JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Supporting closer cooperation and regional integration in the Maghreb: Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia
Date: 2012-12-17
Institutions: European Commission, High Representative of the Union
Subjects: Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, climate change, democratisation, development aid, economic development, industrial infrastructure, institutional reform, job creation, migration policy, private investment, terrorism, trade cooperation, transport infrastructure

EUROPEAN 
COMMISSION 

HIGH REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
EUROPEAN UNION FOR
FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND
SECURITY POLICY

Brussels, 17.12.2012  
JOIN(2012) 36 final 

JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, 
THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE 
COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Supporting closer cooperation and regional integration in the Maghreb: Algeria, Libya, 
Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia 

EN 

   EN 

 
 
 
  
 
JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, 
THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE 
COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Supporting closer cooperation and regional integration in the Maghreb: Algeria, Libya, 
Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia 

I. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

INTRODUCTION 

The peoples of the Maghreb have been at the forefront of the historic events of 2011. 
More  than  in  any  other  region  within  the  Arab  world,  the  Maghreb  countries  have 
embarked on a long process of change and reform. The European Union has a major 
interest in the success of such democratisation and modernisation processes. 

In addition, in the course of the past year, there has been renewed impetus from the 
countries of the Maghreb towards closer cooperation between them. This movement 
–  still  tentative  and  yet  to  translate  into  comprehensive  steps  –  is  based  on  the 
recognition  that  the  objectives  of  promoting  prosperity,  stability  and  democratic 
transformation at the national level cannot be fully realised in the absence of deeper 
relations between the countries of the Maghreb.  

The main purpose of this Communication is to set out ways in which the European 
Union  might  support  closer  cooperation  between  the  countries  of  the  Maghreb, 
drawing on its own extensive experience of integration and given its interest in the 
region as a neighbour and key partner for the five countries concerned. By doing so 
the  European  Commission  and  the  High  Representative  of  the  Union  for  Foreign 
Affairs and Security Policy (“the High Representative”) seek to encourage on-going 
efforts by Maghreb partners to deepen cooperation at the level of the Maghreb and 
accompany  them  in  this  process.  A  stronger  and  more  united  Maghreb  will  help 
address  common  challenges,  such  as  instability  in  the  Sahel,  energy  security,  the 
need to create jobs and fight climate change. These represent historic opportunities to 
deepen our partnership.  

This  Communication  is  part  of  the  overall  EU  response  to  the  changes  in  the 
southern neighbourhood. The proposals set out in it are intended to complement, not 
replace,  the  range  of  measures  that  the  EU  developed  in  the  Communications1 
adopted  by  the  European  Commission  and  the  High  Representative  in  2011  which 
established a Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity and set out a renewed 
approach  to  the  European  Neighbourhood  Policy.  Both  of  these  Communications 
highlighted  the  importance  of  greater  south-south  (and  sub-regional)  integration  as 
initiatives.  The  present 
complementary 
the  European 
Communication  also  builds  on 

regional 
the  "Agenda  for  Change", 

to  other  bilateral  and 

1 

”A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean” (8.3.11) and “A 
New Response to a Changing Neighbourhood: A review of European Neighbourhood Policy” (25.5.11). 

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Commission's  revised  policy  for  a  results-oriented  use  of  external  assistance 
funding2. 

The proposals are in line with the EU’s promise to respond positively to initiatives 
for  reform  launched  by  its  partner  countries  in  the  neighbourhood  and  have  been 
developed in consultation with them. Many of the measures set out below are new. 
Reference  is  also  made  in  some  cases  to  existing  regional  initiatives  where 
integration efforts could be enhanced through the use of existing tools albeit from a 
Maghreb  perspective  as  well  as  bilateral  activities,  where  these  contribute  to  wider 
cohesion in the region.  

At  the  same  time,  the  Communication  seeks  to  reflect  the  important  relations 
developed between the countries of the Maghreb and Sub-Saharan Africa on the one 
hand and the EU and Sub-Saharan Africa on the other. In this context, EU support 
for  integration  in  the  Maghreb  should  be  clearly  articulated  with  the  EU’s  wider 
relations  in  the  African  continent  as  set  out  in  the  Joint  Africa-EU  Strategy3.  This 
includes  in  particular  its  thematic  Peace  and  Security  Partnership  in  which  the 
countries  of  the  Maghreb  are  either  directly  participating  or  which  they  are  closely 
following. The Communication also takes account of the particular dual character of 
Mauritania, conferred on it by its geographic position at the crossroads between the 
Arab Maghreb and Sub-Saharan Africa.  

Impetus for change and the decisions as to how integration might best be achieved lie 
solely with the countries of the Maghreb themselves. Consequently the offer set out 
in  this  Communication  is  made  in  a  spirit of  solidarity  and  partnership  at  a  critical 
moment in the on-going debate within the Maghreb concerning the pace and depth of 
integration  at  the  sub-regional  level.  Nonetheless,  while  the  proposals  here  could 
bring  benefits  to  the  people  of  the  Maghreb  region  as  a  whole,  they  could  also  be 
beneficial if developed on a more limited bilateral basis or in an asymmetric manner 
across the region.  

CHALLENGES FACING THE MAGHREB 

The  Maghreb  is  a  region  with  a  very  rich  development  potential.  Situated  between 
Sub-Saharan  Africa  and  the  European  Union  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Eastern 
Mediterranean on the other, it has the advantages of access to both the Atlantic and 
Mediterranean  coast-lines  and  potential  over-land-transport  routes.  It  also  enjoys 
considerable  natural  and  human  resources,  as  well  as  shared  cultural  and  linguistic 
ties. 

Nonetheless,  the  Maghreb  remains  one  of  the  least  integrated  regions  in  the  world. 
As  a  result,  its  development  potential  has  generally  remained  locked.  On  the 
economic  side  the  cost  of  the  “non-Maghreb”  has  variously  been  estimated  at 
between  1-2%  of  the  GDP.  However  the  real  cost  of  non-integration  goes  beyond 
economic growth to include security, and wider human development in the region.  

"Increasing the impact of EU development policies: an Agenda for Change" (13.10.2011) 
“The  Africa-EU  Strategic  Partnership.  A  Joint  Africa-EU  Strategy”,  EU-Africa  Summit  in  Lisbon, 
2007, reference 16344/07. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

II. 

