COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Climate change adaptation, coastal and marine issues Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change
Date: 2013-04-16
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU financing, adaptation to climate change, coastal pollution, coastal protection, common strategy, joint implementation, marine environment, natural disaster, public awareness campaign, water protection

EUROPEAN 
COMMISSION 

Brussels, 16.4.2013  
SWD(2013) 133 final 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Climate change adaptation, coastal and marine issues 

Accompanying the document 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change 

{COM(2013) 216 final} 
{SWD(2013) 131 final} 
{SWD(2013) 132 final} 
{SWD(2013) 134 final} 
{SWD(2013) 135 final} 
{SWD(2013) 136 final} 
{SWD(2013) 137 final} 
{SWD(2013) 138 final} 
{SWD(2013) 139 final} 

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COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Climate change adaptation, coastal and marine issues 

Accompanying the document 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change 

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1. 

2. 

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3 

Impacts of climate change on costal zones and marine issues ........................................... 3 

2.1. 

Impacts on environment............................................................................................... 4 

2.1.1. 

Increased sea temperature ............................................................................................ 4 

2.1.2.  Change in ice cover...................................................................................................... 4 

2.1.3.  Sea level rise ................................................................................................................ 5 

2.1.4.  Ocean acidification....................................................................................................... 7 

2.1.5.  Coastal erosion ............................................................................................................. 7 

2.1.6.  Coastal wetlands........................................................................................................... 8 

2.1.7.  Thermohaline circulation ............................................................................................. 8 

2.1.8.  Marine fish populations................................................................................................ 8 

2.1.9.  Biodiversity .................................................................................................................. 9 

2.1.10.  Eutrophication .............................................................................................................. 9 

2.2. 

Socio-economic implications ..................................................................................... 10 

2.2.1.  Estimating impacts with and without adaptation ....................................................... 10 

2.2.2.  Fisheries and aquaculture........................................................................................... 11 

2.2.3.  Coastal tourism........................................................................................................... 12 

2.2.4.  Transport and energy.................................................................................................. 12 

2.2.5.  Agriculture ................................................................................................................. 13 

2.2.6.  Ecosystems and their services.................................................................................... 13 

2.3. 

Remaining knowledge gaps ....................................................................................... 13 

3.  Existing Adaptation Efforts.............................................................................................. 14 

3.1. 

Current policy framework at EU level and related adaptation efforts ....................... 14 

3.1.1.  Water Framework and Floods Directives .................................................................. 14 

3.1.2.  Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) ........................................................ 15 

3.1.3. 

Integrated Coastal Management................................................................................. 15 

3.1.4.  Natura 2000, Habitats and Birds Directives............................................................... 16 

3.1.5.  Support tools and information dissemination ............................................................ 16 

3.1.6.  EU funding ................................................................................................................. 17 

3.2. 

Efforts at Member State level and within the EU marine regions ............................. 18 

3.2.1.  Member States' efforts ............................................................................................... 18 

3.2.2.  Sea basins ................................................................................................................... 19 

3.2.3.  Outermost regions ...................................................................................................... 20 

3.2.4.  Arctic regions ............................................................................................................. 21 

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4.  Further adaptation efforts needed..................................................................................... 21 

4.1. 

4.2. 

4.3. 

Better informed decision making ............................................................................... 21 

Increasing the resilience of the EU territory .............................................................. 23 

Increasing the resilience of key vulnerable sectors:................................................... 24 

Annex I: Overview of set of actions......................................................................................... 25 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION 

This staff working document accompanies the Communication "An EU strategy on adaptation 
to  climate  change".  Together  with  the  Impact  Assessment,  it  provides  further  background 
material supportive of the narrative and arguments put forward in the Communication.  

The Communication "An EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change" stresses that coastal 
zones are particularly vulnerable regions, and also indicates that the EU's outermost regions 
are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise and extreme weather events. 

This  staff  working  document  follows  up  on  the  "Climate  Change  and  Water,  Coasts  and 
Marine Issues" paper1 which accompanied the 2009 White paper on adaptation2.  

This  paper  aims  to  provide  an  overview  of  the  main  impacts  of  climate  change  on  coastal 
zones  and  marine  issues,  not  only  considering  its  impacts  on  the  environment  but  also  on 
economic sectors and social systems. Furthermore this document points out knowledge gaps 
and existing efforts of the European Union to best adapt to the impacts of climate change on 
coastal  zones  and  marine  issues.  In  addition,  it  also  highlights  further  efforts  needed,  in 
particular regarding closing knowledge gaps for better-informed decision-making, as well as 
better  cooperation  between  Member  States  across  borders  to  make  Europe  more  resilient  to 
climate change.  

2. 

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON COSTAL ZONES AND MARINE ISSUES  

Coastal  zones  and  marine  waters  have  already  been  greatly  affected  by  rapid  urban 
development, draining of coastal marshes, changes in river and sediment flow, expansion of 
irrigation  for  agriculture  and  unsustainable  fishing  practices.  Climate  change  increases  the 
pressure on already-fragile ecosystems. It has already had an impact on sea temperature, sea-
level  rise  and  ocean  acidification.  These  changes  have  had  a  follow-on  impact  on  ocean 
circulation,  coastal  erosion,  biodiversity  and  ecosystems.  The  frequencey  and  intensity  of 
most types of extreme weather events is expected to change as a result of climate change3. All 
of these changes affect coastal populations and the marine and maritime economy.  

1 

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3 

Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the  White  Paper  “Adapting  to  climate  change: 
Towards  a  European  framework  for  action”,  Impact  Assessment,  SEC(2009)  387.  Brussels,  1  April 
2009. 
Commission  White  Paper,  Adapting  to  climate  change:  Towards  a  European  framework  for  action, 
COM(2009) 147 final. Brussels, 1 April 2009. 
http://ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/images/uploads/SREX-SPMbrochure_FINAL.pdf 

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2.1. 

Impacts on environment 

2.1.1. 

Increased sea temperature 

Figure 1 Sea surface temperature4 

Whilst there has been considerable variation from year to year and from region to region, the 
surface temperature of Europe's seas has risen significantly over the past century (see figure 
1).  Increases  in  sea  surface  temperature  have  been  greatest  in  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  North 
Sea, with lower rates identified in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea5. Measurements 
are scarcer at depth but at a global level it has been estimated that 69% of the increase in heat 
content occurred in the upper 700 meters6. Increased sea surface temperature– coupled with 
changes  in  precipitation,  wind  and  salinity  –  influences  sea  ice  coverage  as  well  as  the 
diversity and number of marine species7. 

2.1.2.  Change in ice cover 

Increasing  temperatures  have  had  the  most  dramatic  impact  on  the  Arctic.  Over  the  past  60 
years,  the  extent  of  Arctic  sea  ice  at  the  end  of  summer  melt  has  declined  at  a  rate  of  -
7.8%/decade;  the  last  20  years  have  seen  a  trend  of  -9.1%/decade8.  Current  projections9 
indicate  that summer ice is very likely  to continue to  shrink  in  extent  and thickness. In this 
context, an important phenomenon is the ice-albedo feedback loop. The albedo - the amount 
of solar radiation reflected by a surface – of snow and ice is 0.8 or 0.910, i.e. very little solar 
radiation is absorbed. In the Arctic, the melting and cracking of ice sheets exposes darker ice 
as well as sea water. As a result, more solar radiation is absorbed, which causes more ice to 
melt. Although this is a normal seasonal process in the summer, the increase in the melting of 
ice  associated  with  climate  change  will  aggravate  this  feedback  loop.  Increased  sea  surface 
temperature–  coupled  with  changes  in  precipitation,  wind  and  salinity  –  influences  sea  ice 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

9 
10 

Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2012, European Environment Agency, 2012 
EEA (2008). 
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 
EEA (2008): Impacts of Europe’s changing climate – 2008 indicator-based assessment. 
Stroeve, J., Holland, M., Meier, W., Scambos, T., Serreze, M. (2007): Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than 
forecast, Geophyscial Research Letters, 34. 
Stroeve, et al (2007). 
Albedo  is  calculated  on  a  scale  from  0  to  1  where  zero  is  no  reflecting  power  of  a  perfectly  black 
surface and 1 represents perfect reflection of a white surface. 

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coverage as well as the diversity and number of marine species11. For instance, a decreasing 
trend in the Baltic Sea's ice cover has been seen in 15-year average over the past 200 years12. 

2.1.3. 

Sea level rise  

The global sea level rise that had been levelling off after the steep rise following the end of 
the  ice  age  has  accelerated  over  the  past  two  centuries.  The  average  increase  in  sea  levels 
around the world over the 20th century has been about 15 to 20 centimetres. Considering the 
last decade the average rate of sea-level rise has increased to about 3.2 cm13.  
A modelling exercise by Marzeion, et al. (2012)14, based on observed climate data, indicates 
that  the  world’s  glaciers  have  already  lost  mass  equalling  114  ±  5  mm  sea-level  equivalent 
(SLE) between 1902 and 2009.  

In  its  Fourth  Assessment  Report  (AR4),  the  IPCC  projected  global  average  sea-levels  rise 
between  18  cm  and  59  cm  for  the  end  of  the  21st  century,  depending  on  greenhouse-gas 
emissions scenarios and climate change sensitivity. Contributing factors to the IPCC estimates 
are thermal expansion (10 to 41 mm), followed by melting of glaciers and ice caps (7 to 17 
mm) and Greenland Ice sheet (1 to 12 mm)15.  

Some recent studies have shown that sea-level rise could be even more significant16. This is 
largely due to ice sheet dynamics, knowledge of which is still hindered by the robustness of 
the models17. The warming of the atmosphere and oceans is leading to an accelerating loss of 
ice  from  the  Greenland  and  Antarctic  ice  sheets,  and  this  melting  could  increase  the  rate  of 
sea-level  rise  in  the  future  substantially18.  More  robust  projections  would  ease  decision-
making on adaptation.  

