

2,2 
0,0 
0,2 
0,7 
0,0 
0,9 
0,2 
0,0 
0,3 

22,8 
6,3 
1,9 
11,3 
1,8 
0,3 
1,2 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

400 

  
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

85,8

81,7

85,2

65,9

66,6

47,4

-19,9

-15,1

-37,8

72,5      
(100/0/0)*
72,6 
(100/0/0)*
67,7 
(100/0/0)*

65,9 / 65,9

76 / 57,6

-13,9

-13,3

-25,6

58,7     
(100/0/0)*
59,3 
(100/0/0)*
42,1 
(100/0/0)*

58,7 / 58,7

67,7 / 51,3

38 years career: average income

83,9

63,7

-20,2

70,9

32,8

-38,1

Low / high income

79,8 / 81,6

64 / 45,2 (-15,8/-36,4) 70,9 / 64,8

57,4 / 40,3 (-13,5/-24,5)

42 years career: average income

103,8

82,2

-21,6

90,8

39,1

-51,7

Low / high income

102,3/97,4

82,6 / 58,7 (-19,7/-38,7) 90,8 / 85,7

73 / 51,8

(-17,9/-34)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

78

83,8

85,7

64,4

2010

:

56,9

52,1

64,5

65,1

52,1

2050

:

48,2

-25,9

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65,5

70,7

72,4

54,4

46,2

57,4

57,9

46,4

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-14,5

-8,0

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

:

-8,7

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

PT

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

59,1
57,6
6,7
5,5
76,2
82,4
16,9
20,3
1,1
48,3

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56,4
6,8
5,5
76,5
82,6
17,1
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3,3
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7,8
6,3
77,3
83,8
17,8
21,6
1,4
49,7
1.924,70 1.974,09 2.054,27 1.951,84
10,23

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7,1
5,7
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82,8
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2,0
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10,80

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6,6
6
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67,9
:
:

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:
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

406 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS216 

PT 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 
link 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

http://nui.epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=lmhu_m&lang=en  

definition 
unit 
source 
link 

comment 

Unemployment benefit 
"Unemployment + social unemployment" beneficiaries 
thousands of recipients /benefits paid 
Institute for Informatics and Statistics of Social Security 
http://www4.seg-social.pt/estatisticas 
Entitlement to Unemployment Benefit for workers resident in national territory 
covered by the general social security scheme for employed depend on the following 
conditions: to be capable of and available for work; to be involuntarily unemployed; to 
be registered as a job seeker at the local Employment Office; to fulfill the qualifying 
period – to have completed, at least, 360 days with registered earnings within the 24 
months immediately prior to unemployment situation. Regarding Social Unemployment 
Benefit, conditions are the same but it is also subject to means testing and it is granted 
in case workers have not completed the qualifying period required for UB: i) initial 
social unemployment benefit, to have completed at least 180 days with registered 
earnings within the 12 months prior to unemployment; ii) Subsequent social 
unemployment benefit, to have exhausted entitlement period for UB. 

216 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

407 

 
 
 
  
 
                                                           
 PT  

definition 
unit 

source 

link 

note 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

"Social assistance / Social Integration Income" beneficiaries 
thousands of recipients  
Source: Institute for Informatics and Statistics of Social Security 
Link: http://www2.seg-social.pt/left.asp?02.21.03.09.02  
http://www4.seg-social.pt/estatisticas 
Important changes were introduced in the Portuguese Means-Testing Scheme, firstly 
through Statutory Decree 70/2010 of 16 June 2010, and, more recently, through 
Statutory Decree 133/2012 of 27 June 2012, redefining non-contributory social benefits 
entitlement conditions, namely those concerning Social Integration Income 
(portuguese minimum income scheme).  

comment 

definition 
unit 
source 
link 

comment 

comment 

The benefit paid by Social Security corresponds to a differential between the 
individual’s income and a minimum income threshold taken as the baseline. This 
minimum income is indexed to IAS, an indexation mechanism for social supports that 
replaces the national minimum salary as a reference for calculating and adjusting 
pensions, benefits and contributions. Individuals and families who want to have access 
to this benefit, have to fulfil a number of conditions: legal place of residency in 
Portugal; aged 18 or over , availability for employment, occupational training or 
integration activities; not having earnings of one’s own or from the family superior to 
minimum income established by law. 

Disability benefit 

"Disability pension + Disability social pension" 
thousands of recipients 
Institute for Informatics and Statistics of Social Security 
http://www4.seg-social.pt/estatisticas 

Disability or Invalidity pension: is a monthly cash benefit designed to protect the 
insured persons covered by all the social security schemes against permanent 
incapacity for work. 
Entitlement to Disability Benefit under the general social security scheme depends if an 
employee or a self-employed is considered to be in a situation of permanent incapacity 
to work. A worker is considered to be in a situation of relative incapacity when, due to a 
permanent incapacity, one in not able to earn more than one-third of the earning 
corresponding to the regular practice of their activity. A worker is considered to be in a 
situation of absolute incapacity when one has a permanent and definite incapacity for 
all kinds of jobs.  
Disability pension is not payable if the invalidity is the result of an accident at work or 
occupational disease or if the person is entitled to an old-age pension, and is 
determined according to the number of years of contributions, the average monthly 
earnings and the sustainability factor.  
Social disability pension is also subject to a means testing condition. 

408 

  
 
 
ROMANIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"The national target is to reduce by 580,000 the number of people at risk of poverty and social 

exclusion, by the year 2020, as compared to the year 2008. For the monitoring of the national 

target in Romania, the indicator is the relative poverty rate or the number of people at risk of 

poverty." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

409 

 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

 RO 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

23,4 

22,4 

21,1 

22,2 

22,6 

4.988 

4.745 

4.522 

4.748 

4.824 

8,2 

7,7 

6,8 

6,7 

7,4 

1.413 

1.299 

1.176 

1.135 

1.215 

32,9 

32,2 

31,0 

29,4 

29,9 

7.023 

6.817 

6.643 

6.286 

6.391 

0,9 

191 

1,0 

202 

0,8 

166 

1,0 

204 

1,0 

212 

11,8 

11,6 

10,9 

11,2 

11,0 

2.527 

2.456 

2.334 

2.393 

2.358 

2,4 

521 

1,2 

248 

2,0 

1,7 

1,8 

1,7 

429 

1,1 

235 

357 

1,1 

235 

378 

0,9 

187 

372 

1,0 

208 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,4 

1,6 

0,7 

7,0 

0,5 

1,7 

0,0 

3,9 

-0,2 

-1,5 

-0,1 

-1,6 

0,1 

11,2 

-0,8 

-3,3 

-0,8 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

-14,0 

39.465 

39.431 

-3,0 

-9,0 

0,1 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

11,0 

14.577 

13.456 

-0,8 

-6,7 

-0,7 

2,6 

2,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,7 

1,9 

-28,6 

8.248 

9.294 

-0,2 

0,6 

0,6 

-16,1 

2.785 

3.236 

410 

 
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

RO 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
7,3 
0,0 
5,8 
2,4 
14,1 

2009 
-6,6 
-2,0 
6,9 
2,2 
16,9 

2010 
-1,1 
-0,3 
7,3 
2,5 
17,4 

2011 
2,3 
-0,8 
7,4 
3,1 
16,1 

2012 
0,6 
1,3 
7,0 
3,2 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS; National Statistics  Office) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

RO 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

14,1 
3,5 
1,4 
6,5 
0,6 
1,5 
0,2 
0,0 
0,3 

0,7 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,2 
0,0 
0,3 

13,4 
3,5 
1,4 
6,5 
0,6 
1,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

16,9 
4,1 
1,6 
8,0 
0,8 
1,7 
0,4 
0,0 
0,2 

1,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 
0,4 
0,0 
0,2 

16,0 
4,2 
1,6 
7,9 
0,7 
1,6 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

17,4 
4,4 
1,6 
8,0 
0,8 
1,7 
0,6 
0,0 
0,3 

1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,2 
0,6 
0,0 
0,3 

16,1 
4,4 
1,6 
7,9 
0,7 
1,5 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

16,1 
4,1 
1,5 
7,9 
0,7 
1,4 
0,3 
0,0 
0,2 

0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 
0,3 
0,0 
0,2 

15,3 
4,1 
1,4 
7,8 
0,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS, National Statistics Office)  

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

411 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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5

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

70,7

55,2

85,3

45

45

-25,7

-10,2

33,3

-52

43,9 / 46,2

53 / 38,5

-19,9

-4,4

-44,1

51,4      
(100/0/0)*
35,9 
(100/0/0)*
67,8 
(100/0/0)*

31,5     
(75/25/0)*
31,5 
(75/25/0)*
23,7 
(75/25/0)*

30,8 / 32,4

37,2 / 27

38 years career: average income

69,2

43,3

-25,9

49,9

30,4

-19,5

Low / high income

53,6 / 84

43,3 / 32,3 (-10,3/-51,7) 34,2 / 66,2

30,4 / 22,8 (-3,8/-43,4)

