Special Report No 17/2012 ‘The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa’
Date: 2013-01-17
Institutions: European Court of Auditors
Subjects: EU programme, European Development Fund, cooperation policy, international road transport, project evaluation, road network, sub-Saharan Africa, transport network

EUROPEAN
COURT OF AUDITORS

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THE EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT FUND (EDF) 
CONTRIBUTION TO A SUSTAINABLE  
ROAD NETWORK IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

EN

 
 
 
 
Special Report No 17 

 2012

THE EUROPEAN DEVELOPMENT 
FUND (EDF) CONTRIBUTION TO 
A SUSTAINABLE ROAD NETWORK IN 
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

(pursuant to Article 287(4), second subparagraph, TFEU)

EUROPEAN COURT OF AUDITORS

EUROPEAN COURT OF AUDITORS
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E-mail: eca-info@eca.europa.eu
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Special Report No 17 

 2012

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ISBN 978-92-9237-965-0
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Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

Printed in Luxembourg

3

CONTENTS

Paragraph

I–VIII 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1–6 

1–3 

INTRODUCTION

 THE DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF A ROAD NETWORK THAT MEETS ITS NEEDS IS A MAJOR 
CHALLENGE FOR SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

4–6 

THE EDF PROVIDES SIGNIFICANT FINANCIAL SUPPORT TO THE SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN ROAD SECTOR

7–9 

AUDIT SCOPE AND APPROACH

10–44 

OBSERVATIONS

10–22 

 ALTHOUGH PROGRESS HAS BEEN MADE, THE SUB-SAHARAN ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE IS NOT YET 
SUSTAINABLE

11–15 

 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN ROADS DETERIORATE FASTER THAN EXPECTED

16–22 

 PARTNER COUNTRIES COULD DO MORE TO IMPROVE THE SUSTAINABILITY OF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE

23–44 

 THERE IS ROOM FOR THE COMMISSION TO BETTER PROMOTE THE SUSTAINABILITY OF ROAD 
INFRASTRUCTURE

25–33 

CONDITIONALITY USED BY THE COMMISSION HAS A MODERATE EFFECT

34–39 

THE COMMISSION DOES NOT USE POLICY DIALOGUE TO ITS FULL POTENTIAL

40–44 

 TECHNICAL COOPERATION HAS HAD USEFUL BUT LIMITED RESULTS

45–48 

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

45–47 

 CONCLUSIONS

48 

 RECOMMENDATIONS

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ANNEX I  — 

 EDF COMMITMENTS IN THE ROAD SECTOR IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1995–2011

ANNEX II  —  COUNTRIES VISITED BY THE COURT

ANNEX III  — 

 OVERVIEW OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTION FINDINGS

ANNEX IV  — 

 FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN BENIN

ANNEX V  — 

  FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN BURKINA FASO

ANNEX VI  — 

  FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN CAMEROON

ANNEX VII  — 

 FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN CHAD

ANNEX VIII  — 

  FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN TANZANIA

ANNEX IX  — 

  FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN ZAMBIA

REPLY OF THE COMMISSION

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

I.
Roads are essential for regional integration, economic 
growth, social development, effective public adminis-
tration and security. In sub-Saharan Africa, roads are 
the dominant mode of passenger and freight trans-
port, accounting for more than 80 % of total move-
ments of goods and services and transport needs are 
growing rapidly.

II.
The Commission is one of the leading donors in the 
road sector in sub-Saharan Africa. Road transport is 
a focal sector for the EDF cooperation strategy with 
most sub-Saharan African countries. Financially, it is by 
far the most important sector, with about 7 400 mil -
lion euro in EDF commitments made in this region 
over the period from 1995 to 2011.

III.
The Court examined whether the EDF has contributed 
to sustainability of the road network in sub-Saharan 
Africa effectively; whether the road infrastructure sup-
ported by the EDF is sustainable; and whether the 
Commission effectively promotes the sustainability of 
road infrastructure. The audit focused on the techni-
cal, financial and institutional sustainability of road 
transport infrastructure and looked at 48 programmes 
financed since 1995 under the 8th, 9th and 10th EDFs 
in six partner countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cam eroon, 
Chad, Tanzania and Zambia. During their visits, the 
auditors  inspected  about  2 400  km  of  EDF-funded 
roads.

IV.
The Court concludes that the Commission is partially 
effective in its support for a sustainable road network 
in sub-Saharan Africa.

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6

VIII.
The Court recommends that in a number of respects 
the Commission should better focus EDF resources 
and  make  better  use  of  conditions  attached  to  its 
programmes, policy dialogue with the partner coun-
tries’ governments and technical cooperation, so as to 
maximise the effectiveness of the development sup-
port provided by the EDF towards a sustainable road 
network in sub-Saharan Africa.

V.
Par tner  countries  visited  by  the  Cour t  do  not  do 
enough  to  ensure  the  sustainability  of  road  infra-
structure. In all partner countries visited by the Court, 
roads are affected to varying degrees by premature 
deterioration. Most of these countries have adopted 
institutional reforms, notably entailing the creation of 
road funds and road agencies, and made significant 
progress on road maintenance. However, many chal-
lenges remain to be addressed in all of them to ensure 
appropriate maintenance. Although spending on road 
maintenance has increased over time in all the partner 
countries visited by the Court, it remains insufficient to 
cover the needs. One main reason is the priority given 
in national budgets to the rehabilitation and upgrad-
ing of the road network rather than to maintenance.

VI.
Most  of  the  partner  countries  visited  by  the  Court 
have failed to demonstrate sufficient commitment to 
implementing effective measures aimed at reducing 
the incidence of vehicle overloading, which has an 
import ant impact on road life expectancy and mainte-
nance costs. Regional and national legislation on axle 
loads is not enforced effectively and too little attention 
is given to the root causes of vehicle overloading, such 
as illicit arrangements to share the market between 
road transport service providers, informal road con-
trols and the lack of competitiveness of other transport 
modes, notably railways.

VII.
The  Commission  is  par tially  effective  in  promot-
ing the adoption and implementation of the sector 
policy reforms that are required to address the exist-
ing obstacles to a sustainable road network in sub-
Saharan Africa. The Commission’s use of the conditions 
attached to its financial support has a moderate incen -
tive effect. This also has an impact on policy dialogue, 
which the Commission does not use in to its full poten-
tial, although this dialogue has been instrumental in 
promoting progress in some areas, notably where the 
institutional framework and road maintenance fund-
ing are concerned. Technical cooperation funded by 
the Commission has been less successful than could 
be expected.

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INTRODUCTION

7

1. 

2. 

3. 

THE DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF A ROAD 
NETWORK THAT MEETS ITS NEEDS IS A MAJOR 
CHALLENGE FOR SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Roads and other transport infrastructure are essential for regional inte-
gration, economic growth, social development, effective public adminis-
tration and security. In sub-Saharan Africa, roads are the dominant mode 
of passenger and freight transport, accounting for more than 80 % of 
total movements of goods and services, and transport needs are grow-
ing rapidly in parallel with the increase in population, urbanisation and 
trade1.

Sub-Saharan Africa has a much lower density of paved roads than other 
regions2, and the economies of many countries, notably those that are 
landlocked, depend heavily on a relatively small number of international 
corridors where most of the traffic is concentrated. However, though 
physically sparse, the road network is relatively extensive when com-
pared to population size and national income levels3. The budgetary 
burden of maintenance is therefore high, and furthermore it has risen 
significantly over the last few years, mainly as a result of the upward 
trend in oil prices and insufficient competition among works contractors.

Most sub-Saharan African paved roads are designed for a life expectancy 
of 15 years, on condition that routine maintenance, which includes the 
yearly clearing of water drainage channels, the cutting of vegetation 
and pothole repairs, is carried out. After this period, roads need to be 
rehabilitated4. The life expectancy of a road can be extended from 15 to 
20 years, or even longer, if periodic maintenance, i.e. resurfacing 5, is 
carried out every 8 to 10 years. The design of roads takes account of the 
expected volume of traffic and a maximum axle load of 13 tonnes. Roads 
deteriorate much faster when actual axle loads are higher, as the degree 
of deterioration increases exponentially with the degree of overloading.

1  European Commission, 
Directorate-General 
for Development and 
Cooperation — EuropeAid, 
European Development 
Cooperation in Infrastructure: 
a review of the past twelve 
years, 2008, p. 6.

2  Sub-Saharan Africa has 
204 kilometres of road per 
thousand square kilometres 
of land area compared to 
a world average of 944 
kilometers per thousand 
square kilometres. Source: 
‘The burden of maintenance: 
roads in sub-Saharan Africa’, 
Africa Infrastructure Country 
Diagnostic, June 2008, The 
World Bank, Washington.

3  Sub-Saharan Africa has 
a total road network of 
6,55 kilometers per million 
US dollars of gross domestic 
product compared to a world 
average of 3,47 kilometres 
per million US dollars of gross 
domestic product. Source: 
'The burden of maintenance: 
roads in sub-Saharan Africa', 
Africa Infrastructure Country 
Diagnostic, June 2008.

4  Works aimed at 
the restoration of the 
infrastructure when it has 
deteriorated beyond the 
condition at which overlaying 
(i.e. maintenance) is no longer 
a satisfactory engineering 
alternative. This implies also 
reconstruction of the road 
body (base and sub-base).

5  Covering an existing road 
with a new wearing course 
or removing the top layer of 
the road and applying a new 
wearing course.

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6  Following the entry into 
force of the Treaty of Lisbon 
on 1 December 2009, the 
European External Action 
Service (EEAS) was launched 
on 1 December 2010. The 
EEAS prepares, jointly with 
relevant Commission services, 
the Commission decisions for 
country allocations, country 
and regional strategy papers 
and national and regional 
indicative programmes as 
part of the programming 
cycle for most external action 
instruments.

7  COM(2000) 422 
final of 6 July 2000 — 
Communication from 
the Commission to the 
Council and the European 
Parliament promoting 
sustainable transport in 
development cooperation. 
The Council welcomed 
this communication on 
31 May 2001, Note 9985/01.

8  Between 1995 and 2011, 
commitments for 
projects amounted to 
6 676 million euro, i.e. about 
90 % of total commitments.

9  Works aimed at providing 
additional capacity to the 
road both in terms of traffic 
and safety. Typical examples 
are paving of gravel roads 
or strengthening of existing 
pavement.

10  Between 1995 and 2011, 
commitments for 
road sector budget 
programmes amounted to 
715 million euro, i.e. about 
10 % of total commitments.

11  A financing agreement 
for providing sector budget 
support in Rwanda is under 
preparation.

4. 

5. 

6. 

THE EDF PROVIDES SIGNIFICANT FINANCIAL 
SUPPORT TO THE SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN ROAD 
SECTOR

The European Development Fund (EDF) is the main instrument for pro-
viding European Union aid for development cooperation in the African, 
Caribbean and Pacific states and overseas countries and territories. The 
EDF is managed by the Commission, which is one of the leading do-
nors in the road sector in sub-Saharan Africa6. Road transport is a focal 
sector for the EDF cooperation strategy with most sub-Saharan African 
countries. It is the main EDF cooperation sector, with about 7  400  mil-
lion euro in EDF commitments made in this region over the period from 
1995 to 2011 (see  Annex I).

The Commission’s communication of July 2000 sets the principles that, in 
the Commission’s view, should guide cooperation with non-EU countries 
in the transport sector7. It outlines a comprehensive sectoral approach 
for all transport modes and provides a strategy for the delivery of sus -
tainable transport. It stresses that creating sustainable transport in the 
developing countries depends on a commitment to reform the govern -
ance of the sector and affordable transport strategies. This means in 
particular that transport must receive a proper share of national budgets, 
which should give priority to maintenance.

