Curriculum reform in Europe : the impact of learning outcomes.
Date: 2014-05-13
Institutions: Cedefop
Subjects: comparative analysis, educational reform, electronics industry, learning, teaching curriculum, tourism, updating of skills, vocational education, vocational training

Curriculum reform in Europe 

The impact of learning outcomes 

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A great deal of additional information on the European
Internet.  
It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu). 

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Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012 

ISBN 978-92-896-1140-4 
ISSN 1831-9416 
doi: 10.2801/46951 

© European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), 2012 
All rights reserved. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The European Centre for the Development  
of Vocational Training (Cedefop) is the European Union’s  
reference centre for vocational education and training.  
We provide information on and analyses of vocational education and 
training systems, policies, research and practice. 
Cedefop was established in 1975  
by Council Regulation (EEC) No 337/75. 

Europe 123, 570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea), GREECE 
PO Box 22427, 551 02 Thessaloniki, GREECE 
Tel. +30 2310490111, Fax +30 2310490020 
E-mail: info@cedefop.europa.eu 
www.cedefop.europa.eu 

Christian F. Lettmayr, Acting Director 
Hermann Nehls, Chair of the Governing Board 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
the impact of learning outcomes 

Foreword 

This  research  paper  is  part  of  a  series  of  systematic  analyses  carried  out  by 
Cedefop since 2009 on curriculum policies and practices in Europe. It builds on a 
previous  research  paper  on  Learning  outcomes  approaches  in  VET  curricula:  a 
comparative  analysis  of  nine  European  countries,  published  in  2010,  and  three 
international  workshops  organised  by  Cedefop  on  curriculum  innovation  and 
reform worldwide. 

Using a comparative approach, this particular analysis discusses curriculum 
reform  developments  in 32  countries,  identifies what  is  successful  and why  and 
provides greater insight into two specific sectors: tourism and electronics. 

Curriculum  is  the  pillar  of  the  entire  educational  process;  it  is  a  means  to 
achieving  the  aims  of  education  and  training  which  are  dynamic  and  evolve 
according  to  changing  social  and  economic  requirements.  Naturally,  curricula 
change  to  reflect  shifting  trends  in  education,  training  and  the  labour  market. 
According to Cedefop’s work on skill mismatch, despite a significant increase in 
educational attainment rates, 3 out of 10 European companies report a shortage 
of  the  skills  they  need.  High  and rising  unemployment  rates,  particularly  among 
younger  age  groups,  have  also  cast  doubt  on  the  relevance  of  the  skills  that 
people have acquired as a passport to employment and to suitably matched jobs. 
Approximately  4 out  of  every  10  workers  in  Europe are  found  to be  affected  by 
skill mismatch, where a gap exists between the  available skills of the workforce 
and  those  required  by  modern  workplaces.  The  above  trends  have  prompted 
calls  for  a  rethinking  of  education  and  training  practices  that  might  be  used  to 
bridge the gap as economic and social realities evolve. 

The strategic framework on European cooperation in education and training 
(ET  2020)  and  the  Bruges  communiqué  emphasise  that  curriculum  reform  and 
renewal  play  an  important  role in modernising  vocational  education  and training 
(VET)  so  that  it  may  become  more  responsive  to  learners’  employment  and 
personal needs. Learners need to develop and apply a set of key competences 
and  relevant  job-specific  skills  which  cannot  be  acquired  through  fragmented, 
content-overloaded curricula that are far removed from real life and the demands 
of the workplace. A reduction in early school leaving to less than 10% is another 
strategic  objective  which  is  linked,  among  other  policy  actions,  to  curriculum 
modernisation.  The  way  curricula  are  designed  and  taught  affects  learners’ 
motivation  to  remain  in  education  and  training  and  to  go  on  to  further  studies. 
This  overarching  goal  gives  a  new  impetus  to  curricula  in  vocational  education 
and training. 

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Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

In  recent  years,  a  major  European-wide  trend  has  been  the  focus  on 
learning  outcomes  in  the  design  and  renewal  of  VET  curricula.  The  underlying 
principle is not only for the flow of new entrants to the labour market to be more 
geared  to  meeting  its  needs  but  also  for  individuals  to  be  equipped  with  the 
knowledge,  skills  and  competence  to  become  successful,  confident  and 
responsible  citizens.  Indeed,  this  research  emphasises  that  learning  outcomes 
provide  a  highly  versatile  and  useful  means  of  disassembling,  discussing  and 
redefining  curricula  in  upper  secondary  vocational  education.  They  form  an 
interface  where  competing  demands  of  stakeholders  are  reconciled  and 
compromises reached.  Learning  outcomes make  expectations  clear  to teachers 
and  learners.  However,  their  design  and  delivery  pose  serious  dilemmas  and 
challenges  to  policy-makers,  stakeholders  and  practitioners,  with  particular 
regard  to  the  effectiveness  and  smooth  running  of  curriculum  development 
processes  and  to  ensuring  the  transparency  of  learning  outcomes  associated 
with  the  writing  process  and  their  coherence  with  the  other  components  of  the 
written  curriculum.  The  learning  methods  and  environments  used  for  their 
delivery are crucial to achieving learner-centredness. 

By  presenting  key  issues  for  policy  consideration  and  areas  that  require 
further development, we hope to stimulate further debate, research and action on 
the topic of curriculum change in Europe. 

Christian F. Lettmayr 
Acting Director 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Acknowledgements 

Responsibility  for  this  publication  was  entrusted  to  Irene  Psifidou,  Cedefop 
project  manager,  who  specified  the  scope  of  the  research  and  the  appropriate 
questions,  oversaw  the  implementation  of  the  investigation  and  redrafted  and 
edited the final report published by Cedefop. 

The  draft  final  manuscript  was  peer  reviewed  by  Slava  Pevec  Grm,  senior 

Cedefop expert, who provided valuable comments and support. 

This  paper  is  the  result  of  a  team  effort  reflecting  the  work  of  a  research 
consortium  led  by  Julian  Stanley  and  Andrew  McCoshan  from  the  Centre  for 
Education  and  Industry  at  Warwick  University  who  conducted  the  research  and 
fieldwork  and  drafted  the  report  (1).  We  should  like  to  thank  the  319  persons 
(ministry  officials,  national  experts,  teachers  and  students)  interviewed  in  the 
countries studied who gave valuable feedback (see list of interviewees in Annex 
1).  Special  thanks  go  to  the  following  national  experts  who  provided  detailed 
country-specific  information:  Francisca  María  Arbizu,  Anne-Marie  Charraud, 
Trisha Fettes, Božidar Grigić, Prue Huddleston, Andrea Laczik, Faith Muir, Samo 
Pavlin, Odd Bjørn Ure, Ingrid Vanhoren and Patrick Werquin. We should also like 
to thank Hubert Ertl of Oxford University who acted as external assessor for this 
study. 

The  research  paper  took  account  of  discussions  held  at  two  international 
workshops  on  curriculum  innovation  and  reform  held  by  Cedefop  in  2011  and 
2012  (Cedefop,  2011a;  Cedefop  2012a).  Workshop  participants  represented 
ministries  of  education,  national  qualifications  authorities,  curriculum 
development  agencies,  universities, 
international 
organisations, including the European Commission, Eurydice, IBE-UNESCO, the 
World Bank, the OECD, the Organisation of Ibero-American States for Education, 
Science  and  Culture,  and  the  European  Agency  for  Development  in  Special 
Needs Education. 

institutes  and 

research 

Finally, thanks are also due to Cedefop staff members Joanne Basiakou for 
providing  administrative  assistance  throughout  the  project  and  Silke  Gadji  for 
providing technical support for this publication. 

(1)  Work  was  carried  out  under  Cedefop  service  contract  No  AO/ECVL/IPS/Curricula 

Study/016/10. 

3 

 
 
 
 
                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Table of contents 

Foreword  .......................................................................................................... 1 

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... 3 

Executive summary ......................................................................................... 10 

CHAPTER 1. 

Curriculum change on the basis of learning outcomes ......... 19 

1.1. 

Introduction: the European policy and research context .................. 19 

1.2.  Outline of the report ......................................................................... 21 

CHAPTER 2. 

Study scope and methodology ............................................. 23 

2.1.  Research questions ......................................................................... 23 

2.2.  Scope of the study ........................................................................... 24 

2.3.  Research tools ................................................................................ 25 
2.3.1. - Country overviews ............................................................... 26 
2.3.2. - Case studies ........................................................................ 26 

2.4.  Challenges and limitations of the research ...................................... 28 

CHAPTER 3. 

Concepts underlying the research ........................................ 30 

3.1.  What is the ‘written curriculum’? What is the ‘taught curriculum’? .... 30 

3.2.  What are ‘learning outcomes’ in VET curricula? .............................. 32 
3.2.1. - Focusing on the outcomes of learning .................................. 33 
3.2.2. - Defining the inputs and outcomes of learning ....................... 33 
3.2.3. - Basing learning outcomes upon competences ..................... 34 

3.3.  Cross-border differences in the meaning of ‘competence’ and 

‘learning outcomes’ ......................................................................... 36 

CHAPTER 4. 

Prevalence and impact of learning outcomes 
in curriculum reform ............................................................. 38 

4.1. 

Introduction ..................................................................................... 38 

4.2.  Curriculum policy developments in initial VET ................................. 38 
4.2.1. - Early developers .................................................................. 40 
4.2.2. - Recent developers ............................................................... 42 

4.3.  Curriculum policy developments in the electronics and tourism 

sectors ............................................................................................ 43 

4.4.  The reasons for introducing outcome-oriented curricula .................. 46 
4.4.1. - Overarching economic and social goals ............................... 47 
4.4.2. - Operational objectives .......................................................... 48 

4.5.  Challenges facing curriculum policy ................................................. 56 

4.6.  Key findings ..................................................................................... 57 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 5. 

The design process for outcome-oriented curricula .............. 59 

5.1. 

Introduction ..................................................................................... 59 

5.2.  Structuring the design process ........................................................ 59 
5.2.1.  Differentiated approaches to curriculum development .......... 63 
5.2.2.  Undifferentiated approaches to curriculum development ...... 65 
5.2.3.  Semi-differentiated approaches to curriculum 

development ........................................................................ 66 

5.3.  What purpose does the differentiation of the curriculum 

development process serve? ........................................................... 67 

5.4.  Key findings ..................................................................................... 69 

CHAPTER 6. 

Actors involved in curriculum design .................................... 71 

6.1. 

Introduction ..................................................................................... 71 

6.2.  Who initiates curriculum development? ........................................... 71 

6.3.  Who is involved in curriculum design and how? ............................... 72 
6.3.1.  Working groups .................................................................... 73 
6.3.2.  Consultation ......................................................................... 74 
6.3.3.  Governance ......................................................................... 76 

6.4.  The role of curriculum design experts .............................................. 79 

6.5.  The role of vocational schools ......................................................... 81 
6.5.1.  Developing national training standards ................................ 82 
6.5.2.  Developing school-based training programmes .................... 82 

6.6.  Challenges to curriculum design ...................................................... 85 
6.6.1.  Encouraging employer engagement ..................................... 85 
6.6.2.  Balancing different interests ................................................. 88 
6.6.3.  Expense, time constraints and other risk factors .................. 89 

6.7.  Key findings ..................................................................................... 90 

CHAPTER 7. 
outcomes 

The written curriculum: the form and function of learning 
 ............................................................................................ 92 

7.1. 

Introduction ..................................................................................... 92 

7.2.  How do learning outcomes set norms for teaching, learning and 

assessment? ................................................................................... 92 

7.3.  How do learning outcomes address key competences and 

generic skills? .................................................................................. 96 

7.4.  How do outcome-oriented curricula address pedagogic 

guidance? ...................................................................................... 101 

7.5.  Key findings ................................................................................... 104 

CHAPTER 8. 

The taught curriculum: pedagogies and learning  
environments ..................................................................... 106 

8.1. 

Introduction ................................................................................... 106 

5 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

8.2.  How does the written curriculum influence the taught 

curriculum? .................................................................................... 106 
8.2.1.  Pedagogy in relation to highly granular written curricula ..... 106 
8.2.2.  Pedagogy in relation to written curricula with minimal 

granularity .......................................................................... 107 

8.3.  Which other factors influence teaching practice? ........................... 111 

8.4.  Outcome-oriented curricula and learner-centred pedagogies ........ 113 

8.5.  Developing the practice of teachers and trainers ........................... 117 

8.6.  Using formative assessment to drive learner-centredness ............. 120 

8.7.  Making textbooks and other learning materials accessible and 

usable ........................................................................................... 121 

8.8.  Creating effective learning environments ....................................... 124 
8.8.1.  Learning environments for school-based learning .............. 125 
8.8.2.  Learning environments for enterprise-based learning......... 127 

8.9.  Coordination of school-based and enterprise-based training ......... 129 
8.9.1. - Institutionalised collaboration ............................................. 129 
8.9.2. - Minimal collaboration ......................................................... 131 

8.10.  Key findings ................................................................................... 133 

CHAPTER 9. 

Outcome-oriented curriculum and educational inclusion .... 136 

9.1. 

Introduction ................................................................................... 136 

9.2. 

Inclusiveness as a goal ................................................................. 136 

9.3. 

Inclusiveness through recruitment ................................................. 137 

9.4. 

Inclusiveness through progression ................................................ 138 

9.5. 

Inclusiveness and learning styles .................................................. 139 

9.6.  Key findings ................................................................................... 141 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 10.  Conclusions and policy messages ..................................... 142 

List of abbreviations ...................................................................................... 150 

References .................................................................................................... 152 

Bibliography .................................................................................................. 159 

List of databases ........................................................................................... 167 

ANNEXES:   Examples of outcome-oriented curriculum design..................... 168 

ANNEX 1.   List of interviewees ..................................................................... 169 

ANNEX 2.   Examples of differentiated curriculum development  

             approaches ................................................................................ 174 

ANNEX 3.   Examples of undifferentiated curriculum development  

             approaches ................................................................................ 179 

ANNEX 4.  Examples of semi-differentiated curriculum development  

            approaches ................................................................................. 181 

ANNEX 5.   Competences in occupational standards connected to 

learning outcomes in qualification standards .......................................... 182 

ANNEX 6.   Learning outcomes in qualification standards connected  

             to learning outcomes in education standards ............................. 188 

ANNEX 7.   Learning outcomes in qualification standards connected  

            to learning outcomes in training standards  
            (learning programme) ................................................................. 191 

ANNEX 8.   Learning outcomes in curricula connected to  

            assessment criteria ....................................................................  194 

ANNEX 9.   Learning outcomes in curricula connected to content ................. 198 

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Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

List of figures, tables and boxes 

Figures 
1  Visual summary of the research design ....................................................... 26 
2  The place of the curriculum in the relationship between  

the VET system and the labour market ........................................................ 61 

Tables 
1  Sector allocation within the 32-country overview ......................................... 24 
2  Case studies................................................................................................ 27 
3  A theoretical model for the outcome-oriented curriculum approach in 

Europe......................................................................................................... 63 
4  Degree of differentiation in the design process ............................................ 67 
5  High, medium and low granularity ................................................................ 94 
6  Proposal for the organisation of enterprise-based learning in France ........ 130 
7  Stages in the development of tourism and gastronomy curriculum in 

Slovenia in comparison to the theoretical model ........................................ 175 

8  Stages in the development of technician in tourism curriculum in 

Romania in comparison to the theoretical model ....................................... 176 

9  Stages in the development of baccalauréat professionnel des 
systèmes électroniques et numériques curriculum in France in 
comparison to the theoretical model .......................................................... 176 

10  Luxembourg: stages in the development of IVET curricula in 

comparison to the theoretical model .......................................................... 177 

11  France: development of baccalauréat professionnel des systèmes 

électroniques et numériques in comparison to the theoretical model ......... 178 

12  UK (England): stages of curriculum development for NVQ level 3 in 

13 

travel services in comparison to the theoretical model ............................... 179 
Ireland: stages of curriculum development for traineeship in 
professional cooking in comparison to the theoretical model ..................... 179 

14  Finland: stages of curriculum development for qualification in tourism 
sales, information services and travel counsellor in comparison to the 
theoretical model ....................................................................................... 180 

15  Spain: stages of curriculum development for higher technical tourist 

guide, information and assistance in comparison to the theoretical 
model   ....................................................................................................... 180 

16  Hungary: stages of curriculum development for tourism adviser 

curriculum compared to the theoretical model ........................................... 181 

17  Comparison between the occupational and qualification standards to 

organise and implement travel and tourism promotional activities in the 
UK (England) ............................................................................................. 184 

18  Professional profile and training module, higher technical tourist guide, 

information and assistance, Spain ............................................................. 186 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

19  Comparison between the qualification standard and the training 

programme in Ireland ................................................................................ 192 

20  Unit in business communication, from the gastronomy and tourism 

curriculum, Slovenia (2007) ....................................................................... 196 
21  Content in the electrical engineering curriculum, Croatia ........................... 199 
22  Learning outcomes matched against content, engineering technology, 

Czech Republic ......................................................................................... 200 

Boxes 
1  Finland – giving learning outcomes greater leverage in the curriculum ........ 41 
2  Portugal – developments in adult training influencing IVET ......................... 43 
3  Study sectors and occupations: state of play ............................................... 45 
4  Curriculum in Spain ..................................................................................... 80 
5  Collaborating to produce a shared training standard in Ireland .................... 83 
6  School-based curriculum design in Slovakia ................................................ 84 
7  The training plan at ‘N’ company in Norway ................................................. 86 
8  Module employment skills (MES) programme in Poland .............................. 86 
9  Key competences in the tourist travel counsellor programme in Finland ...... 99 
10  Boosting key competences in outcome-oriented curricula  

in the Netherlands ....................................................................................... 99 
11  Cultural and civic competences in outcome-oriented curricula ................... 100 
12  Curriculum examples of low-level pedagogic guidance .............................. 102 
13  Curriculum examples of intermediate-level pedagogic guidance ............... 102 
14  Curriculum examples of high-level pedagogic guidance ............................ 103 
15  Shaping pedagogy through assessment in France .................................... 104 
16  Learning informed by competences in Spain ............................................. 107 
17  Work-based pedagogy in Norway  110 
18  Turning learning outcomes into teaching in Denmark ................................ 112 
19  Professional development in Germany ...................................................... 119 
20  Formative assessment in enterprise-based training in Norway .................. 122 
21  Training firms in Romania .......................................................................... 127 
22  Enterprise-based pedagogy in Norway ...................................................... 128 
23  Company-based training in travel services in the UK (England)................. 129 
24  Strengthening collaboration with businesses through outcome-oriented 

curricula in tourism, Salpaus further education, Lahti, Finland ................... 132 
25  Practical training in enterprises in Slovenia ............................................... 133 
26  Travel agent qualification, Hungary, ISCED 4 ............................................ 190 

9 

 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Executive summary 

This  research  paper  presents  the  findings  from  a  Cedefop  study  on  European 
policies  and  practices  in  designing  and  delivering  outcome-oriented  curricula  in 
vocational  education  and  training.  Previous  Cedefop  research  already  showed 
that  learning  outcomes  approaches  to  designing  curricula  in  initial  vocational 
education  and  training  (IVET)  have  great  potential  value  to  stakeholders 
(Cedefop,  2009a;  Cedefop,  2010a).  Using  a  comparative  approach,  this  study 
discusses curriculum reforms geared towards learning outcomes in 32 European 
countries  participating  in  the  Education  and  Training  2020  strategic  framework 
and  aims  to  provide  greater  insight  into  two  specific  sectors:  tourism  and 
electronics. 

The  study  investigates  the  practice  and  experience  of  outcome-oriented 
approaches  at  three  levels:  policy  development,  written  curricula  and  taught 
curricula. The written curriculum refers to all those documents which provide the 
framework for planning learning experiences, while the taught curriculum refers to 
the  programme  of  teaching  and  learning  that  is  undertaken  by  teachers  and 
learners  in  specific  learning  environments.  These  three  levels  of  analysis  are 
translated into three sets of research questions: 
(a)  what  are  the  drivers  for  learning  outcomes  approaches  and  how  are  they 
introduced  across  Europe?  How 
is  outcome-oriented  curriculum 
development  carried  out?  Which  actors  are  involved  in  curriculum  design? 
What are their roles and functions? 

(b)  how  are  learning  outcomes  used  to  design  written  curricula?  How  is 
consistency  with  standards  and  assessment  criteria  guaranteed?  How  do 
learning outcomes combine or separate knowledge, skills and competence? 
(c)  what  teaching  and  learning  methods  are  used  to  deliver  outcome-oriented 
curricula  successfully?  How  are  learning  environments  organised?  To what 
extent  do  new  curricula  promote  learner-centredness  and  inclusiveness  in 
teaching and learning processes? 
To answer these questions, the study followed two approaches. 
First, national reports were produced to paint a picture of curriculum reform 
in  the  two  sectors  and  to  provide  an  account  of  the  character,  structure, 
organisation and design of the selected written curricula. Curricula were selected 
from  two  occupations:  tourist  information  officer  and  mechatronics  technician. 
This  choice  allowed  us to  consider  whether  outcome-oriented  approaches  differ 
between two contrasting employment sectors: a service and an industry-oriented 
sector.  The  country  reviews  were  based  upon  secondary  analysis  of  existing 

10 

 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

literature  supplemented  with  national 
latest  developments 
collected  through  82  interviews  with  key  stakeholders  including  ministry  officials 
and  curriculum  specialists.  The  analysis  used  a  theoretical  model  developed  to 
compare curricula and make sense of their development and influence. 

information  on 

Second,  the  research  involved  visits  to  25  vocational  schools,  training 
providers  and  colleges  in  14  countries  to  allow  in-depth  analysis  of  selected 
curricula  and  to  gather  the  views  and  perceptions  of  237  curriculum  experts, 
teachers, employers and learners. 

The  findings  show  that  curriculum  reforms  geared  towards  learning 
outcomes are becoming more widespread in Europe. However, it is not  easy to 
make  judgments  about  the  extent  to  which  outcome-oriented  curricula  for  initial 
vocational  education  and  training  (IVET)  have  been  developed  in  different 
countries, as a number of issues need to be taken into account. 

First,  VET  curricula  have  always  been  outcome-focused  to  some  degree, 
otherwise  they  would  not  have  been  fit  for  purpose  in  the  labour  market. 
However,  the  pace  of  labour  market  change  means  that  curricula  are  likely  to 
need  updating  more  frequently  than  in  the  past,  with  occupations  emerging  or 
changing at unprecedented rates.  

Second,  there  are  several  countries  which  have  had  competence-based 
approaches  for  a  number  of  years  but  have  not  introduced  them  into  IVET: 
instead, some countries (such as Spain) demonstrated features relating to adult 
and  continuing  training.  In  other  countries,  such  as  Germany  or  France, 
competence-based  IVET  curricula  have  been  a  reality  for  years  now,  but 
approaches and concepts continue to evolve as a result of more recent reforms.  
Third, it is very difficult to ascertain whether the learning outcomes approach 
has been introduced into curricula in a meaningful way or whether its introduction 
has  been  more  or  less  a  paper  exercise.  Finally,  there  is  not  yet  a  common 
benchmark  or  reference  point  against  which 
judge  progress,  since 
interpretations of learning outcomes and competences vary among countries and 
types of VET in Europe (2). 
Although  dating 

introduction  of  outcome-oriented  curriculum 

the 

to 

development is difficult, the study identified the following groups of countries: 

(2) 

In the context of this study, competences refer to practices in the workplace and, by 
extension,  to  wider  social  and  personal  practices.  Learning  outcomes  are  situated 
their  relationship  with 
within  an  educational  context  and  are  validated  by 
competences.  Learning  outcomes  are  defined  as  statements  of  what  a  learner 
knows, understands and is able to do on completion of a learning process, which are 
defined as knowledge, skills and competences (European Parliament and Council of 
the EU, 2008, Annex 2). 

11 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

(a)  early  developers:  somewhat  less than half  of  the  countries  analysed  where 
outcomes  orientation  began  in  the  1990s  or  earlier  (Belgium  (Flanders), 
Finland,  France,  Hungary,  Ireland,  Lithuania,  the  Netherlands,  Norway, 
Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom); 

(b)  recent  developers:  over  one  half  of  countries  which  have  introduced 
outcomes orientation since 2005, mostly in central and eastern Europe and 
the Mediterranean countries, where the introduction of learning outcomes is 
part  of  major  reform,  modernisation  and  updating  programmes  (Austria, 
Belgium  (Walloon),  Bulgaria,  Croatia,  Cyprus, 
the  Czech  Republic, 
Denmark,  Estonia,  Germany,  Greece,  Iceland,  Latvia,  Liechtenstein,  Malta, 
Portugal, Slovakia, Spain and Turkey). 
Nevertheless, the progress of outcomes orientation in curricula is hardly ever 
linear.  Education and training  systems  are  dynamic,  and the  political  process is 
constantly  balancing  and  rebalancing  priorities  in  response  to  a  wide  range  of 
pressures.  Curricula  in  the  Netherlands,  Finland  and  the  United  Kingdom,  for 
example,  have  been  rewritten  on  several  occasions  to  get  the  balance  right. 
Accordingly,  the  precise  form  and  function  of  learning  outcomes  in  curricula  in 
any one country is subject to ongoing adjustment. Outcome-oriented approaches 
are also not resistant to changes in government policy. In the United Kingdom, for 
example, a combination of a new government and austerity measures to reduce 
costs  has  meant  the  withdrawal  of  a  set  of  outcome-oriented  curricula,  the 
Diploma,  which  had  been  developed  to  guide  VET  programmes  nationally  at 
ISCED  levels  2  and  3  for  14-19  year-olds. Wider  economic  circumstances  (e.g. 
economic  crisis)  may  also  have  effects  on  the  further  development  or 
implementation  of  curriculum  policy.  Economic  and  administrative  problems  are 
reported to be slowing reforms, for example, in Greece and Portugal and creating 
uncertainty about policy in Hungary. 

The reason for introducing outcomes orientation to curriculum design mainly 
involves  economic  factors  which  relate  to  the  policy  of  seeking  to  improve 
national competitiveness through skills development; social equity considerations 
come  second.  Equally,  it  is  clear  that  there  is  a  complex  interplay  between 
economic  and  social  factors  in  curriculum  policy  development.  At  a  more 
operational level, outcomes orientation has often been driven by the development 
of  national  qualifications  frameworks  and  credit  transfer  arrangements,  with  the 
European  qualifications  framework  (EQF)  being  a  key  driver  in  most  countries. 
Issues  relating  to  the  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  have  also 
been  influential  in  developing  policy  around  outcome-oriented  curricula  in  many 
countries  (such  as  Bulgaria,  the  Czech  Republic,  Denmark,  Estonia,  Finland, 
France,  Hungary,  Iceland,  Malta,  Norway,  Portugal  and  the  UK  (England)). 

12 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Indeed,  in  some  countries,  it  is  through  these  validation  systems  that  learning 
outcomes or competences first appeared some time before the advent of national 
qualifications  frameworks.  Issues  of  inclusion  and  learner-centredness,  while 
being  high  on  the  EU  policy  agenda  and  important  in  research  work,  were  not 
found to feature prominently in national policy. In only a small number of cases, 
objectives related to inclusion, reducing early school leaving and improving levels 
of  basic  educational  attainment  are  explicitly  cited  by  interviewees  as  factors  in 
the introduction of learning outcomes (e.g. in Belgium, Denmark and Iceland). In 
all  of  the  above,  the  rationale  for  modernising  curricula  to  increase  their  quality 
and relevance is implicit. 

An  important  factor  positively  affecting  outcomes  orientation  in  some 
countries  (for  example,  Finland,  Norway,  Portugal  and  Spain)  has  been 
continuing  VET,  where  ideas  of  competence  development  and  validation  often 
developed before its application in IVET. This might be because it was easier to 
apply  outcome-oriented  principles  to  adults  where  it  was  not  necessary  to  take 
account of wider educational considerations to the same extent. 

The comparative analysis of curriculum design processes for the two sectors 
examined  –  tourism  and electronics  –  did  not  reveal  any  significant  differences. 
The  overall  trend  in  Europe  to  improve  social  dialogue  mechanisms  and  the 
advent  of  national  qualifications  frameworks  seem  to  have  smoothed  out  any 
sector-specific  differences  in  curriculum  design  process  that  might  once  have 
existed  in  terms  of  the  extent  and  nature  of  their  engagement  with  vocational 
education  and training  systems.  Certainly,  there are  differences  in the  nature of 
the  learning  outcomes  found  in  curricula  serving  these  two  sectors;  however, 
these variations appear to reflect differences in the skills needs of the two sectors 
rather than methodological or conceptual differences. 

This  Cedefop  study  conceptualised  the  process  of  designing  outcome-
oriented IVET curricula as a set of stages which involve the development of four 
standards:  the  occupational  standard,  the  qualification/evaluation  standard,  the 
education/curriculum standard and the training standard (the training or learning 
programme). The  last three  standards  have  been  conceptualised  as collectively 
constituting the written curriculum. Each of these standards exists for a different 
purpose  –  to  communicate  the  needs  of  the  labour  market  or  the  aims  of  the 
education and training system – but each must mesh properly with the others so 
as 
labour  market.  This 
conceptualisation  enabled  us  to  develop  a  theoretical  model  against  which  we 
were  able  to  analyse  outcome-oriented  approaches  to  curriculum  design  in 
different countries. 

to  ensure  a  good 

fit  between 

IVET  and 

the 

13 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

The analysis has shown that curriculum development processes differentiate 
between  the  four  stages  and  standards  to  varying  degrees.  The  degree  of 
differentiation in curriculum  design process  may  range from highly  differentiated 
through  moderately  differentiated  to  undifferentiated  approaches.  This  is  often 
related to the extent to which IVET curricula combine both vocational and general 
education elements. Multiple stages in the design process of curricula may lead 
to the involvement of a greater number of diverse stakeholders and ensure that 
an  outcome-oriented  curriculum  takes  account  not  only  of  a  particular  set  of 
occupation-specific  competences  but  also  of  learning  outcomes  associated  with 
curriculum subjects, generic skills and other educational objectives. A drawback 
of  a  high  differentiation  in  curriculum  design,  however,  may  be  that  it  increases 
the complexity and reduces pace in the process leading to a VET system which is 
slow to respond to changes in the labour market. Evidence shows that curriculum 
change  may  last from  six  months to  up  to  three years.  However,  there are  also 
cases,  such  as  in  Croatia,  where,  although  they  have  distinct  stages  in  the 
curriculum  development  process,  they  still  achieve  quicker  curriculum  reforms. 
This  is  because  stages  are  shorter  and  involve  fewer  participants  and 
stakeholders than in larger countries such as France or Spain. 

Decentralisation  of  the  curriculum  design  process  may  bring  about  an 
adaptation  and  contextualisation  of  the  curriculum  which  serves  the  needs  of 
both employers and learners more effectively. This is because it may encourage 
relationships  between  schools  and  local  companies.  Curricula  developed  at 
provider  level  depend  on  the  establishment  of  partnerships  and  effective 
negotiations at local level. The study points out that the potential  to develop the 
written  curriculum  at  local  level  is  often  not  fulfilled.  Often,  school-based 
curriculum  writing  is  simply  a  matter  of  timetabling  and  sequencing.  The  study 
also  found  very  little  evidence  of  students’  involvement  in  outcome-oriented 
curriculum  design.  Where  consultation  does  involve  students,  this  makes  it 
possible  that  outcomes  will  be  reviewed  to  ensure  that  learning  outcomes  are 
more intelligible and better responsive to learners. 

Other  challenges  to  the  effectiveness  and  smooth  running  of  curriculum 
development  processes 
include:  establishing  and  maintaining  employers’ 
involvement;  reconciling  differences  of  interest;  ensuring  that  the  process  of 
writing  learning  outcomes  is  transparent  and  organised  in  such  a  way  that  all 
participants  can  understand  and  take  part  fully;  ensuring  coherence  of  the 
learning  outcomes  with  the  other  components  of  the  written  curriculum;  making 
sure that the development of a new curriculum does not take too long; balancing 
this with the need to ensure that all relevant stakeholders have a voice. 

14 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

The  study  also  explored  the  relationship  between  the  written  form  of 
outcome-oriented curricula and the taught curricula, i.e. their delivery in different 
learning  settings.  The  study  found  that  it  is  unlikely  that  outcome-oriented 
curricula  can  be  written  in  a  way  that  is  neutral  with  respect  to  teaching  and 
learning.  Throughout  the  case  studies,  it  became  clear  that  the  structure  of 
learning  outcomes  and the  way  in  which  they  were  written  were  influencing  the 
teaching  and  learning  process.  For  example,  some  curricula  separated  learning 
outcomes  relating  to  theory  and  practice  –  this  is,  for  instance,  the  case  of  the 
English national vocational qualification (NVQ) – while others combined them (for 
example,  the  German  concept  of  learning  fields),  and  this  had  an  impact  on 
assessment and teaching. 

It  was  also  found  that  the  level  of  detail  of  the  learning  outcomes  used  in 
curricula may have important implications for teaching methods and for learners’ 
assessment.  A  high  level  of  prescription  may  increase  the  reliability  of 
assessment and the consistency of teaching and, accordingly, help to ensure that 
VET  provision  reflects  the  competences  required  more  accurately.  However,  a 
high  level  of  prescription  may  also  have  negative  effects,  leading  to  excessive 
complexity,  overly  instrumental  approaches  to  teaching  and  learning  (reduced 
teacher autonomy) and a lack of relevance for particular learners and employers 
by reducing responsibility for tailoring at local level. 

As a result, the impact of written curricula on teaching and learning depends 
not  only  on  which  learning  outcomes  are  included  but  also  on  how  they  are 
grouped  and  how  they  connect  to  other  material  in  the  curriculum,  including 
assessment  criteria,  content,  pedagogical  guidance,  etc.  The  study  found  that 
outcome-oriented  curricula  across  Europe  vary  in  the  extent  of  pedagogical 
guidance  that  they  provide,  distinguishing  between  outcome-oriented  curricula 
that  incorporate  low,  intermediate  and  high  levels  of  pedagogical  guidance. 
However,  even  without  explicit  pedagogical  guidance,  an  outcome-oriented 
curriculum  may  still  act 
to  reinforce  existing  pedagogies  or  encourage 
pedagogical  change,  for  example  through  new  assessment  demands.  Often, 
pedagogical guidance is available through separate publications (e.g. in Croatia) 
or  through  professional  development  programmes  (e.g.  in  Germany).  The 
character of assessment methods in combination with the written curriculum was 
found to affect teaching and learning behaviour (e.g. in Finland). 

The  study  also  made  an  attempt  to  establish  a  relationship  between 
outcome-oriented  curricula  and 
inclusive 
teaching  and learning  practices. It  should  be  recalled  that  the  study  focused  on 
the  analysis  of  reformed,  newly  introduced  curricula,  so  it  was  attempting  to 
identify  the  nature  and  extent  of  any  effects  on  the  taught  curriculum  within  a 

learner-centred  pedagogies  and 

15 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

comparatively  short  time  frame.  It  is  also  worth  emphasising  that  the  sample 
collected  for  this  study  is  limited  –  25  teaching  and  training  institutions  were 
visited  in  14  countries  –  and  that  the  institutions  selected  are  unlikely  to  be 
representative  of  all  institutions  teaching  a  particular  programme.  Extreme 
caution must therefore be exercised in generalising across case studies. 

In this  connection,  across  the  15  case  studies researched, the  study found 
the  relationship  between  outcome-oriented  written  and  taught  curricula  to  be 
complex. The research did not point to a straightforward relationship between the 
development of a stronger outcomes orientation within written curricula and in the 
teaching and learning processes, since pedagogy is  influenced by many  factors 
outside  the  written  curriculum  (e.g.  the  professional  experience  and  attitudes of 
teachers, the degree of autonomy they enjoy, the way the learning environment is 
structured,  the  characteristics  and  needs  of  the  learners,  the  available  financial 
and  human 
institutional 
characteristics, etc.). However, outcome-oriented curricula were found to promote 
learner-centred  pedagogies,  as  these  are  often  articulated  in  detail  in  written 
curricula  (e.g.  in  Romania)  and  are  applied  in  many  of  the  schools  visited  (e.g. 
through  project  work,  group  learning,  simulations,  role  play,  independent  study 
and problem-solving, etc.). 

resources  and 

the  distinctive 

infrastructure, 

The  quality  and  character  of  learning  environments  and  materials  were 
identified by teachers to be critical for the delivery of outcome-oriented curricula, 
although  this  was  often  expressed  in  terms  of  not  having  adequate  learning 
materials or the right mix of learning environments and, in particular, not having 
the  necessary  access to  laboratories, kitchens  (in the  case  of tourism  curricula) 
or  workshops.  Accordingly,  teaching  activities  often  had  to  be  planned  on  the 
basis of these realities. In some cases, teachers developed their own material to 
teach the new curriculum. In other cases, work-like environments were developed 
to provide a real work setting (e.g. in Romania and Ireland). 

The  interviews  with  policy-makers  pointed  out  that,  while  national  policies 
have  focused  mainly  on  reforms  to  the  written  curriculum,  comparatively  little 
consideration  has  been  given  to  how  new  curricula  might  affect  teaching  and 
learning  and  what  types  of  pedagogies  might  best  support  outcome-oriented 
curricula.  Instead,  a  plethora  of  learner-centred  pedagogies  are  emerging  from 
professional circles and communities. 

The research paper concludes by addressing issues for policy consideration 
and  areas  that  require  further  development  to  ensure  that  outcome-oriented 
curricula  make  the  most  of  their  potential  for  improving  teaching  and  learning 
processes in initial VET: 

16 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

to 

(c) 

(a) 

(b) 

the 

together  (or  not)  with  particular  regard 

the  extent  to  which  the  curriculum  design  process  is  both  genuinely 
responsive  and  representative  of  different  interests  requires  periodical 
reviews of the way in which different stages of the curriculum design process 
work 
translation  of 
competences into learning outcomes; 
the  writing  and  structuring  of  learning  outcomes  in  written  curricula  may 
become  an  increasingly  technical  exercise.  The  provision  of  sufficient 
expertise  should  be  an  issue  of  concern  for  education  and  training 
authorities, and written curricula must remain intelligible to all stakeholders – 
including  the  social  partners,  students  and  teachers  –  who  need  to 
understand and help shape them; 
there  is,  in  general,  a  need  for  a  more  effective  feedback  mechanism  for 
curriculum design and implementation. In particular, those who participate in 
curriculum design should understand how curriculum design decisions have 
an impact (or have little or no impact) on teaching and assessment so that 
design  decisions  may  be  based  on  realistic  expectations.  Therefore, 
outcome-oriented  curriculum  reform  needs  to  be  balanced  with  greater 
consideration  of  the  taught  curriculum.  The  implementation  of  outcome-
oriented curricula should be carefully monitored and reviewed to ensure that 
these curricula deliver their intended goals; 
the extent to which greater responsibility can be given to the development of 
the  curriculum  and  cooperation  between  schools  and  stakeholders  at  local 
level is a key issue in curriculum design. The capacity of participants at local 
level to engage in curriculum design is highly variable. Schools and colleges 
could  benefit  from  giving  consideration  to  how  to  engage  employers  in  the 
process  and,  in  some  cases,  from  sharing  examples  of  effective  practice. 
Equally,  local  providers  would  benefit  from  national/regional  support  to 
develop  their  capacity.  The  position  of  students  in  relation  to  learning 
outcomes also deserves more attention; 
the  establishment  of  links  between the  development  and implementation of 
outcome-oriented  curricula  and  the  encouragement  of  learner-centred 
pedagogies  is  crucial.  To  this  end,  it  would  be  valuable  to  investigate  how 
specific  pedagogies  may  support  outcome-oriented  curricula,  for  example: 
self-directed  learning,  including  the  use  of  online  resources;  peer  learning; 
creative approaches to learning; work-based and work-related learning, etc.; 
(f)  outcome-oriented  curricula  should  improve  inclusiveness  in  teaching  and 
learning  and  educational  inclusion  in  the  sense  of  widening  access, 
encouraging  people  to go  on  to  further  studies  and  extending  participation, 
thereby  achieving  equitable  learning  outcomes  for  all  students.  This  is 

(e) 

(d) 

17 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

particularly  important  at  a  time  when  many  European  countries  are  facing 
high  rates  of  early  school  leaving  (European  Commission,  2011a).  Early 
school  leaving  has  significant  economic  and  social  consequences  not  only 
for  young  people  themselves  but  also  for  the  economy  and  society  as  a 
whole.  Previous  Cedefop  research  (2010a  and  2011b)  has  shown  how 
learning-outcomes  approaches  to  curriculum  design  and  implementation 
make curricula in initial VET more inclusive and more motivating for learners 
(e.g.  in  Lithuania,  Malta,  the  Netherlands  and  Finland).  In  Finland,  there  is 
evidence  that  learners  understand  better  what  is  expected  of  them,  feel 
more  committed  and  participate  more  in  the  learning  and  assessment 
process.  In  Slovenia,  links  between  theoretical  and  practical  learning  are 
seen as much stronger under the learning outcome-based curricula. 
To  conclude,  continuous  renewal  and  reform  of  VET  are  important  for 
Europe  to  prepare  lifelong  learners  and  employable  citizens.  In  this  process, 
curriculum  reform  and  updating  are  pivotal.  One  important  challenge  remains: 
how can we better coordinate and govern outcome-oriented curriculum reform so 
as to ensure quality, relevance and inclusion in education and training. 

18 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 1. 
Curriculum change on the basis of learning 
outcomes 

1.1. 

Introduction: the European policy and research 
context 

This  Cedefop  report  concerns  the  design  and  delivery  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula in  IVET  in Europe.  There has  been  considerable activity  over  the  past 
decade  to  reform  curricula  linked  to  a  variety  of  national  and  European  goals 
aimed at improving the contribution that IVET can make to economic and social 
progress  (Council  of  the  EU,  2010).  An  important  driver  of  these  reforms  has 
been  the  attempt  to  focus  more  explicitly  on  the  outcomes  of  education  and 
training  to  ensure  a  better  fit  between  the  knowledge,  skills  and  competence 
acquired  by  young  people  in  upper  secondary  education  and  the  needs  of 
business. 

The  underlying  principle  is  that,  by  focusing  on  outcomes,  the  flow  of  new 
entrants  to  the  labour  market  will  be  much  more  geared  to  meeting  its  needs. 
This  is  because  outcomes  orientation  has  the  potential  to  improve  the  way  in 
which education and training systems and the labour market are linked. Curricula 
play  a  central  role  in  this  process,  as  they  provide  a  means  by  which  learning 
outcomes acquired in learning processes can ‘communicate’ more effectively with 
the competences required in the labour market. 

In  many  European  countries,  these  developments  have  been  supported  or 
inspired by European policies and tools. The recommendations of the European 
Parliament  and  of  the  Council  on  Key  competences  for  lifelong  learning  (2006) 
and  the  European  qualifications  framework  (2008)  have  been  particularly 
influential at national level. In 2009, Education and Training 2020 emphasised the 
importance  of  curriculum  reform  and  renewal  in  promoting  outcome-oriented 
approaches  and key  competences,  establishing  as a strategic  objective  ‘to take 
greater  account  of  transversal  key  competences  in  curricula,  assessment  and 
learning 
qualifications’.  Curriculum  design, 
environments should be consistently based on learning outcomes, and particular 
emphasis should be placed on those transversal competences that require cross-
curricular  and  innovative  methods.  Later,  the  Council  conclusions  of  26 
November  2009  on  developing  the  role  of  education  in  a  fully-functioning 
knowledge  triangle  (education,  research  and  innovation)  encouraged  education 

teaching,  assessment  and 

19 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

and  training  institutions  to  accelerate  the  pace  of  pedagogical  reforms  so  as  to 
ensure that curricula, as well as teaching and examination methods at all levels 
of  education,  incorporate  and  promote  transversal  key  competences.  Efforts 
should  also  be  made  to  ensure  that  teachers  and  trainers  are  equipped  with 
appropriate pedagogical and other skills. 

The Commission communication Europe 2020 on the European strategy for 
smart,  sustainable  and  inclusive  growth  puts  forward  seven  flagship  initiatives, 
two  of  which  are  very  closely  connected  with  modernising  curricula:  the 
‘innovation  union’  and  an  ‘agenda  for  new  skills  and  jobs’.  In  the  former,  the 
Commission  calls  on  Member  States  to  ensure  a  sufficient  supply  of  science, 
maths  and  engineering  graduates  and  to  focus  school  curricula  on  creativity, 
innovation,  and  entrepreneurship;  in  the  latter,  Member  States  are  asked  to 
ensure  that  the  competences  required  to  engage  in  further  learning  and  the 
labour  market  are  acquired  and  recognised  throughout  general,  vocational, 
higher and adult education, including non-formal and informal learning. 

Cedefop  has  supported  this  process  and  these  policy  priorities  through  its 
research  work  on  learning  outcomes  in  curriculum  design,  qualifications, 
standards  and  quality  assurance  (Cedefop,  2008a;  Cedefop,  2008b;  Cedefop, 
2009a; Cedefop, 2009b; Cedefop, 2009c; Cedefop, 2010a). 

While there is a growing body of research literature on the form and function 
of outcome-oriented curricula in general, the specific nature of their manifestation 
in initial vocational education and training in Europe has, to date, been subject to 
less attention. Research, moreover, has been undertaken in a variety of domains 
and  from  a  variety  of  perspectives.  Much  of  this  research  has  sought  to  clarify 
what  is  meant  by  terms  such  as  ‘competence’  and  ‘outcomes’.  Discussions 
revolving around these notions have taken place in different countries at different 
times and have had an impact to varying degrees. Although Germany has long-
standing and well-developed concepts of competence which underpin its unique 
emphasis  on  occupational  identity  (Beruf),  it  may  be  argued  that  this  unique 
concept has had comparatively  little influence outside German-speaking nations 
(Gehmlich,  2009;  Brockmann  and Winch,  2011).  The  development  in  the  1980s 
of the explicitly outcome-oriented system of initial vocational qualifications (NVQ) 
in the United Kingdom has, perhaps, been more influential (Burke, 1995). Despite 
being the subject of much criticism, the United Kingdom’s approach has provided 
a  model  for  other  countries,  both  in  Europe  and  beyond,  albeit  not  always  with 
great  success  (Allais,  2012).  Conceptual  work  has  also  been  a  feature  of 
developments  in  France  during  the  1990s  which  have  underpinned  progress 
within  its  education  and  training  systems  and  are  now  helping  to  combine  the 
concepts of competence and learning outcomes (Le Deist, 2009). 

20 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Recent comparative research has tended to focus on attempts to understand 
the  precise  differences  in  meaning  attributed  to terms  such  as  competence  and 
outcomes  and to shed light  on  the  underlying  causes  and consequences. Work 
by Winterton (2009), for example, has examined the ways in which competence 
and  learning  outcomes  are  understood  in  some  European  countries  and  has 
sought  to  develop  a  generalised  typology.  Markowitsch  and  Luomi-Messerer 
(2008)  have  unpacked  these  concepts  in  the  light  of  the  development  of  the 
European  qualifications  framework.  The  Cedefop  study  of  nine  European 
countries  published  in  2010  deepened  our  understanding  by  undertaking  a 
comparative  analysis  of  how  learning  outcomes  approaches  were  understood 
and their relationship to curricula in different contexts (Cedefop, 2010a). 

This  body  of  research  has  undoubtedly  furthered  our  understanding  of  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  conceptual  differences  underlying  the  concept  of 
‘outcomes’.  At  the  same  time,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cedefop  study  on 
Learning  outcome  approaches  in  VET  curricula:  a  comparative  analysis  of  nine 
European  countries  (Cedefop  2010a),  this  research  has  not  focused  on  the 
relationship  between  learning  outcomes/competences  and  curriculum  policies 
and  developments.  This  report  seeks  to  shed  light  on  these  developments  by 
building on, updating and expanding the previous work undertaken by Cedefop. 

1.2.  Outline of the report  

The  report  is  structured  in  such  a  way  as  to  reflect  the  curriculum  design  and 
implementation process by distinguishing between three stages: development of 
curriculum  policy,  design  of  the  written  curriculum  and  delivery  of  the  taught 
curriculum. The report shows how these three stages are interdependent. 

After  this  brief  introduction  in  Chapter  1,  Chapter  2  presents  the  methods 
and tools used to carry out the research, as well as the challenges and limitations 
encountered  in  the  process  of  conducting  a  large-scale  comparative  analysis. 
Chapter  3  establishes  a  conceptual  basis  for  the  study  and  discusses  both  the 
key concepts underlying this report and the cross-border differences found in this 
research  in  understanding  terms  such  as  ‘competence’  and  ‘learning  outcomes’ 
in Europe. 

The discussion on policy development begins in Chapter 4, which examines 
the extent to which IVET policies in Europe are concerned with outcome-oriented 
curricula and the motivation behind such reforms. 

Chapter 5 then examines the implications of policy for curriculum design and 
highlights  the  different  ways  in  which  outcomes  are  incorporated  into  design 
processes in the various countries. Chapter 6 presents the actors involved in the 

21 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

curriculum  development  process;  their  role  and  function  are  discussed  together 
with the contribution of working groups, consultation processes and governance 
arrangements.  The  role  of  curriculum  design  experts  and  vocational  schools  is 
particularly  emphasised.  The  challenges  of  the  curriculum  design  process  are 
discussed and illustrated with national examples. Chapter 7 analyses the form of 
learning outcomes in the written curriculum and their function in guiding teaching 
and  learning.  It  explains  how  learning  outcomes  are  combined  with  other 
components of the curriculum to ensure  consistency and improve links between 
the  various  standards.  It  examines  how  learning  outcomes  address  key 
competences  and  generic  skills.  The  chapter  also  explores  the  relationship  of 
outcome-oriented curricula to pedagogic guidance. 

Delivery of the taught curriculum is discussed in Chapter 8, which presents 
the  influence  of  the  written  curriculum  on  the  taught  curriculum,  in  particular  on 
teaching  styles  and  learning  materials.  It  considers  the  way  in  which  the 
granularity  of  learning  outcomes  in  written  curricula  may  affect  pedagogy.  It 
presents teaching styles and learning environments used to deliver the selected 
outcome-oriented  curricula  and  seeks  evidence  of  how  these  may  contribute  to 
the successful delivery of outcome-oriented curricula. 

Chapter  9  considers  the  extent  to  which  outcome-oriented  curricula  may 

promote learner-centredness and inclusion in teaching and learning processes. 

Each  of  the  chapters  concludes  with  key  findings,  while  the  overall 
conclusions  drawn  and  issues  identified  for  consideration  by  policy-makers, 
practitioners  and  researchers  at  national  and  European  levels  are  presented  in 
Chapter 10. 

22 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 2. 
Study scope and methodology 

2.1.  Research questions 

The overarching aim of this study  was to provide an overview of recent policies 
and practices in designing and delivering outcome-oriented curricula in IVET and 
their  potential  relationship  with  learner-centredness  and  inclusiveness.  To  this 
end,  three  levels  of  analysis  were  established:  policy  development,  written 
curricula  and  taught  curricula.  The  written  curriculum  refers  to  all  those 
documents which provide the framework for planning learning experiences, while 
the  taught  curriculum  refers  to  the  programme  of  teaching  and  learning  that  is 
undertaken  by  teachers  and  learners  in  specific  learning  environments  (see 
definitions  in  Section  3.1).  These  three  levels  of  analysis  were  translated  into 
detailed research questions on the basis of which the research approach and the 
data collection tools were developed. The detailed research questions are listed 
below: 
(a)  implications  of  learning  outcomes  approaches  for  curriculum  development 

policies: 
(i) 

to what extent are learning outcomes approaches being introduced into 
curricula 
their 
in 
introduction? 

the  32  countries?  What  are 

the  reasons  for 

(ii)  what are the implications of these reforms for the decision-making and 
curriculum development processes? What are the main similarities and 
differences  between  countries  and  sectors?  Who  is  involved  in  these 
processes and how? 

(b) 

implications  of  learning  outcomes  approaches  for  components  of  written 
curricula: 
(i)  which  knowledge  (content  or  subject  matter),  skills  and  competences 
are  emphasised  in  written  curricula?  How  have  these  been  selected, 
formulated and structured in the curriculum? 

(ii)  what is the degree of coherence and consistency between components 

of the written curriculum and stated learning outcomes? 

(c) 

learning  outcomes  approaches 

implications  of 
(pedagogies): 
(i)  what  types  of  teaching  method  are  used  to  deliver  outcome-oriented 
curricula  in  different  learning  environments?  Have  teaching  methods 
changed as a result of the introduction of new curricula? 

taught  curricula 

for 

23 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

(ii)  how  are  learning  environments  organised  or  changed  to  ensure 

successful delivery of outcome-oriented curricula? 

(iii)  are outcome-oriented curricula associated with learner-centredness and 

inclusiveness in teaching and learning processes? 