42 years career: average income

72,3

66,5

-5,8

53,2

47,1

-6,1

Low / high income

56,8 / 86,9

67,2 / 47,3

10,4/-39,6

37,2 / 68,2

47,1 / 35,4

9,9/-32,8

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

64,2

61,4

69,3

58,7

2010

38,7

41,6

32,9

43,3

42,4

33,4

2050

28,1

29,8

-31,3

-18,1

-26,9

-25,3

44,4

42,4

50

47,5

23

30,3

29,8

23,4

-21,4

-12,1

-20,2

-24,1

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-10,6

-11,8

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

EU28

RO

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

60,2
62,8
7,8
7,9
69,7
77,2
14
17,2
10,8
70,6
660,10
5,44

59,8
61,7
7,2
7,1
69,8
77,4
14
17,2
8,5
70,2
646,39
5,66

57,5
57,5
5,9
5
70,1
77,6
14
17,2
10,8
70,6
700,06
5,95

57,4
57
5,4
4,7
71,1
78,2
14,7
17,7
11,9
69,5
691,45
5,61

57,7
57,8
5,9
5,1
71,1
78,2
14,6
17,7
10,7
70,1

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA,  

Note: data for Self-perceived general health - Romanian Institute for Statistics (NIS) 

417 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS217 

RO 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons unemployed - seasonally adjusted 
Source: Eurostat 

definition 

Number of unemployment indemnity recipients (indemnizaţie de şomaj),  
according to the Law No. 76/2002 regarding the unemployment insurance  
system and employment stimulation, with subsequent amendments 

Unemployment indemnity 

unit 
source 
link 

Thousands of persons beneficiaries of unemployment indemnity 
National Agency for Employment, Romania 
www.anofm.ro / Statistics 

217 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

418 

 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
                                                           
RO 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

definition 

The recipients of social assistance benefit (ajutor social) are families earning less 
 then a certain amount set depending on the family structure, as to the  Law 
no.416/2001 on guaranteed minimum income with subsequent amendments.  
The Law provides a set of assets that may exclude some families from  
benefitting of social income. The social assistance benefit is equal to the difference 
 between the amount set by the Law and the familiy income. 

unit 

source 
link 

comment 

Thousands of families recipients of social benefit for  
ensuring the minimum guaranteed income 
Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Protection and Elderly, Romania 
http://www.mmuncii.ro/j3/index.php/ro/transparenta/statistici/date-statistice  
Until the end of the year it was an upward trend of social assistance recipients, due to 
the increase of the minimum guaranteed income by 8.5%, starting with July 2013, 
according to Goverment Emergency Ordinance No. 42/2013. 

Invalidity pension 

definition 

A person who is certified as being incapable for suitable fulltime or regular  
part-time employment due to a serious disease or bodily or mental impairment 
 is entitled to an Invalidity pension (pensie de invaliditate), subject to the relative 
contribution conditions, as to the Law no. 263/2010 on the Unitary  
System of Public Pensions, with subsequent amendments. 

unit 
source 
link 

thousands of invalidity pensioners 
National House of Public Pensions, Romania 
http://www.cnpas.org /  Social Indicators 

Disability benefit 

definition 

Definition of persons with disabilities: persons which, due to social environment 
inadequate to their physical, sensory, psychic, mental and/or associated impairment, 
are totally prevented or have limited access with equal chances to the society life, 
needing protection measures for social integration and inclusion, as to the Law 
no.448/2006  on social protection and promotion of the  
persons with disabilities rights, with subsequent amendments.  

unit 

source 

link 

comment 

thousands recipients of complementary personal budget for persons with  
severe, major or average disability (buget personal complementar  
pentru persoane cu handicap grav, accentuat sau mediu) 
Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Protection and Elderly;  
National Agency for Social Payments and Inspection, Romania 
http://www.mmuncii.ro/j3/index.php/ro/transparenta/statistici/buletin-statistic 
Note: one person may receive simultaneously the disability benefit and invalidity 
pension 

419 

  
  
 
SLOVENIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

''40,000  people  out  of  poverty  (in  comparison  with  the  reference  year  2008,  when  360,000 

people experienced poverty)." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

420 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

 SI 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

12,3 

241 

6,7 

105 

6,7 

130 

1,9 

37 

1,6 

32 

1,1 

21 

0,2 

5 

11,3 

223 

5,6 

88 

6,1 

121 

1,3 

26 

1,4 

28 

0,9 

18 

0,2 

4 

12,7 

13,6 

13,5 

254 

6,9 

111 

5,9 

119 

2,1 

41 

1,5 

31 

1,1 

21 

0,1 

3 

273 

7,6 

121 

6,1 

122 

2,3 

46 

1,4 

29 

1,2 

24 

0,3 

6 

271 

7,5 

118 

6,6 

133 

1,9 

38 

1,8 

35 

1,3 

27 

0,1 

3 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,1 

-0,7 

-0,1 

-2,5 

0,5 

9,0 

-0,4 

-17,4 

0,4 

20,7 

0,1 

12,5 

-0,2 

-50,0 

1,2 

16,9 

17,0 

12,4 

84.586 

84.999 

0,8 

10,3 

10,4 

12,4 

39.465 

39.431 

-0,1 

8,9 

9,9 

2,3 

0,0 

2,7 

0,2 

9,4 

0,2 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

14.577 

13.456 

2,6 

2,9 

13.013 

14.345 

1,7 

1,9 

28,6 

-0,1 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

-40,0 

2.785 

3.236 

421 

 
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

SI 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

2008 
3,4 
2,6 
4,4 
1,9 
20,9 

2009 
-7,9 
-1,8 
5,9 
1,8 
23,7 

2010 
1,3 
-2,2 
7,3 
3,2 
24,4 

2011 
0,7 
-1,6 
8,2 
3,6 
24,6 

2012 
-2,5 
-0,8 
8,9 
4,3 

: 

EU28 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

SI 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

20,9 
7,0 
1,6 
8,0 
1,6 
1,8 
0,4 
0,0 
0,4 

1,8 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 
1,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 

19,1 
7,0 
1,6 
7,9 
1,5 
0,6 
0,4 
0,0 
0,1 

23,7 
7,8 
1,8 
9,2 
1,7 
2,1 
0,6 
0,0 
0,5 

2,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 
1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 

21,7 
7,8 
1,7 
9,1 
1,7 
0,8 
0,6 
0,0 
0,1 

24,4 
7,9 
1,8 
9,6 
1,7 
2,2 
0,7 
0,0 
0,6 

2,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 
1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 

22,4 
7,9 
1,7 
9,5 
1,7 
0,8 
0,7 
0,0 
0,2 

24,6 
7,8 
1,7 
9,8 
1,7 
2,2 
0,8 
0,0 
0,6 

2,0 
0,0 
0,1 
0,1 
0,1 
1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 

22,5 
7,8 
1,6 
9,7 
1,6 
0,9 
0,8 
0,0 
0,2 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

422 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

59,2

88,6

47,7

53,7

89,1

42,1

53,7 / 53,7

53,7 / 53,7

-5,5

0,5

-5,6

40,5      
(100/0/0)*
60,7 
(100/0/0)*
40,5 
(100/0/0)*

-3,8

0,3

-3,8

36,7     
(100/0/0)*
61 
(100/0/0)*
36,7 
(100/0/0)*

36,7 / 36,7

36,7 / 36,7

38 years career: average income

58,5

48,8

-9,7

40,1

40,3

0,2

Low / high income

88,6 / 42,1

89,1 / 42

0,5 / 0

60,7 / 36,7

61 / 36,7

0,3 / 0

42 years career: average income

66,6

62,2

-4,4

45,6

42,6

-3,0

Low / high income

88,6 / 55,1

89,1 / 50,7

0,5 / -4,4

60,7 / 45,6

61 / 42,6

0,3 / -3

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

55,5

58,5

59,2

58,5

2010

19,2

:

53,7

53,7

53,7

42,6

2050

17,3

:

-1,8

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38,0

40

40,5

40,1

36,7

40

36,7

40,3

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0,2

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-2,0

:

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

SI

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

59,5
60,8
9,2
9,4
75,5
82,6
16,4
20,5
0,2
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60,6
61,5
9,3
9,9
75,9
82,7
16,4
20,5
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54
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6,9
76,8
83,3
16,9
21,1
0,1
60,4
1.880,59 1.850,64 1.794,83 1.835,51
8,86

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83,1
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8,90

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55,6
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:
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Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

428 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS218 

218 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

429 

 
 
                                                           
SI 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition 

Unemployment benefit is an insurance based benefit that can be claimed by the 
unemployed who was employed (insured) before for at least 9 months in the last 24 
months and did not lose the job by own fault. Statutory basis for unemployment 
insurance is Labour Market Regulation Act (Official gazette RS, no. 80/2010, 40/2012-
ZUJF, 21/2013 and 63/2013). 

unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
MLFSA 

definition 

unit 
source 

comment 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

Financial social assistance is a means-tested social benefit which acts as a final safety-
net, intended to cover the basic living costs. Financial social assistance is defined by the 
Social Benefits Act (Official Gazette RS no. 61/2010, 40/2011, 110/2011, 40/2012) and 
the Exercising the Right to Public Funds Act (Official Gazette RS, no. 62/2010, 40/2011, 
40/2012).  

thousands of recipients 
MLFSA 
With the implementation of new social legislation on 01.01.2012 the methodology of 
counting the beneficiaries of social assistance benefit changed slightly. Before 
01.01.2012, the data refered to monthly numbers of payments of social assistance 
benefits (and the data for 2013 is prepared in the same way), while data for 2012 refer 
to the number of approved rights for social assistance benefit valid for a certain month. 
However, the difference is minor. The somewhat lower numbers of social benefit 
recipients in 2012 and 2013 can be explained with more severe eligibility conditions 
since 01.01.2012 (new social legislation), especially means-testing income, property 
and savings. 

definition 

Disability benefits beneficiaries – Number of unemployed persons receiving disability 
benefits. Included are recipients of invalidity benefit, temporary benefit, partial 
invalidity benefit, benefit for occupational rehabilitation, before retraining benefit and 
before employment benefit. 