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14 

15 

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18   

EEA (2008): Impacts of Europe’s changing climate – 2008 indicator-based assessment. 
Omstedt et al, Baltic Sea climate: 200 yr of data on air temperature, sea level variation, ice cover, and 
atmospheric circulation Climate Research Vol. 25: 205–216, 2004 
Available at: 
http://climatechange.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/Turn_Down_the_heat_Why_a_4_degree_centrigr
ade_warmer_world_must_be_avoided.pdf 
Marzeion, B., Jarosch, A.H., and Hofer, M. (2012): Past and future sea-level change from the surface 
mass balance of glaciers. The Cryosphere, 6, 1295-1322. 
IPCC, 2004 in EEA (2012): Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2012. An indicator-
based report. 
e.g. Rahmstorf, S., 2007: A semi-empirical  approach to projecting future sea-level rise. Science, 315, 
368-370;  Vermeer,  M.  and  S.  Rahmstorf,  2009:  Global  sea  level  linked  to  global  temperature. 
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the USA, 106, 21527-21532. 
EEA, 2012. 
Ice2sea FP7 Research Project  
http://climatechange.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/Turn_Down_the_heat_Why_a_4_degree_centrigr
ade_warmer_world_must_be_avoided.pdf  

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Figure 2 Sea-level changes in Europe 19 

Sea-level rise is not constant over Europe but varies regionally20. Geological processes such 
as post-glacial uplift will have an impact on what is observed at the coast. From 1900-2010, 
sea  level  rose  around  2mm/year  in  the  North  Sea,  with  the  southern-most  part  experiencing 
greater  change.  Both,  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Baltic  Sea  have  experienced  increases  and 
decreases  in  sea  level.  While  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  the  range  varies  regionally  from  -
4mm/year to +6mm/year, the Sea level of the Baltic is falling in the northern shores and rising 
to  the  south.  Trends  in  the  Black  Sea  from  1900-2010  point  towards  an  increase  of  up  to 
5mm/year21. On the other hand, parts of the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay show a 
small decrease in mean sea level. 

Sea-level rise will increase rates of coastal erosion and increase the severity of storm surges. 
Land subsidence makes North Sea coasts particularly vulnerable to severe temporary flooding 
induced by sea storms; research results consistent across various models and scenarios point 
to moderately higher storm surges in the North Sea in the future 

Salt  water  intrusion  into  rivers  and  fresh  water  aquifers,  normally  associated  with  the  over 
exploitation of groundwater resources, could be exacerbated by sea-level rise combined with 
periods of low river flow, causing salt water intrusion to reach farther points in the river than 
in  times  with  normal  river  flow.  Salt-water  intrusion  can  threaten  freshwater  supplies  from 
rivers and coastal aquifers, which not only impacts the drinking water supply but also water 

19 
20 
21 

Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2012, European Environment Agency, 2012 
EEA, 2012. 
EEA, 2012. 

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for  irrigation  purposes,  and  ecosystems  in  coastal  areas.  Current  information  on  ecological 
impacts at European scale is lacking22.  

2.1.4.  Ocean acidification 
The ocean absorbs 48% of the carbon emitted to the atmosphere23. The carbon chemistry of 
seawater  acts  as  a  buffer,  enabling  the  oceans  to  hold  50  times  more  carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 
than the atmosphere can. However, CO2 absorption by seawater decreases the pH of oceans, 
2-)  levels.  Under  no 
leading  to  its  acidification,  as  well  as  decreasing  carbonate  ion  (CO3
greenhouse  gas  emission  reduction  scenario  beyond  business-as-usual,  atmospheric  CO2 
levels could approach 800 ppm by the end of the century, which would imply unprecedented 
impacts; this will result in a drop in surface water pH from a pre-industrial value of about 8.2 
to about 7.8 by the end of this century, increasing the ocean's acidity by about 150% relative 
to the beginning of the industrial era24. 

CO2 dissolution in the ocean increases hydrogen (H+), and thus decreases pH and carbonate 
ion  concentrations.  The  decrease  in  carbonate  ions  reduces  the  saturation  state  of  calcium 
carbonate, which directly affects the ability of some calcium carbonate-secreting species, such 
as planktonic coccolithophores and pteropods, and invertebrates such as molluscs and corals, 
to  produce  their  shells  or  skeletons25.  Reductions  in  these  species  may  also  impact  the  fish 
that  depend  up  on  them  for  food.  Ocean  acidification  may  influence  the  structure  and 
productivity of primary and secondary benthic and planktonic production, which in turn may 
affect the productivity of fish communities and higher trophic levels. 

2.1.5.  Coastal erosion 

Coastlines  are  variously  subject  to  shoreline  dynamics  such  as  erosion  and  deposition  of 
sediments depending on the nature of the coast (hard/rocky or softer sediments) and upon the 
coastal  processes of  sediment  transport and water movements (waves and currents). Natural 
coastlines have been extensively modified in many places by coastal defences or damming of 
rivers  to  prevent  erosion  and  protect  urban  infrastructure  and  agricultural  land.  Coastal 
erosion  in  Europe  causes  significant  economic  loss  in  the  order  of  at  least  several  tens  of 
millions of Euros per year, through property losses and damage to infrastructure and beaches 
and the required beach nourishment26. Wetlands and biodiversity are also affected. About one 
quarter of the European coastline for which data is available is currently eroding27, with the 
Mediterranean,  part  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  northern  seas  presenting  the  highest  risk  of 
erosion.  

Climate change can exacerbate coastal erosion, via sea-level rise, increased storminess, higher 
waves and changes in prevalent wind and waves directions28.  

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27 
28 

EEA, 2012. 
Sabine. C.S., R. A. Feely, N. Gruber, R. M. Key, K. Lee, J. L. Bullister, R. Wanninkhof, C. S. Wong, 
D.  W.  R.  Wallace,  B.  Tillbrook,  F.  J.  Millero,  T.-H.  Peng,  A.  Kozyr,  T.  Ono,  and  A.  F.  Rios,  The 
oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2, Science, 305, 367-371. 
Feely,  R.A.,  S.C.  Doney,  and  S.R.  Cooley.  2009.  Ocean  acidification:  Present  conditions  and  future 
changes in a high-CO2 world. Oceanography 22(4):36–47. 
http://climatechange.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/Turn_Down_the_heat_Why_a_4_degree_centrigr
ade_warmer_world_must_be_avoided.pdf 
Feely, et al., 2009. 
EEA (2012): Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2012. An indicator-based report. 
EEA, 2008. 
Marchand, 2010 in EEA, 2012. 

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The impact of storm surges on coastal erosion varies in different regions. Research in Estonia 
indicates  increased  beach  erosion  due  to  increased  storminess  in  the  eastern  Baltic  Sea29, 
while in France the picture varies: for example the Atlantic region is considered resilient to 
rising sea levels due to extensive dune systems. Whilst the Mediterranean coast is considered 
more vulnerable because of its narrow dune systems30. 

2.1.6.  Coastal wetlands 

Coastal ecosystems of mangroves, sea grasses and salt marshes support specialized groups of 
highly  adapted  species  that  are  specific  to  their  habitats.  The  primary  production  of  these 
halophytic  plants  supports  a  high  diversity  of  invertebrates,  fish  and  birds  in  the  near  shore 
environments.  Many  migratory  species  depend  on  tidal  wetlands  for  part  of  their  seasonal 
migrations.  Climate  change  could  influence  the  timing  and  routes  of  these  migrations.  In 
addition,  coastal  erosion  contributes  to  the  loss  of  biodiversity  and  degradation  of  these 
coastal ecosystems.  

2.1.7.  Thermohaline circulation 
Ocean  currents  are  driven  by  wind  and  the  thermohaline31  circulation.  Ocean  currents  also 
have an impact on terrestrial climate. In western Europe the Gulf Stream brings warmer ocean 
temperatures  than  the  continent’s  latitude  would  normally  allow  and  consequently  gives  an 
oceanic climate with milder winters and summers. In light of climate change, researchers32,33 
are concerned that thermohaline circulation could be affected by a reduced rate of water and 
heat transport, leading to cooling in the northern European oceans near Scandinavia and the 
UK  and  at  the  same  time  affecting  the  process  of  dense  water  formation  in  the 
Mediterranean34. The probability that the thermohaline circulation is significantly affected by 
climate  change  is  still  under  discussion,  but  this  is  being  considered  as  one  of  the  "low 
probability - high impact" risks associated with global warming.  

2.1.8.  Marine fish populations 

Predictions  of  the  consequences  of  climate  change  on  marine  fish  populations  are  complex. 
Climate  change  influences  the  marine  ecosystems  by  altering  temperatures,  changing  wind 
patterns,  shifting  oceanic  circulation  patterns,  increasing  ocean  acidification  and  altering 
precipitation  rates  and  thus  salinity.  These  changes  have  the  potential  to  change  the 
distribution,  abundance,  size  and  behaviour  of  fish.    Changes  in  migration  patterns  of  fish 

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31 

32 

33 
34 

Kont  et  al  (2008)  in  IPCC  (2012):  Managing  the  Risks  of  Extreme  Events  and  Disasters  to  Advance 
Climate  Change  Adaptation.  A  Special  Report  of  Working  Groups  I  and  II  of  the  Intergovernmental 
Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. 
Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge 
University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 582 pp. 
Vincho et al., 2009 in IPCC 2012. 
There  are  three  main  processes  that  make  the  oceans  circulate:  tidal  forces,  wind  stress,  and  density 
differences. The density of sea water is controlled by its temperature (thermo) and its salinity (haline), 
and the circulation driven by density differences is thus called the thermohaline circulation (Osborn and 
Kleinen, 2008). 
Weaver,  A.  J.,  J.  Sedláček,  M.  Eby,  K.  Alexander,  E.  Crespin,  T.  Fichefet,  G.  Philippon-Berthier,  F. 
Joos,  M.  Kawamiya,  K.  Matsumoto,  M.  Steinacher,  K.  Tachiiri,  K.  Tokos,  M.  Yoshimori,  and  K. 
Zickfeld (2012), Stability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation: A model intercomparison, 
Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L20709, doi:10.1029/2012GL053763. 
http://ec.europa.eu/research/rtdinfo/special_pol/04/print_article_2603_en.html 
Weaver, et al (2012). 