2.2.  Scope of the study 

The  study  included  all  32  European  countries  that  participate  in  the  Education 
and Training 2020 strategic framework (3) and examined national developments 
in IVET but with a focus on a particular qualification from two sectors: electronics 
and  tourism.  The  electronics  and  tourism  sectors  were  chosen  to  contrast 
manufacturing and services. To gain a better understanding of these two sectors 
in the countries examined, it was decided to research one sector rather than both 
sectors  in  each  country.  However,  there  were  some  cases,  such  as  Croatia, 
Denmark,  Finland  and  the  UK  (England),  where  both  sectors  were  examined. 
One  of the most  important  criteria for  the sector allocation  was the  existence of 
explicitly  outcome-oriented  curricula  in  the  given  country  and  sector.  Other 
considerations  included  finding  examples  of  different  types  of  IVET  systems: 
market-led, 
systems,  each  with  a 
workplace/school-focused  VET  curriculum.  The  table  below  summarises  the 
sector allocation for each country. 

state-regulated  and 

transitional 

Table 1 

Sector allocation within the 32-country overview 

Electronics 

Tourism 

Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, 
Finland, France, Germany, Luxembourg, 
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, 
Sweden, UK (England). 

Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Greece, 
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, 
Lichtenstein, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, 
Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, UK 
(England). 

Source:  Authors. 

The occupations identified were used as reference points, and curricula that 
provided entry  routes  into  those occupations  were  sought. The two occupations 
identified  were  tourist  information  officer  and  mechatronics  technician.  It  was 
acknowledged that, since the focus was on international standard classification of 
education (ISCED) level 3 (EQF levels 3 and 4), the chosen curricula were likely 
to  be more closely  geared  to an  industry  or  set of  occupations than curricula  at 

(3)  The 27 EU Member States, Croatia, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Turkey. 

24 

 
                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

higher  levels  which had  a  tendency  to  be more specific.  Nevertheless,  curricula 
were chosen that allowed comparisons to be made between curricula serving the 
same sector in different countries and between curricula serving different sectors 
in different countries (4). 

In  practice,  the  structure  of  IVET  programmes  and  occupations  in  some 
countries  meant  that  it  was  necessary  to  include  in  the  sample  of  curricula 
programmes  above  ISCED  3  (EQF  levels  3  and  4  (5))  or  to  select  programmes 
geared to other occupations in the selected sectors or to closely related sectors 
(6). This proved beneficial, as it shed light on the relationship between outcome-
oriented curricula in IVET and the rest of the education and training system. 

2.3.  Research tools 

The study was divided into two phases. The first phase provided an overview of 
policy and curriculum developments in 32 countries. The second phase identified 
and focused on 15 examples of best practice. In both cases, quality was assured 
by  systematically  checking  the  collected  information  and  its  interpretation  with 
selected  stakeholders/national  experts 
research.  Two 
international  workshops  organised  by  Cedefop  on  curriculum  innovation  and 
reform  in  January  2011  and  April  2012  (Cedefop,  2011a;  Cedefop,  2012a)  with 
national  representatives  from  the  countries  examined  and  international  experts 
have informed and enriched the research findings. 

involved 

this 

in 

(4)  Some 

countries  offer  a  number  of 

tourism  and 
electronics/mechatronics  sectors  both  nationally  and  regionally. Where  there  was  a 
choice, the focus was on that curriculum which was most significant, either in terms 
of outcome-oriented approaches or in terms of take-up. 

curricula 

the 

for 

(5)  Countries where higher-level qualifications were researched: Belgium (tourism, level 
4),  Hungary  (tourism,  level  4),  Spain  (tourism,  level  5)  and  the  UK  (England) 
(tourism, level 4). 

(6) 

In Austria, engineering; in Ireland, professional cookery; in Cyprus, Greece, Iceland, 
Malta and  Sweden, it  was  difficult to  examine particular outcome-oriented curricula, 
as they  were  at  the development stage; however,  it  was possible to investigate the 
development of outcome-oriented curricula in IVET more broadly. 

25 

 
 
                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Figure 1  Visual summary of the research design 

Source:  Authors. 

Country overviews 

2.3.1. 
The  country  reviews  were  prepared  on  the  basis  of  a  literature  review  and  82 
semi-structured interviews conducted between March and October 2011 with key 
stakeholders in each of the countries examined (e.g. with curriculum agency staff, 
the  social  partners,  sector  representatives,  teachers,  professional  bodies  and 
researchers). 

To  handle  and  analyse  the  data  set,  two  analytical  frameworks  were 
developed.  The  first  framework  analysed  the  data  in  relation  to  national 
characteristics: for example, the maturity of policy, the extent of centralisation and 
the  structure  of  the  VET  system.  The  second  framework  analysed  the  data  in 
relation  to  characteristics  of  the  curricula  in  the  participating  countries:  for 
example, the integration and granularity of learning outcomes (see  Section 5.2). 
The  analysis  has  informed  the  selection  of  case  studies  and  the  formulation  of 
more detailed research questions. 

Case studies 

2.3.2. 
The purpose of the 15 case studies was to identify best practice in how strategies 
and  policies  in  designing  outcome-oriented  curricula  are  being  implemented  in 
different  learning  environments.  The  analysis  identified  and  described  those 
factors that determine the success of delivering an outcome-oriented curriculum 

26 

 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

and  benefit  learners  in  terms  of  inclusiveness  and  learner-centredness.  The 
examples  of  best  practice  supported  the  development  of  recommendations  for 
policy-makers  and  practitioners  and  were  used  for  the  identification  of  future 
research needs. 

On  this  basis,  15  case  studies  were  identified  in  14  countries.  The  table 
below lists the countries, the sectors and the names of the selected qualifications 
together with their ISCED level. 

Table 2 

Case studies 

Case 
study 
country 

Sector 

Name of qualification 

ISCED (7) 
level of 
qualification 

Croatia 

Tourism 

Tourism and hospitality 

Denmark 

Electronics 

Industrial engineering training 

Finland 

Tourism 

France 

Electronics 

Qualification in tourism sales and information 
services, travel counsellor 

Electronic and digital systems (Baccalauréat 
professionnel SEN) 

Germany 

Electronics 

Mechatronics 

Hungary 

Tourism 

Travel adviser 

Ireland 

Tourism 

Traineeship in professional cookery 

Norway 

Electronics 

Production electronics 

Poland 

Electronics 

Mechatronics 

Romania 

Tourism 

Technician in tourism 

Slovakia 

Electronics 

State educational programme for courses 23 
and 24; engineering and other metal-processing 
production 

Slovenia 

Tourism 

Gastronomy and tourism 

Spain 

Tourism 

Higher technical tourist guide, information and 
assistance 

Tourism 

Certificate in travel services 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 4 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 3 

Level 5B 

Level 3  

Electronics 

Advanced diploma in engineering 

Level 3 

UK 
(England) 

UK 
(England) 

Source:  Authors. 

Each  case  study  is  based  on  five  days  of  fieldwork.  The  interviewees 
included  policy-makers  and  experts  from  national  curriculum  agencies,  those 
representing  the  employment  sector  involved  in  the  curricula  and  other 
stakeholders  who  had  contributed  to  the  curriculum  generation  process,  for 

(7) 

ISCED levels are those supplied by the appropriate authority in each country in 2011. 

27 

 
                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

example, experts who had played a role in formally defining assessment criteria, 
persons  involved  in  professional  development  and  teacher  training,  etc.  (see 
Annex 1, list of interviewees). 

All  of  the  case  studies,  except  one  (travel  services  in  the  UK  (England)), 
included  visits  to  schools  or  training  institutions.  In  some  cases,  observation  of 
teaching and learning and participation in training sessions was also possible. In 
total,  25  vocational  schools  and  colleges  were  visited,  and  237  interviews  (8) 
were conducted. At the level of implementation, interviews  were conducted with 
school or enterprise-based curriculum managers, teachers/trainers and students 
who  had  first-hand  experience  of  the  curriculum  in  question.  Interviews  with 
teachers  and  students  showed  how  the  implementation  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula was experienced and evaluated by key actors. 

2.4.  Challenges and limitations of the research 

There  have  been  many  challenges  and  methodological  difficulties  involved  in 
conducting  a  review  of  32  countries  and  researching  15  case  studies,  some  of 
which are presented throughout this report. 

Language  and  multiple  definitions  of  terminology  posed  challenges  both  in 
the  interpretation  of  documents  and  literature  and  during  the  conduct  of 
interviews.  Many  terms,  such  as  learning  outcome,  competence,  objective, 
inclusion,  curriculum,  qualification  and  occupational  standards  are  used 
differently in the different countries. Sometimes, the same term exists in several 
countries,  such  as  competence,  Kompetenz,  kompetencia,  etc.,  with  a  different 
meaning. In some countries, this may reflect the fact that a foreign word has been 
translated  into  the  national  language  but  has  not  yet  come  into  general  use. 
Often, interviewees from the same country used the term with a different meaning 
or the same interviewee used a term inconsistently during an interview. This led 
to the development of a working terminology to allow comparability (see Section 
3.3  for  the  cross-border  differences  of  meanings).  The  development  of  a  clear 
conceptual framework for the study was of paramount importance. 

Another  challenge  has  been  the  identification  of  individuals  who  have 
to  particular 
detailed  knowledge  of  curriculum  development 
occupational  sectors  (tourism  and  electronics)  and  who  also  have  an 
understanding  of  learning  outcomes.  Furthermore,  as good  institutional  memory 
is not always a given in all countries, it has not always been easy or possible to 

in  relation 

(8) 

Interviews were conducted with 28 experts, 25 stakeholders, 72 teachers and school 
leaders and 112 learners. 

28 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

obtain  information  that  allowed  judgments  to  be  made  about  how  outcome-
oriented  approaches  had  been  developing  over  time  and  what  difference  they 
were making. 

An  associated  problem  was  that,  in  many  countries,  there  had  been  an 
ongoing  process  of  re-writing  curricula  into  a  new,  outcome-based  format.  In 
Malta and Cyprus, for example, a major reform of the VET system is under way, 
but it is still at a relatively early stage. In Ireland, this process is working up from 
Irish NQF level 1 through to level 6 and has currently reached only Irish level 3 
(equivalent to ISCED level 1) for most qualifications. In Austria, although higher-
level curricula are being written, a higher-level curriculum for electronics has not 
yet been introduced. In the United Kingdom (England), modified and unmodified 
versions  of  curricula  relating  to  tourism  are  running  side  by  side.  In  these 
countries, the aim was to investigate the new processes of curriculum writing and 
policy developments, even if these cannot yet be fully explored in the tourism and 
electronics sectors. 

29 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 3. 
Concepts underlying the research 

As mentioned above, many of the key terms used in this study have diverse and 
contested  meanings.  For  example,  terms  such  as  learning  outcomes  and 
curricula  are  often  defined  in  relation  to  other  contested  concepts  (such  as 
competence-based or outcome-oriented approach). Moreover, there is significant 
diversity  in  how  these  terms  are  used  and  understood  not  only  in  research 
literature  but  also  among  practitioners  and  policy-makers  across  Europe.  This 
section  summarises  the  understandings  of  key  terms  by  the  interviewees  and 
then sets out how they are used in this research paper. 

3.1.  What is the ‘written curriculum’? What is the 

‘taught curriculum’? 

Cedefop (2010a) provides a selective review of the variety of ways  in which the 
term curriculum has been understood at different times and in different cultures. 
In particular, curriculum may be understood to be: 
(a)  a description of a body of knowledge or of a set of skills; 
(b)  a plan of teaching and learning; 
(c)  an  agreed  standard  or  contract  –  a  binding  or  normative  standard  that 

(d) 

authorises and regulates teaching and learning; 
the experience of learners over time. 
Depending on the scope of the research, curriculum may be defined in terms 
of one, some or all of these dimensions. In Cedefop’s research paper:  Learning 
outcomes  approaches  in  VET  curricula,  curriculum  is  defined  as  any  written 
document  that  regulates  or  directs  the  planning  of  learning  experiences:  ‘A 
curriculum  is  a  normative  document  (or  a  collection  of  documents)  setting  the 
framework for planning learning experiences’ (Cedefop, 2010a, p. 20). 

This implies that a curriculum incorporates all kinds of elements: ‘Depending 
on  the  country,  the  type  of  education  and  training,  and  the  institution,  curricula 
may  define  […]  learning  outcomes,  objectives,  contents,  place  and  duration  of 
learning,  teaching  and  assessment  methods  to  a  greater  or  to  a  lesser  extent’ 
(Cedefop, 2010a, p. 20). 

According  to  this  definition,  any  document  that  serves  as  (part  of)  the 
framework  for  planning  learning  experiences  counts  as  a  curriculum,  including 
documents  relating  to  qualification,  assessment  and  guidance.  This  is  a  broad 

30 

 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

and  inclusive  definition  of  ‘written  curriculum’  and  it  is  the  one  adopted  for  the 
purposes of this study. 

Cedefop  distinguishes 

term 
curriculum:  ‘The  learning  programme  is  a  written  document  planning  learning 
experiences  in  a  specific  learning  setting.  It  is  developed  on  the  basis  of  the 
curriculum and takes into account the learners’ needs’ (Cedefop, 2010a, p. 27). 

learning  programme 

term 

from 

the 

the 

According to the current definition, although the learning programme is part 
of  the  written  curriculum,  it  is  distinguished  by  the fact  that  it  serves to plan  the 
curriculum for a particular group of learners in a given learning setting. 

In this study, the above definitions of curriculum and of learning programme 
have been used. It is useful to use the term written curriculum to refer to all those 
documents which provide the framework for planning learning experiences. 

This  study  is  concerned  with  the  taught  curriculum  as  well  as  the  written 
curriculum.  By  taught  curriculum,  we  mean  the  programme  of  teaching  and 
learning  that  is  undertaken  by  teachers  and  learners  in  specific  environments 
(see  Figure  1).  The  taught  curriculum  consists  of  behaviours,  relationships  and 
experiences; it cannot be researched in the same way as documentary evidence. 
Furthermore, while the study is particularly interested in the manner in which the 
written curriculum guides the taught curriculum, the latter is not conceptualised as 
simply the expression of the former; it is evident that other factors will influence 
the character of the taught curriculum, for example institutional culture. 

then 

implemented.  As 

Curriculum  development  refers  to  the  processes  by  which  curriculum 
documents  are  generated  and 
is  subsequently 
demonstrated, it is helpful to imagine these processes as collectively forming part 
of a larger mission and, accordingly, to conceptualise the curriculum not only in 
terms of its function as a written document but also in terms of how it is created. 
This  emphasis  on  process  may  make  it  easier  to  understand  how  outcome-
oriented  approaches  are  developing  over 
time  and  between  countries. 
‘Curriculum  development’ focuses on  the  procedures  and stakeholder  roles  that 
lead to curricula documents taking their form. Just as significant for the form and 
function  of  the  curriculum  is  who  is  involved  and  how.  For  example,  curriculum 
documentation 
in  one  country  may  systematically  exclude  any  explicit 
pedagogical guidance; however, such guidance may be provided through official 
sources such as the schools inspectorate or teachers’ handbooks. The important 
point, in such cases, is not the documentary form that such prescriptions take but 
who is doing the prescribing and according to what criteria. 

31 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

3.2.  What are ‘learning outcomes’ in VET curricula? 

The research literature on learning outcomes is extensive, and we cannot cover it 
here  in  its  entirety  (see  Cedefop  2008a;  Cedefop,  2008b;  Cedefop,  2009a; 
Cedefop,  2009b;  Cedefop,  2009c;  Cedefop,  2010a;  Winterton  2009;  Werquin, 
2012).  For  the  purposes  of  this  study,  it  is  helpful  to  identify  some  of  the  main 
messages from this literature. 

The shift to learning outcomes (Cedefop 2009a) sets out the different ways 
in which learning outcomes are used. In particular, they are used at various levels 
to: 
(a)  characterise (at systemic level) overall aims for education and training; 
(b)  express the requirements or standards set by qualifications; 
(c)  clarify the intentions of curricula and learning programmes. 

Furthermore,  depending  on  the  level  at  which  they  are  used,  learning 

outcomes serve a variety of purposes: 
to recognise prior learning; 
(a) 
to award credit; 
(b) 
to ensure quality; 
(c) 
to improve credibility; 
(d) 
to increase transparency (Cedefop 2009a, p. 10). 
(e) 
In this study, our main focus is on the use of learning outcomes to inform the 
writing and implementation  of IVET curricula. It follows that we are interested in 
analysing  the  way  in  which  learning  outcomes  have  shaped  curricula  and 
learning  programmes.  In  particular,  learning  outcomes  are  a  distinctive  way  of 
expressing  what  learners  should  gain  from  their  learning  programmes.  This 
apparently  straightforward  statement  conceals  some  more  contentious  claims 
about the use of learning outcomes: 
(a) 

it implies a particular focus on what skills, knowledge and attributes a learner 
should acquire; 
it implies, at the very least, a rebalancing of emphasis from inputs to outputs 
in  VET  and,  at  the  very  most,  the  complete  omission  of  normative 
descriptions of inputs; 
it makes a claim to validity, for example, that a set of learning outcomes are 
warranted  because they  correspond to a  set  of workplace  performances  or 
competences. 
In  practice,  the  restatement  of  learning  outcomes  in  a  series  of  different 
documents (qualifications, curricula, learning programmes) helps us to reinterpret 
them  so that  descriptors  rooted  in  the  world  of  work  are  adapted  to  the  cultural 
and  institutional  characteristics  of  the  education  and  training  system.  We  can 
distinguish  the  formative  role  that  learning  outcomes  play  in  the  design  of 

(b) 

(c) 

32 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

curricula from the instructional role that they play in guiding teachers about what 
they should teach. This research explores both of these functions. 

Focusing on the outcomes of learning 

3.2.1. 
The distinctive feature of learning outcomes approaches is that the curriculum is 
described in terms of what the learner will be able to do at the end of his or her 
course of study rather than in terms of objectives, processes, knowledge or other 
traditional  curricular  elements  (Cedefop,  2010a; Werquin,  2012).  This  emphasis 
on  performance  –  which  may  include  skills,  knowledge  and  other  abilities  – 
implies  a  distinctive  standard  by  which  training  and  education  should be judged 
and,  usually,  a  particular  emphasis  on  the  manner  in  which  learning  outcomes 
may be assessed. 

that 

learning  outcomes,  namely 

An emphasis on the consequences of learning may go hand in hand with a 
behaviouristic  understanding  of 
learning 
outcomes  always  have  the  character  of  observable  performances.  According  to 
Winterton  (2009),  a  behaviourist  approach  was  favoured  by  the  writers 
responsible  for  developing  learning  outcomes  approaches  in  the  1960s.  This 
approach was influential in the design of the English NVQs – which describe the 
outcomes  of  learning  in  terms  of  a  list  of  testable  performances  in  particular 
situations  (Hyland,  1994).  However,  the  authentic  NVQ  approach  (now  widely 
criticised)  is  something  of  an  exception  in  practice.  Even  in  the  UK  (England), 
NVQs form only part of the apprenticeship framework where they are combined 
with  other  qualifications  and  other  types  of  vocational  qualification,  such  as 
national diplomas (9), that compete with NVQs, particularly in IVET. 

Contemporary accounts of learning outcomes emphasise their diversity and 
suggest  that,  where  learning  outcomes  are  tacit,  context-bound  or  applied  in 
combination  with  one  another,  then  inferential  rather  than  behaviouristic 
approaches  will  be  more  appropriate  (Cedefop,  2010a).  Learning  outcomes  are 
no longer conceptualised as self-evident performances. 

inputs  (Werquin,  2012).  It 

Defining the inputs and outcomes of learning 

3.2.2. 
Some authors claim that a distinctive feature of the outcome-oriented approach is 
the  omission  of 
is  argued  that,  traditionally, 
qualifications  and  curricula  were  articulated  in  terms  of  inputs:  objectives, 
content, disciplines, durations, activities, etc. Consequently, an outcome-oriented 
approach  not  only  places  the  focus  on  the  outcomes  for  learners,  but  it  also 
tacitly  ignores  the  inputs.  It  implies  that  outputs  must  be  determined  first; 

(9)  National BTEC awards are issued by the awarding organisation Edexcel. 

33 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

subsequently,  the  inputs  may  be  selected  which  will  serve  to  achieve  those 
outcomes in the most efficient and equitable manner. 

This  interpretation  is  sometimes  associated  with  a  managerial  attitude 
towards  the  teaching  role.  Consequently,  the  outcome-oriented  approach 
empowers  teachers  and  trainers  because  the  curriculum  has  been  defined  in 
terms of final performances and the teacher or trainer can be given autonomy to 
determine the best way to achieve these performances. However, this claim must 
be  interpreted  with  caution.  In  practice,  there  may  be  other  constraints  on 
teachers’ and trainers’ behaviour; furthermore, the managerial interpretation may 
be  contested  by  teachers  who,  in  the  past,  have  been  able  to  shape  the 
curriculum directly (Pollard, 2010). 

More generally, the omission of inputs implies a separation of the process of 
determining  outcomes  from  the  process  of  determining  inputs.  If  outcomes  are 
judged  to have  priority,  it follows  that  they  must  be  determined first.  This  would 
imply a differentiation between the process of setting the learning outcomes and 
the  process  of  setting  the  learning  inputs.  This  research  paper  explores  how 
some  countries  have sought  to  design and  differentiate these processes,  taking 
into  account  procedures,  agents  and  governance.  In  this  paper,  the  research 
builds  on  previous  Cedefop  findings  (2010a,  p.  64)  which  consider  a  range  of 
outcome-oriented curricula that place considerable emphasis on the specification 
of  inputs  (e.g.  in  France,  curricula  include  many  binding  rules  on  learning 
arrangements) and concludes that curricula are always mixed (e.g. in Germany, 
where  there  is  still  a  close  connection  between  the  definition  of  inputs  and 
outcomes). 

Basing learning outcomes upon competences 

3.2.3. 
Markowitsch  and  Paimauer  (2009)  have  explored  the  international  classification 
of ‘competence’ and of ‘learning outcomes’. In the EQF, ‘learning outcomes’ are 
defined as statements of what a learner knows, understands and is able to do on 
completion  of  a  learning  process,  which  are  defined  as  knowledge,  skills  and 
competences  (European  Parliament  and  Council  of  the  EU,  2008,  Annex  2).  In 
this  definition,  ’competence’  is  understood  as  a  special  capability  which  is  not 
fully captured as knowledge or skill. ‘Competence’, in this sense, is understood to 
refer to autonomy and responsibility, values and attitudes. 

However,  ‘competence’  is  also  understood  to  include  descriptions  of  work-
based  or  social  capabilities  that  are  exercised  in  the  workplace  or  in  society. 
Formally  in  VET,  they  are  discovered  and  defined  by  research  and/or 
consultation. If we investigate occupational standards activity in many European 
countries, we find that processes have been designed systematically to describe 

34 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

the tasks, roles and responsibilities that will be carried out within an occupation, 
such  as  a  tourist  information  officer.  These  processes  result  in  what  is  usually 
called a set of ‘competences’ (sometimes called a professional profile). 

that 

learning  outcomes  are  validated  by 

In  contrast,  a  learning  outcome  is  a  statement  of  what  should  be  learnt  or 
what the learner will know or be able to do. Learning outcomes are situated within 
an  educational  context,  for  example,  a  qualification  document  or  a  curriculum 
document.  It  is  an  essential  feature  of  using  learning  outcomes  in  curriculum 
their  relationship  with 
design 
competences, that is with practices in the workplace (or society). This may make 
it seem as though learning outcomes directly refer to practices in the real world. It 
may  also  appear  as  though  the  terms  ‘learning  outcome’  and  ‘competence’  are 
interchangeable.  It  must  be  conceded  that,  in  practice,  the  terms  are  used 
interchangeably by many practitioners in many countries. However, it is helpful to 
make  a  distinction  between  the  two  terms.  Competences  usually  refer  to 
practices  in  the  workplace  and,  by  extension,  to  wider  social  and  personal 
practices.  Learning  outcomes  refer  not  directly  to  work  practices  but  to 
competences.  Accordingly,  learning  outcomes  are  validated  by  their  connection 
to  competences  which  are  understood  as  part  of  the  world  of  work  (as  their 
source),  and  they  are  given  value  (in  the  labour  market)  by  their  connection  to 
competences  which  are  understood  as  part  of  the  employment  market  (as  their 
destination) (10). 

The  relationship  between  learning  outcomes  and  competences  is  a  critical 
one.  The  achievement  of  this  relationship  in  institutional  arrangements  and 
procedures has developed differently in different countries, as will be described in 
the following section. Nevertheless, all outcome-oriented curriculum approaches 
establish some  systematic  way  of  identifying  competences  and translating them 
into learning outcomes. As we shall see, the language of this translation varies, 
as  does  the  practice  and  the  institutional  form.  Furthermore,  the  extent  of  the 
transformation  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  perceived  also  vary.  However, 
despite  all  of  these  caveats,  the  evolution  of  outcome-oriented  approaches  has 
advanced  sufficiently,  across  so  many  European  countries,  that  it  is  possible  to 
sustain this distinction in this research paper. 

The conceptual separation of learning outcomes and competences allows us 
to  see  that  learning  outcomes  can  communicate  between  the  status  quo  of 
competences in the world of work and competences (specific to individuals) that 
enter the employment market in the future. 

(10)  In many of the IVET case studies, we have found that learning outcomes also serve 
to  trace  competences  that  are  situated  in  traditional  subjects  or  in  new  educational 
agendas, such as citizenship. 

35 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

3.3.  Cross-border differences in the meaning of 
‘competence’ and ‘learning outcomes’ 

This  section considers  the  extent  of  variation  in  meaning  attached to the  above 
terms from  the empirical  evidence,  and  discusses  whether  and  in what  way  the 
variations  observed  have  an  impact  on  the  conceptualisation  and  definition  of 
learning outcomes in curricula. 

An overview of all 32 countries examined shows that, despite the variation, 
there is quite a narrow range of ways in which the terms are used, although the 
situation is complicated by the fact that the relationship between competence and 
learning outcomes is defined in some countries (e.g. Portugal) and not in others 
(e.g.  Norway).  Moreover,  some  countries  do  not  officially  use  the  label  of 
'learning  outcomes'  to any  great  extent  (e.g.  Bulgaria),  while  others  eschew  the 
term  'competence'  (e.g.  Sweden).  The  situation  is  made  considerably  more 
complex  by  the  fact  that,  while  national  administrations  often  offer  definitions  of 
terms, there may be little adherence to strict definitions in policy and practice. In 
Poland,  the  term  competence  is  used  in  a  variety  of  ways  in  practice,  whereas 
the EU definition is used in all official documents. 

The  question  arises,  therefore,  as  to  whether  there  are  conceptual 
differences  embodied  in  the  use  of  different  words  which  are  significant  for  the 
form  and  function  of  learning  outcomes.  Winterton  (2009),  among  others,  has 
expounded  the  hypothesis  that  Europe  exhibits  a  variety  of  models  of 
competence which are  related  to underlying  training  and labour market regimes 
(11). However, it is apparent from this research that the number of countries with a 
model  of  competence  which  is  well  developed,  commonly  understood,  widely 
shared  and  deeply  embedded  in  the  culture  and  practice  of  VET  is  quite  small. 
Such  models,  like  the  English,  French  and  German  models  discussed  by 
Winterton,  have  existed  for  some  time  and  were  developed  as  endogenous 
policies  to  fulfil  purposes  inherent  to  their  education  and  training  systems  and 
labour  markets  (12).  However,  these  may  be  special  cases.  Certainly,  in  the 
German  case,  the  importance  of  vocational  competence  (Handlungskompetenz 
and the related berufliche Handlungsfähigkeit) for individual and social identity is 
quite exceptional. In most countries, the concept of learning outcomes is  not so 
well  developed  or  widely  shared.  In  many  cases,  the  concepts  have  been 

(11)  It  should  also  be  noted  that  such  analyses  fail  to  differentiate  adequately  between 
in 
their  differences. 
IVET  and  CVET,  despite 
conceptualisation of competence are less significant in IVET than in CVET owing to 
its relationship to mainstream education. 

that  differences 

likely 

is 

It 

(12)  Although it is notable that, in the UK, there appears to be less consensus, particularly 

in recent years. 

36 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

imported  from  elsewhere  (the  EU,  in  particular  the  United  Kingdom,  being  the 
most  common  source)  and  are  at  various  stages  of  being  adapted  and 
interpreted  to  achieve  national  goals  in  education  and  training  policy  and 
practice. 

remains  as 

Furthermore, 

the  question 

to  whether  differences 

in 
conceptualisation  are  significant.  Certainly,  Winterton’s  analysis  suggests  so  in 
the  countries  he  studied,  as  do  Brockmann,  Clarke  and  Winch  in  their 
comparative study (2011). As Cedefop notes,  ‘the term [learning outcomes] can 
have a range of connotations and denotations (…) because it is used in different 
contexts’  (Cedefop,  2009a).  Equally,  ‘the  terms  competence,  compétence  and 
Kompetenz  each  have rather  different  connotations  in their  respective language 
and  cultural  traditions’  (ibid.).  ‘Learning  outcomes  are  best  understood  as  a 
collection  of  useful  processes  and  tools  that  can  be  applied  in  diverse  ways  in 
different 
(ibid.).  However, 
conceptualisations in individual countries are, by no means, static or monolithic; 
there  is  evidence  of  policy  learning,  for  example,  in  Germany  and  the  UK 
(England  and  Scotland)  and,  of  course,  of  the  influence  of  the  EU  as  a  whole. 
Furthermore,  despite  differences  in  institutions  and  ideas,  policy-makers  across 
Europe appear, to some degree, to be confronting similar problems. 

teaching 

settings’ 

learning 

policy, 

and 

Equally,  the  structure  of  learning  outcomes  shows  significant  variation 
between  countries  in  their  level  of  detail  and  the  relationship  that  they  forge 
between  technical  and  key  competences.  Most  of  this  variation,  however,  does 
not appear to be explicable by differences in conceptualisation of competence or 
learning  outcomes  per  se.  Instead,  they  relate  to  underlying  features  of  the 
education  and  labour  market  systems.  Accordingly,  It  seems  possible  that 
underlying regimes may, in a comparatively small number of countries, give rise 
to well-developed conceptualisations which accompany and support variations in 
the structure of learning outcomes in curricula; in other countries, the structure of 
learning outcomes is not so dependent on well-developed and shared concepts. 
The  latter  may  be  especially  true  in  countries  which  have  imported  concepts  of 
competence  and  learning  outcomes  via  EU  tools,  such  as  many  central  and 
eastern European countries. Other countries, especially the Nordics, do not have 
a  highly  distinctive  concept  of  competence  as  a  bridge  between  IVET  and  the 
labour market. Instead, the concept of competence in Scandinavian countries is 
subordinated  to  a  distinctive  and  widely  accepted  concept  of  the  function  of 
education. As will be seen later in this research paper, this may support holistic 
concepts of outcomes. 

37 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 4. 
Prevalence and impact of learning outcomes 
in curriculum reform 

4.1. 

Introduction 

This chapter examines curriculum policy developments geared towards learning 
outcomes at national and sectoral levels in the electronics and tourism sectors. It 
discusses  the  progress  made  in  32  countries  and  the  reasons  why  curriculum 
change  focuses  on  learning  outcomes.  On  the  basis  of  a  review  that  situates 
different  outcome-oriented  approaches  to  curriculum  development  in  their  wider 
policy  frameworks,  this  chapter  considers  the  challenges  facing  policy-making 
and draws on key findings. 

4.2.  Curriculum policy developments in initial VET 

Evidence from the 32 country reviews shows that, during the past 5 to 10 years, 
all European countries have implemented some kind of reform of the curriculum 
in  IVET.  In general,  such  reforms  have  been  undertaken  to  increase the  labour 
market  relevance  of  IVET  curricula  and  also  to  enhance  their  flexibility.  The 
reforms  have  also  been  part  of  changes  to  the  distribution  of  responsibilities 
within  education  and  training  systems  which  have  changed  the  relationship 
between  national  (or  regional)  governments  (depending  on 
the  overall 
governance arrangements), local municipalities and schools. Learning outcomes 
are seriously affected by these developments. At the same time, judgments about 
the extent to which outcome-oriented curricula for IVET have been developed in 
different  countries  are  not  easy  to  be  made,  as  a  number  of  issues  need  to  be 
taken into account. 

First,  VET  curricula  have  always  been  outcome-focused  to  some  degree, 
otherwise  they  would  not  have  been  fit  for  purpose  in  the  labour  market. 
However,  the  pace  of  labour  market  change  means  that  curricula  are  likely  to 
need  updating  more  frequently  than  in  the  past,  with  occupations  emerging  or 
changing  at  unprecedented  rates.  Historically,  concepts  of  competence  have 
developed  as  tools  to  understand  and  adjust  curricula.  This  historical  context 
means  that  it  can  be  quite  difficult  to  trace  the  origins  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula  to  a  particular  point.  Further,  while  competence  concepts  have  been 
used  for  quite  a  long  time,  the  use  of  the  concept  of  learning  outcomes  in 

38 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

European  curricula  is  comparatively  recent.  They  have  a  specific  meaning  in  a 
specific  place  at  a  specific  time.  In  Europe,  learning  outcomes  are,  in  most 
countries,  associated  with  EU  tools,  most  notably  the  EQF,  perhaps  because 
they  serve  a  clear  purpose  in  relation  to  these  tools  and  because  a  clear 
definition of learning outcomes is available. What is interesting is the interaction 
between  notions  of  competence  and  learning  outcomes.  Some  countries  have 
adopted  and used the EU concept of learning outcomes verbatim (as discussed 
in  Section  3.3);  some  have  sought  to  accommodate  it    within  or  alongside 
developed concepts of competence. 

Second,  there  are  several  countries  which  have  had  competence-based 
approaches  for  a  number  of  years  but  have  not  introduced  them  into  IVET; 
instead, some countries (such as Spain) demonstrated features relating to adult 
and  continuing  training.  They  do,  nonetheless,  have  significance,  as  they  have 
helped  to  develop  considerations  concerning  outcomes  orientation  which  have 
been  geared  towards  IVET  curricula  in  more  recent  years.  In  other  countries, 
such  as  Germany  or  France,  competence-based  IVET  curricula  have  been  a 
reality for years now, but approaches and concepts continue to evolve as a result 
of more recent reforms; 

Third,  it  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  and  to  what  extent  learning 
outcomes  have  been  introduced  into  curricula  in  a  meaningful  way  or  whether 
this,  to  date,  has  been  more  or  less  a  paper  exercise.  This  situation  is 
exacerbated  by  the  fact  that  a  key  trend  has  been  to  devolve  responsibility  for 
curricula to local levels. An example may be drawn from the Netherlands where a 
note  of  caution  has  been  sounded  about  embedding  key  competences  in  VET 
programmes:  ‘As  yet,  there  is  insufficient  insight  into  the  exact  casting  of  this 
structure into curricula developed by schools, so that it is not clear whether extra 
efforts are needed in this respect’ (Cedefop ReferNet Netherlands, 2010). 

Finally,  there  is  not  yet  a  common  benchmark  or  reference  point  against 
which  to  judge  progress,  since  interpretations  of  learning  outcomes  and 
competences vary among countries and types of VET in Europe. 

Countries have different starting points in terms of their cultures, institutions 
and practices. As a result, they have interpreted the outcome-oriented approach 
differently and set about reform in different ways. It follows that we can study the 
development  of  learning  outcomes  approaches  both  as  a  progression  (e.g. 
learning outcomes are used more systematically and with greater sophistication) 
and  as  a  process  of  embedding  (e.g.  learning  outcomes  are  reconciled  with 
national  understandings,  institutions  and  practices).  Some  countries  which  one 
might have regarded as being more advanced in terms of their conceptualisation 
of  competence  have  not  necessarily  kept  pace  with  other  countries  in  the 

39 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

development  of  outcome-oriented  curricula.  Indeed,  Germany,  Austria  and,  to 
some  degree,  Denmark,  which  have  a  very  distinctive,  long-standing,  and  well-
developed  notion  of  competence,  have  required  long  processes  to  incorporate 
the current notion of learning outcomes, as defined in EU policy, into their own. 
Countries  which  have  found  in  the  EU  tools  a  ready-made  set  of  concepts  and 
measures  for  bringing  about  major  reforms  in  their  IVET  systems  might  well 
overtake other countries in terms of outcome-oriented curricula. 

Although  dating 

introduction  of  outcome-oriented  curriculum 
development is difficult, the study identified the following two groups of countries: 
the early developers and the recent developers. 

the 

Early developers 

4.2.1. 
Somewhat  less  than  half  of  the  countries  examined  where  the  introduction  of 
outcomes  orientation  is  dated  in  the  1990s  or  earlier  are  considered  early 
developers.  This  group  includes  Belgium  (Flanders),  Finland,  Ireland,  the 
Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, along with some central 
and  eastern  European  countries  (Hungary,  Lithuania,  Poland  and  Slovenia) 
which began reform programmes in education and training at quite an early stage 
compared to their neighbours. 

In Sweden, the advent of learning outcomes is attributed to the introduction 
of a credit-based system in 1999. In Finland, national core curricula in vocational 
education  and  training  and  national  requirements  in  the  competence-based 
qualification  system  at  upper  secondary  level  in  both  initial  and  additional  VET 
have  been  based  on  an  outcome-oriented  approach  since  1993-94.  The 
introduction of  outcome-oriented  curricula in  the  United  Kingdom  through  NVQs 
is  well  known.  Major  drivers  behind  their  introduction  included  the  attempt  to 
simplify  the  vast  number  of  vocational  qualifications  then  available  and  also  to 
validate  and  certify  the  competences  of  people  already  in  work  to  lubricate  the 
labour market. The focus of these qualifications – in some contrast to the position 
in,  for  example,  Finland  and  Sweden  –  was  very  much  driven  by  a  functional 
analysis  of  work  tasks  which  stripped  down  occupations  into  distinct  units.  This 
has  subsequently  led  to  criticism  that  they  atomise  occupations,  and  has,  most 
recently,  led  to  criticism  by  a  government-commissioned  report  that  applying 
NVQ  principles  to  students  in  IVET  narrows  the  curriculum  too  much  (Wolf, 
2011). 

These  countries,  however,  have  not  remained  static  in  relation  to  the 
development  of  an  outcomes  orientation.  Indeed,  the  road  towards  outcomes 
orientation  may  be  long  and  complex,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  example  from 
Finland in the box below. 

40 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Box 1 

Finland – giving learning outcomes greater leverage in the curriculum 

Between 2008 and 2010, Finland saw a major reform of all its upper secondary VET 
qualifications.  Although  learning  outcomes  had  been  introduced  during  a  national 
curriculum  reform  process  in  the  mid-1990s,  they  had  comparatively  little  effect  or 
leverage  on  curricula  themselves,  in  a  context  where  education  providers  are 
responsible for the written and taught curriculum. Outcomes, at that point, were more 
like objectives than learning outcomes. 
New  national  qualifications  requirements  have  now  been  put  in  place,  giving 
nationally  defined  learning  outcomes  greater  influence  over  local  curricula  through 
reformed  assessment  processes.  Whereas  assessment  criteria  were  previously 
written  in  comparatively  general  terms,  such  as  in  terms  of  knowing  how  to  do 
something, the new assessment criteria are written more as outcomes related to work 
processes.  At  the  same  time,  the  number  of  grades  has  been  reduced  from  five  to 
three.  The  aim  of  this  is  to  make  it  easier  for  assessors  in  the  workplace  to  judge 
candidates.  These  developments  in  initial  VET  have  been  influenced  by  the 
introduction of competence-based qualifications for adults. 

Source:  Finland country review. 

Another  example  is  provided  by  the  Netherlands,  where  the  basis  for  the 
current  competence-based  approach  in  VET  was  laid  down  in  discussions 
starting  at  national  level  in  1999,  following  the  passing  into  law  of  the  General 
Adult  Education  and  Vocational  Education  Act 
(Wet  Educatie  en 
Beroepsonderwijs,  WEB)  in  1996.  Qualifications  were  criticised  for  not  giving 
enough attention to key competences. In consequence, national actors started a 
review  process  which  led  to  a  new  quality  framework  in  2006.  The  first 
experiments  with  the  current  competence-based  qualification  structures  were 
from  2005-09. They  were  supposed  to be  implemented  by  law  in 2009,  but  this 
was  postponed  to  2012.  In  late  2011,  it  was  announced  that  the  competence-
based  qualification  structure  was  to  be  renamed,  reflecting  a  shift  in  emphasis 
towards vocationally specific knowledge and skills. 

In Belgium (Flanders), although the learning outcomes approach is not new, 
implementation has been highly variable: in some sectors, updated and detailed 
competence  profiles  exist  for  each  vocational  cluster,  while,  in  other  sectors, 
competence  profiles  are  missing  or  are  outdated.  This  means  that  progress  on 
practical  implementation  varies,  in  particular  when  looking  at  the  translation  of 
competence  profiles 
(teaching 
methodologies  and  assessment  practices).  The  continuing  VET  sector  is 
probably  the  most  experienced  in  this  field.  A  competence-based  approach  is 
well  integrated  and  provides  a  reference  point  for  professional  requirements  in 
the labour market. 

competence-developing  education 

into 

41 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Recent developers 

4.2.2. 
In over one half of the countries analysed (Austria, Belgium (Walloon), Bulgaria, 
Croatia,  Cyprus,  the  Czech  Republic,  Denmark,  Estonia,  Germany,  Greece, 
Iceland, Latvia, Malta and Slovakia) where the introduction of learning outcomes 
into IVET is dated since 2005 (note that this means the introduction of legislation, 
i.e.  the  initial  stage  of  the  development  process  rather  than  the  actual 
implementation of outcome-oriented curricula) are considered recent developers. 
Spain and  Portugal  are also included  in  this  group,  where outcomes  orientation 
began early in one area of VET and has provided the basis for more widespread 
application  more  recently.  Most  of  these  countries  are  in  central  and  eastern 
Europe  and  the  Mediterranean.  These  countries  have  been  those  in  need  of 
more  wholesale  reform,  modernisation  and  updating  of  their  IVET  (and  VET) 
curricula.  Outcome-oriented  approaches  have  been  key  to  this  process  and, 
therefore, seem especially prominent. 

In Portugal,  considerations  regarding  outcomes orientation  were  addressed 
comparatively  early,  in training for  adults; these provide  an  informative example 
of  the  development  process  (see  Box  2).  In  Spain,  since  the  mid-1990s, 
unitisation  and  modularisation  have  been  two  of  the  principles  applied  in 
structuring  qualification  programmes 
training 
programmes  as  well  as  in  continuing  training  (occupational  training  leading  to 
certificates  for  both  the  unemployed  and  employed).  These  two  principles 
informed the development of the national catalogue of vocational qualifications. 

initial  vocational 

in  certain 

This  group  also  includes  Denmark,  Germany  and  Austria.  These  countries 
have grappled to varying degrees with the advent of learning outcomes. Germany 
has  perhaps  faced  the  greatest  challenges,  since  its  IVET  system  is  so  closely 
bound to the structure of occupations, and any changes also have ramifications 
for  the  relationships  between  the  different  levels  of  government.  Accordingly, 
reforms  in  outcome-oriented  curricula  would  have  consequences  in  terms  of 
national wage regulation, and the adoption of a national qualifications framework 
has  ramifications  for  the  relationship  between  federal  and  regional  government. 
As  already  mentioned,  Germany  has  accommodated  learning  outcomes  within 
modularised  prevocational 
transition 
programmes.  Austria  appears  to  have  accommodated  learning  outcomes  more 
readily than Germany and is in the process of developing occupational standards 
following the development of educational standards in previous years. 

training  programmes,  known  as 

42 

 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Box 2 

Portugal – developments in adult training influencing IVET 

In  Portugal,  it  is  possible  to  differentiate  between  the  introduction  of  learning 
outcomes in 2007 and the introduction of a competence approach in 2001. During this 
time, the definition and description of qualifications based on learning outcomes has 
been one of the central pillars in meeting national strategic objectives, particularly as 
regards the role of quality assurance and system transparency. 
In  2001,  the  national  curriculum  for  basic  education  and  the  key  competences  as 
reference points for the teaching and training of adults  provided the system with the 
initial  political  impetus  to  make  the  organisation  of  qualifications  more  coherent  and 
uniform.  This  has  been  increasingly  widened  to  cover  other  education  and  training 
subsystems and extend the use of learning outcomes. Both the  adult education and 
training courses (AET) and the processes of recognition, validation and certification of 
competences  (RVCC)  are  subject  to  the  basic  education  and  secondary  education 
level  key  competences  standard/referential  which  is  organised  in  terms  of  learning 
outcomes. 
The  national  qualifications  system  introduced  in  2007  defines  the  concept  of 
competence as being the proven ability to use knowledge, skills and attitudes at work, 
in professional development, in education and in personal development (Artigo 3º b) 
Decreto  396/2007).  The  national  qualifications  catalogue  sets  out  defined 
competence standards, organised in competence units based on learning outcomes. 
Although  these  are  used  mainly  for  implementation  of  the  processes  of  recognition, 
validation  and  certification  of  competences  (RVCC),  they  represent  an  important 
developmental step towards the introduction of generalised qualifications designed on 
the basis of learning outcomes. 
At  this  stage,  things  may  not  yet  be  uniform  and  stable  in  all  the  subsystems  of 
education and training, nor within each educational or training modality: qualifications 
defined  by  contents  (input)  coexist  with  qualifications  defined  in  terms  of  learning 
outcomes (output). 

Source:  Portugal country review. 

to 

introduce 

learning  outcomes 

Denmark saw the introduction of competence-based curricula in commercial 
training  programmes  in  1996  and  has  since  proceeded,  through  a  number  of 
steps, 
through  a  new 
apprenticeships programme designed to reduce early school leaving, through the 
2007 reforms which combined all IVET programmes under the same legislation – 
one of the aims being to increase the possibility of acquiring a partial qualification 
–  but,  most  significantly,  through  the  development  of  its  national  qualifications 
framework. 

IVET,  e.g. 

in 

4.3.  Curriculum policy developments in the electronics 

and tourism sectors  

As noted in Chapter 2, the study selected curricula from two sectors, electronics 
and  tourism,  to  illustrate  and  contextualise  the  findings.  Within  each  sector,  an 

43 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

occupation  was  selected  as  a  reference  point:  mechatronics  technician  and 
information  officer.  This  choice  of  sectors  and  occupations  was 
tourist 
appropriate in terms of the contrasts they exhibit, as shown in Box 3 below. It was 
also hypothesised that the comparative analysis might highlight some interesting 
differences in policy and practice. 

On  the  whole,  the  differences  have  been  less  significant  than  envisaged. 
The overall trend in policy in Europe is to improve the processes through which 
sectors are able to participate in the design of curricula and qualifications.  Over 
the  past  5  to  10  years,  this  development  has  tended  to  smooth  out  any 
differences  that  might  have  existed  between  different  sectors  in  terms  of  the 
extent  and  nature  of  their  engagement  with  vocational  education  and  training 
systems.  Similarly,  the  introduction  of  national  qualifications  frameworks  and 
other  tools  has  also  led  to  a  certain  consistency  in  the  processes  by  which 
curricula are designed (see Section 4.4.2). 

At the same time, the study found that some differences persisted between 
the  extent  to  which  the  different  sectors  organise  themselves  in  terms  of  social 
dialogue  processes  in  relation  to  vocational  education  and  training.  Evidently, 
mechatronics has emerged from two long-standing and well-developed industrial 
activities:  electrical  and  mechanical  engineering.  In  many  countries,  these  two 
occupations  have  a  long  heritage,  with  long-established  and/or  well-developed 
institutions to match. The tourism industry tends not to have such well-developed 
institutions,  although  this  statement  risks  over  generalisation,  since  clearly  in 
many  countries  the  tourism  industry  is  well-organised  with  institutions  that  are 
involved  in  training,  such  as  in  Spain.  However,  looking  across  Europe  as  a 
whole,  it  is  the  tourist  sector  which  has  tended  to  be  the  focus  of  more  rapid 
growth  and  development.  This  is  reflected  by  the  fact  that  in  some  countries, 
programmes  in  tourism  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  while  electronics 
programmes  have  been  developed  out  of  programmes  in  mechanical  and 
electronic engineering. Despite such differences, sector variations were not found 
to systematically affect the answers to the research questions. 

44 

 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Box 3 

Study sectors and occupations: state of play 

Electronics 
Electronics  has  been  subject  to  rapid  growth  and  development  over  the  past  two 
decades and has been a focus for the emergence of a number of new occupations, 
many demanding new competences, often at high levels such as mechatronics. The 
chosen  occupation  for  analysis,  mechatronic  engineers  are  concerned  with  the 
electronic and computer control systems that drive the operation of nearly all modern 
machinery,  from  automatic  braking  systems  in  cars  to  unmanned  deep-sea 
submersibles.  Mechatronics  as  an  occupation  combines  elements  of  mechanical 
engineering and electronics with control engineering, computing and systems design. 
It is found across a wide  variety of industries including manufacturing in general but 
especially  the  automotive,  aerospace,  defence  and  materials  processing  industries. 
Although the occupation is becoming increasingly common as technology progresses 
and  control  systems  become  more  prevalent,  the  title  of  ‘mechatronics  engineer’  or 
‘mechatronics technician’ is not always widely used in EU countries; other terms are 
sometimes used such as ‘multiskilled manufacturing technician’. 
Entry  to  the  occupation  requires  an  IVET  qualification.  As  an  identified  programme/ 
qualification, mechatronics is quite prominent at Bachelor’s/Master’s level but less so 
at  ISCED  level  3.  Courses  are  often  being  developed  at  ISCED  level  4  (post-
secondary non-tertiary) to  enable those with electronics or engineering backgrounds 
at  level  3  to  progress  into  mechatronics  occupations.  Curricula  have  typically  been 
in  electronics  and  mechanical 
developed  by  drawing  on  existing  curricula 
engineering. Physical training infrastructure for use in practical training is important; to 
some extent, this inhibits the introduction of new learning methods. In the light of the 
firm-specific  nature  of  many  production  processes,  job-specific  in-house  training  is 
important to build on the skills acquired within the public IVET system. 

Tourism 
Tourism  continues  to  be  a  sector  of  growth  and  is  a  vital  component  of  many  local 
and  national  economies.  The  distribution  of  occupations  varies  across  Europe,  not 
least according to whether countries are net senders or receivers of tourists. Training 
has a key role to play in the sector’s growth, and there have been many attempts to 
improve levels of formal training to replace the traditional emphasis in many countries 
on informal or non-formal learning. The provision of management training – seen as a 
prerequisite  for  increased  quality  in  the  sector  –  remains  problematic.  Middle  and 
senior managers continue to suffer from a dearth of vocational management training 
that  is  both  flexible  in  delivery  and  sets  generic  management  skills  in  a  tourism-
specific context. 
The  chosen  occupation  for  analysis,  tourist  information  officers  provide  information 
and  advice,  and  often  act  as  agents  between  tourists  and  local  accommodation 
providers and tourist facilities, making local bookings on visitors' behalf. It is an entry-
level  occupation,  leading  to  supervisory  and  managerial  posts  such  as  tourist 
information manager. Formal entry requirements in terms of qualifications are diverse. 
It is often the case that programmes have been developed only recently. 

Source:  Guthrie (2008) and country reviews conducted for this research. 

45 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

4.4.  The reasons for introducing outcome-oriented 

curricula 

In  all  of  the  countries  reviewed,  the  introduction  of  an  outcomes  orientation  in 
IVET curricula is reported to be the result of a mix of factors rather than just one. 
These  factors  are  closely  related  to  the  functions  which  learning  outcomes  are 
intended  to  have  within  national  systems.  Learning  outcomes  are,  indeed, 
capable of supporting, in some way, all the major current developments, including 
major  qualifications  reform,  often  associated  with  the  introduction  of  national 
qualification 
introduction  of  output-focused 
governance  arrangements.  Accordingly,  learning  outcomes  have  the  ability  to 
enable policy-makers to deliver the full range of current developments in IVET. 

(NQFs)  and 

frameworks 

the 

Methodologically,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  association  of  the  writing  of 
curricula in terms of learning outcomes with broader reforms has made it difficult 
for interviewees to separate the reasons for the use of learning outcomes per se 
from  the  factors  driving  reform  in general.  Indeed,  one gets  the  impression  that 
the use of learning outcomes is now taken for granted, though their form – and, to 
some degree, their function – varies. In general, the use of learning outcomes is 
understood as a tool rather than the main mission. 

It  is  possible  to  identify  a  range  of  factors  influencing  the  introduction  of 
outcome-oriented curricula. Cedefop (2010a) identified four broad types: learning 
theories;  linking  VET  and  the  labour  market;  new  output-based  governance 
arrangements;  and  EU  policy  on  transparency  and  international  mobility.  The 
analysis  below  takes  a  different  approach  and  separates  overarching  economic 
and  social  goals  from  what  we  term  ‘operational  objectives’  which  relate  to  the 
more specific policies and tools. At operational level,  we can identify bundles of 
objectives  which  comprise  a  number  of  broadly  similar  objectives,  although,  in 
reality, these groupings are themselves strongly interrelated. 

