The Involvement of men in gender equality initiatives in the European Union.
Date: 2012-12-05
Institutions: European Institute for Gender Equality
Subjects: gender equality, man, public awareness campaign, social inequality, social participation

The Involvement of Men 
in Gender Equality Initiatives 
in the European Union

Study 
report

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The Involvement of Men 
in Gender Equality Initiatives 
in the European Union

‘In order to improve the status of women and promote gender equality,
more attention should be paid to how men are involved in the achievement
of equality, as well as to the positive impact of gender equality for men
and for the well-being of the society as a whole’.*

* ‘Council Conclusions on Men and Gender Equality’, 1 December 2006, 
http://www.eu2006.ﬁ /NEWS_AND_DOCUMENTS/CONCLUSIONS/VKO48/EN_GB/1164987131570/_FILES/76348606395122256/DEFAULT/91959.PDF

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This report is based on a study ﬁ nanced by, and 
prepared for the use of, the European Institute 
for Gender Equality. The background study was 
prepared by Men for Gender Equality (Sweden), 
a member of MenEngage.

MenEngage  (http://www.menengage.org)  is 
a global alliance of NGOs and UN agencies that 
seeks to engage boys and men to achieve gender 
equality. Steering Committee members include 
Promundo (Co-Chair, Brazil), Sonke Gender Justice 
(Co-Chair,  South  Africa),  CARE  (USA),  Men  for 
Gender Equality (Sweden), International Planned 
Parenthood Federation (United Kingdom), Sahayog 
(India) and the White Ribbon Campaign (Canada). 
The Advisory Committee includes UNDP, UNFPA, 

UNIFEM and WHO. At the national level, there are 
more than 400 NGO members from sub-Saharan 
Africa,  Latin  America  and  the  Caribbean,  North 
America, Asia and Europe.

The work on this study report was coordinated by 
Indrė Mackevičiūtė; quality assurance was carried 
out by colleagues at the European Institute for 
Gender  Equality:  Barbara  Limanowska,  Indrė 
Mackevičiūtė, Priya Alvarez, Sandra Pﬂ eger, Monika 
Bystrzycka and Jesper Schou Hansen.

Neither the European Institute for Gender Equality 
nor any person acting on its behalf can be held 
responsible for the use made of the information 
contained in this report.

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Foreword 

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) 
acknowledges that the role of men in promoting gen-
der equality deserves special attention at the  Euro-
pean level and in the Member States. Encouraging 
men to undertake non-stereotypical roles, enabling 
their occupation in traditional female sectors, partici-
pating in anti-violence initiatives, tackling discrimina-
tion, sharing care responsibilities and other means 
must become part of gender equality policy. Eﬀ orts 
are required to collect more information and data on 
the issue, to explore new gender equality areas in rela-
tion to men, and to develop methods and tools to 
encourage their eﬀ ective engagement.

It was in the Mid-term Work Programme  2010–2012 
that the European Institute for Gender Equality set 
out to emphasise men’s role in promoting gender 
equality. The selected approach foresaw treating 
men’s involvement in this area as a horizontal issue 
in the Institute’s activities.

The importance of EIGE’s role in promoting men’s 
engagement in gender equality, by collecting and 
disseminating information in the ﬁ eld, and providing 
a platform for the exchange of information, methods, 
practices and contacts, was highlighted on a number 
of occasions. Although there is still a long way to go in 
developing ways to integrate men’s perspectives and 
facilitate their involvement in the areas covered by the 
Institute, we are pleased to present the ﬁ nal report of 
the ﬁ rst study launched by the Institute in the ﬁ eld of 
men and gender equality. The study was carried out in 
the framework of an annual working programme 2010.

EIGE aimed to map relevant actors whose activity is 
considered to contribute to a more eﬀ ective male 
involvement in the promotion of gender equality. 
Special attention was paid to speciﬁ c approaches 
applied  and  materials  produced  by  such  actors 
across the EU-27.

Foreword 

through  its  Resource  and  Documentation  Cen-
tre containing practical information in English on 
EU-wide initiatives aimed at encouraging men to 
become part of a gender equality project. It is inspira-
tional, it generates ideas and it provides many exam-
ples of how men are working for gender equality.

This report is a great overview of the resources availa-
ble in the database and also shows how far the Euro-
pean Union has  gone in making men gender-aware 
and in using their potential to achieve gender equal-
ity. I draw your attention to the reﬂ ections on the 
challenges and obstacles that lie ahead and empha-
sise how important it is to devote suﬃ  cient attention 
to the issue of men’s role in gender equality at all 
levels in the EU. It is for this reason that we appreci-
ate the study on the role of men in gender equal-
ity commissioned by the European Commission, 
which, at the end of 2012, will provide an extensive 
analysis of the situation and propose ways forward to 
address men’s issues in gender equality, the involve-
ment of men/fathers in domestic and family duties, 
and men’s role at work. Our endeavor, together with 
relevant initiatives of the European Commission will 
inﬂ uence further work of EIGE on men and gender 
equality, helping to develop a coherent approach 
to the issue and actions in the forthcoming years.

It is our hope that by making information available, 
and presenting the initiatives of people and organi-
sations from all over the European Union who are 
keen to promote men’s engagement in achieving 
gender equality, we will facilitate further exchange of 
information in the ﬁ eld, networking and cooperation.

It is essential that both women and men are aware 
of the beneﬁ ts that gender equality brings to them 
as individuals and as members of communities and 
societies. It is also true that we can only succeed 
through the participation of both women and men.

As a result of the dedication of the researchers and 
experts  in  the  field,  EIGE  now  offers  a  database 

Virginija Langbakk
Director of the European Institute for Gender Equality

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Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

The European Institute for Gender Equality would 
like to thank the following people for their involve-
ment in the study and this report.

Magda Hrzenjak, Peace Institute, Institute for Con-
temporary Social and Political Studies, Ljubljana 
(Slovenia)

Authors and core research team
Sandy  Ruxton,  independent  policy  adviser  and 
researcher, and Nikki van der Gaag, gender con-
sultant and writer

Project manager
Klas Hyllander, Secretary-General of Men for Gender 
Equality, Stockholm, Sweden

Expert advisors
Maria Eriksson, Associate Professor, Department of 
Sociology, Uppsala University, Sweden

Keith Pringle, Professor in Sociology, Uppsala Uni-
versity, Sweden and Research Professor at London 
Metropolitan University, United Kingdom

National/regional researchers (countries covered 
for the study are in brackets)

Paco Abril, Education and Psychology Faculty, Uni-
versity of Girona (Spain, Portugal)

Lise Rolandsen, Agustín Centre for Equality, Diversity 
and Gender (EDGE), Aalborg University (Denmark)

Ovidiu Anemtoaicei, Central European University, 
Budapest (Romania)

Bert Bjarland, founder of men’s gender awareness 
group Wagner, Helsinki (Finland)

Sé Franklin, Men’s Development Network (Ireland, 
Northern Ireland)

Patrick  Govers,  Anthropologist  and  Member  of 
feminist NGO Le Monde selon les femmes (French-
speaking part of Belgium, Luxembourg)

Evi Hatzivarnava, Independent Consultant, Athens 
(Greece, Cyprus, Malta)

Klas Hyllander, Secretary-General, Men for Gender 
Equality, Stockholm (Sweden)

Andrea Krizsán/Fanni Borbíró, Central European 
University, Budapest (Hungary)

Ludger Jungnitz/Klaus Schwerma, Dissens, Berlin 
(Germany, Austria, Poland)

Anu Laas, Institute of Sociology and Social Policy, 
University of Tartu (Estonia)

Jivka  Marinova,  Member  of  KARAT  and  WIDE 
(Bulgaria)

Olga Pietruchová, Independent Consultant on gen-
der equality (Czech Republic, Slovakia)

Aivita Putnina, Department of Anthropology, Uni-
versity of Latvia, Riga (Latvia)

Elisabetta  Ruspini/Francesca  Fumagalli/Clau-
dia  Traini,  Department  of  Sociology  and  Social 
Research, University of Milano-Bicocca (France, Italy)

Sandy Ruxton, Independent Policy Advisor and 
Researcher, Oxford (United Kingdom, European 
level)

Artūras Tereškinas, Department of Sociology, Kau-
nas Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania)

Jens van Tricht, Independent Consultant, Amster-
dam (Netherlands, Dutch-speaking part of Belgium)

Katarzyna Wojnicka, Jagiellonian University (Poland)

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The  European  Institute  for  Gender  Equality  is  an  autonomous  body  of  the
European Union, established to contribute to and strengthen the promotion of
gender equality, including gender mainstreaming in all Community policies and
the resulting national policies, and the ﬁ ght against discrimination based on sex,
and to raise EU citizens’ awareness of gender equality. Further information can
be found online (www.eige.europa.eu).

European Institute for Gender Equality

Švitrigailos g. 11M
LT-03228 Vilnius
Lithuania

Telephone: +370 52394107
Fax: +370 52392163
E-mail: eige.sec@eige.europa.eu
Website: www.eige.europa.eu
www.twitter.com/eurogender
www.facebook.com/eige.europa.eu
www.youtube.com/eurogender

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Contents

Contents

Foreword  ...........................................................................................................................................................5

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................7

Executive summary ...................................................................................................................................10

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................13

Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................16

Theoretical framework ............................................................................................................................16

Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................20

Compiling the database.........................................................................................................................20

Criteria for the inclusion or exclusion of actors ............................................................................................. 20

Database coverage ......................................................................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................26

Overall analysis of ﬁ ndings and overview of the mapped information ...................26

Numbers of organisations and individuals ...................................................................................................... 26

Types of organisations .................................................................................................................................................. 27

Main forms of involvement ....................................................................................................................................... 28

Main methods and tools employed .................................................................................................................... 29

Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................36

Overview of emerging issues ..............................................................................................................36

Understanding of gender equality and the involvement of men .................................................... 36

The relevance of gender equality for men ...................................................................................................... 36

Men’s diversity ................................................................................................................................................................... 40

Why do men hesitate to get involved in gender equality issues? .................................................... 44

What would foster greater involvement of men? ....................................................................................... 46

Conclusions and ways to go forward ............................................................................................50

Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................52

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Executive summary

Executive summary

This report is the ﬁ nal product of the Background 
study on the involvement of men in gender equal-
ity in the European Institute for Gender Equality’s 
(EIGE) working areas. The study was commissioned 
by EIGE and implemented by Men for Gender Equal-
ity (Sweden). The general aim was to map relevant 
stakeholders in all EU Member States whose activ-
ity could be considered as contributing to a more 
eﬀ ective involvement of men in the promotion 
of gender equality. Special attention was placed 
on speciﬁ c approaches applied and materials pro-
duced by such actors. The study focused on the 
period between 2007 and 2010 and was carried 
out between April and July 2011.