Disability benefit 

unit 
source 

thousands of recipients 
Pension and Disability Insurance Institute of the Republic of Slovenia 

430 

 
  
  
  
 
SLOVAKIA 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"The Slovak Government will promote social inclusion, in particular by reducing poverty, with a 
view to achieving at least 170 thousand fewer people who are at risk of poverty and exclusion."  

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

431 

 
 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC)  

SK 

% 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

10,9 

11,0 

12,0 

13,0 

13,2 

588 

5,2 

225 

11,8 

636 

0,9 

47 

2,2 

594 

5,6 

243 

11,1 

601 

0,7 

40 

2,1 

651 

7,9 

349 

11,4 

621 

1,3 

68 

1,9 

700 

7,6 

331 

10,6 

571 

1,5 

83 

1,9 

716 

7,2 

312 

10,5 

565 

1,3 

72 

1,9 

120 

112 

104 

104 

105 

1,3 

72 

0,5 

26 

1,9 

2,7 

2,5 

2,7 

104 

0,3 

17 

147 

0,7 

38 

135 

0,6 

34 

144 

0,3 

19 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,2 

2,3 

-0,4 

-5,7 

-0,1 

-1,1 

-0,2 

2,3 

16,9 

17,0 

21,8 

84.586 

84.999 

2,0 

10,3 

10,4 

38,7 

39.465 

39.431 

-1,3 

8,9 

9,9 

-11,2 

44.362 

49.671 

0,4 

2,9 

2,7 

-13,3 

53,2 

14.577 

13.456 

0,0 

1,0 

0,2 

6,7 

-0,3 

-0,3 

2,6 

2,9 

-12,5 

13.013 

14.345 

1,4 

1,7 

1,9 

100,0 

8.248 

9.294 

-0,2 

0,6 

0,6 

-44,1 

-26,9 

2.785 

3.236 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). 

432 

 
  
 
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

SK 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2011 

2012 

5,8 
3,2 
9,6 
6,7 
15,5 

-4,9 
-2,0 
12,1 
6,5 
18,2 

4,4 
-1,5 
14,5 
9,3 
18,1 

3,0 
1,8 
13,7 
9,3 
17,7 

1,8 
0,1 
14,0 
9,4 
: 

1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

SK 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

15,5 
5,1 
1,4 
5,8 
0,8 
1,5 
0,6 
: 
0,4 

0,8 
0,0 
0,1 
0,2 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
: 
0,3 

14,8 
5,1 
1,3 
5,5 
0,8 
1,4 
0,6 
0,0 
0,0 

18,2 
5,8 
1,5 
6,8 
1,0 
1,7 
1,0 
: 
0,4 

0,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
: 
0,4 

17,4 
5,8 
1,4 
6,5 
1,0 
1,7 
1,0 
0,0 
0,0 

18,1 
5,5 
1,6 
6,8 
1,0 
1,8 
1,0 
: 
0,5 

0,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
: 
0,4 

17,2 
5,5 
1,4 
6,5 
0,9 
1,7 
1,0 
0,0 
0,0 

17,7 
5,4 
1,6 
6,8 
0,9 
1,8 
0,8 
: 
0,4 

0,9 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
: 
0,4 

16,8 
5,4 
1,4 
6,5 
0,9 
1,7 
0,8 
0,0 
0,0 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 

of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

433 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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5

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

74,6

78,2

56,2

65,4

64,6

50,7

-9,2

-13,6

-5,5

58,7      
(100/0/0)*
65 
(100/0/0)*
42,7 
(100/0/0)*

60,8 / 70,7

72,9 / 59,6

-7,5

-11,5

-4,7

51,3     
(52/48/0)*
53,5 
(54/46/0)*
38 
(51/49/0)*

47,7 / 55,5

57,2 / 46,8

38 years career: average income

63,8

58,2

-5,6

50,2

45,6

-4,6

Low / high income

66,9 / 48

57,5 / 45,1

(-9,4/-2,9)

55,6 / 36,4

47,6 / 33,8

(-8/-2,6)

42 years career: average income

86,4

73,1

-13,3

68

57,3

-10,7

Low / high income

90,5 / 64,9

72,2 / 56,6 (-18,3/-8,3) 75,3 / 49,3

59,7 / 42,5 (-15,5/-6,8)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

70

52,1

53,6

56

2010

43,7

50,7

53,8

53,6

51

47,6

2050

29,7

40,2

-16,2

1,5

-2,6

-8,4

54,2

41

42,2

44,1

41,9

-12,3

42

40

37,3

1,0

-2,2

-6,8

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-14,1

-10,5

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 

Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

SK

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

52,4
52,6
3,5
2,9
71,4
79,1
14,1
18
1,7
61,9

52,1
52,6
3
2,7
70,8
79
13,8
17,8
1,3
59,5

52,1
52,3
3,5
2,9
72,3
79,8
14,5
18,4
2,2
63,2
1.502,45 1.589,13 1.672,62 1.522,64
7,96

52,4
52,1
3,3
2,8
71,7
79,3
14
18
1,7
63,6

8,99

9,15

8,02

53,4
53,1
3,5
3,1
72,5
79,9
14,6
18,5
2,2
65,6
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA)

439 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS219 

219 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

440 

 
                                                           
comment 

definition 
unit 
source 

comment 

definition 
unit 
source 
link 

comment 

SK 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
eurostat 

Unemployment benefit 

definition  Unemployment benefit recipients 
unit 
source 
link 

thousands of recipients 
Social Insurance Agency 
http://www.socpoist.sk/pocet-poberatelov-davok-v-nezamestnanosti/1662s 
The new softer eligibility criteria on unemployment benefit have come into effect since 
1 September 2010. The minimum necessary condition of unemployment insurance 
decreased from 3 years from the last four years into 2 years from the last three years. 
This change also contibuted to the year-on-year growth of the number of recipients 
from the second half of Year 2011 and till the end of the first quarter of Year 2012, but 
wihtout any dramatic changes. The latest trend is positive with year-on-year decline of 
the number of recipients in Year 2013 (Mar-Aug).    

Social assistance benefit 

social assistance benefit 
thousands of recipients 
Centre Offiice of Labour, Social Affairs and Familly  
Social Assistance Benefit: Recipients are defined as recipients of benefits. In the system 
of assistance in material need (social assistance) we are talking about the recipient, 
which is the range of jointly assessed persons, i.e. individual, family with children, 
families without children, etc. This means that for one recipient of assistance in 
material need may be more of jointly assessed persons. In Year 2013 (Mar-Sept) is 
evident slight increase in number of the recipients of material need. 

Disability benefit 

Disability Benefits recipients 
thousands of recipients 
Social Insurance Agency 
http://www.socpoist.sk/pocet-vyplacanych-dochodkov--v-mesiacoch-/3150s  
The number of recipients are without disability benefits from youth ("invalidi z 
mladosti") which are funded by state budget. The new lighter conditions on disability 
benefit have come into effect since 1 January 2010 (the minimum pension period on 
invalidity benefit is required from all career, not only from last 10 years). This change 
also contibuted to the year-on-year slightly increased of the number of recipients in 
Year 2011 and Year 2012, but wihtout any dramatic changes. The trend is continuing in 
Year 2013 (Jan-Aug).  

441 

 
  
  
  
 
 
FINLAND 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"The quantitative target of the Europe 2020 Strategy will be achieved in Finland if the number of 

people at risk of poverty and social exclusion can be reduced by around 150,000 people" (NRP 

2012)." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2012) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: i) Progress on the target is monitored on the basis of the EU SILC data with a base year 2008 and target data year 2018; ii) AROPE - 

at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, 

i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  -  severe  material  deprivation  rate;  iii)  For  the  at-risk-of  poverty  rate  (AROP),  the  income 

reference year is the calendar year prior to the survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months 

preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of (quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income 

reference  year  prior  to  the  survey  (i.e.  2011)  while  for  the  severe material  deprivation  rate  (SMD), the  reference  is  the  current  year  (i.e. 

2012). 

