REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS concerning the European Union Strategy for the Danube Region
Date: 2013-04-08
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: European Region, economic growth, economic region, operational programme, regional economy, regional planning

EUROPEAN 
COMMISSION 

Brussels, 8.4.2013  
COM(2013) 181 final 

REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE 
COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE 
COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

concerning the European Union Strategy for the Danube Region 

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REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE 
COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE 
COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

concerning the European Union Strategy for the Danube Region 

1. 

INTRODUCTION 

The Danube Region covers 14 countries, eight of them EU Member States. It is home to more 
than 100 million people, a fifth of the EU’s population. The countries are different in terms of 
economic strength, but the Region is strongly interlinked, with potential for further integration 
and growth. 

The Region has been transformed by the two last rounds of EU enlargement: Croatia is soon 
to  join.  There  are  a  further  five  countries  developing  their  political,  socio-economic  and 
sectoral links with the EU in various ways. The Region has a strategic position, opening the 
EU to its neighbours, the Black Sea region, the South Caucasus and Central Asia. It hosts the 
world’s  most  international  river,  which  is  a  major  transport  axis,  a  vital  inter-connected 
hydrological basin and a world-renowned ecological corridor. 

The  Region  is  thus  connected  through  opportunities  and  challenges.  The  policies  of  the 
countries  are  interdependent.  They  could  however  benefit  greatly  from  further  improved 
cooperation,  for  example,  in  completing  missing  transport  links,  reducing  pollution  and 
danger from floods, lowering dependency on energy providers from outside the Region, and 
addressing demographic change or brain drain. The competitiveness of the Region could also 
profit substantially from joint action in the fields of SME, labour market policies, education 
and security. There is a need to improve institutional capacity at all levels. 

The European Council requested the Commission to prepare an EU Strategy for the Danube 
Region  (EUSDR),  in  the  Presidency  Conclusions  of  18  June  2009.  The  Commission 
responded to the Council request in its Communication of 8 December 2010. In April 2011, 
the  Council  endorsed  the  Communication  with  its  annexed  Action  Plan,  which  identifies 
concrete  actions  and  examples  of  projects  in  11  thematic  Priority  Areas.  It  follows  the 
approach pioneered by the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region. 

The  Strategy  provides  a  robust  integrated  framework  for  countries  and  regions  to  address 
issues  which  cannot  be  handled  satisfactorily  in  an  isolated  way,  but  instead  require 
transnational strategic approaches, projects and networking. It allows for better cooperation to 
improve  the  effectiveness,  leverage  and  impact  of  policies,  at  EU,  national  and  local  level, 
utilising existing policies and programmes and creating synergies between them.  

The Strategy operates at an intermediate level between national and EU-wide work on topics 
such  as  research  and  innovation,  migration  or  security.  It  strengthens  the  integration  of 
countries with the EU, and brings countries in the Western Balkans, Moldova and regions of 
the Ukraine closer to the Union. 

After 18 months of implementation, significant achievements are evident. The Strategy: 

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promotes concrete transnational projects with impacts on the Region and gives new 
impulse to action in the Region; 

supports the coordination of different national and EU policies and funds, and paves 
the way for more coherence and better results, with more impact for 2014-2020; 

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develops a wide-ranging cooperation platform, addressing challenges that have been 
identified as needing joint attention. There are 24 Priority Area Coordinators and 14 
National Contact Points driving implementation forward; 

highlights  the  political  importance  of  the  Region,  through  strategic  support  at 
ministerial level and concrete advances in terms of implementation; 

The  following  chapters  report  on  these  achievements,  giving  concrete  examples,  while 
identifying areas that need more attention. Chapter 5 summarises lessons learnt and Chapter 6 
suggests recommendations for the future. 

2. 

PROJECTS, POLICIES AND NETWORKS FOR THE DANUBE REGION 

The  Strategy  focuses  particularly  on  concrete  and  strategic  projects  and  initiatives  with  a 
macro-regional impact. The Strategy and its Action Plan are organised around four pillars to 
address the major issues. It facilitates new projects, gives new momentum to existing projects 
and supports networks for the Region1. 

2.1. 