In addition, the research team analysed and pro-
vided commentary on the collected information 
and reﬂ ected on good practice examples.

Theoretical background

The study acknowledges the variety of disciplinary 
and methodological approaches to understanding 
men, masculinities and men’s practices (e.g. bio-
logy, sex role theory, psychology, psychoanalysis, 
feminism, sociology, gay theory, cultural studies). 
The interdisciplinary framework ‘Critical Studies 
on Men’ is an important theoretical framework for 
the project, reﬂ ecting the prominence of social 
sciences in the development of research on men 
and masculinities. The departure point for the study 
was to view gender equality as about realising the 
potential of women and men equally, whereas 
men can, and should, contribute positively to the 
eradication of gender inequalities. This must involve 
strategies for personal change and action to reform 
gender inequalities in social structures, as much as 
institutions and practices at the root of inequa-
lities. The research team has also taken into account 
other approaches to gender equality that argue for 
a more radical transformation of the existing gender 

order and/or a reconceptualisation of ‘men’ and 
‘women’ as social categories.

Methodological approach

The project recruited researchers to map actors 
and information across the 27 EU Member States 
through desk research, an online questionnaire 
and face-to-face or phone interviews, as well as an 
overall analysis of national contexts in relation to 
work with men. Where possible, researchers have 
highlighted examples of good practice based on 
commonly agreed general criteria.

Researchers were asked to categorise the actors 
under  a  fourfold  definition  as:  ‘gender-redistr-
ibutive’, ‘gender-aware’, ‘gender-blind’, or ‘gender-
conservative’/‘men’s rights’. In total, researchers 
came up with a list of 276 organisations (last updated 
at the end of 2011), received 141 completed ques-
tionnaires and carried out 73 interviews.

The ﬁ nal decision on the inclusion of actors iden-
tiﬁ ed by country researchers in the database was 
made by the core research team on close review 
of  all  ‘borderline’  cases.  This  was  achieved  by 
 re-examining all available information provided 
by country researchers, consulting individual web-
sites, and gaining further insight where necessary 
into how each actor described and presented their 
own activities. In some cases, further discussions 
took place with country researchers to come to an 
agreed position.

In most cases, excluded actors were those that 
clearly subscribed to a ‘men’s rights/fathers’ rights’ 
approach, particularly when there was evidence of 
hostility to women/women’s organisations. Equal-
ity bodies (and other similar institutions) were only 
included if there was evidence that they were work-
ing on the issue of men and masculinities. Many 
organisations working with, and for, gay, bisexual 

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and transgender men were included. While there 
is considerable diversity within and between these 
groups, they directly or indirectly challenge ortho-
dox models of what it is to be a man, often in ways 
bound up with the degradation of women and the 
feminine. In doing so, they help to undermine atti-
tudes that sustain gender inequalities.

The  collected  information  was  assembled  into 
a  database  that  includes  the  names,  addresses 
and contact details of the organisations, the types 
of organisation, the themes, target groups, work 
methods  and  approaches,  aims/purposes  and 
activities with regard to men and masculinities, 
and conference details and materials.

Key observations

The ﬁ nal database includes 241 organisations and 
67 individuals involved directly or indirectly in work 
on men and gender equality in the 27 EU Member 
States. The database provides an extensive list of 
the most relevant actors in each country.

All 27 countries are represented in the database, 
though the number of organisations involved varies 
from 2 to 24 in diﬀ erent countries. Sweden and the 
United Kingdom had the largest number of organi-
sations (24 each), followed by Finland, Germany, the 
Netherlands and Spain. There tended to be fewer 
organisations working in the area in the newer EU 
Member States.

The overwhelming majority (78 %) of organisations 
working on men and gender equality are non-gov-
ernmental organisations. These vary considerably 
in size and nature, from those with one staﬀ  mem-
ber to those with tens or more, with a wide variety 
of themes, methods and tools. Some are very new 
and others have been active for a number of years.

An analysis of the organisations’ main forms of 
involvement,  as  identified  from  the  completed 
questionnaires and/or information on their web-
sites, shows that a large number (33 %) are working 
broadly on gender equality, with a sub-focus on 

Executive summary

men. The general ‘gender equality’ label was used 
in certain cases where organisations cover a range 
of themes related to gender equality, rather than 
speciﬁ cally working on issues such as fatherhood 
or violence. Organisations working on ‘violence 
prevention’ are the next most numerous (16 %), 
followed by ‘fatherhood’ (14 %), ‘health’ (10 %), 
‘gay/bisexual/transgender’ (9 %) and ‘education 
and learning’ (9 %). Other themes are more mar-
ginal: for example, only three organisations have 
‘work with ethnic minorities’ as their main focus 
and only one focuses mainly on disability. Other 
organisations look at these issues, but it is a minor 
part of their work.

The methods and tools used by the organisations 
in the database vary considerably. An analysis of 
the main methods and tools shows that ‘indiv-
idual counselling’ is the most common (53 organi-
sations), followed by ‘group work with men’ and 
‘information/awareness-raising’ (36 each). These 
are  followed  by  ‘research’  and  ‘policy/political 
engagement’ (31 each) and ‘campaigns’ (14). Other 
methods were less signiﬁ cant and this is, again, an 
analysis of the main methods used by each organi-
sation (and does not preclude that they may also 
be using other methods). Most of the activity in this 
area is focused on direct work with individuals and 
groups. The rest focuses on campaigning, aware-
ness or policy work.

Overview of emerging issues

A number of key areas of concern and emerging 
issues were identiﬁ ed through the analysis of col-
lected information and further reﬂ ected in this report.

In many cases, national researchers felt that gender 
equality itself was quite a new term and often not 
well understood, and that work on men and mascu-
linities in this context was even more recent. In addi-
tion, gender equality was in most countries seen as 
a ‘women’s issue’ and many organisations did not see 
themselves involved with men and gender equality.

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Challenges include the fact that addressing apathy 
or resistance among many men must be accom-
panied by eﬀ orts to address the real problems that 
some men experience. The question is also how 
to make men aware that participating in gender 
equality eﬀ orts is worthwhile, beyond those men 
who are already active or potentially interested in 
this area. Catalysts include presenting evidence-
based beneﬁ ts of gender equality for men, receiv-
ing support from women and  women’s groups, 
and ensuring that men feel they are listened to. It 
is also important to take the diversity of men’s iden-
tities, motivations, attitudes and roles into account 
and not ignore or underestimate the risks of not 
 engaging men.

Conclusions

The study’s researchers found that a considerable 
number of initiatives were being implemented in 
many EU Member States in the areas of men work-
ing for gender equality and men and masculinities. 
However, compared to work on gender equality 
that focuses on women, these areas are still under-
developed and patchy. Therefore, further eﬀ orts 
to engage men in gender equality are needed at 
various levels. It is essential that men work towards 
genuine gender equality enabling women and men 
to enjoy new dimensions of social, economic, pro-
fessional and personal life.

Executive summary

Actors emphasise the relevance of gender equal-
ity for men in their activities. For example, gender 
equality holds the promise of improvements in 
men’s and boys’ relationships among themselves, 
as well as with women and girls. Greater gender 
equality would reduce the pressures on men to 
conform to damaging and rigid forms of mascu-
linity. Conversely, gender inequality has damaging 
eﬀ ects on the personal health and well-being of 
men as well as women.

With regard to intersectionality and identity, this 
report acknowledges that there is no one universal 
form of ‘masculinity’. Indeed, there are similarly sig-
niﬁ cant diﬀ erences among men as among women: 
the term ‘masculinities’ is often used to reﬂ ect the 
various ways in which men relate to hegemonic 
notions of masculinity. The materials collected for 
the study made it possible to take a closer look at 
issues for gay, bisexual and transgender men, men 
from ethnic minorities, boys and young men, older 
men and men with disabilities. It was also possible 
to examine the inﬂ uence of social backgrounds, 
including class, inequality and location in shaping 
men’s identities.

This report poses a question why men hesitate 
to  get  involved  in  gender  equality  issues 
including the fact that in some countries gender 
equa lity is not on the public agenda or is mainly 
seen as a ‘women’s issue’. The researchers noted 
that men feel considerable pressure to conform 
to traditional roles and stereotypes, and that men, 
women and institutions bolster these stereotypes. 
Against this background, it is unsurprising that 
many men throughout the EU display either apathy 
or resistance to change towards gender equality. 
One  factor identiﬁ ed as undermining men’s con-
ﬁ dence to become involved in gender equality 
is the lack of positive male role models in society 
and the media. Fears that engaging men in gender 
equality strategies may hinder the empowerment 
of women may act as an additional obstacle.

Finally, the researchers look at ways to overcome 
the current obstacles to men’s involvement. 

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Introduction

This report was produced as a ﬁ nal product of the 
study commissioned by the European Institute for 
Gender Equality (EIGE) in 2010. Acknowledging 
the importance of men’s involvement in gender 
equality, EIGE aimed to contribute by collecting, 
systematising and making background information 
available on the actors involved in this area across 
the EU. It also sought to outline the methods, tools 
and approaches that actors employ in their work 
and the materials they produce. EIGE endeavoured 
to identify relevant stakeholders active in the ﬁ eld 
of men and masculinities in line with its future Euro-
pean Network on Gender Equality (EuroGender). 
The initiative also contributed to the development 
of a coherent approach of EIGE to the issue of men 
and gender equality.

Scope

The research team has mapped relevant stakehold-
ers active in engaging men in gender equality work 
in all 27 EU Member States during 2007–2010. The 
focus  is  on  actors  implementing  concrete  pro-
grammes, projects, interventions or other activities 
that engage men in gender equality. As a result, an 
online database of actors, methods, tools and mate-
rials was assembled and made accessible through 
EIGE’s Resource and Documentation Centre(1).