8. 

9. 

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10. 

The challenges facing the region have been well documented. These include: 

Democratic Reforms 

(a)  All  of  the  countries  of  the  Maghreb  are  undergoing  processes  of  political 
reform.  In  the  political  sphere  public  expectations  are  high  concerning 
participation  in  public  life,  accountability,  access  to  information,  freedom  of 
expression and access to justice. Civil society has grown in stature and is more 
able to fulfil its role as a legitimate partner of local government in developing 
increased 
more 
accountability  in  the  region.  Parliaments  have  the  potential  to  develop  as  key 
players as do the diverse political parties/movements which have emerged to-
date. At the same time the institutions necessary to protect democratic values, 
the rule of law and respect for human rights are weak. In this environment the 
task  of  consolidating  and  promoting  democratic  reforms  which  fully  respect 
international human rights norms remains very challenging. 

inclusive  societies.  Improved  electoral  processes  have 

Socio-economic Reforms 

(b)  Growth  in  the  Maghreb  still  remains  too  weak  to  absorb  the  large  population 
flows  into  the  job  market,  reduce  poverty  and  unemployment  (between  10% 
and  18%  in  Algeria,  Morocco  and  Tunisia)  and  over  30%  in  Mauritania  in 
2011). The UNDP's Arab Development Challenges Report 2011 estimates that 
even  in  a  conservative  scenario  (i.e.  maintaining  current  unemployment  rates 
and  labour  force  participation  rates),  Maghreb  countries  need  to  create  1.8 
million  jobs  by  2015,  and  7.8  million  by  2030.  Moreover  failure  to  generate 
sufficient  employment  opportunities  could  ultimately 
to  further 
impoverishment  if  the  human  capital  represented  by  youth  is  allowed  to  go 
untapped.  Without  an  increase  in  growth,  and  in  the  absence  of  effective 
policies in favour of employment (including investment in human capital and 
the  promotion  of  decent  work),  high  levels  of  unemployment  will  persist 
among  the  young  and  the  informal  sector  will  continue  to  represent  a 
significant proportion of the real economy. In turn these factors will continue 
to  pose  significant  risks  to  future  social  stability  and  to  the  transition  process 
towards democracy. 

lead 

(c)  Growth in agriculture in many of the Maghreb countries has been hampered by 
structural  problems  such  as  limited  investment,  water  availability,  land 
degradation, climate change and poor access to basic services. The agricultural 
sector  faces  the  challenge  of  producing  more  and  better  i.e.  to  increase 
agricultural  productivity,  move  towards  sustainable  production  methods  and 
improve living conditions in rural areas on the basis of long-term strategies. .  

(d)  To-date, the potential for the development of genuinely diversified economies 
based  on  the  emergence  of  a  vibrant  private  sector  is  far  from  realised.  The 
Maghreb has so far not managed to create regional consumer markets, exploit 
economies of scale and fully exploit its favourable proximity to Europe and to 
major intercontinental sea routes to develop regional production links, become 
part  of  the  global  value-added  chain  and  hence  be  more  attractive  to 
investment.  Too  often,  keeping  the  economies  closed  has  allowed  some 
favoured  few  domestic  enterprises  to  thrive  on  rent-seeking  behaviour,  and 

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(e) 

cement  monopoly  powers.  In  addition,  corruption  has  been  identified  as  a 
major obstacle to investment and business.  

In the social and human development context, despite significant achievements 
in some areas notably education and life expectation, a significant part of the 
population  remains  without  adequate  employment,  social  protection  or  social 
rights4.  Moreover,  in  most  Maghreb  countries,  considerable  internal  social 
disparities persist with wealth being concentrated in selected areas. As a result 
the  countries  of  the  Maghreb  remain  countries  of  emigration  mainly  directed 
towards Europe, with the general exception of Libya. They are equally transit 
countries for irregular migration to Europe. Sustainable development can only 
be achieved if the younger generation is well educated and able to participate 
in the social and economic life in their country. A well educated population is a 
basis for stability and can contribute to the emergence of a democratic society. 
Higher  education  institutions  are  key  players  in  the  democratic  transition  as 
they are responsible for training a new generation of leaders and educators. In 
addition, the issue of cultural policy reform has gained a special importance in 
the aftermath of the Arab Spring. 

Global Threats 

(f)  Terrorism  and  international  crime  issues  are  of  paramount  concern  in  the 
region and beyond into the wider southern neighbourhood as well as the Sahel. 
Al  Qaida  in  the  Islamic  Maghreb  (AQMI)  has  brought  together  a  network  of 
terrorism  notably  in  the  Maghreb  and  in  Mali.  The  situation  has  deteriorated 
following the conflict in Libya with increased trafficking of arms, people and 
drugs  and  the  presence  of  jihadist  fighters  who  participated  in  the  conflict 
making  the  Sahelo-Saharan  region  a  zone  of  instability.  It  also  triggered  the 
Touareg rebellion in the North of Mali which has allowed AQMI to extend its 
influence still further. In order to achieve the objectives set out by the EU in its 
Strategy  for  Security  and  Development  in  the  Sahel5  (covering  Algeria, 
Mauritania, Mali and Niger but whose implementation is focused on the three 
latter  countries)  it  will  be  important  to  work  in  close  collaboration  with  the 
countries of the Maghreb, themselves directly affected by, and also players in 
respect of, the Sahara-Sahel zone. 

Environment and Climate Change 

(g)  The  Maghreb  is  a  zone  which  faces  many  challenges  in  the  environmental 
sphere and in the exploitation of natural resources. National and regional action 
is needed to tackle environment issues, including with regard to air, water, the 
marine  environment,  soil  and  biodiversity.  Maghreb  countries  are  also  highly 
vulnerable  to,  and  are  already  experiencing  the  consequences  of,  climate 
change  with  potentially  severe  effects  on  key  sectors  of  the  economy  (e.g. 
agriculture,  tourism,  food  prices).  At  the  same  time,  the  region  offers  unique 
opportunities  to  move  towards  low  carbon  development,  notably  through 
increased  emphasis  upon  renewable  energy  and  energy  efficiency,  including 

See UNDP: The Arab Development Challenges Report 2011.  