Connecting the Danube Region 

New projects 

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New  research  projects  on  innovative  vessels,  such  as  the  project  NEWS,  are 
developing technological solutions to renew the Danube fleet, with more competitive 
and  environmentally  friendlier  approaches,  e.g.  through  more  efficient,  cleaner 
engines, and better ship body design. This contributes to the overall goal to increase 
sustainable cargo transport on the river by 20 % by 2020, compared to 2010; 

Shipwrecks  are  being  removed  from  the  Danube,  Sava  and  Tisa,  improving 
navigation  and  ecological  conditions.  The  project  to  remove  wrecks  totalling  some 
15 000 tons, initiated by the Serbian Chamber of Commerce as part of the Strategy, 
also involves the private sector; 

Work  on  the  Bulgaria-Serbia  gas  interconnector  project  has  advanced,  linking  the 
Baltic Sea area to the Adriatic and Aegean Seas and further to the Black Sea. The gas 
pipeline will be 150 km long. It contributes to gas supply diversification, ensures gas 
supply security and completes the important regional gas supply ‘ring’. 

New momentum to existing projects 

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The cooperative approach has facilitated the completion of the Calafat-Vidin Bridge, 
linking Romania and Bulgaria. The bridge is co-financed by European Funds and is 
only  the  second  bridge  along  the  630  km  river  section  of  the  border,  providing  an 
important missing link in the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T). 

New policy coordination initiatives 

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At the invitation of the Commission, the ministers of transport of the Danube Region 
on  7  June  2012  adopted  a  Declaration  on  maintenance  of  the  Danube  waterway, 
committing  themselves  to  concrete  measures,  including  surveillance  of  water  depth 
and  signalling  navigation  routes  in  shallow  sections.  This  has  in  turn  led  to  an 
agreement between Romania and Bulgaria to plan work together jointly and to share 
equipment;  

A  full  report  by  each  Priority  Area  can  be  downloaded  on  the  website  of  the  EU  Strategy  for  the 
Danube Region (www.danube-region.eu/pages/reports) 

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A  Danube  Region  Gas  Market  Model  has  been  developed  to  quantify  the  regional 
impact  of  the  gas  infrastructure  projects  planned  in  the  Region,  resulting  in  the 
Danube countries now agreeing on a set of policy recommendations for future such 
projects. 

2.2. 

Protecting the environment in the Danube Region 

New projects 

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The  Commission  Directorate  General  for  Research  and  Innovation  has  launched  a 
call for research projects, to design environmental research and improve the uptake 
of  results  in  the  Region.  This  has  mobilised  significant  actors  and  resources  from 
public  (national  and  EU)  and  private  sources  for  efficient  river-delta-coast-sea 
management overall; 

The  Danube  Sturgeon  Task  Force  has  been  created  to  secure  viable  populations  of 
this  important  fish  in  the  river,  facilitating  projects,  measures  and  initiatives  for 
bringing sturgeon back. It promotes a cross-cutting approach, linking biodiversity to 
policy areas such as water quality, permeability of habitats, economic development, 
environmental education, and even prevention of crime (related to the illegal caviar 
trade). 

New momentum to existing projects 

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The  DANUBE  FLOODRISK  project  explores  methods  and  databases  on  which 
countries can work together jointly. In all, 19 institutions in 8 Danube countries are 
participating, and accelerating progress towards shared databases and flood mapping. 
The European Flood Awareness System (EFAS) is also carrying out complementary 
work. 

2.3. 

Building prosperity in the Danube Region 

New projects 

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The  Commission  Directorate  General  for  Communication  Networks,  Content  and 
Technology  has  launched  a  new  e-infrastructure  project  under  the  7th  Framework 
Programme  to  improve  access  to  and  provision  of  advanced  computing  services  to 
researchers.  The  new  e-infrastructure  will  act  as  a  bridge  to  the  supercomputer 
facilities of the European PRACE initiative for countries in the Danube region, and 
indeed also for some Caucasus countries. The SEERA-EI project capitalises on this, 
placing it and other work on a Danube regional agenda; 

The  Danube  Region  Business  Forum,  coordinated  by  the  Austrian  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  provides  an  important  networking  platform  for  over  300  SMEs.  It 
encourages  business-to-business  meetings,  and  supports  links  with  knowledge 
providers such as research institutes and universities.  