This ﬁ nal report provides an overview of the infor-
mation compiled in the database on men and gen-
der equality in the EU; it also summarises the main 
ﬁ ndings on developments, patterns and trends in 
the Member States, reﬂ ects on emerging issues and 
obstacles that hinder men’s more active involve-
ment in the promotion of gender equality and 
presents some examples of practices for achiev-
ing gender equality through men’s involvement.

(1)  The database is accessible through EIGE’s Resource and 
Documentation Centre (http://www.eige.europa.eu).
The database was updated by EIGE in December 2011.

Introduction

Methodological approach

Coverage of all EU Member States was ensured by 
employing national/regional researchers who col-
lected information through desk research, ques-
tionnaires and interviews in response to a format 
set by the core research team. The researchers 
provided practical information to the core research 
team to create the database, and also compiled 
country  reports  to  reflect  on  the  patterns  and 
trends in their respective countries with regard to 
men’s involvement in gender equality.

A number of methods were used for the mapping 
exercise. Firstly, the main actors (and key docu-
ments from 2007–2010) were identiﬁ ed for each 
country through existing contacts and internet 
searches. In this project, ‘actors’ refer to:

•  organisations – including civil society, public 
or private bodies – involving (or seeking to 
involve) men in gender equality issues;

• 

• 

academic institutions/key academics under-
taking research/analysis on this topic;

inﬂ uential experts/trainers/journalists/private 
consultants working on or writing about the 
issue.

From  this  preliminary  investigation,  country
/regional  researchers  drew  up  lists  of  actors  to 
explore in more detail. For this purpose, researchers 
were asked to categorise the actors under a fourfold 
deﬁ nition as ‘gender-redistributive’, ‘gender-aware’, 
‘gender-blind’,  or  ‘gender-conservative’/’men’s 
rights’. The researchers then ﬁ lled out basic informa-
tion about each in a common format, from which 
a database of 241 organisations and institutions 
and 67 individuals was compiled. The database 
describes each organisation and includes references 
to materials such as: projects it has implemented; 
programmes, interventions or other activities such 
as information campaigns; reports, studies, working 

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Introduction

papers or articles (news or research); and assess-
ments, manuals, guidelines, publications, training 
materials and audiovisual materials.

Secondly, a brief questionnaire was sent by coun-
try/regional researchers to a targeted list of actors. 
The number and nature of actors chosen reﬂ ected 
the context in each country. The questionnaire 
asked for information about the actor’s background, 
forms, aims/objectives, target groups, work meth-
ods and approaches, documents, tools and mate-
rials developed, implemented projects and results. 
A total of 141 questionnaire responses helped to 
ﬁ ll out the basic details in the format descriptions, 
providing a mixture of factual material and opinion.

In order to develop a more rounded picture, country
/national researchers also conducted 73 interviews 
with informed actors in 23 Member States, based 
on a separate set of outline questions. The results 
included extensive comments on relevant issues 
such as: public discourses about men, masculinity 
and gender equality; the beneﬁ ts of involving men; 
barriers, risks and challenges; eﬀ ective interventions 
and methods; major gaps in this work. Just over 
a third of respondents were linked to NGOs work-
ing in the ﬁ eld, just under a third were academics 
and around a quarter worked for government bodies 
with the remaining small number being politicians, 
journalists or members of men’s groups.

The research team has drawn extensively on the 
views and experiences highlighted in the inter-
views as a key source for analysis in Chapter 4 of this 
report. Country reports and the growing volume of 
national and international literature (e.g. on father-
hood, caring, education, men’s violence, men’s 
health and work) provided further information.

Report structure

Chapter 1 describes the theoretical background 
that provided a framework for the project’s research 
activities. It also describes the background to deci-
sions on mapping the actors involved in gender 
equality and including them in the database.

Chapter 2 provides an overview of methodologi-
cal, practical and theoretical considerations in com-
piling the database. It presents information on the 
database’s coverage and scope, and reﬂ ects on the 
processes involved in the mapping exercise.

Chapter 3 provides a general overview of infor-
mation collected for the database on numbers of 
organisations and individuals, types of organisa-
tion, the main forms of involvement, and the main 
methods and tools employed.

In Chapter 4, the researchers provide insights into 
emerging issues in men’s involvement in gender 
equality in the European Union. This is based on 
interviews  with  relevant  stakeholders  in  most 
Member States and previous research in the ﬁ eld. 
Among other issues, the research team looks at the 
challenges related to a general lack of awareness 
of gender equality, and of the beneﬁ ts of gender 
equality. They also reﬂ ect on the issues related to 
intersectionality and identity, and describe what 
hinders the involvement of men in gender equal-
ity issues.

This report concludes with some reﬂ ections on how 
to move the work forward across the EU.

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Chapter 1   
Theoretical framework

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Chapter 1 - Theoretical framework 

Chapter 1
Theoretical framework

The study acknowledges the variety of disciplinary 
and methodological approaches to understanding 
men, masculinities, and men’s practices (e.g. biol-
ogy, sex role theory, psychology, psychoanalysis, 
feminism, sociology, gay theory and cultural studies). 

Interdisciplinary Critical Studies on Men (CSMs) pro-
vide  an  important  theoretical  framework  for  the 
project, reﬂ ecting the prominence of social sciences 
in the development of research on men and mascu-
linities. Part of a broader project on women’s studies 
and gender research, CSMs have ‘named’ men and 
masculinities as explicit objects of theory and critique 
since the 1990s. Building on insights from the work 
of theorists such as Connell and Hearn(2), the project 
core team sees men and masculinities as:

• 

socially constructed and produced, rather 
than ‘natural’;

•  variable  and  changing  across  time  and 
between and within diﬀ erent societies, and 
through life courses and biographies;

• 

• 

• 

collective and individual, reﬂ ected in institu-
tional regimes (e.g. in schools, sports clubs and 
workplaces) and in personal relations;

intersecting with other social divisions (e.g. 
age, race, ethnicity, faith, class, disability and 
sexual orientation) in a dynamic way;

rooted in complex, and sometimes contradic-
tory, gendered power relations.

The project draws on analyses that detail men’s struc-
tural dominance in society (e.g. higher incomes and 
less unpaid caring and household work than women) 

(2)  For example: Connell, R. W. (2005), Masculinities – Second 

Edition, Polity, Cambridge; Kimmel, M. S., Hearn, J., Connell, 
R. W. (eds) (2005), Handbook of Studies on Men & Masculinities, 
Sage, California/London/New Delhi.

and how this is reﬂ ected in social relations that make it 
appear ‘normal’ for male superiority to be maintained. 
Nevertheless, it also acknowledges that these advan-
tages are not shared equally among men and that 
it is important to address both the social problems 
that men cause and the problems that some men 
experience. This involves a nuanced analysis of gender 
relations, identities and practices that goes beyond 
a simplistic polarised categorisation of men as either 
‘perpetrators’ or ‘victims’.

The second theoretical framework for the project 
is  provided  by  the  extensive  academic  literature 
that compares welfare regimes in different Euro-
pean countries. Much of this work (e.g. the work of 
 Esping-Andersen) has been extensively criticised for 
paying insuﬃ  cient attention to gender relations. For 
this reason, this analysis draws on the framework 
established by CROME (Critical Research on Men in 
Europe) network(3). This categorisation shows that 
among European countries, there are considerable 
diﬀ erences in approach to gender equality law and 
policy, and in the extent to which men and masculin-
ity issues have been explored.

Men’s relations
with gender equality

The European Commission deﬁ nes gender equality 
as ‘the result of the absence of discrimination on 
the basis of a person’s sex in opportunities and the 
allocation of resources or beneﬁ ts or in access to 
services’(4). The Commission’s ‘Strategy for equality 
between women and men 2010–2015’ identiﬁ es 
actions to stimulate, change and achieve progress 

(3)  Hearn, J., Pringle, K. (2006), European Perspectives on Men and 

Masculinities – National and Transnational Approaches, Palgrave, 
Basingstoke; Pringle, K. et al. (2006), Men and Masculinities 
in Europe, Whiting and Birch, London.

(4)  European Commission, Background document accompanying 
the communication from the Commission to the European 
Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 
Committee and the Committee of the Regions Strategy 
for Equality between Women and Men 2010–2015, Brussels, 
SEC(2010) 1080 ﬁ nal of 21 September 2010.

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Chapter 1 - Theoretical framework 

personal change and action to reform unequal gen-
dered social structures, institutions and practices at 
the root of gender inequalities.

In saying this, the team acknowledges that there are 
other approaches to gender equality that argue for 
more radical transformation of the existing gender 
order and/or a reconceptualisation of ‘men’ and 
‘women’ as social categories. For the purpose of the 
mapping, an inclusive approach to these perspec-
tives was adopted where they were encountered.

In contrast, actors were mostly excluded if they 
clearly subscribed to a ‘men’s rights’/‘fathers’ rights’ 
approach, particularly if there was evidence of hosti-
lity to women or women’s organisations. This issue 
is addressed in more detail in the next section.

in six priority areas: equal economic independence; 
equal pay; equality in decision-making; an end to 
gender-based violence; external action; and hori-
zontal issues. It also highlights a dual approach to 
implementation, combining gender mainstream-
ing with speciﬁ c measures. In relation to men, the 
strategy  states  that  ‘gender  equality  needs  the 
active contribution, support and participation of 
men, and  policies  should  also  address  gender-
related inequalities that aﬀ ect boys/men’ (citing 
literacy rates, early school-leaving and occupational 
health as examples).

However, men’s relations with, and responses to, 
gender equality are complex. As Hearn has noted, 
men’s public and private practices are commonly 
not seen as gendered: ‘Much of what men do is not 
seen as ‘about gender’, related to gender equal-
ity or about making gender relations and gender 
divisions more or less equal or unequal’(5). In reality, 
men’s practices (re)producing gender inequality are 
usually embedded in social, economic and cultural 
relations and structures and are taken implicitly to 
be the ‘norm’, although often not visible.

Nevertheless, Hearn also highlights that there has 
been signiﬁ cant growth in recent years in explicit 
‘gender-conscious’ activities among men. These 
can, however, range from, pro-feminist initiatives 
to support gender equality at one end of the spec-
trum to anti-feminist groups seeking to undermine 
gender equality at the other, with various other 
positions in between (including, for example, those 
of gay groups or men’s health activists). Of course, 
these poles reﬂ ect very diﬀ erent understandings of 
the meaning of ‘gender equality’.