European Union Strategy for Security and Development in the Sahel, 31 March 2011  

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III. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

IV. 

15. 

through cross-border projects and policies. In turn this would contribute to job 
creation and to attracting investment into the region.  

ARAB MAGHREB UNION, UNION FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN, 5+5 - A FLEXIBLE AND 
PRAGMATIC APPROACH. 

The  EU  is  committed  to  deepening  its  bilateral  relations  with  the  countries  of  the 
Maghreb. At the same time, it believes that there is a need for the various regional 
organisations  and  structures  that  already  exist  to  be  re-energised  in  order  to  meet 
common  challenges.  The  EU  is  ready  to  step  up  its  support  as  well  as  develop 
synergies and enhance coordination with existing initiatives at the bilateral level.  

The  proposed  forthcoming  Arab  Maghreb  Union  (AMU)  Summit  will  be  an 
important  event  to  give  new  impetus  to  Maghreb  integration.  The  European 
Commission  and  the  High  Representative  welcome  the  dialogue  developed  so  far 
with the AMU and are committed to enhancing it and to developing new areas of co-
operation,  building  in  particular  on  technical  work  already  undertaken  with  the 
AMU. 

Certain international frameworks can be used to facilitate greater and improved co-
operation  among  the  Maghreb  countries  as  well  with  their  northern  and  southern 
neighbours. The Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) can use its flexibility in order to 
promote sub-regional  cooperation  projects in  favour  of  the  Maghreb  countries.  The 
grouping  of  five  countries  of  the  EU  Southern  Mediterranean  and  of  the  Maghreb, 
(the  so  called  “5+56”)  is  valuable  because  it  establishes  co-operation  between  the 
countries  concerned  on  the  basis  of  shared  interests  and  common  objectives  whose 
achievement can be supported by the EU in some cases, for example through funding 
feasibility  studies  or  project  preparation.  The  initiative  of  the  "pays  du  champ" 
(Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger), aimed at addressing the Sahara-Sahel dimension 
together  with  the  EU  Strategy  for  the  Sahel  also  provide  frameworks  for  close 
collaboration with the Maghreb 

The  African  continental  dimension  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration:  the 
Maghreb  region  will  continue  to  be  associated  with  cross-regional  and  continental 
initiatives  in  the  framework  of  the  Joint  Africa-EU  Strategy,  in  particular  with  the 
support of the Pan-African Programme, if created.  

TOWARDS MORE COOPERATION AND INTEGRATION IN THE MAGHREB; A POSSIBLE 
EU CONTRIBUTION. 

The benefits of closer integration in the Maghreb would be enjoyed not only by the 
citizens  of  the  five  countries  concerned.  They  would  also  be  shared  with  their 
neighbours including the European Union. For the EU the development of a zone of 
stability and prosperity based on democratic accountability and the rule of law in the 
Maghreb  is  a  key  objective  of  our  bilateral  relations  and  can  only  be  enhanced 
through  a  regional  approach.  Both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean  stand  to  reap  the 

6 

The  Western  Mediterranean  Forum  consists  of  Algeria,  France,  Italy,  Libya,  Malta,  Mauritania, 
Morocco, Portugal, Spain and Tunisia.  

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A. 

16. 

B. 

17. 

benefits  of  increased  stability,  more  integrated  markets,  closer  people  to  people 
contacts and deepened intellectual, economic and cultural exchanges.  

In this context, the EU could support a number of initiatives in the areas listed below, 
mobilising  a  variety  of  instruments,  ranging  from  enhanced  political  dialogue  to 
technical assistance and specific projects.  

Democratic reforms 

The EU is already supporting democratic reforms in the Maghreb States taking into 
account  specific  developments  in  each  country  concerned.  In  addition  to  these 
actions, the EU can:  

(cid:190)  support  regional  and  sub-regional  initiatives  aimed  at  strengthening  civil 
society  organisations  and  networks  to  promote  greater  engagement  in  democratic 
governance, accountability and policy dialogue7. This can be achieved by mobilising 
the  European  Neighbourhood  Partnership  Instrument  including  the  Neighbourhood 
South  Civil  Society  Facility,  the  European  Instrument  for  Democracy  and  Human 
Rights  and  the  Non-State  Actors  and  Local  Authorities  programme.  It  can  include 
organising and supporting sub-regional initiatives such as the Maghreb Social Forum, 
the Forum Syndical Maghrébin, civil society networks etc…  

(cid:190)  support  increased  cooperation  and  exchanges  between  the  parliaments  of  the 

Maghreb and those in EU Member States and the European Parliament; 

(cid:190)  continue  to  support  Maghreb  partner  countries'  efforts  to  modernise  their 
justice systems including improved access to justice, the independence of the judiciary 
and respect for the rule of law;  

(cid:190)  strengthen the institutional capacity of local authorities in local governance and 
decision-making and in service delivery notably as regards transparency, decentralised 
reforms  and  the  provision  of  quality  services  to  the  population  through  peer-to-peer 
cooperation EU local authorities;  

(cid:190)  launch  a  new  programme  to  enhance  the  role  of  media  and  culture  in  the 
Maghreb  as  vectors  for  democratisation,  support  for  freedom  of  expression,  and 
conflict resolution. Among its activities, this programme will favour peer-to-peer co-
operation  at  the  sub-regional  level  to  support  the  process  of  transformation  of  state 
media into public service-oriented media. 

Global Threats  

The  countries  of  the  Maghreb  have  the  primary  responsibility  in  fighting  against 
terrorism  and  trafficking.  Success  here  depends  on  close  co-ordination  and 
consequently  the  EU  is  supportive  of  all  efforts  to  promote  stronger  co-operation 
between all Maghreb countries in this regard. Long-standing unresolved conflicts, as 
well  as  continuing  tensions  arising  from  more  recent  conflicts  represent  further 
potential  threats  to  security  and  impediments  to  further  integration.  From  the  EU’s 
perspective  instability  in  the  Sahara/Sahel region  can  also  threaten  its  own  security 
and  therefore  it  too  needs  to  deepen  its  dialogue  by  stepping  up  its  cooperation 
efforts  with  the  countries  of  the  region.  In  addition  efforts  to  mitigate  the  illicit 

7 

In  line  with  the  Communication  “The  Roots  of  Democracy  and  Sustainable  Development:  Europe’s 
Engagement with Civil Society in External Relations”, Brussels, 12.9.2012, COM(2012) 492 final, and 
EU Council Conclusions of 15 October, 2012.  