EDF intervention in the road transport sector in sub-Saharan Africa is 
implemented mainly through projects 8, mostly to fund the construc-
tion, upgrading9 and/or rehabilitation of main roads. The Commission 
also provides road sector budget support 10 in countries where it con-
siders well-defined sectoral policies to be in place. Under the 9th EDF, 
such programmes were implemented in Ethiopia and Zambia. Under 
the 10th EDF, financing agreements have been signed so far with  Benin, 
Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia 11. Finally, EDF sup-
port  can  be  combined  with  commercial  loans,  for  instance  from  the 
Euro pean Investment Bank; in such cases part of the EDF contribution is 
provided through the EU–Africa Partnership on Infrastructure and takes 
the form of grants, technical assistance or interest rate subsidies. This 
funding mechanism was used in Cameroon and Zambia.

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AUDIT SCOPE AND APPROACH

9

7. 

8. 

9. 

The Court sought to assess whether the EDF has contributed effectively 
to the sustainability of the road network in sub-Saharan Africa and fo-
cused on two questions:

(a) 

Is the road infrastructure supported by the EDF sustainable?

(b)  Does the Commission promote the sustainability of road infrastruc-

ture effectively?

The audit addressed the technical, financial and institutional sustainabil-
ity of road transport infrastructure in sub-Saharan countries. It looked at 
programmes financed since 1995 under the 8th, 9th and 10th EDFs. 

The audit was carried out between April 2011 and January 2012. It in-
volved documentary reviews, interviews with staff at Commission head-
quarters and visits to six countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, 
Tanzania and Zambia (see Annex II). These countries were selected on 
the basis of four criteria: materiality of EDF expenditure, geographical 
coverage of at least three regions in Africa, countries involving differ-
ent types of programmes and neighbouring countries to cover regional 
aspects. EDF commitments in the road sector in the visited countries 
since 1995 amount to 1 959  million euro, i.e. 26,5 % of EDF commitments 
in this sector in sub-Saharan Africa for this period. During their visits, 
the auditors interviewed EU delegation staff, representatives of national 
authorities (such as ministries of infrastructure, road funds, road agen-
cies, statistical offices and supreme audit institutions) and other donors. 
They examined 48 programmes and visually inspected about 2 400 km 
of EDF-funded roads to assess the road condition and identify possible 
road deteriorations and their main causes.

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OBSERVATIONS

10

10. 

11. 

ALTHOUGH PROGRESS HAS BEEN MADE, THE SUB-
SAHARAN ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE IS NOT YET 
SUSTAINABLE

The Court examined whether sub-Saharan African roads are free of pre-
mature deterioration and whether the partner countries appropriately 
maintain their road infrastructure and implement effective measures 
against vehicle overloading.

12  A sunken groove in the 
road surface made by the 
passage of vehicles.

13  Road surface breaking up 
in patches.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN ROADS DETERIORATE FASTER THAN 
EXPECTED

More  than  two  thirds  of  the  roads  inspected  by  the  Court  in  the  six 
countries visited are in fair to very good condition and can still be used 
as intended (see fourth column in Annex III), but a high proportion is 
affected to varying degrees by premature deterioration (see fifth column 
in Annex III). In some cases, damage was limited to specific sections; 
in  other  cases  it  was  more  widespread. The  main  causes  are  vehicle 
overloading (which causes rutting12, cracks and ravelling13), inadequate 
maintenance and, to a lesser extent, poor design or construction. As 
a result, the life expectancy of these roads is reduced. 

overloaded vehicle

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14  ‘Campagne de pesage des 
charges à l’essieu, rapport 
final’, Hydroplan, December 
2006.

15  ‘Rapport sur les activités 
de contrôle de la charge 
à l’essieu et du PTAC dans 
les postes frontaliers du 1er 
janvier au 31 mars 2011, 
Ministère des transports, 
des postes et de l’économie 
numérique’.

16  ’Étude des impacts de 
la réduction des charges 
des véhicules poids lourds’, 
October 2008.

17  Special Report No 8/2003 
concerning the execution of 
infrastructure work financed 
by the EDF (OJ C 181, 
31.7.2003).

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

In Benin, Burkina Faso and Chad, the main cause of the premature de-
terioration of roads is vehicle overloading. Overloading is a much less 
serious problem in Tanzania and Zambia. The highest rates of excessive 
axle loads were found in Benin (45,9 %) 14 and Burkina Faso (22,3 %) 15. 
A study financed by the EDF concluded that the life expectancy of 44  % 
of the paved network in Burkina Faso is down from 15 to less than 4 years 
due to persistent vehicle overloading16.

The other main cause of premature deterioration of the road network 
is inadequate road maintenance. Routine maintenance is often carried 
out late. For instance, drainage channels are frequently not cleared be-
fore the rainy season, which may lead to serious road deterioration. In 
Cameroon, the Court found that poor drainage meant that sections of 
roads were washed away, requiring substantial, and more expensive, 
emergency repairs. In Benin and Chad, pothole repairs and the cutting 
of roadside vegetation are not carried out in a timely manner. This re -
duces the service level of roads and rapidly increases future maintenance 
needs. The periodic maintenance of roads inspected was not carried out 
as required.

In some sections of the roads inspected, premature deterioration oc-
curred  because  of  poor  design  or  construction. While  the  increased 
traffic in Benin and Burkina Faso caused by the political crisis in Côte 
d’Ivoire could not be anticipated, studies had in some other cases under- 
estimated the expected traffic growth. The Court has already examined 
the performance of infrastructure works financed by the EDF, in particu-
lar the quality of studies17.

Annex III  provides an overview of the Court’s on-site inspection findings. 
Annexes  IV to IX contain maps of the six countries visited showing the 
road infrastructure projects that have been financed since the 7th EDF 
and present in more detail the findings of the Court’s on-site inspections.

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18  These road agencies 
nevertheless still lack 
the desired autonomy 
to take decisions on 
the programming of 
maintenance and the 
allocation of maintenance 
funding.

16. 

17. 

18. 

PARTNER COUNTRIES COULD DO MORE TO IMPROVE THE 
SUSTAINABILITY OF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE

PARTNER COUNTRIES NEED TO SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVE ROAD MAINTENANCE

The partner countries have made significant progress towards setting 
up an appropriate general institutional framework with a clear separ -
ation of duties between ministries and dedicated road agencies. Road 
funds have been established in all the countries visited to collect and 
manage the road maintenance budget. This has been encouraged and 
supported by the development partners, including the Commission, to 
ensure a steady flow of funds for road maintenance. In Burkina Faso, 
Cameroon and Zambia, road funds do not have an independent source 
of  funding.  Road  user  charges  collected  are  channelled  through  the 
government budget, which meant that the corresponding budgetary 
appropriations were not allocated for this purpose or that funds were 
transferred with delays.

Tanzania and Zambia have functioning road agencies that are responsi-
ble for the programming, contracting and supervision of maintenance 
works18. In Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon and Chad, this is under the re-
sponsibility of the relevant ministries, which, compared with road agen-
cies, take more time to conclude contracts due to limited administrative 
capacity and more cumbersome tendering procedures. As a result, road 
maintenance is carried out late or incompletely.

The administrations of the partner countries suffer from capacity weak-
nesses that affect their ability to organise studies, collect data on the 
condition of roads, programme road maintenance in accordance with 
needs, manage works contracts and supervise maintenance. With the 
exception of Chad, the countries visited have set up clear and appropri-
ate priority criteria for the programming of road maintenance, but in 
practice programming is not based on a comprehensive and up-to-date 
assessment of road conditions and needs in Burkina Faso, Cameroon and 
Chad.

19. 

In all six countries, most maintenance is outsourced to private com-
panies. Many companies lack the necessary equipment, skilled labour 
and financial capacity to produce quality work. In Benin, for instance, 
pothole repairs were below standard in a quarter of the cases examined.

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20. 

21. 

routine road maintenance

Spending on road maintenance has been increasing in all the countries 
visited but is still insufficient to maintain the roads. According to the 
information provided by the national authorities, the funding coverage 
of the established maintenance needs ranges from 38 % in Burkina Faso 
to 68 % in Cameroon. This is partly due to shortcomings in the collec-
tion of earmarked taxes. However, the main reason for the considerable 
financing gap is the high priority given in the partner countries’ national 
budgets towards rehabilitating and upgrading the road network. In the 
countries visited, maintenance accounts on average for only a quarter 
of road sector spending19.

19  The study ‘The burden of 
maintenance: roads in sub-
Saharan Africa’, June 2008, 
The World Bank, Washington, 
concluded that investments 
account for two thirds of total 
spending. Based on practice 
elsewhere in the world, the 
balance between investment 
and maintenance should be 
closer to 50/50.

The main impact of this financing gap is that periodic maintenance is 
either carried out late or not carried out at all. Periodic maintenance 
tends also to be neglected by the partner countries because the need 
for maintenance is not visible: roads can still be used as intended even 
though resurfacing is necessary to prevent them rapidly requiring more 
expensive intervention, such as rehabilitation and possibly reconstruc-
tion. To some extent, the financing gap is covered by the development 
partners, including the Commission, which finance periodic maintenance 
as well as rehabilitation and reconstruction. The lack of appropriate pe-
riodic maintenance poses a significant risk to the sustainability of the 
road networks in these countries. It also results in more expensive road 
rehabilitations and fewer budgetary resources available for upgrading 
and expanding the road network, which is also crucial for the develop-
ment of these countries.

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PARTNER COUNTRIES NEED TO DEMONSTRATE MORE COMMITMENT TO REDUCING 
VEHICLE OVERLOADING

22. 

Various African regional organisations have adopted legislation that aims 
to harmonise national transport policies and enforce modalities, notably 
concerning maximum axle loads. However, there are differences between 
regional legislations, and their implementation by the national authori-
ties varies and is overall lagging behind20.

(a)  Benin and Burkina Faso have shown insufficient commitment to ef-
fectively tackling vehicle overloading. The network of weighbridges 
is not suitable for axle load control and does not ensure adequate 
national coverage, the offloading 21 policy is not applied and the 
fines imposed are too low to have a deterrent effect. Insufficient 
efforts are made to address the root causes of vehicle overloading, 
notably the high transport prices due to stoppage times at borders, 
informal road barriers22, the inefficient use of the transport capacity 
due to illicit arrangements between transport operators to share 
the market 23 and the lack of competitiveness of other transport 
modes, notably railways24.

(b)  Cameroon and Chad have adopted appropriate policies and overall 
have adequate vehicle control equipment. However, these policies 
are not implemented effectively and constraints hampering the ef-
fectiveness of overloading regulations — such as the high transport 
prices and oversized vehicles — are insufficiently addressed.

(c) 

Tanzania  and  Zambia  have  an  appropriate  national  regulator y 
framework and approach that includes systematic controls thanks 
to a developed network of weighbridges, the imposition of fines 
and the mandatory offloading of non-compliant vehicles. The rate 
of  axle  overloading  is  1,6 % 25  in Tanzania  and  3,3 % 26  in  Zambia. 
Road deterioration due to vehicle overloading is much less severe 
in these two countries than in the other four (see paragraph 12) 
but there is scope for improved data collection and analysis, and 
expanding and upgrading the weighbridge infrastructure.

20  See Special Report 
No 18/2009 on the 
effectiveness of EDF support 
for regional economic 
integration in east Africa 
and west Africa (http://eca.
europa.eu).

21  Taking excess load off 
a vehicle.

22  An informal road barrier is 
a form of corruption whereby 
traffic is stopped to carry out 
illicit controls and collect 
bribes.

23  Consequently, the vehicle 
overloading is not the result 
of a shortage of available 
transport capacity.

24  See in particular ‘Transport 
prices and costs in Africa: 
a review of the main 
international corridors’, 
Africa Infrastructure Country 
Diagnostic, July 2008 and 
‘Africa’s infrastructure: a time 
for transformation’, World 
Bank, 2010.