The study’s research team sees gender equality as 
about realising the potential of women and men 
equally, and believes that men can, and should, 
contribute positively to the eradication of gender 
inequalities. This must involve both strategies for 

(5)  Hearn, J. (2006), ‘Men and Gender Equality’, Varanka, J., Narhinen, 
A., Siukola, R. (2006), Men and Gender Equality: Towards Progressive 
Policies, Conference Report, 5 and 6 October 2006, 
Ministry of Social Aﬀ airs and Health, Helsinki.

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Chapter 2   
Compiling the database

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Chapter 2 - Compiling the database 

Chapter 2
Compiling the database

The database compiled within the study, and avail-
able through EIGE’s Resource and Documentation 
Centre, includes a list of actors organised by coun-
try, with separate ﬁ elds for: name; contact details 
(including postal address, e-mail, phone number and 
website); type of organisation; theme; target group; 
work methods and approaches; aims/purpose; activ-
ities 2007–2012; conferences; and materials.

Criteria for the inclusion 
or exclusion of actors

Drawing on existing literature relating to gender 
analysis frameworks(6), the project team originally 
proposed the following categorisation of actors and 
interventions.

•  Gender-transformative (or redistributive): 
those that intend to transform the existing 
distribution of resources and responsibilities 
to create more equitable gender relations. 
These programmes show in their descriptions 
that they seek to critically reﬂ ect on, question 
or change institutional practices and broader 
social norms that create and reinforce gen-
der inequality and vulnerability for men and 
women.

•  Gender-aware (or gender-sensitive): those 
that recognise that men and women have 
diﬀ ering, and sometimes conﬂ icting, needs, 

(6)  Variations on the categorisation used in this project are described 

in, for example: Kabeer, N. (1994), Reversed Realities: Gender 
Hierarchies in Development Thought, Verso, London; Gupta, G., 
Whelan, D., Allendorf, K. (2003), Integrating Gender into HIV/AIDS
Programmes – review paper for expert consultation, World Health 
Organisation, Geneva; Barker, G., Ricardo, C., Nascimento, 
M. (2007), Engaging men and boys in changing gender-based 
inequity in health: Evidence from programme interventions, 
World Health Organisation/Instituto Promundo, Geneva.

interests and priorities. These interventions 
target men’s and women’s speciﬁ c needs, but 
leave the existing distribution of resources 
and responsibilities intact.

•  Gender-blind: those that fail to make any dis-
tinction between men’s and women’s needs.

•  Gender-conservative/men’s rights: those 
that aim to maintain or restore gender rela-
tions based on gender inequalities.

Country researchers were asked to use their judge-
ment to apply the project’s selection criteria and 
choose only actors relevant to the project’s aims 
(those in the ﬁ rst two categories above). It was 
acknowledged that researchers were also likely to 
encounter actors that fell in the third and fourth 
categories, but that it was not necessary to include 
them in the actor’s lists.

Some researchers made it clear that they had rigor-
ously applied the project criteria. For example, the 
researcher for the Netherlands stated that: ‘Most 
actors in the list are deﬁ nitely “gender-transform-
ative”, some are “gender-aware”. Actors who are 
explicitly reactionary, “gender-conservative” or aimed 
at “men’s rights” were not included in the selection.’

Other researchers struggled however, for a num-
ber of reasons, to use the gender criteria (trans-
formative/aware/blind/conservative) in the way 
that was envisaged by the core research team. 
Some found it hard to decide which classiﬁ cation 
should be attached to a particular actor, as the 
category boundaries are not easy to deﬁ ne. Some-
times, publicly available information on speciﬁ c 
actors was out of date, incomplete or insuﬃ  ciently 
detailed to allow a reasoned judgement. In some 
countries, there appeared few or no actors in the 
‘gender-transformative’ or even sometimes the 
‘gender-aware’ categories and researchers looked 
instead to organisations working more generally 
on gender equality.

Several organisations were therefore included in 
the initial mapping that should probably be des-

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ignated ‘gender-blind’ or ‘gender-conservative’, 
even though researchers were not asked to include 
them. In a few cases, researchers indicated their 
uncertainty about whether to include them and 
decisions were then taken in conjunction with the 
core research team. In many other cases, research-
ers will have identiﬁ ed and rejected these organisa-
tions, in line with the project’s original criteria. It is 
not, however, possible to give a strict indication of 
the extent to which this occurred.

After the initial mapping produced 276 organisa-
tions, the core research team fully reviewed and 
revised the database. This was done to ensure that 
the study criteria were consistently applied and that 
information on all the actors was of a high standard, 
up to date and reliable. This approach also helped 
ensure a common approach between countries 
and  to  counter  any  inconsistencies  in  country 
researchers’ decisions. The process was undertaken 
systematically and involved checking actors in the 
database against ﬁ nal lists in country reports, sup-
plementing database entries with information from 
completed questionnaires, identifying and ﬁ lling in 
any gaps as far as possible and making the referen-
cing as coherent as possible.

In relation to decisions on applying the criteria 
and on including or excluding specific actors, the 
core research team carefully examined ‘border-
line’ cases by: re-examining all information from 
country researchers; looking up individual web-
sites and (where necessary) using Google Trans-
late to gain further insight into how each actor 
described  and  presented  their  activities;  and 
further discussions with the country researcher 
to come to an agreed position.

Special attention was paid to certain types of organ-
isation in this revision. Equality bodies (and other 
similar institutions) were only included if there was 
evidence that they were working on the issue of 
men and masculinities. For example, the UK’s Equal-
ity and Human Rights Commission had helped set 
a new policy agenda for ﬂ exible working and leave 
policies, highlighting the importance of encourag-

Chapter 2 - Compiling the database 

ing fathers to play a greater role in caring. It had also 
provided ﬁ nancial support to the Coalition on Men 
and Boys for a major report on men, masculinities 
and public policy.

Similarly, at EU level the European Commission’s 
Expert Group on Gender and Employment (EGGE) 
and the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportu-
nities for Women and Men were both included on 
the basis that they had produced reports on men 
and gender equality. The European Commission’s 
Expert  Group  on  Gender  Equality  and  Social 
Inclusion,  Health  and  Long-Term  Care  Issues 
(EGGSI)  had  produced  similar  work  and  was, 
therefore, excluded(7).

From the project’s start, the core research team 
has believed that organisations working with and 
for gay, bisexual and transgender men should be 
included in the mapping. While there is consider-
able diversity within and between these groups, 
they directly or indirectly challenge orthodox mod-
els of what it is to be a man, often in ways bound up 
with the degradation of women and the feminine(8).

In doing so, they help to undermine attitudes that sus-
tain gender inequalities. Linked to this, LGBT Denmark 
(the Danish national organisation for gay men, les-
bians, bisexuals and transgendered persons) argued 
in its questionnaire response that its focus was ‘not 
on engaging men in gender equality, but to engage 
society in gender understanding and breaking down 
gender stereotypes’. The Italian organisation Famiglie 
Arcobaleno similarly stated: ‘We believe that enhanc-
ing the paternity of gay couples is beneﬁ cial to the 
fight  against  machismo  by  providing  a  different 
image of man, perfectly capable of taking care of 
small children and without the constant presence of 
a woman.’ In practice, the researchers excluded only 
a small number of LGBT organisations. This happened 

(7)  Both networks have ceased to exist and are superseded by 

ENEGE – European Network of Experts on Gender Equality – from 
2012 (http://www.enege.eu) 

(8)  Edwards, T., ‘Queering the Pitch? Gay Masculinities’, Connell, R. W., 
Hearn, J., Kimmel, M. (eds) (2005), Handbook of Studies on Men 
& Masculinities, Sage, California/London/New Delhi.

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Chapter 2 - Compiling the database 

in cases where such organisations expressly stated 
that their aims did not ﬁ t with those of the study.

Another group of organisations that presented some 
dilemmas for the researchers were networks of men 
self-consciously involved in activities relating to men 
and gender. Flood argues(9) that this loosely deﬁ ned 
‘men’s movement’ can be understood in terms of 
ﬁ ve overlapping strands: men’s liberation; anti-sexist 
or pro-feminist; spiritual and mythopoetic; Christian; 
and men’s rights and fathers’ rights. Men’s liberation 
groups focus on the damage, isolation and suﬀ ering 
inﬂ icted on boys and men through their socialisation 
into manhood. Anti-sexist/pro-feminist approaches 
acknowledge men’s pain, but give greater emphasis 
to male privileges and gender inequality. Mythopoetic 
men derive their thinking from Jungian psychology 
and in particular the work of Bly, in which men are 
seen as being in need of ‘healing’ because they have 
lost contact with their deep masculine essence and 
the rituals of manhood. Christian men’s groups are 
dedicated to uniting men around the ministry. Men’s 
rights and fathers’ rights groups embrace a variety of 
viewpoints(10). They tend to come together, however, 
around core arguments that men’s roles are damag-
ing to men, that men are powerless in relation to 
women, that women or feminism are to blame for 
men’s plight, and that men are now the real victims 
in current gender relations.

The  researchers  decided  to  include  actors  from 
the  first  two  categories  above.  A  more  in-depth 
assessment was undertaken of spiritual/mythopo-
etic groups and those that might be characterised 
by the ‘men’s rights’/‘fathers’ rights’ label. As noted 
above, mythopoetic ideas often strive to conserve 
traditional notions of masculinity. Where this was 
the case, groups were excluded from the database. 
Where groups worked on personal development from 

(9)  Flood, M. (2007), ‘Men’s Movement’, Flood, M., Gardiner, J. K., 

Pease, B., Pringle, K. (2007), International Encyclopedia of Men and 
Masculinities, Routledge, London/New York.

(10)  Clatterbaugh, K. (2007), ‘Men’s Rights’, Flood, M., Gardiner, J. K., 

Pease, B., Pringle, K. (2007), International Encyclopedia of Men and 
Masculinities, Routledge, London/New York.

a gender equality perspective, they were included. 
Organisations considered to have rejected the study’s 
understanding of gender equality and that were hos-
tile to women/women’s organisations were excluded.

Database coverage

The core research team believes that the database 
provides  an  extensive  list  of  the  most  relevant 
actors in all EU Member States, although the num-
ber of actors per country varied considerably. In 
some cases, researchers were unable to ﬁ nd many 
actors addressing men’s role in gender equality or 
issues relating to men/masculinities, despite the 
researchers’ strong experience in gender work. 
These instances were mainly, although not exclu-
sively, in the newer EU Member States (e.g. Bulgaria, 
Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia). 
A common conclusion was that such work was 
either rare or non-existent in these countries. The 
issue is further commented on in the analysis in 
this report.