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trafficking in chemical, biological, radioactive and nuclear (CBRN) materials need to 
be increased. 

18. 

In this context the EU can: 

(cid:190)  establish  regular  contacts  between  the EU  Military  Staff,  the  EU  Intelligence 
Analysis  Centre,  Europol  and  the  competent  authorities  in  the  Maghreb  countries  in 
order to ensure improved exchanges of information; 

(cid:190)  as  appropriate,  provide  technical  advice  to  the  competent  authorities  in  the 

Maghreb countries and to the structures active in fighting terrorism and trafficking;  

(cid:190)  participate  in  security-focused  activities  in  the  "5+5"  framework,  as  well  as 
support  their  development,  particularly  when  they  encompass  civilian  and  military 
contributions to air, sea and border management;  

(cid:190)  support judiciary, police and military schools/training centres of the Maghreb 
states  when  developing  training  programmes  opened  to  regional  and  African 
participants by providing, as appropriate, technical advice; 

(cid:190)  support  capacity-building  measures,  technical  exchanges  and  sharing  of  best 
practice  with  the  EU  to  address  conditions  conducive  to  the  spread  of  terrorism  and 
foster  societal  resilience  against  incitement,  recruitment  and  violent  radicalization, 
particularly of youth; 

(cid:190)  step up efforts in the framework of the EU Centres of Excellence CBRN Risk 

Mitigation Initiative;  

(cid:190)  in  line  with  the  Joint  Communications  from  20118  support  efforts  at  conflict 
resolution and reconciliation notably through confidence-building measures, if invited 
to do so by those concerned. 

Supporting Inclusive Economic Development 

The  structural  problems  of  high  unemployment,  weak  educational,  training  and 
labour  market  institutions,  a  weak  private  sector,  and  low  levels  of  trade  and 
economic  integration  are  interconnected.  Without  a  competitive  private  sector,  few 
decent  jobs  will  be  created.  Without  efforts  to  reform  education  and  employment 
policies, the private sector will not be able to grow, and without open and integrated 
economies,  competition  will  remain  limited,  markets  untapped,  and  the  investment 
needed to create jobs will not be forthcoming9. 

The jobs challenge 

Education  and  training  are  key  in  the  context  of  job  creation  and  employability.  In 
the  Maghreb,  national  educational  systems  need  to  increase  their  focus  on 
employability,  promoting  in  particular  higher  quality  vocational  education  and 
training (VET) and the increased take-up of such opportunities. At the same time the 
process  of  modernisation  of  higher  education  systems  needs 
to  continue 
concentrating  on  improving  their  quality  and  relevance  to  the  needs  of  the  labour 
market.  In  parallel,  demand-side  labour  market  measures  should  be  complemented 
by an effective social dialogue.  

C. 

19. 

20. 

8 
9 

See footnote 1. 
See  also:  Regional  Trade  Facilitation  and  Infrastructure  Study  for  Maghreb  Countries,  20  June  2012, 
The World Bank  

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21. 

National  education  and  employment  policies  can  be  usefully  complemented  by 
regional initiatives. In this respect the EU can: 

(cid:190)  support 

the 

creation  of  Maghreb-wide  networks 

among 

relevant 

educational/employment partners (educational institutions, and social partners);  

(cid:190)  assist in strengthening technical exchanges on VET and employment issues in 

the Maghreb region, including public employment services;  

(cid:190)  explore the feasibility of technical exchanges in a Maghreb format on selected 
topics  within  the  context  of  the  Marrakesh  Framework  of  Actions  focusing  on 
employment, employability and decent work;  

(cid:190)  continue supporting the modernisation of higher education systems in Maghreb 
countries  through  the  Tempus,  Erasmus  MUNDUS  and  their  successor  programmes. 
These  tools  will  continue  to  be  used  to  promote  voluntary  convergence  of  higher 
education  systems  of  partner  countries  with  developments  in  the  EU  pursued  in  the 
framework of the Bologna process. 

Private sector development 

Representatives  of  the  private  sector  in  the  Maghreb  have  identified  skills 
development, quality of production, access to finance, access to markets (both inside 
and outside the region), rural development and development of the agro-food sector, 
and  most  importantly  transparency  of  regulation  and  legal  security  as  key 
requirements for the development of the private sector. 

Governments  need  to  create  space  for  entrepreneurship,  innovation  and  SME 
development,  ensure  a  level-playing  field  for  all  operators,  and  reduce  inefficiency 
and  corruption  within  the  public  administration.  Fair  and  simple  access  to  public 
procurement  market  is  of  particular  importance  in  this  respect.  Networks  of 
entrepreneurs,  chambers  of  commerce,  and  other  stakeholders  can  provide 
opportunities  for  peer  support  but  also  mechanisms  to  identify  customers  and 
suppliers.  An  area  deserving  particular  attention  is  the  promotion  of  female 
entrepreneurship.  

Maghreb  countries  will  be  key  EU  partners  in  the  new  Framework  Research 
Programme  'Horizon  2020'  which  involves  a  strong  international  cooperation 
dimension. They  will  be  engaged  in  the  elaboration  of  a  Common  Research  and 
Innovation  Agenda  between  the  EU  and  the  Mediterranean  Partner  Countries. 
Maghreb  countries  will  develop  partnerships  with  the  EU  through  science  policy 
dialogues,  joint  research  initiatives  to  tackle  common  societal  challenges  related  to 
water, food security, health, environment, energy, as well as through the building of 
research and innovation capacity.  

22. 

23. 

24. 

25. 