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such  as  mackerel  have  already  been  observed.  The  abundance,  distribution  and  variety  of 
plankton, which are food for small fish, will also change. All things being equal, in warmer 
waters fish tend to be smaller, and this too could affect the ecosystem35. 

2.1.9.  Biodiversity 

Sea warming not only affects native aquatic species by limiting and/or expanding their range, 
it  also  enables  non-native  species  to  expand  into  regions  where  they  previously  could  not 
survive36. Where such species become invasive they can cause a decline or even collapse of 
marine ecosystems37. However, opinions vary on the extent of current impact. Some examples 
of  non-native  species  can  be  linked  to  climate  change,  whereas  many  more  are  linked  to 
maritime  transport  and  aquaculture.  Climate  change  has  been  suggested  as  one  of  the 
principle  drivers  for  the  establishment  of  non-native  plant  species  in  the  Mediterranean38  as 
well  as  for  the  expansion  of  the  biogeographical  range  of  benthic  and  nektobenthic  marine 
species39. The  introduction of non-native species does not just impact native species, it also 
causes ‘ecosystem cascading effects’40. 

The potential changes noted above to fish communities are also applicable to other types of 
marine  biodiversity,  although  much  remains  uncertain  about  the  nature  and  extent  of  such 
changes.  Changes  in  species  distribution,  abundance,  reproductive  capacity,  behaviour  and 
growth  rates  are  possible.  The  effects  of  ocean  acidification  are  potentially  wide-ranging, 
particularly  affecting  species  with  calcareous  skeletons  such  as  coccolithophores,  molluscs 
and corals, but also possibly affecting fish behaviour. Any such changes to individual species 
would have consequences for the species composition of the different marine ecosystems and 
affect preditor-prey relationships. 

2.1.10.  Eutrophication 

Eutrophication  affects  all  major  seas  in  Europe,  especially  the  Baltic  Sea.  An  OSPAR 
Commission  report41  suggests  that  climate  change  could  indirectly  increase  eutrophication 
problems in coastal waters. Assessment42 of combined future impacts of climate change and 
industrial and agricultural practices in the Baltic Sea catchment on the Baltic Sea ecosystem 

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42 

Cheung,  W.,  Sarmiento,  J.,  Dunne,  J.,  Frölicher,  T.,  Lam,  V.,  Deng  Palomares,  M.L.,  Watson,  and 
Pauly,  D.  (2012):  Shrinking  of  fishes  exacerbates  impacts  of  global  ocean  changes  on  marine 
ecosystems, Nature Climate Change Letters, DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE1691. 
Walther,  G-R.;  Roques,  A.;  Hulme,  P.;  Sykes,  M.;  Pyšek,  P.;  Kühn,  I.;  Zobel,  M.;  Bacher,  S.;  Botta-
Dukát, Z.; Bugmann, H.; Czúcz, B.; Dauber, J.; Hickler, T.; Jarošik, V.; Kenis, M.; Klotz, S.; Minchin, 
D.; Moora, M.; Nentwig, W.; Ott, J., Panov, V.; Reineking, B.; Robineet, C.; Semenchenko, V.; Solarz, 
W.; Thuiller, W.; Vilá, M.; Vohland, K.; Settele, J. (2009): Alien spicies in a warmer world: risks and 
opportunities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24(12): 685–691. 
Harris  and  Tyrel,  2001;  Stachowicz,  et  al.,  2002,  Frank  et  al,  2005  in  Occhipinti-Amrogi,  A.  (2007): 
Global  change  and  marine  communities:  Alien  species  and  climate  change.  Marne  Pollution  Bulletin 
55, p.342-352. 
Gritti, et al., 2006 in Occhipinti-Ambrogi, 2007. 
Francour et al., 1994, Vacchi et al., 1999; Bianchi and Morri, 2000, Laubier et al., 2004 in Occhipinti-
Ambrogi, 2007. 
An  ecological  cascade  effect  is  a  series  of  secondary  extinctions  that  is  triggered  by  the  primary 
extinction  of  a  key  species  in  an  ecosystem.  Secondary  extinctions  are  likely  to  occur  when  the 
threatened  species  are:  dependent  on  a  few  specific  food  sources,  mutualistic(dependent  on  the  key 
species in some way), or forced to coexist with an invasive species that is introduced to the ecosystem. 
OSPAR (2010): Quality Status Report 2010. OSPAR Commission. London.; http://www.ospar.org/. 
Meier,  H.E.M,  H.  Andersson,  H,  .  Dieterich,  C.,  Eilola,  E.,  Gustafsson,  B., Höglund,  A.,  Hordoir,  R. 
and  S.  Schimanke,  2011.  Transient  scenario  simulations  for  the  Baltic  Sea  Region  during  the  21st 
century. SMHI, Rapport Oceanografi Nr 108 

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showed that the impact of nutrient load reductions according to the Baltic Sea Action Plan43 
will  be  less  effective  in  future  climate  compared  to  present  climate  and  that  policy  makers 
should act to avoid much worse environmental conditions than today. While climate change 
will  not  directly  affect  the  source  of  the  problem  (increased  nutrient  loads  into  the  sea 
originating from household discharges and fertiliser use in agriculture), increased rainfall and 
its  associated  flooding  and  increased  surface  run-off  from  land  could  thus  load  rivers  that 
discharge  into  coastal  areas  with  increased  nutrients44.  Changes  in  ocean  acidity  may  also 
affect eutrophication through changes in atmospheric absorption rates.  

2.2. 

Socio-economic implications 

2.2.1.  Estimating impacts with and without adaptation 

Approximately  52  million  people  in  Europe  live  in  low-elevation  coastal  zones  (LECZ) 
covering 481, 695 km2. 45 Especially in north-western Europe, high population densities living 
in  coastal  zones  could  pose  a  considerable  concern  in  the  future  with  regard  to  a  changing 
climate and the impacts this will have on local economies. Overall, in Europe an estimated 13 
million people would be negatively affected by a one-metre rise in seal level46. For instance, 
sea level rise (in combination with storm surges) could increase the risk of flooding, coastal 
erosion and salt water intrusion to groundwater resources and to rivers/deltas and estuaries in 
these areas. 

Some studies have tried to assess the economic and social implications of climate change in 
coastal  areas.  Hinkel  et  al.  (200947,  201048)  suggest  that  the  UK,  the  southern  part  of  the 
Baltic coast and the north-western Mediterranean coast are highly vulnerable to sea level rise 
flooding,  especially  in  a  high-greenhouse  gas  emission  climate  scenario.  Under  a  no-
adaptation scenario, it is estimated that between 200,000 (low-emission scenario) and 780,000 
people (high-emission scenario) people could be affected by coastal flooding by 2100.  

The  Climate  Cost  project49  assessed  the  potential  economic  impact  of  climate  change  in 
Europe’s coastal zones using the DIVA model. The E1 emissions scenario, which is broadly 
consistent with a 2 °C temperature rise scenario, projects a 0.27m sea level rise for Europe. 

43 
44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

http://www.helcom.fi/BSAP/en_GB/intro/ 
HELCOM, 2007. Climate Change in the Baltic Sea Area, chapter 6.1.1: nutrient inputs 
http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/Publications/Proceedings/bsep111.pdf 
Vafeidis,  A.,  Neumann,  B.,  Zimmermann,  J.,  and  Nicholes,  R.J.  (2011):  Migration  and  Global 
Environmental  Change.  MR):  Analysis  of  land  area  and  population  in  the  low-elevation  coastal  zone 
(LECZ). Final Report of the UK Government’s Foresigh Project. 
Endlicher,  Wilfried  &  Gerstengabe,  Friedrich-Wilhelm  (eds.)  (2007):  Der  Klimawandel  –  Einblicke, 
Rückblicke und Ausblicke. Potsdam Institut für Klimafolgenforschung e.V., Potsdam. 
Hinkel,  J.;  Nicholls,  R.J.;  Vafeidis,  A.T.;  Tol,  R.S.J.;  Exner,  L.;  Avagianou,  T.  (2009):  The 
vulnerability  of  European  coastal  areas  to  sea  level  rise  and  storm  surge.  Contribution  to  the  EEA 
SOER 2010 report, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK). 
Hinkel,  J.;  Nicholls,  R.J.;  Vafeidis,  A.T.;  Tol,  R.S.J.;  Avagianou,  T.  (2010):  Assessing  risk  of  and 
adaptation to sea-level rise in the European Union: an application of DIVA. Mitigation and Adaptation 
Strategies for Global Change (2010) 15: 703–719. 
The  ClimateCost  project  took  into  account  damage  and  adaptation  costs.  Damage  costs  include:  total 
annual damage costs (2005 price), including the number of people forced to move due to erosion and 
submergence (assuming the cost for people that move is 3x the value of their per-capita GDP; land-loss 
costs  (land  below  the  1-in1  year  flood  level)  taking  into  account  dikes  and  direct  erosion  ignoring 
nourishment, salinisation costs and the expected costs of sea and river floods. Adaptation costs include 
the sum of sea dikes, river dikes and beach nourishment. 

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Projections under a medium to high emission scenario (A1B) estimate a 0.37 m sea level rise 
for Europe in the 2080s. Without further upgrade on coastal protection, this would translate 
into average estimated damage costs of €25 billion annually50. The analysis also suggests that 
European wetlands will be heavily impacted, leading to economic loss that have not yet been 
fully valued51.  