There is also a short section in the database com-
prising a basic list of six of the main organisations 
or networks that work on men and gender equality 
issues at European level. They include MenEngage 
Europe, PLENT (International Platform for Equal, 
Non-Transferable and 100 % paid Parental), the 
European Men’s Health Forum, the European Com-
mission’s Expert Group on Gender and Employment 
(EGGE)(11), the European Institute for Gender Equal-
ity and the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportu-
nities for Women and Men. More work in this area 
would require a further and more detailed study.

The database is also more comprehensive in relation 
to some types of actor than others. The statistical 
overview (Chapter 3) suggests that by far the larg-
est category of organisations is NGOs. This is unsur-
prising for a number of reasons. This label includes 

(11)  As of 2012, the Network is called ENEGE (European Network 

of Experts on Gender Equality).

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Chapter 2 - Compiling the database 

Netherlands)). A more detailed study could seek to 
more fully represent decentralised or devolved gov-
ernance structures in diﬀ erent EU Member States. 
There was, however, evidence that some researchers 
tried to take this into account. In the United King-
dom, for example, most of the actors were based in 
England (and working at UK level), but attention was 
also given to identifying actors in Northern Ireland, 
Scotland and Wales.

The database also contains a wide range of informa-
tion on independent research centres and univer-
sity research departments. In most cases, however, 
researchers have chosen to highlight the work of 
key academics who are working on masculinity and 
gender equality issues (and in particular on those 
undertaking research that is practice-orientated 
and/or has been instrumental in social change). 
This decision seemed sensible, given the desire to 
avoid a very long and generalised list of research 
departments working on gender.

The database contains fewer entries in the cat-
egories of ‘experts, trainers and journalists’ and, 
in practice, key individuals were often included 
through an organisational aﬃ  liation. Some indi-
vidual politicians have been included, as well as 
some private consultants. The number of journa-
lists identiﬁ ed is small. As the UK researcher stated: 
‘Although information was gathered in relation to 
some key journalists, in the end these were not 
entered into the database. The journalists tended 
to  be  columnists  who  wrote  regularly  about 
women/gender issues (among other things), but 
rarely about men/masculinity as such. It was also 
very time-consuming to identify relevant articles, 
and  impossible  to  identify  which  had  impact 
in terms of public and policy discourse.’

a huge variety and number of organisations (includ-
ing self-organised groups, charities, service providers, 
faith organisations and campaigning organisations 
at local/community, regional and international lev-
els). Moreover, NGOs often initiate innovative work, 
pushing the boundaries of mainstream provision. 
Given the exploratory nature of much of the work 
highlighted in the study, it follows that NGOs often 
play a central role in its development.

In contrast, there was less information on state actors, 
including national/regional/local government and 
equality bodies. While many of these organisations 
aimed to promote gender equality (often among 
other goals), far fewer had an explicit focus on men’s 
involvement in gender equality or on men and mas-
culinity issues. In line with the project criteria, the 
core team aimed to include only those actors in the 
database where there was evidence of some speciﬁ c 
interest or history of activity in relation to men/mas-
culinities. It appeared that state actors also tended 
to undertake less proactive promotion of their work 
in this area than NGOs (via websites, etc.), making 
it harder to ascertain the necessary information to 
complete database entries.

A geographical perspective is also very relevant. 
Researchers generally tended to identify organisa-
tions working at a national level; some also had local 
branches or members, but the majority operated at 
the national level. Researchers often chose these 
organisations  because  they  were  considered  to 
carry out signiﬁ cant activity, with a nationwide inﬂ u-
ence. Overall, it was ensured that national network-
ing organisations were captured (Germany, Austria, 
Poland). In general, the decision was made to include 
organisations with a national reach as far as possible. 
However, it is acknowledged that there are some 
smaller grass-roots groups working at a local level 
that would merit inclusion in any further in-depth 
mapping (‘It would be interesting to invest more 
time in building the network, and discovering smaller 
[activist] groups or departments in organisations that 
do pioneering work with men and boys’ (Belgium, 

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Chapter 3   
Overall analysis of ﬁ ndings and overview 
of the mapped information

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Chapter 3 - Overall analysis of ﬁ ndings and overview of the mapped information 

the bottom of the WEF table also come fairly low 
in the analysis in terms of work with men on gen-
der equality. It would seem from the analysis that 
countries with greater gender equality (according 
to WEF) also appear to focus more on work with 
men.

In other words, where gender equality is more cen-
tral to public discourse and government action, it 
is likely to have the knock-on beneﬁ t of making 
issues on men’s involvement in gender equality 
more visible.

The 241 organisations in the study are broken down 
by country in Figure 3.1.

…  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
countries near the bottom of the 
WEF table also come fairly low in 
the analysis in terms of work with 
men on gender equality. It would 
seem from the analysis that coun-
tries with greater gender equality 
(according to WEF) also appear to 
focus more on work with men. 

Chapter 3
Overall analysis 
of ﬁ ndings and overview 
of the mapped information

Numbers of organisations 
and individuals

A huge amount of information has been collected 
during the project on organisations and individu-
als working on issues relevant to men and gender 
equality in the 27 EU Member States. The ﬁ nal list 
of 241 organisations and 67 individuals includes 
academics, trainers, consultants, journalists and 
politicians involved directly or indirectly in work 
on men and gender equality in Europe.

The research found that there was some work in this 
area in all 27 countries. The number of organisations 
active in diﬀ erent counties varied from 2 to 24. Swe-
den and the United Kingdom had the largest num-
ber of organisations (24 each), followed by Finland, 
Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. The newer 
Member States tended to have fewer organisations.

Another interesting ﬁ nding was that the countries 
where researchers found the most activity (Swe-
den, the United Kingdom, Finland, Germany and 
the Netherlands) were not dissimilar to those with 
the smallest gender gaps in a (2010) ranking by the 
World Economic Forum (WEF)(12). Nordic countries 
come highest in the ranking, followed by Ireland (6), 
Spain (11), Germany (13), Belgium (14), the United 
Kingdom (15) and the Netherlands (17). Various 
other countries are low-placed and carry out little 
work with men in the context of gender equality. 
Of course, this is also mediated by factors such as 
size, but it is interesting to note that countries near 

(12)  http://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2010

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Chapter 3 - Overall analysis of ﬁ ndings and overview of the mapped information 

Figure 3.1: The 241 organisations in the study broken down by country

Numbers of organisations working on men and gender 
equality, by country

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

a
i
r
t
s
u
A

i

m
u
g
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Types of organisations

The research found that the overwhelming majority 
(67 %) of organisations working in this arena in the 
27 EU Member States are NGOs. These vary consi-
derably in size and nature, from those with one staﬀ  
member to those with tens and covering a wide 
variety of themes, methods and tools (see the fol-
lowing sections). Some are very new and others 
have been around for a number of years. NGOs also 
vary considerably in terms of their relationship to 
the state, which, likewise, varies between countries.

Of the 27 Member States, the research identiﬁ ed 
only 16 with national government bodies working 
on this issue and 12 with regional or local govern-
ment activity. Finland, Sweden, Austria and Latvia 
all have two or three national government bodies 
working on this subject, while Spain, Sweden and 
Belgium have regional or local government initia-
tives. This reﬂ ects diﬀ erent governance arrange-
ments to some extent, with strong regional and 

local structures in the latter countries. This is also 
the case in Germany, but researchers focused on 
the federal level because of the country’s size and 
complexity. In Spain, researcher Paco Abril Morales 
notes that: ‘The majority of respondents in Spain 
agree that institutional support has been vital to the 
signiﬁ cant growth of the movement and actions 
that foster the change in attitudes of men towards 
equality. This growth began perhaps with the crea-
tion in 1999 of the ﬁ rst institutional programme 
“Men for Equality” in the city of Jerez de la Frontera 
(Andalusia). This programme is still active today and 
in 2001, it promoted the ﬁ rst National Conference 
on masculinity in Spain.’

There is also academic interest in the subject in 
many countries: the study identiﬁ ed 29 research 
centres working on some aspect of men and gen-
der equality. This interest correlates with the indi-
vidual actors identiﬁ ed, who were overwhelmingly 
academics (76 %).

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Researchers also found ﬁ ve relevant equality bodies 
(Greece, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg and the 
United Kingdom), three private companies (Swe-
den), two private consultancies (Germany and the 
United Kingdom), two trade unions (Denmark and 
Germany), two religious organisations (Germany), 
two subgroups of political parties (Finland), four 
websites and a donor (the Netherlands).

Main forms of involvement

In order to develop overall statistics on the data-
base entries, it was necessary to decide the main 
activity theme for each actor, as multiple answers 
would have been confusing and potentially mis-
leading. In many cases, this decision was relatively 
easy; however, some organisations covered more 
than one main theme and, in these circumstances, 
the research team tended to apply a more general 
‘gender equality’ label.

An analysis of organisations’ main forms of involve-
ment found that a large number (33 %) are working 
broadly on gender equality, with a sub-focus on 
men. This was identiﬁ ed from the questionnaires 
that organisations completed and/or their web-
sites. In some cases, a decision was made to use 
the more general ‘gender equality’ label, where 
organisations covered a range of themes rather 
than  specific  issues  such  as  fatherhood  or  vio-
lence. Organisations working on ‘violence preven-
tion’ are the next most numerous (16 %), followed 
by ‘fatherhood/caregiving’ (14 %), ‘health’ (10 %), 
‘gay/bisexual/transgender issues’ (9 %) and ‘educa-
tion and learning’ (9 %). Other themes are more 
marginal: for example, only three organisations 
have ‘ethnic minorities’ as their main focus and only 
one focuses mainly on ‘disability’. There is clearly 
room for further work in these areas. This is not to 
say that other organisations do not look at these 
issues, but it is a minor part of their work.