Building  on  its  existing  assistance  efforts  in  the  region  in  support  of  private  sector 
development the EU can: 

(cid:190)  support  networking  between  Maghreb  business  people  including  through 

national associations and the holding of events; 

(cid:190)  support  the  establishment  of  a  network  providing  advice  to  Maghreb 
enterprises  planning  to  invest  in  other  Maghreb  countries  (development  of  business 
plans, knowledge of local legislation etc.); 

(cid:190)  technically  support  Maghreb  banks  wishing  to  extend  their  operations  across 

the region (e.g. payment systems);  

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(cid:190)  support  partner  countries 

the  new  European  Neighbourhood 
Programme for Agriculture & Rural Development (ENPARD), in adopting policies for 
stronger and more inclusive growth in rural areas and the agro-food sector;  

through 

(cid:190)  promote  female  entrepreneurship  including  through  mentoring,  facilitating 

access to finance and supporting public assistance for start ups;  

(cid:190)  provide on-the-job-training and tutoring in small and medium-sized enterprises 
(SME) in other partner countries for young professionals/new entrepreneurs aiming at 
setting up their company, in order to facilitate successful start-ups, and development 
of business ideas, build the capacity of providers of business support services; 

(cid:190)  following  the  decision  to  increase  the  lending  capacity  of  the  European 
Investment  Bank  and  the  European  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development  and 
other  European  financial  institutions,  further  assistance  may  be  available  to  support 
the development of SMEs. Cooperation with the future Maghreb Development Bank 
in particular in this area could be envisaged; 

(cid:190)  extend  the  European  Enterprise  Network,  which  is  already  present  in  the 
region to those partner countries not already yet covered by it10 and integrate clusters 
and other enterprise networks into European collaboration platforms; 

26. 

Culture  has  a  particularly  important  contribution  to  make  to  sustainable  human, 
social and economic development.  

27. 

28. 

In the Maghreb region, the EU can: 

(cid:190)  support  the  development  of  the  cultural  sector  as  a  vector  for  sustainable 
development  of  the  region,  by  fostering  cultural  policy  reform  and  reinforcing  the 
capacity  of  cultural  policy  makers  and  supporting  the  promotion  of  investment,  the 
private  sector  and  the  development  of  cultural  operators'  business  capacities, 
especially at the Maghreb level. 

Trade 

Stronger  regional  trade  integration  among  the  Maghreb  countries,  coupled  with  the 
establishment of deep and comprehensive free trade areas between Maghreb partners 
and the EU, would be mutually beneficial. EU companies and investors could benefit 
from  greater  market  development  and  integration,  opening  not  only  bigger  export 
markets,  but  also  integrating  the  region  into  their  production  networks.  Removing 
existing  barriers  to  trade,  opening  borders  (including  the  Algeria-Morocco  border) 
and integrating the region into global supply chains and production networks, could 
also release considerable economic potential. Such developments however depend on 
the political will of partner countries. 

In order to encourage deeper trade and economic integration in the Maghreb, the EU 
has focused its support on diversified and enhanced south-south trade integration as 
well  as  on  the  promotion  of  investment.  At  the  bilateral  level,  the  EU  to-date  has 
focused  efforts  on  those  countries  still  to  accede  to  the  WTO  (Algeria  and  Libya), 
and on moving towards the establishment of deep and comprehensive free trade areas 
(Morocco  and  Tunisia).  Ultimately,  the  establishment  of  a  network  of  such 
agreements between the EU and the Maghreb, and also among the Maghreb partners 
themselves,  would  contribute  to  the  realisation  of  the  vision  of  an  economic 
community emerging between the EU and its ENP partners. 

10 

Tunisia is the only country already covered by the European Enterprise Network within the Maghreb.  

EN 

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29. 

Building on existing trade relations between the EU and the Maghreb countries, the 
EU can:  

(cid:190)  further support the development of regional production links by exploiting, and 
raising awareness of, the possibilities for cumulation of origin amongst the members 
of  the  Pan-Euro-Mediterranean  Zone  in  addition  to  the  promotion  of  expected  new 
rules adapted to exporters (of particular importance for the textiles industries, but also 
relevant to higher value added industries);  

(cid:190)  continue  the  provision  of  support  and  technical  expertise  to  accompany  trade 
and economic integration processes in the framework of the Arab Maghreb Union and 
the Agadir Agreement; 

(cid:190)  support  initiatives  among  Maghreb  partners  to  raise  awareness  of  trade  and 
investment  conditions,  for  instance  through  the  Euro-Mediterranean  Trade  and 
Investment Facility Mechanism, to reduce non-tariff barriers to trade, and to improve 
and upgrade customs procedures and facilities in order to foster intraregional trade;  

(cid:190)  facilitate trade in industrial products by finalising preparations for the start of 
negotiations  of  an  Agreement  on  Conformity  Assessment  and  Acceptance  (ACAA) 
with each of the Maghreb countries; 

(cid:190)  enhance cooperation with the Maghreb business community in order to allow 
business  better  to  convey  its  interests  and  concerns  as  regards  trade  and  investment 
initiatives in the region. The establishment of an EU Maghreb business forum could be 
a first step in this regard. 

Infrastructure and Network Sectors  

In  order  for  regional  trade  and  economic  integration  to  be  effective,  regional 
infrastructure  links  and  logistics  are  needed  as  is  a  facilitating  environment  for 
traders.  Infrastructure  initiatives  need  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  reforms  aimed  at 
promoting  trade  facilitation,  a  better  and  fairer  regulatory  system  and  also  the 
liberalisation  and 
(transport  and 
integration  of 
telecommunication services, etc…). 

regional  services  sectors 

Transport 

In  the  area  of  transport,  the  development  of  the  Trans-Maghreb  network  remains  a 
priority.  This  network  will  form  part  of  the  future  Trans-Mediterranean  Transport 
Network  developed  within  Euro-Mediterranean  cooperation  (EuroMed).  As  such  it 
will  constitute  the  necessary  backbone  for  the  development  of  intra-regional  trade 
and  will  provide  economic  operators  and  citizens  on  both  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean with multiple connections. The opening of the Algerian-Morocco land 
border  would  be  crucial  to  complete  the  Trans-Maghreb  motorways  and  hence 
develop trade and people to people contacts. 

In order to accelerate progress in the development of transport networks, coordinated 
efforts  of  regional  and  sub-regional  networks  and  structures  such  as  EuroMed,  the 
Group of Transport Ministers of the Western Mediterranean (GTMO 5+5), the AMU, 
the UfM as well as financial institutions are indispensable.  