25  Overload statistics 
2009/2010, TANROAD.

26  Axle load control 
programme — Impact 
assessment survey report, 
Road Development Agency, 
2008.

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THERE IS ROOM FOR THE COMMISSION TO 
BETTER PROMOTE THE SUSTAINABILITY OF ROAD 
INFRASTRUCTURE

23. 

The Commission’s programmes involve not only the funding of road 
infrastructure or the disbursement of sector budget support but also 
three other components which have to be combined appropriately to 
maximise the chances that EDF funds are well spent.

(a) 

Establishing conditions which are linked to the programme object-
ives and agreed with the partner country. Sector budget support 
programmes also include a variable tranche mechanism that re -
flects the growing emphasis on managing for results. This mechan-
ism is meant to provide an incentive to the partner country, since 
the  amount  of  the  variable  tranche  to  be  paid  depends  on  the 
extent to which the targets for selected performance indicators 
have been achieved.

(b)  Policy dialogue with the government of the partner country on the 
definition and implementation of appropriate sector policies and 
strategies for achieving sustainable road transport.

(c) 

Technical cooperation to help the partner country strengthen its 
policy making and management capacity, and the capacity of pri-
vate companies involved in maintenance.

24. 

This section considers whether the Commission effectively promotes the 
sustainability of road infrastructure. The Court examined whether:

(a) 

(b) 

the programme conditions agreed between the Commission and 
partner countries are relevant and upheld;

in its policy dialogue the Commission addresses the main policy 
weaknesses and reacts in a timely and appropriate manner where 
the partner country’s commitment to progress is not satisfactory; 
and

(c) 

the technical cooperation provided under EDF support programmes 
focuses on the main institutional capacity needs and delivers the 
intended results.

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16

25. 

26. 

27. 

CONDITIONALITY USED BY THE COMMISSION HAS A MODERATE 
EFFECT

THE COMMISSION’S APPROACH TO THE USE OF CONDITIONS

Sector  budget  suppor t  programmes  examined  by  the  Cour t  set  as 
a general condition the implementation of road sector policy reforms 
but frequently do not indicate clearly how satisfactory progress is to 
be  assessed 27.  It  is  subsequently  difficult  for  the  Commission  to  as-
sess in a structured manner whether the condition has been met. The 
Commission’s position in policy dialogue is also weakened (see para-
graphs 34 to 39 (d)).

27  Three out of the four 
programmes examined by 
the Court.

The performance indicators set for the variable tranches of sector budget 
support (see paragraph 23 (a)) are relevant but often affected by prob -
lems of data reliability or unrealistic targets 27. In Tanzania, for instance, 
the road agency’s management objectives are less ambitious than those 
defined in the EDF sector budget support programme, which indicates 
either that the latter do not provide the necessary incentive to the part-
ner country or that they are overly optimistic.

For road infrastructure investment projects, the Commission uses con-
ditions in a way that gives partner countries little incentive to comply 
with them. The conditions set are not legally binding but presented in 
the financing agreements as ‘accompanying measures’ to be taken up 
by the partner country. In practice, the Commission generally endorses 
works contracts between partner countries and contractors regardless of 
whether these accompanying measures have been taken. It is then under 
an obligation to pay EDF money under these contracts, and it has little 
leverage to compel the partner country to comply with the conditions. 
The Commission rarely sets preconditions which must be met before it 
will agree to sign a financing agreement, launch tendering for works or 
endorse a works contract. In the few cases in which the Commission has 
adopted this approach, it has proved more effective (see Boxes 1  and 2).

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17

THE COMMISSION’S USE OF CLEAR PRECONDITIONS FOR EDF SUPPORT IN BURKINA 
FASO

Following the lack of progress in the fight against vehicle overloading, the Commission identified clear and 
relevant measures to be taken concerning:

 ο the use for overload controls of existing weighbridges at the borders;

 ο the construction of six new weighbridges;

 ο the operation of the body newly established to enforce overloading legislation.

The need for these measures was discussed by the development partners and the partner country during the 
2009 joint annual review. It was agreed that the measures would be implemented by March 2010. As this was 
not done, the Commission decided to postpone signing the financing agreement for a new road infrastructure 
investment project28 until the government took the necessary action. Although delayed, this was ultimately 
successful, and the financing agreement was signed in February 2011.

28  The programme ‘Appui sectoriel infrastructures et transports’.

BOX 1

BOX 2

THE COMMISSION’S USE OF CLEAR PRECONDITIONS FOR EDF SUPPORT IN CAMEROON

Some road support programmes under the 9th and 10th EDFs included conditions with which the government 
had to comply before the Commission would launch the procurement procedure for roadworks. These conditions 
related to clearly identified issues, such as the government’s annual financial allocation to road maintenance 
and the adoption of several policy reform measures before a given deadline. The conditions have since been 
met and the road works could begin.

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28. 

29. 

CONDITIONS IN RESPECT OF ROAD MAINTENANCE

The EDF-funded projects examined by the Court contained few condi-
tions about institutional reform 29. In Benin and Burkina Faso, despite 
the important challenges in this area, no such conditions have been 
set. In the other countries visited, conditions set were relevant and up-
held. In Zambia, for instance, a road fund 30 and road agency31 have been 
established, and fuel levies are collected on time and released in full 
to the road fund. However, the conditions did not address some main 
institutional weaknesses, such as, in Tanzania, the road agency’s lack of 
autonomy, its weak budgetary control and supervision and the limited 
capacity of local government authorities to maintain rural roads.

29  31 out of the 48 projects 
examined by the Court did 
not contain conditions.

30  National Road Fund 
Agency.

31  Road Development 
Agency.

When attaching conditions to its intervention, the Commission pays con-
siderable attention to the need for the partner countries to increase their 
financial allocation to road maintenance. This contributed, for instance, 
to resolving the persistent problem of arrears in treasury payments to 
the road fund in Benin and Zambia. It also significantly reduced the eva-
sion of diesel fuel levies in Tanzania. In all the countries visited by the 
Court, spending on maintenance has significantly increased over the 
last decade. However, it is not yet sufficient to keep roads in good repair 
and the Commission has not addressed the question of the high prior-
ity given by many national budgets to upgrading and rehabilitating the 
road network, rather than to the adequate maintenance of the existing 
network. Often the conditions are also insufficiently precise in terms of 
objective and timing, although improvements have more recently been 
made in this respect in Burkina Faso, Chad and Zambia.

CONDITIONS IN RESPECT OF VEHICLE OVERLOADING

30. 

Despite the magnitude of this problem for the sustainability of the road 
infrastructure in most of these countries (see paragraph 12), the Com -
mission has given insufficient attention to overloading when setting 
conditions to its programmes. Some programmes do include a few such 
conditions but, with the exception of Burkina Faso, the Commission has 
not followed a systematic approach.

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19

rutting caused by vehicle overloading

31. 

32. 

The conditions are frequently unrealistic, requiring immediate systematic 
controls and imposition of fines. They are also vague in terms of targets 
to achieve and timing. They do not allow for an objective assessment 
of compliance, nor provide the Commission with a  good basis for its 
policy dialogue to promote commitment to reform. One exception is 
the support programme under the 9th EDF in Chad32 which specifies the 
progress to be made in terms of more control points, a mobile control 
brigade and updated legislation.

In Benin, where the problem of vehicle overloading is particularly severe, 
the Commission’s recent sector budget support programme 33 sets targets 
that address the most serious cases of overloading 34. This approach is 
not consistent with the Commission’s approach in other countries of the 
region to promote the implementation of the regional legislation.

32  The 2005 programme 
‘Appui à la politique 
sectorielle des transports: 
entretien routier et axes 
économiques’.

33  The 2009 programme 
‘Appui au secteur des 
transports’.

34  Vehicles with at least one 
axle load in excess of 20 
tonnes.

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20

33. 

With the exception of Cameroon (see Box 3 ), the Commission has not 
modified its approach when countries have made insufficient progress 
in reducing vehicle overloading.

THE COMMISSION DOES NOT USE POLICY DIALOGUE TO ITS FULL 
POTENTIAL

The quality of dialogue varies notably according to the commitment 
to reform in each partner country, and overall it is only moderately ef-
fective. The Commission’s capacity to react firmly and proportionately 
where progress is not satisfactory is limited by its approach to the use 
of the conditions attached to its programmes (see paragraphs 25 to 33).

POLICY DIALOGUE ON ROAD MAINTENANCE

In most of the countries visited, the Commission makes significant efforts 
to nurture comprehensive policy dialogue on road maintenance. It ad-
dresses relevant issues and makes useful recommendations. Dialogue has 
been instrumental in particular in the creation of road funds and road 
agencies and improvements in budgetary management, programming 
of road maintenance and roadwork supervision.

34. 

35. 

BOX 3

THE FOCUSING OF EDF SUPPORT ON SUSTAINABILITY OF THE EXISTING ROAD 
NETWORK IN CAMEROON

The 2004 mid-term review of the 9th EDF identified deterioration in the condition of the road network. Only 
22 % of the network was found to be in good condition, compared to 43 % 5 years earlier. Insufficient road 
maintenance was identified as the major cause of the rapid deterioration of the road network. In view of this 
downward trend, the Commission decided to maintain the envelope allocated to the transport sector but to 
modify its focus from the construction of a new road — as initially agreed — to the rehabilitation of existing 
roads. This helped to improve the overall condition of the road network. Part of these funds also served to 
finance the construction and rehabilitation of weighbridges in order to improve controls of vehicle overload-
ing, an important cause of the premature deterioration of road infrastructure. Through this firm and pragmatic 
reaction, the Commission sent a message that adequate road maintenance and a commitment to reducing 
overloading were clear priorities for its support.

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21

36. 

A key issue consistently addressed by the Commission in its policy dia-
logue with all partner countries is the insufficient allocation of financial 
resources to road maintenance (see paragraph 20). Together with those 
of other development partners, the Commission’s efforts have been in-
strumental in promoting increased spending on maintenance in most of 
the partner countries. This has been achieved by focusing on concrete 
measures such as the timely release in full of road user charges to road 
funds, an increase in fuel levies, improvements to the collection of ear-
marked taxes and the search for new sources of funding.

37. 

However, the Commission has paid little attention to the fact that many 
partner countries give budgetary priority to upgrading and rehabilitating 
the road network rather than optimising the existing road infrastructure 
through adequate maintenance.

lack of routine maintenance

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38. 

While  policy  dialogue  has  been  effective  in  Burkina  Faso,  where  the 
government exercises strong ownership of sector policy reform, it has 
been less the case in other partner countries.

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

In Cameroon, major institutional reforms agreed with the Commis-
sion in 2004 were still pending in 2011. As it did not systematically 
monitor the implementation of the agreement, the Commission 
could not react in an appropriate and timely manner.

In Zambia, in coordination with other development partners, the 
Commission  suspended  in  2009  its  sector  budget  support  pro-
grammes  because  of  insufficient  progress  in  policy  reforms,  in 
particular in respect of road maintenance. The policy dialogue im-
proved to some extent but the implementation of the agreed action 
plan remains slow. In 2010, the Commission decided anyway to 
fund a new important road investment project with no conditions 
attached to it.

In Chad, policy dialogue is limited because there is no structured 
framework for dialogue in the transport sector and the Commission 
does not use joint annual reviews for this purpose. For example, the 
Commission has not reacted to recent budgetary changes that have 
led to a significant reduction in the allocation of financial resources 
to road maintenance.

(d)  On the other hand, in Zambia the Commission reacted promptly 
and appropriately to the government’s lack of commitment and 
insufficient responsiveness to dialogue (see Box 4 ).