Effective  adaptation  action  can  significantly  reduce  the  negative  impacts  associated  with 
climate change on coastal zones. To take an example, the ClimateCost study shows that the 
avoided  costs  due  to  adaptation  action  from  the  impacts  of  sea  level  rise  in  the  EU  are 
estimated, depending on the climate scenario, around EUR 3,5bn (A1B) and 4bn (E1) per year 
in the 2020s, around EUR 8,6bn (A1B) and 9,9bn (E1) per year in the 2050s, and around EUR 
22,7bn (A1B) and 15,4bn (E1) per year in the 2080s52. 

2.2.2.  Fisheries and aquaculture 

Warmer,  more  acidic  seawater  will  clearly  have  an  impact  on  sea-life  and  therefore  on 
fisheries  and  aquaculture,  with  potential  economic  implications,  and  requiring  adaptation 
action53. 

Marine species can either adapt to the changing conditions or move to new areas with similar 
conditions  to  what  they  are  used  to.  The  complex  nature  of  ecosystems  and  the  interaction 
between  species  including  humans  means  that  it  is not possible to  predict exactly  what will 
happen  but,  all  things  being  equal,  one  can  expect  a  shift  northwards.  According  to  the  EU 
research  project  CLAMER54  "There  is  clear  evidence  from  all  European  seas  that  rising 
temperatures, along with overfishing, are causing substantial changes to fish stocks such as 
herring,  sand  eels  and  cod,  as  well  as  to  their  ranges  and  migration  routes.  Warmer  water 
fish species are gradually moving north so that unfamiliar fish species are now appearing on 
fish market stalls."  

For  the  future  CLAMER  expects  "Northerly  extension  of  warmer-water  fish  is  expected  to 
continue,  with  development  of  new  exploitable  populations.  Stocks  of  cold-adapted  species 
are  projected  to  decline  in,  for  instance,  the  North  Sea,  but  to  benefit  from  higher 
temperatures in areas such as the Barents Sea. Fish production is sensitive to the combined 
effects of climate, ocean acidification and plankton community changes, and heavily exploited 
fish stocks are likely to be especially vulnerable." 

Warmer waters may increase the growth rate for aquaculture species but can also place some 
species  outside  their  comfort  zone.  Rising  acidity  may  affect  the  ability  of  shellfish  to 
construct their shells. In Oregon acidity spikes have been observed that kill oyster larvae or 

50 

51 

52 

53 
54 

Such estimates should always be qualified before interpretation: they are necessarily influenced by the 
assumptions made for the modelling exercise. For instance, only one temperature profile was used for 
projections.  Other  important  parameters  include  socio-economic  projections  (e.g.  changes  to 
population, population density and gross national product) and economics (e.g. exchange rates, discount 
rates). 
Brown S, Nicholls RJ, Vafeidis A, Hinkel J, and Watkiss P (2011): The Impacts and Economic Costs of 
Sea-Level Rise in Europe and the Costs and Benefits of Adaptation. Summary of Results from the EC 
RTD ClimateCost Project.In Watkiss, P (Editor), 2011.The ClimateCost Project.Final Report. Volume 
1: Europe. Published by the Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden, 2011.ISBN 978-91-86125-35-6. 
Brown, S., Nicholls, R., Vafeidis, A., Hinkel, J. and Watkiss P. (2011) Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Zones 
in the EU and the Costs and Benefits of Adaptation: Summary of Sector Results from the ClimateCost 
project, funded by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme,  
EEA 2012 
http://www.clamer.eu/ 

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stunt their growth55. More research is needed to assess Europe's important shellfish industry's 
vulnerability to rising acidity.  

2.2.3.  Coastal tourism 

Coastal tourism is by far the most significant contributor to the tourism industry in Europe, 
both  in  terms  of  tourist  numbers  and  generation  of  income56.  Coastal  tourism  is  also  the 
largest single maritime economic activity57. Climate plays a major role in the popularity and 
success  of  tourist  destinations  and  therefore  tourism  income.  Climate  change  is  expected  to 
“reshape” the tourism industry and will impact the geographical and seasonal distribution of 
tourists58. In the Mediterranean, tourism is likely to shift away from the summer and become 
more attractive in the spring and autumn. In northern Europe, good months for coastal tourism 
are expected to increase59. 

2.2.4.  Transport and energy 

Seaports play a crucial role in the global economy as transportation hubs for the vast majority 
of goods transported around the world. Their operations are prone to the impacts of sea-level 
rise , increased storm intensity,  and flooding Many port authorities are aware of such issues 
and have taken a series of measures to address them60.  

Sea level rise and sea storms are likely to increase risks of inundation and erosion of coastal 
road transport networks, causing disruptions in the transport of goods and in the mobility of 
local communities. Moreover, increased inspections and repairs may become necessary due to 
erosion of transport structures due to inundation and saline intrusion.  

Energy  production  located  in  coastal  areas  may  be  threatened  by  climate  change  induced 
storm surges, sea-level rise and flooding. Therefore the siting of future plants must take into 
account  climate  scenarios61.  Moreover,  risk  assessments,  such  as  in  the  UK  following  the 
adoption of the Climate Change Act, are ongoing about existing energy infrastructure assets. 
Regarding nuclear power plants for instance, based on the recent stress tests conducted at EU 
level,  the  national  regulators  concluded  that  there  are  no  technical  reasons  requiring  the 
immediate  shutdown  of  any  nuclear  power  plant  in  Europe,  and  identified  a  series  of  good 
practices. However, various technical upgrade measures have been identified and among the 
recommendations,  European  guidance  should  be  developed  on  the  assessment  of  natural 
hazards, including earthquake, flooding and extreme weather conditions, and safety margins, 
in order to increase consistency between Member States62. The issue of climate change and 

55 
56 

57 

58 
59 
60 

61 

62 

Robert F. Service Rising Acidity Brings an Ocean of Trouble Science 13 July 2012 
European  Commission  (2008):  The  Impact  of  Tourism  on  Coastal  Areas:  Regional  Development 
Aspects. DG for Internal Policies of the Union, Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion Policies, 
Brussels. www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/expert/eStudies.do?language=EN. 
ECORYS  (draft):  Blue  Growth.  Scenarios  and  drivers  for  Sustainable  Growth  from  the  Oceans,  Seas 
and Coasts. Report for the European Commission, DG MARE. 
EC, 2008. 
UNWTO (2008): Climate Change and Tourism. Responding to Global Challenges. 
See for instance the example of the port of Rotterdam presented in the CSWD on adaptation to climate 
change infrastructure (SWD(2013)137) 
Urban, F., and Mitchel, T., (2011): Climate change, disasters and electricity generation. Strengthening 
Climate Resilience Discussion Paper 8, Institute of Development Studies: Brighton. 
COM(2012)571 final 

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impacts  on  the  energy  infrastructure,  including  in  coastal  areas,  is  discussed  further  in  the 
CSWD on infrastructure63. 

2.2.5.  Agriculture 

Impacts  of  climate  change  on  agriculture  are  expected  to  be  increasingly  visible  towards 
2050,  when  climatic  changes  intensify.  In  extreme  cases,  a  reduction  in  suitable  areas  for 
cultivation in certain European regions can be expected64 . For instance, farmland in coastal 
areas  may  decrease  considerably  in  the  future,  due  to  the  potential increase  of  flooding  and 
inundation of fields. In addition, saltwater intrusion of groundwater aquifers could negatively 
impact sources for irrigation and therefore crop yield could be indirectly affected if suitable 
alternatives are not available.  

2.2.6.  Ecosystems and their services 

Coastal  ecosystems  such  as  dunes  and  barrier  beaches,  salt  marshes  and  mangroves  are 
delivering  a  wide  range  of  services  to  humans.  They  cover  storm  and  flood  protection65, 
erosion  control,  recreation  and  tourism,  carbon  storage,  food  production  and  habitat 
provision). The ability of the ecosystems to deliver their services might be negatively affected 
by intensifying climate change – information is currently collected on mapping and assessing 
state and trends of those services, and on how to invest in ecosystem-based solutions through 
Green  Infrastructure  and  restoration66.  Given  their  multi-functional  properties,  green 
infrastructure along the coastline line could help protected coastal areas against erosion and 
flooding as well as protection sensitive coastal ecosystems such as brackish waters and tidal 
pools.  Green  Infrastructure  can  provide  water  retention  services,  thereby  mitigating  the 
impacts  of  extreme  events  like  floods  and  seasonal  water  scarcity.  Better  functioning 
ecosystems  can  also  contribute  to  integrated  planning/management  and  erosion  control  in 
coastal zones. Restoring ecosystems such as barrier beaches or coastal wetlands reduces the 
exposure of human communities to disasters, such  as  landslides,  flooding,  storms  and  wave 
surges. 

2.3. 

Remaining knowledge gaps 

Remaining  knowledge  gaps  on  climate  change  impacts  on  coastal  areas,  marine  ecosystems 
and  maritime  sectors  relate  to  four  broad  categories:  global  drivers;  local  impacts;  socio-
economic drivers and adaptation costs and benefits: 

– 

63 
64 
65 

66 

Global drivers: further observations and research are needed to better understand the 
interactions between oceans-atmosphere which are essential elements of the planet´s 
climate machinery as well as to reduce uncertainty in phenomena that have an impact 
on global sea-level rise, in particular the melting of ice in Greenland and Antarctica, 

SWD(2013)137 
Olesen and Bindi 2004; Olesen et al. 2011; Iglesias et al. 2009 
Coastal flood defence – The Alkborough Flats  managed realignment scheme on the Humber Estuary, 
England, has delivered benefits for coastal flood protection and reduced and deferred expenditures on 
man-made  coastal  defences.  The  scheme  is  estimated  to  deliver  an  annual  flood  protection  benefit  of 
£400,667(€465,000), giving total benefits with a present value of £12.2 million (€14million), as well as 
other  benefits  for  wildlife  and  ecosystem  services.  The  scheme  cost  £10.2  million  (€11.8million)  and 
involved the restoration of tidal habitats on 440 ha of agricultural land. – In: Naumann, S. Davis  McK., 
Kaphengst T., Pieterse M. and Rayment M. (2011): Design, implementation and cost elements of Green 
Infrastructure projects. Final report to the European Commission, DG Environment.  
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/comm2006/2020.htm  

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– 

– 

– 

or on ocean acidification. This could help in adaptation policy- and decision-making. 
This would also provide more insight into low probability-high impact scenarios. 