In  the  aviation  sector,  closer  integration  with  the  EU´s  neighbours  has  been 
developed with the aim of creating a wider European Common Aviation Area. The 
offer  to  create  a  common  Mediterranean  airspace  is  also  addressed  to  the  Maghreb 
countries.  

D. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

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34. 

The EU can: 

(cid:190)  support  the  preparation  of  studies  and  bankable  projects  as  well  as  technical 
assistance  programmes  and  promote  closer  coordination  between  relevant  actors 
regarding  the  development  of  the  Trans-Maghreb  Network,  EU-Maghreb  maritime 
links and the common Mediterranean airspace; 

(cid:190)  promote  the  development  of  maritime  links  in  line  with  the  concept  of  the 
“Motorways  of  the  Sea”  in  order  to  further  improve  transport  links  between  the  EU 
and  Maghreb  countries  and  within  the  Maghreb  region  itself  through  improved 
connectivity of the Trans-European Transport and the Trans-Maghreb networks; 

(cid:190)  develop  the  ECAA  by  negotiation  of  air  services  agreements  with  some 

Maghreb countries as has already been the case with Morocco 

(cid:190)  continue to use the Neighbourhood Investment Facility to mobilize additional 
funding  to  cover  the  regional  investment  needs  related  to  transport  infrastructure  in 
particular by mobilising technical assistance and funding to complete the missing links 
of the Trans-Maghreb motorways, notably the border crossing points;  

(cid:190)  continue  to  support  the  use,  development  and  deployment  of  inter-operable 

Intelligent Transport Systems;  

(cid:190)  encourage the European agencies involved in transport, as is already the case 
for  aviation,  within  their  mandates,  to  provide  technical  support,  including  through 
increased exchange of experience between the Maghreb countries. 

Information Society/Network sectors 

35. 

Despite  the  wide-spread  use  of  popular  information  tools  during  the  Arab 
revolutions,  the  Maghreb  is  a  region  where  access  to  the  internet  still  ranges  from 
5.5% to a 34% in Libya/Tunisia (still low by international standards). Lagging ICT 
infrastructures  and  regulatory  frameworks  hinder  countries  from  fully  reaping  the 
benefits of the information society and the productivity potential of ICT. Moreover, 
delayed  liberalisation of telecommunication  services can create serious obstacles to 
further regional trade integration. 

36. 

The EU can: 

(cid:190)  provide technical assistance targeting the specific needs of the Maghreb in the 

area of regulatory approximation through exchanges of best practice;  

(cid:190)  support cooperation between EU and Maghreb regulatory authorities; 
(cid:190)  support  studies  on  the  economic  and  legal  impact  of  revising  the  regulatory 
framework  from  a  national  and  regional  perspective  for  electronic  communications 
and e-business;  

(cid:190)  consider actions aiming at improving regional connectivity and supporting the 
capacity-building of the research community and the development and use of regional 
e-infrastructure. 

Energy 

37. 

The EU and the Maghreb are long-standing partners in the energy sector (oil and gas 
trade, pipelines, the development of hydrocarbons for example in Algeria and Libya, 
electricity  synchronous  interconnection,  electricity  flows  to  Morocco).  Building  on 
this cooperation, there is now a real prospect of developing an integrated energy area 
through  a  deepened  partnership  starting  with  renewable  energy,  enhanced  energy 
efficiency  and  the  development  of  an  integrated  electricity  market,  benefitting  both 
the  Maghreb  and  the  EU.  Such  an  area  could  contribute  to  the  wider  goals  of 

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boosting  intra-Maghreb  and  EU-Maghreb/Mediterranean  trade.  It  could  also  help 
meet the EU’s own objectives in terms of developing renewable energy after 202011. 
Large  scale  investments  in  renewable  energy  including  in  Maghreb-wide  back-up 
electricity  production  capacity  would  also  increase  energy  security.  In  turn,  such 
investments  would  help  to  stimulate  new  and  more  jobs,  inter  alia  by  developing 
local  renewable  industries,  research  and  innovation,  international  competitiveness, 
air  quality  and  health.  They  would  also  contribute  to  efforts  to  address  climate 
change and the implementation of low emission development strategies. A Maghreb 
energy  market,  increasingly  fed  by  renewables,  would  progressively  reduce  the 
import  bill  for  energy  importers  and  create  additional  flexibility  for  hydrocarbon 
producers to use their reserves.  

38. 

The  Maghreb  as  a  sub-region  could  emerge  as  a  front-runner  in  the  Mediterranean 
area  while  maintaining  consistency  with  wider  approaches  (e.g.  Union  for  the 
Mediterranean,  Mediterranean  Solar  Plan  etc…).  In  this  context,  a  number  of 
concrete steps towards the development of a West-Mediterranean electricity area by 
2020-2025 can be envisaged: 

(cid:190)  on the basis of a set of common technical rules, regional cooperation structures 
(MEDREG  for  regulators  and  MED-TSO  for  transmission  systems  operators)  are 
ready to further assist in developing common grid codes which could be used as a pilot 
in the Maghreb; 

(cid:190)  gradual steps should be defined towards market integration – based notably on 
the  Algiers  roadmap.  This  includes  elements  such  as:  bilateral  capacity  allocation 
based  on  common  principles  by  2014,  coordinated  capacity  allocation  by  2016,  the 
establishment of a regional electricity trading platform by 2016-2020, etc…; 

(cid:190)  increased  support  for  energy  sector  reforms  can  be  provided,  including  for 
regional  cooperation  and  regional  organisations  (e.g.  the  establishment  of  energy 
regulators  in  Morocco  and  Tunisia  by  2014,  in  Libya  by  2016  and  functionally 
independent Transmission Systems Operators in Maghreb countries by 2015, etc.); 

(cid:190)  cooperation  should  be  increased  on  renewable  energy  and  energy  efficiency 
including  by  the  closer  involvement  of  partner  countries  in  EU  Renewable  Energy 
policy  discussions  and  instruments.  This  should  build  on  existing  support  operations 
through  the  Neighbourhood  Investment  Facility  (NIF)  and  European  development 
finance  institutions  through  grant  funding,  technical  assistance  and  risk  capital 
operations.  Joint  calls  for  innovation  projects  could  be  launched.  Principles  for 
renewable energy investment and trade can be agreed; 

(cid:190)  in the case of Mauritania, as with other Sub-Saharan countries, the Sustainable 
Energy for All Initiative (SE4ALL) can be used to support energy cooperation through 
the appropriate financial instruments.  