Technology  transfer  centres  are  being  established  in  the  Danube  Region,  with  five 
pilot  projects  attached  to  important  Danube  Region  universities,  to  improve  links 
between academia and the private sector; 

In  another  pilot  project,  Danube  schools  and  students  are  jointly  developing 
innovative  training  courses  and  creative  educational  programmes  to  promote 
transnational contacts between cultures, with an emphasis on active citizenship and 
commitment  to  sustainable  development.  An  innovative  guide  for  teachers  is  being 
developed to apply throughout the whole Danube Region. 

New policy coordination initiatives 

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Work has started to create a Danube Research and Innovation Fund, pooling national 
and  regional  funds,  building  on  the  experiences  of  the  BONUS  programme  in  the 
Baltic Sea Region. A joint Declaration of Danube Region Ministers for Research was 
signed in Ulm on 9 July 2012, paving the way for preparatory work. The Directorate 
General  for  Research  and  Innovation  and  the  Directorate  General  for  Regional  and 
Urban  Policy  supports  this  work,  notably  through  a  Danube  INCO.net  and  other 
assistance. 

2.4. 

Strengthening the Danube Region 

New projects 

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The Joint Research Centre has launched an initiative to provide scientific support to 
the Strategy, in cooperation with key scientific partners from the Region. Work has 
started  on  setting  up  a  Danube-wide  reference  data  and  service  infrastructure  on 
common  challenges  such  as  environment  protection,  navigability,  irrigation  and 
agricultural development and energy production. Four thematic scientific clusters are 
being launched to foster scientific cooperation and to streamline research activities. 
A special focus on Smart Specialisation Strategies supports countries and regions in 
setting up regional innovation strategies; 

With the aim to improve the access to finance in the Region, the Danube Financing 
Dialogue matches project ideas to funds, bringing project promoters, such as SMEs, 
together with banks, international financing institutions and funding programmes. 

New policy coordination initiatives 

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3. 

A  police  chief  meeting  in  January  2012  launched  an  initiative  to  intensify 
cooperation  among  police  authorities  in  the  Danube  Region,  improving  measures 
against  river-related  crimes  (including  organised  crime),  and  setting  up  a 
transnational  law  enforcement  platform.  In  addition,  EUROPOL  has  developed  a 
specific project on threat analysis for the Danube Region. 

MAKING  THE  MOST  OF  WHAT  IS  THERE:  ALIGNING  FUNDING  SOURCES  AND 
CREATING SYNERGIES 

The  work  has  been  achieved  through  improving  the  way  in  which  resources  and  knowhow, 
often already available to the Region, are utilised through better coordination. Building on this 
approach, the Strategy aims to achieve better results and greater impact by aligning existing 
funds and policies at EU, national and regional level. Examples include: 

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infrastructure projects, such as the wastewater treatment plant in Budapest, ensuring 
better  water  quality  throughout  the  Region,  financed  from  European  Structural  and 
Investment Funds; 

cross-border  programmes,  such  as  Romania-Serbia,  and  Hungary-Serbia,  are 
increasingly aligned with the Strategy, using specific calls or attributing extra points 
in selection procedures. Serbia alone earmarked EUR 19 million for Strategy-specific 
projects in the 2011 IPA cross-border cooperation component; 

transnational  cooperation  programmes,  such  as  South  East  Europe  and  Central 
Europe, have financed new Danube Strategy projects; 

the  7th  Framework  Programme  for  Research  has  launched  three  calls  specifically 
addressing  Danube  Region  challenges,  on  an  innovative  fleet,  on  environmental 
solutions, and on the coordination of science and technology policies; 