As an example, the research found that the number 
of organisations working on the prevention of vio-

lence varies considerably from country to country. 
The highest number being seven in Sweden, with 
six in Finland and the United Kingdom, down to 
none in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, 
Estonia, Latvia, Malta, Poland, Portugal and Roma-
nia. Although there were some limitations to the 
extent of mapping which researchers could under-
take, this ﬁ nding is interesting in relation to the 
Nordic countries. In particular, it appears to mirror 
recent evidence of diﬀ ering approaches to research 
and policy on gendered violence in Sweden and 
Denmark; this suggests that Sweden has developed 
considerably more work on this theme than Den-
mark in recent years(13).

Under each category, there were a number of diﬀ er-
ent kinds of organisation. For example, KAST Göteborg 
in Sweden stands for ‘Köpare Av Sexuella Tjänster’ 
(Buyers of Sexual Services). KAST is a unit in the Social 
Services Department of Gothenburg Municipality, 
which oﬀ ers interventions to men who pay for sex 
in an attempt to reduce the demand for prostitu-
tion. Other projects oﬀ er counselling to violent men 
or those with potential for violence. For example, 
Finland’s Kriisikeskus Mobile (Crisis Centre Mobile) 
aims to help men who have experienced a crisis, feel 
alone with their problems or are stuck in a diﬃ  cult 
life situation, or who wish to talk with a professional 
advisor. This is often connected with domestic or 
relational violence. The United Kingdom appears to 
have the most active campaign, the White Ribbon 
Campaign, which seeks to involve men in tackling 
violence against women and girls. Its current activ-
ities include campaigning at sport and music events, 
work in schools and colleges, developing a network 
of supporting local authorities and policy work with 
national organisations and the UK government.

(13)  Pringle, K., Balkmar, D., Iovanni, L. (2010), ‘Trouble in paradise: 
exploring patterns of research and policy response to men’s 
violence in Denmark and Sweden’, NORA – Nordic Journal 
of Feminist and Gender Research, Vol. 18(2).

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Chapter 3 - Overall analysis of ﬁ ndings and overview of the mapped information 

of ombudsman/commissioner oﬃ  ces, several of 
which had the speciﬁ c remit of taking up individual 
complaints on rights violations. ‘Investment’ was 
added to cover the activities of foundations and 
fundraisers, but this category was rarely applied 
in  practice.

An analysis of the main methods and approaches 
(Figure 3.2) shows that ‘individual counselling’ is 
the most common (53 organisations), followed by 
‘group work with men’ and ‘information/awareness-
raising’ (36 each), and then ‘research’ and ‘policy
/political engagement’ (31 each) and ‘campaigns’ 
(14). Again, this analysis is of the main method for 
each organisation, which does not preclude the 
fact that they may also be using others.

Main methods and tools employed

The questionnaire asked actors to identify their 
main methods and approaches from a standardised 
list. The original list included the following catego-
ries: individual counselling; group work with men; 
group work with men and women; men as allies 
to women/women’s issues; research; policy/politi-
cal engagement; campaigns; networking; media 
work;  publications/website;  and  ‘other’  (which 
respondents were asked to specify). As a result of 
responses, the categories ‘information/awareness-
raising’, ‘law/rights’, ‘training’ and ‘investment’ were 
added, as these were placed in the ‘other’ category 
and did not ﬁ t neatly in existing ones.

Most of these categories are self-explanatory, but 
some  require  further  elaboration.  In  particular, 
‘individual counselling’ was taken to include the 
provision of individual advice and guidance (e.g. in 
relation to health or fatherhood), as well as thera-
peutic or clinical intervention. Similarly, ‘group work 
with men’ included education projects, social or 
sporting activities and ‘men’s groups’ of various 
kinds, in addition to all-male groups based on thera-
peutic or clinical intervention. It was also taken to 
encompass activities with young men and boys 
rather than just adults. ‘Men as allies to women/
women’s groups’ was rarely identiﬁ ed as a main 
method, but was primarily used to describe the 
activities of pro-feminist groups and/or women’s 
organisations in which men were also involved 
(often in a supporting role). ‘Information/aware-
ness-raising’ was applied in cases where actors were 
involved in a general range of activities rather than 
one speciﬁ c aspect (e.g. running a website, produc-
ing publications and media work). As such, this acts 
to some extent as an ‘umbrella’ category that may 
include some or all more speciﬁ c activities. ‘Law/
rights’ was both a theme of some actors’ work and 
a working method: a good example was the work 

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Figure 3.2: Analysis of main methods and approaches

Organisations by method/approach

Training
Investment
Law/rights
Information/awareness raising
Publications/websites
Media
Networking
Campaings
Policy/political engagement
Research
Men as allies to women
Group work men and women
Group work men/boys
Individual counselling

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

For the purpose of the study, ‘tools and materials’ 
to be mapped included reports, studies, working 
papers, assessments, manuals, guidelines, leaﬂ ets, 
publications, training materials and audiovisual 
materials. However, researchers did not provide 
a  specific  list  when  asking  actors  to  state  the 
tools they used because it was felt that this might 
restrict the range of tools described. No in-depth 
analysis of the huge range of tools developed was 
undertaken in this project, but some noteworthy 
examples are now identiﬁ ed and presented below 
(especially in the ﬁ eld of training).

In Austria, Frauenservice Graz and Männerbera-
tung Graz organise GenderWerkstätte (Gender-
Labs),  a  network  of  trainers,  adult  educators, 
researchers, organisational consultants and other 
experts. Each year, GenderWerkstätte runs work-
shops, seminars, speeches and other educational 
activities (http://www.genderwerkstaette.at) and 
also oﬀ ers a ﬁ ve-module course on gender com-
petence and mainstreaming.

In Denmark, KVINFO has established a mentor net-
work for men from ethnic minorities, modelled on 
a successful initiative for women from ethnic minori-
ties. The network aims to enhance the integration 
and participation of ethnic minorities in social life 
and the labour market by allowing employed men to 
mentor male immigrants and refugees searching for 
a job or education. The ‘New Men in Denmark’ project 
recorded successful integration stories told by men 
from ethnic minorities and presents their stories, and 
other positive stories of men discussing the opportu-
nities and challenges of life in Denmark, online.

In Finland, Lyömätön Linja Espoo started the Alterna-
tive to Violence programme in 1994 and has continu-
ously developed it over the years. The programme 
includes individual meetings, group work and follow-
up meetings for men (http://www.lyomatonlinja.ﬁ /
Sivusto %209/Alternative %20to %20Violence %20
Program.html). It also includes service guidance for 
all family members who have been involved in situ-
ations of domestic violence.

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In Germany, Kompetenzzentrum Technik-Diver-
sity-Chancengleichheit e.V. (Competence Centre 
for  Technology-Diversity-Equal  Opportunities) 
established the New Paths for Boys (Neue Wege 
für Jungs) programme in 2005. This programme 
inspires local initiatives on special activities to meet 
boys’ needs during the transition from school to 
vocational life. Multipliers receive assistance and 
can  benefit  from  nationwide  networking  and 
a professional exchange of ideas. A Boys’ Day on 
future prospects for boys was held nationwide on 
14 April 2011 for the ﬁ rst time, bringing together 
a wide range of activities for boys on career and 
life planning. Students, parents and teachers can 
search for Boys’ Day activities on the action map 
online (http://www.boys-day.de). Materials (e.g. 
a poster, ﬂ yer, info booklet for boys, supportive 
guides and checklists for activities, initiatives and 
projects) (http://www.boys-day.de/Service/Down-
loadcenter) and ﬁ lm clips (http://www.boys-day.
de/Ueber_den_Boys_Day/Boys_Day-Infoﬁ lmclips) 
are also available.

In Greece, the Research Centre for Gender Equal-
ity (KETHI) ran the ‘Sensitisation of teachers’ pro-
gramme and interventional programmes for the 
promotion of gender equality in 2002–2008. The 
project aimed to combat gender stereotypes from 
an early age, providing awareness training to teach-
ers and students and encouraging young women 
and men to explore non-traditional educational 
paths. The educational tools produced within the 
project’s framework amounted to 10 volumes of 
material.

MOVISIE is a centre for social development in the 
Netherlands.  Among  a  range  of  projects  and 
activities, it runs Man actief, a method for activat-
ing immigrant men in a vulnerable position. It aims 
to reduce the social isolation and improve the self-
esteem of immigrant men, together with practi-
cal work on transition to voluntary or paid work 
or a  follow-up course. Man actief has developed 
a trainers handbook, which addresses core ques-

tions about men’s position in family and society 
under the themes of identity and culture, society 
and  identity,  manhood,  family,  religion,  health 
and  labour.  The  method  and  training  manual 
were tested in four pilot programmes in four cit-
ies  (Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  Utrecht  and  The 
Hague). In each pilot, about 15 migrant men were 
challenged to follow an eight-week training pro-
gramme focused on self-respect. The men were 
also  challenged  to  become  active  members  of 
society, by securing paid or voluntary work, start-
ing courses or other activities. Sixty men started the 
pilots and 38 carried on to further activities.

In Spain, AHIGE (Asociación de Hombres por la 
Igualdad de Género – Men’s Gender Equality Asso-
ciation) is involved in a wide range of activities: 
training (online and oﬄ  ine courses for experts on 
the treatment of violent men and men and equal-
ity); gender and men and equality sensitisation 
for youths and adults; intervention programmes 
(for male abusers and gender school awareness); 
the promotion of men’s groups; and public cam-
paigns. Among its materials are: Male responsibility 
at home (Co-responde: http://www.corresponde.
ahige.es);  Young  equality  online  network  (Red-
Jóvenes.es: http://www.redjovenes.es); an online 
magazine (http://www.hombresigualitarios.ahige.
es); and a childcare guide for new fathers (http://
www.ahige.org/guia_cuidados.pdf; http://www.
homesigualitaris.cat/).