This analysis supports and elaborates in greater detail on Cedefop (2010a), 
with  one  exception:  learning  theories  at  policy  level  were  found  to  be  rarely 
referred  to  in  policy.  Instead,  at  policy  level,  the  main  overarching  reasons  for 
outcome-oriented curricula are focused around economic and social issues rather 
than ideas about how people learn. This is not to say that learning theories  and 
recent  research  on  brain  function  do  not  inform  discussions  about  learning 
outcomes  and  competences.  However,  these  were  not  found  to  be  significant 
drivers  for  their  introduction,  although,  in some  cases,  they  have been  explicitly 
cited as influential factors, as in the case of Cyprus. 

46 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Overarching economic and social goals 

4.4.1. 
Economic  objectives  relate  to  the  policy  of  seeking  to  improve  national 
competitiveness  through  skills  development.  This  translates  into  improving  the 
links  between  education  and  training  systems  and  industry.  This  general 
objective  is  driving  curriculum  reform  in  one  form  or  another  in  every  country 
reviewed.  This  is  not  just  about  equipping  people  coming  out  of  IVET  with 
competences  which  are  better  geared  towards  labour  market  needs.  In  many 
countries,  it  is  also  about  re-engineering  systems  so  that  they  can  more 
systematically  meet  the  needs  of  modern  business.  Learning  outcomes  are 
important  components  of  curriculum  development  systems  that  can  respond 
quickly  to  changing  needs  and  can  equip  people  with  wider  competences  in  a 
context  where  employment  is  much  less  predictable  and  where  employers 
require  a  mix  of  technical  and  key  competences.  Learning  outcomes  provide  a 
means  of  unpacking  and  repacking  curricula  and  involving  employers  more  in 
regular  structured  dialogue.  At  the  same  time,  governments  are  not  using 
learning  outcomes  simply  as  a means  of meeting  business  needs regardless of 
social or individual needs. As will be shown in the chapters that follow, learning 
outcomes  are  a  means  of  communicating  between  different  interest  groups. 
Research has shown that reconciling competing interests is an important function 
of  social  dialogue  (e.g.  Schmitter,  1974;  Winterton,  2000),  and,  in  this  context, 
learning outcomes may be seen as being involved in balancing employer needs 
(which have a tendency to be more narrowly focused on immediate business or 
sectoral needs) and employee needs (where employees seek wider skill sets to 
increase the range of potential jobs open to them). 

Social drivers relate to matters of equality and inclusion, but they are more 
likely  to  manifest  themselves  in  what  might  be  termed  democratic  attempts  to 
ensure  that  the  outcome-oriented  curricula  being  developed  in  IVET  are  based 
on  a  common  platform  shared  with  general  education  tracks  –  often  linked  in 
policy to the development of lifelong learning systems. Accordingly, social drivers 
for  the  introduction  of  outcome-oriented  curricula  into  IVET  tend  to  manifest 
themselves  in  the  incorporation  of  key  competences  and general  knowledge,  in 
recognition systems and in the development of national core curricula to provide 
some  form  of  equality  of  educational  experience.  This  policy  is  linked  to raising 
the  status  of  IVET  so  that  it  is  regarded  as  a  positive  choice  rather  than  what 
people  do  if  they  fail  to  secure  a  place  on  a  general/academic  programme 
leading  to  university.  Notions  of  compensating  for  social  background  through 
learning  outcomes  are  much  less  prominent  at  policy  level,  although  learning 
outcomes  have  an  enabling  function  in  some  countries,  such  as  Denmark  and 
Germany,  where  they  have  been  used  to  develop  new  alternative  pathways  to 

47 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

help less able students to gain access to IVET (new apprenticeships in Denmark 
and modularised prevocational training in Germany). However, far more common 
than  these  developments  is  the  devolution  of  responsibility  for  the  tailoring  of 
provision to match the needs of individuals or social groups to providers at local 
level. This is part of a long-term trend, and it is supported and promoted through 
an outcome-oriented approach. 

In  general,  economic  drivers  are  most  prominent  in  policy  documents  and 
statements  related  to  learning  outcomes  in  IVET  at  national  policy  level.  In  all 
countries, economic factors have a role to play; in no country were social reasons 
found  to  be  the  biggest  motivational  factor.  Equally,  it  is  clear  that  there  is  a 
complex  interplay  between  economic  and  social  factors.  Moreover,  as we show 
below,  the  development  of  competence-based  approaches  in  continuous  VET 
linked to the validation of non-formal and informal learning has been influential in 
many  countries  in  stimulating  considerations  about  learning  outcomes  in  initial 
VET, and such approaches clearly serve both economic and social goals. 

The  relative  contribution  of  different  drivers  may  be  associated  with  the 
contributions of different types of stakeholders to VET policy and reform. Strong 
business  representation  is  associated  with  an  emphasis  on  the  use  of  learning 
outcomes  to  pinpoint  the  skills  required  for  employment  and  work-readiness. 
Trade  unions  and  professional  associations  seek  to  use  learning  outcomes  to 
define  vocational  or  professional  competence  in  a  broader  and  more  integrated 
manner. Educational and training professionals are more likely to emphasise the 
value of learning outcomes to ensure consistency between standards in terms of 
knowledge or craft skills or in terms of personal growth or progression to higher 
educational  levels.  The  State  may,  at  any  point  in  time,  seek  to  hold  the  ring 
between these interests, or to provide particular support to one or more interest 
which, for whatever reason, it chooses to promote. 

Operational objectives 

the  reasons 

4.4.2. 
At  this  level  of  analysis,  it  is  possible to identify  a number  of  bundles of  related 
objectives  which  constitute 
further 
development  of  outcome-oriented  curricula.  The  relationship  of  these  objectives 
to the  high-level  goals  just  described  is  complex:  many  of  them  may  meet  both 
economic and social goals. Many of these bundles are, of course, closely related 
to  one  another.  Furthermore,  which  objective  is  most  important  is  a  matter  of 
emphasis,  and  sometimes  a  matter  of  rhetoric,  depending  on  the  socio-political 
situation in a given country. 

introduction  or 

the 

for 

While  it  is  difficult  to  generalise  across  Europe  as  to  which  are  the  most 
common reasons for introducing outcome-oriented curricula, it is possible to draw 

48 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

up a list of reasons, in descending order of importance, on the basis of the review 
conducted of policy documents and interviews with policy-makers. 

4.4.2.1.  National qualifications frameworks and credit transfer systems 

The introduction of the EQF (European Parliament, Council of the EU, 2008) and 
the  associated  development  of  national  qualifications  frameworks  is  the  most 
common factor in the development of outcome-oriented curricula. This is reported 
explicitly by the interviewees as an important driver in countries such as Austria, 
Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Croatia,  Cyprus,  the  Czech  Republic,  Denmark,  Estonia, 
Germany,  Greece,  Hungary,  Iceland,  Ireland,  Italy,  Latvia,  Luxembourg,  Malta, 
Poland,  Portugal,  Romania,  Slovakia,  Slovenia,  Spain  and  Turkey.  Indeed,  at 
national  level,  policy  issues  related  to  learning  outcomes  tend  to  centre  on 
qualifications  reform,  which  has  become  an  increasingly  important  lever  for 
change within initial vocational education and training. This is part of an ongoing 
process  related  to  the  pursuit  of  a  wide  range  of  economic  and  social  goals, 
especially  the  desire  to  improve  the  relevance  of  vocational  education  and 
training qualifications to labour markets. These findings are also confirmed by the 
latest monitoring of NQF developments in Europe (Cedefop, 2012b). 

What  is  interesting  about  some  of  the  countries  listed  is  that  they  include 
dual  system  countries  with 
long-established  notions  of  competences 
underpinning  their  VET  (Austria,  Denmark  and  Germany)  as  well  as  all  the 
countries  of  central  and  eastern  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  which  are 
seeking  to  modernise  their  systems.  In  Bulgaria,  for  example,  the  first  state 
educational  requirements  (2002-05)  described  knowledge  and  skills  in  fairly 
academic  language;  by  taking  EU  policy  and  tools  into  consideration,  the 
language  has  become  more  understandable  for  all  stakeholders  –  trainees, 
employers,  etc.,  and the  new  learning  outcome could  be  more  easily  measured 
and  assessed.  In  Austria,  the  EQF  descriptors  have  been  used  as  a  basis  for 
creating  new  educational  standards,  with  the  ministry  responsible  establishing 
key learning outcomes by defining activity descriptions and occupational profiles 
in  cooperation  with  the  Austrian  social  partners  (Cedefop  ReferNet  Austria, 
2011).  In  Denmark,  the  introduction  of  the  NQF  has  implied  an  orientation 
towards  an  output-oriented  system  in  which  the  learning  outcomes  become  the 
pivotal  point  for  laying  down  curricula.  In  the  new  regulations  which  became 
effective  in  2008,  the  concepts  of  skills,  knowledge  and  competences  were 
introduced (Cedefop ReferNet Denmark, 2010). 

The  associated  development  of  the  European  credit  system  for  vocational 
education and training (ECVET) has also been influential. Those countries where 
the influence of the EQF and ECVET has been less keenly felt are, for example, 

49 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Finland, France, the Netherlands, Norway Slovenia and the UK (England). All of 
these countries have a well-established, endogenously developed understanding 
of learning outcomes (13). Liechtenstein is also less influenced by the EQF, since 
it  follows  developments  in  Switzerland.  In  Sweden,  the  European  tools  are 
described  as  fitting  well  with  national  priorities.  It  is  reported  that,  although  the 
Swedish system of education and training already reflects learning outcomes to a 
large extent, the European tools allow Sweden, and anyone coming to Sweden, 
to  articulate  learning  outcomes  more  effectively  in  an  international/European 
context. 

4.4.2.2.  Systems for the validation of non-formal and informal learning 

time  before 

first  appeared  some 

The introduction of systems for the validation of non-formal and informal learning 
has  been  influential  in  developing  policy  around  outcome-oriented  curricula  in 
many  countries.  This  is  reported  as  an  influential  factor  by  interviewees  in 
countries  such  as  the  Czech  Republic,  Denmark,  Estonia,  Finland,  France, 
Iceland,  Malta,  Norway,  Portugal  and  the  UK  (England)  (14).  Indeed,  in some  of 
these  countries,  it  is  through  these  systems  that  learning  outcomes  or 
the  advent  of  national 
competences 
qualifications  frameworks.  In  cases  such  as  Finland,  Norway  and  Portugal, 
competence-based  education 
the  adult  and  continuing 
first  appeared 
vocational  education  and  training  sector(s),  involving  the  development  of 
methods  to  assess  adults’  existing  competences  and  to  make  a  gap  analysis 
against  the  competences  to  be  developed  in  training  programmes.  In  the 
Netherlands,  accreditation  of  prior  learning  (APL)  was  developed  from  1999 
onwards,  while  competence-based  education  and 
training  and  broader 
qualifications,  which  seemed  to  fit  together  synergistically,  were  introduced  in 
2006.  The  development  of  APL  in  France  has  led  to  the  wholesale  rewriting  of 
qualifications and standards in recent years. Written standards are published with 
the identification of the learning outcomes in the annex of the regulation (arrêté) 
setting  out  the  jobs,  types  of  enterprises,  activities  targeted  by  the  qualification 
and competences which will be assessed. 

in 

(13)  Note that England and Scotland have differed in respect of the influence of the EQF. 
Scotland completed the referencing of its qualifications to the EQF ahead of the EU 
target  date  because  the  Scottish  credit  and  qualification  framework  was  already 
established as Scotland’s lifelong learning framework. 

(14)  The  overall  situation  as  regards  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  in 
Europe  is  presented  in  the  European  Inventory  on  validation  of  non-formal  and 
informal 
(2010)  available  at  http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/about-
cedefop/projects/validation-of-non-formal-and-informal-learning/european-inventory-
scope.aspx [accessed 15.10.2012]. 

learning 

50 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

4.4.2.3.  Modularisation 

Developments in modularisation have made use of learning outcomes in curricula 
and, to some extent, are dependent on learning outcomes. They are discussed in 
the  policy  debate  on  outcome-oriented  curricula  in  a  range  of  countries,  e.g. 
Austria,  Germany,  Hungary,  Latvia,  Luxembourg,  Portugal,  Slovenia,  Spain, 
Sweden and Turkey. Pilz (2009) has documented the growth of modularisation in 
VET  and  analysed  rationales  related  to  inclusion  and  improved  transparency. 
Concepts of modularisation vary across Europe. Different modular systems allow 
students  varying  degrees  of  freedom  in  their  choice  of  modules  (15).  Generally, 
they  are  structured  to  ensure  that  the  students  achieve  a  balance  between 
general and vocational modules. In Sweden, modularisation is strongly linked to 
the principle of individual choice in lifelong learning; the system enables students 
to gain credit for the modules and to transfer them easily between vocational and 
general  education  and  vice  versa.  Students  may  move  from  one  programme to 
another  and  take  their  credits  with  them,  with  individual  schools  determining 
which  additional  courses  are  required,  if  any.  In  contrast,  in  highly  structured 
education and training systems, such as those in Austria and Germany, modules 
are  available  only  at  certain  stages  of  programmes  and  within  certain  tracks. 
Modularisation in Germany has been limited by concerns that it would undermine 
the strong link between IVET and occupations. 

The increased popularity of these approaches is helping to embed the use of 
learning  outcomes  in curricula,  but modularisation  per  se is  not  commonly  cited 
as a primary reason for their introduction, perhaps since the focus tends to be on 
other measures which can set the preconditions for modularisation. At the same 
time,  where  modularisation  has  been  introduced,  the  changes  are  leading  to 
curriculum revision that makes use of learning outcomes. There is no guarantee 
that  modularisation,  once  introduced,  will  remain  a  permanent  feature;  in  the 
Netherlands, its demise has been announced. 

In  some  cases,  modularisation  is  linked  to  the  unitisation  of  qualifications. 
Unitisation  involves  the  disaggregation  of  assessment  and  is  supported  by  the 
development of learning outcomes. The UK (England) and Ireland, for example, 
have  sought  systematically  to  unitise  vocational  qualifications  to  promote  the 
tailoring of programmes and the sharing of units (16) between qualifications and to 

(15)  Groups of learning outcomes, set out in educational standards or training standards, 
which  are  combined  to  show  how  learning  outcomes  should  be  taught  or  learnt 
together.  Modules  do  not  always  correspond  directly  with  units  of  assessment. 
Teachers  and  trainers  may  have  some  discretion  to  write  modules  or  to  make 
changes to them. 

(16)  Units are  groups  of learning outcomes, set out in qualification standards,  which  are 
combined for the  purposes of assessment. Units  of assessment in qualifications do 

51 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

encourage  new  organisations  to  contribute  units  to  a  national  database.  In  the 
UK (England), learning outcomes have been regrouped and sometimes rewritten 
to support the introduction of a system of units and credits – the qualification and 
credit  framework.  This  new  system  has  required  the  redesign  of  qualifications 
and  curricula  to  make  them  compliant  with  the  new  framework.  In  France, 
learning outcomes have been regrouped and rewritten to support the recognition 
of informal and experiential learning in unitised form. 

Unitisation and credit accumulation may make it easier for students to gain 
recognition  for  their  achievements.  However,  it  is  possible  that  unitisation  and 
credit  accumulation might  appear  to  weaken the  link  between qualifications  and 
the labour market. This might arise where learners accumulate units and credits 
but the labour market value of this achievement is not transparent to employers. 
However, it is also possible that unitisation might empower employers, who may 
design  the  units  that  they  want  and  focus  upon  these  units  in  training  and 
recruitment.  This  is  now  happening  in  the  UK  (England)  as  part  of  the  new 
qualification  and  curriculum  framework  (QCF).  In  the  pursuit  of  modularisation 
and unitisation, the  outcome-oriented  approach is  a tool  which  is  routinely  used 
when re-engineering the curriculum to balance the interests of stakeholders. 

4.4.2.4.  Modernisation, rationalisation and simplification 

These  terms  are  used  in  a  number  of  countries  to  provide  a  rationale  for 
outcome-oriented  curricula  (e.g.  Belgium,  Cyprus,  Denmark,  Latvia,  Lithuania, 
Norway,  Slovakia,  Slovenia,  Sweden  and  the  UK  (England)).  Whether  they  are 
high-level goals or operational objectives is a controversial point, and depends to 
some  degree  on  the  individual  country.  The  precise  term  used  may  also  vary 
depending on the political rhetoric. Whatever term is used, the goal is clearly one 
of (a) improving labour market relevance by replacing old programmes and/or by 
reducing the overall number of programmes in IVET, and (b) developing curricula 
which  are  regarded  as  meeting  the  modern  needs  of  industry,  combining  both 
key competences and technical skills; this is the case, for instance, in Cyprus. 

In  Belgium  (Flanders),  the  term  modernisation  reflects  the  fact  that  many 
curricula  are  regarded  as  outdated  and  that  the  processes  of  curriculum 
development  have  been  left  to  individual  trades  or  craft  associations  with  the 
result that the relevance of programmes is highly variable. Reforms are focused 
on putting in place systematic frameworks to ensure that all sectors work to clear 

not always correspond directly to groupings of competences drawn from a particular 
occupational standard or profile. This may be because learning outcomes have been 
written to reflect competences from more than one occupational standard. 

52 

                                                                                                                                 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

sets  of  procedures  and  standards.  Learning  outcomes  play  a  valuable  role  in 
promoting these developments. 

Some  countries  (e.g.  Norway  and  Sweden)  rationalise  reforms  in  terms  of 
bringing systems up to date, sometimes linked to concerns that they are  under-
equipped  in  the  face  of  globalisation.  This  is  a  prominent  argument  in  Nordic 
countries,  such  as  Norway  and  Sweden,  where  something  of  a  re-evaluation of 
their  education  and  training  systems  developed  through  a  process  of  social-
democratic consensus is taking place. 

In  some  central  and  eastern  European  countries  (e.g.  Estonia,  Latvia  and 
Lithuania),  outcome-oriented  curricula  are  seen  as  part  and  parcel  of  replacing 
traditional modes of teaching and learning and entire IVET systems which have 
been in a state of flux since the fall of socialism. New curricula provide a means 
of  restoring  communication  between  education  and  work,  in  a  context  where 
social dialogue mechanisms are still in the early stages of development. 

4.4.2.5.  Permeability 

The  development  of  pathways  between  IVET  and  both  higher  education  and 
adult and continuing education and training is made possible by the introduction 
of  learning  outcomes  in  curricula  (e.g.  in  Austria,  Bulgaria,  Cyprus,  Estonia, 
Iceland,  Ireland  and  the  Netherlands).  However,  permeability  is  less  commonly 
cited by the interviewees as a key driver. Where outcome-oriented curricula are 
introduced  across  entire  educational  systems,  as  in  Ireland  and  Iceland, 
permeability  becomes  an  additional  rationale,  and  the  credibility  of  outcomes 
approaches is reinforced. 

4.4.2.6.  Quality 

Improving  curriculum  quality  is  an  important  objective.  This  issue  is  implicit  in 
many of the reasons cited by interviewees and in the policy literature. Countries 
where  this  was  indicated  as  a  significant  driver  include  the  Czech  Republic, 
Estonia,  Latvia,  Malta  and  Romania.  However,  some  other  countries  have  also 
adopted  measures  to  improve  quality  which  involve  learning  outcomes.  For 
example,  in  Austria,  a  quality  initiative  was  set  up  in  2005  that  included  an 
educational  standards  project  for  all  VET  full-time  schools  which  focused  on 
teaching  and  learning  based  on  the  concept  of  competences  and  learning 
outcomes.  This  early  start  with  quality  projects  and  competence  orientation  in 
school-based  VET  is  seen  as  having  prepared  the  ground  for  a  broad 
understanding of the European qualifications framework. 

53 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

4.4.2.7. 

Increased autonomy for VET schools and colleges 

this  process 

training  systems.  Typically, 

Although  identified  as  a  direct  influence  in  only  a  few  countries (e.g.  in  Austria, 
Croatia  and  the  Czech  Republic),  learning  outcomes  are,  in  fact,  deeply 
implicated  in  ongoing  processes  to  redistribute  roles  and  responsibilities  within 
is 
vocational  education  and 
characterised  as  decentralisation  in  relation  to  the  hierarchy  of  administrative 
levels  from  national  government  through  regional  and  local  administrations  to 
providers.  The  development  of  NQFs  appears  to  play  an  important  role  in  this 
process,  since  it  enables  national  authorities  to  retain  some  control  over 
vocational education and training through the specification of learning outcomes 
within  qualifications  and  related  assessment  processes.  These  frameworks 
enable  national  authorities  to  devolve  some  responsibilities  for  written  curricula 
and particularly for taught curricula, from the top level down to subordinate levels. 
There  are  a  variety  of  ways  in  which  control  over  the  curriculum  is 
decentralised. First, there are formal systems through which public authorities at 
regional  or  state  level  may  adapt  the  written  curriculum  to  regional  needs.  In 
Spain,  for  example,  the  17  autonomous  communities  are  entitled  to  vary  the 
content of the curriculum for tourism, although the learning outcomes remain the 
same.  Changing  the  content  might  involve  addressing  different  geographic 
features or different touristic activities. In some countries, vocational schools are 
entitled  to make decisions  in  relation  to  a  defined  percentage  of the  curriculum, 
for  example  15%  in  Croatia.  Some  units  of  a  qualification  may  be  optional.  In 
Slovenia,  for  example,  not  the  entire  curriculum  corresponds  to  the  national 
vocational  qualification:  20%  is  defined  locally,  which  leaves  room  for  local 
flexibility. 

The  policy  of  decentralisation  may  take  the  form  of  requiring  vocational 
schools  to  develop  a  school-level  curriculum  or  programme.  In  the  Czech 
Republic,  for  example,  schools  are  required  to  prepare  a  school-based 
educational  programme which  draws  on  the  vocational  competences  defined  at 
national level. In Ireland, further education colleges and other vocational schools 
are  obliged  to  design  a  learning  programme  which  must  be  submitted  to  the 
regulatory  authority  FETAC  (further  education  and  training  awards  council)  for 
approval.  In  Ireland,  consortia  of  vocational  schools  have  come  together, 
supported by a sector body, to generate a shared learning programme which has 
been  jointly  submitted  and  approved.  In  Slovakia,  vocational  schools  are  now 
required to devise an educational programme which includes a local statement of 
learning outcomes (graduate profile): a statement of the graduate’s key, general 
and  vocational  competences.  In  addition,  the  learning  programme  sets  out  the 

54 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

sequence  of  modules,  resources,  environment,  pedagogy,  requirements  for 
teachers, and evaluation and assessment requirements, etc. 

Notwithstanding  the  long-term  trend  apparent  in  most  European  countries 
towards decentralisation, the distribution of roles and responsibilities is subject to 
constant adjustment. In Sweden, for example, there has been a reduction in the 
discretion available to schools and municipalities, the wide variety being seen as 
reducing  the  articulation  between  education  and  the  labour  market.  Current 
Swedish reforms are designed to reduce the number of local lines of study, and 
permission  for  a  new  course  must  be  obtained  from  the  National  Agency  for 
Schools (Skolverket). 

4.4.2.8. 

Inclusion and reduction of early school leaving 

In a small number of cases, objectives related to inclusion, reducing early school 
leaving  and  improving  levels  of  basic  educational  attainment  are  explicitly  cited 
by  interviewees  as  factors  in  the  introduction  of  learning  outcomes  in  curricula 
(e.g. in Belgium, Denmark and Iceland). However, such considerations underpin 
policy tools such as recognition of prior learning whose introduction, as discussed 
above,  has  been  important  in the  advent  of  learning  outcomes. In Denmark, for 
example,  partial  qualifications  and  a  new  apprenticeship  have  been  introduced 
through  the  use  of  competence  assessment.  In  Iceland,  the  introduction  of 
learning  outcomes  is  intended to  boost  retention  and  completion  rates,  and  this 
was said to be a reason for formulating learning outcomes in curricula in a fairly 
holistic manner. 

4.4.2.9.  Learner-centredness in the teaching and learning process 

Although  many  countries  are  pursuing  policies  associated  with  learner-centred 
pedagogies,  these  are  not  explicitly  associated,  at  policy  level,  with  outcome-
oriented  curricula.  The  needs  of  teachers  were  cited  by  only  two  countries 
(Austria and Croatia) as influential factors in the development of outcomes-based 
curricula. Although there is an important body of research (e.g. Cedefop, 2010a; 
Ginsburg,  2010;  Ginsburg  and  Megahed,  2008;  Psifidou,  2012a;  Torney-Purta, 
1999) which provides evidence on the benefits of learner-centred pedagogies, at 
policy-making  level,  low  awareness  was  found  of  the  relationship  between 
curriculum reform based on learning outcomes and learner-centred pedagogies. 

4.4.2.10.  Key competences 

Finally, policy and practice relating to outcomes have been considerably affected 
by the overlay of the idea of key competences, whose promulgation has been, of 
course, an important dimension of EU policy. The European reference framework 

55 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

of  key  competences  for  lifelong  learning  (European  Parliament,  Council  of  the 
EU,  2006)  defines  competence  as  a  combination  of  knowledge,  skills  and 
attitudes appropriate to the context. It identifies eight key competences necessary 
for  personal  fulfilment,  active  citizenship,  social  cohesion  and  employability  in  a 
knowledge  society.  Critical  thinking,  creativity,  initiative,  problem-solving,  risk 
assessment, decision-taking and constructive management of feelings play a role 
in all of the key competences. All of the key competences are considered equally 
important  because  each  of  them  can  contribute  to  a  successful  life  in  a 
knowledge  society  and  have  entered  into  the  debates  and  discussion  around 
curriculum reform at policy level, albeit to varying degrees and in different ways in 
different countries. 

4.5.  Challenges facing curriculum policy 

The  account  of  developments  provided  in  this  chapter  draws  attention  to  a 
number  of  reforms  affecting  IVET  and  to  the  fact  that,  in  many  countries,  IVET 
has  been  subjected  to  repeated  reforms  over  a  considerable  period  of  time. 
There is evidence, for example from Finland and the Netherlands, that repeated 
reform  does  lead  to  adjustments  so  that  curricula  become  fit  for  purpose. 
However, the volume and challenge of reform may produce resistance or caution 
and a lack of enthusiasm on the part of those responsible for making the reforms 
work and other stakeholders. 

In countries such as Germany, the concept of learning outcomes has posed 
a  challenge  to  current  policy  and  practice,  and  so  the  process  of  reconciling 
learning outcomes approaches has become quite protracted. It is not unusual for 
reform  to  be  introduced  gradually.  For  example,  in  the  Netherlands,  the 
establishment  of  the  current  competence-based  qualification  structure  was 
preceded by a lengthy period of debate about the balance between generic  and 
technical competences. 

influenced  by  changes 

Outcome-oriented  approaches  are  also 

in 
government policy. In the United Kingdom, for example, a combination of a new 
government  and  austerity  measures  to  reduce  costs  has  meant  the  effective 
abolition  of  one set  of  outcome-oriented  curricula,  the  diploma. Wider  economic 
circumstances  may  also  be  having  effects  on  the  further  development  or 
implementation of policy. There is evidence, on the one hand, that countries have 
turned  to  the  development  of  VET  as  a  response  to  the  crisis;  training  has 
‘functioned  as  an  active  policy  against  the  financial  difficulties  confronting 
citizens’  (Cedefop,  2011c).  Governments  and  the  social  partners  are  working 
together  to  keep  people  in  work  by  combining  short-term  working  with  training 

56 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

(Cedefop, 2009d). On the other hand, economic and administrative problems are 
slowing  reform  in  Greece  and  Portugal  and  creating  uncertainty  about  policy  in 
Hungary. 

4.6.  Key findings 

The  analysis  of  curriculum  developments  across  Europe  allows  the  following 
conclusions to be drawn: 
(a)  until the past five or six years, the development of an outcomes orientation in 
IVET  curricula  had  tended  to  be  patchy  across  Europe  as  a  whole.  Within 
individual  countries,  developments  had  often  been  piecemeal.  The 
development of national qualifications frameworks linked to the development 
of the EQF has, in most countries, offered the prospect for the development 
of  outcome-oriented  curricula  in  a  much  more  systematic  manner.  In  some 
countries,  the  advent  of  learning  outcomes  has  provided  a  major  lever  for 
other  reforms.  Notwithstanding  that  EU  tools  are  subject  to  national 
interpretation and understanding, they are providing a common platform for 
communication between different stakeholders which did not exist before; 
(b)  although  dating  the  advent  of  outcomes  orientation  is  difficult,  the  study 
found  that  it  was  possible  to  classify  countries  into  early  developers  – 
somewhat  less  than  half  of  countries  where  outcomes  orientation  began  in 
the 1990s or earlier – and recent developers – over one half of countries in 
the sample which have introduced outcomes orientation since 2005, mostly 
in central and eastern Europe and the Mediterranean, where the introduction 
of  learning  outcomes  forms  a  part  of  major  reform,  modernisation  and 
updating programmes; 
it is important to emphasise that education and training systems are dynamic 
and  that  the  political  process  is  constantly  balancing  and  rebalancing 
elements  within  those  systems  in  response  to  a  wide  range  of  pressures. 
Even though the advent of outcome-oriented curricula appears to be a major 
structural change in initial vocational education and training, the precise form 
and function of curricula based on learning outcomes in any one country is 
subject to ongoing adjustment. Curricula in  Finland, the Netherlands and in 
the United Kingdom, for example, have been rewritten on several occasions 
to strike the right balance; 
in  vocational  education  and  training,  the  introduction  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula  has  often  taken  place  initially  and  proceeded  fastest  in  continuing 
training  rather  than  initial  vocational  education  and  training.  This  might  be 
linked  to  the  fact  that  it  has  been  easier  to  develop  and  implement 

(d) 

(c) 

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Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

competences  for  adults  than  for  young  people  still  within  the  mainstream 
and/or compulsory stages of the education system, since continuing training 
has not needed to take into account wider educational considerations to the 
same degree; 

(f) 

(e)  conceptualisations of outcome-oriented approaches are well-developed and 
widely  disseminated  in some  but  not  all  countries. In some countries,  IVET 
curriculum  development  is  greatly  influenced  by  other  ideas,  such  as 
national  values  about  the  role  of  education  or  other  national  reforms. 
Outcomes  approaches  based  on  endogenously  developed  theoretical  or 
research  formulations  were  found  in  a  few  countries,  for  example  in 
Germany,  France  and  the  United  Kingdom.  However,  in  many  of  the  32 
countries,  particularly  among  the  recent  developers,  learning  outcomes 
approaches  were  more  likely  to  take  the  form  of  the  adaptation  and 
interpretation  of  concepts  taken  from  elsewhere,  for  example  through  the 
EQF; 
in all countries, the development of the IVET curriculum takes account of the 
current  and  historic  structure  of  education  and  training  systems.  Outcome-
oriented  curricula  may  help  to  encourage  innovation  and  institutional 
change, but curriculum development is also shaped by the existing character 
and structure of provision. For example, where there is a strong work-based 
component to IVET, as in the dual system, this may lead to different ways of 
formulating and interpreting learning outcomes in curricula; 
in  general,  the  main  drivers  at  policy  level  for  the  introduction  of  outcome-
oriented  curricula  are  economic  rather  than  social.  In  particular,  policy-
makers  are  concerned  to  improve  national  competitiveness  through  skills 
development and seek to achieve this by improving the articulation between 
VET  systems  and  labour  markets.  Equally,  it  became  clear  that  there  is  a 
complex interplay between economic and social factors in curriculum policy 
development. 

(g) 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 5. 
The design process for outcome-oriented 
curricula 

5.1. 

Introduction 

Some of the complexity and variety observed in curriculum design across Europe 
might  be  understood  if  we  work  from  the  principle  that  the  processes  are 
supposed  to  improve  the  articulation  between  the  labour  market  and  the 
education and training system. The use of learning outcomes makes it possible to 
develop curricula that: 
(a)  equip  learners  with  knowledge,  skills  and  competence  that  are  relevant  to 
available  employment  opportunities  and  of  value  to  them  in  a  range  of 
different work and social situations; 
integrate  different  kinds  of  skills,  for  example  theoretical  and  practical  or 
transversal and generic skills; 

(b) 

(c)  are transparent and understandable to learners and other stakeholders; 
(d)  may  be  learned,  taught  and  assessed  at  various  times  and  in  a  variety  of 

places and ways; 

(e)  are responsive to changing needs (Cedefop, 2010a). 

The focus  in this  chapter  is  on  the  design  process  and how  it  is  structured 
and organised. This  includes actual  practice,  the  division  of  labour  and the  way 
that  the  curriculum  development  process  is  undertaken  by  different  participants. 
The  aim  is  to  examine  the  implications  of  outcome-oriented  approaches  for 
the  variations  between  different 
curriculum  development  and  understand 
approaches. 

5.2.  Structuring the design process  

A  theoretical  framework  developed  for  this  study  allows  comparison  between 
outcome-oriented  curriculum  approaches  in  different  European  countries.  This 
model  divides  the  design  process  into  four  stages:  occupational  standard  (17), 

(17)  A  classification  and  definition  of  the  tasks  that  workers  do  and  the  responsibilities 
that they exercise in different occupations (Cedefop, 2009c). Occupational standards 
are  usually  defined  in  terms  of  competences.  In  competence-based  approaches, 
occupational  standards  are  used  as  a  basis  to  develop  qualifications  and  curricula; 
they  may  also  be  used  to  inform  research  into  workforce  development  and  job 
design. 

59 

 
                                                
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The impact of learning outcomes 

qualification  standard  (18),  education  standard  (19)  and  training  or  learning 
standard  (20).  This  last  stage,  sometimes  known  as  a  learning  programme,  a 
study  programme  or  simply  a  ‘curriculum’,  sets  out  a  plan  for  teaching  and 
learning and, unlike the other standards, is expected to specify the inputs as well 
as  the  outcomes  for  learning.  Together,  these  standards  comprise  the  written 
curriculum in the broad sense employed in this research (21). 

The four standards are connected to one another: together, they form what 
we might  call the  outcome-oriented  curriculum approach.  Figure  2  below  shows 
how these standards communicate the needs of the labour market and the aims 
of the education and training system. These different needs and aims should be 
articulated  through  the  curriculum  design  process.  The  diagram  below  shows 
how this conceptualisation implies a distinction between a normative statement of 
what the labour market requires  – the occupational standard – and a normative 
statement  of  what  will  be  involved  in  learning  –  the  education  standard.  In  this 

from 

(18)  A document which sets out a norm of what people need to learn and how the quality 
and  content  of  learning  is  assessed  (Cedefop,  2009c).  In  the  case  of  qualifications 
which  are  developed  according  to  an  outcome-oriented  or  competence-based 
approach,  the  qualifications  are  usually  composed  of  learning  outcomes  grouped 
together  in  units  of  assessment.  Learning  outcomes  set  out  what  learners  are 
expected to know and be able to do. It is possible that the description of the learning 
requirements  (learning  outcomes)  may  be  separated 
the  assessment 
requirements  (assessment  criteria);  in  which  case,  we  might  distinguish  a  ‘learning 
outcomes standard’ from an ‘assessment standard’ or an ‘evaluation standard’. 
(19)  A  document  which  translates  the  qualification  standard  into  the  educational  context 
(Cedefop, 2009c). The education standard may set out the qualification requirements 
in  relation  to  generic  learning,  subjects  or  key  competences  (for  example,  with 
respect to a national curriculum) or with respect to other qualifications. It may seek to 
articulate  the  more  detailed  requirements  implied  by  the  qualification  standard  in 
terms of knowledge and skills and pedagogic practice. It may also provide additional 
detail  about  how  assessment  activities  should  be  designed  to  do  justice  to  the 
character  and  organisation  of  the  learning  requirements.  Where  there  is  an 
overarching national curriculum which requires a combination of vocational, general 
and  generic  elements  and  options  for  all  students  of  a  certain  age,  the  educational 
standard  may  seek  to  show  how  a  particular  vocational  qualification  is  positioned 
within this national curriculum. 

(20)  A  document  which  plans  teaching  and  learning  activities,  taking  into  account  the 
environments  and  resources  required,  duration  and  learners’  needs  (Cedefop, 
2009c).  Training  standards  may  be  created  at  regional  and/or  local  levels  and, 
exceptionally,  at  national  level.  Training  standards  are  usually  composed  of 
sequences  of  teaching  and  learning;  they  may  be  framed  through  semesters, 
modules or years. 

(21)  In some systems, but not all, occupational standards are understood to stand outside 
the  educational  system  altogether;  for  example,  they  are  understood  as  serving  to 
classify occupations (Cedefop, 2009c). 

60 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

way,  the  needs  of  the  market  are  to  be  communicated  to  the  education  and 
training system that provides the services required to ensure the needs are met. 

Figure 2 

The place of the curriculum in the relationship between the VET system 
and the labour market 

NB: 
Source:  Adapted from Cedefop, 2009c. 

The written curriculum is marked in dark blue and the taught curriculum is marked in light blue. 

Provided  the  framework  is  a  theoretical  ‘ideal  type’  (22)  model  for  an 
outcome-oriented  approach  to  the  curriculum  design,  it  follows  that  not  every 
standard – i.e. stage of curriculum development – will be found in every Member 
State.  However,  the  model  allows  for  comparison  among  countries  and  allows 

(22)  An ‘ideal type’ is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view 
and  by  the  synthesis  of  a  great  many  diffuse,  discrete,  more  or  less  present  and 
occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to 
those one-sidedly emphasised viewpoints into a unified analytical construct (Weber, 
1903-1917/1949, p. 90). 

61 

 
 
                                                
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The impact of learning outcomes 

judgments  to  be  made  about  whether,  over  time,  particular  VET  systems  are 
moving towards or away from this model (23). 

the  standards  are  only  a  part  of 

The  four  standards  provide  hand  holds  which  help  us  to  get  a  grip  on  the 
complexity  of  interaction  between  the  labour  market  and  the  VET  system  (see 
the  process  of 
Table  3).  However, 
communication.  They  are  the  written  outcomes  of  the  processes  of  negotiation, 
consultation, research and drafting – these are summarised in the second row of 
the  table. The  third  row  sets  out  the  units  or terms  which are  used to articulate 
each  of  the  standards.  In  this  model,  competences  form  the  elements  of  the 
occupational  standard,  while  learning  outcomes  function  as the  elements  of  the 
standards  that  make  up  the  written  curriculum.  Differences  in  language,  usage 
and  concept  suggest  that  we  should  take  account  of  the  stage  and  processes 
associated with each term if we are to grasp this diversity. 

This  model  provides  the  rationale  for  the  way  that  key  terms  and  concepts 
are  understood  in  this  report  (see  Chapter  3).  It  also  provides  a  basis  for 
understanding  how  key  concepts  relate  to  each  other  and  how  we  might  make 
sense of a diversity of practice in relation to a European reform agenda. It allows 
the  combining  of  development  processes  which  share  significant  features.  For 
example, this analysis suggests that we can distinguish more differentiated from 
less differentiated  approaches  (see  Sections 5.2.1 and 5.2.3). To some degree, 
as we shall see, this typology seems to be associated with the role and function 
of  IVET  within  the  wider  education  and  training  system,  and,  in  particular,  its 
relationship to general education. 

However,  caution  is  required.  Cedefop  (2009c) proposes, for  example, that 
Ireland  manages  without  an  occupational  standard  for  vocational  qualifications 
because,  in  practice,  employers  implicitly  bring  an  understanding  of  work  roles 
and activities into the design of learning outcomes. This interpretation reminds us 
that  we  must  consider  carefully  the  actual  processes  and  personnel  through 
which  documents  are  generated  and  not  just  how  many  formal  documents  are 
produced and the titles they are given. 

(23)  See, for example, Section 5.3. 

62 

 
 
                                                
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The impact of learning outcomes 

Table 3 

A  theoretical  model  for  the  outcome-oriented  curriculum  approach  in 
Europe 

WRITTEN CURRICULUM 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education 
standard 

Documents 
(‘standards’ 
that  
inform or 
constitute 
the ‘written 
curriculum’) 

Processes 
that lead  
to the 
production  
of this 
document. 

Work activities 
are classified, 
described and 
assigned a 
level. 

Components 
or elements. 

Competences. 

Learning outcomes 
are situated in an 
educational context, 
for example: subject 
knowledge, content, 
assessment 
processes and 
events, institutional 
responsibilities, 
duration (hours, 
terms and years). 

Learning outcomes 
in modules or 
options. 

Descriptions of work 
activities are 
translated into 
statements of what 
learners should  
gain from 
education/training. 
These statements 
are grouped into 
units (for the 
purposes of 
assessment). Also 
describes what 
evidence should be 
available to make 
informed judgments 
about learning 
outcomes. 

Learning outcomes 
in units: knowledge, 
skills and other (24) 
(packaged in units). 
Also sets out 
assessment criteria. 

Training or 
learning standard 
(also known as a 
learning 
programme) 

A plan for the 
teaching, learning 
and assessment 
activities that 
specifies in detail 
how learning 
outcomes will be 
achieved. The 
characters of 
teachers, resources, 
materials, tools, etc. 
are detailed. This 
document may be 
produced at school 
level or it may be 
shared. 

Learning outcomes 
in modules 
(modules may be 
located in real time; 
classes, teachers 
and rooms may be 
allocated). 

NB: 

This  table  is  concerned  with  the  communication  role  of  different  standards.  As  a  result,  it  does  not 
address other functions that standards may perform; for example, occupational standards may support 
skills forecasting work. 

Source:  Builds  on  Cedefop  (2009c)  which  distinguishes  between  occupational,  educational  and  assessment 

standards. 

Differentiated approaches to curriculum development 

5.2.1. 
to  be 
The  process  of  outcome-based  curriculum  development 
differentiated  where  there  are  several  recognisable  stages.  This  approach  may 
be found in those countries where IVET programmes are situated in mainstream 
institutions  or  closely  associated  with  general  education.  This  means  that  the 
IVET  curriculum  includes  general  or  academic  knowledge,  though  the  levels 
required  may  be  lower  than  that  of  entirely  academic  programmes  (or  that  the 
IVET programme is part of the national curriculum, as in Sweden, for example). 

is  said 

(24)  Formally  known  as  competence  in  the  EQF.  Other  competences  include  attitudes, 

dispositions, capability for responsibility, values, etc. 

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These programmes are taught in a variety of institutions, for instance specialised 
vocational  schools,  general  vocational  schools  and  schools  that  offer  both 
academic  and  vocational  programmes.  In  some,  but  not  all,  cases,  these 
programmes  qualify  learners  for  further  or  higher  education  as  well  as  entry  to 
employment.  In  countries  such  as  France  or  Sweden,  vocational  qualifications 
provide one way of achieving a national school-leaving certificate. However, the 
degree of recognition given to vocational achievements varies in some countries 
(such as Slovenia). Students must pass an additional general exam if they are to 
gain  access  to  university,  while,  in  France,  there  are  different  kinds  of 
baccalauréat  which  enjoy  different  statuses  and  are  associated  with  different 
modes of provision. The manner in which IVET is integrated with the rest of the 
education  and  training  system  is  complex,  as  there  are  legal,  curricular, 
institutional and pedagogic dimensions to be considered. 

If  IVET  is  to  be  taught  and  learned  alongside  a  general  educational 
curriculum, this implies that the written curriculum has to integrate it with the rest 
of the curriculum. This was the case with most curricula investigated in this study. 
It  follows  that  competences  arising  from  the  occupational  standard  have  to  be 
interpreted  and  organised  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  taught  alongside 
academic  subjects  and  that  the  learning  from  these  vocational  curricula  can,  to 
some  degree,  be  recognised  in relation to overarching  national  standards,  such 
as matriculation requirements for higher education. 

Where  IVET  provision  is  embedded  in  the  national  education  system,  the 
written  curriculum  is  clearly  distinguished  from  the  occupational  standard. 
Furthermore, the written curriculum may be divided into a qualification standard, 
an education standard and a training programme. This implies that there will be 
extensive  involvement  of  teachers  and  education  professionals  in  its  design.  In 
such a system, IVET is subject to the institutional and cultural norms that govern 
education.  Accordingly,  it  is  less  subject  to  the  institutional  and  cultural  norms 
that  regulate  particular  occupations  and  work  more  generally.  If  IVET  is  to  be 
more closely associated with the competences required for specific occupations, 
those  competences  will  need  to  be  defined  independently  from  the  educational 
world by people who belong to or understand the occupational world. This work 
amounts  to  the  task  of  producing  an  occupational  standard.  There  follows  the 
task of working through the implications of the occupational standard for teachers 
and  students  who  are  also  participating  in  a  broader  curriculum  with  other 
subjects.  This  leads  to  qualification  and  education  standards  and  training 
programmes that detail various aspects of what should go on in schools. 

Examples  of  this  approach  were  found  in  the  case  studies  for  France, 
Luxembourg,  Romania and  Slovenia  (see  Annex  2).  In the  examples  given,  the 

64 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

curricula  regulate  programmes  that  are  taught  in  specialist  vocational  (e.g. 
Slovenia)  or  technical  (e.g.  Romania  and  Slovenia)  schools.  Although  technical 
and  vocational  schools  are  specialised  and  serve  a  vocational  track,  they  also 
participate 
the  curriculum 
the  broad  national  curriculum.  Accordingly, 
development  process  must  reconcile  the  vocational  learning  outcomes  with  the 
rest of the curriculum. 

in 

To summarise, in general, where IVET curricula are well integrated into the 

national general education system, it can be expected that: 
(a) 

there are likely  to be more  stages  clearly  distinguished from  one another  – 
this  is  because  the  development  process  is  intended  to  involve  a  greater 
variety of stakeholders; 
the  educational  standard  will  be  particularly  complex  because  it  serves  to 
reconcile  vocational  learning  outcomes  with  learning  outcomes  associated 
with subjects and general educational objectives; 
there  are  likely  to  be  a  variety  of  different  types  of  learning  outcomes 
incorporated into the curriculum with a view to meeting the requirements of 
the  various  stakeholders,  e.g.  employers,  higher  education  institutions, 
schools and government. 

(b) 

(c) 

Undifferentiated approaches to curriculum development 

5.2.2. 
Undifferentiated approaches are those with relatively few recognisable stages in 
the  process  of  curriculum  development.  This  approach  is  associated  with 
curricula  which  serve  programmes  aimed  at  learners  who  have  completed  the 
national curriculum. Such programmes are largely focused on vocational learning 
with  a  relatively  small  component  of  generic  skills  and  no  general  or  academic 
knowledge. These programmes are intended to have a largely (or wholly) work-
based  character.  The  training  programmes  are  not  situated  within  upper-
secondary schools that also provide general education but are taught in specialist 
upper-secondary  vocational  schools  or  post-secondary  institutions  or  through 
alternance. These are cases, for example in the UK (England) for the NVQ level 
3  curriculum  in  travel  services  and  in  Ireland  for  the  traineeship  in  professional 
cooking,  where  the  overall  structuring  of  the  design  process  is  relatively  simple 
and undifferentiated (see Annex 3). 

Undifferentiated  approaches  also  exist  where  there  are  developed  social 
dialogue mechanisms and there is consensus around the aims of VET. Denmark, 
Finland  and  Norway  all  have  relatively  undifferentiated  approaches  for  the 
curricula analysed in this study. 

Undifferentiated approaches may also be found in relatively small countries, 
such as Finland and Ireland, where fewer organisations need to be represented 

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Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

and,  at  the  same  time,  expensive,  long-winded  and  formalistic  procedures  may 
be avoided. In Finland, the project group for the tourism qualification, a team of 4 
to 10 people, produced the draft national qualification requirements in the course 
of one year (see Annex 3). 

traditional  subjects.  Furthermore, 

Spain is another example of a country where undifferentiated approaches to 
curriculum development may be found. There is no ‘educational standard’ for the 
curriculum  analysed.  This  is  possible  because this  post-compulsory  programme 
has  a  narrow  occupational  focus;  there  is  no  need  to  align  vocational  learning 
outcomes  with 
the  competences  are 
extensively rewritten when they are formulated as learning outcomes. This makes 
it easier to formulate them in terms which are realistic for a training environment 
rather than a work environment. Accordingly, the occupational competences are 
set  out  in  the  professional  qualification  which  then  directly  informs  the 
development  of  the  professional  modules  for  the  higher  national  tourist  guide, 
information and assistance programme. This latter document combines some of 
the functions of the qualification and curriculum standards and some of a training 
programme (see Annex 3). 

In  summary,  a  relatively  undifferentiated  development  process  suits 

particular programmes because: 
(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

the  vocational  curriculum  does  not  need  to  be  modified  to  align  it  with  the 
rest of the national curriculum; 
the curriculum serves mainly to provide entrance to the labour market, and, 
accordingly,  it  may  be  denominated  entirely  in  terms  of  learning  outcomes 
that  reflect  competences  from  the  occupational  standard.  However,  the 
inclusion of key competences, as in Finland, may  increase the value of the 
curriculum for progression into further or higher education; 
the  variety  of  stakeholders  is  limited  because  of  the  relatively  strong 
occupational  focus.  This  implies  that  stakeholders’  views  and  interests  do 
not need to be accommodated in a highly differentiated process; 

(d)  alternatively,  a  less  differentiated  process  may,  to  some  degree,  be  a 
reflection  of  the  size  of  a  country:  where  there  are  fewer  stakeholders  to 
accommodate, there is less need for a differentiated process. 

Semi-differentiated approaches to curriculum development 
5.2.3. 
The  semi-differentiated  approach  to  curriculum  development  is  intermediate 
between  the  two  approaches  outlined  above.  For  example,  the  travel  adviser 
qualification  in  Hungary  is  another  standalone  qualification  that  has  been 
developed  for  learners  who  have  acquired  their  school-leaving  certification.  It  is 
delivered in schools rather than in the workplace and is regarded as supporting 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

in  addition 

progression  into  higher  education  (25).  In  consequence,  there  is  a  need  for  the 
qualification standard to be framed in a manner which articulates its relationship 
with  the  general  educational  curriculum  by  setting  out  a  wide  range  of 
competences 
to  vocational  competences.  The  Hungarian 
development  process  includes  just  three  stages;  however,  the  third  stage  –  the 
central  programme  –  provides  considerable  detail  in  methodological,  personal 
and social competences as well as vocational competences (see Annex 4). The 
following  table  summarises  the  degree  of  differentiation  found  in  some  of  the 
examined curricula. 

Table 4 

Degree of differentiation in the design process 

Degree of differentiation 

Curriculum examined 

Differentiated 

France (baccalauréat professionnel des systèmes 
électroniques et numériques), Luxembourg (mechatronics), 
Romania (technician in tourism), Slovenia (gastronomy and 
tourism) 

Semi-differentiated 

Hungary (tourism adviser) 

Undifferentiated 

Source:  Authors. 

Ireland (traineeship in professional cooking), Finland (tourism 
sales and information services, travel counsellor), Spain 
(higher technical tourist guide), UK (England) (travel 
services) 

5.3.  What purpose does the differentiation of the 
curriculum development process serve? 

It is possible that differentiation of the curriculum development process serves to 
increase representation in curriculum development. By representation, we mean 
the  effective  inclusion  of  relevant  voices  in  the  shaping  of  the  curriculum. 
Improved  representation  may  result  from  increased  numbers  or  from  more 
sustained involvement and more intelligent or more significant contributions. This 
finding is supported when distinct stages of the development process are tailored 
so that they become more accessible to particular stakeholder groups. 

An  alternative  way  of  understanding  different  structures  for  designing 
curricula is to argue that such variations reflect cultural differences in relation to 
how  competence  and  learning  outcomes  are  understood.  For  example,  it  is 
argued  that  the  Germans  do  not  have  occupational  standards  in  the  English 

(25)  In the case researched, the programme was delivered partly in the final year of upper 

secondary school and partly in a subsequent, optional year. 

67 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

sense  because  the  German  concept  of  Handlungskompetenz  is  defined  on  the 
basis of tripartite involvement and consensus reached between employers, trade 
unions  and  the  State.  The  German  system  does  not  conceptualise  the 
occupational standard as being owned by employers and forming the foundation 
upon  which  the  curriculum  is  built.  Instead,  the  task  of  defining  vocational 
education  (Berufsausbildung)  is  shared  between  employers,  unions,  teachers 
and  craft  associations,  and  the  Berufsbild  is  produced  as  part  of  the  collective 
process  of  defining  a  qualification  (Cedefop,  2009c).  However,  occupational 
standards  have  been  introduced  in  countries  that  appear  to  share  the 
Handlungskompetenz  concept  (Austria  and  Luxembourg),  which  implies  that 
cultures can change. 

Cultural  understandings  are  likely  to  be  associated  with  the  way  in  which 
roles  and  responsibilities  are  distributed  and  conflicts  are  resolved.  When  the 
State reforms the design process to increase or decrease the number of stages, 
it  may  hope  to  manage and  accommodate  competing  interests  more  effectively 
or, indeed, emphasise one set of influences over another. 