39 

Electricity  prospects  in  the  region  for  2020  require  significant  investments  in 
generation  capacity  (mainly  conventional  but  with  a  growing  share  of  renewables) 
and network infrastructures. By creating new opportunities for electricity flows in the 
region the case for completing the Western Mediterranean electricity loop along two 
corridors 
is 
reinforced. 

(Algeria-Morocco-Spain-France  and  Algeria/Libya-Tunisia-Italy) 

11 

“Renewable Energy: a major player in the European Energy Market” COM (2012) 271, 6 June, 2012. 

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40 

While  technical  feasibility  studies  exist  already,  the  regulatory  and  financial  model 
for  the  new  interconnections  will  require  specific  attention  and  probably  a  specific 
legal framework (intergovernmental agreement). A corridor approach is needed and 
considerable coordination activities will be required. Consequently the EU proposes 
to appoint a Special Coordinator in common agreement with the countries concerned. 

41. 

In addition: 

(cid:190)  in  order  to  maintain  the  new  impetus  provided  by  the  Algiers  Energy 
Ministerial  meeting  of  June  2010,  it  is  proposed  to  convene  yearly  an  EU-Maghreb 
Energy Council, with the next taking place in the first semester 2013;  

(cid:190)  the EU proposes to launch an in-depth technical dialogue with all stakeholders 
to  discuss  all  successive  steps  towards  market  integration.  An  Electricity  Forum, 
similar to the Florence Forum in the EU, could be organised in 2013;  

(cid:190)  technical  work  on  regional  integration  is  being  carried-out  by  regional 
institutions  such  as  MEDREG  and  MED-TSO.  This  could  be  complemented  and 
supported by a specific technical assistance project starting in 2013 (organisation and 
preparation of inputs to the electricity forum, support to technical work, specific tasks 
for  MEDREG  and  MED-TSO  concerning  the  Maghreb,  logistical  support  for  yearly 
Ministerial meetings, etc). 

E. 

Environment, Climate change, Civil Protection,  

Environment and climate change 

42. 

The EU is already supporting Maghreb countries and other Southern Mediterranean 
partners  to  strengthen  environment  protection  and  the  fight  against  climate  change 
through a range of bilateral measures as well as through the Horizon 2020 initiative 
on the de-pollution of the Mediterranean Sea.  

43. 

At the Maghreb level, the EU can: 

(cid:190)  in  line  with  the  Rio+20  Summit,  develop  further  activities  on  the  Green 
Economy with the Maghreb, for instance by reinforcing a sub-regional or transnational 
component  of  the  existing  EU-funded  project  on  sustainable  consumption  and 
production patterns;  

(cid:190)  continue to use the Neighbourhood Investment Facility to mobilise additional 
funding  to  cover  the  investment  needs  of  the  region  to  address  climate-change  and 
develop environment-related infrastructure projects; 

(cid:190)  with  the  support  of  the  Secretariat  of  the  UfM,  relevant  IFIs  and  the 
involvement  of  Maghreb  countries,  further  engage  in  the  implementation  of  sub-
regional  or  trans-national  investment  projects,  or  national  projects  falling  within 
agreed frameworks or initiatives, in particular the Horizon 2020 Initiative for the de-
pollution of the Mediterranean; 

(cid:190)  within the framework of the Integrated Maritime Policy in the Mediterranean, 
the Maghreb countries could be further encouraged to develop sub-regional or trans-
national  initiatives  tackling  such  cross-cutting  sea-related  issues  as  maritime 
surveillance  and  safety,  maritime  highways,  marine  knowledge  or  spatial  planning 
aiming to unlock the potential for “blue growth”; 

(cid:190)  reinforce  cooperation  in  the  preservation  of  marine  living  resources  between 
the  EU  and  Maghreb  countries  in  particular  within  the  framework  of  the  General 
Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean and the International Commission for the 

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Conservation  of  Atlantic  Tuna.  Such  cooperation  could  facilitate  the  deployment  of 
scientific means in order to better evaluate stocks and manage resources sustainably; 

(cid:190)  support  Maghreb  partners  to  strengthen  capacity  to  design  and  implement 
climate  change  policies  and  strategies,  support  low  carbon  emission  development, 
strengthen climate resilience and enhance access to information;  

(cid:190)  in the context of strengthening the EU-Southern Mediterranean policy dialogue 
on  climate  change,  the  Commission  will  continue  to  encourage  the  development  of 
pilot  projects  in  countries  interested  to  test  implementation  of  the  so-called  New 
Market  Mechanism  as  agreed  in  the  context  of  UN  Framework  Climate  Change 
Convention  negotiations  in  Durban.  The  Commission  has  already  committed  itself 
through the World Bank Partnership for Market Readiness and the Carbon Partnership 
Facility  to  help  prepare  the  ground  for  this.  These  and  similar  initiatives  could, 
provided  that  conditions  are  right,  lead  to  bilateral  agreements  with  the  Maghreb 
countries that would allow for the use of sectoral credits earned on top of substantial 
"own  action"  in  the  power-generation  sector.  The  objective  would  be  to  support 
investment  in  renewable  energy  and  energy  efficiency,  and  to  mitigate  the  carbon 
impact  of  the  energy  sector.  The  Commission  will  accordingly  initiate  consultations 
with  third  country  partners  on  such  prospects.  Should  the  conditions  be  right, 
sufficient  absorption  capacity  for  credits  exist  and  our  partners  be  interested,  the 
Commission would then prepare for requests for negotiating mandates. 

Civil Protection 

the  region’s  efforts 

The  Maghreb  region  is  particularly  vulnerable  to  man-made  and  natural  disasters 
which  could  critically  undermine 
towards  sustainable 
development. In view of their vicinity, and common vulnerability to climate related 
to  gain  from  climate-resilient 
impacts, 
development strategies and from close cooperation at the regional level and with the 
EU since natural and man-made disasters do not stop at the borders. Civil protection 
is  a  key  instrument  to  build  good  co-operation  and  promote  solidarity  between 
countries.  

the  Maghreb  countries  have  much 

While  a  Risk  Atlas  and  an  effective  network  of  national  correspondents  for  civil 
protection  exist  for  the  Mediterranean  region,  the  Maghreb  could  benefit  from 
enhanced  cooperation  to  increase  its  capacity  for  disaster  prevention,  adaptation, 
preparedness and response and contribute to economic, social and political stability 
in the region.  