Regional  and local impacts: further observations are needed at a regional and  local 
level  on  changes  in  temperature,  seawater  acidity,  coastal  erosion  and  ecosystems. 
Such consequences could then be used for better climate risk assessments in coastal 
and marine economic sectors, and likewise, better informed adaptation action.  

Socio-economic drivers: additional work is needed to better estimate the evolution of 
population,  economic  growth,  and  land  cover  and  their  impacts  on  marine  and 
maritime economic sectors, as well as their impacts on urban and rural development 
in coastal areas. This would help national and regional authorities develop the most 
appropriate and cost-effective strategy for coastal protection.  

Adaptation costs and benefits: additional research is needed on the costs and benefits 
of alternative adaptation actions in coastal areas. For instance, some of the benefits 
have not been monetized, like the assessment of the implications of ecosystem-based 
adaptation measures. 

3. 

EXISTING ADAPTATION EFFORTS  

Natural  variation  and  human  activities  are  constantly  altering  the  marine  and  coastal 
environment.  Demographic  change  and  evolving  economies  are  having  an  impact  on  the 
vulnerabilities  of  coastal  regions  and  the  marine  and  maritime  economies.  Climate  change 
adds then one more layer to this complex environment. A number of EU instruments exist to 
deal with these challenges, and this section presents in particular how climate change has been 
addressed in that context.  

3.1. 

Current policy framework at EU level and related adaptation efforts 

3.1.1.  Water Framework and Floods Directives 
In  coastal  areas,  the  Water  Framework  Directive67,68covers  transitional  waters  and  coastal 
waters  up  to  one  nautical  mile  from  the  territorial  baseline  of  a  Member  State  for  a  Good 
Ecological Status and up to 12 nautical miles for a Good Chemical Status. In the context of 
the  implementation  phase  of  this  Directive69,  almost  half  of  river-basin  management  plans 
specifically address specific climate change adaptation measures.70 
The Floods Directive71 also provides attention to the impacts of coastal floods. In early 2012, 
Member  States  reported  to the European Commission preliminary flood  risk  assessments of 
their  river  basins  and  associated  coastal  zones  to  identify  areas  where  potential  significant 
flood  risk  exists.  The  assessment  of  the  reported  data  has  started  and  should  also  draw 
attention to the extent to which climate change has already been considered. 

67  
68  

69  
70  

71  

Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC). 
The  Proposal  on  a  General  Union  Environment  Action  Programme  to  2020  "Living  well,  within  the 
limits  of  our  planet"  (7EAP)  points  out  the  need  to  take  environmental  concerns  into  account  in  the 
maritime  sector  and  emphasises  the  need  to  ensure  that  by  2020  the  environmental  objectives  of  the 
WFD and the MSFD are met. 
CIS guidance document No. 24 River Basin Management in a Changing Climate 
EC  (2012):  Commission  Staff  Working  Document,  European  Overview  (2/2)  Accompanying  the 
document,  “Report  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  on  the 
Implementation of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) River Basin Management Plans. 
2007/60/EC. 

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In  2009,  the  Water  Directors  of  the  EU  Member  States  issued  a  guidance  document  on 
adaptation  to  climate  change  in  water  management72.  The  guidance  provides  approaches  on 
how  to  take  climate  change  into  account  in  the  implementation  of  the  Water  Framework 
Directive, the Floods Directive and the Strategy on Water Scarcity and Droughts. Moreover,  
the Common Implementation Strategy activity on “Climate Change and the EU Water Policy” 
aims to, among other things, “identify what can and should be done in the different upcoming 
River  Basin  Management  planning  cycles”  in  relation  to  climate  change  impacts  and 
adaptation. 

3.1.2.  Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) 
The  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive73,  the  environmental  pillar  of  the  Integrated 
Maritime  Policy  (IMP)  is  aiming  for  the  implementation  of  an  integrated,  adaptive  and 
ecosystem-based approach to the management of human activities at sea and on the coast. The 
objective  is  to  achieve,  by  2020,  the  Good  Environmental  Status  (GES)  of  all  European 
marine and coastal waters.  

Integrated Coastal Management  

3.1.3. 
In March 2013 the Commission adopted a proposal74 for a Directive establishing a framework 
for maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management. The proposal aims to ensure 
that the growth of increasing maritime activities at sea and the use of resources at sea and on 
coasts  remain  sustainable.  The  proposed  action  will  require  Member  States  to  establish 
maritime  spatial  plans  and  integrated  coastal  management  strategies  by  applying  an 
ecosystem-based approach that, among others, should contribute to ensuring climate resilient 
coastal  and  marine  areas.  The  integrated  coastal  management  strategies  should  build  on  the 
principles  and  elements  set  out  in  the  2002  Recommendation75  on  Integrated  Coastal  Zone 
Management  and  the  Protocol  on  Integrated  Coastal  zone  Management  to  the  Barcelona 
Convention (the Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution)76, 
the  first  legally-binding  international  instrument  specifically  dedicated  to  integrated  coastal 
management and ratified by the EU in 201077. 

This Recommendation outlines a strategic approach to the management of land and sea spaces 
and  defines  eight  principles  of  sound  coastal  planning  and  management  that  should  be 
formulating  national  coastal  strategies78.  The 
followed  by  Member  States  when 
implementation of these principles has been reinforced, in particular through the adoption of 
the  Integrated  Maritime  Policy  (IMP)79  in  2007,  aiming  to  address  issues  arising  from  a 
fragmented management of EU’s marine waters through the implementation of tools such as 

72  

73  
74  
75  

76  
77  
78  

79  

European  Commission  (2009):  Guidance  Document  no.  24.  River  Basin  Management  in  a  changing 
climate. 
2008/56/EC. 
COM(2013)final; http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/home.htm 
Council Recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of 30 May 2002 concerning the 
implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe. Recommendation 2002/413/EC, OJ 
148, 6.6.2002, p.24. Brussels: European Commission. 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:034:0019:0028:EN:PDF. 
Council Decision 2010/631/EU 
These  principles  are:  1.  A  broad  overall  perspective,  both  thematic  and  geographic;  2.  A  long-term 
approach, taking into account the precautionary principle; 3. Adaptive management; 4. Local specificity 
and diversity; 5. Working with natural processes and respecting the carrying capacity of ecosystems; 6. 
Involvement  of  all  parties  concerned;  7.  Support  of  relevant  administrative  bodies  and  improved 
coordination; 8. Use of a combination of instruments. 
COM(2007) 757 final.  

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integrated  coastal  management  and  maritime  spatial  planning80.  An  important  step  for 
integrated  coastal  management  was  the  adoption  of  the  ICZM  Protocol  to  the  Barcelona 
Convention (the Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution)81 
in 2008, the first legally-binding international instrument specifically dedicated to ICZM. 

In  the  2009  White  Paper  on  adapting  to  climate  change,  the  Commission  announced  the 
development of guidelines on adaptation in coastal and marine areas to ensure a coordinated 
and integrated approach to adaptation in coastal and marine areas. The Commission is aiming 
to  develop  such  guidelines  in  order  to  support  Member  States  on  the  implementation  of 
integrated coastal management strategies. 

3.1.4.  Natura 2000, Habitats and Birds Directives 

The Natura 2000 network of areas of high biodiversity value, established under the Habitats 
and Birds Directives82 , protects a large share of coastal and marine regions. The priority to 
protect  marine  ecosystems  and  their  aquatic  species  has  been  reinforced  by  the  EU  2020 
Biodiversity  Strategy83.  The  effective  management  and  restoration  of  Natura  2000  sites 
reduces  non-climate  pressures  and  increases  resilience  to  climate  change.  The  Commission 
services  will  shortly  issue  guidelines  on  climate  change  and  Natura  2000  targeted  at  site 
managers and policy makers. This will underline benefits from Natura 2000 sites in mitigating 
the  impacts  of  climate  change,  reducing  vulnerability  and  increasing  resilience,  and  how 
adaptation of management for species and habitats protected by Natura 2000 can be used to 
tackle  the  effects  of  climate  change84.  The  establishment  of  green  infrastructure  and  other 
ecosystem-based  approaches  to  adaptation  can  be  promoted  by  this  framework,  which  can 
increase the resilience of coastal areas to climate change. The possible movement of species 
due  to  changing  climate  outside  their  present  protection  zones  will  require  an  adaptive 
management approach. 

3.1.5. 

Support tools and information dissemination 

In order to strengthen the exchange of good practice examples on adaptation and coastal zone 
management, the following tools have been created over the last years: 

•  Climate-ADAPT85:  The  European  Climate  Adaptation  Platform  was  launched  in 
March  2012.  It  has  been  developed  to  share  information  on  adaptation  case  studies 
throughout  the  EU  and  potential  adaptation  options  in  order  to  help  users  (e.g. 
researchers,  policy  makers)  develop  their  own  climate  change  adaptation  policies. 
Coastal areas and Marine and Fisheries are two of the sectors covered by the database 
(alongside agriculture, biodiversity, health, etc). 