442 

 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

 FI 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

13,6 

13,8 

13,1 

13,7 

13,2 

709 

7,3 

296 

3,5 

181 

2,4 

127 

1,0 

51 

0,8 

39 

0,4 

18 

725 

8,2 

329 

2,8 

148 

2,9 

151 

0,6 

29 

1,1 

59 

0,3 

18 

692 

9,1 

364 

2,8 

150 

3,2 

170 

0,6 

30 

0,9 

49 

0,4 

19 

725 

9,8 

389 

3,2 

170 

3,4 

178 

0,6 

33 

0,9 

46 

0,6 

30 

704 

9,1 

361 

2,9 

156 

3,3 

175 

0,5 

27 

0,8 

41 

0,4 

22 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

443 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

-0,5 

-2,9 

-0,7 

-7,2 

-0,3 

-8,2 

-0,1 

-1,7 

-0,1 

-0,4 

-0,7 

1,8 

16,9 

17,0 

84.586 

84.999 

10,3 

10,4 

22,0 

39.465 

39.431 

-0,6 

8,9 

9,9 

-13,8 

44.362 

49.671 

0,9 

2,9 

2,7 

37,8 

14.577 

13.456 

-0,5 

2,6 

2,9 

-18,2 

-47,1 

13.013 

14.345 

-0,1 

-10,9 

-0,2 

-26,7 

0,0 

5,1 

0,0 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

22,2 

2.785 

3.236 

 
 
  
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

FI 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
0,3 
2,6 
6,4 
1,2 
25,4 

2009 
-8,5 
-2,6 
8,2 
1,4 
29,5 

2010 
3,4 
-0,1 
8,4 
2,0 
29,7 

2011 
2,8 
1,5 
7,8 
1,7 
29,3 

2012 
-1,0 
0,0 
7,7 
1,6 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

FI 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

25,4 
6,8 
3,2 
8,8 
0,9 
2,9 
1,8 
0,4 
0,6 

1,1 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,3 
0,4 
0,3 

24,3 
6,8 
3,2 
8,8 
0,9 
2,9 
1,5 
0,0 
0,3 

29,5 
7,6 
3,6 
10,4 
1,0 
3,3 
2,4 
0,5 
0,7 

1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,5 
0,3 

28,3 
7,6 
3,6 
10,4 
1,0 
3,3 
2,0 
0,0 
0,4 

29,7 
7,5 
3,6 
10,7 
1,0 
3,3 
2,4 
0,5 
0,7 

1,3 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,5 
0,3 

28,4 
7,5 
3,6 
10,7 
1,0 
3,3 
2,0 
0,0 
0,4 

29,3 
7,5 
3,5 
10,8 
0,9 
3,3 
2,1 
0,5 
0,8 

1,4 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,5 
0,4 

27,9 
7,5 
3,5 
10,8 
0,9 
3,2 
1,6 
0,0 
0,4 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

444 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

68,9

72,3

63,4

62

62,7

51,7

-6,9

-9,6

-11,7

61,8      
(100/0/0)*
66,7 
(100/0/0)*
55,8 
(100/0/0)*

62 / 62

63,3 / 60,8

-7,4

-12,3

-13,0

54,4     
(100/0/0)*
54,4 
(100/0/0)*
42,8 
(100/0/0)*

54,4 / 54,4

55,8 / 53,1

38 years career: average income

60,8

55,3

-5,5

53,2

47,4

-5,8

Low / high income

66,3 / 56,6

57,2 / 46,1 (-9,1/-10,5) 58,9 / 48,4

47,4 / 36,7 (-11,5/-11,7)

42 years career: average income

74,7

68,5

-6,2

68,1

61,4

-6,7

Low / high income

77,5 / 69,4

68,2 / 57,8 (-9,3/-11,6) 73,1 / 62,2

61,4 / 49,8 (-11,7/-12,4)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

60,2

64,7

65,9

54,4

2010

49,4

51,8

54,7

61,3

60,3

51,3

2050

45,3

45,1

-5,5

-3,4

-5,6

-3,1

52,5

57,2

58,5

46,3

46,3

53,7

52,7

42,8

-6,2

-3,5

-5,8

-3,5

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-4,1

-6,7

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

FI

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

58,6
59,5
8
9
76,5
83,3
17,5
21,3
0,8
68,6

58,2
58,6
8,2
9
76,6
83,5
17,3
21,5
3,7
68,9

57,7
58,3
8,4
8,6
77,3
83,8
17,7
21,7
4,4
68,9
2.412,68 2.394,27 2.420,03 2.516,58
9,04

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58,2
8,8
8,9
76,9
83,5
17,5
21,5
3,9
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8,99

9,17

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56,2
8,4
9
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83,7
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21,6
4,6
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61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
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83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA) 

450 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS220 

220 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

451 

 
 
                                                           
FI 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

definition 

unit 
source 
comment 

Unemployment benefit 

Earnings-related unemployment allowance; Basic unemployment allowance; Labour 
market support 

thousands of recipients, at the end of the month 
Social Insurance Institution and the Financial Supervisory Authority (FIN-FSA) 
Earnings-related unemployment allowance is paid for those who fullfil the eligibility 
criterias:  Employment conditions and member of an unemployment fund. This is 
voluntary - you have to pay an annual fee. In the case of unemployment the allowance 
is related to your salary. Most of the funds are managed by trade unions. Basic 
unemployment allowance is like earnings-related allowance, but the difference is that 
you are not a member of an unemployment fund. The allowance is flat rate and low. 
Starting from 2010, basic and earnings-related unemployment allowances are payable 
not only during unemployment but also during participation in a measure of active 
labour market policy. Labour market support is flat rate benefit (and low) for those who 
do not qualify for the elibility rules of the benefits mentioned above. In practice they 
are young people and those who have received the allowances mentioned above for 
the maximum period (500 days). Unlike with the unemployment allowance, a 
demonstrated need of financial assistance is also required. Although in most cases 
labour market support and basic unemployment allowance are at the same rate. 

A total of 304,000 persons received unemployment benefits at year-end 2012. Of them, 
53% were in receipt of a basic unemployment benefit. The number of recipients of 
unemployment benefits started to increase in autumn 2012 and the increase has 
continued in 2013. 

definition 
unit 
source 
comment 

Social assistance benefit 

Recipients of social assistance (households) by calendar month 
thousands of recipients 
National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL) 
In 2011, on average 118,000 households per month received social assistance. The 
number of households per month receiving social assistance grew rapidly in the first 
part of 2009, but subsequently the growth rate came to halt. The numbers were, 
however, decidedly more than 10 per cent higher than during the downturn before 
2008. 

452 

 
  
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
FI 
definition 
unit 
source 
comment 

Disability benefit 

Recipients of disability pension (earnings-related schemes) at the end of the month 
thousands of recipients 
Finnish Centre for Pensions 
Disability pensions in the earnings-related pension system consist of full and partial 
pensions and they may be awarded until further notice or for a specific period of time 
(cash rehabilitation benefit). Rehabilitation allowance is the benefit paid during active 
rehabilitation measures awarded to a person who is still in working life and would face 
a risk of disability in the near future without rehabilitation. The amount of this 
allowance is 1.33 times the disability pension and the pension system pays it, but it is 
not regarded or classified as a pension.  

The number of people receiving disability pensions has been decreasing for a number 
of years. For example from autumn 2010 to autumn 2013 the number of recipients 
decreased by 13 %. There are different reasons for this. The incidence of new disability 
pensions has decreased. They are applied less than before. According to a recent study 
people feel that their ability to work has ameliorated.  One reason may also be the 
increased rehabilitation measures. The amount of recipients of rehabilitation allowance 
has more than doubled in ten years ( from 3055 in 2003 to 7872 recipients in 2012). In 
2012, of those who finished their rehabilitation process 74 percent were in active 
working life and 70 percent of them returned back to work. The pension reform of 2005 
introduced some technical reasons: in 2005 the retirement age changed from 65 to 63-
68 years which means that between the ages 63-65 only old age pensions are awarded 
and not disability pensions as was the case before 2005. Also, the disability pension is 
converted to old age pension in earlier age than before (at the age of 63 for pensions 
beginning after 2005), so they end earlier than those that have begun before the 2005 
reform (at the age of 65). 

453 

 
SWEDEN 

NATIONAL 2020 TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL 

EXCLUSION 

"Promoting  social  inclusion  by  reducing  the  percentage  of  women  and  men  aged  20-64  who 

are not in the labour force (except full-time students), the long-term unemployed or those on 

long-term sick leaves to well under 14 per cent by 2020." 