BOX 4

THE COMMISSION’S EFFECTIVE USE OF POLICY DIALOGUE WHEN THE ZAMBIAN 
GOVERNMENT SHOWED UNSATISFACTORY COMMITMENT TO REFORM

In 2009, the Commission, in coordination with other development partners, suspended most of its funding for 
the road sector, in particular its sector budget support programmes. The reasons were the government’s unsat-
isfactory progress towards the objectives of its sector strategy, the insufficient allocation of financial resources 
to road maintenance and the government’s weak response to policy dialogue. Furthermore, a report by the 
Auditor General of Zambia of March 2010 had revealed procurement, management and supervision problems 
as well as commitments made in excess of budgetary appropriations. The suspension of aid programmes sent 
a strong signal to the government, which became more responsive to policy dialogue. High-level meetings were 
initiated to discuss how to move towards adopting and implementing a realistic sector strategy and regaining 
the confidence of development partners. A major achievement was the agreement in December 2010 on short-, 
medium- and long-term action plans to resolve issues in the sector. However, the Commission’s budget support 
programmes remain suspended as an appropriate sector strategy has not yet been adopted by the government.

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POLICY DIALOGUE ON VEHICLE OVERLOADING

39. 

The effectiveness of the Commission’s policy dialogue on vehicle over-
loading varies from country to country and has been fruitful in half of 
the cases.

(a) 

(b) 

It has been fruitful in Zambia thanks to the high priority given by 
the government to addressing this issue and the good coordination 
between development partners. This has led to significant improve-
ments and overloading is now a much less serious problem in Zam -
bia than in many other countries. This is also the case in Tanzania, 
where policy dialogue in this area was not seen to be necessary 
(see paragraph 22(c)).

In Cameroon, the Commission and other development partners 
agreed in 2004 with the government on policy reforms to improve 
overload controls. The dialogue has been effective in particular in 
respect of the expansion of the control infrastructure, the improve-
ment of data collection and awareness campaigns. These reforms 
had an impact on the incidence of overloading, which fell from 
84 % in 1998 to 13 % in 2011. Further progress is hindered by insuf-
ficient partner country commitment to implementing some of the 
agreed reforms, such as the systematic offloading of overloaded 
vehicles, the application of fines to vehicles transporting fuel (cur-
rently exempt) and the withdrawal of the licences of hauliers that 
have repeatedly infringed overloading regulations.

(c)  Policy dialogue on vehicle overloading in Benin and Burkina Faso 
is fairly recent. It addresses the main weaknesses but so far with 
 limited success due to the partner countries’ insufficient commit-
ment to adopting and implementing policy reforms (see paragraph 
22 (a)). In Benin, the Commission did not respond in a timely and 
sufficiently firm manner to the lack of progress, for example by 
suspending the signing of new financing agreements or contracts. 
In Burkina Faso, the Commission finally took stronger action in 2010 
(see Box 1 ), resulting in the introduction of a vehicle load control 
system and a new dynamic in the policy dialogue.

(d) 

In the absence of an appropriate framework (see paragraph 38(c)), 
policy  dialogue  on  vehicle  overloading  in  Chad  has  been  ver y 
 limited. Policy issues have barely been addressed by the Commis-
sion  and  little  action  has  been  taken  by  the  partner  country  to 
address this issue.

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24

TECHNICAL COOPERATION HAS HAD USEFUL BUT LIMITED RESULTS

TECHNICAL COOPERATION ON ROAD MAINTENANCE

40. 

EDF-funded technical cooperation has addressed relevant institutional 
capacity weaknesses in the field of road maintenance, although it was 
in some cases not focusing on the main weaknesses, for instance:

(a) 

in Burkina Faso, no technical cooperation was provided to sup-
port the reform of the road fund, the operational start of the road 
agency and the strengthening of the private companies’ capacity;

(b) 

in Cameroon, technical cooperation did not address the cumber-
some tendering procedures; and

(c) 

in Tanzania  it  did  not  address  the  capacity  weaknesses  of  the 
road  agency,  the  local  government  authorities  and  the  private 
companies.

41. 

In many of the partner countries visited, support focuses on road condi-
tion surveys and the setting-up of road databases to improve the reli-
ability of the information on which maintenance programming is based. 
Technical cooperation has also contributed to the drafting of road sector 
strategies and improved the supervision of road maintenance. Training 
activities have been run mainly for ministry, road fund and road agency 
staff, and in some cases for the staff of private companies involved in 
road maintenance. They have been well organised and effective. Tech-
nical studies in a wide range of areas, such as feasibility studies, public 
expenditure reviews, and studies of the collection of fuel levies and other 
taxes or transport intermodality, have provided useful information for 
policy decision-making. 

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25

42. 

However, difficulties have often hindered the implementation of tech-
nical cooperation, so that the funds allocated have been only partially 
used and the sustainability of results is frequently at risk.

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

In Benin, the activities planned under the 9th EDF were not carried 
out as planned, partly due to difficult communication between the 
experts and their national counterparts and the results were also 
limited owing to the lack of ownership by the national authorities.

In Chad, a  significant amount was allocated to technical cooper-
ation under the 9th EDF but was barely used, owing both to difficul-
ties in attracting and retaining the necessary expertise for work in 
very difficult conditions and to the national authorities’ limited ab-
sorption capacity. The database on the condition of roads is unlikely 
to be kept up to date owing to the shortage of resources avail-
able nationally. The Commission also provided significant financial 
support for the setting-up of a road agency which is still far from 
operational despite the government’s claims of political support.

In Cameroon, technical cooperation was effective in strengthening 
the ministry’s capacity to supervise maintenance works but the 
planned support to improve the management of tendering had 
to be cancelled due to the lack of interest by the partner country.

In Tanzania, studies financed by the Commission have led to use-
ful recommendations, for example concerning the allocation of 
budgetary resources among the road agency and other institutions, 
which have not yet been implemented.

In Zambia, technical cooperation with the road agency and the 
road fund has been successful and the results are likely to be sus-
tainable. Technical cooperation with regional offices of the road 
agency and local road authorities, which are responsible for main-
taining the rural road network, has proved less successful.

TECHNICAL COOPERATION ON VEHICLE OVERLOADING

43. 

Technical cooperation in support of measures aimed at reducing the 
incidence of vehicle overloading has generally been recent and limited, 
except in Zambia thanks to the high priority given by the government 
and the good coordination between development partners.

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26

44. 

In the other partner countries, under technical cooperation the Com-
mission has however financed very relevant studies. For example:

(a) 

in Benin, the EDF funded a comprehensive overload survey which 
is to be used to improve EDF cooperation in addressing this matter;

(b) 

in Chad, two studies carried out in 2008 contributed to the prepara-
tion of a national strategy for overload controls;

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

a study conducted in 2008 in Burkina Faso was the basis for the 
roadmap adopted in 2010 by the West African Economic and Mon-
etary Union for the enforcement of the regional legislation;

in Cameroon, the EDF financed audits and diagnostic studies of 
the overload control system which were useful for the prepar ation 
of action plans to improve controls. It has also provided advice 
and  training  on  more  efficient  management  of  the  network  of 
weighbridges;

in Tanzania, the Commission is currently preparing a highly relevant 
programme focusing on improved governance, the management 
of overload controls and improvements to the network of weigh-
bridges (see Box 5 ).

BOX 5

THE COMMISSION’S COMPREHENSIVE SUPPORT FOR IMPROVED OVERLOAD CONTROLS 
IN THE EAC REGION

The Commission is preparing a regional programme of support for the development and upgrading of vehicle 
overload control systems along the central corridor which connects Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the 
Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. This 16 million euro project is highly relevant for the sustainability of road 
infrastructure as overloading has been identified as the main cause of premature pavement failure along the 
main highways in the East African Community (EAC). The project is intended to support ongoing initiatives in 
the EAC region. It aims to contribute to reduced vehicle overloading by improving legislation, providing a means 
of enforcement and addressing inefficiencies that favour the practice of overloading. In the first phase, regula-
tions will be reviewed and harmonised in the EAC region and governance issues related to the management of 
weighbridge stations will be analysed. In the second phase, a detailed design will be prepared for the construc-
tion and upgrading of the five to seven weighbridges, which should take place under the third and final phase. 
The project will also focus on improvements to the governance and management of vehicle overload control 
systems, with the aim of reducing stop times and improving transportation flow along the central corridor.

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27

road in very good condition

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

28

45. 

46. 

47. 

CONCLUSIONS

The Court concludes that the Commission is partially effective in its 
support for a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa. 

Partner countries visited by the Court do not do enough to ensure the 
sustainability of road infrastructure. Roads are affected to varying de-
grees by premature deterioration. Although most of the partner coun-
tries visited have made significant progress on road maintenance, chal-
lenges remain in all of them. Institutional reforms have been adopted 
but many institutional weaknesses remain to be addressed. Although 
spending on road maintenance has increased over time in all the partner 
countries visited by the Court, it remains insufficient and maintenance 
is often carried out late or incompletely. Most of the partner countries 
have made unsatisfactory progress on vehicle overloading, which has 
an important impact on road life expectancy and maintenance costs.

As  one  of  the  leading  donors  in  the  road  sector,  the  Commission  is 
partially effective in promoting the adoption and implementation of 
the policy reforms that are required to address the existing obstacles 
to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa. The Commission’s 
use of the conditions attached to its financial support has a moderate 
incentive effect. Often the Commission does not react appropriately 
when partner countries fail to comply with their commitments, which 
affects its credibility. This also has an impact on policy dialogue, which 
the Commission does not use to its full potential, although this dialogue 
has been instrumental in promoting progress in some areas, notably 
where the institutional framework and road maintenance funding are 
concerned. Technical cooperation funded by the Commission has been 
less successful than could be expected.

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29

RECOMMENDATIONS

48. 

The Court makes the following recommendations with a view to improv -
ing the effectiveness of the development support provided by the EDF 
towards a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa:

RECOMMENDATION 1
ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES

The  European  Ex ternal  Action  Ser vice  and  the  Commission  should 
 focus EDF funding in the road sector where the greatest impact can 
be achieved. To this end, they should:

(a) 

(b) 

focus resources to road sectors in partner countries which imple-
ment appropriate sector policies for achieving sustainable road 
transport, with relevant and credible measures for improving 
road maintenance and addressing vehicle overloading;

focus EDF resources in other countries, in particular those where 
the  EDF  has  f inanced  substantial  road  infrastruc ture  invest-
ments in the past, on institutional support, maintenance of the 
existing road network and expansion of the axle load control 
infrastructure;

(c)  where appropriate, raise the leverage effect of EDF resources by 
combining these grants with loans and promoting private sector 
participation in financing the upgrading and expansion of the 
road network.

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30

RECOMMENDATION 2
CONDITIONS AND POLICY DIALOGUE

The Commission should strengthen its use of conditions attached to its 
programmes and its policy dialogue. To this end, it should:

(a) 

define clear, measurable and time-bound formal conditions that 
address the main policy reform needs in relation to road mainten-
ance and vehicle overloading;

(b)  where  appropriate  use  preconditions  in  programming  and  at 
the level of individual support programmes by systematically 
attaching the signature of financing agreements, the launch of 
tendering for works and the signature of works contracts to the 
prior fulfilment of conditions;

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

carry out periodic and structured analyses of the fulfilment of 
conditions, as well as periodic country road sector evaluations 
and ex post project evaluations;

systematically follow up its conclusions concerning the fulfil-
ment of conditions and the results of evaluations, focusing on 
the reasons why progress may not have been made according to 
plan and the necessary remedial measures;

respond firmly, proportionately and in a timely manner where 
governments show unsatisfactory commitment to addressing the 
issues raised and recommendations made by the Commission, 
including by suspending or cancelling EDF funding to individual 
programmes or the road sector as a whole.