In Sweden, Män för Jämställdhet organises a range 
of activities including: advocacy work on gender 
equality policy that focuses on transforming men’s 
attitudes and masculinities; training services on the 
topic of men, masculinities and gender equality for 
municipalities, schools, organisations, workplaces, 
ﬁ re services, the military, etc.; technical assistance 
for boys’ support groups; annual campaigns on 
violence  against  women;  educational  support 
groups for fathers-to-be; and educational support 
groups for boys. Killfragor.se (BoysQuestions.com) 
is a web-based service for boys aged 10 to 18 that 

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‘A domestic violence programme can be very eﬀ ective 
for men. A man can proﬁ t a lot in his personal life if he 
learns to reﬂ ect about his own power and masculinity.’
(Jonni Brem, Men’s Counselling Centre, Vienna, Austria)

‘The  most  important  intervention  is  edu-
cation;  changing  the  content  of  all  aca-
demic  disciplines  (not  only  in  history  and 
literature) and an assessment of the content of 
manuals from a gender point of view is a must.’
(Krassimira Daskalova, Professor of Feminist History, 
University of Soﬁ a, Bulgaria)

‘The single thing that would have a real impact 
would be to show the ﬁ nancial beneﬁ ts of gender 
equality or the ‘economisation’ of gender equality. 
We need statistics on beneﬁ ts and losses… There are 
no tools in the Bulgarian language… The only work 
delivered so far is the training of policemen to imple-
ment the new law and to abide by their regulations.’
(Tatyana Kmetova, Center of Women’s Studies and 
Policies, Bulgaria)

‘An eﬀ ective method of intervention would be pub-
lic communication, the involvement of public state 
TV in such emissions, campaigns and shows and the 
involvement of multidisciplinary teams in the concep-
tion of TV programmes oriented to young people.’ 
(Lazar Lazarov, Policymaker and former Deputy Minister 
of Labour and Social Policy, Bulgaria)

uses chat and e-mail as channels for boys to com-
municate with adults trained in masculinities and 
gender equality (http://www.killfragor.se). There is 
also a training manual. Machofabriken (The Macho 
Factory) provides ﬁ lm-based group educational 
material for young men and women on the social 
norms of masculinities and gender equality (http://
www.machofabriken.se).

In the United Kingdom, the Navigator develop-
ment programme is a powerful and pioneering 
development course for men. It is the UK’s ﬁ rst 
personal  and  work  development  programme 
specifically researched and developed for non-
management and junior management men. The 
programme enables men to identify clear, practical 
and realistic steps they want to take in their lives 
and then develop the skills and determination to 
do something about them.

Developed following the success of its sister Spring-
board programme for women, the Navigator devel-
opment programme has been successfully used by 
over 5 000 men from all sectors in the world of work. 
It is delivered through a specially trained network of 
highly professional trainers. It consists of ﬁ ve com-
ponents delivered over three months: a regularly 
updated workbook that embraces material for the 
entire programme; four one-day workshops; the 
provision of real, relevant and inspiring role models; 
the encouragement of eﬀ ective networks within 
the group; and peer coaching to enable long-term, 
sustainable progress.

Evaluation of several of the above programmes has 
been undertaken, but this is usually relatively basic 
(e.g. feedback forms from participants). Overall, the 
study found little evidence of any in-depth rigorous 
evaluation of programmes involving work with men. 
This is a signiﬁ cant gap that requires further work.

Having  said  that,  interviews  conducted  for  the 
study provided a wide range of ideas, comments 
and suggestions on the likely eﬀ ectiveness of vari-
ous methods, approaches and tools; some of these 
comments follow.

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‘Society is ready for more gender equality; we need 
more ideas about how to make it happen. Positive 
discrimination in political parties and government 
may help. Also, self-developed codes of practice for 
political parties, the media and even academic insti-
tutions and committees that would scrutinise gen-
der equality in daily practice could be useful tools.’
(Nicos Peristianis, Sociologist, Chairman of the Board 
of  the  University  of  Nicosia  and  Chairman  of  the 
Board of the Mediterranean Institute of Gender Stud-
ies, Cyprus)

‘The best strategy to get men involved in the dis-
cussion  on  masculinity  is  to  choose  appropriate 
means  to  address  them  either  directly  (through 
group  work  and  counselling)  or  via  media  cam-
paigns  and  open  space  discussions.  The  most 
eﬀ ective approach seems to be for men to speak 
to men. It seems to be more eﬀ ective than having 
women trying to explain what is best for men and 
why gender stereotypes are hurting men as well.’
(Martin Jara, League of Open Men, Czech Republic)

‘Among the cases of best practice, fathers’ groups 
are mentioned where fathers on leave meet on 
a regular basis. Initiatives have to be tailored in 
such a way that they are acceptable and legiti-
mate for men to embark upon. When you want 
men to meet, there needs to be some activities 
rather than just talks about parenting, etc., as in the 
case of mothers’ groups. (Kenneth Reinicke, Roskilde 
University, Denmark)

‘Eﬀ ective methods have to be practical and per-
ceived as bringing immediate added value, i.e. 
beneﬁ ts.’ (Jari Hautamäki, Lyömätön Linja Espoossa, 
Finland)

‘The White Ribbon Campaign is a good method, 
talking to men on the street.’ (Timo Honkasalo, Pro-
feministimiehet, Finland)

‘Material should not be too academic (i.e. theo-
retical and using academic jargon). Video may be 
a good format, like the material provided by Swe-
den’s Machofabriken. Posters on buses and in trams 
and stations could also convey the message, as well 
as the use of YouTube and similar Internet outlets.’
(Jeﬀ  Hearn, Critical Studies on Men, Finland)

‘As a starting point, the most important thing is to 
access men’s point of view to make them understand 
equality as equally beneﬁ cial for men and women. 
Methods should include a lot of dialogue and inter-
play between men, with peer groups providing a useful 
function. It has repeatedly been observed in father and 
father-child groups that new fathers and fathers-to-be 
respect and listen very carefully to more experienced 
‘older’ fathers, who have been nominated as leaders of 
the group. The most valued characteristics of a good 
counsellor in this ﬁ eld are experience, understanding 
of the practice and personal commitment. His/her 
main duty is to create an atmosphere of trust.’ (Jouko 
  Huttunen, Fatherhood research, Finland)

‘Often only training events are conducted, but there 
is no follow-up implementation of gender equality 
measures in daily work. As gender trainers we always 
try to convince commissioners to conduct pilot pro-
jects in their organisations in order to learn to imple-
ment processes, recognise routines and learn about the 
obstacles. This never happens. This is the biggest deﬁ cit.’
(Andreas Haase, Editor of Switchboard journal, Germany)

As a starting point, the most impor-
tant thing is to access men’s point 
of view to make them understand 
equality  as  equally  beneficial  for 
men and women.

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‘It is necessary to support the networking of organisa-
tions and key people committed to the involvement 
of men in gender equality processes and give them 
space for dialogue. This is particularly important for 
emancipation-oriented men and their organisations, 
and should be supported by money and/or structures.’
(Henning von Bargen, Gunda Werner Institute for Femi-
nism and Gender Democracy, Heinrich Böll Foundation, 
Germany)

‘The Ministry of Education has developed the big-
gest  mainstream  gender  equality  programme 
of  the  last  few  years  in  collaboration  with  the 
Research  Centre  for  Gender  Equality.  This  was 
carried out under the third Community Support 
Framework, with a large amount of educational 
material developed for various levels of education 
and  teachers  trained  accordingly.  Though  the 
material and training did not speciﬁ cally address 
male teachers, its content was based on the social 
formation of gender identities and stereotypes. 
This programme was funded by structural funds 
that  derive  mainly  from  the  European  Union.’
(Maria Stratigaki, Secretary-General for Gender Equal-
ity, Ministry of Interior, Decentralisation and E-Govern-
ment, Athens, Greece)

‘Some  useful  methods:  men’s  groups,  gender-
aware  school  and  textbooks,  psychodrama 
groups,  or  the  use  of  a  network  of  mediators 
dealing  with  gender  discrimination  situations.’ 
(Miklos Hadas, Institute of Sociology and Social Policy, 
Corvinus University of   Budapest, Hungary)

It is necessary to support the net-
working  of  organisations  and  key 
people committed to the involvement 
of men in gender equality processes 
and give them space for dialogue. 

‘Recently  there  was  a  violent  incident  against 
a woman that was videotaped, circulated on the 
Internet and gained much media attention. A lot of 
men blogged in and condemned such behaviour. 
MCWO highlighted on this occasion the impor-
tance  of  men  being  involved  and  raising  their 
voice against such behaviour. Though, of course, 
this was a spontaneous incident, it shows a way.’
(Renee Laiviera, Founder and chairperson of the Malta 
Confederation of Women’s Organisations, Malta)

‘The ﬁ rst step in Poland should be to create a pro-
feminist organisation, with men who are work-
ing with women for gender equality.’ (Katarzyna 
Wojnicka, Country researcher, Poland)

‘We  don’t  have  a  clear  picture  of  what  meth-
ods might be effective yet, since we are still at 
the beginning of the story in a way, and we can 
talk  only  about  individual  men  who  express 
their  support  and  solidarity  for  our  struggles 
and  efforts.  I  would  say  we  have  “individual/
personal” good practices in the public space, in 
the academic sphere, in our organisations, etc.’ 
(Oana Băluţă, FILIA Chairwoman, Romania)

‘One group with a strong potential are the fathers 
of daughters; many of them are becoming aware 
of the gender-stereotypical way in institutional 
education in Slovakia. They tend to reﬂ ect more 
sensitively  the  disadvantages  their  daughters 
are  facing  and  can  thus  become  an  important 
target group to work with on gender equality.’ 
(David  Bosý,  NGO  ESFEM,  University  of  Presov, 
Slovakia)

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Overview of emerging issues

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

Chapter 4
Overview 
of emerging issues

Understanding of gender equality 
and the involvement of men

In some countries, researchers commented on the 
fact that ‘gender equality’ itself was quite a new term 
and that work on ‘men and masculinities’ in this con-
text was even more recent. This meant that often the 
link between the two was not well understood. For 
example, there was often confusion between men’s 
involvement in promoting gender equality and work on 
men and masculinities (which is often a new area even 
at the academic level in some countries). This meant 
that respondents replying to the questionnaire or inter-
viewer’s questions did not immediately see the connec-
tion between the two, even though they were involved 
more or less explicitly in gender equality actions and 
supported men’s participation in some of their gender 
equality programmes. For these reasons, some initially 
thought they did not ﬁ t in the study’s target group.

Other issues that emerged in this context include 
the following.

•  The term ‘gender equality’ is not well 
understood. This may be particularly true in 
the countries of Central and Eastern Europe 
for historical reasons. As Jivka Marinova, the 
researcher for the study in Bulgaria noted: 
‘“Gender equality” has been introduced as 
a term in the public discourse, but is still an 
empty term not well understood by either 
women or men. When the terms “gender” 
and  “gender  equality”  were  introduced, 
they sounded completely alien and, unfor-
tunately, they still do, outside of women’s 
NGOs, gender organisations and some aca-
demic circles.’