Source: National Reform Programme (2011) 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION  

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note:  i)  Progress  on  the  target  is  monitored  on  the  basis  of  the  EU  SILC  data  with  a  base  year  2008  and  target  data  year  2018;  ii) 

Provisional data for 2012 so evolutions need to be interpreted with caution; iii)AROPE - at-risk-of-poverty or social exclusion rate; AROP - 

at-risk-of-poverty  rate;  VLWI  -  share  of  population  living  in  (quasi-)jobless  households,  i.e.  very  low  work  intensity  households;  SMD  - 

severe material deprivation rate; iv)  For the at-risk-of poverty rate (AROP), the income reference year is the calendar year prior to the 

survey year (i.e. 2011) except for the United Kingdom (survey year) and Ireland (12 months preceding the survey). Similarly, the share of 

(quasi-) jobless households or the very low work intensity rate (VLWI) refers to the income reference year prior to the survey (i.e. 2011) 

while for the severe material deprivation rate (SMD), the reference is the current year (i.e. 2012). 

454 

 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION (2012) 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

SE 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

12,2 

13,3 

12,9 

14,0 

14,2 

1.121 

1.215 

1.212 

1.333 

1.372 

5,5 

381 

1,4 

132 

1,8 

165 

0,3 

26 

0,3 

31 

0,2 

14 

6,4 

430 

1,6 

144 

2,2 

204 

0,3 

26 

0,5 

43 

0,1 

14 

6,0 

418 

1,3 

125 

2,3 

213 

0,2 

23 

0,5 

44 

0,1 

12 

6,9 

482 

1,2 

112 

2,8 

267 

0,3 

32 

0,4 

38 

0,1 

13 

5,7 

406 

1,3 

125 

2,5 

243 

0,4 

38 

0,5 

48 

0,1 

6 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

change  
 2011-
2012 

change  
2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,2 

2,9 

-1,2 

-15,8 

0,1 

11,6 

-0,3 

-9,0 

0,1 

18,8 

0,1 

26,3 

0,0 

2,0 

16,9 

17,0 

22,4 

84.586 

84.999 

0,2 

6,6 

-0,1 

-5,3 

0,7 

10,3 

10,4 

39.465 

39.431 

8,9 

9,9 

44.362 

49.671 

2,9 

2,7 

47,3 

14.577 

13.456 

0,1 

2,6 

2,9 

46,2 

13.013 

14.345 

0,2 

54,8 

-0,1 

1,7 

1,9 

8.248 

9.294 

0,6 

0,6 

-53,8 

-57,1 

2.785 

3.236 

455 

 
 
  
 
 
MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

SE 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 
Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 
Unemployment rate 
Long-term unemployment rate 
Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

EU28 

2008 
-0,6 
0,9 
6,2 
0,8 
28,9 

2009 
-5,0 
-2,4 
8,3 
1,1 
31,4 

2010 
6,6 
1,0 
8,6 
1,6 
29,8 

2011 
2,9 
2,1 
7,8 
1,5 
29,0 

2012 
0,9 
0,7 
8,0 
1,5 
: 

2011 
1,6 
0,2 
9,7 
4,2 
27,8 

2012 
-0,4 
-0,5 
10,5 
4,7 
: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

SE 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2010 

2011 

EU28 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

28,9 
7,5 
4,4 
11,4 
0,6 
3,0 
0,9 
0,5 
0,6 

0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,5 
0,3 

28,1 
7,5 
4,4 
11,4 
0,6 
3,0 
0,9 
0,0 
0,3 

31,4 
7,9 
4,6 
12,6 
0,6 
3,2 
1,3 
0,5 
0,7 

0,9 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,5 
0,4 

30,5 
7,9 
4,6 
12,6 
0,6 
3,2 
1,3 
0,0 
0,3 

29,8 
7,4 
4,1 
12,2 
0,5 
3,1 
1,4 
0,5 
0,7 

0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,5 
0,4 

29,0 
7,4 
4,1 
12,1 
0,5 
3,1 
1,4 
0,0 
0,4 

29,0 
7,5 
3,8 
12,0 
0,5 
3,1 
1,2 
0,4 
0,7 

0,8 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,0 
0,4 
0,3 

28,2 
7,5 
3,8 
11,9 
0,5 
3,1 
1,2 
0,0 
0,4 

28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 
of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS)  

456 

  
 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
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s

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

60,3

82,9

57,5

53,0

53,2

47,9

-7,3

-29,7

-9,6

63,6      
(76/2/22)*
72,4 
(79/2/19)*
53,7 
(62/2/36)*

54,6    
(62/13/24)*
54,6 
(62/13/24)*
45,7 
(52/11/38)*

-9

-17,8

-8,0

51,3 / 55

64,6 / 45,1

52,6 / 57

67,2 / 45,9

38 years career: average income

54,7

47,7

-7,0

56,9

48,4

-8,5

Low / high income

57,9 / 53,5

47,3 / 42,8 (-10,6/-10,7) 59,9 / 49,5

48,4 / 40,6 (-11,5/-8,9)

42 years career: average income

66,4

63

-3,4

72,5

61,6

-10,9

Low / high income

86,7 / 65,4

62,6 / 55,8 (-24,1/-9,6) 86,3 / 61,9

61,6 / 51,3 (-24,7/-10,6)

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

58,6

60,1

59,7

57,9

2010

35,3

35,4

46,3

52,3

50,8

41,2

2050

26,4

22,7

-12,3

-7,8

-8,9

-16,7

51,7

63,3

62,6

53,2

52,5

53,8

52

40,9

0,8

-9,5

-10,6

-12,3

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

-8,9

-12,7

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

SE

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

69,4
69
13,1
14
79,2
83,3
18
20,9
2,4
78,5

70,7
69,6
13,6
14,7
79,4
83,5
18,2
21,2
2,0
79,7

71,1
70,2
13,9
15,2
79,9
83,8
18,5
21,3
1,4
79,9
2.822,68 2.794,86 2.795,28 2.940,74
9,52

71,7
71,1
14,1
15,5
79,6
83,6
18,3
21,2
1,8
80,0

9,94

9,47

9,23

70,9
70,7
14
15,4
79,9
83,6
18,5
21,1
1,3
81,1
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA)

462 

 
 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS221 

SE 

Unemployment 

definition  Unemployment according to ILO definition - Total 
unit 
source 

Thousands of persons - seasonally adjusted 
Eurostat 

definition  Unemployment benefit; labour market measures 
unit 
source 

thousands of recipients, measured in full year equivalents  
Statistics Sweden 

Unemployment benefit 

definition 

unit 
source 

Social assistance benefit/means-tested minimum income 

Subsistance allowance 
Measured in full year equivalents (i.e. benefit for 365 days at a 100% withdraw rate).  

Statistics Sweden 

Disability benefit (1) 

definition 
unit 
source 

Sickness benefit 
thousands of recipients, measured in full year equivalents  
Statistics Sweden 

definition 
unit 
source 

Disability benefits 
thousands of recipients, measured in full year equivalents  
Statistics Sweden 

Disability benefit (2) 

221 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

463 

 
 
 
  
  
  
  
                                                           
UNITED KINGDOM 

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE 2020 NATIONAL TARGET FOR THE REDUCTION OF 

POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

"The  Government  is  committed  to  making  wide-ranging  social  reforms,  including  transforming 

children’s life chances, reforming welfare systems, improving education, increasing social mobility and 

tackling child poverty. The UK Government is responsible for policies in this area in England and when 

policy areas are reserved to Parliament in the devolution settlements, for example the welfare system 

which is only devolved in Northern Ireland. The Devolved Administrations are responsible for their own 

policy direction in all other areas, for example education. 

Current level of performance against objectives: The latest indicators that the Government identified in 

the Child Poverty Act 2010 are set out in the table below: 

Indicator 

Target 

Current level 

Reference period 

Relative  low  income:  proportion  of  children 

Less than 10 

 17 per cent 

2010-2011 

who  live  in  households  where  income  is  less 

per 

than  60  per  cent  of  median  net  equivalised 

household income before housing costs for the 

financial year. 

cent by 

2020-21 

Absolute  low  income:  proportion  of  children 

Less than 5 

20 per cent 

2010-2011 

who  live  in  households  where  income  is  less 

per 

than  60  per  cent  of  the  2010/11  median  net 

equivalised  household  income  adjusted  for 

prices, before housing costs. 

cent by 

2020-21 

Low 

income  and  material  deprivation:  

Less than 5 

12 per cent  

2010-2011 

proportion of children living in households who 

per 

experience  material  deprivation  and  live  in 

households  where  income  is  less  than  70  per 

cent  of  median  net  equivalised  household 

cent by 

2020-21 

income  before  housing  costs  for  the  financial 

year. 

Persistent poverty: proportion of children living 

To be 

12 per cent 

2005-2008 

in households where income is less than 60 per 

defined in 

cent  of  median  net  equivalised  household 

regulations 

income  before  housing  costs  for  the  financial 

464 

 
 
 
 
year in at least three of the previous four years.  by 

2015 

Source: National Reform Programme (2012), additional information from the Member State 

Note: Absolute low income – The absolute low income measure has now been re-baselined to 60 per cent of the median 
income in 2010/11 (adjusted for prices) as opposed to the 1998/99 relative low income baseline. This means that the above 
child  absolute  low  income  figure  cannot  be  compared  to  those  reported  previously  under  the  old  baseline. 

Note: Combined low income and material deprivation – A change in the methodology for calculating material deprivation 
has caused a break in the series of this measure, this means that figures for 2011/12 can no longer be compared to figures 
reported in previous years. 