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31

35  A backbone strategy — 
reforming technical 
cooperation and project 
implementation units for 
external aid provided by 
the European Commission, 
July 2008.

RECOMMENDATION 3
TECHNICAL COOPERATION

In accordance with its strategy to improve the effectiveness of its as-
sistance for capacity development 35, the Commission should:

(a) 

endeavour to ensure that there is credible government ownership 
of the planned activities, evidenced by an appropriate level of 
human and budgetary resources available nationally both during 
and after the programme;

(b) 

increase its focus on the root causes of vehicle overloading, such 
as obstacles to a normally functioning transport market;

(c)  where needed, provide support to help partner countries per-
form sound economic analysis for deciding on the appropriate 
balance to be ensured between the maintenance and the expan-
sion of their road network, taking into account all the relevant 
economic, social, environmental, financial, technical and oper-
ational criteria.

This Report was adopted by Chamber III, headed by Mr Karel PINXTEN, 
Member  of  the  Cour t  of  Auditors,  in  Luxembourg  at  its  meeting  of 
16 October 2012.

For the  Co ur t of Auditor s

Vítor Manuel da SILVA CALDEIRA
President

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32

ANNEX I

EDF COMMITMENTS IN THE ROAD SECTOR IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 1995–2011

COUNTRY

Mali
Benin
Niger
Burkina Faso
Ghana
Guinea 
Senegal
Mauritania
Sierra Leone
Chad
Côte d'Ivoire
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Cape Verde
Togo
Gambia

Total west Africa

Ethiopia
Uganda
Tanzania
Kenya
Djibouti
Eritrea
Somalia

Total east Africa

Madagascar
Mozambique
Zambia
Malawi
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Congo (Brazzaville)
Lesotho
Comoros
Angola
Namibia
Mauritius
Swaziland

Total southern Africa

Cameroon
Chad
Burundi
Rwanda
Central African Republic
Gabon
Sao Tome and Principe
Equatorial Guinea

Total central Africa

TOTAL

(euro)

419 598 326
347 682 270
320 368 922
312 101 911
280 618 638
273 105 333
242 057 572
190 880 748
166 933 430
72 000 000
70 000 000
69 182 042
60 200 000
22 905 117
2 676 753
697 195

2 851 008 259

669 898 636
466 664 139
353 003 422
323 003 402
53 608 497
39 830 000
3 800 000

1 909 808 096

392 145 169
368 404 503
288 358 090
174 425 298
148 028 097
67 590 000
40 251 098
26 873 099
25 044 130
21 958 898
3 782 617
1 489 228

1 558 350 225

359 118 520
264 035 490
146 658 963
138 566 306
67 672 075
60 937 496
34 832 347
80 000

1 071 901 197

7 391 067 778

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ANNEX II

COUNTRIES VISITED BY THE COURT

Tunisia

Morocco

Algeria

Western Sahara

Mauritania

Mali

Senegal

Gambia

Guinea-Bissau

Guinea

Sierra Leone

Liberia

Burkina Faso
B
e
n
n

i

G
h
a
n
a

T
o
g
o

Côte 
d’Ivoire

Niger

Nigeria

Equatorial Guinea

Cameroon

Gabon

Congo

33

Libya

Egypt.
Arab. Rep.

Chad

Sudan

Eritrea

Central African 
Republic

South Sudan

Ethiopia

Uganda

Kenya

Congo 
Dem. Rep.

Rwanda

Burundi

Tanzania

Djibouti

Somalia

Angola

Zambia

Malawi

Comoros

Mozambique

Zimbabwe

Madagascar

Mauritius

Namibia

Botswana

Sub-Saharan African countries

Countries visited by the Court

Swaziland

South Africa

Lesotho

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34

ANNEX III

OVERVIEW OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTION FINDINGS

Country

Road

EDF project

Condition of 
the road1

Premature 
deterioration

Sémé–Porto Novo  
(12,7 km)

7th EDF — Road development decided in 1995 and 
finalised in 2003 — 14,7 million euro

Roads in the town of Parakou 
(17,3 km)

7th EDF — Road improvement decided in 1999 and 
finalised in 2005 — 6,2 million euro

Natitingou–Porga  
(101 km)

8th EDF — Road development decided in 1999 and 
finalised in 2005 — 26,9 million euro

Main road through Cotonou  
(7,4 km)

7th and 8th EDF — Road development decided in 1999 and 
finalised in 2004 — 22,8 million euro

Good

Very good

Fair

Good

8th EDF — Periodic maintenance decided in 1999 and 
finalised in 2004 — 43,8 million euro

Poor/Fair/Good

Benin

Burkina 
Faso

Cameroon

Chad

Dassa–Savé–Parakou, 
 Savalou–Dassa–Bohicon, Porto 
Novo–Igolo  
(331 km)

Ouagadougou–Koupéla  
(135 km)

Bobo Dioulasso–Boromo  
(169 km)

Yaoundé–Ayos  
(126 km)

Bertoua–Garoua Boulaï  
(250 km)

N’Gaoundéré–Touboro  
(265 km)

Garoua–Figuil  
(90 km)

Eré–Kélo  
(48 km)

Kélo–Moundou  
(108 km)

Moundou–Koutéré  
(118 km)

8th EDF — Periodic maintenance decided in 1998 and 
finalised in 2002 — 11,3 million euro
9th EDF — Periodic maintenance decided in 2003 and 
finalised in 2007 — 35,6 million euro

8th EDF — Periodic maintenance decided in 1998 and 
finalised in 2003 — 13,2 million euro
9th EDF — Periodic maintenance decided in 2003 and 
finalised in 2008 — 79,4 million euro

8th EDF — Road rehabilitation decided in 1999 and 
finalised in 2005 — 13,1 million euro

7th EDF — Road rehabilitation decided in 1997 and 
finalised in 2002 — 71,3 million euro

8th EDF — Road construction decided in 1998 and finalised 
in 2004 — 91,2 million euro

9th EDF — Road rehabilitation decided in 2007 and 
finalised in 2010 — 38,0 million euro

7th EDF — Road construction decided in 1996 and finalised 
in 2001 — 11,8 million euro

8th ED — Road construction decided in 2000 and finalised 
in 2004 — 28,4 million euro

8th EDF — Road construction decided in 1999 and finalised 
in 2006 — 38,3 million euro

Good

Good

Fair

Fair

Good

Good

Poor

Poor

Very good

Good

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Moundou–Doba, Doba–Koumra 
(190 km)

9th EDF— Road construction decided in 2005 and finalised 
in 2010 — 78,0 million euro

1  The roads are classified according to the condition categories of the Road Network Evaluation Tool. The categories are: 
  —  Very good: requires only routine maintenance; 
  —  Good: requires routine maintenance plus preventive maintenance or spot resurfacing or repairs; 
  —  Fair: requires routine maintenance plus periodic maintenance; 
  —  Poor: requires routine maintenance plus strengthening or partial reconstruction; 
  —  Very poor: requires routine maintenance plus full reconstruction.

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

 
35

Country

Road

EDF project

Condition of 
the road1

Premature 
deterioration

Roads in and around Mwanza  
(55,2 km)

8th EDF — Rehabilitation decided in 1999 and finalised in 
2006 — 34,9 million euro

Very good/Poor

Tanzania

Mwanza border–Tinde, Isaka–
Nzega  
(169 km)

8th EDF— Rehabilitation and upgrading decided in 2000 
and finalised in 2007 — 114,7 million euro

Very good/
Good/Fair/Poor

Morrogoro–Dodoma  
(253 km)

Monze–Zimba  
(212 km)

8th EDF — Rehabilitation decided in 2000 and finalised in 
2007 — 41,9 million euro

8th EDF — Rehabilitation decided in 1998 and finalised in 
2002 — 34,3 million euro

Zambia

Kabwe Kapiri and Chisamba road  
(82 km)

8th EDF — Rehabilitation decided in 1999 and finalised in 
2003 — 16,8 million euro

Fair

Fair

Fair

Zimba–Livingstone  
(42,7 km)

9th EDF — Rehabilitation decided in 2007 and finalised in 
2010 — 15,0 million euro

Very good

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

1  The roads are classified according to the condition categories of the Road Network Evaluation Tool. The categories are: 
  —  Very good: requires only routine maintenance; 
  —  Good: requires routine maintenance plus preventive maintenance or spot resurfacing or repairs; 
  —  Fair: requires routine maintenance plus periodic maintenance; 
  —  Poor: requires routine maintenance plus strengthening or partial reconstruction; 
  —  Very poor: requires routine maintenance plus full reconstruction.

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37

ANNEX IV

7TH TO 10TH EDF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN BENIN

© European Court of Auditors. 

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

GueneMalanvilleBanikoaraBorodarouGogonouKankohoum-DassariPorgaSoriTanguietaBéroubouayToukountounaGamiaBemberekeNdaliDjougouTirangaPartagoTchatchouTchaourouKiliboSaveAgouagonSavalouDassa-ZoumePaouignanSettoAbomey-CalaviSeme-KpodjiBohiconKandiAbomeyParakouNatitingouLokossaPorto-NovoCotonouNIGERBURKINA FASOTOGONIGERIA 9th EDFBanikoara – Kandi (68 km) Rehabilitated in 2007Amount committed: 23,0 million euro8th EDF Natitingou – Porga (101 km) Rehabilitated in 2005Total expenditure: 26,9 million euro9th EDFCotonou (Godomey) – Abomey-Calavi (10,5 km)Rehabilitated in 2011Amount committed: 40,0 million euro  7th EDFRoads in Parakou (17,3 km)Rehabilitated in 2005Total expenditure: 6,2 million euro7th EDFSeme-Kpodji – Porto Novo (12,7 km)Rehabilitated in 2003Total expenditure: 14,7 million euro8th EDFRural roads in districts l’Alibori, Borgou, Collines and ZouTotal length: 700 kmRehabilitation and maintenance, finalised in 2006Total expenditure: 7,7 million euro8th EDFDassa – Savé – Parakou   Savalou – Dassa – Bohicon  Porto Novo – IgoloTotal length: 342 kmPeriodic maintenance, finalised in 2005Total expenditure: 43,8 million euro7th and 8th EDFRoads in Cotonou (7,4 km)Rehabilitated in 2004Total expenditure: 22,8 million euro10th EDFParakou – Béroubouay (151 km) Rehabilitation, in progressAmount committed: 53,9 million euro8th EDFUrban roads in 13 bigger cities and towns Constructed or paved in 2007Total expenditure: 29,8 million euro7th EDFBéroubouay – Malanville (167 km) Rehabilitated in 1999Total expenditure: 24,0 million euro7th EDFParakou – Djougou lot B1 (72 km)Rehabilitated in 1997Total expenditure: 9,3 million euro38

FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN BENIN

Sémé–Porto Novo

The condition of the road is normal for its age. Routine maintenance has been carried out.

Roads in the town of Parakou

The roads in Parakou are still in very good condition thanks to good technical choices made during 
the project, the absence of heavy traffic and appropriate road maintenance, which is the responsibil-
ity of the city authorities with their own budget. Maintenance is good thanks to competent technical 
services, a significant increase in the city’s road maintenance budget and investments 1, the use of 
multiannual maintenance contracts since 2005 and participation by the local population in manual 
regular maintenance — for instance weekly sweeping by women’s associations.

Natitingou–Porga

The road is affected by undulation, cracks, ravelling and potholes. The road safety infrastructure2 has 
also deteriorated. The causes of the road’s deterioration are structural problems, vehicle overloading 
and inadequate maintenance. The inspection revealed that routine maintenance is not carried out 
as it should be and that a significant part of the road is in need of periodic maintenance. The road 
therefore cannot be fully used under the conditions and at the speeds for which it was designed. 
Given that the sections of road inspected have not reached the end of their normal life expectancy, 
it is concluded that the road deterioration is premature.