•  OURCOAST86:  The  OURCOAST  database  is  a  comprehensive  compilation  of 
hundreds  of  case  study  summaries  that  reflect  successful  cases  of  integrated  coastal 

80  

81  
82  
83  

84  

85  
86  

Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  Council,  the  European  Parliament,  the  European 
Economic and Social committee and the Committee of the Regions - Towards a future Maritime Policy 
for the Union: A European Vision for the Oceans and Seas/* COM/2006/0275 final */. 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:034:0019:0028:EN:PDF. 
(92/43/EEC). 
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the council, the economic and social 
committee  and  the  committee  of  the  regions  (2011):  Our  life  insurance,  our  natural  capital:  an  EU 
biodiversity strategy to 2020, COM(2011) 244 final. 
I.M.  Bouwma,  C.  Vos,  M.  Biemans,  N.  McIntosh,  R.  van  Apeldoorn  &  P.  Verdonschot  (2012): 
Guidelines  on  dealing  with  the  impacts  of  climate  change  on  the  management  of  Natura  2000. 
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 
http://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/web/guest/home.  
http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=3.  

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management  applied  throughout  Europe,  including  many  cases  focusing  particularly 
on climate change adaptation information and communication systems, planning and 
land management instruments, and institutional coordination mechanisms.  

•  EMODnet87:  A  European  Marine  Observation  and  Data  Network  (EMODnet)  was 
initiated  in  2006  and  finalized  in  2008.  EMODnet  is  a  common  gateway  for 
researchers  and  service  providers  of  high  quality  marine  data  —  geological, 
hydrographic,  chemical,  biological  and  physical  habitats  —  as  well  as  of  the  human 
activities that have an impact on our seas and oceans. 

•  WISE-Marine88:  The  marine  component  of  WISE  (Water  Information  System  for 
Europe)89  is  currently  under  development  and  should  incorporate  the  information 
reported by the Member States under the MSFD (except the underlying datasets which 
should be incorporated into EMODnet). 

3.1.6.  EU funding  

Several  projects  on  adaptation  in  coastal  and  marine  areas  have  been  initiated  over  the  last 
years,  funded  or  co-funded.  The  European  Commission  provides  several  funds  (the  CSF 
funds,  LIFE+  funds,  research  funds)  that  foster  cooperation  between  Member  States  and 
regions in terms of climate change. Under the Multi-Annual Financing Framework (MFF) 90. 
it has been agreed that the climate related expenditure will represent at least 20% in the period 
2014-2020.  

“Promoting climate change adaptation, risk prevention and management” is one of the eleven 
priorities of the Commission’s proposal for a Common Strategic Framework which provides a 
common  set  of  rules  for  the  European  Regional  Development  Fund  (ERDF),  the  European 
Social  Fund  (ESF),  the  Cohesion  Fund  (CF),  the  European  Agricultural  Fund  for  Rural 
Development (EAFRD) and the future European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF). 

In  particular,  climate  change  (adaptation  and  mitigation)  is  to  be  integrated  into  the  five 
specific  Union  Priorities  which  will  be  pursued  under  the  EMFF,  namely  increasing 
employment and territorial cohesion in fisheries areas, fostering innovative, competitive and 
knowledge based fisheries, promoting a sustainable and resource efficient fisheries, fostering 
innovative,  competitive  and  knowledge  based  aquaculture,  and  promoting  a  sustainable  and 
resource efficient aquaculture.  

Research into adaptation to climate change are included within the societal challenge “climate 
action,  resource  efficiency  and  raw  materials”  of  the  Commission’s  proposal  for  a  research 
programme, Horizon 202091. 

The  proposed  regulation  of  the  LIFE  2014-2020  programme  also  include  elements  relevant 
for  coastal  zones  as  indicated  in  the  Communication  on  an  EU  Strategy  on  adaptation  to 
climate change (COM(2013)XXX).  

87  
88  
89  
90  
91  

http://www.emodnet-hydrography.eu/. 
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/maritimeforum/category/554. 
http://water.europa.eu/ 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/135344.pdf 
Proposal for a Regulation Of The European Parliament And Of The Council establishing Horizon 2020 
The Framework Programme For Research And Innovation (2014-2020) COM(2011) 809 final 

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3.2. 

Efforts at Member State level and within the EU marine regions 

3.2.1.  Member States' efforts 

National and local authorities are well aware that Europe's coastlines are not fixed in time but 
are  constantly  changing.  The  construction  of  sea-walls  and  the  nourishment  of  beaches  is 
standard practice. Three broad classes of intervention can be distinguished 

(1)  protection: through sea-walls or hard structures 

(2)  managed retreat: abandoning land to the sea 

(3) 

accommodation  –  for  instance  through  reinforcement  of  dunes  or  through 
wetlands that allow periodic flooding 

The choice of a class of intervention is site-specific, depending on pattern of relative sea-level 
change, geomorphological setting, sediment availability and erosion, as well a series of social, 
economic and political factors. 

The Netherlands spend about €700 million a year on dyke maintenance including levees on 
the sides of rivers and canals and also dikes, levees and seawalls that border seashores, bays 
and  estuaries.  Another  €100  million  is  spent  on  softer  measures  such  as  dune  nourishment. 
The  UK's  Environment  Agency  spends  up  to  €200  million  a  year  on  measures  to  protect 
in  England  and  Wales  against  coastal  flooding.  The  most  significant 
populations 
infrastructure is the Thames Barrier, opened in 1984 to protect London against exceptionally 
high tides and  storm  surges.  Its  operational lifetime  was  expected  to  end  in  2030  subject  to 
appropriate  modification,  it  is  expected  to  provide  continued  protection  to  London  against 
rising sea levels until at least 2070.  . Damages caused by storm Xynthia92 in France in 2010 
have triggered the establishment of the national floods management plan (budget allocation of 
€500million)  including  an  action  programme  with  60  concrete  floods  prevention  actions. 
Other  examples  of  infrastructure  projects  within  coastal  zone  management  include  the 
M.O.S.E. project93 in Venice or the Delta project in the Netherlands94. 

Following the adoption of the Recommendations on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in 
2002,  Member  States  have  taken  important  steps  towards  legislative  approval  for  their 
national  strategies  and  their  implementation95,  including  aspects  related  to  climate  change 
adaptation.  

Member States have taken two types of approaches to integrating climate change adaptation 
in their coastal zone management96: 1) through specific coastal strategies/frameworks and 2) 
through general climate change adaptation plans/frameworks). In addition, efforts have been 
complemented  by  research  activities  funded  through  regional/national  funding  and  through 
LIFE+ and INTERREG programmes. Projects on adaptation include work on coastal erosion, 
coastal defences, flooding, controlling development, rehabilitation works and sea level rise. 

92  

93  
94  
95  

96  

http://www.euromedcp.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=715%3Axynthia-storm-
one-year-later-strong-actions-in-france-to-prevent-floods&catid=917%3Ams&Itemid=960&lang=en 
http://paratoie.intesesrl.com/en/mose-project.html. 
http://www.deltawerken.com/23. 
Reporting  in  2006    and  2010  http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/nat_reports.htm  stated  that  6 
Member  States  (FI,  DE,  MT,  PT,  RO,  UK)  have  implemented  national  ICZM  in  line  with  the 
recommendations  and  an  additional  8  Member  States  (BE,  CY,  EL,  FR,  LV,  NL,  SL,  PL)  have 
implemented strategies or programmes equivalent to ICZM.   
Based  on  information  collected  at  the  Joint  Eionet  and  Member  State  Expert  Group  workshop  on 
Maritime Spatial Planning-Integrated Coastal Zone Management, which took place in September 2012.  

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As of January 2013, 15 countries have adopted national adaptation strategies and action plans, 
of which 13 Member States have identified and addressed coastal areas and management in 
their  national  adaptation  policies  and  seven  have  considered  fisheries  and  aquaculture97.  A 
more detailed assessment of the adaptation strategies of the different marine sea regions will 
be  carried  out  in  2013/14  by  a  Commission  service  contract  “Sharing  of  best  practices  on 
Integrated Coastal Zone Management, in a context of adaptation to climate change in coastal 
areas98”. 

Sea basins 

3.2.2. 
The Helsinki Commission (HELCOM)'s 2007 Action Plan99 highlighted the need for action to 
combat the impact climate change will have on the Baltic Sea region.  The EU Strategy for 
the Baltic100 indicates the need to prepare for more extreme weather events, highlighting 'to 
mitigate  and  to  adapt  to  climate  change'  as  one  of  its  priority  areas.  Baltic  21,  an  Expert 
Group within the Council of Baltic Sea States aims to develop an adaptation strategy for the 
region. 

BaltCICA  (“Climate  Change:  Impacts,  Costs  and  Adaptation  in  the  Baltic  Sea  Region”, 
running from 2009 to 2012)101 is a project that aims to prepare regions and municipalities to 
cope  with  climate  change  impacts  by  developing  transnational  adaptation  actions.  The 
BaltAdapt  project102  (2010-2013)  is  developing  a  transnational  Baltic  Sea  Region-wide 
climate change adaptation strategy, but focus on the sea itself and its coastline. RADOST103 is 
a national project that focuses on adaptation strategies for the Baltic coastline of Germany. 

In  2009,  the  OSPAR  Commission,  a  cooperation  between  15  governments  to  protect  the 
marine environment of the North-East Atlantic, developed an assessment of climate change 
mitigation and adaptation. In terms of marine adaptation, it proposed to promote the resilience 
of ecosystems already under pressure from other human activities, such as operational quotas 
(e.g. fisheries catch), protection for sites, adaptation of environmental objectives or inclusion 
of  climate  change  in  the  management  of  maritime  activities.  It  advocated  increased 
monitoring, integrated coastal zone management and maritime spatial planning.  
In  the  sub-region  of  the  North  Sea,  the  Safecoast  project104  examined  coastal  flood  and 
erosion risk management and its evolution in the field of climate change by 2050.  
The  Mediterranean  Action  Plan  (MAP),  implemented  by  the  Barcelona  Convention105,  is 
promoting  integrated  coastal  zone  management  as  the  most  effective  way  to  improve  the 
ecological  state  of  the  sea  and  help  coastal  communities  adapt  to  climate  change.  The 
Protocol106  on  Integrated  Coastal  Zone  Management  is  established  under  the  Barcelona 
Convention and binding to Mediterranean states. 