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION AT RISK OF POVERTY OR SOCIAL EXCLUSION 

(2012) 

Note: AROP - at-risk-of-poverty rate; VLWI - share of population living in (quasi-)jobless households, i.e. very low work intensity 
households; SMD - severe material deprivation rate; 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC),  

465 

 
 
 
 
 
UK 

% 

AROP  
total 

VLWI  
total 

SMD  
total 

AROP+ 
VLWI 

AROP+ 
SMD 

AROP+ 
SMD+ 
VLWI 

SMD+ 
VLWI 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

% of total pln 

1000 persons 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

18,7 

17,3 

17,1 

16,2 

16,2 

11.335  10.526  10.519  10.018  10.146 

10,4 

12,6 

13,1 

11,5 

13,0 

4.905 

5.941 

6.201 

5.452 

6.242 

4,5 

3,3 

4,8 

5,1 

7,8 

2.739 

2.034 

2.972 

3.137 

4.880 

3,9 

4,9 

4,4 

3,0 

2,8 

2.356 

2.983 

2.699 

1.845 

1.755 

1,7 

1.039 

1,0 

593 

1,2 

748 

0,8 

463 

0,7 

417 

1,1 

690 

0,5 

333 

0,6 

390 

1,4 

856 

1,1 

679 

1,0 

613 

1,2 

762 

0,9 

581 

change   change  
 2011-
2012 

2008-
2012 

EU28 

2011 

2012 

0,0 

1,3 

1,5 

14,5 

2,7 

55,6 

-0,2 

-4,9 

0,7 

69,5 

-2,5 

16,9 

17,0 

-10,5  84.586  84.999 

2,6 

10,3 

10,4 

27,3  39.465  39.431 

3,3 

8,9 

9,9 

78,2  44.362  49.671 

-1,1 

2,9 

2,7 

-25,5  14.577  13.456 

0,7 

2,6 

2,9 

75,2  13.013  14.345 

2,0 

0,8 

0,8 

1,7 

1,9 

1.235 

1,5 

926 

62,1 

0,6 

65,1 

8.248 

9.294 

0,7 

0,6 

0,6 

59,4 

100,0 

2.785 

3.236 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC) 

Note: change 2011-2012 and 2008-2012 is calculated as difference in percentage points (pp) for % of total population and 

for values in 1000 persons the change is indicated in percentage change (%). Figures for 2012 are not directly comparable 

with figures in previous years, due to a change in survey source. This change is magnified by the change in survey source 

to the FRS; and as such this may not reflect as large a change as the figures suggest. 

MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LABOUR MARKET CONTEXT 

UK 

2008 

2009 

2010 

2011 

2012 

2011 

2012 

EU28 

Real GDP growth (y-on-y % change) 

Employment growth (y-on-y % change) 

Unemployment rate 

Long-term unemployment rate 

-0,8 

0,7 

5,6 

1,4 

-5,2 

-1,6 

7,6 

1,9 

1,7 

0,2 

7,8 

2,5 

1,1 

0,5 

8,0 

2,7 

0,3 

1,2 

7,9 

2,7 

1,6 

0,2 

9,7 

4,2 

Social protection expenditure (% of GDP) 

24,8 

27,8 

26,4 

26,3 

: 

27,8 

-0,4 

-0,5 

10,5 

4,7 

: 

Source: Eurostat (National Accounts, LFS, ESSPROS) 

466 

 
  
 
 
  
 
MAIN SOCIAL INDICATORS 

SOCIAL PROTECTION EXPENDITURE 

UK 

Social protection 
expenditure  
(in % of GDP) 

Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Means-tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 
Non-means tested 
Total 
Sickness/Health care 
Disability 
Old age 
Survivors 
Family/Children 
Unemployment 
Housing 
Social exclusion n.e.c. 

2008 
24,8 
7,7 
2,7 
10,6 
0,1 
1,7 
0,6 
1,2 
0,2 

2009 
27,8 
8,7 
2,9 
11,7 
0,1 
1,9 
0,8 
1,4 
0,2 

2010 
26,4 
8,3 
2,4 
11,3 
0,1 
1,8 
0,7 
1,5 
0,2 

EU28 

2011 
26,3 
8,3 
2,4 
11,3 
0,1 
1,7 
0,7 
1,5 
0,2 

2010 
28,1 
8,3 
2,2 
11,1 
1,7 
2,3 
1,7 
0,6 
0,4 

2011 
27,8 
8,2 
2,1 
11,1 
1,6 
2,2 
1,6 
0,6 
0,4 

3,6 
0,0 
0,8 
1,1 
0,0 
0,2 
0,2 
1,2 
0,1 

21,2 
7,7 
1,9 
9,5 
0,1 
1,4 
0,4 
0,0 
0,1 

4,2 
0,1 
0,8 
1,2 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
1,4 
0,1 

23,6 
8,6 
2,1 
10,5 
0,1 
1,7 
0,6 
0,0 
0,1 

3,8 
0,1 
0,4 
1,1 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
1,5 
0,2 

22,6 
8,2 
1,9 
10,2 
0,1 
1,6 
0,5 
0,0 
0,0 

3,8 
0,1 
0,5 
1,0 
0,0 
0,2 
0,3 
1,5 
0,1 

22,4 
8,2 
1,9 
10,3 
0,1 
1,5 
0,4 
0,0 
0,1 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

25,1 
8,2 
1,8 
10,5 
1,6 
1,7 
1,3 
0,0 
0,1 

3,0 
0,1 
0,4 
0,5 
0,1 
0,6 
0,4 
0,6 
0,4 

24,8 
8,1 
1,7 
10,6 
1,5 
1,6 
1,2 
0,0 
0,1 

Source: Eurostat (ESSPROS) 

Note: For non-means tested the aggregation Housing and Social Exclusion n.e.c is based only on Housing. The total figures 

of social expenditure include all benefits excluding administrative costs.  

467 

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
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LONG-TERM ADEQUACY OF PENSIONS: THEORETICAL REPLACEMENT RATES (2010-2050) 

Theoretical replacement rates 

(TRR):                                              

Net 2010

Net 2050 Difference Gross2010 Gross2050 Difference

40 years career: average income 
earner (basecase)

Low income

High income

Lower / higher future rates of 
return
Lower / higher future wage 
growth

77,2

87,1

54,1

75,1

89,9

50,4

71,2 / 79,9

81,9 / 70

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64,6      
(62/0/38)*
73,9 
(66/0/34)*
43,4 
(57/0/43)*

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62,6     
(59/0/41)*
76,3 
(66/0/34)*
40,4 
(52/0/48)*

58,8 / 67,1

69,1 / 57,7

38 years career: average income

70,9

72,7

1,8

58,8

60,3

1,5

Low / high income

78 / 51

87,3 / 48,7

9,3 / -2,3

65,9 / 40,7

73,7 / 38,8

7,8 / -1,9

42 years career: average income

80,3

77,6

-2,7

67,1

64,9

-2,2

Low / high income

90,5 / 56,1

92,6 / 52,2

2,1 / -3,9

77,2 / 45,1

79 / 42

1,8 / -3,1

10 years after retirement

Female worker with 3 years of 
career break for childcare
3 years of career break for 
unemployment

10 years out of the labour market

Benefit ratio (Public pensions)
Gross replacement rate at 
retirement (Public pensions)

72,1

71,5

76,6

63,4

2010

:

5,1

68,8

76,2

76,8

63,6

2050

:

5,3

-3,3

4,7

0,2

0,2

58,2

59,7

64,0

51,5

55,5

63,6

64,2

51,6

-2,7

3,9

0,2

0,1

Difference

EU27 2010

EU27 2050 Difference

:

0,2

44,7

48,0

37,0

39,1

-7,7

-8,9

Note:  *:  Share  of  statutory  DB-NDC  /  statutory  funded  /  occupational  and  other  supplementary  pensions 
Source: Joint SPC/EC report on Pension Adequacy in the European Union (2010-2050) 

HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS 

UK

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2011

2012

EU28

Healthy life years at birth (male)
Healthy life years at birth (female)
Healthy life years at 65 (male)
Healthy life years at 65 (female)
Life expectancy at birth (male)
Life expectancy at birth (female)
Life expectancy at 65 (male)
Life expectancy at 65 (female)
Self-reported unmet need for medical care (%)
Self-perceived general health (%)
Total health care expenditure (PPS) per capita
Total health care expenditure (% of GDP)

65
66,3
10,7
11,8
77,8
81,9
17,7
20,3
1,0
79,2
:
:

65
66,1
10,9
11,4
78,3
82,5
18,1
20,8
1,2
78,3
:
:

65
65,6
10,9
11,8
78,7
82,6
18,3
20,9
1,0
79,4
:
:

65,2
65,2
11
11,9
79
83
18,5
21,1
1,2
77,5
:
:

64,5
64,5
10,5
10,6
:
:
:
:
1,4
74,7
:
:

61,7
62,2
8,6
8,6
77,4
83,2
17,8
21,3
3,4
67,9
:
:

61,3
61,9
8,4
8,5
:
:
:
:
3,4
68,2
:
:

Note: data source for self-perceived general health (hlth_silc_01); 2012 data for healthy life years is based on provisional 

Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC, Mortality data, SHA),  

estimates for the UK. 