Iceland, 

the  dual  system 

Cedefop (2009c) reported that the following countries did not have any kind 
of  occupational  standards:  Bulgaria,  Cyprus,  the  Czech  Republic,  Denmark, 
Finland,  Germany, 
Ireland,  Liechtenstein,  Norway,  Slovakia  and 
Sweden.  Since  that  point  in  time,  Slovakia  has  developed  occupational 
standards, while Cyprus, Iceland and Malta are currently doing so. The absence 
of occupational standards in this group of countries implies an outcome-oriented 
curriculum  development  process  that  is  less  differentiated.  In  those  countries 
is  well  established,  employer  and  employee 
where 
representatives have a strong influence over both the curriculum and its delivery. 
It follows that the world of work has a continuous influence on IVET. In countries 
with occupational standards, there is a greater division of labour with respect to 
the  curriculum  development  process.  The  contribution  of  employers  (and 
employees) is most emphatic during the definition of the occupational standards 
phase,  while  the  role  of  teachers,  curriculum  specialists  and  educational 
managers becomes increasingly important as we move downstream towards the 
taught curriculum. 

While differentiation of the curriculum development process does support the 
involvement  of  different  types  of  stakeholders  –  employers,  higher  education 
institutions,  teachers,  assessment  experts,  curriculum  experts,  head  teachers 
and local curriculum leaders – there could be a danger that extended processes 
of  curriculum  development  lead  to  a  VET  system  which  is  slow  to  respond  to 
changes  in  the  labour  market.  In  France,  the  employer’s  association  for  the 
industry  formally  requested,  in  June  2008,  that  the  baccalauréat  professionnel 

68 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

des  systèmes  électroniques  et  numériques  be  updated  to  include  competences 
relating  to  optical  fibres.  This  updating  took  more  than  three  years  and  was 
approved  in  November  2011.  However,  there  are  cases,  such  as  in  Croatia  or 
Slovakia, where, although distinct stages in the curriculum development process 
exist,  these  are  quick,  shorter  and  involve  fewer  participants  than  in  a  large 
country  such  as  Spain  or  France.  Small  working  groups  are  responsible  for 
developing  occupational  and  qualification  standards.  There  is  a  well-defined 
methodology,  with  the  whole  process  taking  six  months  in  Slovakia  and  two  to 
three months in Croatia. 

for  some  stakeholders.  For  example,  research 

There is also a concern that the transformation and adaptation of standards 
that  take  place  in  an  extended,  highly  participative  process  could  lead  to 
the 
disappointment 
development of advanced diplomas in engineering in the UK (England) (and into 
similar  qualifications  corresponding  to  other  sectors)  revealed  that  some  of  the 
bodies  that  represented  employers  were  disappointed  to  find  that  learning 
outcomes  which  they  had  defined  and  included  during  early  phases  of 
development had been removed or adapted at later stages (Ertl et al., 2009). This 
also  shows  how  the  curriculum  design  process  is  a  process  of  negotiation 
between various stakeholders with conflictive or different interests. 

into 

5.4.  Key findings 

The  process  of  designing  an  outcome-oriented  IVET  curriculum  requires 
communication between the VET system and the workplace. This communication 
process unfolds differently in different countries. The analysis undertaken allows 
the following conclusions to be drawn: 
(a) 

the  curriculum  design  process  is  broken  down  into  a  number  of  stages 
where  different  stakeholders  and  organisations  play  different  roles  and 
exercise  different  powers.  In  the  theoretical  framework  of  this  study,  these 
stages  are  represented  as  four  different  standards:  occupational  standard, 
qualification  standard,  educational  standard  and 
learning 
standard. If  we look  at the  practice  of  designing  outcome-oriented curricula 
across  different  European  countries,  we  can  distinguish  a  number  of 
differences in approach: 
(i) 

the  number  of  stages  varies  between  countries.  Some  countries  have 
substantially  differentiated  processes,  broken  down  into  many  distinct 
stages  characterised  by  different  subprocesses,  while  others  have 
fewer distinct stages; 

training  or 

69 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

(ii) 

the  function  of  each  standard  varies  between  countries.  This  is  partly 
because there are different numbers of stages; it may also be because 
the length of the stages varies between countries; 

(iii)  terminology  varies  as  languages  vary  in  Europe  and  reflects  national 
contexts.  For  example,  some  countries  such  as  Germany,  France, 
Hungary and Luxembourg do not use the term learning outcome in their 
curricula; 

(b)  more  elaborate  and  differentiated  processes  of  design  are  associated  with 
IVET systems that are well integrated in the national education system. This 
follows because: 
(i) 

there are likely to be more stages, and they are likely to be more clearly 
distinguished from  one another;  in  this  case,  the development  process 
is intended to involve a greater variety of stakeholders; 
there  is  a  role  for  a  distinct  educational  standard  in  such  systems 
because  this  standard  can  perform  the  task  of  reconciling  vocational 
learning outcomes with learning outcomes associated with subjects and 
general educational objectives; 

(ii) 

(iii)  there  is  likely  to  be  a  variety  of  different  types  of  learning  outcomes 
incorporated  in  the  curriculum  because  the  curriculum  is  intended  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  many  stakeholders,  e.g.  employers,  higher 
education institutions, schools and government; 

(c)  differentiation of the curriculum design process helps to engage appropriate 
stakeholders and experts; lengthy processes of curriculum development that 
may lead to a VET system which is slow to respond to changes in the labour 
market should be avoided. 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

CHAPTER 6. 
Actors involved in curriculum design 

6.1. 

Introduction 

The  capacity  of  learning  outcomes  approaches  to  lead  to  valid  and  credible 
curricula  also  depends  on  effective  representation  of  stakeholders.  Outcome-
oriented  approaches  aim  to  achieve  high-quality  and  sustained  stakeholder 
engagement in the design process. The logic of stakeholder involvement implies 
that  stakeholders  have  up-to-date  and  accurate  knowledge  of  what  current  and 
future  competences  are  required  and  are  able  to  communicate  this  knowledge. 
The  curriculum  serves  different  stakeholders;  accordingly,  the  design  process 
must include arrangements whereby different interests are reconciled and, where 
appropriate,  compromises  or  alternatives  are  negotiated  (see,  for  example, 
Cedefop  2010a;  Cedefop,  2010b;  Cedefop  2010c;  and  Coles  and  Werquin, 
2007).  This  chapter  discusses  how  this  negotiation  process  takes  place  in 
different  countries  and  settings,  and  presents  the  actors  involved  and  their 
different functions. 

6.2.  Who initiates curriculum development? 

Many  countries  regularly  review  and  update  curricula  in  the  light  of  changes  in 
the  labour  market  and  skills  needs.  In  Spain,  for  example,  all  occupational 
standards  are  reviewed  every  five  years,  and  this  process  leads  to  changes  in 
curricula. 

In  a  number  of  countries,  a  review  of  vocational  qualifications  may  be 
requested  by  VET  providers,  employers  or  professional  associations  (e.g.  in 
Latvia  and  Hungary)  as  well  as  by  the  central  authority.  In  some  countries  (for 
example  Germany),  employers’  organisations  have  the  right  to  introduce  new 
curricula.  However,  in  many  other  countries,  this  is  not  the  case.  In  the  UK 
(England),  People  First,  a  state-managed  representative  body,  has 
led 
qualification  reform  for  the  sector,  but  many  of  the  measures  that  it  has  taken 
have  been  driven  by  national  policies.  In  France,  the  latest  format  of  the 
baccalauréat  professionnel  des  systèmes  électroniques  et  numériques  was 
proposed by the employers’ Union of Metallurgical Industries and Trades (UIMM). 
In  the  Netherlands,  each  sectoral  centre  of  expertise  reviews  the  qualifications 
structure  for  which  it  is  responsible.  This  is  overseen  by  a  management  board 
representing  business,  education  and  trade  unions.  Lacunae  and  overlaps  are 

71 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

identified.  The  centre  may  ask  for  reviews  to  be  carried  out  and  may  also  be 
asked  by  others  to  carry  out  reviews.  A  15-step  process  exists  whereby 
information may be received from stakeholders and assessed. It is intended that 
only  10%  of  ‘qualification  dossiers’  will  be  reviewed  each  year,  while  an  aim  of 
recent reforms has been to ensure that such ‘dossiers’ are more durable than in 
the past and have a longer ‘shelf life’. 

The  evidence  from  Germany  and  France  that  employers  are  initiating 
changes suggests responsiveness to changes in the labour market. Where new 
systems  are  being  introduced,  e.g.  in  Malta,  or  systematic  changes  are  being 
brought  in,  e.g.  in  Austria  and  the  UK  (England),  much  of  the  design  work  is 
usually  driven  by  the  government.  In  these  cases,  there  are  concerns  about 
whether  employer  engagement  can  be  sustained  and  whether  changes  will  be 
seen to achieve substantial improvements rather than refinement of the system. 

6.3.  Who is involved in curriculum design and how? 

Hall  and  Soskice  have  described  how,  in  what  they  call  coordinated  economic 
systems, companies and other interest groups have the opportunity to negotiate 
agreements  which  serve  mutual  interests  (Hall  and  Soksice,  2001).  The 
negotiation  of  vocational  curricula  provides  a  good  example  of  such  a  process: 
transparent, shared standards for occupations or vocations may benefit all of the 
labour  unions  and  businesses  that  form  an  industry.  This  kind  of  negotiation  is 
well documented in Germany. At the level of national policy-making with respect 
to  work-based  and  school-based  training,  interviewees  spoke  of  the  need  for 
negotiation and compromise. 

In  most  countries,  the  social  partners  and  other  stakeholders  have 
representation on the committees and councils that develop, review and validate 
standards and qualifications (Cedefop, 2010d). However, this does not mean that 
the  interests  of  all  groups  are  equally  represented  or  that  their  influence  is 
equivalent in different countries and sectors. The character of the representation 
will depend on: the power of the development agency to determine who becomes 
a representative; why organisations chose to send representatives; the capability 
of  representatives  to  contribute;  the  rules  that  govern  their  contribution;  their 
access to support; and other information (Coles and Werquin, 2007). 

In  a  number  of  countries,  e.g.  Lithuania,  Poland  and  Slovakia,  it  was 
reported that, although employers are formally given opportunities to contribute to 
the  design  of  curricula,  such  opportunities  are  rarely  taken  up  in  practice.  In 
Poland,  for  example,  the  working  groups  that  prepare  the  curricula  are 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

represented  mainly  by  educationalists;  the  social  partners  usually  participate 
during the consultation phase. 

independent  awarding  organisations 

The  responsibilities  associated  with  curriculum  design  are  allocated  to 
different institutions in different countries. In the UK (England), for example, there 
for  designing  and 
are 
administering  assessment.  These  organisations  have  a  particular  focus  on 
keeping assessment reliable and cost-effective because they compete with other 
awarding organisations for a market share. 

responsible 

‘The main issue for us is making sure that assessment criteria are compliant 
and make sense. Can a learner complete this badly and still meet the standard; 
getting  the  verbs  right,  but  also  the  context,  making  sure  that  the  standard  is 
suitable for the level’ (awarding organisation, sector specialist, English case study 
on tourism). 

Stakeholders  are  engaged  in  the  design  process  in  a  number  of  ways, 
including  their  involvement  in  working  groups,  consultation  and  governance. 
These  different  types  of  involvement  are  discussed  throughout  this  research 
paper. 

6.3.1.  Working groups 
In most countries, the development of the written curriculum is led by a working 
group which is usually appointed by the official qualification agency and includes 
representatives of different stakeholders. Representation provides an opportunity 
for consultation, but it can also provide the opportunity for stakeholders to shape 
design directly and share responsibility for the curriculum-making process. 

In  Croatia,  Finland  and  Ireland,  for  example,  a  single  working  group  has 
responsibility for the development of all elements, from the occupational standard 
to the published educational standard or curriculum. However, the composition of 
the  group  may  change  over  time  or  different  stakeholders  may  play  a  more 
dominant role at different stages. 

In countries such as France and Romania, the several stages of the written 
curriculum  design  are  assigned  to  different  working  groups,  although  some 
members  may  serve  in  all  of  them.  Not  all  stakeholders  are  equally  strongly 
represented.  In  Ireland,  for  example,  tourism  and  hospitality  awards  are 
developed  by  standards  groups  that  include  a  few  representatives  from 
employers’  organisations,  but  teacher  representation  and  voice  are  likely  to  be 
stronger. 

Working groups may be relatively long-standing. The same individuals may 
come  together  over  a  number  of  years  to  discuss  and  resolve  a  range  of 
educational  and  training  matters  that  affect  their  industry.  Alternatively,  working 

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groups  may  be  relatively  short-lived,  called  into  being  to  design  a  particular 
qualification and then disbanded. 

Working  groups  usually  bring  together  employers  or  their  representatives, 
officers  from  the  qualification  agency  or  government  department  responsible, 
educational  representatives,  for  example  head  teachers  and  trainers,  and 
technical  experts.  In  Spain,  for  example,  working  groups  typically  have 
representation  from  the  Spanish  Confederation  of  Employers’  Organisations 
(Confederación Española de Organizaciones Empresariales, CEOE); the General 
Workers’  Union  (Unión  General  de  Trabajadores,  UGT);  and  the  Workers’ 
Commissions  (Comisiones  Obreras),  as  well  as  from  specialist  employers’ 
associations. The technical experts have experience and know-how in the writing 
of  curricula.  The  other  stakeholders  are  expected  to  contribute  first-hand 
knowledge from their domain: what skills employers want, what is practical within 
training schools, etc. 

In  some  countries,  working  groups  explicitly  give  equal  representation  to 
employers  and  employees  and  assign  them  a  decision-making  rather  than  an 
advisory role in defining qualification standards. This is the case, for example, in 
Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Romania  and  Spain.  In  countries  such  as  France, 
Portugal and Slovakia, there is equal representation but only an advisory role is 
ascribed. In the UK (England), there is no formal role for employee organisations 
at all. 

In practice, it is often the technical experts or the agency officials who take 
the  lead  role  in  drafting  the  units  and  their  learning  outcomes.  The  role  of  the 
educationalists and employers is to review (verify, propose changes and validate 
or reject the proposed changes). 

Where  the  responsibility  for  curriculum  design  is  divided  between  national, 
regional or local levels, there may be working groups at more than one level. For 
example,  in  Germany,  enterprises  have  representation  not  only  on  federal 
working groups that design the work-based curriculum but also on the state-level 
councils that design curricula, as well as in the regional chambers of commerce 
that design the assessment tools. 

Consultation 

6.3.2. 
Consultation is used to test the outputs of the working groups. Consultation is not 
always  very  extensive  and  may  be  limited  by  time  and  cost.  The  extent  of 
consultation is variable. In Finland, for example, the draft qualification standard is 
circulated  to  employers,  trade  unions,  teachers  and  student  organisations  that 
are  selected  by  the  project  group  and  the  leading  expert.  Consultation  may  be 
extended  where  there  is  also  a  local  curriculum  or  learning  programme.  In 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

Finland, local employers and employees are consulted in the design of the local 
programme. 

In Finland, Iceland and Ireland, awards designed by working groups are put 
out to consultation on the Internet so that interested parties may comment. In the 
UK  (England),  the  development  process  for  the  diploma  in  engineering  was 
backed by high-profile consultation. The curriculum development was assigned to 
sectoral  bodies  with  the  expectation  that  they  consult  through  their  employer 
networks;  in  addition,  a  series  of  public  meetings  were  held  across  the  UK 
(England) that were attended by employers, teachers, trainers, higher education 
representatives  and  special  interest  groups  to  discuss  and  review  both  the 
proposed  qualification  standard  and,  subsequently,  the  educational  standard. 
The  process  did  achieve  a  relatively  high  level  of  engagement,  but  it  took  time 
and money. 

Spain  provides  a  good  example  of  practice  in  consultation;  the  social 
partners  in  regional  administrations  have  been  engaged  in  and  were  able  to 
contribute to the first part of the written curriculum: the professional qualification. 
Interviewees  reported  that,  as  result  of  this  consultation,  which  is  well 
documented and transparent, there were many changes  made in the drafting of 
the  qualification;  this,  in  turn,  had  an  impact  on  the  development  of  the 
curriculum. 

Similarly,  and  to  a  greater  extent,  in  Austria,  consultation  typically  involves 
over 100 organisations, especially local chambers of commerce and employers. 
This  suggests  that,  where  there  is  already  a  strong  tradition  of  employer 
involvement  in  the  shaping  of  vocational  curricula,  it  is  possible  to  engage 
employers in consultation on learning outcomes. In Iceland, it was reported that 
the social partners represented in working groups were effective at engaging their 
constituencies  in  web-based  consultation,  but  that  they  were  helped  by  the 
relatively small size of the country. One curriculum development agency carried 
out a consultation through employers’ associations, giving it access to a database 
of  around  700  employers.  However,  the  response  rate  was  around  5%.  This 
consultation  helped  to  inform  the  decision  to  move  from  a  three-year  to  a  two-
year training programme, which led to a rewriting of the curriculum. 

Consultation  without  representation  on  working  groups  may  be  limited.  In 
Croatia, for example, teachers, enterprises and trade unions are represented on 
the  key  working  group  that  designs  the  curriculum;  however,  this  is  not 
accompanied by wider consultation with stakeholders. 

How consultation may lead to curriculum innovation is illustrated by the Irish 
example  where  a  group  of  seven  chefs  spent  a  day  reviewing  draft  learning 
outcomes for the qualification standard in professional cookery to judge whether 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

each was desirable, essential or even relevant and to suggest additional learning 
outcomes where appropriate. Participants were informed of 12 changes that were 
made to learning outcomes in the light of this consultation to differentiate menus 
from those of other restaurants. 

Where  consultation  involves  students,  it  is  possible  that  outcomes  will  be 
reviewed to ensure that they are intelligible to them. However, in the case of the 
curricula investigated  in this  research,  students had not  been  consulted,  neither 
in the development of the qualification nor in that of the training standard. Only at 
the  level  of  school  curriculum  was  the  involvement  of  students  reported,  for 
example in Slovakia. As was to be expected, learners interviewed  were unlikely 
to  report  that  they  were  familiar  with  the  learning  outcomes.  Only  in  countries 
where  learning  outcomes  are  relatively  holistic,  e.g.  Norway,  were  learners 
confident  that  they  knew  what  the  learning  outcomes  were.  Even  in  Denmark, 
where  students  are  provided  with  an  online  tracker  denominated  in  terms  of 
learning  outcomes,  students  were  reported  to  be  ‘not  very  aware  of  learning 
outcomes’ (Danish case study, interview with students). More able students were 
reported  by  teachers  in  Denmark  to  be  more  attentive  with  regard  to  learning 
outcomes. The fact that the vast majority of learners do not understand learning 
outcomes  challenges  the  claim  that  learning  outcomes  make  for  greater 
transparency. 

Finally, the involvement of teachers in consultation may, in principle, lead to 
questioning about whether the curriculum will be accessible to  different kinds of 
learners in different environments, including, for example, disabled learners and 
other  disadvantaged  learners.  It  is  also  possible  that  there  is  consultation  with 
specialist  agencies  with  reference  to  learners  with  disabilities  or  special 
educational  needs.  This  did  occur  in  the  case  of  the  advanced  engineering 
diploma in the UK (England). 

Governance 

6.3.3. 
In  most  countries,  the  formal  responsibility  to  approve  curricula  lies  with  the 
government.  However,  in  some  countries,  governance  of  the  curriculum  design 
process  is  fairly  evenly  distributed  across  regional  and  local  levels,  whereas,  in 
others, it is mostly concentrated in the central government authorities. 

In  France,  for  example,  curriculum  design  is  governed  by  administrative 
officials  of  the  relevant  ministry.  Employers  are  included  within  the  professional 
consultative  committee  (Commission  Professionnelle  Consultative,  CPC),  which 
is  the  body  that  is  responsible  for  the  development  process.  The  CPC  forms  a 
subgroup,  involving  representatives  of  employers  and  employees  as  well  as 
inspectors  and  officials  who  carry  out  the  research  and  write  the  standards. 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

Similarly, in Austria, curriculum development is directly controlled by the relevant 
ministries. 

In many countries, however, such as Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, 
Estonia,  Finland,  Ireland,  Italy,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Romania,  Slovenia,  Spain  and 
Sweden, the curriculum development process is controlled by a public but quasi-
autonomous qualifications agency, although formal approval is given in the form 
of a ministerial or government decree. 

The  recent  development  of  outcome-oriented  approaches  in  Ireland, 
Portugal,  Slovenia  and  Spain  is  associated  with  a  reduction  in  the  power  of 
sector-related  qualification  development  bodies  and  awarding  bodies.  In  these 
countries, the introduction of a new system for the development of all vocational 
qualifications,  for  example,  in  line  with  a  national  qualifications  framework,  has 
enhanced  the  influence  of  the  central  vocational  curriculum  agencies.  These 
agencies  have  defined  a  common  language,  common  structures  and  common 
processes  which  apply  to  the  development  of  all  vocational  qualifications.  In 
countries such as Croatia and Slovenia, this central agency directly manages the 
curriculum  development  work.  In  other  countries  such  as  Ireland,  the  Further 
Education  and  Training  Awards  Council  (FETAC)  works  in  partnership  with  the 
sectoral  agency  that,  historically,  was  responsible  for  qualification  development 
for the sector. 

In  a  number  of  countries,  stakeholders  interviewed  reported  that  it  was 
difficult to motivate employers to dedicate time to joint working groups or even to 
become  involved  in  consultations.  Interviewees  also  expressed  concerns  that, 
while  the  creation  of  new  vocational  qualifications  and  curricula  had  engaged 
employers,  it  was  not  known  whether  that  interest  could  be  sustained  for  their 
review and update. 

There  are  some  countries  where  sectoral  bodies  carry  a  great  deal  of 
authority  in  the  curriculum  design  process.  In  Liechtenstein,  for  example, 
qualification  development 
is  dominated  by  sectoral  bodies  known  as 
Organisationen  der  Arbeitswelt.  These  organisations  employ  experts  who  carry 
out  the  writing,  researching  and  consulting;  they  may  also  bring  in  external 
expertise. Either the government or an Organisation der Arbeitswelt may trigger 
curriculum  modification.  The  latter  guides  the  written  curriculum  through  an 
extended process of consultation and drafting which usually lasts four years, after 
which  it  is  submitted  to  the  national  office  for  VET  and  career  counselling  for 
national approval. 

In  the  UK  (England),  People  First,  a publicly  financed body  that  represents 
the  hospitality  and  tourism  sector,  has  been  delegated  the  responsibility  of 
developing vocational curricula in this sector. It directs and manages curriculum 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

writing and consultation, although there are overarching rules and principles that 
have been defined by the curriculum regulatory authority ‘Ofqual’. This approach 
in  the  United  Kingdom  results  from  a  policy  of  deregulation.  The  central 
curriculum  development  body,  the  Qualifications  and  Curriculum  Development 
Agency (QCDA), has been abolished, and the central regulatory authority ‘Ofqual’ 
is  stepping  back  from  explicit  intervention  in  the  development  of  curricula.  The 
current policy is that the role of the government should be limited to setting up the 
system  and  providing  quality  assurance  while  development  agencies  such  as 
People First and the independent awarding organisations develop qualifications. 
Hungary  also  appears  to  be  shifting  authority  for  vocational  qualification 
development towards business. The Hungarian Chamber of Commerce has been 
granted new authority to review and rationalise vocational curricula. 

Some  countries may  be  classified  as  taking  a  partnership  approach.  In the 
Netherlands,  17  centres  of  expertise  are  instructed  and  funded  by  the  State  to 
develop qualifications for their sectors in accordance with national cross-sectoral 
rules  and  templates.  The  centres  of  expertise  (Kenniscentra  beroepsonderwijs 
bedrijfsleven)  consist  of 
from  employer  and  employee 
organisations and from public administration who cooperate as equal partners. In 
Latvia,  a  national  tripartite  Subcouncil  for  Cooperation  in  Vocational  Education 
and Employment supervises the work of the Sectoral Expert Councils which are 
established by  employers’  and  trade  union  confederations. The  Expert  Councils 
carry  out  the  research  and  consultation  to  develop  and  update  occupational 
standards and vocational qualifications. 

representatives 

In  Spain,  the  General  Council  for  Vocational  Training  (Consejo  General  de 
Formación  Profesional,  CGFP)  was  set  up  by  legislation  in  2006  as  a  tripartite 
body with representation from employer and employee organisations, as well as 
from  national  government  and  the  autonomous  regional  communities.  This 
Council is the governing body for the National Institute of Qualifications (Instituto 
Nacional  de  Cualificaciones,  Incual)  which  develops  and  accredits  vocational 
qualifications. 

Germany  provides  a  good  example  of  a  well-established  model  where 
authority  for  curriculum  design  is  formally  distributed.  The  Federal  Government 
delegates authority to the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training 
(BIBB)  which,  in  turn,  recognises  the  rights  of  employer  organisations  to  shape 
the curriculum for the work-based element of vocational standards. Furthermore, 
the  regional  authorities  (Länder)  have  authority  to  agree  the  curriculum  for 
vocational  schools  collectively.  However,  in  practice,  the  regional  authorities 
agree  that  a  particular  regional  authority  will  take  the  lead  role  for  a  particular 
vocational  curriculum.  For  example,  Baden-Württemberg  takes  this  role  for 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

mechatronics. A similar distribution of responsibility operates in Spain, where the 
Canary  Islands  exercise  a  lead  role  in  the  development  of  the  higher  technical 
tourist  guide  qualification.  Norway’s  knowledge  promotion  reform  is  intended  to 
give local vocational schools responsibility to operationalise the national curricula; 
this  involves  working  closely  with  businesses  (Cedefop  ReferNet  Denmark, 
2011). 

Where governance is distributed, this provides opportunities for stakeholder 
representation,  and  it  may  increase  the  capacity  of  particular  groups  of 
stakeholders  to  make  their  voice  heard  and  ensure  that  their  interests  are 
protected.  Over  time,  interest  groups  appear  to  develop  an  ability  to  work 
together and to find ways to negotiate their differences and reach compromises. 
This  may  be  easier  to  do  at  local,  regional  or  sectoral  level,  as  the  parties 
involved have common interests and shared values. 

6.4.  The role of curriculum design experts 

The  outcome-oriented  approach  is  an  analytical  and  systematic  approach  to 
curriculum development. It is always based upon explicit rules, for example about 
how  statements  should  be  formulated  and  organised  and  about  who  should  be 
consulted  and  who  should  decide.  In  some  countries,  for  example  Ireland,  the 
introduction  of  an  outcome-oriented  approach  is  understood  as  establishing  a 
uniform,  national  process  for  the  production  of  all  vocational  curricula  and  is 
necessary  for  that  process  to  be  regulated  by  guidelines  and  common 
procedures.  Traditional  input-based  approaches  to  curriculum  design  are  based 
on  received  practice  which  is  less  explicit  and  less  rule-governed.  Accordingly, 
the learning outcomes approach requires a gathering together of knowledge and 
experience  that  resides  with  employers,  teachers  and  others.  In  part,  this  is 
achieved  by  the  representation  and  consultation  processes  described  above. 
However, it is also served by the participation of individuals or teams  who have 
already  gathered  together  knowledge,  accumulated  experience  and  mastered 
rules and have an  understanding  of  what  various  stakeholders  want. These  are 
often  named  experts,  and  their  role  consists  in  writing  learning  outcomes, 
facilitating  working  groups,  organising  consultations  and  ensuring  that  the  often 
complex rules are followed. 

Experts  work  alongside  stakeholders  to  design  outcome-oriented  curricula 
and,  in  some  countries,  they  are  employed  to  validate  curricula,  i.e.  to  review 
curricula  independently.  In  Spain,  the  General  Vocational  Training  Council 
designates  experts  from  regional  and  national  authorities  as  well  as  recognised 
social  bodies  such  as  trade  unions  (see  Box  4).  Managers  of  the  qualification 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

development  process  report  that  laymen  find  it  difficult  to  write  learning 
outcomes; for example, there is a tendency to write assessment tasks rather than 
learning  outcomes  or  to  make  them  overly  complex.  Indeed,  writing  learning 
outcomes  is  particularly  demanding  if  the  outcomes  are  intended  to  integrate 
generic  skills  or  synthesise  competences  drawn  from  different  occupations.  For 
example,  in  the  case  study  on  Romania,  most  interviewees  pointed  out  the 
technical  nature  of  the  curriculum  writing  process,  the  distinct  structure  of  the 
curriculum and the jargon that is used in the curriculum document. These act as 
barriers  for  employers  and  other  social  partners  to  having  direct  involvement  in 
the writing of the local curriculum (Romanian case study). 

Experts  may  be  employed  by  local  or  national  curriculum  agencies  or  by 
awarding  bodies.  They  may  be  civil  servants  or  self-employed  consultants. 
Where institutions or stakeholder organisations may deploy experts, this can give 
them additional authority and influence. However, on occasion, there are tensions 
between the role of experts and the role of other stakeholders. 

Box 4 

Curriculum in Spain 

In  Spain,  there  is  an  established  procedure  for  creating  the  working  groups 
responsible  for  designing  the  written  curriculum.  The  General  Vocational  Training 
Council  designates  experts  from  regional  and  national  authorities  as  well  as 
recognised social bodies such as trade unions. That expertise is expected to include 
competence  in  the  professional  field,  knowledge  of  relevant  technologies  and 
experience  in  training  processes.  Professional  and  technological  experts  contribute 
largely to the writing of the competences, while the training experts contribute to the 
writing  of  the  training  modules.  INCUAL  (the  National  Vocational  Qualification 
Development Agency) provides methodological and administrative expertise and pays 
for the work performed by external experts. 
Particular  autonomous  regions  are  asked  to  take  the  lead  in  the  working  groups 
their  previous 
to  particular  vocational  sectors,  depending  on 
corresponding 
experience  and  regional  economic  specialisation.  As  a  result,  there  are  currently 
more than 40 groups  organised into  26  professional  families.  The  working group for 
land  use  is  based  in  Andalusia;  that  for  manufacturing  and  installation  and 
mechanical  maintenance  is  based  in  the  Basque  country;  energy  and  water,  in 
Navarre;  image  and  sound,  in  Catalonia;  wood,  furniture  and  cork,  in  Valencia; 
transport  and  vehicle  maintenance,  in  Castilla  y  Leon;  arts  and  crafts,  in  Castilla-La 
Mancha; and maritime and fisheries extractive industries, in Galicia. The activities of 
these  working  groups  are  coordinated  by  a  technical  committee  (General  Teaching 
Council,  GTC)  which  consists  of 
for  qualification 
development in each of the autonomous communities. 

the  directors  of 

institutes 

Source:  Spanish case study. 

In  relatively  large  countries,  such  as  France  and  Germany,  experts  have  a 
well-defined  role,  taking  on  the  characteristics  of  a  profession  to  some  degree; 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

expertise  in  learning  outcomes  is  accumulated  and  recognised.  Experts  play  a 
leading role in what might be described as a relatively technocratic process. The 
German  system  has  already  been  identified  as  one  with  a  high  level  of 
engagement from a diversity of national, regional and local stakeholders. There is 
a  shared  understanding  of  the  rules  of  the  game  and  of  the  benefits  of 
negotiation and compromise. It is reported that the fact that different stakeholder 
groups  often  employ  education  and  curriculum  experts  helps  them  to  work  with 
one  another;  in  other  words,  a  shared  culture  of  expertise  –  or  community  of 
expert practitioners – helps to bridge conflicts of interest. 

In smaller countries and countries where learning outcomes approaches are 
newer, there often tends to be a less developed community of experts and a less 
developed  culture  of  expertise.  Teachers  may  be  commissioned  to  write 
outcome-oriented curricula, e.g. in Romania. The processes of development are 
likely  to  be  less  elaborate  or  extended.  For  example,  the  development  of 
occupational standards may be based on consultation rather than research, and 
the  statement  of  the  qualification  and  education  standard  may  be  relatively 
concise,  with  much  of  the  curriculum  design  delegated  to  local  schools  or 
trainers, as, for example, in Finland, Ireland and Norway. 

Where  expertise  is  not  available,  this  can  cause  delays  in  the  curriculum 
design process. For example, in the UK (England), an awarding body reported a 
delay  because  of  difficulties  in  identifying  an  expert  capable  of  writing 
assessment criteria for a qualification for cabin crew. In some countries, such as 
Cyprus  and  Malta,  foreign  experts  have  been  brought  in  to  design  systems,  to 
help write learning outcomes and to validate processes and research. Transfer of 
expertise  was  important  in  the  genesis  of  thinking  about  learning  outcomes  in 
many central and eastern European (CEE) countries before EU accession, such 
as  Bulgaria,  where  PHARE  projects  played  a  role  in  upgrading  qualification 
standards in VET and in introducing learning outcomes. 

6.5.  The role of vocational schools 

Outcome-oriented  approaches  usually  make  an  explicit  distinction  between  the 
manner  in  which  the  written  curriculum  is  defined  at  national  level  and 
subsequently  specified  at  school  level.  This  document  may  be  known  as  the 
training  programme  or  the  scheme  of  work  or  sometimes  simply  as  the 
curriculum.  In  this  research,  it  is  defined  as  training  or  learning  standard  to 
distinguish  from  the  other  parts  of  the  written  curriculum  (see  Table  3).  The 
amount  of  detail  included  in  this  document  varies:  it  depends  on  the  level  at 
which it is written and who is involved. 

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Developing national training standards 

6.5.1. 
Training  standards  may  be  produced  at  national  level.  It  is  challenging  for 
individual vocational schools to produce new training standards – a collaborative 
approach  can  help.  In  Hungary,  in  addition  to  the  professional  and  examination 
requirements  document,  there  is  a  further  document  known  as  the  common 
curriculum. This sets out modules and provides some of the detail that one might 
expect  to  find  in  a  training  programme.  However,  it  is  not  mandatory.  Schools 
may depart from the common curriculum, but many will be guided by it. 

In Ireland,  under  the  common  awards  system,  vocational  schools  that  wish 
to  provide  a  particular  award  are  obliged  to  design  a  training  standard  (training 
programme)  that  must  be  submitted  to  the  regulatory  authority  (FETAC)  for 
approval. In the case of professional cookery, Fáilte Ireland (FI), a sectoral body 
acting  for  a  consortium  of  vocational  schools,  led  the  process  to  generate  a 
shared training programme which has been jointly submitted and approved. The 
advantage  of  this  approach  is  that  the  sectoral  body  was  able  to  engage 
employers  and  trainers  from  across  Ireland  and  was  able  to  draw  on  the 
expertise of its staff and resources. The Irish case presented below illustrates the 
need  to  strike  a  balance  between  the  community  of  practice,  where  teachers 
used  to  have  a  key  voice,  and  the  needs  of  employers.  This  reconciliation  of 
interests is at the heart of designing outcome-based curricula (see Box 5). 

Developing school-based training programmes 

6.5.2. 
In  all  case  studies,  schools  were  expected  to  prepare  a  school-based  training 
programme (also  defined  as  training  standard  in  this  research)  that  implements 
the learning outcomes set out in the national written curriculum. However, there 
are different understandings of how much discretion each school enjoys and what 
is  involved  in  developing  a  school-based  curriculum.  In most  countries,  there  is 
no formal process of validation, although, in some countries, inspectors will check 
whether  the  local  curriculum  does  match  national  requirements.  In  the  Czech 
Republic,  for  example,  schools  are  required  to  prepare  a  school-based 
educational  programme which  draws  on  the  vocational  competences  defined  at 
national  level.  In  Slovenia,  schools  are  expected  to  conform  to  national 
standards,  but  there  is  some  discretion:  schools  are  given  freedom  to  provide 
options in addition to national requirements, which leaves room for local flexibility. 

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Box 5 

Collaborating to produce a shared training standard in Ireland 

The design of the national traineeship was led by Fáilte Ireland (FI), and much of the 
work  was  delegated  to  teaching  and  training  professionals  from  vocational  colleges 
and  institutes  of  technology.  Teachers  working  in  pairs  or  small  groups  were 
entrusted  with  the  task  of  taking  the  learning  outcomes  set  out  in  the  qualification 
standard  (the  award)  and  re-organising  them  into  20  training  modules  to  be  taught 
over two years. They had to reformulate learning outcomes, set out indicative content, 
allocate hours and agree weightings of content. 
This process allowed teachers to interpret the learning outcomes that they received in 
the  light  of  their  own  values  and  practice.  For  example,  an  experienced  trainer  and 
chef was able to group learning outcomes into a module in such a way that it enabled 
him, and other like-minded trainers, to teach a module around the larder – that is, to 
emphasise the importance of the raw materials for cooking. For this practitioner, this 
way  of  teaching  constituted  an  important  value  position,  one  that  aimed  to  preserve 
vital traditions and standards within professional cookery over time. In this example, it 
is evident that the training programme creates an emphasis which is not so prominent 
in  the  award  (the  qualification  standard)  –  an  emphasis  on  traditional  expertise, 
practice and craftsmanship. 
Technical experts were employed to edit the outcomes of these sessions and develop 
them into a set of training documents. These were submitted to FETAC and were duly 
validated.  The  resulting  training  programme  holds  credibility  with  trainers  and  with 
employers.  It  was  produced  within  12  months  and  enabled  a  new  award  to  be 
delivered  in  vocational  schools  very  soon  after  the  award  itself  was  completed. 
Dividing the development process into the development of the award (the qualification 
standard)  and  the  development  of  the  programme  of  study  (the  training  standard) 
made it easier for Fáilte Ireland to run the development process and consultations in 
a  linear  fashion  and  to  engage  stakeholders.  Professional  chefs  were  consulted  on 
the  development  of  the  award,  and  trainers  were  involved  in  the  writing  of  the 
programme of study. 

Source:  Irish case study. 

In  Denmark,  it  is  expected  that  the  national  vocational  curriculum  will  be 
operationalised  by  each  school’s  teaching  team,  working  together  with the  local 
trade committee. This results in the local education plan. The process is formally 
regulated and has been designed to ensure that social dialogue operates at local 
as  well  as  national  level.  Changes  in  the  funding  system  have  given  colleges 
more  control  over  funding,  which  means  that  they  can,  in  practice,  give  greater 
priority to different parts of the curriculum. Furthermore, those employers who are 
well  represented  in  the  local  trade  committee  were  able  to  exert  a  significant 
influence on the design of the local education plan. 

The  case  studies  conducted  for  this  research  revealed  some  examples  of 
elaborate and extensive curriculum development activity at school level (see Box 
6). These do show that curriculum development at local level may take account of 
local  employment  opportunities  and  the  training  opportunities  provided  by  local 
businesses. In most cases, but not all, they involved some kind of partnership. In 

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two of the three examples that follow, a particular business has played a key role 
in writing or co-producing the local curriculum. 

Box 6 

School-based curriculum design in Slovakia 

Reforms  introduced  in  Slovakia  in  2008  have  decentralised  curriculum  design  to 
school  level:  around  50-60%  of  the  curriculum  is  now  deemed  to  be  under  local 
control. This leaves a significant space for the VET schools to adapt their curricula to 
local  demand,  needs  and  possibilities.  The  schools  may  now  devise  the  teaching 
process  in  the  light  of  the  preferences  of  local  stakeholders.  Local  curricula  are  not 
centrally  validated,  but  national  inspections  are  required  to  verify  whether  the  local 
curriculum fulfils national requirements. 
Vocational  schools  are  required  to  devise  a  training  programme  which  includes  a 
local  statement  of  learning  outcomes  (the  graduate  profile):  a  statement  of  the 
graduate’s  key,  general  and  vocational  competences.  In  addition,  the  training 
programme  sets  out  the  sequence  of  modules,  resources,  environment,  pedagogy, 
requirements for teachers, evaluation and assessment requirements, etc. There is an 
expectation  that  the  training  programme  will  restate  learning  outcomes  in  a  locally-
contextualised  form.  This  appears  to  encourage  local  innovation.  The  legislative 
framework  allows  but  does  not  require  the  participation  of  the  social  partners  in  the 
local  curriculum  design  process.  The  VET  schools  have  created  school  councils 
which consist of representatives of the students, teachers and school management as 
well  as  parents  and  employers.  The  council  is  included  in  the  process  of  the 
curriculum  design:  it  may  propose  amendments  in  the  drafting  stage  and  approves 
the final version. 
The  degree  of  employer  participation  differs  according  to  the  relationship  of  the 
particular  VET  school  with  local  employers.  In  most  cases,  employers  express  their 
expectations and demands on graduate profiles via informal communication networks 
with managers of the school. One of the schools visited had conducted a local survey 
of employers. Employers were appointed to the governing body of schools. They may 
also  exert  direct  influence  on  the  teaching  process  through  sponsorship  schemes, 
most  frequently  by  donating  machinery  to  the  school  which  the  graduates  will  be 
expected to master before entering  employment.  Sometimes, employers finance  the 
establishment of sophisticated workshops and provide training for teachers on how to 
operate the donated machines. For example, one school has established a  centre of 
vocational  education  in  partnership  with  PSA  Peugeot  Citroen.  The  partnership  was 
underwritten  by  agreement  at  national  level  and  has  been  supported  by  national 
funding for investment and training.  PSA  Peugeot Citroen has provided training  and 
equipment as well as internships. 
Such  bilateral  agreements  are  believed  to  be  mutually  beneficial  by  employers  and 
schools:  schools  lack  up-to-date  equipment  and  employers  find  it  hard  to  recruit 
labour  with  appropriate  skills.  Head  teachers  point  out  that  the  investment  that 
schools gain will be of benefit to many students, not just those who may be recruited 
by  the  investing  companies.  Companies  will  benefit  from  the  creation  of  a  pool  of 
qualified graduates from which they can recruit. 

Source:  Slovakian case study. 

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Where national curricula are relatively holistic and abstain from prescriptive 
detail,  trainers  in  enterprises  (see  Box  7  on  Norway)  or  teachers  in  vocational 
schools (see Box 8 on Poland) have considerable discretion to develop their own 
training programmes. In the latter case, as a result, appropriate pedagogies were 
developed in advance of national implementation. Teachers in vocational schools 
in  Germany  feel  that  learning  areas  (Lernfelder)  allow  them  to  use  their  own 
personal  expertise  and  experience  to  decide  what  is  essential  and  what  is  of 
lower  priority.  The  design  of  the  learning  areas  also  encourages  teachers  with 
different  specialisms,  for  example  electrical  and  mechanical  engineering,  to 
collaborate on the design of educational projects. 

In  some  countries  that  have  undergone  significant  decentralisation  in  the 
past,  e.g.  Sweden,  there  has  been  a  reduction  in  the  discretion  available  to 
schools and municipalities. This is because the wide variety of programmes has 
been seen as reducing the articulation between education and the labour market. 
Current  Swedish  reforms  are  designed  to  reduce  the  number  of  local  lines  of 
study,  and  permission  for  a  new  course  must  be  obtained  from  the  National 
Agency for Schools (Skolverket). 

This  research  did  reveal  some  examples  of  how,  in  two  countries,  the 
curriculum  is  developed  at  local  level.  In  Norway,  for  example,  companies 
collaborated  on  writing  a  ‘training  plan’  which  was  then  delivered  by  a  shared 
training centre (see Box 7). In Poland, a network of teachers has come together 
in an EU-financed initiative to create a modular curriculum which they are sharing 
(see Box 8). 

6.6.  Challenges to curriculum design 

Encouraging employer engagement 

6.6.1. 
In many  countries,  interviewees  reported that there  were  difficulties in engaging 
and  sustaining  employer  contributions  to  curriculum  development.  This  was  the 
case  both  where  outcome-oriented  approaches  were  relatively  new  and  where 
they  were  well  established.  Agencies  and  colleges  that  had  enjoyed  some 
success 
in  resources  and 
invested 
in  generating  employer  engagement 
specialised personnel to develop and maintain relationships. 

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Box 7 

The training plan at ‘N’ company in Norway 

‘N’ company was set up in 2008. It took advantage of the changes brought about by 
national  reform  in  vocational  qualifications:  local  employers  saw  the  reform  as  an 
opportunity  to  meet  their  need  for  apprentices.  The  structure  of  learning  outcomes 
and the emphasis on local curriculum design meant that they could develop curricula 
tailored  to  their  own  requirements.  ‘N’  company  is  funded  and  directed  by  three 
engineering  companies  operating  from  a  technology  park  in  Kongsberg.  It  currently 
recruits around 20 apprentices each year.  ‘N’ company is unusual in Norway, where 
most apprenticeship training is provided through local apprenticeship offices. 
The  learning  programme  was  referred  to  as  the  training  plan  (TP).  It  consists  of  a 
more  detailed  version  of  the  competence  aims  set  out  in  national  curricula.  Each 
competence  aim  is  unpacked  and  described  as  a  more  detailed  set  of  aims. 
Sometimes  these  more  detailed  aims  are  company-specific.  Accordingly,  there  is  a 
high degree of tailoring of the aims at this level. 
‘N’  company  is  still  in  the  process  of  developing  and  refining  a  full  set  of  training 
plans:  not  all  are  regarded  as  complete.  However,  a  guiding  philosophy  is  that  all 
apprentices  should  receive  training  that  is  broader  and  more  detailed  than  that 
required by the curriculum. It was commented that it requires a significant amount of 
effort to write training plans  – possibly 2-3  years; it  would be difficult and expensive 
for one company  to  do this  on its own,  hence  a reason for  this company  wanting to 
collaborate at this level. 
The  instructors  have  industry  rather  than  teaching  backgrounds,  while  the  training 
manager has 23 years’ experience teaching and came to the centre from the post of 
head  of  the  electronics  department  at  the  local  school.  His  dialogue  with  instructors 
plays a key role in forming the TPs: ‘They [the instructors] make the plans, but I write 
them down’. The TPs had to be formulated in simple terms to ensure they are easily 
understood by the apprentices. 

Source:  Norwegian case study. 

It  is  not  always  easy  for  small  organisations  to  sustain  commitment,  for 
example,  to  participation  in  working  groups.  Where  employer  and  employee 
organisations have officials who work full-time on educational matters, they may 
be able to sustain this involvement (see Cedefop, 2009c), but this is more difficult 
for  smaller  businesses  and  organisations.  In  Denmark,  for  example,  larger 
companies that employ a staff member with responsibility for training will be able 
to  exert  a  considerable  influence  in  defining  learning  outcomes  in  the  local 
curriculum,  even  though  it  is  small  and  medium-sized  companies  that  take  the 
majority of apprentices. 

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Box 8 

Module employment skills (MES) programme in Poland 

includes 

in  Poznan, 

teachers,  head 

In  Poland,  the  current  system  of  curriculum  development  is  perceived  to  be  over-
centralised and dominated by theoretical content which encourages traditional modes 
of teaching. Nationally, the process for developing curricula is being reformed, but the 
new  curricula  have  not  yet  been  implemented.  In  the  meantime,  an  EU-funded 
initiative  provides  a  modularised  training  programme  for  about  10%  of  vocational 
schools, while the other 90% of schools continue with traditional vocational curricula. 
This initiative offers an opportunity to experiment with an outcome-oriented curriculum 
and develop appropriate pedagogies in advance of national implementation. 
teachers  and 
A  working  group,  based 
representatives  from  national  ministries.  The  group  has  access  to  surveys  with 
employers  about  skills  needs.  Their  task  has  been  to  create  a  training  programme 
that is consistent with the national curriculum that has not yet been implemented. The 
work  of  developing  the  modules  was  distributed  between  the  participating  schools; 
each  took  responsibility  for  writing  particular  modules.  The  modules  amount  to 
between  three  and  six  months’  study  time,  but  they  are  broken  down  into 
submodules,  each  lasting  about  two  weeks.  Each  module  concludes  with  an 
assessment. The modules focus on realistic projects and case studies; accordingly, in 
participating  schools,  pedagogy  has  shifted  from  a  largely  theoretical  style  of 
knowledge  transmission  to  a  predominantly  active  or  practical  mode.  Learning  is 
structured around  practical assignments where theoretical and practical  learning are 
combined. This contrasts with pedagogy in non-participating schools, where lectures 
dominate and practical work is dominated by demonstrations by teachers. In addition, 
one  of  the  schools  has  entered  into  an  agreement  with  an  employers’  association 
representing  producers  of  elevators.  This  agreement  arose  from  negotiations 
between  the  association  and  the  school’s  governing  body  and  has  led  to  significant 
investment in the school and the school developing, within the framework of the MES, 
a  specialist  module,  maintenance  of  elevators,  reflecting  the  needs  of  the  elevator 
industry. Employers who helped to design the module visit the school to help teach it, 
and students attend practical training in the companies. 
The  MES  programme  has  been  supported  by  extensive  professional  development. 
Each  participating  teacher  has  received  200  hours  of  training  to  address  the 
curriculum and the new pedagogies. This training was carried out both in and outside 
school.  Schools  have  benefit  from  EU  financed  investment  in  learning  spaces  and 
equipment. The MES programme is not supported by state-approved textbooks, as is 
the  case  with  traditional  vocational  programmes,  but  by  teaching  and  learning 
materials  prepared  by  the  consortium  and  shared  electronically.  Adopting  the  MES 
programme  has  made  considerable  demands  on  timetabling  which  needs  to  be 
adjusted some eight times per year as the module changes. Modules are permitted to 
extend  between  semesters  and  across  academic  years.  The  organisation  of  study 
and assessment are perceived to be considerably more demanding than in the past. 
Students  interviewed  reported  that  they  prefer  the  greater  emphasis  on  practical 
learning. There is evidence of improved student engagement and improved relations 
between  teachers  and  students.  Nevertheless,  students  were  concerned  about  the 
challenging  nature  of  some  of  their  learning  materials  and  the  volume  of  work 
demanded of them. 
At this point in time, it is not known whether learning from the Poznan MES is being 
shared  more  widely  and  whether  it  is  informing  national  developments.  There  is 
evidence  that  other  vocational  schools  are  looking  to  modernise  their  curricula  and 
pedagogy, but they currently lack resources and support. 

Source:  Polish case study. 

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Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Balancing different interests 

6.6.2. 
The outcome-oriented approach recognises that there is likely to be a conflict of 
interest  between  stakeholders;  however,  processes  can  be  developed  to 
negotiate or reconcile any differences – at least to some degree. 

Getting the  sectoral/occupational  scope  right  is  a difficult  area for  decision-
making.  Employers  sometimes  expressed  the  view  that  they  want  students  to 
acquire  the  competences  which  are  useful  for  their  business  or  industry. 
However, in IVET, governments increasingly favour relatively broad curricula that 
correspond to an entire sector rather than a specific industry or occupation (26). In 
Norway,  for  example,  there  is  a  four-year  programme  which  allows  progressive 
specialisation. Employers expressed the concern that students commencing year 
three have relatively little knowledge about engineering and mechatronics. There 
is  a  trade-off  between  the  interests  of  different  employers  (in  local  firms,  in  the 
industry and the sector more widely), the interests of students and the interests of 
schools. Setting the vocational scope of qualifications and programmes is usually 
performed at a relatively high political level; it is not always easy to carry out the 
kind  of  detailed  consultation  which  is  required  to  make  the  best  decisions  and 
build consensus. It was found that it was not only employers who raised concerns 
about broad qualifications; some students expressed concerns too. For instance, 
students  in  one  country  were  concerned  that  a  programme  that  served  both 
gastronomy and tourism was too broad and that it would not provide the in-depth 
specialisation required to obtain employment in one or the other domain. 

This  research  also  confirmed  the  findings  of  Cedefop  (2010a)  that 
stakeholders sometimes disagreed with respect to issues of image presented by 
qualifications, with respect to social and occupational mobility and with respect to 
how qualifications might influence entry standards and collective agreements on 
salaries. Employers raise the question as to whether skill levels should be set for 
average  requirements  across  the  industry  or  to  match  the  needs  of  more 
advanced  employers. Where  there is  a persisting  craft  identity,  trainers  express 
the view that trainees must acquire certain skill levels, even if they are unlikely to 
be  required  in  many  jobs,  because  these  are  constitutive  of  what  it  means  to 
claim that vocational identity. In Slovakia, a decision has been taken, at national 
level, to design outcome-oriented modules that cater to the needs of an average-
ability student rather than those of a high-ability student. 

While, in general, there is agreement that transverse skills are important for 
all  students  in  all  vocational  programmes,  there  are  disagreements  about  how 

(26)  Until  recently,  this  was  also  the  trend  in  the  UK  (England).  However,  recent  policy 
has  called  for  a  renewed  focus  on  occupational  as  opposed  to  broad  sectoral 
qualifications. 

88 

                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

much weight they should be given. The conflict of interest is heightened when the 
functions of qualifications or curricula are multiple and more diverse stakeholders 
are involved, for example if qualifications or curricula are intended both to signal 
competences to the labour market and to determine the competition for places in 
higher education. 

Expense, time constraints and other risk factors 

6.6.3. 
An  elaborate  process  for  the  development  of  outcome-oriented  curriculum  is 
expensive  both  to  establish  and  to  sustain.  Learning  outcomes  approaches  are 
likely  to  involve  more  research,  more  separate  stages  of  development,  more 
expertise,  greater  regulation  and  more  consultation.  Although  EU  co-financing 
has  been  important  in  several  countries  (e.g.  Poland  and  Spain),  additional 
funding  towards  the  teaching  of  these  programmes  was  removed  as  part  of 
austerity measures. 