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projects  co-financed  by  the  Directorate  General  for  Enterprise  and  Industry  have 
supported transnational sustainable tourism in the Danube Region; 

the entire length of the River Danube is now taken into account in the draft revised 
guidelines for the Trans-European Transport Network; 

in  the  context  of  the  Western  Balkans  Investment  Framework  funded  under  the 
Instrument  for  Pre-Accession,  priority  is  given  to  projects  that  comply  with  the 
Strategy; 

the  European  Parliament  supports  pilot  projects  and  preparatory  actions  for  the 
Danube Region, providing Priority Area Coordinators with technical assistance, and 
encouraging innovative approaches for implementing the Strategy; 

regions, such as Baden Württemberg, have themselves set aside funds to support the 
Strategy,  including  for  the  initial  phase  of  projects  with  an  explicit  macro-regional 
impact; 

the  European  Investment  Bank  has,  together  with  Hungary,  set  up  the  Budapest 
Danube  Contact  Point  to  facilitate  the  development  of  transnational  investment 
projects; 

similar  work  is  on-going  towards  an  overall  Danube  Region  Technical  Assistance 
Facility, facilitating the project preparation phase.  

With  regard  to  the  important  upcoming  programming  period  2014-2020,  it  is  crucial  that 
programmes and policies can be further utilised to implement the Strategy: 

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macro-regional strategies are being highlighted in the Common Strategic Framework 
covering the coordination of the European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF). 
This  provides  the  programming  process  with  strategic  direction,  and  facilitates 
sectorial  and  territorial  linkage  for  funds  under  shared  management,  namely  the 
Cohesion  Fund,  the  European  Regional  Development  Fund,  the  European  Social 
Fund,  the  European  Agricultural  Fund  for  Rural  Development  and  the  European 
Maritime and Fisheries Fund; 

the  macro-regional  approach  is  being  featured  in  Partnership  Agreements,  for  the 
individual countries, to ensure that national/regional and cooperation programmes all 
take  the  approach  into  account.  This  provides  funding  for  the  Strategy  in  future 
through ESIF, and thus ensures sustainability for the coming years; 

a  re-defined  and  specific  transnational  cooperation  programme  is  created  for  the 
Danube Region, to finance networking projects, and to provide institutional support 
for implementation and governance. 

4. 

A COOPERATION PLATFORM 

For the first time in the Region, therefore, following conflicts and divisions, and building on 
enlargement,  the  Strategy  puts  in  place  an  operational  cooperation  structure  to  address 
challenges the Danube Region shares in a cooperative way. As well as consisting of projects 
and  programming,  this  is  also  an  important  new  platform,  involving  a  wide  range  of 
stakeholders,  including  countries  of  the  Danube  Region  politically  committed  at  the  overall 
level. 

Without  creating  new  institutions,  this  platform  allows  key  stakeholders  of  national  and 
regional administrations to drive the day-to-day implementation forward: 

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the Strategy is organised in 11 functional Priority Areas bringing together expertise 
and responsibility: (1) Inland waterways and rail, road and air transport; (2) Energy; 
(3) Culture and tourism; (4) Water quality; (5) Environmental risks; (6) Biodiversity; 
(7)  Knowledge  society  and  information  technologies;  (8)  Competitiveness  and 
cluster development; (9) Investments in people and skills; (10) Institutional capacity; 
(11) Security.  

These are run by Priority Area Coordinators (PACs), high-level officials of national 
and regional administrations, experts in their thematic areas. They are supported by 
counterparts from the Danube Region, and are organised in 11 Steering Groups, one 
per Priority Area. These are important new cooperation platforms in their own right; 

at national and regional level, implementation is ensured by National Contact Points 
(NCP), embedding the Strategy in national and regional settings and making policy-
makers  ‘think  macro-regional’.  Political  commitment  is  obtained  through  meetings 
of Ministers of Foreign Affairs as well as sector ministers, and through initiatives by 
cities and regions; 

the European level facilitates implementation, as well as embedding the Strategy in 
EU policies, through contact with stakeholders in the Danube countries, establishing 
links to EU decision makers, for example, through regular fora for members of the 
European  Parliament,  by  having  Commission  officials  regularly  taking  part  in 
Danube-wide meetings, and through institutional support provided by the EU budget; 

the  EU  programme  INTERACT  provides  capacity-building  and  organisational 
support,  as  well  as  communication  tools  (e.g.  visual  identity,  website,  newsletter) 
publicising results of the Strategy in the media and to the general public; 

building  on  what  has  already  been  established,  the  Strategy  also  gives  prominence 
and  operational  support  to  existing  institutions  in  the  Region,  such  as  the 
International  Commission  for  the  Protection  of  the  Danube  River  (ICPDR), 
addressing  environmental  and  water  quality  issues,  and  the  Danube  Commission, 
working on navigability. Civil society actors are included in the work, including in 
stakeholder  seminars,  Steering  Groups  and  the  Annual  Forum,  and  particularly  in 
Priority Area 10, ‘Institutional Capacity’. 