473 

 
 
TRENDS IN TAKE-UP OF SELECTED BENEFITS222 

222 These data have been collected by the SPC in the context of monitoring the social impact of the crisis. It includes only a 
selection  of  benefits  which  have  been  considered  most  reactive  to  the  crisis.  The  number  of  unemployed  (standard 
definition by the ILO) and the number of persons with overdue debt repayments are given as a background. 

474 

 
 
                                                           
UK 

definition 

unit 
source 

link  

finding the 
data 

Number of Unemployed (ILO) 

Total number of people actively seeking work who cannot find work, seasonally 
adjusted (thousands) 
thousands 
Eurostat 
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/employment_unemployment_lfs
/data/database 
Click the link directly above. In the drop down menus select "Employment and 
unemployment (Labour Force Survey)", then "LFS main indicators", then 
Unemployment - LFS adjusted series" and then "Unemployment by sex and age groups 
- monthly average, 1000 persons". You will need to update the TIME variable to ensure 
that the data explorer contains the relevant years. To do this click the + symbol next to 
the variable TIME, then add the relevant years, and then select update.   

Jobseekers Allowance 

definition 
unit 
source 
link  

finding the 
data 

total number of individuals in Great Britain receiving income support (thousands) 
thousands of claimants 
DWP: WPLS 
http://tabulation-tool.dwp.gov.uk/100pc/ 
Click the link directly above. Under "Benefit/Scheme" select "Income Support". Then 
under "Analysis" select "Caseload (thousands)"; under "Row" select "Time series"; 
under "column" you can select any of the options in the drop down menu; under 
"subset" select "NONE". Then click "Get Table >>" and copy the figures in the column 
marked "Total".    

comment 

definition 
unit 
source 
link  

finding the 
data 

comment 

Since October 2008 Employment and Support Allowance has been replacing Incapacity 
Benefit, Income Support and Severe Disablement Allowance, as such the trends shown 
in the attached material show a marked fall in receipt of these benefits but it should be 
noted that many of these recipients will have moved onto Employment and Support 
Allowance and all new claims would be processed through ESA, which is not captured in 
these figures.  

Income Support Claimants 

total number of individuals in Great Britain receiving income support (thousands) 
thousands of claimants 
DWP: WPLS 
http://tabulation-tool.dwp.gov.uk/100pc/ 
Click the link directly above. Under "Benefit/Scheme" select "Income Support". Then 
under "Analysis" select "Caseload (thousands)"; under "Row" select "Time series"; 
under "column" you can select any of the options in the drop down menu; under 
"subset" select "NONE". Then click "Get Table >>" and copy the figures in the column 
marked "Total".    
Since October 2008 Employment and Support Allowance has been replacing Incapacity 
Benefit, Income Support and Severe Disablement Allowance, as such the trends shown 
in the attached material show a marked fall in receipt of these benefits but it should be 
noted that many of these recipients will have moved onto Employment and Support 
Allowance and all new claims would be processed through ESA, which is not captured in 
these figures.  

475 

 
  
  
 
UK 

definition 

Incapacity and Invalidity benefit 
total number of individuals in Great Britain receiving either incapacity benefit or severe 
disablement allowance (thousands).  

unit 
source 
link  

finding the 
data 

thousands of claimants 
DWP: WPLS 
http://tabulation-tool.dwp.gov.uk/100pc/ 
Click the link directly above. Under "Benefit/Scheme" select "Incapacity Benefit/ Severe 
Diasablement Allowance - combined information". Then under "Analysis" select 
"Caseload (thousands)"; under "Row" select "Time series"; under "column" you can 
select any of the options in the drop down menu; under "subset" select "NONE". Then 
click "Get Table >>" and copy the figures in the column marked "Total".    

comment 

definition 

unit 
source 
link  

finding the 
data 

Since October 2008 Employment and Support Allowance has been replacing Incapacity 
Benefit, Income Support and Severe Disablement Allowance, as such the trends shown 
in the attached material show a marked fall in receipt of these benefits but it should be 
noted that many of these recipients will have moved onto Employment and Support 
Allowance and all new claims would be processed through ESA, which is not captured in 
these figures.  

Disability Living Allowance 
total number of Working Age adults in Great Britain receiving Disability Living Allowance 
(thousands). These figures refer to working age adults receivimng DLA rather than to 
working age adults entitled to DLA.  

thousands of claimants 
DWP: WPLS 
http://tabulation-tool.dwp.gov.uk/100pc/ 
Click the link directly above. Under "Benefit/Scheme" select "Disability Living Allowance 
- cases in payment". Then under "Analysis" select "Caseload (thousands)"; under "Row" 
select "Time series"; under "column" you can select any of the options in the drop down 
menu; under "subset" select "Working Age/Pension Age split"; then under the next 
dropdown menu called "subset" select "Working Age". Then click "Get Table >>" and 
copy the figures in the column marked "Total".    

476 

  
 
References  
Eurofound (2010). “Working poor in Europe” 

European Commission (2011). Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2011. 

Marx, I. and B. Nolan (2012). “In-work poverty”. GINI Discussion paper 51. 

Social Protection Committee (2012). Social Europe: Current challenges and the way forward. 

Frazer, H. and E. Marlier (2010). "In-work poverty and labour market segmentation in the EU: Key 

lessons. Synthesis Report." EU Network of Independent Experts on Social Inclusion. 

Stovicek, K. (2013) "Minimum wages in Slovenia: reducing employment but not poverty?" ECFIN 

Country Focus. Vol. 10, Issue 4. 

Becker S.O., Bentolila S., Fernandes A., Ichino A. (2010), “Youth emancipation and perceived job 
insecurity of parents and children.”  Journal of Population Economics, 23: 1175–1199. 

Boeri T. and J. van Ours(2008). The Economics of Imperfect Labour Markets.  Princeton University 
Press. 

Corluy, V. and F. Vandenbroucke (2013). "Individual employment, household employment and risk 

of poverty in the EU." Eurostat Methodologies and Working papers 

De graaf-Sijl, M and B.Nolan (2011). "Household joblessnesss and its impact on poverty and 

deprivation in Europe." GINI discussion paper 5. 

European Commission (2010), “Youth and segmentation in EU labour markets”, in: Employment in 

Europe, Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union. 

European Commission (2012). Employment and Social Developments in Europe in 2012 

European Commission (2013a). Employment and Social Situation Quarterly Review. September 
2013 edition. 

European Commission (2013). " European Economic Forecast Autumns 2013. " European Economy 

7/2013. http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/european_economy/2013/pdf/ee7_en.pdf 

European Commission (2014). Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2013. 

Goldstein et al. (2013), “Fertility reactions to the ‘Great Recession’ in Europe: Recent evidence from 
order-specific data.” Demographic Research, 29 (4): 85-104. 

Stovichek, K. and Turrini, A. (2012). Benchmarking unemployment benefit systems. European 
Commission, Economic Papers 454 

477 

European Commission (2013). Recommendation on Investing in Children 

European Commission( 2013a). Employment and Social Quarterly Review, June 2013. 

European Commission (2013b). Employment and Social Quarterly Review, September 2013. 

Social Protection Committee (2011). Tackling and preventing child poverty, promoting child being.  

European Commission( 2012). Employment and Social Quarterly Review, September 2012 

De Agostini, P., Sutherland, H. and I. Tasseva (2013) “The effect of tax-benefit changes on income 

distribution in EU countries since the beginning of the economic crisis.” DG EMPL Research Note 

Toth, I.G. (2013). “Time series and cross country variation of income inequalities in Europe on the 

medium run: are inequality structures converging in the past three decades?” 

Osier, G., Berger, Y. and T. Goedeme (2013). "Standard error estimation for the EU-SILC indicators 

of poverty and social exclusion." Eurostat Methodological and Working Papers. 

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-RA-13-024/EN/KS-RA-13-024-EN.PDF 

Peschner, J. and C. Fotakis (2013). “Growth potential of EU human resoures and policy implications 

for future economicgrowth.” DG EMPL Working Paper 3/2013. 

478 

 
Definitions and data sources 

Indicator 

Definition 

Data source 

At risk of poverty or social 

The  sum  of  persons  who  are:  at-risk-of-poverty  or  severely 

Eurostat – EU 

exclusion rate  

materially deprived or living in households with very low work 

SILC 

intensity as a share of the total population 

At-risk-of-poverty rate   

Share  of  persons  aged  0+  with  an  equivalised  disposable 

Eurostat – EU 

income  below  60%  of  the  national  equivalised  median 

SILC 

income.  Equivalised  median  income  is  defined  as  the 

household's 

total  disposable 

income  divided  by 

its 

"equivalent size", to take account of the size and composition 

of  the  household,  and  is  attributed  to  each  household 

member.  Equivalization  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the  OECD 

modified scale. 