Furthermore,  the  development  of  outcome-oriented  curricula  may  be  slow. 
Typically,  it  may  take  two  to  three  years  to  review,  revise  and  authorise  an 
outcomes-based curriculum. The more extended approaches may then risk being 
interrupted by political and economic change. 

Other  risk  factors  concern  the  overall  complexity  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula. Cort (2010) and Wolf (1995) have commented on complex curricula in 
Denmark and the UK (England). Sørensen and Størner (2009) have revealed the 
complexity  of  individual  learning  outcomes  in  curricula  in  Denmark  and 
questioned  whether  they  are  understood  in  the  same  way  by  different  users. 
Others have suggested that new curricula should be piloted before they are rolled 
out nationally to avoid mistakes in design (Oates, 2007). 

Local variation between curricula may also increase complexity. While local 
variation is generally welcomed as a way of adapting curricula to the interests of 
local  employers  and  communities,  some  interviewees  expressed  concern  that 
this could create barriers to mobility. In some countries, such as Sweden, recent 
reforms  have  sought  to  reduce  the  number  of  local  lines  of  study,  which  was 
deemed  to  result  in  excessive  variation  in  the  knowledge  and  skills  of  students 
from  different  schools.  Local  variation  may  also  lead  to  additional  burden  for 
teachers,  particularly  for  those  responsible  for  writing  local  curricula.  Teachers 
have to cope not only with multiple changes in curricula but also with other parts 
of 
to 
develop/apply  additional  or  new  assessment  practices,  to  produce  their  own 
teaching and learning resources, and to increase coordination and collaboration 
with other teachers. 

their  practice.  For  example,  new  curricula  may  require 

teachers 

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Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

6.7.  Key findings 

The study allows the following conclusions to be drawn in relation to the ways in 
which different actors are involved in outcome-oriented curriculum design: 
(a) 

the  capacity  of  learning outcomes  approaches to  lead  to valid and credible 
curricula  depends  on  effective  representation  of  stakeholders.  In  the  case 
studies, some examples of strong representation were found, for instance in 
Austria,  France,  Germany  and  Spain.  However,  in  some  other  countries, 
representation  was  found  to  be  either  not  very  extensive  or  not  very 
effective.  In  some  countries,  the  introduction  of  new  curricula  led  to  the 
engagement  of  stakeholders,  but  there  were  concerns  about  whether  this 
engagement could be sustained. We can distinguish between representation 
which  is  achieved  by  appointing  the  social  partners  and  stakeholders  to 
working  groups  and  the  more  extensive  (but  more  superficial)  participation 
which  may  be  achieved  through  consultation. There  is  a third dimension  of 
representation  which  concerns  power  or  governance,  i.e.  that  stakeholders 
have the ability to influence outcomes; 

(b)  where governance  is  distributed,  this  provides  opportunities for  stakeholder 
representation,  and  it  may  increase  the  capacity  of  particular  groups  of 
stakeholders  to  make  their  voice  heard  and  ensure  that  their  interests  are 
protected. Over time, interest groups develop an ability to work together and 
to find  ways  to negotiate differences and  reach compromises. This  may  be 
easier to do at local, regional or sectoral level, as the parties involved have 
common interests and shared values; 

(c)  decentralisation  of  curriculum-making  authority  can  also  encourage 
relationships  between  schools  and  local  companies.  Curricula  written  at 
provider  level  can  benefit  both  learners  and  enterprises.  They  can  bring 
about an adaptation and contextualisation of the curriculum which serve the 
employment needs of both learners and employers; in addition, they provide 
a  basis  for  other  kinds  of  collaboration,  although  it  is  recognised  that  there 
may be some kind of trade-off. These curricula depend on the establishment 
of partnerships and effective negotiations at local level. The research found 
that  the  potential  for  development  of  the  written  curriculum  at  local  level  is 
not  always  fulfilled.  Often,  local  curriculum-writing  is  simply  a  matter  of 
timetabling and sequencing; 

(d)  experts  play  a  significant  role  in  informing  the  development  of  written 
outcome-oriented  curricula  and  qualifications,  in  operating  the  complex 
procedures  and  in  working  with  stakeholders  to  reconcile  differences  and 
solve problems; 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

to 

(e)  very little evidence of students’ involvement in outcome-oriented curriculum 
design  was  found.  Where  consultation  does  involve  students,  it  becomes 
possible for learning outcomes to be reviewed so as to ensure that they are 
intelligible  and  responsive 
Investigative  work  could  be 
learners. 
undertaken to explore how the student voice could be given greater weight 
in the collaborative and consultative processes that serve curriculum design; 
(f)  an effective process for generating outcome-oriented curricula should make 
the  introduction  of  changes  possible  where  these  are  necessary  to  meet 
changing needs. The evidence from countries such as France and Germany 
that  employers  are 
indicates  a  degree  of 
responsiveness. 

initiating  such  changes 

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CHAPTER 7. 
The written curriculum: the form and function 
of learning outcomes  

7.1. 

Introduction 

This chapter analyses the way learning outcomes are formulated and structured 
in  curricula  and  how  they  are  used  to  achieve  consistency  across  the 
development  stages.  It  provides  examples  to  show  the  different  kinds  of 
vocational  knowledge,  skills  and  competences  that  are  included  in  the  curricula 
examined  and  looks  at  the  different  ways  in  which  key  competences  are 
incorporated  into  outcome-oriented  curricula.  Finally,  the  types  of  explicit 
pedagogical  guidance  that  some  curricula  include  are  examined,  allowing  an 
understanding  of the  decisions  that curriculum  designers  have made  and  of the 
implications that such decisions will have for the teaching and learning process. 

7.2.  How do learning outcomes set norms for 
teaching, learning and assessment? 

The form of written curricula is a consequence of the design process which takes 
account  of  the  needs  of  assessment,  teaching  and  learning  and  reflects  the 
competences  associated  with  occupations  that  are  targeted  by  the  curriculum. 
The different formal properties of written curricula, for example the relationships 
between  different  standards  and  the  specificity  of  learning  outcomes,  may  be 
understood  as  resulting  from  different  concepts  and  different  institutions. 
However, they also represent different ways in which the written curriculum  may 
be  constructed  as  a  tool  to  guide  teaching  and  learning  (see  Annexes  5-9). 
These  differences  in  form  have  consequences  for  how  the  written  curriculum  is 
interpreted  and  how  it  influences  the  behaviour  of  teachers  and  learners  (see 
Chapter  8).  The  present  study  has  shown  that  the  manner  in  which  learning 
outcomes  are  transformed  and  articulated  in  curricula  will  enable  or  constrain 
distinctive  teaching  and  assessment  methods.  For  example,  if  skills  and 
knowledge are formulated as distinct learning outcomes, then they may be taught 
and assessed separately. 

The  analysis  confirms  that  outcome-oriented  curricula  face  a  challenge  in 
translating  descriptions  of  work  tasks  (competences)  into  descriptions  of  what 
should  go  on  in  training  and  educational  institutions  (learning  outcomes).  The 

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written curriculum should adapt the learning outcomes so that they make sense 
and are useful to a wide range of stakeholders, particularly teachers and trainers, 
but also employers, other educationalists, students, etc. The analysis shows that 
some approaches preserve the form and substance of the original competences 
as  they  are  developed  into  learning  outcomes  (e.g.  in  the  English  NVQ),  while 
other  approaches  (e.g.  the  Spanish  tourist  guide  curriculum)  transform  and 
reorganise the competences so that they are no longer easily recognisable. The 
degree of transformation is likely to be greater when IVET is embedded into the 
national  educational  system  (e.g. 
the  French  bac  pro  SEN  (systèmes 
électroniques  et  numériques))  rather  than  standing  apart  as  a  separate  system 
(e.g. the Irish national traineeship). 

The transformation of competences/learning outcomes may occur during an 
early  or  late  stage  in  the  curriculum  development  process.  For  example,  the 
learning  outcomes  set  out  in  the  qualification standard  may  be  re-arranged  and 
even  rewritten  for  the  training  standard  (otherwise  known  as  the  training 
programme).  This  happens,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the  Irish  national 
traineeship  for  professional  cookery,  and  it  has  allowed  those  teachers  who 
collaborated  to  write  the  training  programme  with  a  view  to  regrouping  learning 
outcomes  in  a  way  that  reflects  traditional  training  practice  in  relation  to  their 
profession (see Annex 7). 

An  important  difference  found  in  terms  of  how  learning  outcomes  are 
formulated between the various written curricula analysed concerns the degree of 
specificity  and  simplicity.  This  characteristic  is  known  as  ‘granularity’,  and  it  is 
reflected  in  the  language  in  which  learning  outcomes  are  expressed  and  in  the 
number  of  learning  outcomes  that  are  provided.  Designers  may  be  expected  or 
required  to  keep  the  learning  outcomes  very  simple;  for  example,  it  may  be  a 
requirement that learning outcomes are defined by the use of single active verbs. 
This  has  the  virtue  of  transparency,  and  it  supports  the  development  of  a 
corresponding  dichotomous  assessment 
is 
demonstrated or it is not demonstrated (27). However, a high level of specificity is 
likely  to  lead  to  a  large  number  of  learning  outcomes,  i.e.  high  granularity.  This 
increases  the  burden  of  assessment  and,  given  that  assessment  has  a 
‘backwash’ effect upon pedagogy, it may distort teaching and learning (Psifidou, 
2012b). One concern is that a highly analytical, granular definition of competence 
in  VET 
has 

the  consequence  of  distancing 

the  competence  articulated 

judgment:  either 

the  activity 

(27)  This is regarded as a sine qua non in the design of the English NVQ. Elsewhere, e.g. 
Finland,  the  issue  has  been  debated  in  formulating  the  new  qualifications  structure 
with a move to reduce the grades from five to three, partly  as a result of employers’ 
increasing role in assessment. 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

qualifications and curricula from the more holistic competence actually demanded 
in the workplace (Hyland, 1994). Another concern is that an excessively granular 
description  of  competence  reduces  the  acceptability  of  VET  qualifications  as  a 
basis for further and higher study. 

The  research  sought  to  discover  whether  there  are  any  systematic 
differences  between  IVET  curricula  with  respect  to  granularity.  It  appears  that 
some curricula do include large numbers of simple learning outcomes. To make it 
possible  to  compare  the  granularity  of  different  curricula,  we  have  sought  to 
develop a common metric for granularity: learning outcomes per hour of learning 
time.  For  example,  the  Irish  leaving  certificate  defines  six  distinct  learning 
outcomes  for  a  single  10-hour  unit,  i.e.  a  granularity  of  1.6.  The  findings  of  the 
curriculum analysis based on the number of specified learning outcomes per hour 
of learning are set out in Table 5 below. 

Table 5 

High, medium and low granularity 

Granularity 

Hours per learning 
outcome 

Examples 

High 

Fewer than 10 

Luxembourg (mechatronics), the Netherlands 
(electronics), Slovakia (engineering), Spain 
(tourism), Sweden (electronics), the UK 
(England) (tourism) 

Medium 

More than 10; fewer  
than 20 

Germany (mechatronics), Ireland (professional 
cookery), Slovenia (gastronomy and tourism) 

Low 

More than 20 

Source:  Case studies. 

Bulgaria (electronics), Croatia (electrical 
engineering), Estonia (electronics), Finland 
(tourism), France (baccalauréat professionnel), 
Norway (electronics), Romania (tourism)  

This  provisional  analysis  shows  how  it  is  possible  to  make  comparisons  in 
relation  to  how  granular  learning  outcomes  are.  There  is  evidence  for  an 
association  between  the  degree  of  granularity  and  the  degree  of  regulative 
purpose.  A  curriculum  with  a  highly  regulative  purpose  is  one  that  seeks  to 
influence  the  operation  of  VET  programmes  primarily  through  the  design  of 
the  most  granular  outcome-oriented  curricula  are 
assessment.  Some  of 
particularly  focused  on  assessment.  For  example,  the  English,  Dutch  and 
Luxembourgish  qualification  standards  are  all  granular;  their  learning  outcomes 
are  used  to  define  assessment  criteria.  There  is  relatively  little  pedagogical 
guidance  in  the  qualification  standards.  In  contrast,  the  Croatian,  German  and 
Romanian qualification standards examined are less granular and are associated 
with a relatively high level of didactic guidance. 

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However,  there  appear  to  be  other  factors  at  play.  In  some  standards, 
learning  outcomes  are  relatively  holistic,  but  the  prescription  of  teaching  and 
assessment is provided through the specification of knowledge, e.g. in France, or 
the  specification  of  key  competences,  e.g.  in  the  Netherlands.  In  Iceland  and 
Ireland,  there  is  an  explicit  intention  to  restrict  the  degree  of  prescription  at  the 
level  of  the  national  standard  so  as  to  leave  space  for  specification  at  local 
programme level. 

A  highly  regulative  outcome-oriented  curriculum  may  serve,  in  some 
countries,  as  a  means  to  regulate  a  relatively  unrestricted  market  for  VET 
provision.  Rather  than  regulating  the  quality  of  providers  or  their  entry  into  the 
VET  market,  the  State  uses  the  written  curriculum  to  ensure  the  quality  of  VET 
provision by specifying which learning outcomes will be assessed. The manner of 
this  quality  assurance  varies  between  countries.  In  France,  for  example,  a 
relatively  prescriptive  curriculum  is  achieved  by  combining  holistic  vocational 
outcomes  with  demanding  knowledge  requirements.  In  the  case  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  learning  outcomes  are  relatively  granular  (28).  In  the  Netherlands, 
assessment  is  informed  by  a  relatively  complex  set  of  requirements  in  terms  of 
key competences. 

Where VET provision is highly regulated and there is institutional ownership 
of VET standards (29), there is less of a need for the State to assess the quality of 
the  service  provided.  Indeed,  if  the  State  seeks  to  introduce  more  regulatory 
curricula,  it  may  face  some  resistance  from  the  bodies  that  traditionally  have 
controlled VET provision, such as craft organisations and the local  chambers of 
commerce in Germany. However, if the State in such countries wants to assume 
greater responsibility for the quality and appropriateness of VET provision, then it 
is  likely  that  it  will  look  for  ways  of  making  the  written  curriculum  more 
prescriptive. It may seek to do this by greater precision in learning outcomes, by 
additional pedagogical guidance or by a combination of both. 

(28)  In  the  UK  (England),  not  only  are  the  learning  outcomes  relatively  granular  but  the 
qualification  standards  into  which  learning  outcomes  are  collected  are  unitised.  In 
addition,  both  of  the  case  study  curricula  analysed  are  ‘composite  qualifications’, 
which is to say that each is designed as a framework which incorporates a number of 
other qualifications. 

(29)  There are organisations that are involved both in the design of the qualifications and 

in their provision. 

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7.3.  How do learning outcomes address key 
competences and generic skills? 

The EU policy on key competences challenges Member States to address these 
competences  through  lifelong  learning,  including  IVET  curricula  (European 
Parliament  and  Council  of  the  EU,  2006).  Since  2006,  the  reference  framework 
has  contributed  to  reforms  of  school  curricula  and  vocational  programmes  of 
learning  in  the  Member  States.  A  number  of  countries  have  used  it  to  plan 
curricula  (Austria,  Belgium,  the  Czech  Republic,  France,  Hungary,  Iceland, 
Latvia,  Luxembourg,  the  Netherlands,  Poland,  Romania,  Slovenia  and  Spain) 
and  to  structure,  in  particular,  cross-curricular  work  (Belgium,  Croatia,  Hungary, 
the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia and Spain) (European Commission, 2009). 

The  EU’s  eight  key  competences  are  intended  to  guide  all  educational 
activity  and  to  permeate  every  specialised  curriculum.  Cedefop’s  learning 
outcomes  approaches  in  VET  curricula  distinguishes  the  use  of  learning 
outcomes  within  units  from  their  systemic  use  to  guide  the  entire  education 
system  or  to  set  out  the  general  objectives  of  a  study  programme  (Cedefop, 
2010a).  However,  there is  more than one  way  that  the  VET  system  can ensure 
that  all  high-level  learning  outcomes  are  addressed.  One  way  of  achieving,  for 
instance,  a  wide  range  of  learning  outcomes  is  to  make  it  compulsory  for 
vocational  students  also  to  follow  a  number  of  general  subjects,  for  example 
mathematics,  national  language  and  literature.  The  different  learning  outcomes 
may then be addressed in the most appropriate subject. An alternative strategy is 
to  write  learning  outcomes  that  integrate  key  competences  with  vocational 
competences. In practice, on the basis of the curricula analysed, it was found that 
some  systems  and  institutions  combine  these  strategies  –  at  least  to  some 
degree. 

The first approach, where vocational curricula combine key competences (30) 
and generic skills (31) with academic subjects, is usually found where vocational 
programmes are integrated  within a broad national upper-secondary curriculum. 
Accordingly,  students  study  conventional  academic  disciplines  alongside  their 
vocational  training.  It  follows  that  the  curriculum  experienced  by  the  learner  is 
broader than the vocational option they have chosen. The relative weight given to 
general  and  vocational  learning  outcomes  varies  between  countries  and  within 
countries, and it sometimes varies depending on the institution. 

(30)  As  defined  in  the  recommendation  on  key  competences  for  lifelong  learning.  OJ  L 

394, 30.12.2006, p. 10. 

(31)  By  generic  skills,  we  mean  those  skills  that  apply  across  a  variety  of  jobs  and  life 
contexts,  i.e.  skills  that  are  transferable  and  not  occupation-specific  (European 
Commission, 2011b). 

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In  most  countries,  vocational  and  academic  subjects  (32)  are  quite  distinct. 
They  are  allocated  time  and  are  taught  and  assessed  separately  by  different 
specialists. This is the situation in virtually all of the countries studied. Where the 
vocational  curriculum  is  just  one  component  of  a  broader  curriculum,  it  is  likely 
that  it  is  the  broad  curriculum  (not  the  vocational  element)  that  is  expected  to 
deliver civic, cultural, transverse and other competences. These disciplines may 
be described either by learning outcomes or in some other way. In the curricula 
investigated  in  the  Czech  Republic,  Estonia,  Finland,  France,  Latvia,  Lithuania, 
Slovenia  and  Sweden,  the  curriculum  is  organised  into  subjects,  with  the 
vocational  specialism  being  taught  as  one  or  more  subject  or  subject  module 
among others. 

This  way  of  structuring  the  curriculum  is  transparent:  it  reveals  the 
heterogeneous sources of the IVET curriculum which is drawn from an analysis 
of work requirements, from academic subjects and from other social, political and 
educational  objectives.  A  curriculum  is  segmented  where  vocational,  academic 
and  transverse/generic  learning  outcomes  are  identified  separately  in  separate 
units. They are usually taught and assessed separately as well. In practice, this 
means  that  the  integrity  of  traditional  disciplines  is  preserved,  and  there  is 
relatively little blending between these disciplines and vocational learning. 

The  second  approach,  where  vocational  curricula  integrate  or  incorporate 
generic  skills  and  key  competences,  was  found  to  be  more  common  among 
curricula  that  guide  alternance  programmes  (such  as  the  hospitality  curricula 
reviewed in Germany, Liechtenstein and the Netherlands, and the mechatronics 
curricula). These curricula do seek to integrate generic skills, either by mapping 
them  across  the  units  or  by  embedding  them  so  that  they  are  assessed  in 
conjunction  with  other  learning  outcomes.  Work-based  learning  is  a  substantial 
and  compulsory  part  of  alternance  programmes.  This  being  the  case,  it  makes 
sense for generic skills to be incorporated in a manner that makes them relevant 
and  applicable  to  the  work  situation  and  purpose  –  rather  than  their  being 
handled as a separate subject. 

The decision to write learning outcomes that integrate generic skills and job-
specific  skills  may  be  understood as  an  attempt to  write learning  outcomes that 
engender teaching, learning and assessment in a way that reflects the realities of 
the  learning  environment.  However,  it  also represents  an  ambition  to reflect  the 
complex  and  hybrid  character  of  the  competences  that  workers  require,  for 
example  the  fact  that  a  French  electrician  may  have  to  explain  operating 

(32)  Traditional  academic  material  is  expressed  in  terms  of  subjects  and  subject 
categories  rather  than  learning  outcomes,  although  this  is  changing  in  some 
countries. 

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instructions  written  in  English  to  a  French  client.  This  could  have  considerable 
implications  for  the  way  in  which  a  programme  is  taught  and  assessed,  e.g. 
students could be expected to develop and demonstrate job-specific and generic 
skills  in  projects  or  in  the  workplace  rather  than  in  separate  lessons  and 
examinations.  In  this  way,  an  outcome-oriented  curriculum  may  give  some 
guidance as to how transverse learning outcomes might be taught and assessed 
in relation to vocational learning outcomes. Responses from interviewed learners 
suggest that this is often what they want, since learners were more appreciative 
of  generic  skills  when  they  were  integrated  into vocational  learning  or  into  work 
placements than when they were offered as stand-alone instruction. 

Curricula  which  integrate  generic  skills  and  job-specific  skills  into  learning 
outcomes  may  be  understood  as  an  advanced  form  of  the  learning  outcomes 
approach  (see  Boxes  9  and  10).  In  the  UK  (England),  transverse  skills  are 
incorporated in the form of additional key skills qualifications, alongside the other 
qualifications  that  make  up  the  apprenticeship  in  travel  services.  Key  skills 
qualifications  are  composed  of  outcome-oriented  units;  they  are  assessed  and 
recognised  separately.  They  may  be  taught  in  a  specialised  or  integrated 
manner, depending on the provider. In Ireland, the FETAC professional cooking 
award  includes  modules  that  address  personal,  social,  IT  and  employability 
learning  outcomes.  In  Romania,  separate  units  with  key  competences  are 
incorporated into the technician in tourism curriculum: foreign language learning 
was taught  jointly  with a selection of  vocational  learning  outcomes, for  example 
letter writing, talking to clients, obtaining information, etc. 

In  principle,  an  advantage  of  the  outcome-oriented  approach  is  that 
transverse  skills  and  key  competences  may  be  taught  or  even  assessed  in  a 
cross-curricular  manner  (see  Box  11).  This  may  be  supported  in  curriculum 
design  by  threading  transverse  competences  through  other  units  or,  more 
minimally,  by  providing  a  mapping  of  where  particular  transverse  and  key 
competences  might  be  addressed  (e.g. 
travel  agent 
qualification,  personal  and  social  competences  are  mapped  in  this  way). 
Threading  does  occur  in  the  Irish  national  traineeship,  where  teamwork,  for 
example, is to be taught and assessed through specific elements of the culinary 
techniques module referred to above. 

the  Hungarian 

in 

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Box 9 

Key competences in the tourist travel counsellor programme in Finland 

In  Finland,  in  the  tourist  travel  counsellor  programme,  key  competences  for  lifelong 
learning  are  included  within  the  national  qualification  requirement  as  separate 
assessment targets (which effectively  act  as learning  outcomes).  Accordingly, in the 
compulsory customer service module, assessment targets are structured as follows: 
     mastering the work process – four targets; 
     mastering the work methods, equipment and materials – two targets; 
     underpinning knowledge – eight targets; 
     key competences for lifelong learning – four targets. 
At  local  level,  the  local  curriculum  plan  sets  out  how  these  key  competence  targets 
are to be assessed  – either as integrated  elements through skills demonstrations or 
through  classroom-based  assessment.  The  assumption  in  policy  is  that  key 
competences  will  not  be  taught  separately  but  acquired  and  consolidated  through 
practical  activity  and  on-the-job  learning.  In  other  words,  at  the  level  of  the  national 
written  curriculum,  key  competences  are  not  formally  integrated  with  vocational 
learning  outcomes  but  are  integrated  into  units.  The  re-integration  of  vocational 
learning outcomes and key competences occurs at school level through assessment 
design. 

Source:  Finnish case study. 

Box 10 

Boosting  key  competences 
Netherlands 

in  outcome-oriented  curricula 

in  the 

In  the  Netherlands,  key  competences  have  been  integrated  with  vocational  learning 
outcomes in a sophisticated and systemic fashion. In total, 25 key competences have 
been  defined  at  national  level.  These  are  then  mapped  against  learning  outcomes 
that  are  defined  in  terms  of  work  tasks  and  processes.  In  this  way,  the  qualification 
standards (known as a qualification files) are based as much on key competences as 
on  occupational  competences.  The  granularity  of  key  competences  has  increased, 
while  that  of  vocational  learning  outcomes  has  been  reduced.  This  engenders 
performance  indicators  and  training  programmes  that  emphasise  both  an  ability  to 
ensure  skills  and  knowledge  transfer  and  occupational  mobility.  This  reform  is  a 
response  to  the  concern  that  vocational  qualifications  in  the  Netherlands  were  too 
numerous and too specialised. 

Source:  Netherlands country review. 

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Box 11 

Cultural and civic competences in outcome-oriented curricula 

Where the IVET curriculum is embedded in a broad national curriculum, these cultural 
and civic competences are likely to be delivered either  through  other subjects, such 
as  the  study  of  national  literature  and  history,  or  through  sessions  dedicated  to 
citizenship.  This  is  the  case  in  those  countries  where  vocational  programmes  are 
delivered  in  mainstream  upper-secondary  schools,  e.g.  Sweden,  or  in  specialised 
upper-secondary  schools  that  participate  in  the  national  curriculum,  e.g.  France  and 
Slovenia. These requirements are sometimes reinforced by a high-level statement of 
general educational objectives or competences, for example France’s  socle commun 
and  Scotland’s  curriculum  for  excellence.  The  French  socle  commun  applies  to 
compulsory  education  and  includes  cultural  education,  citizenship  and  autonomy  as 
well as objectives expressed in terms of traditional subjects. 
Where alternance is a dominant mode of VET provision, learners will spend less time 
in  schools,  and  it  might,  therefore,  be  expected  that  less  attention  will  be  given  to 
cultural and civic competences in contrast to school-based systems. This is the case 
with  the  Irish  and  English  apprenticeships  where  no  competences  or  learning 
outcomes relating to cultural or civic competences are included in the curriculum. In 
the case of the German mechatronics standard, however, there is an explicit general 
requirement  that  economic,  political,  social  and  ecological  issues  are  addressed. 
Vocational schools are required to contribute to ‘general education’ by addressing, as 
far  as  possible,  core  contemporary  problems  such  as  unemployment,  peaceful  co-
existence  and  cultural  identity.  Social  competences  are  expressly  included  in  the 
curriculum,  for  example  to  develop  mutual  understanding  with  others,  to  confront 
differences  of  opinion,  and 
responsibility  and  solidarity 
to  develop  social 
(Kultusministerkonferenz, 1998). These general requirements find further expression 
in the detailed statement of learning objectives, competences and content; e.g. in the 
learning  area  relating  to  initialisation,  troubleshooting  and  repair,  students  are 
required to understand the influence of mechatronic systems on economic, ecological 
and social relationships. The Austrian apprenticeship also includes civic and cultural 
competences, but the Dutch standard does not. In the Netherlands, active citizenship 
and lifelong learning are covered not by the VET qualification design process but by 
separate  assessment  procedures  issued  by  the  government  (these  are  separate 
requirements  that  are  not  included  in  the  VET  curriculum).  Schools  are  responsible 
for  the  teaching  and  learning  of  these  learning  outcomes  and  have  some  discretion 
which leads to much variation in extent and quality. 
Standards  which  apply  to  programmes  targeted  at  older  students  who  have 
completed the national curriculum, such as the programmes investigated in Spain and 
Hungary,  do  not  usually  include  broader  civic  and  cultural  competences.  These 
students are understood to have completed this kind of learning during the phase of 
compulsory education. 

Source:  Country reviews. 

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7.4.  How do outcome-oriented curricula address 

pedagogic guidance? 

Analysis of the manner in which pedagogical guidance is addressed suggests the 
following typology for curricula with varying levels of pedagogical guidance: high, 
intermediate and low or none. 

The  curricula  examined  in  the  Czech  Republic,  Estonia,  Finland,  France, 
Greece,  Hungary,  Ireland,  Lithuania,  the  Netherlands,  Norway,  Slovenia,  Spain, 
Sweden and the UK (England) (travel services), were found to be regulative, that 
is  they  included  virtually  no  pedagogical  guidance  (see  Box  12).  However,  in  a 
number  of  these  countries,  pedagogical  guidance  may  be  available  outside  the 
written  curriculum,  for  example  through  websites  and  handbooks  (e.g.  Ireland 
and  the  Netherlands).  In  the  Netherlands,  the  agency  that  designed  the 
mechatronics  qualification  also  produces  a  pedagogical  guide.  In  Croatia,  a 
pedagogical  handbook  is  planned.  It  is  not  known  what  difference  it  makes  to 
teachers  whether  guidance  is  incorporated  into  a  single  authoritative  curriculum 
document or whether it is distributed across a number of official publications and 
websites. This may give teachers greater discretion; it may also lead to tensions 
if guidance and assessment appear to pull in different directions (33). 

By  ‘intermediate-level  pedagogical  guidance’  is  meant  that  there  is  some 
guidance  about  teaching  and  learning  styles  and  time  use;  however,  it  is 
restricted  in  volume  and  substance.  Croatia  and  Hungary  provide  good 
curriculum examples of intermediate-level pedagogical guidance (see Box 13). In 
Croatia,  for  example,  the  description  of  knowledge  and  topics  retains  a  very 
powerful  presence  in  the  new  qualification  standard.  Teachers  are  given 
guidance on how to allocate time between theoretical and practical activities, and 
there are recommended textbooks for teachers and students. 

(33)  This  may  have  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  diploma  in  the  UK  (England)  where 
assessment bodies favoured a linear and unitised teaching and assessment process 
while  some  of  the  expert  networks  favoured  more  thematic  and  contextualised 
approaches. 

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Box 12 

Curriculum examples of low-level pedagogic guidance 

Pedagogical guidance in the Slovenian  gastronomy and tourism curriculum is limited 
to a statement of the total number of hours per module and a prescription for striking 
a balance between theoretical and work-based training in the programme as a whole. 
However, the manner in which the curriculum is stated does appear to correspond to 
pedagogic practice in the taught curriculum. The learning outcomes are granular and 
include a significant amount of knowledge. 
The  Irish  qualification  standard  provides  no  guidance  at  all  on  pedagogy.  However, 
detailed and extensive guidance on pedagogy is provided in the professional cookery 
traineeship  document  which  describes  the  training  programme.  Teachers  from 
vocational  schools  were  given  a  major  role  in  the  writing  of  this  document.  In  the 
traineeship document, trainers are provided with a highly detailed specification of the 
indicative  module  content.  For  example,  the  module  for  culinary  techniques  (a  150-
hour  module)  is  broken  down  into  nine  parts  which  are  weighted  for  assessment 
purposes.  Each  of  these  nine  parts  details  extensive  content.  For  this  module,  the 
training standard provides a page of guidance (which discusses sequence, integration 
of  transverse  skills,  formative  assessment  and  health  and  safety)  and  two  further 
pages listing textbooks and websites. 
The French system does not set out explicit instructions to teachers. Indeed, it is an 
explicit  formal  characteristic  of  the  baccalauréat  professionnel  des  systèmes 
électroniques  et  numériques  that  it  is  defined  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  be 
achieved in different modes: in a vocational school, through apprenticeship, through 
CVET or  through APL. The main prescriptions given to  teachers and trainers in this 
document  relate  to  the  enterprise  period.  The  text  provides  a  general  prescription 
setting out how  work-based learning should be organised  and describing the role of 
the work-based mentor, etc. 

Source:  Slovenian, Irish and French case studies. 

Box 13 

Curriculum examples of intermediate-level pedagogic guidance 

In  Croatia,  a  unit  on  technical  drawing  is  assigned  three  hours  per  week  during  the 
first  year.  Furthermore,  33%  of  the  time  is  allocated  to  theoretical  training,  a  further 
33%  to  practical  training  and  the  final  33%  to  computer  work.  There  is  additional 
pedagogical  guidance  which  makes  it  clear  that  teachers  should  not  restrict 
themselves to traditional didactic methods. Teachers are recommended to use verbal, 
visual  and  practical  methods  (oral  presentations,  discussion,  demonstration,  writing, 
simulation, case studies, brainstorming and workshops). 
In the Hungarian tourism curriculum, there is guidance about the type and balance of 
teaching and learning activities; e.g. in relation to the element on bank transactions, it 
is recommended that learners spend 10% of their time doing professional activities in 
groups  with  support  and  40%  of  their  time  doing  independent  professional  tasks 
under  supervision,  etc.  The  document  also  provides  guidance  on  the  hours  of 
practical and theoretical lessons and the location of lessons, e.g. the use of IT rooms. 

Source:  Croatian and Hungarian case studies. 

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By ‘high-level pedagogic guidance’ is meant that there is detailed guidance 
in relation to how particular units or even learning outcomes might be taught. This 
goes  beyond  references  to  timing  to  identifying  particular  teaching  styles  and 
learning  activities.  Here,  two  differing  examples  of  curricula  that  offer  high-level 
pedagogic  guidance  are  considered:  the  Romanian  and  the  German  curricula 
(see Box 14). 

Box 14 

Curriculum examples of high-level pedagogic guidance 

The Romanian national curriculum document for the technician in tourism programme 
includes  a  statement  of  vocational  competences,  detailed  assessment  criteria  and 
pedagogic  guidance  for  each  module  of  the  programme.  The  pedagogic  guidance 
specifies  which  learning  outcomes  should  be  delivered  through  practical  work  and 
which  in  a  classroom  and  allocates  teaching  time  between  practical  and  theoretical 
learning  for  the  module  as  a  whole.  It  goes  on  to  list  appropriate  teaching  and 
learning  materials  (e.g.  case  studies,  simulations,  online  resources).  According  to 
Cedefop  (2010a),  this  curriculum  may  be  regarded  as  having  a  strong  didactic 
character – at least for some units. The holistic learning outcomes are supported by a 
very  brief  contents  section.  This  is  followed  by  an  extensive  section  on  pedagogy 
which  describes  and  justifies  a  pedagogy  based  on  a  business  simulation.  There  is 
limited guidance on assessment: the school has discretion as to what combination of 
methods to use. 
The German dual system curriculum has also been described as didactic rather than 
regulative (Cedefop, 2010a). However, the German training ordinances that function 
as the curriculum for enterprise-based learning are not strictly didactic because these 
documents  do  not  provide  explicit  guidance  on  pedagogy.  However,  these  training 
ordinances set out how many weeks each learner will spend addressing a particular 
aptitude  and  during  which  year  of  their  apprenticeship.  They  are  able  to  do  this 
because the training programmes are collectively designed and highly regulated. It is 
not  so  much  that  the  curriculum  dictates  pedagogy  as  that  the  well-established 
industrial and school practices of training are reflected in the curriculum. 

Source:  Romanian and German case studies. 

However, explicit pedagogical guidance is just one way in which the written 
curriculum  may  seek  to  influence  pedagogy.  The  inclusion  of  extensive  content 
(for example in Croatia and Ireland) and the setting of new assessment demands 
(for  example  in  France,  see  Box  15)  were  also  reported  to  have  an  impact  on 
pedagogy.  The  following  chapter  presents  additional  factors  that  shape  the 
teaching and learning process. 

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Box 15 

Shaping pedagogy through assessment in France 

Controlled  assessment,  CCF  (contrôle  en  cours  de  formation),  is  an  important 
development in France. It shapes the way in which the assessment standard affects 
pedagogy.  These  assessments  are  intended  to  assess  learning  outcomes  in  the 
course  of  training,  when  learners  are  ready.  Teachers  are  able  to  design  these 
assessments so that they are authentic in relation to professional tasks. There is an 
expectation that they are designed to take account of both the learning outcomes in 
the  qualification  standard  and  the  professional  tasks  defined  in  the  occupational 
standard. Teachers design a matrix of assessment (grille d’évaluation) that configures 
realistic  or  real  work  activities,  learning  outcomes,  evidence  descriptors  and  the 
weighting  (or  co-efficient)  awarded  to  each  learning  outcome.  This  kind  of 
assessment  encourages  teachers  to  place  more  emphasis  on  learning  through 
authentic tasks. CCF is part of summative assessment; however, preparation for CCF 
is shaping pedagogy and formative assessment. 

Source:  French case study. 

7.5.  Key findings 

The form and function of written curricula differ from country to country and even 
within  the  same  country  depending  on  the  type  of  VET  and  qualification  in 
question. The present analysis allows the following conclusions to be drawn: 
(a)  outcome-oriented  curricula  are  expected  not  only  to  define  the  various 
elements  of  learning  –  the  learning  outcomes  –  but  also  to  provide 
assurance  that  these  elements  are  coherent  and  may  be  combined  and 
made useful and intelligible.  This is a common expectation for all outcome-
oriented  curricula;  there  are  different  ways  in  which  this  coherence  is 
addressed,  for  example  through  overriding  high-level  competences  and 
through transversal  skills,  units,  modules,  work  placement  and  assessment 
practices.  Assessment  criteria,  content,  detailed  knowledge  requirements 
and  pedagogical  guidance  work  together  with  learning  outcomes  to  guide 
teachers  and  trainers.  This  means  that  curricula  become  complex  and 
teachers will need to decide how much importance to give to different parts 
of the written curriculum. This may serve to give teachers more discretion in 
how  they  implement  new  curricula,  although  it  also  poses  challenges  for 
their delivery; 

(b)  outcome-oriented  curricula  may  be  compared  according  to  the  degree  of 
granularity  of  the  specified  learning  outcomes.  Analysis  suggests  an 
association between the degree of granularity of learning outcomes and the 
degree  of  regulative  purpose  of  the  curriculum.  A  curriculum  with  a  highly 
regulative  purpose  seeks  to  define  learning  outcomes  which  then  regulate 
learning  through  assessment  criteria.  However,  there  appear  to  be  other 

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factors at play. In some standards, learning outcomes are relatively holistic, 
but  prescription  of  teaching  and  assessment  is  provided  through  the 
specification  of  knowledge,  e.g.  in  France,  or  the  specification  of  key 
competences, e.g. in the Netherlands; 

(c)  a  highly  regulative  outcome-oriented  curriculum  is  sometimes  associated 
with  a  relatively  unregulated  competitive  VET  market,  e.g.  in  the  UK 
(England).  Rather  than regulating the quality  of providers  or their  entry  into 
the VET market, the State uses the written curriculum to  ensure the quality 
of  VET  provision  by  specifying  which  learning  outcomes  will  be  assessed. 
The  manner  of  this  quality  assurance  varies  between  countries;  most 
countries  will  accredit  both  programmes  and  providers  to  some  degree. 
Where VET provision is highly regulated and there is institutional ownership 
of VET standards, there is less of a need for the State to assess the quality 
of  the  service  provided.  In  consequence,  there  is  less  need  for  a  highly 
prescriptive curriculum; 

(d)  some  IVET  curricula,  particularly  but  not  only  those  that  are  taught  in  VET 
schools  to  learners  who  have  completed  compulsory  education,  include 
requirements for generic skills or key competences that are not expressed in 
terms  of  subjects.  These  key  competences  may  be  integrated  with  other 
learning  outcomes  (e.g.  German  mechatronics)  or  they  may  be  expressed 
as  distinct  learning  outcomes  situated  in  separate  units  (e.g.  the  Irish 
national  traineeship)  or  distributed  through  many  units  (e.g.  Hungarian 
tourist  technician).  Alternatively,  generic  skills  may  be  systematically 
integrated  across  units,  e.g.  in  the  Netherlands.  Some  curricula  aim  to 
encourage  the  learning  of  generic  skills  through  both  academic  and 
vocational  subjects  (e.g.  the  Slovenian  gastronomy  and  tourism  curriculum 
and  the  English  engineering  diploma).  These  arrangements  will  have 
implications  for  whether  and  how  key  competences  and  generic  skills  are 
taught and acquired. 

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CHAPTER 8. 
The taught curriculum: pedagogies and 
learning environments 

8.1. 

Introduction 

This chapter focuses on how the  written curriculum is  delivered in teaching and 
learning  activities  in  schools  and  training  centres  and  in  work-based  learning. 
Findings are based on a case study approach in 14 countries and in 25 teaching 
and training institutions. The institutions selected are unlikely to be representative 
of  all  institutions  teaching  a  particular  programme,  as  they  have  different 
characteristics  and  serve  different  stakeholders.  Accordingly,  extreme  caution 
must be exercised in generalising across case studies. Furthermore, the research 
into  the  design  of  outcome-oriented  curricula  is,  in  most  cases,  based  on 
relatively  new  curricula,  since  these  curricula  are  most  up-to-date  in  terms  of 
outcome-oriented approaches. Inevitably, new written curricula will be at an early 
stage  of  implementation,  so  it  is  likely  that  the  taught  curriculum  is  only  now 
emerging  and  that  current  teaching  and  learning  styles  are  in  the  process  of 
adaptation,  if  they  have  adapted  at  all.  In  what  follows,  therefore,  attention  is 
often drawn to the manner in which the understanding and behaviour of teachers 
is or is not changing. 

8.2.  How does the written curriculum influence the 

taught curriculum? 

Pedagogy in relation to highly granular written curricula 

8.2.1. 
A  common  concern  is  that  highly  granular,  regulative  curricula  encourage  an 
instrumental approach to pedagogy where teachers and learners are concerned 
only  with  generating  evidence  of  each  outcome  and  lose  sight  of  the 
competences which are supposed to be developed (Cort, 2010). Where learning 
outcomes  are  both  highly  granular  and  highly  contextualised,  this  is  likely  to 
reduce the need for teachers and assessors to interpret the curriculum to teach 
and  assess.  Critics  have  represented  this  as  a  Taylorisation  of  teaching  and 
assessment,  which  reduces  discretion  and,  accordingly,  reduces  costs  and 
increases  management  control  and  accountability  (Felstead  et  al.,  2011). 
However, just because learning outcomes are specified in a highly disaggregated 

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way,  it  does  not  follow  that  either  teaching  or  assessment  must  be fragmented. 
Indeed,  in  the  case  of  the  Irish  leavers’  certificate  and  the  Luxembourg 
mechatronics diploma, the high granularity of learning outcomes is combined with 
holistic  assessment  practices,  i.e.  the  combined  assessment  of  a  multitude  of 
diverse learning outcomes. 

Where  the  high  granularity  of  learning  outcomes  is  accompanied  by  well-
articulated  assessment  criteria  (e.g.  the  English  NVQ  and  the  English  level  3 
certificate in travel services), then the assessment criteria influence the teaching 
and learning practice. In highly granular curricula, one learning outcome may be 
defined by seven or more assessment criteria. If assessment is continuous (e.g. 
as in the English NVQ and the Irish national traineeship) or if there are periods of 
extended  assessment  during  the  teaching  process  (e.g.  as  in  the  baccalauréat 
professionnel  des  systèmes  électroniques  et  numériques  in  France),  then  the 
assessment criteria will be interpreted by teachers as instructions on what should 
be going on during learning. This is because there is no longer a clear distinction 
between teaching and assessment: ‘In this process [continuous assessment], it is 
difficult  to  separate  training  from  assessment’  (interview  with  teacher,  French 
case study). 

Box 16 

Learning informed by competences in Spain 

In  Spain,  the  higher  technical  tourist  guide  programme  is  relatively  prescriptive  and 
granular. One of the vocational schools visited has chosen to deliver one unit of the 
programme through a simulated travel agency that has been set up in the school. It is 
reported  that,  in  designing  the  taught  curriculum,  teachers  went  back  to  the 
occupational standard (known as the professional profile) to understand in detail the 
work  tasks  and  skills  that  tourism  workers  are  expected  to  perform.  The  teachers 
found  that  the  written  curriculum  failed  to  provide  a  sufficiently  detailed  or 
contextualised understanding of these competences, although it does set out learning 
outcomes. It was also reported that there are many other vocational teachers in Spain 
who continue to base their teaching  on the content defined  in the  written curriculum 
(alongside the learning outcomes) rather than take more active approaches. 
This  suggests  that  the  inclusion  of  learning  outcomes  in  the  written  curriculum  may 
not  be  sufficient  to  bring  about  the  adoption  of  more  active  and  authentic  learning 
approaches. In Spain, it has proved helpful that teachers are guided by occupational 
standards  as  well  as  by  qualification  and  educational  standards  –  because  an 
awareness  of  the  competences  behind  the  learning  outcomes  encourages  them  to 
use simulations and authentic work tasks as modes of teaching and learning. 

Source:  Spanish case study. 

Pedagogy in relation to written curricula with minimal granularity 

8.2.2. 
In curricula where learning outcomes are relatively holistic and the curriculum is 
not heavily  loaded  with detailed requirements in terms of knowledge, content or 

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other  educational  components,  this  implies  greater  discretion  for  teachers  with 
respect  to  pedagogy.  This  is  particularly  the  case  if  the  design  of  assessment 
criteria, as well as the design of assessment methods, is delegated from national 
to school or local level. 

In  Germany,  there  are  effectively  two  curricula  (educational  standards)  for 
the  mechatronics  programme,  one  for  the  school-based  and  one  for  the 
enterprise-based  component.  Both  curricula  are  relatively  holistic  and  do  not 
explicitly  define  extensive  knowledge  requirements  (content)  or  detailed 
pedagogic approaches. On the school-based side, specialised vocational schools 
write  their  own  training  programmes  (school  curricula)  in  the  light  of  a  regional 
written curriculum, and they also design appropriate assessment methods. In the 
German  case  study,  this  local  discretion  was  welcomed  by  some  teachers  but 
criticised by others. Some welcomed the freedom of interpretation they enjoyed: 
in  one  school,  teachers  commented  that  this  flexibility  made  it  possible  to  bring 
together electrical and mechanical engineering (a key ambition of mechatronics) 
because  they  could  use  their  discretion  to  select  appropriate  content  from  two 
subjects  rather  than  trying  to  cover  six  years’  worth  of  content  in  a  three  year 
programme. However, other teachers expressed concern that the learning areas 
(34)  were  not  sufficiently  prescriptive  –  that  it  was  difficult  for  vocational  school 
teachers  to  know  what  content  or  learning  outcomes  to  teach  and  assess  and 
what content to leave out. 

This  finding  suggests  that  teachers  interpret  the  written  curriculum  in  the 
light  of  their  own  established  institutional  practice.  Where  teachers  are  used  to 
teaching content (rather than learning outcomes), they read an outcome-oriented 
curriculum  with  an  implicit  understanding  of  what  content  they  expect  to  teach, 
and  this  prior  understanding  informs  the  way  they  interpret  and  implement  the 
new  curriculum.  However,  this  same  process  may  lead  to frustration if  teachers 
find  it  difficult  to  decide  independently  what  content  is  needed  to  achieve  the 
learning outcomes defined in the written curriculum. Not surprisingly, the way that 
teachers  interpret  written  curricula  will  be  affected  by  long-term  professional 
habits which have been shaped by the character of curricula in the past (35) (see 
Section 8.3). 

Norway’s 2+2 model also provides considerable discretion for trainers. One 
interviewee  at  a  company-run  training  centre  in  Norway  commented  on  the 
national  curriculum:  ‘You  can  read it  any  way  you  like’  (Norwegian  case  study). 

(34)  The  German  curriculum  organises 

learning  outcomes 

into 

learning  areas 

(Lernfelden) that combine theoretical, applied and general learning outcomes. 

(35)  For a critique on how some outcome-oriented approaches handle content, see Allais, 

2012. 

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This freedom permits the training company to tailor the training programme very 
closely to the needs of its client companies and to local employers. Pedagogy is 
shaped  by  the  productive  and  commercial  realities  of  the  working  world  of 
engineering.  This  might  be  described  as  a  company-centred  rather  than  a 
learner-centred  approach.  This  approach  implies  that  learning  experiences  are 
shaped  by  the  logic  of  production  and  the  market.  It  follows  that  the  taught 
curriculum in this training environment reflects the characteristics of the industrial 
sector it serves, to a much greater degree than those taught curricula which are 
partly or entirely school-based. The holistic definition of the learning outcomes in 
Norway’s  mechatronics  curriculum  helps  trainers  to  reconcile  the  need  for  the 
learner  to  gain  a  comprehensive  set  of  learning  outcomes  with  a  project-driven 
mode of learning. The learning outcomes are formulated in a generalised manner 
which  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  permeate  learning  that,  in  a  working 
enterprise,  must  be  divided  by  projects  and  specialised  environments.  Trainees 
contribute  to  larger  complex  projects,  but  they  also  have  the  chance  to  see 
projects  through  from  beginning  to  end  in  the  training  workshop.  Learning 
outcomes  are  articulated  in  a  generalised  way,  which  means  that  they  can  be 
kept at the back of trainers’ minds and can be pervasive rather than allocated to 
particular projects. 

Finland is another example in this category where the written curriculum has 
been recently revised to make its vocational qualification in the tourism industry 
more  holistic.  This  has  been  done  at  a  number  of  levels:  the  qualification 
addresses a broader range of occupations in the industry, modules are larger and 
there has been a reduction in the specification of knowledge requirements. At the 
same time, the responsibility for defining the assessment criteria has been taken 
away  from  schools.  Assessment  criteria  are  now  defined  at  national  level,  and 
there  is  a  greater  focus  on  skills  demonstration  and  the  assessment  of 
performance  during  enterprise-based  learning  rather  than  the  assessment  of 
knowledge. Given this change in practice and responsibility, some of the teachers 
interviewed  expressed  concerns  that  they  had  difficulty  understanding  the 
meaning  of  the  assessment  criteria  which  are  published  in  the  national 
qualification  requirements  documentation.  The  challenge  in  Finland  was  that, 
while  the  new  assessment  criteria  were  aligned  with  the  outcome-oriented 
curriculum,  some  teachers  found  that  this  was  not  the  case  with  their  own 
teaching  practice.  This  may  be  because  their  teaching  practice  places  greater 
emphasis on academic content. 

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Box 17  Work-based pedagogy in Norway 

Training  at  training  company  ‘N’  is  project-based.  Apprentices  work  on  real 
commercial  orders  as  well  as  practice  projects.  Instructors  and  apprentices  do  not 
have the learning outcomes at the forefront of their minds when working on individual 
projects;  rather,  they  form  a  backdrop.  As  one  instructor  commented:  ‘We  almost 
never talk about the training plan in a work context’ but ‘the training plan is always at 
the back of our minds’. This appears to be a consequence of the very general way in 
which  the  learning  outcomes  (or  competence  aims)  are  described:  it  would  be  hard 
not to acquire them through an apprenticeship. 
What company ‘N’ and its sponsoring companies seek to do is to deliver the highest 
quality  apprenticeship  which  delivers  high-quality  employees.  This  is  achieved  by 
selecting  the  most  able  students  and  providing  them  with  the  latest  technology  on 
which to practice in real work situations so they can develop technical competences 
to  a  breadth  and  depth  beyond  those  required  to  pass  the  trade  certificate 
examination.  The  workshop  manager  commented 
that  quality  and  discipline 
increased when the workshop started operating commercially in early 2010. 
The  approach  used  is  to  provide  experiential  learning  in  as  realistic  a  setting  as 
possible.  Most  apprentices  divide  their  time  equally  between  a  training  workshop 
(called the production hall) and productive work in the companies, e.g.  the computer 
numerical  control  (CNC)  course,  an  apprentice’s  cycle  of  four  weeks  in  the  training 
workshop  and  four  weeks  in  a  company.  However,  the  training  workshop  produces 
engineering  solutions  on  a  commercial  basis,  and  so  there  is  no  strict  division 
between  learning  and  being  productive.  The  workshop  manager  is  responsible  for 
commercial outputs, and ISO 9001 has been implemented in the production line. The 
training  workshop  is  designed  to  give  apprentices  opportunities  to  see  projects 
through from beginning to end – many interviewees remarked that, when apprentices 
are  working  in  their  sponsoring  companies,  they  work  on  only  a  small  part  of  a 
project, since the companies are large; their training workshop is more likely to be in a 
small company where they have to perform many tasks. There was little evidence of 
specifically  designed  pedagogical  materials.  Apprentices  work  from  the  same 
manuals as those used by employees. 

Source:  Norwegian case study. 

Evidence  from  this  research  suggests  that  teachers  were  able  to  make 
sense  of  the  new  assessment  criteria  when  they  discussed  the  text  with  one 
another and with employers. Teachers reported that: ‘The documentation needs 
to  be  read  with  employers  –  words  need  to  be  “opened”  in  a  work  context’ 
(Finnish case study). This finding reminds us that teachers have to interpret and 
make sense of curricula and that they may need to go back to employers and the 
workplace  to  understand  the  emphasis  on  competence  in  the  workplace  as 
opposed to meeting traditional educational and training standards. 

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8.3.  Which other factors influence teaching practice? 