Main road through Cotonou

The road is still in good condition. There is a risk of deterioration, however, as routine maintenance 
is not carried out properly by the city authorities. Water drainage channels are not cleared, bringing 
the risk of blockage by sand and debris.

1  Up from 200 million FCFA in 2005 to 800 million FCFA in 2011.

2  Horizontal road markings, guard-rails, traffic signs and roadside concrete blocks.

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39

Dassa — Savé — Parakou; Savalou — Dassa — Bohicon 

The road is affected by premature deterioration. The auditors observed undulation, rutting3, cracks, 
ravelling and potholes. In several locations the deterioration is severe. The road safety infrastructure 
has also deteriorated. The main cause of deterioration is vehicle overloading, but localised structural 
problems and traffic levels that are higher than initially expected also play a role. As a result, the road 
cannot be fully used under the conditions and at the speeds for which it was designed. Furthermore, 
the road does not receive appropriate routine maintenance, and periodic maintenance is due but 
not yet planned.

Porto Novo — Igolo

On the whole, the road is in good condition. The deterioration observed, which includes light un-
dulation, is normal for the age of the road. Routine maintenance has been carried out, though not 
always at the appropriate time.

3  A groove in the road surface made by the passage of vehicles.

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40

ANNEX V

7TH TO 10TH EDF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN BURKINA FASO

© European Court of Auditors. 

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

TouThiouGourcyNessegaMiaBousseLaySabtengaPoaSakoinseFaramanaFoToesseBoromoNoberePaPourra HoundeSamandeniBamaKongolikanPeniToussianaNiangolokoPiega TanwolbougouSabouDiapagaKoudougouNounaTouganKayaOuahigouyaDoriKongoussiKombissiriDiebougouTenkodogoBanforaZorgoBogandeFada-NgourmaBobo-DioulassoOrodaraKoupelaDedougouPoBoulsaZiniareGorom-GoromYakoGaouaReoLeoDjiboMangaOuagadougouMALIBENINNIGERTOGOGHANACÔTE D’IVOIRE8th EDF Earth road network in the country (733 km) Maintenance and rehabilitation, finalised in 2004   Total expenditure: 40,2 million euro6th and 7th EDFBobo-Dioulasso – Ivory Coast border (152,35 km)Ouagadougou – Ghana border (159,97 km)Bobo-Dioulasso – Mali border (117,7 km)Routine and periodic maintenance, finalised in 1998Total expenditure: 28,0 million euro 10th EDFSakoinse – Boromo (122 km)Periodic maintenance, in progressAmount committed: 60,5 million euro  7th EDF Koupéla – Bittou – Togo border (150 km)Periodic maintenance, finalised in 1993 Total expenditure: 15,9 million euro8th EDFOuagadougou – Yako (100 km)Boromo – Bobo-Dioulasso (169 km)Ouagadougou – Koupela (131 km)Koupela – Piega (140,8 km)Sakoinse – Koudougou (42,56 km)Periodic maintenance, finalised in 2003 Total expenditure:  48,9 million euro  7th EDFOuahigouya – Mali border (60,2 km)Tougan – Ouahigouya (95,6 km)Rehabilitated in 1998Total expenditure: 12,3 million euro7th EDF Yako – Ouahigouya (74 km)Periodic maintenance, finalised in 1992Total expenditure: 10,2 million euro9th EDFOuagadougou – Koupéla (136,11 km) Bobodioulasso – Pourra carrefour (200 km)  Periodic maintenance, finalised in 2008Total expenditure: 119,5 million euro41

FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN BURKINA FASO

Because of security considerations, the Court’s visual inspection of roads in Burkina Faso was rela-
tively limited.

Ouagadougou–Koupéla

Periodic maintenance of this road was financed by the 8th EDF. The works were completed in 2003, 
but as early as February 2005 the road had signs of premature deterioration and it was decided to 
finance periodic maintenance and reinforcement again under the 9th EDF. This work was completed 
in 2007. The Court’s visual inspection of a 40 km section showed that the road is currently in good 
condition. Nevertheless, some localised premature deterioration was observed, such as rutting in the 
direction of Ouagadougou and the destruction of a metallic structure built to control the maximum 
height of trucks. The rutting occurs because of vehicle overloading and the unexpected increase in 
traffic resulting from the crisis in Côte d’Ivoire in 2002.

Bobo Dioulasso–Boromo

Periodic maintenance financed by the 8th EDF was completed in 2002. Monitoring reports and the 
final report by the supervisor of works indicate that the road was already seriously damaged 1 year 
after the end of the maintenance works. The damage was generalised and included surface deterior-
ation, potholes and rutting. As a result, further periodic maintenance was soon carried out, this time 
financed by the 9th EDF. This work was completed in 2008. At present, the road’s overall condition is 
still good. Nevertheless, the Court found evidence of premature deterioration, such as surface dam-
age and rutting. This indicates that the road will not last as long as expected. Premature deterioration 
was already noted by the EU delegation staff at the time of the ceremony to inaugurate the road.

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

42

ANNEX VI

7TH TO 10TH EDF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN CAMEROON

© European Court of Auditors. 

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

MagadaFiguil LargoyWomiNandéké SonkolongKakarMbonsoBembaranBadzereGaroua BoulaïBamboutiLettaBangaMuyukaMuéaAyosPoumaTouboroKumbaEbolowaDoualaBueaBamendaNgaoundéréGarouaMarouaBertouaBafoussamYaoundéNIGERIACHADCENTRALAFRICANREPUBLICEQUATORIALGUINEAGABONCONGO7th EDFPlain Tikar (102 km)Rehabilitated in 2001Total expenditure: 14,0 million euro 7th and 8th EDFBertoua – Garoua Boulaï (250 km)Rehabilitated in 2002Total expenditure: 71,3 million euro8th EDFNgaoundéré – Touboro (265 km)Constructed in 2004Total expenditure: 91,2 million euro8th EDFYaoundé – Ayos (126 km) Rehabilitated in 2005Total expenditure: 51,4 million euro9th EDFLake Nyos (2,5 km)Rehabilitated in 2011Total expenditure: 2,2 million euro10th EDFGaroua Boulaï – Nandéké (86 km)Under constructionAmount committed: 87,0 million euro10th EDFFiguil – Magada (50 km)Under constructionAmount committed: 31,0 million euro 9th EDFGaroua – Figuil (90 km)Muéa – Kumba (62 km)Rehabilitated in 2010Douala – YaoundéRoad securityTotal expenditure: 81,4 million euro43

FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN CAMEROON

Yaoundé–Ayos

The road is currently in fair condition and can still be used at the speeds for which it was built. Nev-
ertheless, only 6 years after reinforcement works, the road already shows signs of fatigue such as 
depressions, damage by road users and frequent damage to road signs and guard-rails. Most of this 
premature deterioration is due to high levels of traffic and structural weaknesses. The final evalu-
ation report on the construction of the road states that the Awaé–Ayos section (83 km) is too narrow 
to handle the expected traffic levels 4. Periodic maintenance is needed to prevent more expensive 
rehabilitation works in the foreseeable future. However, no such works are yet planned.

Bertoua–Garoua Boulaï

The road presents cracks and depressions, mostly due to vehicle overloading. Despite this deterior-
ation, the road is still in fair condition and can be used at the speeds for which it was built. There is 
also damage, caused by road users, to the road surface, horizontal road markings and guard-rails. 
Given the age of the road, its deterioration cannot be considered premature, but periodic mainten-
ance is needed in the short term to prevent more expensive rehabilitation works in the foreseeable 
future. However, such maintenance has not yet been planned.

N’Gaoundéré–Touboro

The road is still in good condition with only limited signs of deterioration. This is attributable to 
traffic levels which are significantly lower than anticipated.

Garoua–Figuil

The overall condition of the road is good, although some deterioration was observed, including 
cracks, depressions and excess bitumen appearing at the surface. These problems were caused by 
the substandard quality of the roadworks and vehicle overloading. As the roadworks were completed 
only recently, this deterioration can be considered premature.

4  Dorsch Consult, final report ‘Construction de la route Yaoundé–Ayos CM/6014, évaluation finale’, July 2004.

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44

ANNEX VII

7TH TO 10TH EDF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN CHAD

© European Court of Auditors. 

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

BiltineAbecheAm TimanMaoDobaSarhLaiMongoAtiFaya-LargeauBol GiniMondouN'DjamenaKoutéré KoumraKiyabiEréKéloCAMEROONNIGERIANIGERCENTRALAFRICANREPUBLIC8th EDFKélo – Moundou (108 km)Constructed in 2004Total expenditure: 28,4 million euro10th EDFSarh – Kyabé (102 km)Planned constructionAmount committed: 72,0 million euro9th EDFMoundou – Doba (101 km)Doba – Koumra (89 km)Constructed in 2009Total expenditure: 83,3 million euro7th, 8th and 9th EDFMoundou – Koutéré (118 km) Constructed in 2006Total expenditure: 46,6 million euro7th EDFEré – Kélo (48 km)Constructed in 2001Total expenditure: 11,8 million euro45

FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN CHAD

Eré–Kélo

The condition of the road is poor, with multiple potholes, cracks, ravelling and depressions, all at-
tributable to the aqueous nature of the soil, poor construction quality and vehicle overloading. As 
a result of this premature deterioration, the road can no longer be used at the speeds for which it 
was intended. The financing agreement stated the need for periodic maintenance every 8 years. Al-
though the road was completed in 2001, periodic maintenance was already planned in 2005, which 
confirms its premature deterioration. However, these works have not yet been carried out. In fact, 
there is no periodic road maintenance in Chad. As a result, the road will require significantly more 
expensive rehabilitation in the future.

Kélo–Moundou

The financing agreement signed in July 2000 stated the need for periodic maintenance every 5 years. 
During construction, it was found that the design of the road was not suitable for the actual levels 
of traffic. As a result, it was recommended at the time that it be strengthened 2 to 3 years after final 
acceptance of the works. However, no strengthening work has been carried out. As a result, the 
road’s current condition is poor, with premature deterioration including many potholes, which are 
frequently large, and damage by road users. The auditors also observed that routine maintenance 
of this road is inadequate.

Moundou–Koutéré

The road is still in very good condition. There are some minor signs of premature deterioration, 
such as small cracks and excess bitumen appearing at the surface. The latter is mainly a road safety 
problem, as it makes the road slippery.

Moundou–Doba; Doba–Koumra

A section of approximately 40 km near Moundou has been in use since 2008. Both roads are in good 
overall condition. However, several repairs were carried out by the construction company during the 
guarantee period. Some of the repaired sections are again showing signs of premature deterioration. 
The rutting observed is a consequence of vehicle overloading.

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46

ANNEX VIII

7TH TO 10TH EDF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN TANZANIA

KENYA

8th EDF
Mwanza (urban) roads (21,8 km) 
and Mwanza – Nyanguge (34 km)
Rehabilitated in 2006
Total expenditure: 34,9 million euro

UGANDA

Bukoba

Musoma

Mwanza

Nyanguge

Serengeti
Plain

Shinyanga

Isaka

Tinde

Nzega

Tabora

8th EDF
Isaka – Nzega (96 km) and
Mwanza border – Tinde (73 km)
Rehabilitated in 2007
Total expenditure: 114,7 million euro  

Singida

Dodoma

7th EDF
Emergency (El Nino) road repair programme 
(repair of impassable sections on the central and northern corridor)
Total length: not available (road repaired where necessary)
Finalised in 1999
Total expenditure: 7,0 million euro

Arusha

Moshi

7th EDF
Wazo Hill – Bagamoyo (45 km)
Rehabilitated in 2003
Total expenditure: 2,0 million euro

Tanga

Zanzibar

Bagamoyo

Morogoro

Ruvu

Dar es Salaam

Sumbawanga

Iringa

Mbeya

Njombe

9th EDF
Mandela Road inside Dar Es Salaam (16 km)
Rehabilitated in 2011
Total expenditure: 34,0 million euro

8th EDF
Central corridor: 
Morogoro – Dodoma (253 km)
Rehabilitated in 2007
Total expenditure: 41,9 million euro

DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC
OF THE
CONGO

© European Court of Auditors. 