5. 

LESSONS LEARNED 

After the initial period of implementation, the following key lessons learned can be identified: 

Implementation structure 

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National Contact Points, Priority Area Coordinators and their Steering Groups form 
the  implementation  core  of  the  Strategy.  Their  work  needs  further  embedding  in 
political and administrative structures. Their visible, central role requires institutional 
stability, political recognition and allocation of sufficient human resources. Adequate 
staff and support from ministries to enable them to fulfil their role is crucial; 

Experience shows that national coordination works better in countries that have set 
up inter-ministerial working groups for coordinating Danube work at national level, 
particularly where platforms have been set up at political or senior civil servant level, 
and  where  a  technical  secretariat  supports  their  work.  This  is  good  practice,  which 
should be encouraged throughout the Region; 

The EU budget can provide limited direct funding for the implementation structure 
until 2014. However, as funding is not guaranteed after that, other means of support 

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need  to  be  found,  such  as  national  sources,  the  future  Danube  transnational 
cooperation programme and the future INTERACT programme. 

Political support 

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High-level  political  support  launched  the  Strategy  and  remains  crucial  for  its 
implementation. Ministerial meetings (on transport, research and innovation, energy) 
have  significantly  advanced  maintenance  of  the  River  Danube,  coordination  of 
national  and  regional  research  and  innovation  policies  and  support  for  non-EU 
Member States implementing the 3rd Energy Package under the Energy Community; 

Meetings  of  Foreign  Ministers  have  emphasised  overall  political  support  for  the 
Strategy. The active role of Hungary during its Presidency accelerated the work. This 
is particularly useful when the political level is linked to the cycle of Strategy events. 

Financing concrete actions 

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Making  best  use  of  existing  policies  and  programmes,  such  as  European  Structural 
and  Investment  Funds  (ESIF),  the  Instrument  for  Pre-Accession,  the  TEN-T 
programme,  the  Framework  Programme  for  Research  and  Development  or  private 
funds  is  crucial.  With  regard  to  2014-2020,  it  is  essential  to  integrate  the  Strategy 
systematically  in  programmes.  There  needs  to  be  a  joint  effort  from  Danube 
countries, regions and the European Commission; 

Important  initiatives  have  been  launched  to  support  projects  in  their  preparation 
phase  and  to  improve  access  to  finance,  such  as  the  Danube  Region  Technical 
Assistance  Facility,  funds  from  the  State  of  Baden-Württemberg,  the  Budapest 
Danube Contact Point or the Danube Finance Dialogue. Links between the initiatives 
should be enhanced.  

Strengthening existing initiatives 

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Synergies  with  existing  bodies  and  initiatives,  such  as  the  ICPDR,  the  Energy 
Community  or  the  International  Organisation  for  Migration  have  been  established, 
and  need  to  be  strengthened.  Involving  existing  institutions,  bodies  and  networks 
builds  on  positive  experiences  elsewhere,  notably  in  the  Baltic  Sea  Region.  This  is 
increasingly  being  facilitated  by  the  High  Level  Group,  set  up  for  macro-regional 
initiative  guidance,  advising  on  this  work,  which  reinforces  available  expertise, 
avoids parallel structures and makes best use of available resources. 

Result orientation and targets 

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Targets,  milestones  and 
timely 
implementation  and  facilitate  communication  of  the  Strategy’s  potential.  They 
should be continuously reviewed and monitored. 

roadmaps  prioritise  work,  contribute 

to 

Integrating policies and funds 

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There  is  specific  value  in  integrative  approaches,  for  example  in  combining 
navigation  and  environmental  interests  in  the  development  of  the  river,  such  as  on 
the stretch east of Vienna. The Commission facilitates cross-sectoral cooperation, for 
example  in  the  scientific  field  through  the  activities  of  the  Joint  Research  Centre, 
involving  the  relevant  services  and  multiple  funding  sources.  In  general,  more  use 
should  be  made  of  EU-level  frameworks,  emphasising  that  the  Danube  Region 
comprises much more than just the river. 