The analysis on the granularity of learning outcomes suggests that it is the type 
and balance of learning outcomes that are significant for the choice of pedagogy 
–  rather  than  the  fact  that  the  curriculum  includes  learning  outcomes.  It  is 
misleading,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  pedagogy  is  devised  primarily  as  a 
response  to  learning  outcomes  or,  indeed,  in  response  to  any  curriculum. 
Accordingly,  we  should  not  assume  that  the  taught  curriculum  is  driven  in  a 
simple and immediate fashion by the written curriculum – even if it is an outcome-
oriented curriculum. As will be seen in this and the following sections, there are 
many  other  factors  that  influence  the  behaviour  of  teachers,  school  managers 
and  learners  apart  from  the  written  curriculum;  these  include  the  professional 
experience  of  the  teacher,  the  way  the  learning  environment  is  set  up,  the 
characteristics and needs of the learners, the available (financial) resources and 
infrastructure,  the  institutional  particularities,  the  teacher’s  degree  of  autonomy 
and the teacher’s habits and values (Anneli, 1998; Barrow et al., 2007; Megahed 
et  al.,  2012;  Psifidou,  2008;  Psifidou,  2011a).  For  the  most  part,  new  curricula 
intervene  in  well-established  practices.  Teachers  may  make  changes  to  their 
practice, but they are also able to re-interpret curricula so that they fit with their 
objectives  and  are  realistic  within  the  constraints  under  which  they  operate. 
Persuading teachers to make changes to their pedagogy is a form of learning in 
itself: 
there  are  emotional,  political,  cognitive  and  personal  dimensions 
(Vähäsantanen  and  Eteläpelto,  2009).  This  is  why  it  is  said  that  pedagogical 
chance  often  requires  ‘getting  teachers  to  unlearn  in  order  to  learn’  (Psifidou, 
2011b). 

In  a  few  countries,  some  interviewees  claimed  that  older  teachers  found  it 
challenging to change their habits after many years of teaching. In particular, this 
might make it difficult for teachers to adopt more learner-centred approaches or 
to work more collaboratively with their colleagues. This is reflected in comments 
made by a Slovenian head teacher: ‘…we will  work on this reform; there will be 
younger and better teachers, because those who have been in education system 
for  20  years  and  are  used  to  one  concept  are  more  set  in  their  ways,  and  it  is 
harder for them to adjust to a new approach’ (Slovenian case study). 

Regardless of whether teachers and trainers were based in schools, training 
companies or enterprises, they usually had a strong understanding of how to train 
and  were  reluctant  to  introduce  changes.  A  training  manager  in  a  large  travel 
company  pointed  out  that  the  company  had  acquired  extensive  training 
experience  relating  to  many  qualifications  over  a  period  of  30  years.  The 
company was confident about its ability to deliver training. When asked whether 
the design of the curriculum has an impact on her approach to training or on the 

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approach  of  other  members  of  her  team,  the  manager  replied:  ‘Not  really, 
because  it  is  the  way  we  have  been  doing  things  in  the  company  for  years’ 
(interview with training manager, UK (England)). 

Some schools (for example one school in Ireland and another in Denmark) 
reported that they had a centre or council within the institution that was dedicated 
to the development of new pedagogical initiatives and the sharing of approaches 
and  was  able  to  provide  tailored  support.  Teachers  reported  that  such  centres 
were valuable, although there was no evidence that these particular centres were 
attuned to support outcome-oriented or learner-centred approaches. 

However, although, in practice, curricula may have only a marginal influence 
on  the  practice  of  teachers,  this  does  not  mean  that  teachers  do  not  perceive 
curricula, even outcome-oriented curricula, as having a constraining effect. 

One  teacher,  working  with  a  relatively  granular  set  of  learning  outcomes, 

said:  

‘From my own experience – because the learning outcomes are prescribed – 
you  feel  there  is  a  path  to  take.  It  does  not  give  you  free  rein,  you  are 
constrained. You feel that is the way to go (...) certain styles of learning will lead 
to certain outcomes’ (Irish case study). 

Box 18 

Turning learning outcomes into teaching in Denmark 

At a number of technical colleges in Jutland,  Denmark, teachers and school leaders 
have implemented a project aimed at developing the competences of the teachers to 
turn learning outcomes into teaching on the foundation and main course for hotel and 
catering.  The  project  work  involved  discussion  of  the  learning  outcomes  defined  by 
the trade committee and subsequently transforming them into actual teaching. 
This process was described by the teachers as not only ‘rewarding’ but also difficult, 
as  the  learning  outcomes  were  formulated  at  an  abstract  level  and  were,  at  times, 
confusing in their use of concepts and their taxonomy. The teachers felt that they had 
developed  a  common  understanding  of  the  trade  which  went  beyond  their  own 
subject focus. However, they also discovered that not all learning can be described. 
This  leads  to  the  risk  that  teaching  will  become  more  instrumental  –  teachers  will 
teach  to  formal  outcomes,  as  these  are  measurable,  even  though  they  do  not 
represent the competences intended. 

Source:  Sørensen and Størner, 2009. 

It  should  not  be  assumed  that  it  is  straightforward  for  teachers  to  interpret 
what is required by learning outcomes. The message may be complicated by the 
fact  that  teachers  may  be  expected  to  synthesise  messages  from  a  variety  of 
national and local curriculum documents and guidance material. Some teachers 
believed  that  there  was  insufficient  emphasis  placed  on  competence  in  the 
learning  outcomes.  In  Finland,  teachers  interviewed  complained  that  the 

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language  used  to  express  the  learning  outcomes  was  too  administrative  rather 
than being relevant to the language of industry. 

It was common for interviewees to report that the adoption of learner-centred 
approaches  was  hindered  by  teaching  habits  of  frontal  lecturing  or  by  a 
preference for transmitting content. In many countries, outcome-oriented curricula 
are heavily loaded with content. Some teachers and head teachers experienced 
a tension between what they understood to be the innovative pedagogy implied 
by  an  outcome-oriented  curriculum  and  the  responsibility  to  do  justice  to 
extensive  lists  of  content;  this  is  the  case,  for  example,  in  Ireland.  Teachers 
expressed  frustration  at  simply  not  being  able  to  cover  the  identified  content  in 
the time available, or they reported that they made use of lectures to get through 
the extensive content, even though they knew that the students much preferred 
active learning. 

This  is  reflected  in  comments  made  by  a  teacher  in  Finland  about  the 
national qualification requirements relating to mechatronics that are considered to 
be  over-specified  and  too  wide-ranging:  ‘It’s  like  a  fairy  tale.  It  would  take  five 
years to do the automation course’ (Finnish case study). 

8.4.  Outcome-oriented curricula and learner-centred 

pedagogies 

research  was  concerned  with  discovering  whether 

This 
learner-centred 
pedagogies were associated with outcome-oriented approaches and what factors 
might encourage the adoption of such pedagogies. The research discovered that 
a variety of pedagogies, usually described as learner-centred, were being used in 
the  delivery  of  outcome-oriented  vocational  programmes.  However,  these 
pedagogies are not representative of a coherent approach. In the first place, the 
literature  on  learner-centred  approaches  gives  diverse  accounts  of  pedagogies, 
often  using  different  terminology,  such  as  ‘active  learning’,  ‘student-centred 
learning’ and ‘open learning’ (QCA, 2008; Cedefop, 2010a). Furthermore, there is 
not  a  single  approach  but  a  variety  of  alternative  pedagogies,  such  as  enquiry-
based  and  community-based  learning  (OECD,  2010).  The  way  that  learner-
centred learning is understood is not consistent across the case studies (with the 
partial  exception  of  Denmark),  and  some  but  not  all  of  the  activities  associated 
with the learner-centred approach are practised in different schools. 

For 

the  purposes  of 

learner-centred  pedagogies  are 
understood  as  a  range  of  teaching  and  learning  approaches  which  may  be 
associated  in  practice  and  which  may  share  some  theoretical  or  pragmatic 
assumptions and values. These practices include, inter alia, experiential learning, 

this  research, 

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reflective  learning,  project  learning,  open  learning,  dialogic  learning,  group 
learning, practical learning and active learning. They may be defined in contrast 
to  ‘teacher-centred’  or  ‘traditional’  approaches  characterised  as  teaching  that 
departs  from  the  traditional  model  of  whole-class  teaching  where  the  pace  and 
focus of learning is directly controlled by the teacher and the dominant activity is 
for  the  teacher  to  talk  while  the  students  listen  and/or  write.  Learner-centred 
pedagogies are often characterised as innovative pedagogies. 

In  a  number  of  countries,  for  example,  Germany,  Slovenia  and  the  UK 
(England), it was reported that active and learner-centred learning methods were 
being promoted and were favoured by national VET agencies and by vocational 
teachers and head teachers. However, support for this kind of pedagogy was not 
particularly  attributed  to  the  introduction  of  outcome-oriented  curricula.  In  some 
other  countries,  these  pedagogies  are  associated  with  new  curricula  because 
they are explicitly recommended, e.g. in Romania, or they are promoted through 
professional development, e.g. in Croatia. 

The  teaching  and  learning  methods  used  in  the  vocational  schools  visited 
included, apart from lecturing, problem-solving, skills demonstration, learning by 
doing,  project  work,  group  work,  IT  work,  simulations,  role  plays  and  practical 
assignments. Most of them were familiar and habitual to the teachers and trainers 
interviewed;  they  were  understood  in  terms  of  conventional  practice  in  the 
workplace (e.g. teamwork in a business) rather than as being learner-centred or 
resting  on  any  other  educational  justification.  Project  work  was  associated  with 
experiential  learning  that  consists  of  learning  through  the  performance  of  tasks, 
and it was also associated with assessment, which sometimes took the form of a 
work-related  assignment.  Project  work  sometimes  provided  opportunities  for 
students to make choices about the problems they were going to try to solve or 
the services or products that they were going to supply. 

These  and  other  learner-centred  pedagogies  have  been  adopted  by  most 
but  not  all  of  the  teachers  interviewed.  They  were  found  to  be  attractive  to 
teachers, as much because they are often innovative (and, perhaps, fashionable) 
and appear to be effective and popular as because they are supported by theory 
and research. 

In Denmark, one of the schools investigated did exhibit a well-developed and 
coherent  learner-centred  approach  to  delivering  the  Industriteknikeruddanelsen 
programme:  the  open-learning  method.  This  approach,  which  placed  the 
individual learner at the centre of his/her learning process, had been in place for 
seven years. Open learning was reported to be consistent with the desire to allow 
teachers  pedagogical  freedom  and  to  give  students  and  other  stakeholders 
greater influence over the taught curriculum. Open learning implied that ‘students 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

may  develop  their  competences  [at]  their  own  speed  of  learning  and  in 
accordance  with  their  own  personal  learning  styles’.  It  also  involves  cultural 
change:  ‘humour  and  permission  to  laugh  in  learning  situations  are  important 
factors  in  engaging  students’  (interview  with  teachers,  Danish  case  study).  This 
approach was regarded as very successful in this particular school. 

However,  the  second  school  that  was  visited  in  Denmark  organised  the 
teaching and learning of the Industriteknikeruddanelsen programme on the basis 
of a whole-class method rather than in an individualised manner. This approach 
was  preferred  because  it  was  reported  to  sharpen  the  focus  on  the  learning 
outcomes for teaching and assessment purposes. Furthermore, it was held to be 
time-efficient  and  to  strengthen  the  relationship  between  students  and  a 
particular  teacher.  In Denmark,  where there  is  a  well-articulated  learner-centred 
concept  of  pedagogy,  some  schools  see  this  as  working  well  with  an  outcome-
oriented curriculum, while others do not. 

In the Finnish case study, it was reported that the learning outcomes in the 
mechatronics curriculum had been effectively designed to reflect working life and 
that  this  had  brought  about  a  change  in  teaching  methods.  In  particular,  there 
was  an  increased  focus  on  practical  learning  –  both  in  school  and  during 
enterprise-based  training.  In  this  case,  the  change  in  curriculum  has  been 
supported  by  a  change  in  assessment:  90%  of  the  marks  in  the  final  certificate 
are awarded on the basis of skills demonstrations. 

There was evidence that teachers adapted pedagogies in the light of learner 
responses.  For  example,  in  the  UK  (England),  a  school  and  a  university  are 
collaborating to deliver the advanced diploma in engineering. However, one unit 
has  proved  to  be  challenging  for  students  who  felt  unsupported  by  a  pedagogy 
that  was  traditional,  lecture-based  and  theoretical.  Typically,  the  university 
teaching style consists of the teacher making a PowerPoint presentation which is 
followed  by  independent  learning.  In  the  future,  this  unit  will  be  taught  by  the 
school not the university (English case study on engineering diploma). 

Vocational and mixed schools in several countries reported that conventional 
timetables  were  suspended  for  project  days  or  project  weeks  so  that  students 
could  work  together  on  more  extended  problem-oriented  tasks  and  achieve  a 
result  and  gain  feedback  over  a  shorter  period  of  time.  In  some  cases,  these 
periods  of  suspended  timetable  made  it  possible  for  a  variety  of  learning 
outcomes from different subjects to be identified and achieved, e.g. in Slovenia. 
However,  it  was  also  reported  that  that  many  schools  lacked  confidence  in  or 
enthusiasm for this approach, and that they preferred to keep subjects separate 
and stick with a conventional timetable, e.g. in France. 

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During  this  research,  it  has  not  been  possible  to  carry  out  any  kind  of 
objective  analysis  of  the  relative  importance  of  different  methods  in  different 
schools,  countries or  subjects.  However,  it  was possible to interview  learners  in 
the different institutions visited and find out how they perceive and value the way 
that outcome-oriented curricula are taught to them. 

Students  studying  the  advanced  diploma  in  engineering  at  a  school  in  the 
UK (England) commented on the freedom that they have to decide  what  will be 
the focus of their projects. Although the curriculum is structured and teachers and 
students  say  that  they  are  guided  by  the  assessment  criteria,  the  project 
approach  means  that  students  may  choose  their  own  means  of  demonstrating 
their  skills  and  knowledge  and  providing  the  evidence  required.  This  kind  of 
personalisation is popular with students. Personalisation has been highlighted by 
the  OECD  as  part  of  the  agenda  for  making  learning  environments  ‘truly 
effective’:  ‘activities  that can  be  characterised  as  “profoundly  personalised”, that 
is  ‘acutely  sensitive  to  individual  and  group  differences  in  background’  (OECD, 
2010). 

Learners  in  most  countries  were  particularly  enthusiastic  about  learning 
which  they  experienced  as  closely  connected  to  work,  such  as  learning  from 
‘authentic’  tasks.  Realistic  learning  activities  included  work  simulation,  having 
contact with real clients or real workers and with enterprises, and contributing to 
commercial  projects.  Danish  students  talked  enthusiastically  about  one  project 
where  they  produced  a  barbeque  (which  they  subsequently  took  home)  and 
about  another,  group-based  project  in  which  they  constructed  a  gear  box, 
managing their own work and recording the process. 

Work-based learners valued learning in the workplace and the opportunity to 
carry out real tasks, to produce items which were valued by real employers or by 
their  customers  and  to  be  paid.  Learners  often  reported  that  they  wanted  more 
opportunities for work experience. 

In  most  countries,  project  work  was  popular.  However,  some  students  in 
several  countries,  for  example  Denmark  and  Germany,  commented  that  project 
work became ineffective if it was not well supervised and supported by teachers. 
Danish  students  criticised  ‘the  teacher  who  explains  something  once,  leaving  it 
for the learner to put the instructions into practice’ (Danish case study). Students 
had particular concerns when they believed that they were not  being sufficiently 
supported 
their  summative  assessment. 
Furthermore,  some  students  commented  that  traditional  lectures  were  more 
effective for basic subjects in the early stages of courses. 

formed  part  of 

in  projects 

that 

Learners  in  a  number  of  case  studies,  such  as  in  Hungary  and  the  UK 
(England),  valued  their  programmes  because  they  could  understand  how  their 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

curriculum could support progress into higher education as well as work. Where 
programmes  were  taught  in  collaboration  with  higher  education,  as  in  the  case 
study on the advanced engineering diploma in the UK (England), this was valued 
by  students  because  of  the  way  that  it  supported  their  progression.  Teachers 
reported  that  programmes  which  included  general  learning  outcomes,  such  as 
mathematics, had helped students who were disaffected by conventional school 
education  to  see  the  relevance  of  key  competences  and  to  develop  these 
competences, e.g. in Denmark and the UK (England). 

However,  some  students  were  critical  of  parts  of  their  outcome-oriented 
curricula  and  of  the  way  they  were  taught.  For  example,  students  in  both 
Denmark  (industrial  engineering)  and  Ireland  (professional  cooking)  found  the 
theoretical learning outcomes challenging and unattractive. Students in Denmark, 
for  example,  were  less  interested  in  academic  subjects,  such  as  physics, 
chemistry and cultural studies, which they could not link directly to their work. In 
Slovenia,  students  believed  that  they  lacked  practical  skills  in  mechatronics  or 
that  had  insufficient  work  experience.  They  were  concerned  that  this  would 
disadvantage  them  in  the  employment  market.  According  to  some  teachers, 
these theoretical learning outcomes do constitute a barrier for those learners who 
do not have sufficiently high levels of key competences, for example literacy and 
mathematics.  On  the  contrary,  where  students  planned  to  progress  to  higher 
education, they particularly valued general subject learning and generic skills, for 
example mathematics and English language skills. 

Finally,  some  students  and  teachers  were  very  aware  of  the  status  of  their 
particular institution, e.g. in Hungary and Norway. Even where outcome-oriented 
curricula  are  well  established  and  effectively  taught,  it  appears  that  the  quality 
and reputation of particular institutions can be very important in giving credibility 
to qualifications and opening doors to employment and further education. 

8.5.  Developing the practice of teachers and trainers  

In some of the case studies, there is evidence that national curriculum agencies 
or  teaching  professional  development  agencies  are  developing  guidance  for 
teachers  (and  training  programmes)  that  bring  together  innovative  pedagogies. 
Professional development of teachers was frequently mentioned as a key factor 
in relation to the introduction of learner-centred pedagogies. 

In France, the inspectors and teachers involved in developing local regional 
training  programmes  distribute  teaching  and  learning  resources  designed  to 
support  the  teaching  and,  in  particular,  the  assessment  of  the  baccalauréat 

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professionnel des systèmes électroniques et numériques through a website (36). 
The  website  includes  information  about  equipment,  timetables  and  enterprise-
based training as well as an online forum. In addition, there are regular seminars 
where  those  involved  in  teaching  vocational  baccalaureates  come  together  with 
other  teachers  in  their  sector  (including  those  teaching  CAPs,  BEPs  and  BTSs 
(37)) to exchange ideas, share resources and update their practice. 

National development agencies sometimes use training as part of a broader 
strategy  of  encouragement  and  guidance  to  develop  pedagogy.  The  Croatian 
National Agency for VET and Adult Education (ASOO) is publishing a book about 
pedagogy  which  is  intended  to  support  active  learning.  In  Slovakia,  it  was 
reported that the national VET institute was pushing schools to make greater use 
to  encourage  greater 
of  project-based 
collaboration  between  school-  and  enterprise-based 
learning.  A  national 
professional development agency, the Learning and Skills Improvement Service 
(LSIS), was commissioned to provide training for teachers of the new  advanced 
diploma  for  engineering  in  the  UK  (England).  This  training  aimed  to  equip 
teachers with a portfolio of innovative pedagogies (Stanley, 2012). 

teaching,  which  was  expected 

It  was  reported  that  there  are  national  cross-curricula  initiatives  (or  at  least 
advice, as in France) to encourage innovative teaching and learning. In Slovenia, 
for  example,  there  is  a  national  initiative,  known  as  ‘project  weeks’  when  the 
conventional  timetable  is  suspended  for  two  separate  weeks  each  year  and 
teachers are encouraged to collaborate to design a whole-school, cross-curricula 
topic. The students work together in groups, researching and executing a task in 
accordance  with  a  brief,  and  concluding  with  a  presentation.  Suspension  of  the 
timetable makes it easier to organise learning out of school, for example through 
visits to enterprises. 

In  Denmark,  it  is  recognised  that  learning  outcomes  may  be  interpreted 
differently,  and,  accordingly,  there  is  a  need  for  dialogue  with  teachers.  In 
consequence, the tripartite Metal Industry Education Committee (Metalindustriens 
uddannelsesudvalg) holds conferences and runs workshops to explore what the 
outcomes mean and how they may be taught and learned (Danish case study). 

(36)  See http://www.cerpet.adc.education.fr/ressources/583/index.html 

[accessed 15.10.2012]. 

(37)  CAP,  certificat  d’aptitude  professionnelle  (level  EQF3);  BEP,  brevet  d'étude 

professionnelle, BTS; brevet de technicien supérieur (level EQF5). 

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Box 19 

Professional development in Germany 

In  Germany,  dedicated  professional  development  of  teachers  has  been  provided 
since  1997  with  the  aim  of  helping  teachers  to  develop  action-based  approaches  to 
vocational  learning.  Teacher  trainers  have  been  sent  to  vocational  schools  across 
Germany.  It  is  reported  that  the  impact  of  this  professional  development  is  ‘mixed’ 
and  that  the  programme  is  still  ongoing.  Furthermore,  the  development  of  new 
teaching  orientations,  as  explicitly  required  by  the  written  curriculum,  is  more  time-
consuming  than  expected.  Teachers  reported  that  participation  in  this  training  was 
voluntary  and  that  they  might  have  to  meet  the  costs  personally.  In  addition,  some 
reported  that  they  were  too  busy  to  attend.  From  2012,  a  series  of  implementation 
conferences  are  planned  which  will  involve  school  supervisory  boards  as  well  as 
teachers. 

Source:  German case study. 

In  Croatia,  where  outcome-oriented  curricula  are  currently  being  prepared, 
there is strong evidence that access to training is critical in enabling teachers to 
understand the new curriculum and adopt a positive attitude towards it. Only the 
school  that  had  received  training  demonstrated  widespread  awareness  of  the 
new curricula. Croatia’s school leaders reported that lack of funds was a barrier: 
teachers are expected to pay for their own training sessions. 

In Slovakia, the European Social Fund (ESF) has financed a national project 
which aims  to train teachers  to  design  educational  programmes at  school  level, 
including  the  development  of  key  competences.  During  the  first  phase  of  this 
training,  87  teachers  have  been  trained  to  act  as  school  coordinators  for 
curriculum writing. 

It  was  common  to  find  that  professional  development  was  distributed  very 
unevenly.  Schools  that  were  piloting  new  curricula  had  received  extensive 
training  support.  For  example,  at  an  innovative  school  in  Slovenia,  teachers 
attended  a  training  workshop  every  second  month  over  a  period  of  two  years 
prior  to  implementation  and  another  two  to  three  workshops  annually  during 
implementation.  A  second  school  received  training  for  only  one  year  before 
implementation.  Late  adopters  received  less  training,  if  any  at  all.  Schools  that 
received  additional  training  to  support  the  implementation  of  new  curricula 
pointed  out  that  teacher  turnover  meant  that  they  needed  top-ups  of  training  – 
which were not always available. 

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8.6.  Using formative assessment to drive learner-

centredness 

Assessment  of  learning  outcomes  is  defined  as  ‘The  process  of  appraising 
knowledge,  know-how,  skills  and/or  competences  of  an  individual  against 
predefined  criteria  (learning  expectations,  measurement  of  learning  outcomes). 
Assessment is typically followed by validation and certification' (Cedefop, 2008c). 
Assessment  fulfils  different  functions  and  has  different  purposes  and  uses.  The 
distinction is made between assessment carried out for summative and formative 
purposes (Eurydice, 2009). As defined by Cedefop (2009e), assessment carried 
out for summative purposes is ‘The process of assessing (or valuing) a learner’s 
achievement  of  specific  knowledge,  skills  and/or  competences  at  a  particular 
time’.  The  Eurydice  report  refers  to  it  as  ‘assessment  of  learning’  and  points  to 
the  use  of  the  results  ‘to  award  a  certificate  or  to  take  important  decisions’. 
Assessment  carried  out  for  formative  uses  is  ‘a  two-way  reflective  process 
between  a  teacher/assessor  and  learner  to  promote  learning’  (Eurydice,  2009). 
The main purpose of ‘assessment for learning’ is to assist the learning process of 
individuals by identifying specific learning needs and adapt teaching accordingly 
and to shape improvements in learning and teaching. 

In this research, only assessment that is used for entirely formative purposes 
to support learning is considered. Summative assessment, such as module tests, 
which might be considered to have a ‘formative’ as well as a ‘summative’ effect, 
has not been investigated. 

Students were given feedback by teachers and trainers on their performance 
and progress in all of the outcome-oriented curricula analysed. This was usually 
described as continuous but informal, for example in the case studies in Ireland, 
Poland, Slovakia and Spain. Feedback in these countries was not structured by 
formal  documentation,  nor  was  it  formally  associated  with  identified  learning 
outcomes.  For  example,  students  in  Denmark  reported  that  they  were  given 
feedback on tests but that it did not come in the form of learning outcomes. 

In  general,  it  was  unclear  whether  the  implementation  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula  was  affecting  the  character  or  frequency  of  this  kind  of  feedback. 
Formative  assessment  was  variable  within  countries.  It  was  quite  common  for 
learners in one school to report regular and constructive feedback while learners 
in another claimed that they did not receive such feedback. In the Croatian case 
study, it was reported that the introduction of outcome-oriented curricula had had 
no impact on formative assessment. In the Polish case study, it was reported that 
more project-based learning was leading to more individually tailored feedback. 

In  countries  where  learning  outcomes  are  relatively  holistic,  there  were  a 
number  of  cases  where  there  were  relatively  formal  arrangements  for  regular, 

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formative assessment, e.g. in Germany and Norway. In Germany, a diary system 
was used to monitor learning in the workplace, but it was not structured in terms 
of learning outcomes. 

Where  learning  outcomes  were  relatively  granular,  there  were  sometimes 
formal, tracker-type  systems,  e.g.  in  the  English  NVQ  and the  Irish  professional 
cookery  traineeship.  In  some  cases,  trackers  required  regular  inputs  from 
learners,  teachers  and  work-based  trainers  and  were  used  as  a  tool  to  track 
achievement  across  all  learning  environments.  However,  in  practice,  these 
trackers  captured  progress  in  terms  of  content  covered,  instead  of  learning 
outcomes. 

There  was  some  evidence  that  IT  platforms  are  being  used  to  support 
formative assessment. For example, in the German case study, teachers, trainers 
and  students  were  reported  to  be  using  an  e-learning  platform  (moodle)  where 
students  could  generate  a  portfolio,  receive  feedback,  ask  questions  and  take 
assessments.  In  Denmark,  an  online  tool,  the  Elevplan,  is  used  to  plan  and 
monitor  learning. This  includes  vocational  learning  outcomes  as  well  as general 
and  social  learning  outcomes  (key  competences).  According  to  interviewees,  it 
helps both teachers and students to plan and document learning and to develop 
a  shared  understanding  of  progress.  However,  Elevplan  is  populated  by  the 
nationally determined learning outcomes. In consequence, this means that there 
is limited scope to develop locally defined learning outcomes, to modify learning 
outcomes  over  time  and  to  adapt  learning  outcomes  to  suit  the  needs  of 
particular  students.  In  practice,  however,  it  seems  that  students  do  not  make 
extensive  use  of  it:  ‘Many  students  do  not  use  the  tracker,  known  as  Elevplan, 
and some use it only to a limited degree’ (interview with teachers). When asked, 
students  confirmed  that  they  used  Elevplan  only  to  check  their  test  results 
(Danish case study). 

8.7.  Making textbooks and other learning materials 

accessible and usable 

learner-centred 

innovative  and  more 

The  use  of 
learning 
approaches in initial VET creates additional and new demands for textbooks and 
other  learning  materials  and  resources.  These  are  instructional  devices  that 
mediate  policy  intentions  and  curricular  implementation,  often  understood  as 
being  situated  between  the  intended  and  implemented  curriculum  (Valverde, 
2002). 

teaching  and 

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Box 20 

Formative assessment in enterprise-based training in Norway 

It  is  students’  responsibility  to  self-assess  their  progress  against  the  competence 
aims, supported by their instructors. On the computer numerical control (CNC) course 
(four weeks in the training workshop, four weeks in a company), students are briefed 
when they return from the factory about their next task and the learning benefits. At 
the end of their four weeks in the training workshop, they may spend 15 to 30 minutes 
evaluating  themselves  against  the  competence  aims,  but  this  does  not  always 
happen, as the project may not be completed, and someone else may complete the 
job  (this  is  most  typical  when  commercial  orders  are  involved).  One  apprentice 
commented that discussion  with  instructors is  very important for assessing progress 
prior  to  their  filling  in  their  portfolio.  In  addition,  every  six  months,  there  is  a  more 
formal meeting between the apprentice, their instructor and their company supervisor 
and  mentor  to  check  on  progress.  Feedback  is  valued  by  apprentices,  as  it  gives 
them a perspective of their overall progress: ‘Instructors were really good at telling me 
which areas I needed to work on’ (interview with a trainee). 
From the instructors’ perspective, they see their job as being to help the apprentices 
to  be  ‘self-conscious  in  their  choices’.  They  have  a  facilitative  role  in  providing 
personalised,  ongoing  feedback  through  two-way  conversations.  They  talk  to 
apprentices 'on a human level to see if there is any help they need’. ‘N’ company has 
expectations  of  the  apprentices,  and  these  are  explained  orally  and  informally.  The 
small number of apprentices means that the instructors are able to get to know them 
well.  There  is  attention  to  the  social  dynamics  of  learning  as  well  as  to  skills  and 
knowledge; instructors take a strict approach to best working practices and discipline, 
since  the  working  practices  that  apprentices  experience  in  their  companies  may  not 
be exemplary and may teach them bad habits. 
Instructors  may  review  apprentices’  portfolios  to  see  if  they  have  completed  their 
tasks well enough. Critically, however, they may review their outputs against industrial 
criteria: it  is clear when an apprentice is reaching the desired standard or not, since 
products are sold to customers and no allowance is made for their being trainees. 
A web-based tool has been designed to enable apprentices to monitor their progress 
against the competence aims. A learning outcomes approach makes this possible. 

Source:  Norwegian case study. 

It  became  evident  that,  where  VET  programmes  were  well  resourced  and 
have  been  running  for  some  time,  e.g.  in  Germany,  new  and  updated  school 
books  had  been  produced  which  did  support  the  outcome-oriented  curricula.  In 
some  other  schools  visited,  teachers  and  students  were  using  established 
textbooks  which  had  not  been  specially  designed  in  relation  to  new  written 
curricula.  Some  teachers  were  able  to  make  use  of  these  textbooks  to  support 
the new curriculum. In other schools, it was reported by teachers that the existing 
textbooks  were  not  appropriate  for  supporting  outcome-oriented  curricula  and 
that  teachers  needed  to  design  their  own  material  (e.g.  in  the  Czech  Republic 
and  Ireland).  In  these  schools,  teachers  used  resources  drawn  mainly  from  the 

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Internet  (38).  While  some  teachers  questioned  whether  they  had  the  time  and 
skills to produce these resources independently, others (e.g. in Ireland) found this 
fact  rather  positive,  as  they  were  given  the  opportunity  to  create  material  that 
fitted the curriculum and made it more engaging for their students. 

In other cases, it is the practice that teachers do not use existing textbooks 
but  create  their  own  material  and  make  use  of  authentic  materials.  This  is  the 
case in the curriculum for the Spanish higher technical tourist guide programme. 
In Slovenia, there are no textbooks for the technical part of the gastronomy and 
tourism  programme,  so  teachers  create  their  own  teaching  and  learning 
resources by photocopying articles and chapters from books and also drawing on 
material found on the Internet. In Croatia (tourism and hospitality), it is expected 
that  there  will  not  be  standard  textbooks  to  support  the  new  curricula.  It  is 
planned  that  teachers  will  be  provided  with  a  list  of  references  that  they  are 
advised  to  use,  but  it  will  fall  to  teachers  to  produce  their  own  teaching  and 
learning  materials.  In  Ireland,  it  is  also  expected  that  teachers  produce  the 
teaching  and  learning  materials  that  cater  to  the  needs  of  trainees  and  the 
particular  local  curriculum  provided.  Textbooks  were  also  not  used  in  the  work-
based training case studies on mechatronics in Norway and travel services in the 
UK  (England).  Learners  were  expected  to  learn  from  authentic  materials  and 
manuals and from their supervisors and fellow workers. 

It is difficult to judge whether the absence of textbooks to support outcome-
oriented  curricula  is  a  temporary  or  permanent  phenomenon,  and  whether  it  is 
rather  positive  or  negative  in  terms  of  delivering  the  written  curriculum 
successfully.  In  general,  in  the  curricula  examined  in  the  mechatronics  sector, 
teachers  were  more  likely  to  report  that  existing  textbooks  were  out  of  date, 
usually because of rapid developments in technology, than in the case of tourism. 
Furthermore, it is not clear whether the absence is simply  a result of curriculum 
change  or  whether  outcome-oriented  curricula  are  less  well-suited  to  textbook-
based learning. 

It  was  a  common  concern  among  interviewees  that  it  takes  too  long  to 
produce  new  textbooks.  In  Slovakia,  the  Ministry  of  Education  is  exploring  the 
possibility  of  translating  Czech  textbooks  into  Slovakian;  however,  teachers 
expressed  the  concern  that  even  updated  textbooks  would  become  out  of  date 
quickly as a result of ongoing technological change. Accordingly, the expectation 
was  that  it  would  fall  to  teachers  to  generate  up-to-date  materials  and  that  the 
teacher would need to work with employers to keep pace with change. 

(38)  The increasing use of the Internet as a support for teaching and learning appears to 
be weakening the dominance of textbooks, but this is not particularly associated with 
outcome-oriented curricula. 

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To  this  end,  some  good  examples  were  found  of  collaboration  to  produce 
teaching  and  learning  materials  that  were  appropriate  for  outcome-oriented 
curricula.  In  France,  a  professional  network  had  been  formed  which  had  led  to 
the exchange of resources to support teaching and learning. In Poland, support 
was  available  to  those  schools  using  the  outcome-oriented  mechatronics 
curriculum  through  a  special  network.  This  network  provided  both  teaching  and 
learning resources and training where required. The new learning materials were 
written  by  ‘professionals  and  experts’  and  were  perceived  to  be  more  closely 
associated with the world of work than traditional textbooks. In the UK (England), 
stakeholders  requested  that  the  advanced  engineering  diploma  include  applied 
mathematics for engineers. Currently, there are no suitable textbooks to support 
this part of the curriculum. However, the school mathematics department visited 
is collaborating with the national Royal Academy of Engineering (the professional 
organisation  for  engineers  in  the  United  Kingdom)  and  a  partner  university  to 
develop  tasks  and  exemplars  for  students.  The  novelty  and  high  profile  of  this 
new  curriculum  in  the  UK  (England)  has  motivated  teachers  to  write  new 
resources and created a culture where partners give their time and expertise to 
support this work. 

8.8.  Creating effective learning environments  

The  quality  and  character  of  the  learning  environment  is  critical  in  terms  of 
supporting  learner-centred  pedagogies  and  delivering  the  written  curriculum 
successfully  (OECD,  2009).  VET  curricula  may  be  delivered  in  a  number  of 
distinct  learning  environments,  for  example  through  full-time  vocational  school, 
through  alternance  and  through  work-based  learning.  Within  each  learning 
environment,  learning  may  subsequently  be  conceptualised  in  terms  of different 
learning  spaces.  Depending  on  what  kind  of  physical  space  is  used  and  which 
teacher is teaching, learning may be judged to be either theoretical or practical. In 
some  schools,  key  competences,  such  as  communications  and  IT,  are  also 
taught by specialised teachers in specialised learning environments. 

European  VET  policy  documents  and  international  authors  emphasise  the 
need  to  shift  away  from  traditional  teaching  classrooms  and  support  learning  in 
different learning environments, including the workplace with a view to promoting 
learner-centredness  in  VET  (see  Smith  and  Blake,  2006).  However,  the  design 
and  use  of  learning  environments  are  frequently  dependent  on  timetables  and 
room  availability.  Teachers  and  head  teachers  are  often  concerned  about  the 
availability  and  quality  of  physical  spaces for  practical  learning  (e.g.  workshops, 
laboratories).  Demand  for  well-equipped  practical  learning  areas  is,  in  most 

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cases,  in  excess  of  supply.  Accordingly,  intended  learning  outcomes  as 
conceptualised  and  described  in  VET  provision  (e.g.  written  curricula  and 
standards)  may  frequently  need  to  be  revised  so  as  to  fit  in  with  these 
fundamental realities. Indeed, the findings from interviews with teachers, learners 
and employers point to challenges for ensuring effective learning environments to 
support  the  new  outcome-oriented  curricula  for  school-based  and  enterprise-
based learning as described in the following two sections. 

Learning environments for school-based learning 

8.8.1. 
Concerns were expressed by  interviewees  in some of the countries  visited that, 
when  the  curriculum  examined  was  delivered  at  school,  appropriate  learning 
environments  were  not  available.  This  meant  uncertainty  about  how  learning 
outcomes could be delivered or frustration on the part of students that pedagogy 
was  dominated  by  lecturing  rather  than  practical  learning.  Concerns  were 
expressed  by  interviewees  in  a  number  of  countries  that  workshops  and 
computer laboratories were not available. 

In  the  UK  (England),  it  was  recognised  that  general  upper-secondary 
schools  would not  usually  have the  workshops  or  equipment  required  to deliver 
the  learning  outcomes  set  out  in  the  engineering  diplomas.  In  consequence, 
providers  have been  required  to join together  in consortia  to gain permission  to 
teach these programmes. Consortia have to prove that they have the resources 
necessary and that substantial capital grants have been made to enable schools 
to invest in spaces and tools. Consortia were also able to bid for capital grants to 
develop  the  infrastructure  for  delivery  of  the  new  engineering  programmes.  In 
Sheffield,  for  example,  the  local  consortium  was  granted  £500 000  to  build  and 
equip an engineering centre which was shared by all those schools in the city that 
were  teaching  the  new  engineering  programmes.  The  engineering  centre  was 
located  on  industrial  premises next to a  well-known  local  engineering  employer. 
The location of the centre makes it easier to engage industry in teaching. 

Most vocational schools visited are making increasing use of IT; however, it 
is  not  known  what  kind  of  impact  this  is  having  on  pedagogy  and  learning 
outcomes.  Conventional  lecturing  is  being  enriched  by  the  use  of  PowerPoint. 
There are some cases of students and teachers making use of dedicated online 
resources  to  support  their  vocational  teaching  and  learning,  e.g.  in  Germany, 
Ireland  and  the  UK  (England).  Only  in  the  German  case  study,  students  were 
using  a  learning  platform  to  support  self-directed  learning  and  formative 
assessment. Students expressed some concerns about lack of access to suitable 
IT  facilities.  For  example,  Danish  students  complained  of  distractions  when 
sharing  an  IT  room  with  another  group.  Although  e-learning  was  not  a  major 

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focus  of  this  research,  findings  suggest  that  there  is  considerable  potential  for 
further use of IT to support active learning and other learner-centred pedagogies. 
The  social  environment  of  learning  is  also  important,  although  this  is  not 
always  obvious.  For  example,  in  the  UK  (England),  it  has  been  challenging  for 
teachers  and  students  to  achieve  the  learning  outcomes  set  for  mathematics  in 
the  advanced  diploma  in  engineering.  This  is  a  significant  issue  because  the 
mathematical  element  of  the  diploma  was  boosted  during  the  design  stage  by 
that  advanced 
stakeholders,  particularly  by  universities,  who  argued 
mathematical skills were essential competences for engineers. Initially, advanced 
diploma  students  were  taught  mathematics  separately;  however,  in  response  to 
the  difficulties  they  encountered,  they  are  now  taught  together  with  a  group  of 
students  studying  mathematics  at  A-level  (an  academic  programme).  This  has 
been found to work well: ‘The A-level students set an example, set the pace and 
encouraged the advanced diploma students’ (interview with teacher, English case 
study on diploma). 

Some  teachers  reported  that  they  tried  to  plan  theoretical  and  practical 
lessons so that they took place sufficiently close in time to allow students to make 
connections,  particularly  when  units  or  even  individual  learning  outcomes 
included  both  practical  and  theoretical  dimensions.  Flexible  learning  spaces 
make it easier to make connections between theory and practice in teaching and 
learning. This was not always possible because of timetable constraints or lack of 
suitable  rooms.  Examples  of  learning  environments  that  made  it  possible  for 
theoretical, practical and key competence learning to go on together were found 
in Germany, Norway, Romania, Spain and the UK (England) (see Box 21). 

In  addition  to  schools  and  workplaces,  VET  programmes  are  sometimes 
being taught in hybrid learning environments. In Slovakia, for example, there are 
centres of practical education that are distinct from the rest of the school. These 
centres  engage  in  business  activities,  and  learners  can  earn  money  for  their 
work. 

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Box 21 

Training firms in Romania 

In Romania, a new initiative in the teaching of services such as tourism, catering and 
commerce  is  known  as  the  training  firm.  This  was  introduced  as  part  of  a  VET 
modernisation  process  to  encourage  entrepreneurship  among  young  people.  The 
training  firm  draws  on  those  units  from  the  curriculum  for  the  technician  in  tourism 
qualification  most  relevant  to  enterprise,  marketing,  business  planning  and  human 
resources.  The  introduction  of  the  training  firm  required  a  different  pedagogy,  and 
teachers  received  professional  training  to  develop  skills  for  using  learner-centred 
approaches. 
In  the  case  study,  school  sessions  for  the  training  firm  were  organised  in  a  non-
traditional  classroom  setting:  the  room  where  the  school  board  usually  meets.  This 
physical  space  places 
‘business’ 
environment,  which  is  associated  with  powerful  decision-making  and  outside 
stakeholders. 
Students are formed into companies for the purposes of learning and are expected to 
stay in role. The teacher’s role is to promote learning, which typically takes the form of 
group work, discussion and presentation. 
The learning programme targets a blend of vocational learning outcomes and generic 
skills such as communication and IT skills. 

in  a  recognisable 

teaching  and 

learning 

Source:  Romanian case study. 

Learning environments for enterprise-based learning 

8.8.2. 
Outcome-oriented  curricula  may  specify  that  some  portion  of  a  vocational 
programme  should  be  delivered  through  work-based  learning.  This  may  be  a 
formal  requirement  of  the  qualification  standard  or  it  may  be  set  out  in  the 
education  standard  (39).  In  countries,  such  as  France,  the  Netherlands  and 
Sweden,  where  there  is  a  single  qualification  standard  that  applies  to  all 
programmes in a particular domain, there is a formal requirement for some work-
based  learning  in  every  mode.  This  suggests  that,  in  these  cases,  it  is  not 
possible to achieve vocational learning outcomes without some contribution from 
work-based  learning.  Evidently,  there  are  some  learning  outcomes  which,  in 
principle,  might  be  acquired  either  in a  vocational  school  or  in the  workplace  or 
through  a  combination  of  the  two.  In  particular,  learning  outcomes  associated 
with  coping  with  the  realities  of  working  conditions  or  dealing  with  real  clients 
require practice in a real working environment. 

(39)  For  example,  in  Slovakia,  in  four-year  programmes,  work-based  learning  is 
prescribed  at  1  400  hours  per  annum  or  570  hours  if  the  learner  does  not  have 
apprenticeship status. In France, 22 weeks of work-based training over three years is 
a general requirement for IVET. In  Slovenia, the national curriculum requires 3  112 
hours  of  theory-based  learning,  598  hours  of  practical  learning  in  schools  and  266 
hours of training in enterprises. 

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Furthermore,  in  most  vocational  curricula,  work  placements  do  not  serve 
only to address particular learning outcomes. They also serve to combine several 
learning  outcomes,  for  example  generic  and  technical  skills  or  theoretical 
knowledge and practical skills. As the following example from Norway shows (see 
Box 22), enterprise-based learning helps learners to apply what they have learnt 
so as to develop autonomy and responsibility. 

Box 22 

Enterprise-based pedagogy in Norway 

In  Norway’s  2+2  system,  a  holistic  national  curriculum  regulates  all  four  years,  but 
provision  for  the  first  two  years  falls  to  upper-secondary  schools,  while  provision  for 
the second two years falls to local agencies running apprenticeships. The trainers in 
the  employer-run  training  company  ‘N’  all  have  a  background  in  production  rather 
than teaching. The Norwegian curriculum is holistic and light on content. This  allows 
the  trainers  to  interpret  the  curriculum  in  terms  of  their  own  practice  as  working 
engineers  and  to  devise  a  pedagogy  which  mirrors  the  conditions  and  ethos  of 
working  life.  Apprentices  work  on  live  production  tasks  which  are  completed  to 
professional standards and supplied to paying customers. Apprentices are expected 
to exhibit the attitudes and disciplines of adult workers. They are treated with respect 
and given access to expensive tools and high-status work. Learning is supported not 
by  textbooks  but  by  the  standard  equipment  manuals.  In  this  situation,  the  holistic 
national curriculum serves not to guide teaching and learning but only as a framework 
that  recognises  what  the  training  company  is  doing.  The  curriculum  devised  by  the 
trainers  at  training  company  ‘N’  closely  reflects  practice  in  the  local  companies  that 
commission training company ‘N’ to provide training. 

Source:  Norwegian case study. 

Students  interviewed  in  almost  all  of  the  case  studies  valued  work-based 
learning,  though  the  level  of  support  that  they  received  from  their  workplaces 
varied  enormously,  particularly  when  the  relationship  between  the  vocational 
school  and  the  employer  was  not  strong.  A  few  individual  apprentices  reported 
that they had virtually no time for learning (as opposed to working) and that their 
supervisors were never able to give them time to support their learning or mentor 
them. This, however, was reported only in a minority of cases. 

In  those  countries  where  students  had  opportunities  to  gain  experience 
through  work  and  to  work  alongside  qualified  workers,  students  interviewed 
valued these opportunities highly: ‘Even if it is not perfect, you learn more than in 
school  because  you  get  practical  experience,  something  that  employers 
appreciate the most’ (Slovenian case study). Many students, for example those in 
the German case study, believed that they were developing social competences 
and  transverse  skills,  such  as  teamwork,  through  their  work-based  learning. 
Where  students  had  the  opportunity  to  make  connections  between  work-based 
and  school-based  learning,  they  were  particularly  pleased,  for  example  in 

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Denmark  and  Ireland.  Danish  industrial  engineering  students  valued  school-
based  learning  because  it  gave  them  the  chance  to  explore  new  ideas  and 
experiment  with  the  machines,  whereas  in  the  workplace  there  were  time 
constraints  and  pressure  from  the  production  process  and  from  customers.  At 
school,  they  could  question  processes,  whereas  at  work  these  became  routine. 
Some  Irish  students  reported  that  their  supervisors  had  created  learning 
opportunities for them to apply the skills and knowledge that they had acquired in 
school in the workplace. 

In  some  countries  visited,  VET  programmes  were  taught  entirely  by 
enterprises, without any contribution from a vocational school; this is the case, for 
example, in the UK (England) for the curriculum examined in the tourism sector. 

Box 23 

Company-based training in travel services in the UK (England) 

Company ‘E1’, a large travel services company based in the United Kingdom, recruits 
some  250  level  2  apprentices  each  year,  and  the  majority  progress  to  a  level  3 
apprenticeship. The apprentices are fully integrated in the life of the business with just 
five hours per week dedicated to study as opposed to work. Company  ‘E1’ places a 
strong  emphasis  on  learning  by  doing,  in  particular  through  interaction  with  clients, 
and on learning from experienced colleagues and mentors: ‘There is no substitute for 
client  interaction,  the  work  in  the  store  and  learning  from  others’  (interview  with 
training manager, English case study, travel services). 
On-the-job learning is supported by planning, e-learning, formal training sessions and 
reviewing. For the most part, key competences, such as mathematics, are developed 
on the job,  with additional  teaching  when a need has been identified. Company  ‘E1’ 
makes use of learning outcomes to identify the objectives of training sessions and to 
ensure that e-learning materials are correctly tailored. 
Company  ‘E1’  receives  around  1 000  applications  for  just  250  apprenticeship 
opportunities every year. It is evident that the apprenticeship in travel services is well 
suited  to  an  in-company  delivery  mode,  which  suggests  that  the  learning  outcomes 
correspond well to the competences required by this employer. 

Source:  English case study. 

8.9.  Coordination of school-based and enterprise-

based training 

Institutionalised collaboration 

8.9.1. 
Strong  relationships  exist  where  there  is  continuous  communication  and 
collaboration,  where teachers  and  work-based  trainers  may  communicate about 
the curriculum and about students and work together to design new projects. In 
France, for example, the school and enterprise enter into a formal agreement in 
relation to the learning outcomes to be developed and assessed by each partner. 

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Students  are  supported  by  work-based  tutors  who  meet  regularly  with  school-
based teachers to evaluate the learner’s progress and organise the assessment 
that will take place in the enterprise. 

Table 6 

Proposal for the organisation of enterprise-based learning in France 

Pathway and progress over three years 

10th grade, electricity 

11th grade, vocational 
baccalaureate 

12th grade, vocational 
baccalaureate 

Ability to provide feedback 
and to report. 

Acquisition of full autonomy. 

Organisation and 
management of a project from 
beginning to end. 

Six weeks of on-the-job 
training within the company 
(3+3). 

Eight weeks of on-the-job 
training within the company 
(4+4). 

Eight weeks of on-the-job 
training within the company 
(4+4). 

The year split into four 
periods. 

The year split into two 
periods. 

The year split into three 
periods. 

Source:  French case study. 

In France, there is a formal document, the livret, which sets out the learning 
outcomes  that  the  enterprise  will  address.  Students  may  select  a  particular 
specialisation  within the  baccalauréat  professionnel  des  systèmes électroniques 
et numériques only if they are able to secure an appropriate work placement. The 
availability of specialised workplaces is referenced through regional plans which 
map the availability of funded training in relation to the employment needs of the 
French regions. 

However,  high  levels  of  collaboration  do  not  always  lead  to  entirely 
satisfactory  outcomes.  Denmark  is  a  country  where  there  is  a  high  level  of 
collaboration  between stakeholders from  industry  and education  at  national  and 
school  levels.  Industrial  representatives  contribute  extensively  to  the  design  of 
to  assessment  processes.  Both  curriculum  and 
learning  outcomes  and 
assessment have been revised several times to meet the needs of stakeholders. 
However,  students  interviewed  in  the  school  visited  reported  that  ‘There  is  not 
much connection between the activities in the college and those in companies in 
which  they  are  training,  often  because  the  tools  and  machines  they  use  are 
different’ (Danish case study). 

The Finnish case study provides an example of curriculum reform which has 
led  to  an  improvement  of  collaboration  with  a  positive  effect  on  pedagogy  (see 
Box 24). The new tourism curriculum sets out learning outcomes which shift the 
focus  onto  skills  and  more  contextualised  knowledge.  This  focus  is  reflected  in 

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the  change  in  assessment  methods:  90%  of  marks  in  the  final  certificate  are 
awarded  on  the  basis  of  skills  demonstrations.  The  success  in  the  skills 
demonstrations  is  dependent  on  the  effectiveness  of  on-the-job  training  during 
enterprise-based  training.  It  is  reported  that  teachers  were  concerned  at  the 
prospect  of  skills  demonstrations,  as  they  questioned  how  they  could  work  with 
companies.  However,  the  challenge  has  been  met  through  close  collaboration 
between  teachers  and  businesses.  Each  student  has  a  plan  drawn  up  for  their 
work  placement  by  the  teacher,  the  employer  and  the  student  themselves. 
Teachers  actively  engage  with  businesses  in  these  processes,  in  some  cases 
helping  companies  to  unpack  their  work  processes.  Some  of  these  discussions 
require  a  significant  investment  of  time.  Teachers  also  teach  the  people 
responsible in companies how to carry out the assessment. Accordingly, another 
significant aspect of the national reforms is that, while companies are required to 
carry out the assessment, teachers moderate. 

8.9.2.  Minimal collaboration  
There  is  minimal  collaboration  where  the  relationship  between  school  and 
workplace  learning  is  limited  to  the  soliciting  of  companies for  work  placements 
and  teachers  making  visits  to  students  on  work  placement.  The  extent  of 
cooperation  depends  on  the  current  condition  of  the  labour  market.  The  case 
studies  suggest  that  that  there  was  generally  minimal  collaboration  in  Croatia, 
Poland and Slovenia, although this varied between schools. For example, in one 
country  where  two  schools  were  compared,  one  school  enjoyed  much  better 
cooperation  from  local  employers  because  that  company  was  experiencing 
recruitment difficulties. Even where there is a formal agreement between a school 
and a business, that relationship  will  be  weakened  if,  as in one case study,  the 
business is not recruiting any workers. 