Lindi

Mtwara

Songea

7th EDF
Ruvuma and Southern Iringa road maintenance programme 
Many road sections in the region with a total length of 2 716 km
Rehabilitation, routine, periodic and emergency maintenance, ﬁnalised in 2007
Total expenditure: 21,8 million euro

MALAWI

MOZAMBIQUE

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47

FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN TANZANIA

Rehabilitation of roads in and around the city of Mwanza

Nine roads in Mwanza and three roads outside the city were rehabilitated. The nine roads inside the 
city have a  total length of 9 km and are maintained under the responsibility of Mwanza city coun-
cil, which has its own budget. These roads are still in very good condition and require only routine 
maintenance. The three roads outside the city, totalling 46 km, can generally still be used as intended 
but are affected by localised premature deterioration. On the road from Mwanza to Nyanguge, there 
are deformations and potholes in three low-lying sections totalling 4,1 km that have already been 
repaired by overlay or oversealing. The airport road is characterised by deteriorated shoulders at 
junctions with access roads and tracks and where cars and buses pull over regularly. The Kenyata road 
has potholes and deformations in one location. These problems are related to the design of the road.

Rehabilitation and upgrading of Mwanza border–Tinde and Isaka–Nzega roads

The rehabilitated roads are in good to very good condition, except in a few locations where there is 
premature deterioration, owing to excess bitumen appearing at the surface of the road and varying 
from light to severe. Where severe, it is at times accompanied by deformation and rutting. This has an 
impact on road safety, because it makes the road more slippery. Rutting also occurs before and after 
speed humps because the road design did not take into account the deceleration and acceleration 
of traffic in these locations. In some cases, this rutting is severe. Horizontal road markings have not 
been maintained and are now faded.

Backlog maintenance for the central corridor

A total of 95 km have been reconstructed and 161 km have been resurfaced. The overall condition of 
the road can be qualified as fair, meaning that periodic maintenance is already due. This is sooner than 
expected when the roadworks were carried out. The sections that were overlaid are particularly af-
fected by premature deterioration. Some sections, with a total length of 15 to 20 km, are even in need 
of rehabilitation. The premature deterioration consists of bleeding, rutting, shoulder deterioration, 
deformation, cracks and potholes. The report by the supervisor of works and the works evaluation 
report5 indicate that the original substandard pavement is unstable, thus creating cracks, depressions 
and rutting. The road agency has issued a report on the pavement failures 6, which indicates that it 
recognises the existence of a problem.

5 

6 

'Evaluation of backlog maintenance programme for the central corridor', March 2009.

'Backlog maintenance works on central corridor — report pavement failure', Tanroads, April 2007.

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48

ANNEX IX

7TH TO 10TH EDF ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN ZAMBIA

© European Court of Auditors. 

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

KapiriMposhiChisambaMonzeZimbaLivingstoneSolweziMonguChipataKasamaKabweNdolaMansaLusakaDEMOCRATICREPUBLICOF THE CONGOZIMBABWEMALAWIBOTSWANATANZANIAMOZAMBIQUE7th EDFFeeder roads rehabilitation programmein the Central Province and Copperbelt ProvinceTotal length: 525 kmRehabilitated in 1998Total expenditure: 8,7 million euro8th EDFMonze - Zimba (212 km)Rehabilitated in 2002Total expenditure: 34,3 million euro9th EDFZimba – Livingstone (42,7 km)Rehabilitated in 2010Total expenditure: 15,0 million euro7th EDFLusaka – Kabwe (132 km)Rehabilitated in 1995Total expenditure: 25,4 million euro 8th EDFKabwe – Kapiri Mposhi (60,5 km)and Chisamba road (21,5 km)  Rehabilitated in 2003Total expenditure: 16,8 million euro49

FINDINGS OF THE COURT’S ON-SITE INSPECTIONS OF ROADS IN ZAMBIA

Rehabilitation of the Monze–Zimba road

At several locations, in particular where there are access roads, the road is affected by deterioration 
of the hard shoulder, which is attributable to the design of the road. Furthermore, the road safety 
infrastructure, such as horizontal road markings, road signs and roadside concrete blocks, has also 
deteriorated significantly and has not been maintained. Routine maintenance has not been carried 
out to a sufficient standard, if at all, and although the road can still be used as intended, there should 
already have been periodic maintenance approximately 7 years after it was rehabilitated. Owing to 
the insufficiency of funds and the huge periodic maintenance backlog, there is no guarantee of 
any periodic maintenance in the coming years. Failure to carry out such maintenance on time will 
significantly increase future maintenance costs. Although widespread damage is not yet visible, it 
can be concluded that the road deterioration is premature.

Rehabilitation of the Kabwe–Kapiri Mposhi and Chisamba roads

The road from Kabwe to Kapiri Mposhi (60,5 km) is a main road with high traffic levels, whereas the 
Chisamba road (21,5 km) is a low-traffic road that connects an agricultural area with a trunk road. Both 
are affected by premature deterioration. The former displays cracking, severe rutting at several speed 
humps, deterioration of the shoulder at access roads and a significant number of potholes, of which 
the majority have been repaired in the course of routine maintenance. The road safety infrastructure 
has also deteriorated. Overall, the deterioration observed between Kabwe and Kapiri Mposhi is more 
serious than between Monze and Zimba, although the former section was constructed at a later date. 
The road is affected by vehicle overloading and high levels of traffic that were not taken into con-
sideration during the design stage. In addition, routine maintenance is insufficient. Considering the 
time since rehabilitation and the level of traffic, the road should also already have been periodically 
maintained. The Chisamba road is affected by serious cracking along its entire length, and several 
potholes have started to develop. These are a consequence of inappropriate construction quality. The 
road requires routine mechanical maintenance, such as the patching of potholes and crack repairs. 

Rehabilitation of the Zimba–Livingstone road

The road is in very good condition, which is normal given its age. There are no indications that the 
quality of the road infrastructure will lead to premature deterioration in the future.

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50

REPLY OF THE 
COMMISSION

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

I.
The  sub-Saharan  road  network  is  composed  of  about 
2,2 million km of roads.

II.
Since  2004,  European  Commission  grants  have  helped 
build, rehabilitate or maintain over 36 200 km of roads with 
a focus on some of the most important paved roads of the 
African network. This represents 1,7 % of the total network.

IV.
The Commission has made substantial progress in its sup-
port for a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa. 
However, progress is not yet sufficient to ensure overall 
sustainability of the entire African road network.

V.
The Commission agrees. The Commission observes that the 
two thirds of roads found by the Court to be in fair to very 
good condition represents 90 % of kilometers.

The  Commission  considers  that  the  var ying  degree  of 
premature deterioration refers only to segments of these 
roads. This reflects the recurrent bias towards investments 
over maintenance.

VI.
The Commission considers that the commitment of part-
ner countries is limited by their capacity. Reducing vehicle 
overloading is therefore a long-lasting problem that needs 
to  be  addressed  at  regional  level  and  at  many  different 
subsector levels (transport liberalisation, port operation 
reforms  and  coordinated  actions  at  regional  level). The 
Commission would like to underpin that it has been work-
ing in the solution of this problem since many years and 
that progress has been made today even if success is not 
yet achieved. The Commission carries out policy dialogue 
on the matter with the governments in order to pursue 
efforts towards better results.

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51

VII.
The Commission is deeply engaged in policy dialogue with 
positive results.

The Commission’s leverage depends on the commitment 
and capacity of its partners, the amounts invested and the 
policies pursued by other donors in the sector.

VIII.
The Commission will take into account the Court’s obser-
vations where possible to further improve the effective-
ness of development support.

INTRODUCTION

4.
Since  2004,  European  Commission  grants  have  helped 
build,  rehabilitate  or  maintain  over  36 200  km  of  roads, 
with a focus on some of the most important paved roads 
of the African network. This represents 1,7 % of the total 
network.

OBSERVATIONS

Reply to title before paragraph 10
The problem is acknowledged but it is less acute for EDF-
funded roads.

11.
The  Commission  obser ves  that  the  two  thirds  of  roads 
found  by  the  Court  to  be  in  fair  to  very  good  condition 
represents 90 % of kilometers.

12.
The  Commission  recognises  that  vehicle  overloading  is 
a major  reason  for  premature  road  deterioration  in  sev -
eral African countries and it is consistently working with 
national authorities in addressing this matter.

13.
These problems are indeed recurrent in most developing 
countries. The  Commission  is  consistently  working  with 
National Authorities in addressing this matter. For more 
than 10 years now (e.g. since 1995 in Cameroun), most of 
the programmes financed by the EDF on road transport 
cooperation have included relevant specifications, activ-
ities and conditions related to road maintenance. Today, 
the  Commission,  along  with  the World  Bank,  is  a leader 
among development partners on the matter.

14.
The Commission recognises that poor design or construc-
tion may be relevant problems affecting road infrastructure 
performance and, consistently, supports national author-
ities with appropriate technical assistance to improve the 
quality of design and supervision of road works.

Reply to subtitle before paragraph 16
The Commission considers that whilst road maintenance 
problems persist, countries have made significant progress 
during  the  last  decade  in  improving  their  road  mainte-
nance capacities. 

17.
The Commission considers that African states may choose 
different institutional structures to ensure road mainten-
ance works. The Commission works at national level with 
the competent authorities in addressing problems linked 
to the planning of road maintenance works, including sup-
port to the improvement of tendering procedures, aim-
ing at an appropriate balance between delay, liability and 
transparency. However, it is true that the Commission has 
supported in many African countries the setting up of road 
agencies.

18.
T h e   C o m m i s s i o n   o v e r a l l   a g re e s   a n d   w o r k s   c o n s i s t-
ently  since  many  years  to  improve  national  authorities' 
capacities to organise studies, collect data on the condi-
tion  of  roads,  programme  road  maintenance  in  accord-
ance with needs, manage works contracts and supervise 
maintenance.

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REPLY OF THE  COMMISSION52

19.
The Commission agrees that a significant number of coun -
tries need to improve public and private technical capaci-
ties to perform and supervise road maintenance works and 
it is working consistently in many countries on this matter.

22. (a)
The  Commission  considers  that  Burkina  Faso  and  Benin 
have recently demonstrated an increased level of commit-
ment to address vehicle overloading. However, this has not 
yet resulted in significant progress.

22. (c)
The Commission considers that its interventions have con-
tributed to this positive result.

27.
A  financing  agreement  for  an  EDF  project  can  have  an 
implementation period of 5 to 7 years, which should allow 
in principle enough time for a partner country to imple -
ment  cer tain  conditions.  But  because  of  the  problems 
linked  to  the  suspension  of  EDF  funding  in  the  case  of 
signed contracts, the only possibility left is to impose pre- 
conditions  to  be  achieved  before  the  launching  of  ten-
ders or signature of works contracts (reducing the time to 
achieve the pre-condition to a few months). This system 
has been often proved unsuccessful. Therefore, the Com-
mission tends to establish realistic and relevant accom-
panying measures to be closely monitored together with 
incentives instead of strict pre-conditions putting the suc-
cess of the programme in question.

Reply to title before paragraph 23
The  Commission  actively  promotes  the  sustainability  of 
road infrastructure and has achieved real progress in many 
countries. However, the Commission agrees that there is 
room for improvement.

Reply to title after paragraph 24. (c)
The  Commission  considers  the  impact  of  conditional-
ity satisfactory, but considers that there is still room for 
improvement.