Integration of non EU countries 

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• 

The Strategy involves six non-EU countries at an equal level, supporting integration 
processes and increasing cooperation in the Region. Innovative solutions to facilitate 
the participation of these countries and to finance project implementation need to be 
found  and  strengthened.  This  already  includes  full  participation  in  Priority  Area 
coordination  and  in  Steering  Groups,  where  support  in  relation  to  participation  is 
receiving  special  attention.  Funds  have  been  identified  from  EU  allocations  for 
Danube Strategy activities by at least one non-EU countries and this is good practice 
for others to follow.  

Communication 

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The common visual identity, the comprehensive website covering all Priority Areas, 
the  newsletter,  and  promotional  material  developed  with  the  strong  support  of  the 
programme INTERACT, have increased visibility and facilitated communication. It 
would be useful to centralise information about Danube meetings and conferences to 
allow more concerted communication of these.  

The first Annual Forum, held in Regensburg in November 2012, confirmed political 
support  for  the  Strategy  and  provided  an  opportunity  to  showcase  and  discuss  its 
implementation. There is added value in holding such a conference on a regular basis 
and  as  the  main  event  for  the  Strategy,  combined  with  a  meeting  of  ministers  for 
Foreign Affairs. 

6. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The EU Strategy for the Danube Region has demonstrated clear potential in its first phase of 
implementation.  It  has  put  the  spotlight  on  a  Region  with  considerable  potential  for 
development  and  further  integration,  addressing  joint  challenges  such  as  sustainable  use  of 
resources  or  climate  change  in  a  cooperative  way.  To  ensure  continued  work  on  the  main 
issues  facing  the  Region,  and  based  on  the  experience  reported  here,  as  well  as  in  the 
discussions  at  the  first  Annual  Forum,  the  Commission  recommends  that  participating 
countries and regions: 

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strengthen  their  internal  implementation  structures,  providing  adequate  financial 
support, political backing, and increased institutional stability;  

ensure  continuity  and  adequate  mandates  for  representatives  sent  to  the  Steering 
Groups,  utilising  the  European  Structural  and  Investment  Funds  programmes  of 
2014-2020 to support implementation structures; 

establish  sustainable  leadership  and  strategic  planning  for  the  Strategy,  assisted  by 
the  European  Commission,  so  that  participating  countries  and  regions  fully  assume 
their responsibilities. The implementation of the Strategy should be made more self-
sustaining with its structures ensuring continuity even if persons involved change; 

the 

including 
continuously  monitor 
commitment at political level and in terms of concrete achievements, with a view to 
concentrating  on  specific  challenges,  and  ensuring  focus  as  well  as  providing  the 
basis for prioritisation and a leaner, more results-oriented structure; 

implementation  of  all  Priority  Areas, 

ensure there is more focus on results through paying further attention to appropriate 
targets and indicators, milestones and roadmaps; 

ensure  systematic  embedding  of  the  Strategy  in  EU,  national  and  regional 
the  period  2014-2020,  especially  European  Structural  and 
programmes  for 

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Investment Funds, Horizon 2020, COSME and the Connecting Europe Facility, using 
the  expertise  of  Danube  networks  and  key  stakeholders  in  programming  and 
implementation;  

strengthen  the  Strategy’s  contribution  to  Europe  2020  through  concrete  Danube 
Region actions linked to smart, sustainable and inclusive growth; 

reinforce the coherence of Danube actions with EU policies by ensuring that Strategy 
work  is  discussed  by  existing  institutions,  in  relevant  sectoral  Councils,  and  where 
necessary in specific ministerial meetings; 

increase communication activities to reach a broader audience; 

establish  the  Annual  Conference  as  the  main  event  of  the  year,  giving  strategic 
direction, creating linkages and common approaches, and publicising achievements; 

strengthen,  together  with  the  European  Commission,  coordination  and  coherence 
with existing and possible future EU initiatives of this or similar macro-regional and 
sea-basin type.  

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