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Box 24 

Strengthening collaboration with businesses through outcome-oriented 
curricula in tourism, Salpaus further education, Lahti, Finland 

The  curriculum  reform  process  in  Finland  has  provided  the  opportunity  to  improve 
interactions with local businesses. There is more on-the-job learning which occurs at 
the end of a module and is a key means of consolidating the learning that has taken 
place.  Most  assessment  now  takes  place  through  skills  demonstrations.  Within  the 
framework  of  the  new  national  qualification  requirements  built  around  learning 
outcomes,  local  providers  have  responsibility  for  the  content  and  structure  of  the 
curriculum. 
Although Salpaus had introduced its tourism curriculum in 2000 and companies had 
been  involved  from  the  start,  the  new  framework  has  provided  new  opportunities.  It 
was  decided  to  exceed  the  national  minimum  for  on-the-job  learning  so  that  it 
comprises  48  weeks  or  more  than  40  credits  during  a  three-year  course  (in 
comparison  to  20  credits  before  the  reforms  in  2009).  The  rationale  is  that  tourism 
offers such a broad range  of opportunities that require substantial time for students, 
and a single provider would find it difficult to provide all the necessary resources and 
infrastructure.  Furthermore,  opportunities  are  found  for  some  students  to  carry  out 
their work placements abroad, e.g. in Croatia and Spain. There is a particularly strong 
focus  on  on-the-job  learning  in  students’  final  year  as  the  prospect  of  employment 
draws  near.  There  is  also  some  scope  within  the  national  framework  for  local 
curriculum  flexibility,  and  the  10  credits  available  for  free  choice  have  led  to  the 
development of a catering module to meet the needs of local businesses. 
The  extent  and  depth  of  interaction  with  local  businesses  has  been  significantly 
increased.  Formerly,  each  education  provider  was  required  by  law  to  have  a 
professional skills demonstration board made up of a balance between education and 
business  people,  its  purpose  being  to  approve  the  provider’s  skills  demonstration 
plan. Salpaus has, in addition, chosen to have another board for each sector which is 
consulted on curriculum content; this consists of 8 to 10 people, the majority of whom 
are from local businesses. 
The benefits have been significant. The teaching team at Salpaus look at the whole 
working process, and almost the entire curriculum is now contextualised. The purpose 
and  function  of  on-the-job  learning  are  reported  to  be  clearer.  There  have  been 
multiple benefits for students. On-the-job learning is reported by student counsellors 
to be attractive to students, with little absenteeism during this part of the course. More 
than  70%  of  students  find  employment  afterwards,  and  15%  of  students  go  on  to 
further education, the highest proportion on any programme in Salpaus. 

Source:  Finnish case study. 

In  a  situation  of  minimal  collaboration,  it  is  unlikely  that  there  is  any 
expectation  that  identified  learning  outcomes  will  be  achieved  through  work 
experience. Teachers are more likely to see work experience as complementary 
and  supportive,  but  not  as  an  environment  which  is  the  planned  locus  for  the 
learning of some outcomes (see Box 25). 

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Box 25 

Practical training in enterprises in Slovenia 

At the end of every school year, students are expected to spend a specified number 
of  hours  undertaking  practical  training  in  enterprises.  They  usually  find  an  employer 
by themselves. If they cannot find an employer, the school is responsible for providing 
them  with  one.  In  the  enterprise,  they  identify  a  mentor  who  will  guide  the  student 
through his/her training. Schools also prepare the programme for this training, but it is 
up to mentors to follow it. It can happen that the student is used only as cheap labour, 
but  usually  these  enterprises  are  then  excluded  from  the  programme  for  the  next 
school year. During the work-based training, the student keeps a training diary that is 
evaluated by a mentor and a teacher from the school. 
There  is  no  quality  assurance  mechanism  for  practical  training  in  enterprises  at 
national  level.  This  year,  the  National  Vocational  Agency  published  instructions  for 
practical  training  in  enterprises  (PTE)  for  schools,  employers  and  students  that  are 
intended to make the process more transparent. 
Each  school  also  has  a  training  manager  who  acts  as  a  link  between  school  and 
employers  providing  the  training.  In  school  ‘A’,  the  manager  attends  meetings  with 
employers  every  second  year  to  explain  the  programme  of  practical  training  and  all 
the  criteria  that  need  to  be  met.  In  school  ‘B’,  it  is  quite  hard  for  students  to  find 
enterprises  for  PTE;  consequently,  it  is  also  harder  to  maintain  and  guarantee  the 
quality of PTE. School ‘A’ finds that employers are competing to recruit trainees and 
are also more willing to cooperate in quality assurance. 
Even  if  PTE  does  not  meet  all  the  expectations  of  students,  it  is  the  part  of  the 
programme that they like the most. This is reflected in comments made by a student: 
‘I would say it is up to the student how much he will learn during his PTE. You have to 
be curious and almost intrusive to prove to the employer that you are really interested 
in the work, and they will give you lots of different and new tasks to learn. But even if 
it  is  not  a  perfect  training  system,  you  learn  more  than  in  school  because  you  get 
practical  experience,  something  employers  appreciate  the  most’  (interview  with 
student). 
The PTE is complementary to the school-based programme, but it is not expected to 
achieve specified learning outcomes. 

Source:  Slovenian case study. 

8.10.  Key findings 

The  relationship  between  written  and  taught  curricula  may  be  summarised  as 

(a) 

follows: 
the  manner  in  which  written  curricula  are  structured  and  the  way  in  which 
learning  outcomes  are  formulated  may  have  an  impact  on  pedagogy  in 
various ways. Some outcome-oriented curricula do actively promote various 
learner-centred  pedagogies,  while  others  give  very  little  pedagogical 
guidance.  For  example,  where  learning  outcomes  are  defined  holistically, 
this  appears  to  create  a  pedagogy  that  promotes  the  development  of 
autonomy,  vocational  identity  and  applied  knowledge.  Another  example 

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would  be  where  the  organisation  of  learning  outcomes  into  units  in  the 
qualification  standard  encourages  a  modular  and  collaborative  approach  to 
the design of the training standard, as for example in the Polish case study; 

(b)  where  qualification  and  curriculum  standards  are  neutral  in  relation  to 
pedagogy,  this  allows  trainers  to  continue  to  use  pedagogies  that  they  are 
most comfortable with and  that suit their institutions best. The case studies 
of  enterprise-based  training  show  that  this  can  lead  to  on-the-job  learning 
and  a  pedagogy  that  closely  reflects  the  ethos,  structure  and  dynamics  of 
the enterprise concerned. In school-based modes, the research showed that 
a  curriculum  without  pedagogical  guidance  could  co-exist  with  a  pedagogy 
that  reflects  the  established  practices  of  vocational  schools,  which  were 
sometimes found to be traditional and teacher-centred. However, in most of 
the countries investigated, there are organisations that support pedagogical 
innovation  in  schools  as  a  means  of  effectively  implementing  outcome-
oriented curricula; 
learner-centred  and  active  learning  approaches  are  advocated  by  many  of 
the  teachers  and  trainers  interviewed  as  well  as  learners  involved  with 
outcome-oriented  curricula  in  initial  VET.  Students,  in  particular,  welcome 
personalised,  practical  learning  activities  that  are  strongly  work-related  and 
make  connections  between  skills  and  practice.  Most  of  the  vocational 
schools visited are making increasing use of IT, and conventional lecturing is 
being enriched by the use of PowerPoint. Many students are making use of 
the  Internet  and  of  online  resources  to  support  their  vocational  learning. 
Computer-based  learning  was not  a  major focus  of this  research,  but  there 
appears  to  be  considerable  potential  for  further  use  of  IT  to  support 
innovative pedagogies and to supplement or replace textbooks; 

(c) 

(d)  work-based  learning  is  popular  with  students,  particularly  when  it  takes the 
form  of  work  experience.  Students  believe  that  they  acquire  valuable 
competences from work experience and that it enhances their employability. 
Planning  for  the  delivery  of  learning  outcomes  would  be  helped  by  good 
collaboration  between  schools  and  enterprises.  The  degree  and manner  of 
this  collaboration  vary,  even  when  there  is  a  shared  commitment  to 
outcome-oriented curriculum design and development; 

(e)  barriers  to  the  more  extensive  use  of  learner-centred  pedagogies  include 
both  institutional  constraints  –  especially  the  relatively  large  number  of 
students  per  class,  lack  of  resources  and  time,  content  overloaded 
inadequate  methods  of 
curriculum,  unsuitable 
assessment and lack of opportunities for learners to gain work experience – 
as well as teachers’ mentalities and resistance to change; 

learning  environments, 

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to 

implement 

outcome-oriented 

(f)  professional  development  for  teachers  is  an  effective  tool  to  empower 
curricula.  Professional 
teachers 
development work should be informed by change-management approaches 
which  help  practitioners  to  become  aware  not  only  of  their  current  practice 
and  the  reasons  for  change  but  also  of  the  wider  affective,  social  and 
psychological  dimensions  of  change.  This 
important 
considering that the introduction of outcome-oriented curricula is just one of 
the changes that teachers and learners are expected to deal with. 

is  particularly 

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CHAPTER 9. 
Outcome-oriented curriculum and 
educational inclusion 

9.1. 

Introduction 

There  are  different  understandings  of  inclusion  and  inclusiveness  in  relation  to 
the  written  and  taught  curricula.  One  approach  is  to  understand  educational 
inclusion in terms of opportunities, barriers and access for particular individuals or 
groups of individuals. An alternative approach is to focus on the extent to which 
pedagogy is able to adapt the curriculum to the needs of individuals and groups. 
In  this  report,  we  see  these  two  approaches  as  being  closely  connected. 
Therefore, for the purposes of this research, the term inclusiveness is understood 
to  refer  not  only  to  pedagogy  but  also  to  the  extent  to  which  educational 
programmes  are  accessible  to  all  those  who  might  benefit  from  them.  An 
educational or training programme will be inclusive if all aspects serve to enable 
participation  from  suitable  learners:  written  and  taught  curricula,  recruitment 
practices, assessment methods, entry qualifications, institutional availability, fees, 
etc.  An  inclusive  curriculum  is  a  curriculum  which  does  not  set  unnecessary 
barriers,  for  example  to  participation  and  success,  does  not  set  inappropriate 
entry  conditions  or  does  not  limit  opportunities  for  progression.  Finally,  an 
inclusive curriculum accommodates different kinds of learner and different kinds 
of learning. 

Sections  9.2  to  9.3  report  findings  which  deal  more  with  access  and 
participation, while the following sections are more concerned with findings from 
the  case  studies  that  relate  to  the  adaptation  and  personalisation  of  the 
curriculum. 

9.2. 

Inclusiveness as a goal 

The notion of inclusiveness in curriculum policy implies the development of a ‘glo-
local’  curriculum  that  is  flexible,  balanced  and  relevant  to  each  context  and 
individual (Braslavsky, 1999). An outcomes-based approach may be understood 
as  a  progressive  opportunity  to  address  learners’  diversities  and  achieve  an 
inclusive  curriculum.  Outcome-oriented  curricula  should  move  away  from  rigid 
disciplinary  and  decontextualised  content  and  move  towards  multiplicity  of 
contextualised,  inter-disciplinary  and  significant  resources  for  the  learner.  This 

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may  be  an  effective  way  to  achieve  inclusive  teaching  and  learning  (Moreno, 
2006)  as  well  as  to  develop  autonomous,  critical  and  assertive  citizens  (Opertti 
and Duncombe, 2008; Opertti, 2011). 

Although  there  is  some  evidence  in  national  policy-making  that  outcome-
oriented curricula have been introduced to promote educational inclusion, there is 
little  evidence  arising  from  the  examination  of  the  written  curricula  in  the  case 
studies analysed that they have actually been designed to achieve this particular 
goal. Some curricula, such as the dual systems in Denmark and Germany, have 
been  created 
to  academic  upper-secondary 
programmes.  In  Finland,  the  national  core  curriculum  includes  sections  on 
assessment in special education and training and for immigrants. 

to  provide  an  alternative 

Recent reforms in vocational curricula in countries such as Denmark, France 
and  the  United  Kingdom  are  closely  tied  to  the  introduction  of  systematic 
processes for  the  recognition  of  prior  or  informal  or  non-formal  learning.  Strictly 
speaking,  this  falls  outside  the  scope  of  this  research,  which  is  concerned  with 
IVET. However, these changes are leading to widespread changes across IVET 
qualifications in some countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, most adult 
vocational  qualifications  have  been  unitised,  and  the  units  have  been  allocated 
standardised volumes in terms of learning hours and credit values. In France, the 
occupational and curriculum standards have been re-written so that they serve to 
recognise informal and non-formal learning. The rationale of these reforms is, in 
both cases, inclusion. 

9.3. 

Inclusiveness through recruitment  

The present study shows that, with the right support, outcome-oriented curricula 
can  be  used  to  expand  the  competences  of  disadvantaged  individuals  and 
improve  access  to  the  labour  market.  In  Ireland,  for  example,  the  national 
traineeship programme was designed for workers in employment who wanted to 
develop  their  skills  and  gain  a  qualification.  However,  at  a  time  of  economic 
change,  the  programme  has  been  adapted  to  meet  new  needs;  one  institution 
has  used  the  programme  to  address  the  needs  of  career  changers  and  the 
unemployed.  Working  with  a  youth  agency,  the  college  was  able  to  identify 
employment opportunities for unemployed youngsters so that they could then join 
the programme. These young people are receiving additional mentoring through 
the youth service. 

It  is  a  common  requirement  of  alternance  programmes  that  learners  must 
first  secure  employment  as  an  apprentice  before  they  may  access  the 
programme;  this  is  likely  to  create  additional  barriers  for  those  who  are 

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disadvantaged  in  the  labour  market,  for  example  girls  seeking  employment  in 
engineering.  In  some  countries,  such  as  Ireland,  absence  of  appropriate 
apprenticeship  opportunities  in  enterprises  has  prevented  young  people  from 
taking up IVET programmes. To overcome this problem, in some countries such 
as  Denmark,  the  opportunity  is  given  to  learners  to  begin  a  school-based 
apprenticeship  with  the  chance  of  converting  to  a  full  apprenticeship  later.  In 
Norway,  a  training  company  selected  the  best-performing  candidates  for 
apprenticeships through a work experience programme run in collaboration with 
local  upper-secondary  schools.  Recruitment  was  driven  by  the  aspiration  to 
achieve  the  very  high  competence  demands  of  the  sponsoring  companies. 
However,  the  selection  process  resulted  in  the  disproportionate  recruitment  of 
boys.  The  training  school  recognised  this  as  a  problem  and  stated  that,  if  two 
candidates were of equal merit, they would recruit the girl rather than the boy. 

In  some  other  cases,  it  was  difficult  to  recruit  sufficient  students  of 
appropriate  ability  and  prior  achievement.  Teachers  from  a  school  visited  in 
Denmark  reported  that  low  levels  of  literacy  and  weak  academic  and  learning 
skills  work  against  the  successful  achievement  of  vocational  learning  outcomes 
(40).  However,  the  school  reported  that  there  were  plans  to  remedy  this  by 
offering a special programme for more talented students. 

9.4. 

Inclusiveness through progression 

In general, it was found that vocational programmes, including outcome-oriented 
curricula,  were  used  by  young  people  to  gain  access  to  higher-level  education, 
including  university.  This  was  an  explicit  objective  of  most  of  the  young  people 
interviewed  in  case  studies,  for  example  in  Hungary,  Romania  and  Slovakia.  In 
some  countries,  such  as  Slovenia  or  Sweden,  IVET  forms  a  strand  within  the 
upper-secondary  education  and  IVET  programmes  offer  a  means  towards 
gaining  the  important  school  graduation  certification  which  is  a  pre-condition  of 
matriculation  in  higher  education.  In  this  connection,  the  design  of  curricula  is 
concerned  not  only  to  reference  curricula  to  competences  associated  with  work 
but  also  to  reference  learning  outcomes  to  the  competences  and  other 
educational assets that are associated with success in higher education. 

Where  national  qualifications  frameworks  work  in  conjunction  with  points-
based  entry  to  higher  education,  learning  outcomes-oriented  qualifications  can 
serve to provide learners with a formal qualification that will allow them  to enter 

(40)  This  was  confirmed  by  students  at  the  school  who  expressed  a  need  for  more 

mathematics. 

138 

                                                
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The impact of learning outcomes 

higher  education.  In  this  way,  vocational  education  can  provide  an  alternative 
route  into  higher  education  for  those  who  do  not  or  cannot  succeed  through 
traditional general upper-secondary education. It has been an explicit intention in 
the design of the French baccalauréat professional and of the English advanced 
diploma in engineering to establish vocational qualifications which do satisfy the 
requirements for progression to higher education. 

The modular character of many outcome-oriented curricula can also support 
closely  associated  with 
curricula  were 
inclusion.  Outcome-oriented 
modularisation in the UK (England) (the diploma) and Finland. This could lead to 
more  collaborative  work  between  teachers  in  planning  the  curriculum  and 
reviewing  the  progress  of  individual  students.  It  helps  those  learners  with 
incomplete  or  interrupted  training  histories  to  gain  recognition  for  their  learning, 
whether in further education or employment. The modular character also permits 
the  development  of  training  programmes  which  are  designed  to  bridge  different 
levels  of  national  qualification  frameworks.  For  example,  both  the  Irish  national 
traineeship  and  the  English  advanced  engineering  diploma  include  units  which 
have been assigned different levels. This implies that the programme is tailored 
to achieve exactly those minimum levels of competence that employers need (for 
example, a lower level of English is required than that for technical skills) and no 
more. In the Irish national traineeship, the award consists of units from two levels 
(levels  5  and  6).  This  makes  it  accessible  to  learners  who  have  not  gained  the 
school  leavers  certificate,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  qualifies them  for  access  to 
higher education. In this way, it serves to increase progression opportunities for 
learners who would otherwise have been excluded from higher education. 

9.5. 

Inclusiveness and learning styles 

There  was  an  implicit  understanding,  among  many  teachers  interviewed,  that 
IVET programmes offer a learning style and a curriculum which is appropriate for 
young  people  who  are  at  risk  of  disengagement  or  failure  in  conventional 
academic schools. In other words, IVET programmes offer a means of including 
young people in education and training. This was explicit in a few countries, for 
example in the UK (England) and Iceland. In the UK (England), the diploma was 
seen  as  a  good  option  by  students  who  are  disaffected  with  conventional 
education (English case study on diploma). 

Different  institutions  found  different  ways  to  provide  additional  support  to 
students 
in  key  competences,  such  as 
mathematics.  In  some  cases,  teachers  embedded  the  required  mathematical 
competences in practical work tasks (e.g. Denmark), while, in others, specialised 

in  meeting  required  standards 

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subject  teaching  was  made  available  (e.g.  the  tourism  qualification  in  the  UK 
(England)). 

Where  national  curricula  were  relatively  holistic,  this  provided  opportunities 
for schools and teachers to develop local curricula that were responsive to their 
learners  and  their  local  communities.  There  was  some  evidence  that  students 
were  able  to  shape  their  own  projects  and,  accordingly,  make  them  relevant  to 
their  own  interests,  for  example  in  Denmark.  In  Ireland  and  Slovenia,  national 
written curricula in gastronomy included options which permitted diverse cuisines 
to  be  explored.  These  options  permitted  schools  to  respond  to  the  interests  of 
particular regional/language groups or of immigrants. 

It appears that group work may provide opportunities for teachers to address 
objectives  of  social  integration  and  social  inclusion.  However,  in  general, 
teachers  identified  as  their  main  goals  the  development  of  occupational 
competences or/and examination success for their students. 

There  are  methods,  such  as  cooperative/team  teaching,  peer  tutoring, 
heterogeneous  grouping,  differentiated  teaching  strategies  and  assessment  for 
learning,  giving  the  opportunity  to  assess  and  evaluate  students’  own  learning 
targets, which are particularly effective for learners with special education needs, 
although these are not yet in widespread use across IVET institutions in Europe 
(41). Provision with respect to inclusion of students with special education needs 
varied  between  the  institutions  visited  that  teach  the  same  programme.  For 
example,  in Denmark,  one  school  has  in-house  expertise on  special  needs and 
was able to carry out diagnosis and propose appropriate learning styles, while a 
second school did not. 

The  present  research  was  not  focused  on  special  educational  needs,  it 
points  only 
to  raise  awareness  among  policy-makers  and 
practitioners  that  inclusive  and  learner-centred  approaches  to  teaching  and 
learning benefit all learners, not just some.  

the  need 

to 

‘Good  inclusive  teaching  and  learning  is  good  teaching  and  learning.  It  is 
about  what  society  we  want  and  seeing  education  as  a  way  of  getting  there:  a 
society  that  values  diversity  and  aims  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  most  and  least 
able’ (Watkins, 2011). 

(41)  Vocational  education  and  training:  policy  and  practice  in  the  field  of  special  needs 
education (2010-12), project undertaken by the European Agency for Development in 
Special 
http://www.european-agency.org/agency-
Education: 
projects/vocational-education-and-training [accessed 15.10.2012]. 

Needs 

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9.6.  Key findings 

Although  inclusiveness  was  not  the  main  focus  of  this  study,  the  following 
findings merit attention: 
(a)  an outcomes-based approach to curriculum design may be understood as a 
progressive  opportunity  to  address  learners’  diversities  and  achieve  an 
inclusive  curriculum.  New  outcome-oriented  curricula  in  initial  vocational 
education and training may be combined with other policies and tools, such 
as unitisation, credit transfer and the recognition of non-formal learning, with 
a view to improving inclusion in education and training; 
inclusiveness is not usually explicitly addressed in written curricula. Although 
there  is  some  evidence  in  policy  discourse  that  outcome-oriented  curricula 
have  been  introduced  to  promote  educational  inclusion,  there  is  little 
evidence arising from the examination of the written curricula that they have 
actually been designed to achieve this particular goal; 

(b) 

(c)  outcome-oriented curricula can make assessment criteria more prescriptive, 
which might have the effect of reducing flexibility for disadvantaged learners 
and  learners  with  special  education  needs.  There  is  a  risk  of  competences 
being  specified  in  a  manner  that  would  exclude  some  special  needs 
learners. However, increased transparency about assessment requirements 
may  reduce  hidden  forms  of  discrimination  and  make  it  easier  to  provide 
appropriate support to disadvantaged learners; 

(d)  particular  learner-centred  pedagogies  (e.g.  self-directed  learning,  including 
the  use  of  online  resources;  peer  learning  of  various  kinds;  creative 
approaches  to  learning;  work-based  and  work-related  learning  of  various 
kinds)  can  support  inclusiveness  and  benefit  learners.  Project  work,  for 
example,  appears  to  engage  and  motivate  learners.  It  can  provide 
opportunities to develop the autonomy and generic skills of students, and it 
promotes the application of knowledge and skills. It can also bring together 
and consolidate learning, helping to combine separate learning outcomes in 
coherent and contextualised competences. However, teachers in most of the 
schools  visited  were  concerned more  about  the acquisition  of the  expected 
learning  outcomes  for  their  students  and  their  success  in  exams,  and  less 
about ensuring inclusiveness. 

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CHAPTER 10. 
Conclusions and policy messages 

This final chapter sets out the main conclusions of the study and highlights issues 
that may be of relevance to policy-makers, practitioners and researchers. 

Socio-economic  factors  along  with  European  policies  and  tools  have 
intensified  curriculum  reform  over  the  past  decade  in  Europe.  Learning 
outcomes  provide  the  foundations  for  curriculum-making  in  all  European 
countries, although approaches do vary. Differences in conceptualisation of 
competence  and  learning  outcomes  may  be  significant  in  explaining  such 
differences. 

Curriculum  reform  has  been  a  feature  of  IVET  policy  in  every  European 
country  over  the  past  5  to  10  years.  Learning  outcomes  have  been  deeply 
implicated  in  these  developments  and  are  now  taken  for  granted  as  part  of 
curriculum development, since they are believed to support and enable a better fit 
between VET and the labour market. While, in some countries, outcome-oriented 
curriculum  reforms  date  back  to  the  1990s  or  earlier,  over  one  half  of  the 
countries  examined,  mostly  those  in  central  and  eastern  Europe  and  the 
Mediterranean countries, have introduced outcomes orientation since 2005. 

It is mainly economic factors which relate to the policy of seeking to improve 
national  competitiveness  through  skills  development  that  have  boosted  these 
curriculum reforms in recent years. Furthermore, outcomes orientation has often 
been  driven  by  the  introduction  of  national  qualification  frameworks  and  credit 
transfer systems, underpinned by European initiatives and tools such as the EQF 
and  the  European  credit  system  for  VET  (ECVET).  Issues  relating  to  the 
validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning  have  also  been  influential  in  the 
development  of  policy  on  outcome-oriented  curricula  in  many  countries  and  the 
rewriting of qualifications and standards.  On the contrary, inclusion and learner-
centredness,  while  being  high  on  the  EU  policy  agenda,  do  not  feature 
prominently in national policy. In only a small number of cases, objectives related 
to  inclusion,  reducing  early  school  leaving  and  improving  levels  of  basic 
educational attainment are explicitly cited as factors in the introduction of learning 
outcomes  in  curricula.  In  all  cases,  social  factors  along  with  the  rationale  for 
modernising curricula to increase their quality and relevance are implicit. 

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Despite the common features found in the motivation for curriculum reform, 
the  shape  and  form  that  outcome-oriented  curricula  ultimately  take  vary 
depending  on  distinctive  national,  regional  and  local  characteristics.  How 
outcome-oriented  approaches  are  conceptualised  and, 
in  particular,  how 
competence  and  learning  outcomes  are  used  and  interpreted  has  often 
influenced  national  curriculum  policies.  In  some  countries,  IVET  curriculum 
development is greatly influenced by other ideas, such as national values about 
the role of education or other national reforms. 

Although  the  introduction  of  outcome-oriented  curricula  appears  to  be  a 
major structural change in initial vocational education and training in Europe, the 
state  of  developments  in  each  country  is  subject  to  ongoing  adjustments. 
Education  and  training  systems  are  dynamic,  and  the  political  process  is 
constantly  balancing  and  rebalancing  priorities  in  response  to  a  wide  range  of 
pressures. Wider  economic  circumstances  may  also  be  having  an  effect  on  the 
further  development  or  implementation  of  policy.  On  the  one  hand,  training  has 
functioned as an active policy against the financial difficulties confronting citizens; 
on  the  other,  in  some  countries,  economic  and  administrative  constraints  have 
slowed  down  reforms  and  created  uncertainty  about  policy  continuation  and 
sustainability. 

Effective representation in the curriculum design process is vital to ensure 
responsiveness  and  relevance.  Multiple  stages  in  the  design  process  of 
curricula  may  lead  to  the  involvement  of  a  greater  number  of  diverse 
stakeholders. Decentralisation of  the curriculum design process may bring 
about  an  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  which  serves  the  needs  of  both 
employers and learners more effectively. 

The  curriculum  development  process  is  understood  as  the  development  of 
different  standards  (the  occupational  standard, 
the  qualification/evaluation 
standard, the education/curriculum standard and the training standard or learning 
programme),  each  of  which  has  a  different  role  to  play  but  all  of  which  need  to 
mesh  together  so  as  to ensure  a  good fit  between  VET  and  the  labour  market. 
These  multiple  stages  in  the  design  process  of  curricula  may  lead  to  the 
involvement of a greater number of diverse stakeholders. Countries differ in the 
degree  to which  they  differentiate  between  such  stages. This  is  often  related  to 
the  extent  to  which  IVET  curricula  combine  both  vocational  and  general 
education elements. 

Effective representation of stakeholders in the different stages of curriculum 
development  is  a  prerequisite  for  valid  and  credible  curricula.  Representation 

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may be achieved by different means, including appointing the social partners and 
stakeholders  to  working  groups  and  through  consultation.  Not  all  countries 
examined in this study have strong and long-standing representation. There are 
cases  where  the  introduction  of  new  curricula  has  strengthened  stakeholders’ 
involvement,  but  there  were  concerns  about  whether  this  engagement  could  be 
sustained. One of the (potential) advantages of increasing differentiation between 
stages  is  that  it  increases  the  likelihood  of  involving  a  wider  variety  of 
stakeholders.  However,  the  way  in  which  the  different  stages  of  the  curriculum 
design  process  work  together  (or  fail  to  do  so)  should  be  periodically  reviewed. 
The  research  identified  the  need  for  a  more  effective  feedback  mechanism 
between  the  different  stages  and  the  functions  they  perform.  Those  who 
participate  in  curriculum  design  should  understand  how  their  decisions  have  an 
impact  (or  have  little  or  no  impact)  on  teaching  and  assessment  so  that  design 
decisions  may  be  based  on  realistic  expectations.  This  could  contribute  to  an 
understanding of whether different ways of organising the design process actually 
lead to more representative, collaborative decision-making with improved results, 
i.e. more appropriate and effective curricula. 

Where governance is decentralised, this provides increased opportunities for 
stakeholder representation, and it may increase the capacity of particular groups 
of  stakeholders  to  have  a  positive  influence  on  the  process.  Over  time,  interest 
groups  develop  an  ability  to  work  together  and  to  find  ways  to  negotiate  their 
differences and reach compromises. This may be easier to do at local, regional or 
sectoral level, as the parties involved have common interests and shared values. 
The  research  provides  evidence  that  decentralisation  of  curriculum-making  can 
bring  about  an  adaptation  and  contextualisation  of  the  curriculum  which  better 
serve  the  needs  of  both  employers  and  learners.  This  is  because  it  can 
encourage  relationships  between  schools  and  local  companies.  However,  the 
capacity of participants at local level to engage in curriculum design was found to 
be highly variable among countries. Curricula developed at provider level depend 
on  the  establishment  of  effective  partnerships  and  negotiations  at  local  level. 
Moreover, the potential for development of the written curriculum at local level is 
not  always  fulfilled.  Often,  school-based  curriculum-writing  is  simply  a  matter  of 
timetabling  and  sequencing.  The  extent  to  which  greater  responsibility  can  be 
given to the development of the curriculum and cooperation between schools and 
stakeholders  at  local  level  is  a  key  issue  in  curriculum  design.  Schools  and 
colleges could benefit from greater consideration as to how to engage employers 
in  the  process  and,  in  some  cases,  from  sharing  examples  of  best  practice. 
Equally,  local  providers  would  benefit  from  national/regional  support  to  help 
develop their capacity. 

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In most cases, students’ involvement in outcome-oriented curriculum design 
that,  where 
has  been  underrepresented.  Awareness  should  be 
consultation  does  involve  students,  it  becomes  possible  to  ensure  that  learning 
outcomes are intelligible and responsive to learners. At national level, the student 
voice could be given greater weight in the curriculum design process, for example 
through the use of focus groups and web-based methods of participation; at local 
level, this could be ensured through collaboration with teachers to negotiate the 
curriculum,  for  example  to  design  their  own  learning  projects  and,  to  some 
degree, select their own content and context. 

raised 

The  written  curriculum  may  affect  the  behaviour  of  teachers  and  their 
pedagogical autonomy. How learning outcomes are grouped and how they 
connect  to  other  material  in  the  curriculum  can  have  implications  for 
teaching and assessment. It is therefore important to ensure the right level 
of prescription in the written curriculum. 

The impact of written curricula on teaching and learning depends not only on 
which learning outcomes are included but also on how they are grouped and the 
various  ways  in  which  knowledge,  skills  and  competence  are  distributed  within 
curricula.  For  example,  some  curricula  require  that  certain  competences  are 
taught  and  learned  together,  while  others  leave  it  to  the  discretion  of  teachers. 
Curriculum  design  could  be  supported  by  an  improved  understanding  of  how 
different  strategies  for  organising  learning  outcomes  affect  (or  fail  to  affect) 
teaching and learning. The manner in which learning outcomes are articulated in 
curricula  will  enable  or  constrain  distinctive  teaching  and  assessment  methods. 
For  example,  if  skills  and  knowledge  are  formulated  as  distinct  learning 
outcomes, then they may be taught and assessed separately. The level of detail 
of the outcomes used in curricula (the degree of granularity) may have important 
implications  for  teaching  methods  and  for  learners’  assessment.  A  high  level  of 
prescription  may  increase  the  reliability  of  assessment  and  the  consistency  of 
teaching  and,  accordingly,  help  to  ensure  that  VET  provision  does  reflect  the 
competences  required  more  accurately.  However,  prescription  may  also  have 
negative effects, leading to excessive complexity, overly instrumental approaches 
to teaching and learning (reduced teacher autonomy) and a lack of relevance for 
particular  learners  and employers  by  reducing  responsibility  for tailoring at  local 
level. 

Consequently, there are trade-offs between the advantages that come from 
sophisticated,  participative,  national  development  processes  with  a  high  level  of 
transparency  and  prescription  and  those  resulting  from  a  lower  level  of 

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prescription  which  leave  more  room  for  teachers  and  local  stakeholders 
(including  learners)  to  define  their  own  curriculum.  There  are  various  ways  of 
ensuring  a  degree  of  prescription  in  the  curriculum,  and  curriculum  designers 
may  find  that,  by  making  changes to  several  elements  of  the  written  curriculum 
simultaneously, they can avoid some negative consequences. For example, they 
can choose to reduce national control over the granularity of learning outcomes 
but tighten national control over assessment criteria. 

The  curriculum  development  process  faces  a  number  of  challenges  that 
need  to  be  carefully  considered  from  the  outset.  The  appropriate  use  of 
expertise can help overcome some of these challenges. 

Assessment  should  be  made  not  only  of  the  added  value  that  outcome-
oriented curriculum design can bring to teaching and learning processes but also 
the  associated  costs  and  obstacles.  There  are  a  number  of  challenges  to  the 
effectiveness  and  smooth  running  of  curriculum  development  processes.  These 
include establishing and maintaining employers’ involvement, reconciling conflicts 
of interest, ensuring that the process of writing learning outcomes is transparent 
and  fully  accessible  to  all  participants,  ensuring  that  the  process  of  curriculum 
reform is not overly protracted and balancing this with the need to ensure that all 
relevant stakeholders are actively involved. 

The  writing  and  structuring  of  learning  outcomes  in  written  curricula  may 
become an increasingly technical exercise. Experts with specific know-how in this 
matter  can  play  a  significant  role  in  informing  the  development  of  written 
outcome-oriented  curricula  and  in  working  with  stakeholders  to  reconcile 
differences  and  solve  problems.  Experts  may  work  for  public  curriculum 
agencies, employers’ organisations, the social partners or awarding bodies. They 
may  be  employees  or  consultants.  Their  role  might  become  more  important  as 
highly  differentiated  processes,  which  are  often  more  complex  and  technical, 
develop in support of outcome-oriented curricula. This research pointed out that 
some countries have experienced problems in finding the expertise required. 

Learner-centred  pedagogies  can  support  the  delivery  of  outcome-oriented 
curricula;  however,  barriers  exist that  prevent  them  from  being  used more 
extensively. 

There  is  no  straightforward  relationship  between  the  development  of  a 
stronger  outcomes  orientation  within  written  curricula  and  learner-centred 
approaches  used to deliver  the  taught  curriculum,  since  pedagogy  is  influenced 

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by  many  factors  outside  the  written  curriculum,  such  as  teachers’  habits  and 
values  and  the  expectations  of  their  schools.  The  teachers  interviewed  do  not 
automatically associate outcome-oriented curricula with learner-centred teaching 
methods.  Usually,  when  learner-centred  pedagogies  are  articulated  in  some 
detail  in  written  curricula,  this  is  associated  with  the  use  of  learner-centred 
pedagogies in practice. However, the same written curriculum  may be delivered 
in different ways: one school may use open learning methods while another may 
use more traditional whole-class approaches. 

The  teachers  and  students  interviewed  are  in  favour  of  learner-centred 
approaches,  as  they  consider  them  appropriate  for  teaching  outcome-oriented 
curricula. Leaners in particular value learning experiences that are closely related 
to  the  world  of  work,  for  example  simulated  and  authentic  on-the-job  learning. 
However,  little  consideration  has  been  given  at  policy  level  to  what  types  of 
pedagogies  might  best  support  outcome-oriented  curricula.  This  is  further 
complicated  by  the  fact  that  learner-centred  pedagogies  are  not  consistently 
defined  or  understood.  Sets  of  learner-centred  pedagogies  are  emerging  from 
professional circles and communities which include project work, group learning, 
simulations,  role  play,  independent  study  and  problem-solving.  Project  work 
appears to engage and motivate learners. It can provide opportunities to develop 
the  autonomy  and  generic  skills  of  students,  and  it  promotes  the  application  of 
knowledge and skills. It can also bring together and consolidate learning, helping 
to  combine  separate 
in  coherent  and  contextualised 
competences.  It  is  important  to  develop  a  clearer  understanding  of  the 
differences and similarities between various ‘learner-centred’ approaches and to 
understand  what  kind  of  impact  they  have  on  teaching  and  learning  in  practice 
and  how  this  connects  to  the  character  of  the  written  curriculum.  It  should  be 
investigated  how  particular  pedagogies  (for  example  self-directed 
further 
learning,  including  the  use  of  online  resources;  peer  learning;  creative  learning; 
work-based and work-related learning) can support outcome-oriented curricula. 

learning  outcomes 

There is a need for a better understanding of how the behaviour of teachers 
and learners changes (or fails to change) as a consequence of the introduction of 
new curricula. Why do some teachers in some schools appear to respond more 
positively to curriculum reform than others and what kinds of interventions, such 
as  the  provision  of  training,  can  support  positive  responses?  An  improved 
understanding  of  the  process  of  pedagogical  innovation  should  inform  reforms 
that imply changes in pedagogy. It is important to understand better how effective 
professional  development  agencies,  networks  of  teachers,  training  programmes 
and official guidance are as means of developing pedagogy. 

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Furthermore, the position of students in relation to learning outcomes merits 
further  attention.  It  is  a  concern  that  learning  outcomes  are  not  always 
understood  by  learners.  Learner-centred  pedagogies  and  formative  assessment 
should enable  learners to interpret learning outcomes and make use of them to 
plan their own learning. 

The  quality  and  character  of  learning  environments  and  the  use  of 
appropriate learning materials are vital to the delivery of outcome-oriented 
curricula.  Workplace  learning  plays  an  important  role  in  delivering  these 
curricula; however, there are challenges in exploiting its full potential. 

The  quality  and  character  of  learning  environments  are  critical  for  the 
delivery  of  outcome-oriented  curricula,  although  this  was  often  expressed  in 
terms of not having the right mix of learning environments and, in particular, not 
having  access  to  laboratories  or  workshops  either  at  all  or  at  the  right  time. 
Accordingly,  teaching  activities  often  had  to  be  planned  on  the  basis  of  these 
realities. In some cases, teachers developed their own material to teach the new 
curriculum. In other  cases,  work-like  environments  were  developed  to  provide  a 
real work setting. 

The  introduction  of  an  outcomes  orientation  in  curricula  has  often  taken 
place alongside an increase in the requirements for experience in the workplace. 
On-the-job  learning  can  play  a  critical  role  in  outcome-oriented  curricula  by 
providing  a  real-life  setting  in  which  learning  can  be  consolidated.  While  being 
beneficial,  such  provision  places  additional  responsibility  on  teachers,  learners 
and  employers  to  organise  workplace  learning  and  coordinate  learning  across 
different  sites.  There  can  also  be  problems  in  simply  finding  sufficient 
opportunities for work experience. Although learning outcomes should also reflect 
employers’  needs,  there  is  evidence  that  employers  need  assistance  in 
understanding learning outcomes and applying them to specific situations. Many 
of the schools visited were seeking ways of making better use of the workplace 
as an environment for learning. 

With the right support, outcome-oriented curricula can promote inclusion in 
education and training. New curricula can be combined with other policies 
and  tools,  such  as  modularisation,  unitisation,  credit  transfer  and  the 
recognition  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning,  with  a  view  to  improving 
inclusiveness. 

148 

 
 
 
 
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The impact of learning outcomes 

Outcome-oriented  curricula  should  improve  inclusiveness  in  teaching  and 
learning  and  promote  educational  inclusion  in  the  sense  of  widening  access, 
encouraging  people  to  go  on  to  further  studies  and  extending  participation, 
achieving  equitable  learning  outcomes  with  all  students,  etc.  This  is  particularly 
important at a time when many European countries are facing high rates of early 
school  leaving  with  significant  economic  and  social  consequences  not  only  for 
young people themselves but also for the economy and society as a whole. 

An  outcomes-based  approach  may  be  understood  as  a  progressive 
opportunity  to  address  learners’  diversities  and achieve  an  inclusive  curriculum. 
The present study shows that, with the right support, outcome-oriented curricula 
can  be  used  to  expand  the  competences  of  disadvantaged  individuals  and 
encourage  progression  in  education  and  training  and/or  improve  access  to  the 
labour  market.  However,  although,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  there  is  a  policy 
intention to promote educational inclusion, the examination of the written curricula 
included  in  this  research  provides  little  evidence  that  they  have  actually  been 
designed to achieve this particular goal. 

On  the  whole,  while  national  policy  has  focused  on  reforms  to  the  written 
curriculum,  very  little  consideration,  by  comparison,  has  been  given  to  the 
question  of  how  new  curricula  might  affect  teaching  and  learning.  Outcome-
oriented curriculum reform needs to be balanced with more consideration of the 
taught  curriculum.  The  implementation  of  outcome-oriented  curricula  should  be 
carefully  monitored  and  reviewed  to  ensure  that  these  curricula  are  effective  in 
delivering their intended goals. 

149 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

List of abbreviations 

AET 
APL 
ASOO 
BEP 
BIBB 
BTEC 
BTS 

CAP 

CCF 
CEE 
CEOE 

CGFP 

CNC 
CPC 
CSE 
CVET 
DGESIP 
DGESCO 
ECTS 
ECVET 
EQF 
ESF 
EU 
FETAC 
FI 
FIEEC 
FSAI 
GTC 
INCUAL 
ISCED 
IVET 
MES 
MoE 
NQF 
NVQ 
PTE 
QCDA 
QCF 
RVCC 
SEN 
SZVK 
TP 
UGT 

adult education and training courses 
accreditation of prior learning 
Croatian National Agency for VET and Adult Education 
brevet d’étude professionnelle (school-leaving diploma) 
Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training 
Business and Technical Council 
brevet de technicien supérieur (two-year technical degree, level EQF5) 
certificat d’aptitude professionnelle (vocational training certificate taken at 
secondary school, level EQF3) 
controlled assessment 
central and eastern European 
Spanish Confederation of Employers’ Organisations 
Consejo General de Formación Profesional (General Council for Vocational 
Training) 
computer numerical control 
commission professionnelle consultative (vocational advisory committee) 
Higher Council of Education in France 
continuing vocational education and training 
General Directorate for Higher Education and Employability 
General Directorate of School Education, French Ministry of Education 
European credit transfer and accumulation system 
European credit system for vocational education and training 
European qualifications framework 
European Social Fund 
European Union 
Further Education and Training Awards Council 
Fáilte Ireland 
Federation of Electrical, Electronics and Communications Industries 
Safety Authority of Ireland 
General Teaching Council 
Instituto Nacional de Cualificaciones (National Institute of Qualifications) 
international standard classification of education 
initial vocational education and training 
module employment skills 
Ministry of Education 
national qualifications framework 
national vocational qualification 
practical training in enterprise 
Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency 
qualification and curriculum framework 
recognition, validation and certification of competences 
systèmes électroniques et numériques (electronic and digital systems) 
professional and examination requirements (in Hungary) 
training plan 
Unión General de Trabajadores (General Workers’ Union) 

150 

 
 
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The impact of learning outcomes 

UIMM 
VET 

VVKSO 

WEB 

Union of Metallurgical Industries and Trades 
vocational education and training 
Vlaams Verbond van het Katholiek Secundair Onderwijs (Flemish Association of 
Catholic Secondary Education) 
Wet Educatie en Beroepsonderwijs (General Adult Education and Vocational 
Education Act) 

151 

Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

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ANNEXES: 
Examples of outcome-oriented curriculum 
design 

Annex  1  includes  a  list  of  interviewees  who  have  agreed  to  have  their  names 
published.  Annexes  2  to  9  provide  examples  of  different  approaches  to  the 
design  of  outcome-oriented  curricula.  Examples  further  illustrate  how  learning 
outcomes combine with other material in curriculum documents to set norms for 
teaching, learning and assessment. They show how learning outcomes articulate 
with  occupational,  qualification,  education  and  training  standards,  how  they 
connect  with  assessment  criteria  and  how  they  link  to  the  content  of  written 
curricula. 

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ANNEX 1.  
List of interviewees 

List of interviewees (42):  
Austria 

3s Research Laboratory 

Ministry of Education, Mechatronics 
Department 

Belgium 

Catholic University of Louvain la Neuve 

Flemish Department of Education and 
Formation 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Karin Luomi-Messerer, VET expert 

Wolgang Pachatz, VET expert 

Xavier Roegiers, professor in 
science of education 

Rita Dunon, advisor, Ministry of the 
Flemish Community, Department of 
Education, Policy Coordination 
Division 

Vlaams Verbond van het Katholiek 
Secundair Onderwijs (VVKSO) 

Carl Snoeckx, specialist secondary 
education 

VVKSO 

VVKSO 

Bulgaria 

Confederation of labour Podkrepa 

Czech 
Republic 

Department of international cooperation, 
ReferNet CZ coordinator, National Institute 
for Technical and Vocational Education 

National Institute for Technical and 
Vocational Education, expert for tourism 
and gastronomy 

National VET institute - vocational 
education and training (quality assurance 
development) 

National expert, secondary VET school, 
Rovinj 

National VET institute 

VET school in Rovinj 

Croatia 

Cyprus 

Eddy Van Autreve, specialist 
secondary education 

Ann Ysenbrandt, specialist 
secondary education 

Krasimira Brozig, training and 
career development field 

Martina Kanakova, VET expert 

Tatana Vencovska, VET expert 

Maja Jukić, VET expert 

Ivan Sazdevski, headmaster 

Jelena Letica, VET expert 

Mislav Balković, VET expert and 
Director  

VET school in Rovinj 

Ivan Sazdevski, headmaster 

ReferNet Cyprus, Research and Planning 
Directorate, Human Resource 
Development Authority 

Directorate of Technical and Vocational 
Education, Ministry of Education and 
Culture 

Yianna Korelli, ReferNet coordinator 
and human resource officer  

Nicolas Andilios, technical and 
vocational school inspector 

STVE Directorate 

Andreas Eleftheriou, inspector 

(42)  This list includes the names of those experts who  have given us consent to publish 

their names. In total, information was obtained from 319 interviewees. 

169 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Denmark 

Department for Curriculum Research, the 
Danish School of Education, Copenhagen 

Pia Cort, assistant professor 

Education Board for Commercial and 
Office Area, Copenhagen 

Per Clausen, secretariat for 
commercial qualifications 

Aarhus University, Department of 
Education, curriculum research 

Aarhus University, Department of 
Education, curriculum research 

Danish Education Department 

Vibe Aakrog, lecturer in VET 
pedagogy 

Sixten Wie Bang, researcher 

Gert Nielsen, national curriculum 
manager 

Industriens Uddannelser 

Niels Bylund, consultant 

Estonia 

Ministry of Education and Research 

National Examination and Qualifications 
Centre, the Vocational Education 
Department 

Finland 

Finnish National Board of Education 
(FNBE) 

Kalle Toom, Head of vocational 
division 

Katrin Tammjärv  

Sirkka-Liisa Kärki, Head of 
qualifications unit, counsellor of 
education, vocational education 
department 

Finnish National Board of Education 

Kati Lounema, chief technologist 

Salpaus further education (Koulutuskeskus 
Salpaus) 

VET expert 

France 

Patrick Werquin Consulting and Toulouse 
business school 

Patrick Werquin, consultant, 
professor at CNAM 

French National Qualifications Commission  Anne-Marie Charraud, consultant 

Ministère de l'éducation 

Reims Academy 

Germany 

University Bremen 

Federal Institution for VET 
Bundesgesetzblatt 

University Bremen 

University Darmstadt 

Brigitte Trocmé, adjointe au chef du 
bureau des diplômes professionnels  
(DGESCO A2.3) 

M. Camus, inspector for Bac Pro 
SEN 

Klaus Ruth, ITB, VET expert 

Gert Zinke, VET expert 

Georg Spöttl, VET expert  

Simon Laub, expert 

German Institute for Adult Education 

Mona Pielorz, expert 

Greece 

At the time of the study: EKEPIS (the 
National Accreditation Centre for 
Continuing Vocational Training), Ministry of 
Labour 

At the time of the study: Greek Ministry of 
Education 

Tina Simota, programmes 
accreditation unit 

Anastasia Pouliou, Greek delegate 
to the activities of the Commission 
on the EQF 

EOPPEP National Organisation for the 
Certification of Qualification and 
Professional Guidance 

Giannis Kapoutsis, Head of group 
planning and organisation 
certification qualifications 

Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning 
and Religious Affairs 

Dimitris Kondylis, Maria Katechi 

170 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

General Secretariat for Adult Education, 
Ministry of Education 

Magda Trantallidi, Head of 
Department for International 
Cooperation 

Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning 
and Religious Affairs 

Alexandra Ioannidou, advisor to the 
Minister for Lifelong Learning Policy 

Hungary 

University of Szeged, Faculty of Juhász 
Gyula teacher training 

Eva Farkas, external advisor to the 
Ministry for National Economy, 
teacher trainer, vocational and 
examination requirements writer 

Hungarian National Institute for 
Educational Research and Development 

Anna Imre 

National Institute of Vocational and Adult 
Education 

Magdolna Benke 

Representative of the Confederation of 
Hungarian Employers and Industrialists 

Sum István, General Director of 
Sztáv 

Regional Development Committee - 
Central Hungary Region 

Pecsi Kereskedelmi, Idegenforgalmi és 
Vendéglátóipari Szakközépiskola és 
Szakiskola 

Óvári Márta 

Metzger Tibor, Director 

EFEB Üzleti Szakközépiskola 

Takács Istvánné, Director 

Iceland 

Department of Education, Ministry of 
Education, Science and Culture 

Björg Pétursdóttir sérfræðingur, 
adviser 

Division for vocational and adult education, 
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture 

Kristrún Ísaksdóttir, adviser 

Ireland 

Further Education and Training 
Accreditation Council  (FETAC) 

Marie Gould, Head of new awards 

Department of Education and Science, 
further education section 

Seamus Hempenstall, principal 
officer 

Failte Ireland 

Further education support service (FESS) 

Italy 

Latvia 

ISFOL (Institute for the development of the 
vocational education and training of the 
workers) 

National Educational Curricula Centre in 
Latvia 

Sean O Malley, manager education 
operations 

Siobhan Magee, further education 
support officer 

Manuela Bonacci, technical 
researcher, NQS, EQF and ECVET 

Sarmite Valaine, Head of the 
vocational programmes content 
department 

Liechten-
stein 

Lithuania 

Tourism and trade school in Riga 

Lubova Vinogradova, teacher 

National office for VET and career 
counselling 

Georg Kaufmann, Head of career 
counselling 

Centre for Vocational Education and 
Research 

Centre for Development of VET and 
Qualifications 

Vidmantas Tutlys, VET expert 

Vicentas Dienys, VET expert 

Luxem-
bourg 

Malta 

At the time of the study: Ministry of 
Education and Vocational Training 

Jos Noesen, Chargé de Mission, 
EQF 

Institute of Tourism Studies 

Adrian Mamo, Executive Director 

171 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Institute of Tourism Studies 

Rosetta Thornhill, Deputy Director 

Institute of Tourism Studies 

Max Mangion, scheduling officer 

EastCoast Education 

Barry Smith, consultant 

Nether-
lands 

Centre for expertise in vocational education 
and training (ECBO) 

Ilya Zitter, senior researcher 

Occupational training and qualifications, 
Kenteq (sector body for electronics) 

Meta Benschop, qualifications 
expert 

Norway 

Curriculum Department, Directorate for 
Education and Training 

John Christian Christiansen, adviser 

K-Tech 

Svein Erik Lurdalen, general 
manager 

CONSULTUR studies and analyses 

Odd Bjørn Ure, consultant 

Poland 

Zabłocka, Institute for VET 

University of Warsaw 

University of Warsaw 

University of Warsaw 

Elżbieta Drogosz-Zabłocka, VET 
researcher 

Barbara Minkiewicz ,VET 
researcher 

Gabriela Grotkowska, VET expert, 
professor 

Tomasz Gajderowicz, VET 
researcher 

Portugal 

National Qualifications Agency 

Paulo Feliciano, Ex-Deputy Director 

ANESPO– Associação Nacional de 
Escolas Profissionais 

Luis Costa, Executive Director 

Romania 

National Centre for VET Development 

Zoica Elena Vladut, Deputy Director 

National Centre for VET Development 

Mihaela Stefanescu 

Travel agency 

University of Bucharest, Faculty of 
Psychology and Educational Sciences 

Nelida Ismail, teacher, curriculum 
developer/writer, travel agency 
manager 

Lucian Ciolan, Dean 

Colegiul Economic Mangalia 

A Vargatu, Director 

Slovakia 

State Institute of VET (Štátny inštitút 
odborného vzdelávania) 

Gabriela Jakubová, Deputy Director 
for VET programmes 

Engineering VET school (Stredná 
priemyselná škola strojnícka), Fajnorovo 
nábrežie 5, Bratislava 

Engineering VET school in Myjava 
(Stredná priemyselná škola strojnícka 
Myjava) 

Felix Dömény, headmaster 

Alena Palková, headmaster 

Secondary vocational school in Dubnica 
nad Vahom, Deputy Director of VET school 

Ing. Ladislav Matuška 

PosAm, Co. Ltd. 