97  
98  
99  

100  
101  
102  
103  
104  
105  
106  

Meeting, 

EEA report on adaptation in Europe, 2013. 
ENV.D.2/SER/2012/0037. 
HELCOM 
Krakow, 
Ministerial 
http://www.helcom.fi/stc/files/BSAP/BSAP_Final.pdf. 
COM(2009) 248 final 
http://www.baltcica.org. 
http://www.baltadapt.eu/. 
http://www.klimzug-radost.de/. 
http://www.safecoast.org. 
http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/water_protection_management/l28084_en.htm 
OJ L 34, 4.2.2009; http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/barcelona.htm 

November, 

Poland, 

15 

2007 

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The  “CIRCE  Integrated  Project  -  Climate  Change  and  Impact  Research:  the  Mediterranean 
Environment”107 aims at predicting and quantifying physical, social and economic impacts of 
climate change in an integrated way. The MAREMED project108 aims to better evaluate the 
impacts  of  climate  changes  in  coastal  areas  at  both  a  Mediterranean  and  a  local  operational 
level, particularly regarding extreme climate events. The PEGASO project109, aims to develop 
an integrated coastal management governance platform for the Black Sea and Mediterranean 
regions. 

The 1992 Bucharest Convention and its latest Strategic Action Plan include a consideration on 
the impacts of climate change on Black Sea ecosystems and sustainable development along 
coastal  areas  as  a  short-medium  term  target110.  The  project“Climate  proofing  the  Danube 
Delta  through  integrated  land  and  water  management”  analyses  the  possible  impacts  of 
climate change on the Danube Delta region and a climate change adaptation strategy for this 
region. 

3.2.3.  Outermost regions 

The  specificities  of  the  outermost  regions  require  special  attention.  Research  on  the  climate 
change vulnerability in the outermost regions is on-going although priority is often given to 
understanding risks rather than to adaptation projects111.  

Moreover, outermost regions are investing in adaptation relevant measures, generally defined 
as responses to natural risks such as flooding and erosion. The financing for these measures is 
estimated  at  around  €237  million  from  1998  and  2015112.  In  addition,  the  EU's  BEST113 
initiative aims to promote the sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services through 
practical examples, including ecosystem based approaches to climate change adaptation and 
mitigation, a specific priority action in 2011. 

In  the  Canary  Islands,  an  Adaptation  Strategy is  being  developed  following  the  adoption  of 
the Climate Change Mitigation Strategy in 2009. Previous studies have looked specifically at 
the  impacts  on  coastal  shoreline  infrastructure  and  construction.  The  Azores  and  Madeira 
have  Coastal  Management  Plans  covering  coastal  defense  against  flooding,  erosion  or 
extreme  weather  events.  The  French  regions  of  Guiana,  Guadeloupe,  and  Martinique  have 
recently  developed  the  regional  schemes  presenting  assessments  of  vulnerability  to  climate 
change  in  their  territories  and  have  identified  coastal  erosion  and  the  loss  of  coastal 
ecosystems (e.g. coral bleaching) as a major concern. As for Reunion and Mayotte, the Indian 
Ocean  Commission  (IOC)  has  identified  coastal  zone  management  as  a  line  of  action  for  a 
future Regional Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation. 

107  
108  
109  
110  

111  

112  
113  

http://www.circeproject.eu. 
http://www.maremed.eu/. 
http:// www.pegasoproject.eu/. 
http://www.blacksea-commission.org/_convention.asp.  The  1992  Bucharest  Convention  was  followed 
in  1996  by  a  Strategic  Action  Plan,  which  was  revised  in  2009  by  the  Strategic  Action  Plan  for  the 
Environmental  Protection  and  Rehabilitation  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  adheres  to  three  key 
environmental management approaches including ICZM. 
An on-going EU funded project is considering in more detail the economic impacts of climate change in 
outermost regions and adaptation measures.  
Policy Research Corporation (2009): The economics of climate change adaptation in EU coastal areas 
Voluntary scheme for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Territories of the EU Outermost Regions 
and Overseas Countries and Territories. The BEST preparatory action had an annual budget € 2 million 
in the years 2011,2012 and 2013 

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3.2.4.  Arctic regions 
The  Ottawa  Declaration  of  1996114  established  the  Arctic  Council,  an  international  forum 
which promotes cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic countries. One of 
its  six  Working  Groups  dedicated  to  ‘Sustainable  Development’  has  ‘adaptation  to  climate 
change’ as one of its thematic areas. The ‘Center for International Climate and Environmental 
Research-Oslo’ (CICERO)115 developed the VACCA116 project (Vulnerability and Adaptation 
to  Climate  Change  in  the  Arctic)  which  aimed  to  collect  and  disseminate  information  on 
research and adaptation strategies or measures, and to organize international workshops about 
vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. 

In  2012,  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  published  a  joint  communication 
“Developing  a  European  Union  Policy  towards  the  Arctic  Region:  progress  since  2008  and 
next steps”117 in which they develop the will of the European Union to step up its engagement 
with  its  Arctic  partners  to  jointly  meet  the  challenges  of  climate  change  by  increasing  its 
contribution  to  Arctic  research  through  ‘Horizon  2020’118,  by  enhancing  monitoring  and 
surveillance capabilities and reinforcing its funding for sustainable development in the Arctic 
Region. 

4. 

FURTHER ADAPTATION EFFORTS NEEDED 

4.1. 

Better informed decision making  

Significant effort has been made to determine how climate change will affect the different sea 
regions  in  the  future.  Much  of  the  research  under  the  IPCC  focussed  on  global  trends  with 
some  regional  analysis,  in  the  last  five  years  considerable  work  has  been  done  to  develop 
models  at  the  sea  region  level.  In  addition  national  research  has  produced  quite  important 
results  for  Member  States.  However,  single  national  data  and  global  assessment  alone  does 
not give a complete picture on the current state of European seas and coasts. The integration 
of national research at EU level and the breakdown of global assessments to the different EU 
sea  regions  are  essential  to  better  understand  how  the  different  European  sea  and  coastal 
regions are and will be affected by climate change in the future. Several gaps still remain (as 
described  in  the  section  above):  large  data  ranges  of  potential  impacts,  for  example  on  sea 
level  rise,  still  create  uncertainty  and  some  impacts  on  the  environment  and  on  certain 
economic sectors are still poorly understood119. 

The European Commission is working to overcome these knowledge gaps and the bottlenecks 
regarding the coherent collection of marine data. As the 2010 Communication on the Marine 
Knowledge  2020  Strategy120  points  out,  data  are  being  held  by  hundreds  of  different 
institutions  in  the  EU  -  hydrographic  offices,  geological  surveys,  local  authorities, 
environmental  agencies,  research  institutes,  universities,  and  much  of  the  data  is  not 
compatible  with  one  another.  The  Marine  Knowledge  2020  Strategy  is  seeking  to  bring 
together marine data from different sources to improve our understanding of sea regions and 
with  the  aim  to  help  the  private  sector,  public  authorities  and  researchers  obtain  data  and 
make  more  effective  use  of  them.  This  will  also  allow  developing  more  sound  adaptation 

114  
115  
116  
117  
118  
119  
120  

http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/about/documents/file/13-ottawa-declaration. 
http://www.cicero.uio.no/projects/detail.aspx?id=30233&lang=EN. 
http://library.arcticportal.org/1481/. 
JOIN(2012) 19 final. 
See http://ec.europa.eu/research/horizon2020/index_en.cfm. 
EEA, 2012. 
COM(2012) 473 final. 

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possibilities.  Encouraged  by  this  Strategy,  the  European  Commission  aims  to  improve 
communication  amongst  national  data  centres  through  regular  discussions  in  its  marine 
observation and data expert groups and its maritime internet forum in order to promote good 
practice in data collection and dissemination. 

In  particular  highlighted  was  the  link  between  the  Marine  Knowledge  2020  Strategy  and 
climate change by the opinion of the Committee of the Regions, calling “for a more structured 
approach to marine observations in order to deliver more accurate indicators of local changes 
in climatic parameters such as sea-level rise and ocean acidification to the Climate-ADAPT 
platform and therefore help the process of adapting to climate change”121.  

EMODnet  is  complementary  to  other  EU  initiatives  on  information  services,  and  its 
parameters  will  feed  directly  into  indicator  reporting  by  the  Member  States  for  the  MSFD 
through  WISE-Marine.  Analyses  of  the  2012  reported  data  under  the  MSFD  will  provide  a 
better  picture  on  each  Member  States’  situation  as  regards  pressures,  and  impacts  to  the 
marine environment.  
The  European  Earth  monitoring  programme  (GMES)122  and  its  ocean  service  aims  at 
delivering  products  and  services  that  added-value  service  providers  can  build  on  to  provide 
services to public and private users. Under the GMES programme, a marine service has been 
progressively developed, focusing on observation and providing near-real time and forecasted 
information on the oceans, and is being further developed with the GMES climate service.  
In order to make most use of all this information, future work of the Commission123 is aiming 
to  link  existing  databases,  such  as  OURCOAST,  EMODnet,  WISE-Marine  and  Climate-
ADAPT  and  the  GMES  marine  service.  All  the  data  sources  mentioned  above  could  be 
complemented by the information collected under the WFD and Floods Directive. This will 
allow the Commission and Member States as well  as international sea conventions to better 
implement existing and forthcoming EU policies. 