Share  of  population  living  in  households  lacking  at  least  4 

items out of the following 9 items: i) to pay rent or utility bills, 

ii)  keep  home  adequately  warm, 

iii) 

face  unexpected 

expenses,  iv)  eat  meat,  fish  or  a  protein  equivalent  every 

second day, v) a week holiday away from home, or could not 

afford  (even  if  wanted  to)  vi)  a  car,  vii)  a  washing  machine, 

viii) a colour TV, or ix) a telephone. 

People  aged  0-59,  living  in  households,  where  working-age 

adults (18-59) work less than 20% of their total work potential 

during the past year. 

Eurostat – EU 

SILC 

Eurostat – EU 

SILC 

Severe material 

deprivation rate  

Share of population(0-59) 

in (quasi-) jobless, i.e. very 

low work intensity (VLWI), 

households 

Relative poverty risk gap 

Difference  between  the  median  equivalised  income  of 

Eurostat – EU 

rate  

persons aged 0+ below the at-risk-of poverty threshold and 

SILC 

the threshold itself, expressed as a percentage of the at-risk-

of poverty threshold. 

Income quintile ratio 

The  ratio  of  total  income  received  by  the  20%  of  the 

Eurostat – EU 

S80/S20  

country's population with the highest income (top quintile) to 

SILC 

that received by the 20% of the country's population with the 

lowest income (lowest quintile). Income must be understood 

as equivalised disposable income. 

479 

 
 
At risk of poverty or social 

The  sum  of  children  (0-17)    who  are:  at-risk-of-poverty  or 

Eurostat – EU 

exclusion rate of children 

severely materially deprived or living in households with very 

SILC 

low  work  intensity  (below  20%)  as  a  share  of  the  total 

population 

Impact of social transfers 

Reduction  in  the  at-risk-of-poverty  rate  in  %  due  to  social 

Eurostat – EU 

(excluding pensions) on 

transfers,  calculated  as  the  percentage  difference  between 

SILC 

poverty reduction 

the at-risk-of-poverty rate before and after social transfers 

At-risk-of-poverty rate for 

Share of persons aged (0-59) with an equivalised disposable 

Eurostat – EU 

the population living in 

income  below  60%  of  the  national    equivalised  median 

SILC 

very low work intensity 

income  who  live  in  households  where  working-age  adults 

households  

(18-59)  work  less  than  20%    of  their  total  work  potential 

during the past year. 

In-work at-risk-of-poverty 

rate  

Individuals (18-64) who are classified as employed according 

to  their  most  frequent  activity  status  and  are  at  risk  of 

poverty.  The  distinction  is  made  between  “wage  and  salary 

employment  plus  self-employment”  and  “wage  and  salary 

Eurostat – EU 

SILC 

employment” only. 

Long-term 

Total 

long-term  unemployed  population 

(≥12  months' 

Eurostat –  LFS 

unemployment rate 

unemployment; ILO definition) as a proportion of total active 

(active population, 15+) 

population. 

Youth unemployment 
ratio  

Early leavers from 
education and training 

Total unemployed young people (ILO definition), 15-24 years, 

as  a  share  of  total  population  in  the  same  age  group  (i.e. 

persons  aged  15-24  who  were  without  work  during  the 

reference  week,  were  currently  available  for  work  and  were 

either  actively  seeking  work  in  the  past  four  weeks  or  had 

already found a job to start within the next three months as a 

percentage of the total population in the same age group). 

Share  of  persons  aged  18  to  24  who  have  only  lower 

secondary  education  (their  highest  level  of  education  or 

training  attained  is  0,  1  or  2  according  to  the  1997 

International Standard Classification of Education – ISCED 97) 

and  have  not  received  education  or  training  in  the  four 

weeks preceding the survey. 

Eurostat - LFS 

Eurostat – LFS 

Employment rate of older 

Persons in employment in age group 55-64, as a proportion 

Eurostat – LFS 

workers 

of total population in the same age group. 

At risk of poverty or social 
exclusion rate of the 
elderly 

The  sum  of  elderly  (65+)  who  are:  at-risk-of-poverty  or 
severely materially deprived or living in households with very 
low  work  intensity  as  a  share  of  the  total  population  in  the 
same age group. 

Eurostat – EU 
SILC 

480 

 
 
Median relative income 
ratio of elderly people  

Median equivalised disposable income of people aged 65+ 
as a ratio of income of people aged 0-64. 

Eurostat – EU 
SILC 

Aggregate replacement 
ratio 

Housing cost overburden 
rate  

Share of the population 
with self-reported unmet 
need for medical care  

Healthy life years at 65   

GDP growth/ GDP per 
capita (in PPS) 

Median  individual  pension  income  of  65-74  relative  to 
median  individual  earnings  of  50-59,  excluding  other  social 
benefits223 

Eurostat – EU 
SILC 

Percentage of the population living in a household where 
total housing costs (net of housing allowances) represent 
more than 40% of the total disposable household income 
(net of housing allowances). 
Total  self-reported  unmet  need  for  medical  examination  for 

the following three reasons: financial barriers + waiting times 

Eurostat – EU 
SILC 

Eurostat – EU 
SILC 

+ too far to travel. 

Number of years that a person at 65 is still expected to live in 
a  healthy  condition.  To  be  interpreted  jointly  with  life 
expectancy (included in the SPPM contextual information). 

Eurostat  

Gross domestic product (GDP) is a measure of the economic 
activity,  defined  as  the  value  of  all  goods  and  services 
produced  less  the  value  of  any  goods  or  services  used  in 
their creation.  

Eurostat 

The calculation of the annual growth rate of GDP at constant 
prices  is  intended  to  allow  comparisons  of  the  dynamics  of 
economic  development  both  over  time  and  between 
economies of different sizes, irrespective of price levels. 

Public debt  

General  government  consolidated  gross  debt  as  a 
percentage of GDP. 

Eurostat - 
General 
Government data 

Employment rate  

Persons  in  employment  in  age  group  15  to  64  as  a 
proportion of total population in the same age group.  

Eurostat-LFS 

Unemployment rate 

Unemployed  population  as  a  proportion  of  total  active 
population aged 15 years or more.  

Eurostat-LFS 

The annual  percentage of  gross  domestic  product spent  on 
social protection.  

Eurostat - 
Esspros 

Social protection 
expenditure (by types of 
risk) 

Social  protection encompasses “all interventions from  public 
or  private  bodies  intended  to  relieve  households  and 
individuals  of  the  burden  of  a  defined  set  of  risks  or  needs, 
provided  that  there  is  neither  a  simultaneous  reciprocal  nor 
an individual arrangement involved”. 

Old age dependency ratio 

Ratio between the total number of people aged 65 and over 
and the number of persons of working age (aged 15 to 64). 

Eurostat 

223  Pension  income  covers  pensions  from  basic  (first  pillar)  schemes,  means-tested  welfare  schemes;  early  retirement 
widow's (first pillar) and other old age-related schemes. Other social benefits includes: unemployment-related benefits; 
family-related benefits; benefits relating to sickness or invalidity; education-related allowances; any other personal social 
benefits. Work income includes income from wage and salary employment and income from self-employment. 

481 

 
 
                                                           
Definition of the in-work at-risk-of-poverty rate 

Individuals who are classified as employed, defined here as being in work for over half of the year  

and who are at risk of poverty, i.e. live with an equivalised disposable income after social transfers 

below 60% of the national median equivalised disposable income. 

In defining in-work (monetary) poverty, the income for people who are employed is calculated for 

households, but the poverty status is assigned to the individual. This means that in-work poverty, 

when measured, is influenced by both the total disposable income (including non-wage income) 

and the household composition. The assumption of equal sharing of resources within households 

(giving the so-called equivalised income) that underlies the definition of monetary income poverty 

means that the economic well-being of individuals depends on the total resources contributed by 

all  members  of  the  households.  In  this  respect  some  income  can  move  from  one  household 

member  to  the  other  without  affecting  the  actual  income  of  the  individual.  Hence,  measuring 

attachment  to  the  labour  market  at  the  level  of  households  provides  a  better  indicator  of  the 

welfare implications associated with labour market status than individual employment rates. 

Income/disposable income 

Household  income  comes  from  different  sources.  Employment  is  generally  the  main  source  of 

income  but  it  is  not  the  only  one.  Individuals  may  receive  transfers  from  the  state  (e.g. 

unemployment benefits, pensions, etc.); property income (e.g. dividends from financial assets, etc.); 

and income from other sources (e.g. rental income from property or from the sale of property or 

goods, etc.). 

Employed 

In EU SILC, people are defined as employed based on the self-declared economic status. 

Working full year/less than full year 

Working  full  year  corresponds  to  working  during  the  total  number  of  months  for  which 

information on the activity status has been provided. Less than full year corresponds to working for 

more  than  half,  but  less  than  all,  the  numbers  of  the  months  for  which  information  on  activity 

status is provided. 

Full-time/part-time working 

This  variable  refers  to  the  main  job  with  the  designation  of  full-time  and part-time  work  as self-

reported by the respondent. 

482