25.
The  Commission  considers  that  financing  agreements 
increasingly set out the expected reforms in a clear and 
structured manner. This strengthens the foundation for the 
disbursement decision.

26.
In countries where road SBS is implemented, the Commis-
sion, as part of its support, generally provides assistance to 
the strengthening of the performance monitoring system 
to improve government’s capacity of collecting and ana-
lysing data. Concerning the performance indicators of the 
variable tranches, the Commission’s practice is to use the 
targets set up by the government in its 5- or 10-year road 
sector development plan. It could happen that the road 
agency in its annual working plan reduces the targets in 
line with the latest forecast. This does not mean that the 
targets set initially are unrealistic. 

The  Commission  has  in  numerous  cases  expressed  its 
concerns  to  national  authorities,  as  that  commitments 
taken  were  not  living  up  to  its  commitments  under  the 
financing agreement, and indicating that a consequence 
of this (if not addressed) will be the non-endorsement of 
a road works contract that is currently out to tender. This 
approach has yielded mixed results. 

To  improve  this  situation  the  Commission  and  other 
donors have shifted to output-based performance assess-
ment frameworks, as an alternative to the system of direct 
process-based conditionality.

28.
Interventions such as the establishment of road funds and 
road agencies or other interventions related to axle over-
loading control need several years to be achieved. There-
fore, it is often undesirable to set the achievement of these 
interventions as a condition to the signature of a financ -
ing agreement. The situation has to be assessed case by 
case and what is successful in one country shall not neces-
sarily be successful everywhere. The Commission prefers 
to carry out a comprehensive dialogue together with the 
other donors which involves institutional reforms in the 
broadest spectrum and experience shows that using con-
ditions is not always the best solution. In the last 20 years, 
30 road funds and 20 road agencies have been set up in 
the sub-Saharan African countries, with very small use of 
conditions.

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REPLY OF THE  COMMISSION53

29.
The  Commission,  especially  in  the  countries  where  SBS 
programmes  are  implemented,  is  focusing  on  output-
based  per formance  assessment  frameworks  and  does 
not  any  longer  make  use  of  strict  conditions  for  new 
programmes  (see  reply  to  paragraphs  27  and  28). This 
approach allowed the achievement of all the substantial 
improvements described by the Court.

30.
The Commission is encouraging partner countries to pay 
more  attention  to  the  problem  of  vehicle  overloading. 
However,  this  problem  is  complex  and  concerns  other 
impor tant  sec tor  stak eholders,  such  as  the  transpor t 
enterprises, the shippers, the logistic operators, the port 
authorities and other administrations such as the Ministry 
of Finances, the Customs, etc.

The Commission is shifting to tackle this problem in the 
sector dialogue at the national level, and in the framework 
of transport facilitation programmes at the regional level.

31.
Effective  action  against  vehicle  overloading  cannot  be 
limited to the installation of more control points, weigh-
bridges and legislation. It must be extended to the sec-
tor stakeholders directly responsible for truck overload-
ing, mainly the transport enterprises, the shippers and the 
logistic operators. For example, in Tanzania the Commis-
sion  is  formulating  a very  innovative  programme  called 
‘One -stop  inspection  stations’  to  improve  efficiency  in 
monitoring and controlling overloading. This programme 
is the result of a long dialogue with all stakeholders from 
the public and private sector. This illustrates that a broad 
set of actions are needed to tackle the problem.

32.
The Commission searches consistency in fighting vehicle 
overloading, and is shifting to tackle this problem also at 
regional level. Indeed, fighting overloading in some coun-
tries and not in the others may cause distortions in com-
petition and traffic diversion. Two new regional 10th EDF 
projects of transport facilitation in western Africa are in the 
formulation phase, and include both several activities to 
address overloading at regional level. 

33.
The Commission is shifting to a more holistic and prag -
matic approach to reduce overloading step by step.

Reply to title before paragraph 34
The  Commission  notes  that  many  positive  assessments 
were  made  by  the  Cour t  on  polic y  dialogue  in  para-
graphs 35,  36,  38  and  39.  The  Commission  will  strive 
towards using the full potential.

34.
See replies to paragraphs 25 and 33.

37.
Investments are mainly related to rehabilitation works on 
the  existing  primary  backbone  road  network  and  much 
less  to  network  upgrading. The  Commission  notes  that 
its efforts have been instrumental in promoting increased 
spending on maintenance in most of the partner countries.

38. (b)
The Commission is focusing on outputs and does not any 
longer make use of strict conditions for new programmes 
(see reply to paragraph 27). The programme is co-financed 
by the EIB, AFD and AfDB.

38. (c)
The  donors  established  a formal  structure  for  consulta -
tion  and  the  basis  of  policy  dialogue  with  the  govern-
ment  through  the Technical  and  Financial  Stakeholders 
Committee (Comité des Partenaires Techniques et Financi-
ers — CPTF) in 2011. A working group on transport and 
infrastructure  was  formed  in  2012.  Outside  this  formal 
structure, dialogue continues through the quarterly pro-
gress meetings involving representatives of the NAO, the 
ministry and EUD, with annual meetings at minister and 
ambassador level.

The budgetary changes referred to were instigated at the 
highest  level  of  government  without  the  implication  of 
those involved in road maintenance, and came about fol-
lowing the construction of an oil refinery on Chadian ter-
ritory, which completely altered the mechanism of collec-
tion of fuel levies. While initially respecting the sovereignty 
of the government to amend its financial circuits accord-
ing to the changing circumstances of the country, the EUD 
reacted when it became aware of the resulting short-fall in 
the maintenance budget these changes produced.

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REPLY OF THE  COMMISSION54

39.
The  Commission  notes  the  Court’s  positive  assessment 
and that in the three remaining countries there have been 
recent positive developments.

39. (d)
In order to pave the way for policy dialogue, action has 
been taken to address the problem at technical level: 9th 
and 10th EDF-funded technical activities have included the 
development of strategies aimed at vehicle overloading 
(see Court’s observation, paragraph 44b) and the introduc-
tion of additional vehicle load control infrastructure.

44. (c)
Consistently with this, the Commission is now preparing 
with competent authorities two regional programmes (12,5 
and 15 million euro) on transport facilitation in western 
Africa, which support vehicle overload control systems at 
national and regional levels (e.g. weighbridges, joint bor-
der posts, GPS systems to monitor trucks and containers).

44. (e)
Tanzania as part of the EAC has signed the Vehicle Load 
Control Bill agreed at the level of ministers. It is foreseen 
for enactment into Community law in 2012.

Reply to title after paragraph 39. (d)
The  Commission  fully  agrees  with  the  opinion  that  the 
results have been useful. Where results have been limited, 
this is due to the difficult context and the weak capacity of 
the national administrations. 

40. (c)
The capacity building programme in Tanzania addressed 
also the road agency, and, to a limited extent, the LGAs.

42. (b)
The difficulties mentioned occurred after the rebel attack 
of 2008 (at the beginning of the implementation of the 
technical assistance). Now budgets have been largely allo-
cated in all but one contract, and some contract amounts 
have increased. The road agency (AGER) is in its early days 
of operation.

42. (d)
This is part of the sector dialogue and the delegation is 
engaged in promoting the implementation of the study 
recommendations.

42. (e)
The  Commission  agrees  that  one  of  the  most  difficult 
challenges  is  the  decentralisation  process,  especially  in 
view of the weak technical and financial capacity of local 
authorities.

43.
In  the  last  20  years,  the  Commission  is  involved  in  sup -
porting axle load control virtually in every country where 
it finances road projects. Often this is also done through 
technical cooperation.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION

45.
The Commission has made substantial progress in its sup-
port for a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa. 
However, the progress is not yet sufficient to ensure overall 
sustainability of the entire African road network.

46.
The Commission agrees. The Commission observes that the 
two thirds of roads found by the Court to be in fair to very 
good condition represents 90 % of kilometers.

The  Commission  considers  that  the  var ying  degree  of 
premature deterioration refers only to segments of these 
roads. This reflects the recurrent bias towards investments 
over maintenance.

47.
The Commission is deeply engaged in policy dialogue with 
positive results, and notes progress on road maintenance 
spending and attention given to axle overload.

The Commission’s leverage depends on the commitment 
and capacity of its partners, the amounts invested and the 
policies pursued by other donors in the sector.

The Commission acknowledges that the success level of 
the technical cooperation funded by the Commission may 
be improved.

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REPLY OF THE  COMMISSION55

Recommendation 2 (e)
The  Commission  considers  a  good  option  withdrawing 
from  the  sector  in  case  of  unsuccessful  dialogue  with 
a country partner. However, the Commission recalls that it 
cannot suspend funding when a specific works contract is 
signed and ongoing.

Recommendation 3 (a)
The Commission agrees with the recommendation.

Recommendation 3 (b)
The Commission agrees with the recommendation.

Recommendation 3 (c)
The Commission agrees with the recommendation. 

Recommendation 1 (a)
The Commission agrees to support countries which imple-
ment appropriate sector policies in general and specific 
measures to improve maintenance and control axle over-
loading. However, it should be noted that all interventions 
financed by the Commission are always originated by part-
ner countries' demands.

Recommendation 1 (b)
The Commission agrees in principle. However, in cases of 
minimal  progress  or  continued  unsuccessful  sector  dia-
logue  the  Commission  would  consider  withdrawing  its 
support.

Recommendation 1 (c)
The Commission agrees with the recommendation.

Recommendation 2 (a)
In general, the Commission agrees on the need to reinforce 
the dialogue and to monitor continuously the government 
performances in the sector. However, in accordance with 
the principle of aid effectiveness and in coordination with 
other donors, the Commission is gradually shifting from 
a system  based  on  direct  conditions  to  a more  ar ticu -
lated  system  of  output-based  per formance  assessment 
frameworks.

Recommendation 2 (b)
The  Commission  agrees  but  notes  that  for  the  reasons 
given in paragraph 27 this will only be possible in a limited 
number of cases.

Recommendation 2 (c)
The Commission agrees with the recommendation and is 
already carrying out periodic performance assessments in 
most of the countries. It has also the intention to intro-
duce ex post project evaluations for projects above a cer -
tain level of financing.

Recommendation 2 (d)
The Commission agrees with the recommendation and it is 
already engaged in most of the countries in following up 
the conclusions of the various performance assessments.

Special Report No 17/2012 – The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

REPLY OF THE  COMMISSIONEuropean Court of Auditors

Special Report No 17/2012
The European Development Fund (EDF) contribution to a sustainable road network in sub-Saharan Africa

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union

2012 — 55 pp. — 21 × 29.7 cm

ISBN 978-92-9237-965-0
doi:10.2865/36740

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ROADS ARE ESSENTIAL FOR REGIONAL INTEGRATION, ECONOMIC GROWTH, 

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, EFFECTIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND SECURITY. 

THE COURT EXAMINED WHETHER THE EDF HAS CONTRIBUTED TO THE SUS-

TAINABILITY OF THE ROAD NET WORK IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. THE COURT 

CONCLUDES THAT THE COMMISSION IS PARTIALLY EFFECTIVE IN PROMOTING 

THE ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION BY PARTNER COUNTRIES OF THE POL-

ICY REFORMS THAT ARE REQUIRED TO ADDRESS THE EXISTING OBSTACLE TO 

A SUSTAINABLE ROAD NET WORK. THE COURT MAKES RECOMMENDATIONS 

THAT AIM AT FOCUSING EDF FUNDING WHERE IT CAN HAVE THE GREATEST 

IMPACT AND IMPROVING THE WAY THE COMMISSION USES CONDITIONALITY, 

POLICY DIALOGUE AND TECHNICAL COOPERATION.

EUROPEAN COURT OF AUDITORS