Beyond ensuring access to data, dissemination pathways to better inform all levels of policy 
making  and  implementing  should  be  strengthened.  Thereby  structures  already  in  place  for 
example under the WFD Common Implementation Strategy the group on water and climate 
change  and  the  informal  Member  State  expert  groups  on  Maritime  spatial  planning  and 
integrated coastal management could be used. Special focus should be paid to the local level, 
where  adaptation  takes  place.  The  publication  of  data  and  analysis  in  differing  national 
languages  currently  presents  a  barrier  for  good  exchange  of  regional  information  across 
national boundaries. Cooperation between the European Commission Member States could be 
enhanced to ensure that EU level actions in the field of knowledge generation are followed up 
at the local level. 

There have been many research projects funded in the last 10 years, focussing on adaptation 
strategies  in  marine  areas.  Established  working  groups  at  EU  level  could  be  used  to  more 
broadly disseminate research results. In addition a dedicated science-policy interface could be 
established  to  allow  the  different  sea  regions  to  communicate  their  experiences  with  one 
another  and  exchange  best  practice  on  maritime  spatial  planning  and  integrated  coastal 
managementand on adaptation options. 

121  

122  
123  

See draft opinion of the Commission for Natural Resources (NAT) 13th NAT meeting on 5 December 
2012 (NAT-V-024). 
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/space/gmes/. 
ENV.D.2/SER/2012/0037  “Sharing  of  best  practices  on  Integrated  Coastal  Zone  Management,  in  a 
context of adaptation to climate change in coastal areas".   

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4.2. 

Increasing the resilience of the EU territory 

Cooperation  among  Member  States  to  address  these  transboundary  hazards  (prevention  and 
disaster  relief)  is  therefore  essential  for  a  proper  coastal  management  reaction  to  increasing 
climate change impacts. In practice it is not always easy to implement: a holistic coastal and 
marine  risk  management  (encompassing  prevention,  protection,  preparedness,  emergency 
response,  recovery  and  review)  that  includes  joint  monitoring  and  forecasting,  coordinated 
risk  assessments  and  planning  of  measures  requires  the  appropriate  legal  and  institutional 
framework. 

The MSFD and the  Floods Directive  offer  a  framework at Community level to reduce risks 
from  natural  hazards  such  as  geological  or  weather-related.  The  Commission  will  further 
support  this  process  via  the  Common  Implementation  Process  for  the  WFD,  MSFD  and 
Floods Directive.  

The  principles  of  maritime  spatial  planning  and  integrated  coastal  management  should  not 
only be taken up on the national level but would also benefit the sea regions by being fully 
integrated into their sea conventions and strategies. Complementing these strategies, regional 
disaster  risk  management  plans  could  formulate  regional  approaches  to  reducing  risks  from 
natural  hazards  and  improving  the  preparedness  and  response  to  natural  disasters  and 
accidents.  Disaster  risk  management  plans  could  be  coordinated  with  the  management 
requirements  of  the  WFD,  the  Floods  Directive  and  the  MSFD  and  cooperation  working 
groups  could  be  established  to  strengthen  the  link  between  these  directives  and  their 
requirements.  

Climate change adaptation has been addressed in various ways by the EU sea regions already 
as  a  cross-cutting  issue  but  not  all  basins  so  far  have  developed  comprehensive  strategies. 
Such  strategies  should  address  all  economic  sectors  and  would  greatly enhance  the  work  of 
the Member States and better target necessary adaptation measures. These regional adaptation 
strategies for each marine basin should provide a cross-reference to the proposal on maritime 
spatial planning and integrated coastal management that contains a clear and explicit link to 
ensuring  climate  resilient  coastal  and  marine  areas.  Cooperation  among  the  Member  States 
should  be  crucial,  but  also  work  with  business  stakeholders 
local 
administrations and researchers in a transparency manner would increase acceptability of the 
strategy itself.  

together  with 

To support the work at Member State, regional and local level, the Commission will develop a 
set  of  guidance  documents  to  support  the  implementations  of  various  climate  relevant 
policies: 

•  As  already  mentioned  under  point  3.1.3,  the  European  Commission  is  committed  to 
develop  guidelines  on  best  adaptation  practices  in  coastal  and  marine  areas  in  the 
context of the implementation of integrated coastal management strategies. 

•  The Commission could consider further support to Member States, regional and local 
authorities  in  implementing  climate  change  proofed  policies  in  coastal  and  marine 
areas, in particular by highlighting the benefits of green infrastructure (as proposed by 
the “Blueprint to safeguard Europe’s water”124).  

124  

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/blueprint/index_en.htm. 

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4.3. 

Increasing the resilience of key vulnerable sectors:  

Increasing  the  resilience  of  key  vulnerable  sectors  in  coastal  and  marine  zones,  has  two 
aspects: On one hand existing EU sector mechanism can be used, on the other hand the role of 
the private sector in adaptation could be strengthened. In this context the following activities 
are considered: 

•  The proposal for the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (2013-2020) requires that 
Member  States  shall  take  into  account  a  pertinent  approach  towards  innovation  and 
climate change mitigation and adaptation when designing their operational programs. 
The Commission will help Member States with this new task by providing guidance at 
an early stage in order to strengthen the resilience of the fishery sector. 

• 

• 

In the context of proper policy implementation the Commission will also ensure that 
the  MSFD  implementation,  in  particular  GES  (Good  Environmental  Status)  and 
measures are climate proofed, through the revision of the GES Decision 2010/477/EU 
by  2015.  This  will  secure  the  environmental  bases  for  sectors  such  as  fisheries, 
tourism. 
In the context of the blue growth initiative the Commission has outlined a certain set 
of activities where additional effort at EU level could stimulate long-term growth and 
jobs in the blue economy, in line with the objectives of the Europe 2020 strategy. In 
order  to  ensure  that  these  objectives  are  successful,  climate  change  needs  to  be 
factored in.  

•  Traditionally the management and protection of coastal zones fall predominantly into 
public responsibilities. However, even at this early stage of implementing adaptation 
(measures),  potential  private  sector  contributions  including  provision  of  innovative 
adaptation technologies and services have been identified for several coastal areas. As 
such  the  private  sector  offers  a  distinct  opportunity  to  support  climate  change 
adaptation  by  providing  data,  funding,  insurance  and  taking  adaptation  measures.  In 
order to strengthen these efforts the potential role of the private sector” to complement 
coastal  adaptation  measures  (e.g.  see  for  example  the  Project  Waterdunen  in  the 
NL125) could be explored.  

The  on-going  and  already  announced  actions  –  including  in  the  Communication  on  an  EU 
Strategy on adaptation to climate change – set out in Annex I are of particular relevance to 
support the achievement of the objectives of the EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change.  

125  

The  project  combines  tourism  with  nature  conservation  and  coastal  protection  on  a  private  base.  See 
http://www.waterdunen.com/. 

EN 

24 

   EN 

 
                                                 
5. 

ANNEX I: OVERVIEW OF SET OF ACTIONS  

Proposed actions 

Basis 

By when? 

Seek  for  ways  for  private 
companies  to  provide  data 
from licensed activities 

Marine  Knowledge  2020 
Strategy 

Impact 
Assessment 
2013 
will 
on details 

in 
which 
elaborate 

Who  will 
take it? 

European 
Commission 

Private 
sector 

as 

Linking  existing  databases, 
OURCOAST, 
such 
EMODnet,  WISE-Marine, 
CLIMATE-ADAPT  and  the 
GMES marine service 

EU  Strategy  on  Adaptation 
to climate change 

From 
onwards 

2013 

European 
Commission 

DG ENV Service Contract 

EEA 

From  2013  to 
2020  

European 
Commission 

science-policy 

A 
interface 
could  be  established  to  allow 
the  different  sea  regions  to 
communicate 
their 
experiences  with  one  another 
and exchange best practice on 
maritime spatial planning and 
coastal 
integrated 
managementand 
on 
adaptation options 

EU  Strategy  on  Adaptation 
to  climate  change,  Marine 
Framework 
Strategy 
Directive 
(2008/56/EC), 
proposal  for  a  Directive 
establishing  a  framework 
spatial 
for 
planning 
integrated 
coastal management 

maritime 
and 

Revision of the GES Decision 
2010/477/EU  

Decision 2010/477/EU 

2015 

Help  Member  States 
in 
reducing  risks  from  natural 
hazard  due  to  the  Common 
Implementation  Process  for 
the  WFD,  MSFD  and  Floods 
Directive 

Marine 
Framework 
(2008/56/EC), 
Framework 
(2000/60/EC) 

2013-2015 

Strategy 
Directive 
Water 
Directive 

in 

coastal 

Guidelines on best adaptation 
practices 
and 
marine areas to be developed 
within  the  framework  of  the 
ICZM  recommendation  and  
on 
Commission 

proposal 

2014 

White  Paper  on  adaptation 
towards  climate  change, 
proposal  for  a  Directive 
Establishing  a  framework 
for  Maritime  Planning  and 
Management, 
Coastal 

Member 
States  

Sea 
Conventions 

European 
Commission 

European 
Commission 

Member 
States 

Sea 
Conventions 

European 
Commission 

EN 

25 

   EN 

 
 
MSP/CM 
recommendation / MSFD 

/ 

ICZM 

Development  of  Disaster  risk 
management 
in 
coordination  with  the  Floods 
Directive  management  plans 
(FRMP) 

plans, 

 “Sharing of best practices on 
Integrated  Coastal 
Zone 
Management,  in  a  context  of 
adaptation  to  climate  change 
in coastal areas 

ICZM recommendation 

Floods 
2007/60/EC 

Directive 

By  end  2015 
for 
1st 
the 
FRMP cycle, to 
be  reviewed  at 
the  latest  every 
years 
6 
thereafter 

DG ENV Service Contract 

2014 

European 
Commission 

Member 
States  

Sea  
Conventions 

European 
Commission 

Guidance  for  EMFF  2014-
2020 

EU  Strategy  on  adaptation 
to climate change 

2013 

European 
Commission 

EN 

26 

   EN