Slovenia 

University of Ljubljana 

Lucia Klestincova, VET researcher 

Samo Pavlin, VET expert, assistant 
professor 

Secondary school for hairdressers – 
Ljubljana 

Primož Hvala Kamenšček, 
headmaster and VET expert 

Centre for Vocational Education and 
Training 

Jelka Drobne, tourism curricula 
specialist 

172 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Centre for Vocational Education and 
Training 

Centre for Vocational Education and 
Training 

Elido Bandelj, Director 

Anica Justinek, VET expert 

Spain 

INCUAL (National Institute for 
Qualifications) 

IES Hotel Escuela de la Comunidad de 
Madrid 

IES Escuela Superior de Hostelería y 
Turismo, Madrid 

INCUAL (National Institute for 
Qualifications) 

KL-Guides 

Asociación de federaciones de guías 
European Federation of Tourist Guide 
Associations 

Francisca Maria Arbizu Echavarri, 
former Director 

Miguel Pérez Pérez, Director 

Antonio Morales Martinez, Director 

Catalina Zarauza Norato, technical 
assistant 

Lucía Acuña, manager, tourist guide 

A. Carlos, Deputy President: Feg 
president personal 

Sweden 

Division for upper secondary education 

Kritjof Karlsson, Deputy Director 

Department of Analysis and Research, 
Swedish National Agency for Higher 
Vocational Education 

Skolverket, National Agency for Education 

Turkey 

Hacettepe, vocational school of social 
sciences 

UllaKarin Sundqvist Nilsson, senior 
administrative officer 

Cristina Pontis, Director of 
education 

Reha Alpar, Director 

Hacettepe, vocational school of social 
sciences 

Mehmet Altinoz, Vice Director 

UK 
(England) 

People First  

SEMTA 

Royal Academy of Engineering 

King Edward VII School, Sheffield 

Source:  Authors. 

Two tourism sector experts 

Bill Sutton, sector expert 

Matthew Harrison,  
Director education 

Gary Drabble STEM, 
strategy manager 

173 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

ANNEX 2.  
Examples of differentiated curriculum 
development approaches 

In  the  examples  below,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  the  various  stages 
corresponding  to  occupational,  qualification,  education  and  training  standards. 
However,  a  separate  document  is  not  always  published  for  each  of  the  four 
standards.  In  France,  for  example,  all  of  the  stages  are  published  as  a  single 
document which is divided into various sections and appendices. The terminology 
used  by  individual  countries  reflects  national  perceptions.  For  example,  the 
statements  known  as  compétences  in  the  French  référentiel  de  certification 
appear  to  function  as  the  statements  that  the  model  identifies  as  learning 
outcomes.  The  Romanian  document,  whose  title  literally  translates  as  ‘training 
standard’, performs the function of what is known as the qualification standard in 
the model. A Slovenian term that literally translates as ‘goals’ appears to function 
as learning outcomes. 

In  Luxembourg,  there  are  five  different  stages  in  the  development  of 
outcome-oriented  curricula:  definition  of  the  competences;  definition  of  the 
the 
learning  outcomes;  definition  of 
assessment criteria; and definition of the local training programme. 

learning  modules;  definition  of 

the 

174 

 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Table 7 

Stages  in  the  development  of  tourism  and  gastronomy  curriculum  in 
Slovenia in comparison to the theoretical model  

Model 
documents 

Occupa- 
tional 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education standard 

Model 
elements 

Compe-
tences 

Learning outcomes linked  
to content, guidance and  
references to the rest  
of the curriculum 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped 
into units 
with 
assessment 
criteria 

Slovenia: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

National curriculum (Nacionalni izobraževalni 
programme) 

General 
educa-
tional and 
vocational 
goals  

Catalogues 
of 
knowledge – 
general 
subjects 

Catalogues 
of 
knowledge – 
vocational 
modules 

Catalogues 
of exami-
nations 

Training 
standard 
(learning 
programme) 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

School 
curriculum, 
designed by 
the providers  

Slovenia: 
components 

Occupational 
competences; 
areas of work, 
key job tasks, 
skills and 
knowledge 

General 
compe- 
tences, 
vocational 
compete-
nces 

Goals;  
units with 
knowledge 
and general 
compete-
nces and 
assessment 
criteria and 
methods 

Goals; units 
with 
vocational 
compete-
nces and 
informative 
and 
formative 
goals 
(learning 
outcomes) 

Assessment 
criteria and 
methods, 
learning 
outcomes 

Modules: 
content and 
learning 
outcomes 
assessment 
criteria tests 
and tasks: 
learning 
outcomes 
(skills, 
knowledge) 

NB: 
Source:  Slovenian case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

175 

 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Table 8 

Stages  in  the  development  of  technician  in  tourism  curriculum  in 
Romania in comparison to the theoretical model  

Model 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education standard 

Training  
standard 
(learning 
programme) 

Model 
elements 

Competences 

Learning 
outcomes  
grouped into  
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning outcomes 
linked to content, 
guidance and 
references to the rest 
of the curriculum 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training modules 

Romania: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Training standard 

Curriculum 

Romania: 
elements 

Competences  Units comprising 

learning outcomes 
and performance 
criteria and range 
statements 

Modules – containing 
learning outcomes 

Programmes 
designed by 
providers 

NB: 
Source:  Romanian case study 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

Table 9 

Stages in the development of baccalauréat professionnel des systèmes 
électroniques et numériques curriculum in France in comparison to the 
theoretical model  

Model 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education standard 

Training 
standard 

Model 
elements 

Competences 

France: 
documents 

Référentiel 
d’activités 
professionnelles 

France: 
elements  

Fonctions et 
activités 

NB: 
Source:  French case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

Learning 
outcomes grouped 
into units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning outcomes 
linked to content, 
guidance and references 
to the rest of the 
curriculum 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

Référentiel de certification – consisting  
of several sections: 

Competences 
and 
subcompetences 

Savoir-
associés 

Content, 
guidance for 
teachers, 
inspectors, 
etc. 

Programmes 
with different 
education 
routes: school, 
enterprise, 
apprentices 

176 

 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Table 10  Luxembourg: stages in the development of IVET curricula in 

comparison to the theoretical model 

Model: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Educational standard 

Training 
standard 

Model: 
elements 

Competences 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped into 
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning outcomes 
linked to content, 
guidance and 
references to the rest 
of the curriculum 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

LU: 
documents 

Berufsprofil 

Ausbildungsprofil   Rahmen- 

LU: 
elements 

Arbeitsbereiche, 
Aufgaben, 
Tätigkeiten 

Kompetenzen: 
Sach-, Sozial- und 
Selbst-kompetenz 

NB: 
Source:  Luxembourg country review. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

lehrplan 

Module 

Local 
curricula 

Evaluier-
ungs-
rahmen 

Indika- 
toren 
Standards 
+ Assess- 
ment 
Methoden 

The  above  tables  provide  a  broad  conceptualisation  of  what  happens  in 
each country. The detailed institutional and administrative process is, of course, 
much  more  complex.  The  following  example  describes  this  formal  process 
through  which  the  baccalauréat  professionnel  des  systèmes  électroniques  et 
numériques  was  developed  in  France  and  illustrates  the  variety  of  actors  and 
stages involved. 

177 

 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
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Table 11  France:  development  of  baccalauréat  professionnel  des  systèmes 

électroniques et numériques in comparison to the theoretical model 

Phases 

Actors involved in the 
vocational bac SEN 

Request for creation or 
renewal 

First analysis: Opening of a 
folder (‘dossier’) 

Feasibility study for gathering 
data on: 
  the industry or the 

occupation 

  employment: trends, 

characteristics 
  labour market 
  pre-existing relevant 

training and qualifications 

Professional bodies, 
enterprises, Ministry of 
Education (MoE) 

General secretary 

Stakeholders: expression of 
needs 
 

experts: confirmation of 
those needs, with 
formalisation 

  Ministry of Education 
(MoE), Directorate-
General for School 
Education (management 
of curricula, DGESCO), in 
particular division for 
partnerships with 
enterprises 

Example of actors and key 
dates in connection with the 
vocational bac SEN 

Date of request for renewal: 
2003 

22 March 2004: report for first 
analysis 

FIEEC (Federation of Electrical, 
Electronics and 
Communications Industries) 
UIMM (Union of Metallurgical 
Industries and Trades) 

– e.g. Céreq (Centre for Studies 
and Research on Qualifications) 

– CPC No 3 (CPC for 
Metallurgy) 

Review during CPC session: 
decision to start the actual 
work (development of 
qualification standard) 

CPC (commission 
professionnelle consultative – 
vocational advisory 
committee), etc. 

21 December 2004 (CPC No 3); 
review on 25 June 2008 
and 6 February 2009 

Writing of the qualifications 
standards  

Working group: professionals, 
inspectors, teachers, Ministry 
of Education (DGESCO) 

Writing of certification 
arrangements 

Presentation of the 
qualification to the CPC 

Working group with: MoE, 
office for the regulation of 
qualifications – DGESCO 
(secondary education plus 
tertiary non-university) or 
DGESIP (rest of tertiary 
education) 

CPC 
Higher Council of Education 
(CSE) 

Official presentation of the 
qualification 

Ministry of Education 
Ministerial officials responsible 
for designing decrees 

Decree establishing the 
qualification 

During 2004: professionals sent 
by FIEEC and UIMM; 
inspectors (appointed by MoE 
for this vocational sector); 
teachers sent by inspectors 

2004; 
review in 2005 to add annexes 
setting out assessments rules; 
2009 to 2011: amendments to 
some of the qualification’s 
content (addition of optical 
fibres support) 

21 December 2004 and 
10 December 2005; 
CSE on 22 March 2006; 
review on 21 March 2011 
and 29 November 3011 

28 April 2005: creation of the 
renewed qualification, 
vocational bac SEN; 
15 May 2006: additional 
sections 

NB: 
Source:  French case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

178 

 
 
 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

ANNEX 3.  
Examples of undifferentiated curriculum 
development approaches 

Table 12  UK  (England):  stages  of  curriculum  development  for  NVQ  level  3  in 

travel services in comparison to the theoretical model 

Model: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education 
standard 

Training 
programme 

Model: 
elements 

Competences 

UK (England): 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped into 
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning 
outcomes linked 
to content, 
guidance and 
references to the 
rest of the 
curriculum 

National vocational qualifications 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

Programmes 
designed by 
providers 

UK (England): 
elements 

Competences 

Learning outcomes and assessment 
criteria organised into units 

NB: 
Source:  English case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

Table 13 

Ireland:  stages  of  curriculum  development 
professional cooking in comparison to the theoretical model 

for 

traineeship 

in 

Ideal type 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education standard 

Model: 
elements 

Competences 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped into 
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning outcomes 
linked to content, 
guidance and 
references to the rest 
of the curriculum 

Training 
programme 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

Ireland: 
documents 

Ireland: 
elements 

Awards – composed of ‘modules’ which are  
composed of ‘units’ 

Programme 
profile 

Learning outcomes organised in units 

Modules and 
learning 
outcomes and 
mark 
allocations 

NB: 
Source:  Irish case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

179 

 
 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Table 14  Finland:  stages  of  curriculum  development  for  qualification  in  tourism 
sales,  information  services  and  travel  counsellor  in  comparison  to  the 
theoretical model  

Model: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education standard 

Model: 
elements 

Competences 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped into 
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning outcomes 
linked to content, 
guidance and 
references to the 
rest of the 
curriculum 

Training 
programme 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

Finland: 
documents 

National qualification requirements – modules including 
vocational and key competences and assessment criteria 

Learning 
programme 

Finland: 
elements 

Units containing learning outcomes 

Modules  

NB: 
Source:  Finnish case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

Table 15  Spain:  stages  of  curriculum  development  for  higher  technical  tourist 
guide,  information  and  assistance  in  comparison  to  the  theoretical 
model  

Model: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education 
standard 

Training 
programme 

Model: 
elements 

Competences 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped into 
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning 
outcomes linked 
to content, 
guidance and 
references to the 
rest of the 
curriculum 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

Spain: 
documents 

Spain: 
elements 

Professional qualification 
(becomes part of national 
catalogue of professional 
qualifications) 

Professional modules 
(become part of national 
catalogue of professional 
modules) 

Regional and 
institutional 
programmes 

Competence units: 
descriptors of professional 
performance, performance 
criteria and professional 
context 

Modules (with hours and 
ECTS credits) consisting of 
learning outcomes and 
assessment criteria and 
content 

Carry forward 
learning 
outcomes, but 
may change 
sequence and 
add options 

NB: 
Source:  Spanish case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

180 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

ANNEX 4.  
Examples of semi-differentiated curriculum 
development approaches 

Table 16  Hungary:  stages  of  curriculum  development  for  tourism  adviser 

curriculum compared to the theoretical model  

Model: 
documents 

Occupational 
standard 

Qualification 
standard 

Education standard 

Training 
programme 

Model: 
elements 

Competences 

Learning 
outcomes 
grouped into 
units with 
assessment 
criteria 

Learning outcomes 
linked to content, 
guidance and 
references to the rest 
of the curriculum 

Learning 
outcomes in 
teaching or 
training 
modules 

Hungary: 
documents 

Professional examination 
requirement 

Hungary: 
elements 

Task and character profiles 
(knowledge and skills) 

NB: 
Source:  Hungarian case study. 

Theoretical model in dark blue. 

Programmes 
designed by 
providers 

Central programme 

Units cover 
professional, 
methodological, 
personal and social 
competences 

181 

 
 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

ANNEX 5.  
Competences in occupational standards 
connected to learning outcomes in 
qualification standards 

The  present  example  shows  the  manner  in  which  competences  in  occupational 
standards are reformulated or re-organised when they are translated into learning 
outcomes  in qualification  standards,  i.e.  in the  written  curriculum. The  outcome-
oriented  approach  implies  that  the  written  curriculum  must  be  structured  and 
formulated in a way that both reflects the formulation of competences and takes 
into account the context and practicalities of training and assessment. 

The English and Spanish examples below can be used to contrast two basic 
types of relationship. In the case of the English qualifications, the formulation and 
number  of  learning  outcomes  closely  reflect  the  formulation  and  number  of 
competences.  This  reflects  the  fact  that  a  large  amount  of  provision  for  this 
qualification in the UK (England) is enterprise-based, i.e. it takes place in the real-
life environment of the occupational standard rather than in a training institution. 
In the case of the Spanish qualification, there is a considerable contrast between 
the  formulation  and  number  of  learning  outcomes  and  the  formulation  and 
number  of  competences.  This  discrepancy  reflects  the  fact  that  provision  takes 
place, to a great extent, in a vocational school. The learning outcomes describe 
what  learners  should  be  able  to  do  in  a  training  institution  rather  than  in  the 
workplace. 

The  English  apprenticeship  qualification  consists  of  a  framework  which 
includes  a  number  of  distinct  qualifications.  Government  policy,  marketing  and 
funding  encourage  the  achievement  of  all  of  the  qualifications  so  that  the  full 
framework is achieved. However, in practice, learners and providers may address 
only some of the qualifications in the framework. 

In  the  UK  (England),  there  is  a  particular  unitised  occupational  standard 
which describes the work tasks that fulfil a particular job description, e.g. organise 
and  implement  travel  and  tourism  promotional  activities.  The  occupational 
standard is defined in terms of competences, each of which is then elaborated in 
terms  of  performance  criteria.  For  example,  the  competence  ‘plan  promotional 
activities’  is  defined  in  terms  of  a  set  of  standards  of  performance,  e.g.  P1  the 
aims,  objective  and  success  criteria  of  the  promotional  activity  are  agreed  with 
the  relevant  person(s).  A  total  of  seven  performance  criteria  define  the  various 
work  functions  associated  with  this  competence,  e.g.  collaborating,  resourcing, 

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etc. These are supplemented by seven statements of what should be known and 
understood  to  exercise  this  competence,  sorted  into  three  categories:  general, 
industry-specific and organisation-specific. 

The  NVQ  travel  services  qualification  includes  is  a  unit  that  corresponds 
directly  to  the occupational  standard  unit. This qualification unit  bears the  same 
title but contains five learning outcomes. Three of these outcomes reproduce the 
competences  found  in  the  occupational  standard.  The  other  two  learning 
outcomes serve to capture all of the knowledge and understanding statements so 
that  the  seven  statements  of  knowledge  and  understanding  in  the  standard  are 
reproduced  as  14  assessment  criteria  in  the  qualification  document  (see  Table 
17). 

There is  little substantive difference between the  qualification  standard and 
the  occupational  standard.  However,  there  is  one  formal  difference.  In  the 
qualification  standard,  statements  about  knowledge  and  understanding  have 
been  translated  into  distinct  learning  outcomes,  whereas,  in  the  occupational 
standard,  they  are  presented  as  knowledge  and  understanding  that  support  all 
levels  of  performance.  This  translation  makes  it  possible  to  set  separate 
assessment  criteria  to  assess  knowledge  and  performance  –  whereas  the 
structure of the occupational standard implies that knowledge and understanding 
are manifested through other activities. 

Further light is shed on the relationship between occupational standards and 
learning outcomes in the other main qualification which forms part of this English 
apprenticeship framework, the Edexcel BTEC (Business and Technical Council) 
level  3  certificate  in  travel  services.  This  certificate  provides  the  knowledge 
component  of  an  apprenticeship.  It  can  also  be  offered  separately.  In  the 
certificate, the units do not reproduce particular occupational standards, although 
they have been based on them. For example, Unit 17, arranging business travel, 
consists  of  nine 
learning  outcomes,  six  of  which  address  underpinning 
understanding,  e.g.  understand  travel  services  for  the  business  traveller,  while 
four  describe  capabilities,  e.g.  be  able  to  arrange  accommodation  for  the 
business traveller. Each of the nine learning outcomes is elaborated by a set of 
assessment  criteria.  The  criteria,  for  the  most  part,  call  for  the  exhibition  of 
knowledge (identify…, describe…, explain…) rather than for the demonstration of 
skills, though there are a few examples of the latter. 

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Table 17  Comparison  between  the  occupational  and  qualification  standards  to 
organise and implement travel and tourism promotional activities in the 
UK (England) 

Occupational standard 

Qualification standard 

PPL TT42 Organise and implement travel and 
tourism promotional activities 

NVQ T/601/5785 Organise and implement 
travel and tourism promotional activities.  

Learning outcomes: 
1.  Understand the organisation and 

implementation of promotional activities 

2.  Be able to plan promotional activities 
3.  Be able to implement promotional 

activities 

4.  Be able to evaluate and revise 

promotional activities 

5.  Know how to organise and implement 

travel and tourism promotional activities 

Plan promotional activities, so that:  
P1: the aims, objective and success criteria of the 
promotional activity are agreed with the relevant 
person(s)  
P2: where appropriate, others are encouraged to 
contribute ideas for the activity  
P3: all necessary resources for the promotional 
activity are identified and their availability secured  
P4: activities are planned to meet the 
organisation’s needs, procedures and legal 
requirements  
P5: plans include contingency arrangements to 
take account of predictable problems  
P6: plans are presented in a format to suit the 
needs of all others involved  
P7: suitable arrangements are made for the 
evaluation of the promotional activities 

General knowledge and understanding 
K1: the roles of promotional activities in the 
wider context of marketing products and 
services  
You need to 
know and 
understand:  

You need to 
know and 
understand:  

Industry-specific 
knowledge and 
understanding  
K2: factors affecting the 
success of promotional 
activities in travel and 
tourism  
K3: legislation and 
regulation relevant to the 
activity being planned and 
undertaken  
Context-specific 
knowledge and 
understanding  
K4: the promotional needs 
and procedures of the 
organisation  
K5: the features of the travel 
and tourism products and 
services to be promoted  
K6: organisational 
procedures for sourcing and 
securing promotional 
resources  
K7: the outcomes of 
previous promotional 
activities run by the 
organisation  

Assessment criteria: 
1.1  Explain the roles of promotional 
activities in the wider context of 
marketing products and services 
Identify and describe factors affecting 
the success of promotional activities in 
travel and tourism 

1.2 

1.3  Summarise legislation and regulation 

relevant to promotional activities being 
planned and undertaken 
2.1  Agree the aims, objectives and 
success criteria of promotional 
activities with the relevant person(s) 
2.2  Encourage others to contribute ideas 

for promotional activities; 

2.3  Secure resources for the promotional 

activities 

2.4  Plan activities to meet organisational 

needs, procedures and legal 
requirements 

2.5  Plan contingency arrangements to take 
account of predictable problems 
2.6  Present plans in a format to suit the 

needs of all others involved 

2.7  Make suitable arrangements for the 

evaluation of the promotional activities 

Source:  City and guilds level 3 NVQ certificate in tourism services (4927-34/35). Qualification handbook for 

centres: visitor services and tour guiding. National occupational standards: 
http://nos.ukces.org.uk/Pages/index.aspx.  

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The  NVQ  qualification  reflects  the  functional  structure  of  the  occupational 
standard.  That  is  to  say  that  the  learning  outcomes  recognisably  correspond  to 
distinct  work  tasks  or  activities.  The  functional  structure  is  still  present  in  the 
certificate  in  travel  services.  The  apprenticeship,  comprised  of  a  group  of 
qualification standards, restructures the competences set out in the occupational 
standard with the following effects: 
(a)  knowledge  and  skills  are  distributed  into  separate  qualifications  (the 
certificate in travel services and the NVQ in travel services) whose delivery 
can  be  distributed  between  different  learning  environments  and  times,  e.g. 
an alternance model of delivery; 

(b)  knowledge  and  skills  are  distributed  into  separate  descriptors,  which  are 
contained in a single unit. This allows knowledge and skills to be taught and 
assessed separately or in combination  – it provides flexibility for the trainer 
and assessor. 
This  analysis  suggests  that  the  structuring  of  the  qualification  has  a 
facilitating effect on the manner of assessment and the practice of teaching and 
learning.  It  is  possible  for  knowledge  and  skills  to  be  taught  and  assessed 
together.  Although  this  does  happen,  the  qualification  allows  knowledge  and 
skills to be taught and assessed separately (43). If the curriculum does not require 
theoretical  and  practical  elements  to  be  taught  and  assessed  in  combination, 
then where there are practical or institutional reasons for not doing so, these are 
likely to have a significant impact. 

In the  case  of  Spain,  the  professional  profile (the occupational  standard)  is 
structured in terms of descriptors of professional performance which, in general, 
correspond  to  a  functional  analysis  of  occupational  roles.  Each  professional 
performance  is  further  defined  by  a  set  of  performance  criteria.  These  provide 
detailed standards for the performance (see Table 18 showing 12 criteria for the 
second  performance).  The  professional  profile 
the  writing  of  a 
qualification  standard  known  as  the  professional  module.  This  does  not 
reproduce the competence descriptors from the professional profile. Instead, the 
professional  module  provides  a  set  of  generalised  capabilities  (learning 
outcomes)  which  can  be  developed  during  training,  e.g.  in  comparison  with  the 
professional  profile,  there  is  a  greater  emphasis  on  understanding  rather  than 
performance. The learning outcomes are further defined by a list of assessment 
criteria  that  describe  training  activities  that  learners  should  complete.  Both  the 
professional profile and the module are granular, but the former offers a detailed 

informs 

(43)  In  the  case  study  on  this  curriculum,  knowledge  and  skills  learning  outcomes  were 
taught  together,  ‘on  the  job’,  through  enterprise-based  training  (English  case  study, 
travel services). 

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analysis of performances associated with the work role, while the latter describes 
a  set  of  detailed  performances  in  a  training  environment.  The  fact  that  the 
competences are not easily recognisable when they are reformulated as learning 
outcomes  in  the  professional  module  obscures  the  relationship  of  the  learning 
outcomes to the competences; however, it does provide a high level of clarity and 
specificity for assessment, and it sets out a menu of training activities which are 
appropriate for training institutions. 

Table 18  Professional profile and training module, higher technical tourist guide, 

information and assistance, Spain 

Competence unit: provision of support and 
assistance to tourists and visitors and design  
of tourist itineraries 

Training module: process guide and tour 
assistance 

Level 3 
UC1071 3 code 

Professional performance (RP) and 
performance criteria (CR): 

RP 1: Analyse the guide service and provide 
support and assistance to tourists and visitors 
who will be the subject of delivery, proposing, 
where appropriate, changes and managing the 
resources required for its implementation so as to 
ensure compliance with the objectives of the 
organiser and to meet customer expectations. 
CR 1.1: Information is interpreted on the profile of 
the group or tourist route or itinerary, 
transportation, accommodation, tours, activities 
and intended suppliers and travel documents. 
CR 1.2: Information to be provided to the group 
or to individual tourists is adapted to their specific 
characteristics. 
CR 1.3: Degree of adaptation of the services 
provided to customer requirements and cultural 
characteristics of the environment, evaluating and 
proposing, where necessary, alternatives that 
may improve the travel itinerary or route designed 
by the organiser. 
CR 1.4: Means of service provision are 
determined, taking into account the economic 
conditions laid down in relation to: information on 
the characteristics of the group or tourist; 
information on visits; information intended to be 
used on the broadcast media provided; means of 
transport and other service providers such as 
restaurants and museums; other aspects. 
CR 1.5: Contact service providers to ensure that 
conditions, prices and schedule are valid, 
verifying their appropriateness and relevance to 
the route determined, making alternative 
arrangements where necessary and collecting 

Equivalence in ECTS credits: 8  
Code: 386  
Duration: 75 hours 

Learning outcomes and assessment criteria 
1.  Characteristics of the assistance and 
guidance services are defined so as to 
analyse the processes derived from 
these activities. Evaluation criteria: 

(a)  have described ethical principles and 
ethics of the profession; 
(b)  have described the different types and 
profiles of the activity of assistance and 
guidance of tour groups; 
(c)  have recognised the various types of 
services and functions to be characterised 
in each case; 
(d)  have defined the characteristics of 
related aspects of quality and customer 
service, support services and guidance; 
(e)  have interpreted existing legislation 
affecting the activity of assistance and 
guidance; 
(f)  have identified the major professional 
associations and their functions. 
2. 
have been designed by analysing 
information and applying the 
methodology of each process: 

Itineraries, tours and other services 

(a)  components of tourism have been 
identified in a given geographical area and 
at a given time; 
(b)  itineraries, routes and visits to tourist 
attractions have been designed, taking 
account of the characteristics of the various 
methods and stages; 
(c)  commercial viability has been justified; 
itinerary, route or visit has been designed, 

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information on contact persons and reception  
of the group on arrival. 
CR 1.6: Potential situations of conflict are 
anticipated by agreeing with the organiser the 
necessary mechanisms to solve them so as to 
ensure viable alternatives for each of the 
activities and scheduled services. 
RP 2: Accompany and assist the tourist or group, 
making them feel accompanied at all times and 
entertained when needed. 
CR 2.12: The basic rules of protocol, customer 
service and co-existence are in place to maintain 
an adequate level of performance in the 
development of the activity. 

taking account of technical and, where 
appropriate, environmental issues; 
(d)  potential difficulties for people with 
disabilities or special needs have been 
identified; 
(e)  appropriate strategies to adapt the 
information to the user profile have been 
characterised and selected;  
(f)  appropriate guidance on services has 
been provided. 

Source:  Ministry  of  the  Presidency  (joint  proposal  by  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  the  Ministry  of  Labour): 
Royal Decree 1700/2007 of 14 December 2007, supplementing the national catalogue of professional 
qualifications. Curriculum of vocational training (autonomous region): Decree 9/2010 of 18 March 2010 
establishing  the  curriculum  of  higher-level  vocational  training  in  the  community  of  Madrid  for  the 
occupation of higher technical tourist guide, information and assistance. 

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ANNEX 6.  
Learning outcomes in qualification standards 
connected to learning outcomes in 
education standards 

In  many  outcome-oriented  curricula,  the  qualification  standard  informs  the 
development  of  an  education  standard,  i.e.  a  document  that  defines  and 
disassembles the learning outcomes and provides further educational material. In 
this  example,  a  qualification  standard  and  an  educational  standard  used  in  the 
Hungarian  system  are  analysed  to  understand  how  learning  outcomes  connect 
these documents together and how the curriculum has been developed. 

The Hungarian qualification of travel adviser is not based on an occupational 
standard.  The  document  forms  part  of  the  professional  and  examination 
requirements (SZVK) which have the force of legislation. This document, as the 
name  implies,  serves  to  specify  both  the  functional  requirements  of  the  travel 
agent’s  job  and  the  educational  requirements  that  will  be  assessed  by 
examination. 

The  professional  and  examination  requirements  for  the  travel  adviser 
qualification  include  a  list  of  topics  and,  for  each  topic,  a  holistic  learning 
outcome,  known  in  Hungarian  as  a  kompetenciák,  i.e.  a  competence.  This 
competence is expressed using an active verb, but it is not expressed in simple 
terms  and  it  is  not  broken  down  into  specific  work  tasks  or  functions.  In  the 
example below, the competence is expressed in fairly general terms: carries out 
usual  bank  transactions;  deals  with  accountable  forms.  This  statement  can  be 
regarded as both a competence, in that it describes a kind of work, and a learning 
outcome,  in  that  it  describes  a  consequence  of  learning  that  can  be  assessed 
(44). 

More detailed learning outcomes are set out in another document, known as 
the  central  programme.  The  central  programme  restates  the  holistic  learning 
outcome  and  develops  this  with  further  subordinate  learning  outcomes;  in  the 
example  in  Box  26,  there  are  eight  such  outcomes.  These  statements  are 
expressed using active verbs and, generally – but not always – in simple terms, 
e.g. ‘manages income accounts and reports to programme manager’. 

These  statements  are  known  as  content  and  they  are  grouped  in  units 
(known  in  Hungarian  as  a  module  –  modulok).  They  are  supplemented  with 

(44)  There  is  no  separate  occupational  standard  in  the  Hungarian  system;  accordingly, 

there is no formal separation between competences and learning outcomes. 

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additional  competences:  professional,  methodological,  personal  and  social. 
However,  these  additional  requirements  are  not  expressed  in  statements  that 
have the form of learning outcomes (45). The professional competences take the 
form of a brief indicator of content; the professional skills and the relevant social 
and personal competences are listed rather than stated in terms of behaviours or 
capabilities. 

In  addition,  there  is  guidance  about  the  type  and  balance  of  teaching  and 
learning  activities,  e.g.  in  relation  to  the  element  on  bank  transactions,  it  is 
recommended  that  learners  spend  10%  of  their  time  carrying  out  professional 
activities  in  groups  with  support  and  40%  of  their  time  performing  independent 
professional  tasks  under  supervision.  The  document  also  provides  guidance  on 
the hours of practical and theoretical lessons and the location of lessons, e.g. the 
use of IT rooms. The central programme is intended to guide local VET providers 
in the development of their local programmes. It does not have the force of law. 

The  central  programme provides  some  guidance  on  teaching  and  learning. 
However,  the  professional  and  examination  requirement  leaves  a  considerable 
amount  of  discretion to  teachers  and  head teachers  in  VET institutions  who  will 
draw  on  their  own  knowledge  of  practice  in  the  industry  and  of  the  associated 
content in designing and delivering programmes. 

In the Hungarian written curriculum, the qualification standard limits itself to 
generalised competence statements. These are broken down into different types 
of  competence  in  the  curriculum  document  and  developed  as  a  set  of  learning 
outcomes which describe in more detail those tasks that learners should learn to 
carry out. The educational standard has the status of a guidance document and 
does  not  prescribe  teaching  or  assessment.  In  consequence,  assessors  and 
teachers in Hungary are currently able to exercise considerable discretion. 

(45)  They are not expressed using active verbs. 

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Box 26 

Travel agent qualification, Hungary, ISCED 4 

Administration module, financial activities unit, in central programme 
Teaching material element:  bank transaction 

element on bank transactions 

Task competence:  carries out usual bank transactions 

deals with accountable forms 

Application of professional knowledge: 
Type A (46): rules and regulations in relation to cash, reduced cash flow and money 

Type C: 
Type B: 

transaction without cash, invoicing 
basic legal knowledge 
basic money transaction 

uses information technology; 
takes care of provisioning; 
manages income accounts and reports to programme manager; 
certifies the cash flow; 
compiles statistics; 
collects payment from the client; 
complies with and enforces health and safety rules; 
carries out normal financial transactions according to regulations. 

Content: 
(a) 
(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 
(f) 
(g) 
(h) 
Personal competences:  
Social competences: 

reliability 
empathic  
well-mannered 
polite 

Source:  National qualification register for protocol and travel agent, ISCED L 4 
http://szakkepesites.hu/szakmak/protokoll_es_utazasugyintezo.html.  

(46)  Types A to C relate to the standard of competence required. 

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ANNEX 7.  
Learning outcomes in qualification standards 
connected to learning outcomes in training 
standards (learning programme) 

In  the  Irish  example,  there  is  no  distinct  occupational  standard.  As  a  result,  the 
formulation of the learning outcomes in the FETAC professional cookery common 
award cannot consist of a translation from a functional analysis of work activities. 
The professional cookery award consists of an extensive foundational component 
(unit)  called  culinary  techniques  plus  other  core  components  which  reflect  the 
conventional functional divisions in the cookery industry, e.g. pastry, baking and 
desserts. The learning outcomes in the units have a generalised form rather than 
reflecting different functions within a job, e.g. apply the processes and techniques 
necessary  to  produce  a  range  of  breads,  pastries,  cakes,  etc.  The  learning 
outcomes are listed, but they are not classified into different types. However, they 
can be analysed with reference to knowledge, skills or application (see Table 19). 
This arrangement of learning outcomes implies a more joined-up delivery, which 
is also encouraged by the mark-based system of assessment. 

This  approach  is  confirmed  in  the  professional  cookery  traineeship.  This  is 
the  work-based  learning  programme  (or  apprenticeship)  developed  under  the 
leadership  of  Fáilte  Ireland;  it  has  received  endorsement  from  FETAC  as  a 
programme  which  delivers  the  award.  The  learning  programme  reshapes  the 
culinary techniques unit into three modules for teaching purposes. This reshaping 
is helpful in terms of the allocation of times, rooms and teachers. It also draws on 
traditional training practice in relation to professional cookery. Trainers approve of 
this  division  of  the  programme  because  they  believe  that  the  three  modules  – 
skills, classical cuisine and larder – are meaningful ways of grouping the learning 
outcomes – both for themselves and their students. 

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Table 19  Comparison  between  the  qualification  standard  and  the  training 

programme in Ireland 

Example: component details 
Title: culinary techniques 
Teideal as Gaeilge: Teicníochtaí 
Cócaireachta 
Award type: minor 
Code: 5N0630 
Level: 5 
Credit value: 30 
Purpose: the purpose of this award is to 
equip the learner with the relevant knowledge, 
skill and competence to produce a range of 
classical and contemporary dishes, using a 
wide range of skills in their preparation, under 
supervision. 
Learning outcomes: learners will be able to: 
(1) describe how a professional kitchen is 
typically and optimally organised; 
(2) explain the role of good personal 
presentation, positive personal and 
professional attitudes, time management, 
work plans and scheduling, organisation and 
teamwork in the workplace; 
(3) explain the sensory properties of food, 
including visual examination, taste, colour, 
texture and smell; 
(4) distinguish between the taste of fresh and 
convenience foods, organic and non-organic 
foods, mass-produced and artisan foods; 
(5) describe a range of systems of food 
production including organic, free-range, 
battery and artisan foods; 
(6) explain the physical structure, 
classification points, quality points and (where 
applicable) cuts associated with a range of 
meat, offal, poultry, game, fish and shellfish, 
vegetables and fruits, dairy, eggs, farinaceous 
foods, grains, pulses and cereals; 
(7) describe the process for butchering whole 
carcasses and smaller cuts of meat; 
(8) describe the wide range of commercial 
ethnic cuisines available to the Irish market 
including key ingredients, basic cooking 
procedures, specialist equipment and 
presentation techniques; 
(9) explain contemporary issues relating to 
food production; 

…plus 16 further learning outcomes. 

this  module, 

Ireland  (FSAI) 

Programme  module  1:  culinary  techniques, 
culinary skills 
Programme learning outcomes 
On  successful  completion  of 
learners will be able to: 
(1)  describe  how  a  professional  kitchen  is 
organised  and  demonstrate  an  appreciation  of 
the importance of good professional practices. 
(2)  implement  best  practice  in  workplace  and 
food  safety  in  line  with  the  Safety,  Health  and 
Welfare  at  Work  Act  (2005)  and  the  Food 
Safety  Authority  of 
training 
standards (level 2) and legislation; 
(3)  use  a  range  of  cutting  skills  required  for 
various  types  of  food  preparation,  including 
tomato concasse, mirepoix, classical vegetable 
cuts and duxelle; 
(4)  prepare  a  range  of classical  stocks,  soups, 
glazes  and  sauces,  as  well  as  a  variety  of 
extensions; 
(5)  research  and  apply,  from  a  scientific  and 
practical  perspective,  cookery  processes  using 
a range of commodities and kitchen equipment; 
(6)  explain  the  sensory  properties  of  food, 
including  visual  examination, 
taste,  colour, 
texture  and  smell,  and  be  able  to  distinguish 
between  the  taste  of  fresh  and  convenience 
foods,  organic  and  non-organic  foods,  mass-
produced and artisan foods; 
(7)  understand  the  composition  of  quality  food 
products and their various production methods, 
demonstrating  awareness  of  current  issues  in 
food production; 
(8)  understand  the  food  control  cycle  and  how 
the  principles  of  food  cost,  portion  and  quality 
control  are 
in  a  professional 
kitchen. 

implemented 

Indicative module content 

Unit 1: The professional kitchen 5% 
Organisation of a professional modern kitchen, 
including: 
 
 
 
 
  work flows,etc. 

design and layout, 
use of space, 
service, 
safety, 

Source:  National traineeship for professional cookery (Fáilte Ireland) and FETAC common awards in 

professional cookery: 5M2088 and 6M2099. 

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The national traineeship in professional cookery places an emphasis on the 
vocational  discipline  as  opposed  to  an  analysis  of  the  tasks  corresponding  to a 
particular typical cookery job. Trainers value this approach because they want to 
be  able  to  pass  on  a  range  of  skills  and  broad  understanding  and  knowledge. 
They  believe  that  the  traineeship  should  support  this  broader  capability  rather 
than  matching  exactly  the  more  limited  job  roles  that  some  of  the  trainees 
currently fulfil. Assessment, in the professional cookery traineeship, is driven not 
by assessment criteria but by a marking system which is weighted in relation to 
an extensive listing of content. This way of setting out the qualification standard 
and  the  training  programme  empowers  the  trainer:  it  is  the  trainer  who  selects 
content  and  determines  the  composition  of  the  portfolio  of  student  work  that  is 
marked. The units in the qualification standard and the corresponding modules in 
the  training  programme  combine  knowledge,  skills  and  understanding  so  that 
they may be taught and assessed in a holistic rather than a fragmented manner. 

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ANNEX 8. 
Learning outcomes in curricula connected to 
assessment criteria 

One of the functions of learning outcomes is to help generate statements about 
the results of learning that will count as evidence for the purposes of assessment. 
This is a very important function in some curricula but not all. For example, it is 
very  important  in  the  baccalauréat  professionnel  des  systèmes  électroniques  et 
numériques and the English NVQ, but it is less important in the Irish professional 
cookery standard and the German mechatronics written curricula. 

There are different ways in  which the learning outcomes can be articulated 
with  the  assessment  requirements.  Some  qualifications  and  curricula  speak  of 
the results of learning (e.g. France), others of assessment or evaluation criteria, 
and  others  of  performance  criteria.  Furthermore,  we  sometimes  find  that  both 
learning  outcomes  and  evaluation  criteria  are  expressed  in  a  holistic  and 
generalised  fashion  (e.g.  in  mechatronics  in  the  Netherlands),  while,  in  other 
curricula,  learning  outcomes  are  set  out  in  simple  and  specific  (i.e.  granular) 
language.  In  the  English  NVQ,  learning  outcomes  are  matched  in  a  one-to-one 
relationship with assessment criteria – a relatively unusual arrangement. Another 
possibility  is  where  the  learning  outcomes  are  stated  in  a  relatively  general 
manner,  but  where  they  are  further  specified  by  means  of  a  larger  number  of 
assessment criteria, as in France. In Finland, the assessment targets act as the 
learning  outcomes. 
introduction  of  detailed  and  mandatory 
assessment criteria is part of an explicit policy to give existing learning outcomes 
a genuine bite within local curricula. 

Indeed, 

the 

However, the manner in which teachers interpret learning outcomes can be 
affected  by  their  expectations  with regard to  assessment.  Although,  in principle, 
learning  outcomes  might  be  highly  granular,  assessment  methods  might  be 
relatively holistic; this would encourage teachers to adopt learner-centred rather 
than  traditional  transmission  pedagogies.  There  is  some  evidence  that  this  is 
happening with the Slovenian programme for tourism and gastronomy (see Table 
20). 

The  Slovenian  gastronomy  and  tourism  standard  is  part  of  a  broad  upper-
secondary  school  curriculum. The unit  on  business  communication sets  out just 
six  vocational  competences  which  are  drawn  from  occupational  standards  for 
gastronomy  and  tourism.  These  learning  outcomes  are  developed  by  means  of 
an extensive list of informative and formative goals. The informative goals consist 

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The impact of learning outcomes 

of a list of 17 knowledge requirements, while the formative goals form a list of 28 
skills.  The  unit  on  business  communication  consists  of  only  nine  learning 
outcomes  (known as competences)  –  six  derived  from  business  communication 
and three from IT. These are further specified in terms of 81 subordinate learning 
these  make  up  a  highly  granular  and  prescriptive 
outcomes.  Together, 
description  of  student  performances  that  are  deemed  to  evidence  the  six  high-
level learning outcomes. The unit has duration of 133 hours. This amounts to 0.6 
sublearning outcomes per hour (see Table 20). 

Although the Slovenian curriculum is highly prescriptive and highly granular, 
its introduction has been combined with reforms of the assessment system. This 
has increased the amount of oral and project-based assessment. These methods 
of  assessment,  which  make  it  possible  to  assess  more  than  one  learning 
outcome together, have proved popular with students. Project work, in particular, 
encourages  pedagogy  where  learning  outcomes  are  assembled  together  in 
relation  to  a  meaningful  and  practical  activity.  Evidence  from  this  research 
suggests  that  some  but  not  all  teachers  of  this  programme  are  confident  about 
responding to the new curriculum in this way. 

A  contrasting  example  is  provided  by  the  case  study  on  a  tourism 
qualification  in  Finland.  Finnish  vocational  qualifications  have  recently  been 
revised so that the national qualification requirements (the qualification standard) 
has  become  more holistic  (granularity  is  estimated  at  one  learning  outcome  per 
20  hours).  However,  authority  to  set  the  assessment  criteria  has  shifted  from 
schools to a national development group set up by the national education board. 
The focus of assessment has shifted towards the demonstration of skills, and the 
assessment  criteria  have  become  more  granular.  They  now  set  out  relatively 
specific requirements which are more closely associated with work competences 
and connect better with the enterprise-based component of the programme. Skills 
demonstrations  have  become  relatively  frequent  and  have  come  to  have  a 
structuring effect on the way that programmes are sequenced and planned. This 
example  shows  us  that  there  is  more  than  one  way  of  achieving  the  benefits 
associated with granularity: consistency, strong orientation towards competences 
and clarity. Curriculum designers may choose between the granularity of learning 
outcomes and that of the assessment criteria, and, as in the case of the Finnish 
reforms, they may seek to achieve both consistency and flexibility by increasing 
the  granularity  of  one  and  decreasing  the  granularity  of  the  other  at  the  same 
time. 

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Table 20  Unit  in  business  communication,  from  the  gastronomy  and  tourism 

curriculum, Slovenia (2007) 

Vocational competences:  

 

 

 

 

 

 

communicates in a business situation; 

addresses individuals as equals; 

does public speaking and presentations; 

organises and leads teamwork; 

uses professional terminology in chosen foreign language; 

presents him/herself with professional portfolio. 

Informativni cilji (informative goals) 

Formativni cilji (formative goals) 

Differentiate between personal characteristics 
Know the rules of business ethics and  
business etiquette and act in accordance  
with honest practices 
List the factors that influence personality 
Describe and understand the various  
groups of guests, their needs and habits 
Know the general etiquette 
Learn about different ways of communication 
Distinguish and understand verbal and  
non-verbal communication 
Understand business communication 
Be familiar with a written offer in the  
hospitality industry 
Evaluate effects of different promotional 
approaches 
Know and distinguish the basic elements  
of acting 
Know and understand the various  
target groups 
Understand the importance of external 
regulation Distinguish different modes of 
presentation 
Learn about the place of presentation 
(greeting, introduction, core, end, question) 
Know and understand the various elements of 
work organisation (become familiar with the 
concept of work, working groups, labour 
organisations) 
Understand the importance of organising  
their own work 
Know different ways to organise their own  
work and to organise and manage staff 
Have insight into the requirements  
of professional appearance 
Be able to make sense of their professional 
decisions 
Distinguish between wishes, values and goals 
of their personal and professional life 

The student: 

  presents his/her own personal 

characteristics; 

  practices different behaviour in business; 

  communicates in accordance with business 

ethics and honest practices; 

  plays the role of guest and seller in a 
hospitality and tourism business and 
observes business etiquette; acts in 
accordance with honest practices; 

  carries out work in accordance with the 

general mode of communication adapted to 
different target groups; 

  communicates orally and in writing for 

business; 

  communicates non-verbally, plans and 
carries out business meetings, reacts 
appropriately to problems and situations of 
conflict; 

  uses appropriate promotional approach to 

dealing with potential guests; 

  is active in various business situations; 

  mode of communication is adapted to 

different target groups; 

  is suitably attired to attend to guests (dress, 

appearance); 

  has appropriate appearance, presentation 

style and body language; 

  performs a variety of presentation methods 
and uses knowledge acquired in a specific 
situation; 

  uses systematic planning: a working day, 

week, project; 

  develops collaboration among colleagues to 

achieve accuracy, consistency and 
reliability; 

  gives work instructions to others, develops 

and structures his/her work hours; 

  develops and practices management skills; 

196 

Curriculum reform in Europe. 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Learn about their own personality  
Evaluate the strength of evidence  
Revise opinions 
Know various means of obtaining information 

  develops a personal portfolio; 

  writes his/her own CV and a vision of his/her 

professional development; 

  draws up an action plan; 

  participates in workshops (individually, in 

pairs and in teams); 

  argues with the help of SWOT, pros and 

cons and other methods; 

  develops ways of solving conflict situations; 

  collects, distributes and evaluates evidence 

(certificates, receipts, pictures, film). 

Source:  MoES. Izobraževalni program – gastronomija in turizem (curriculum – gastronomy and tourism). 

197 

 
Curriculum reform in Europe: 
The impact of learning outcomes 

ANNEX 9. 
Learning outcomes in curricula connected to 
content 

Content plays an important role in many outcome-oriented curricula. Sometimes, 
its  importance  is  concealed  where  there  is  little  mention  of  content  in  the 
qualification  standard  but  content  is  set  out  in  detail  in  the  education  standard. 
However,  in  many  cases,  the  content  is  set  out  in  the  qualification  document 
alongside  the  learning  outcomes.  Content  can  include  references  to  industrial 
processes, scientific knowledge, work tasks and process knowledge. This kind of 
mapping  serves  as  a  ‘pocket  translator’  for  teachers  who  are  used  to  teaching 
content  but  are  required  by  outcome-oriented  curricula  to  think  in  terms  of 
learning  outcomes.  The  description  of  content  will  be  less  explicit  than  the 
learning  outcomes  to  a  non-specialist.  However,  many  teachers  interviewed 
found it more natural (that is, more consistent with past practice) to organise their 
teaching in terms of content rather than in terms of learning outcomes. 

In  the  Croatian  case,  the  learning  outcomes  are  defined  by  reference  to 
in  electrical  engineering 
topics  and  content.  The  Croatian  qualification 
(Elektrotehnika)  is  divided  into  courses  which  are  defined  in  terms  of  learning 
outcomes. For example, the course on the fundamentals of electrical engineering 
consists of five learning outcomes (see Table 21). 

The  learning  outcomes  in  each  course  are  defined  by  a  very  long  list  of 
content  or  teaching  topics.  Teachers  will  be  guided  both  by  the  learning 
outcomes  and  by  the  content.  Research  into  teaching  practice  in  Croatia 
suggests that a great deal of teaching remains teacher-centred, with a focus on 
the  transmission  of  knowledge.  This  didactic  approach  is  partly  to  be  explained 
by the training that teachers receive and the teaching spaces and resources that 
they have at their disposal. However, the way that the curriculum is written allows 
such  an  interpretation  because  of  the  dominant  place  of  content  in  the  written 
curriculum. 

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Curriculum reform in Europe. 
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Table 21  Content in the electrical engineering curriculum, Croatia 

Name of the module 

Electrical engineering – Croatia 

Name of the course 
in the first year 

Fundamentals of electrical engineering 

First year, four hours/week. 

Apply the basic laws of electrical engineering to simple electrical circuits. 

Through this course, 
in the first year of 
study, students will 
gain the following 
learning outcomes 

Apply the dimensions of simple circuits to real applications. 

Select and combine appropriate elements according to the existing 
scheme. 

Measure the electrical size of the corresponding elements of the circuit. 

Develop a wiring diagram. 

Elaboration 

Teaching units 

Elaboration – teaching topics 

Introduction to 
electrical 
engineering 

Direct current 
circuits 

Electrical base material structure 

Electrical voltage and electric current 

Electrical resistance (conductor resistance, the temperature dependence 
of resistance) 

Ohm’s law 

Etc. 

Source:  Agency for vocational education and education for adults, Croatia, 2011. Qualification standard for 

mechatronics technician. 

It is not uncommon for statements of learning outcomes to map the learning 
outcomes against the traditional content of the vocational curriculum (see  Table 
22).  This  mapping  helps  teachers  to  understand  the  relationship  between 
learning  outcomes  and  traditional  curricula,  and  it  also  points  to  connections 
between learning outcomes and the kinds of teaching and learning activities and 
materials  that  teachers  will  use.  However,  it  falls  to  teachers  to  decide  how  to 
interpret these two alternatives, whether, for example, they organise teaching and 
learning  to  achieve  the  learning  outcomes  or  whether  they  focus  on  delivering 
traditional  content,  organised  by  topic,  in  the  belief  that  this  will  address  the 
learning outcomes. 

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Table 22  Learning  outcomes  matched  against  content,  engineering  technology, 

Czech Republic 

Learning outcomes 

Curriculum (content) 

Students will: 
  explain the primary tasks and obligations of 

the organisation when ensuring OHS 
(occupational health and safety); 
justify the role of professional state 
supervision of work safety; 

 

  observe the provisions concerning 

 

occupational health and safety, and fire 
prevention; 
specify the basic safety requirements for work 
with machinery and equipment at a worksite, 
and ensure compliance therewith; 

  during the operation, regular maintenance 
and cleaning of machinery, proceed in 
accordance with the regulations and work 
procedures; 

  give examples of safety risks, possibly also 
the most frequent causes of injury and their 
prevention; 

  provide first aid in case of an injury at a 

workplace; 

  describe the duties of the employee and 

employer in case of an industrial accident;  

  design types of intermediate products for the 

production of components; 

  design the shape and dimensions of non-

standardised intermediate products; complete 
diagrams as an inspiration for their 
construction; 

  determine the types and dimensions of 

normalised intermediate products for the 
production of engineering components, tools, 
etc.; 

  design the technology and conditions for 

welding simple parts; 

  specify the division of machining operations 
into individual sections and operations; 
  select appropriate machinery for each 

operation; 

  select the required communal tools, 

instruments, measuring instruments and other 
production tools; 

  propose the use of operating tools, 

instruments, measuring instruments and other 
production tools for individual operations; 
for various operations, specify the size of 
additions for further machining or processing;  

 

  specify the technological conditions and 
parameters of execution of various 
operations. 

1. Occupational health and safety, work 
hygiene, fire prevention: 
  management of work safety within an 

organisation and at a worksite, 
 
labour-law aspects of the OHS, 
  safety of technological equipment. 

2. Intermediate and prefabricated 
products: 

foundry work, 

  metallurgy, 
 
  metallurgical forming, 
 
forging, 
  welding. 

6. Machine working, machine tools  
and instruments: 

theory of working/machining, 

 
  manual working, 
  chip machining using conventional 

machinery, 

  chip machining using numerically 

controlled machinery, 
fine machining, 

 
  physical and chemical machining 

methods, 

  machining automation, 
 

industrial robots and manipulators and 
the possibilities of their deployment, 
instruments, tools and preparations. 

 

Source:  Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, 2007. Framework educational programme for the field of 

study of mechanical engineering. 

200 

Curriculum reform in Europe 
The impact of learning outcomes 

Luxembourg:  
Publications Office of the European Union 

2012 – VI, 200 p. – 21 x 29.7 cm 

ISBN 978-92-896-1140-4 
ISSN 1831-9416 
doi: 10.2801/46951 
Cat. No: TI-BC-12-010-EN-C 

Free download at:  
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