Building  on  existing  cooperation  in  this  area  (including  the  Programme  for  the 
Prevention,  Preparedness  and  Response  to  Natural  and  Man-Made  Disasters  South 
Programme) the EU can: 

(cid:190)  promote the development of a regional approach to disaster management based 

on prevention and preparedness rather than on response, with all key stakeholders; 

(cid:190)  promote  reinforced  inter-regional  co-operation  in  the  Maghreb  through  the 
network of national correspondents for civil protection in order to ensure coordinated 
responses to disasters; 

(cid:190)  assist in developing the Risk Atlas to risks not covered in the first version and 

which could affect the Maghreb region in particular;  

(cid:190)  assist in the analysis of the increasing climate-induced risks and in respective 

preventive adaptation actions; 

44. 

45. 

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F. 

46. 

47. 

(cid:190)  assist  in  capacity-building  and  awareness-raising  on  disaster  prevention  and 
preparedness and provide technical assistance for the development of initiatives such 
as  the  establishment  of  national  platforms  for  disaster  risk  reduction  and  civil 
protection  strategies  to  strengthen  in-country  capacities  and  ad  hoc  prevention 
structures. 

Migration and Mobility 

Migration and Mobility play a key role in the EU's relations with the countries of the 
Maghreb.  Both  sides  are  faced  with  significant  and,  to  a  large  extent,  similar 
challenges  in  this  domain.  Both  share  a  common  interest  in  better  organising  legal 
migration, fighting irregular migration including human trafficking, better promoting 
international  protection  in  the  region  and  maximising  the  impact  of  migration  on 
development.  

Within the framework of its Global Approach to Migration and Mobility the EU is 
committed  to  strengthening  cooperation  on  migration  issues,  and  enhancing  the 
mobility of citizens in a secure environment. On that basis, the EU offered to enter 
into  dialogues  on  Migration,  Mobility  and  Security  with  some  Southern 
Mediterranean countries in its Communication of May 201112, with the intention of 
strengthening  its  relations  with  each  of  them  according  to  their  needs,  willingness 
and  capacity  to  take  forward  cooperation  in  this  area.  As  a  result,  such  dialogues 
have been officially launched with Morocco and Tunisia with the aim of concluding 
Mobility Partnerships in the very near future.  

48. 

In addition, there is also considerable scope to enhance EU support for intra-regional 
Maghreb  cooperation and  Maghreb-Sub-Saharan African  cooperation  in  the area of 
migration and mobility. More specifically the EU can:  

(cid:190)  make  further  efforts  towards  the  full  implementation  of  existing  ministerial 
declarations  and  action  plans  in  the  area  of  migration  and  development  between  all 
relevant  actors,  notably  the  Euro-African  Migration  and  Development  Process  ("the 
Rabat  Process")  and  the  Africa-EU  Partnership  on  Migration,  Mobility  and 
Employment;  

(cid:190)  support legal migration schemes among Maghreb countries as well as between 

the latter and Sub Saharan states;  

(cid:190)  make more systematic use of the opportunities to enhance mobility offered by 
the  EU  Visa  Code,  including  for  categories  such  as  youth,  students  or  civil  society; 
increase understanding via information exchanges on the existing visa regimes;  

(cid:190)  promote regional cooperation in the field of border surveillance and the fight 
against  irregular  migration  in  the  Maghreb  and  the  Sub-Saharan  region  including 
through information-sharing at the regional level, common risk analysis, joint border 
management  and  surveillance  and  police  cooperation  including  on  trafficking  in 
human beings and drugs;  

(cid:190)  promote  cooperation  between  the  countries  of  the  region  in  readmission 
matters,  both  as  regards  readmission  among  Maghreb  countries  as  well  as  from 
Maghreb countries to Sub-Saharan countries in full respect of migrants’ fundamental 
rights;  

12 

“A  Dialogue  for  Migration,  Mobility  and  Security  with  the  Southern  Mediterranean  Countries”, 
24.5.2011, COM (2011) 292 Final. 

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(cid:190)  continue  to  assist  Maghreb  countries  in  the  area  of  asylum  and  international 
protection,  through  capacity-building  measures  under  the  Northern  African  Regional 
Protection Programme, or by considering possible resettlement options; 

(cid:190)  as appropriate, provide information on issues related to EU consular assistance 
and  protection,  as  well  as  develop  a  common  understanding  in  this  increasingly 
important area for EU Member States and Maghreb countries alike.  

Conclusion 

49. 

50. 

51. 

The proposals set out above demonstrate the EU’s support for and direct interest in 
closer  integration  in  the  Maghreb.  Progress  in  integration  will  depend  first  and 
foremost on the domestic efforts of partner countries. The strengthening of bilateral 
relations between the EU and countries of the Maghreb can support this objective – 
albeit  indirectly  -  through  greater  convergence  of  norms,  regulations  and  policies. 
Nonetheless efforts at a Maghreb-wide level are needed to create real impetus in this 
field.  

The European Commission and the High Representative look forward to discussing 
these proposals with EU Member States and other EU institutions in order to ensure 
a  joined-up  approach.  They  will  also  consult  European  and  Maghreb  stakeholders, 
including civil society representatives, on them.  

The  European  Commission  and  the  High  Representative  propose  to  launch  a  high 
level  dialogue  between  the  EU  and  the  Arab  Maghreb  Union  on  these  proposals. 
They  also  call  on  other  European  institutions,  such  as  the  European  Parliament,  to 
engage in this dialogue with Maghreb counterparts. They also propose to ensure that 
these issues are addressed in the regular political dialogues which take place with the 
countries of the Maghreb. They will also reach out to non-governmental stakeholders 
such  as  representatives  of  civil  society  and  business.  Through  such  exchanges  the 
European  Commission  and  the  High  Representative  hope  to  make  a  valuable 
continuing  contribution  to  the  developing  debate  concerning  integration  in  the 
Maghreb. 

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