•  Gender equality has persistently been seen 
as a ‘women’s issue’.  For  example,  Ovidiu 
Anemtoaicei, the researcher for this study in 
Romania, noted that: ‘At the level of state policies, 
academic and activist spheres, gender equality 
was conceived as gene rally having women as 
the main target group and this stance has been 
made familiar to the general public in the terms 
and limits of the EU gender equality discourse.’

•  Many organisations do not see themselves 
as involved with men and gender equality, 
even if they are. For example, Jens van Tricht, 
the researcher for the study in the Netherlands 
and the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium, noted 
that: ‘Many organisations don’t see themselves 
as being involved with men and gender equality, 
where I am sure that that is what they are (also) 
dealing with.’

•  Some organisations have a ‘sideways’ focus 
on masculinity (e.g. sexual health, LGBT (les-
bian, gay, bisexual, transgender) and women’s 
organisations).  For  example,  Jens  van  Tricht 
also noted: ‘Men and masculinity are not a cen-
tral point of their work, but in sexual health, gay 
rights and women’s emancipation, many organi-
sations have a sideway focus on boys and men, 
even though they don’t address them directly.’

The relevance of gender equality 
for men

‘Reasons for men to change: the increased possibili-
ties for love, emotional support and care for and from 
other men; the privilege and emotional development 
that may come from increased involvement with care 
and caring, and work with children; improved health, 
the reduction of certain illnesses and the extension of 
life; creation of the conditions for the transformation 
of the capitalist mode of production (that is inherently 
gendered) to more liberating productive relations; 
avoidance of other men’s violence and of the fear 
of men, of killing, of being killed; reduction of global 
militarism and likelihood of nuclear disaster/annihila-
tion.’ (Interview with Jeﬀ  Hearn, Critical Studies on Men)

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Equality  between  women  and  men  is  a  funda-
mental principle of international law that is also 
endorsed at EU level and a precondition for democ-
racy. Women have been largely responsible for 
placing gender equality on the public agenda. This 
is unsurprising, given that the negative eﬀ ects of 
gender inequality have fallen primarily on them. 

However, in recent years it has increasingly been 
acknowledged that men and boys are also inex-
tricably involved with gender issues and that they 
have an important role in eﬀ orts to achieve equality.

Moreover,  it  is  widely  believed  that  progress 
towards gender equality will not only improve the 
lives of women and girls, but will also stimulate 
positive transformations in the lives of men and 
boys. At EU level, the Council of Ministers has stated 
that: ‘In order to improve the status of women and 
promote gender equality, more attention should 
be paid to how men are involved in the achieve-
ment of equality, as well as to the positive impact 
of gender equality for men and for the well-being 
of the society as a whole’(14).

The beneﬁ ts of involving men and boys in gender 
equality have been articulated in a range of docu-
ments and reports(15), together with ways for achieving 
men’s commitment to gender equality. These were 
frequently endorsed by respondents in the study.

Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

men and boys. Men and boys live in social 
relationships with women and girls as wives, 
partners, mothers, aunts, daughters, friends, 
classmates, fellow employees, etc., and the 
quality of every man’s life depends to a large 
extent on the quality of those relationships.

‘Gender equality is a channel for happiness in the 
life of a couple.’ (Maro Varnavidou, Secretary-General 
of the National Machinery of Women’s Rights, Ministry 
of Justice and Public Order, Cyprus) 

‘Advantages for the individual man are: coming 
to a new understanding of his own gender role 
(in society and the organisation); access to topics 
such as the ability to take responsibility; the smooth 
cooperation of men and women as a team; and the 
assumption of more responsibility in partnerships 
and the family.’ (Andreas Haase, Editor of Switch-
board journal, Germany)

‘Involving men in gender equality is beneﬁ cial for 
both men and women for their better communi-
cation and collaboration, an improved emotional 
relationship and the breaking up of internalised 
gender stereotypes.’ (Nicholas Christakis, Professor 
of Social Psychology, Department of Communication 
and Mass Media, University of Athens, Greece)

1.  Gender  equality  holds  the  promise  of 
improvements in men’s and boys’ rela-
tionships, not only with women and girls, but 
also in the relations they often have with other 

‘An involved and aware man is good for himself, his 
partner and his children; a healthy man contributes 
more to his family and his community.’ (Colin Fowler, 
Men’s Health Forum, Ireland)

(14)  Council of the European Union, Council Conclusions on men 
and gender equality, Council meeting, Brussels, 30 November 
and 1 December 2006 (http://www.eu2006.ﬁ /NEWS_AND_
DOCUMENTS/CONCLUSIONS/VKO48/EN_GB/1164987131570/_
FILES/76348606395122256/DEFAULT/91959.PDF).

(15)  For example: Connell, R. W., ‘The Role of Men and Boys 
in Achieving Gender Equality’, United Nations Division 
for the Advancement of Women (DAW), Expert Group Meeting, 
Brasilia, Brazil, 21–24 October 2003 (EGM/Men-Boys-GE/2003/
BP.1); Kaufman, M. (2003), ‘The Aim Framework – Addressing and 
Involving Men and Boys to Promote Gender Equality and End 
Gender Discrimination and Violence’, Unicef; Ruxton, S. (2009), 
‘Man Made: Men, masculinities and equality in public policy’, 
Coalition on Men and Boys, London

2.  Gender  inequality  and  stereotypical 
gender roles and norms have damaging 
eﬀ  ects on the personal health and well-
being of men, as well as women (although 
in diﬀ erent ways). Men and boys face speciﬁ c 
health  problems,  such  as  premature  death 
through an accident or suicide and higher lev-
els of drug and alcohol abuse. Many of these 
are linked to attempts by men to live up to 
dominant notions of masculinity – ‘be tough’, 

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

‘compete’, ‘take risks’. Promoting and nurtur-
ing alternative models for being a man can do 
much to improve men’s health and well-being 
and reduce the negative impact of their actions 
on themselves and others.

‘Involving men in gender equality underlines men’s 
resources, the potential for change and the possi-
bilities of empowerment for men by breaking tradi-
tional, rigid male roles. However, it is easier said than 
done.’ (Kenneth Reinicke, Roskilde University, Denmark)

‘Formulating violent masculine personalities gener-
ates inequality and unhappiness. Being trained in 
the army for two years reinforces the tough mas-
culine model.’ (Maro Varnavidou, Secretary-General 
of the National Machinery of Women’s Rights, Ministry 
of Justice and Public Order, Cyprus)

‘Traditional masculinity is a serious health risk. Men 
casting oﬀ  its heavy and limiting role requirements 
can move on to new challenges and live longer and 
healthier lives.’ (Timo Honkasalo, Profeministimiehet, 
Finland)

‘If men understood the importance of gender equa-
lity and were involved in gender equality practices, 
their lives could change signiﬁ cantly. There would 
be less self-destructive male behaviour in Lithuania.’ 
(Margarita Jankauskaitė, Centre for Equality Advance-
ment, Lithuania)

3.  Men may support gender equality because 
they believe it will contribute to the well-
being  of  their  community  or  society. 
Greater awareness of gender roles and norms 
will reduce the pressure on men to conform 
to damaging and rigid forms of masculinity.  
For example, this is likely to reduce the num-
ber of ‘violences’ (i.e. violence in all its forms) 
by men and help improve community safety 
and develop peaceful conﬂ ict resolution. It will 
also contribute to raising the next generation 
of boys (and girls) in a more egalitarian way.

Promoting and nurturing alterna-
tive models for being a man can do 
much to improve men’s health and 
well-being and reduce the negative 
impact of their actions on themselves 
and others.

‘Having more open categories of masculinity means 
that men do not have to conform to a particular 
view of masculinity. It weakens the hegemonic 
discourse of masculinity and has a positive eﬀ ect 
on perceptions of male identity.’ (Henk De Smaele, 
University of Antwerp, Belgium)

‘Men can discover the challenges of new fields 
they can enter through self-education and training. 
There would be beneﬁ ts for the whole of society.’ 
(Lazar Lazarov, policymaker and former Deputy Min-
ister of Labour and Social Policy, Bulgaria)

‘Fair sharing of responsibilities between men and 
women in all areas and suﬃ  cient care structures 
could be most beneﬁ cial to economic and social 
development.’ (Anna Karamanou, former Chairper-
son of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender 
Equality of the European Parliament)

4.  Men can be motivated by interests other 
than maintaining their own privileges(16). 
They may seek to challenge gender inequality 
and gender stereotypes for political or ethical 
reasons, or through concern for the well-being 
of children (especially their own) and women 
whom they know. They may see it as part of 
a wider equality and social justice project.

(16)  Flood, M., ‘Mainstreaming Men in Gender and Development’, 
Presentation to AusAID Gender Seminar Series, Canberra, 
8 December 2005.

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

‘We must also realise that gender inequality is to the 
disadvantage of women and men have to give up 
privileges.’ (Henk De Smaele, University of Antwerp, 
Belgium)

‘It is important that male faces appear in campaigns 
for gender equality.’ (Lazar Lazarov, Policymaker and 
former Deputy Minister of Labour and Social Policy, 
Bulgaria)

‘It is important that men involved in the gender 
equality debate reﬂ ect on their advantageous male 
position and bring it into the discussion.’ (Petr Pav-
lik, Charles University School of Humanities, Czech 
Republic)

5.  Addressing  men  through  public  policy 
encourages them to take responsibility for 
change. It can also help reduce many men’s 
sense of anxiety and fear as ‘traditional’ mas-
culinities are undermined(17).

‘If men are involved in building gender equality, they 
will feel included in the decisions made and less 
threatened by gender equality. ‘As a by-product, men 
will also learn to express their fears and concerns.’ 
(Tomi Timperi, Miessakit, Finland)

6.  Involving men may help to create wider 
consensus  and  support  on  issues  that 
have  previously  been  marginalised  as 
‘women’s issues’ (e.g. in relation to family, 
violence, sexual and reproductive health).

‘It broadens the spectrum. If the ﬁ ght for equal-
ity of women is not only fed by women but also 
by men, it becomes more universal, and has more 
chance of success and more credibility.’ (Geraldine 
  Reymenants, Instituut voor Gelijkheid van Vrouwen en 
Mannen, Belgium)

If men are involved in building gen-
der equality, they will feel included 
in the decisions made and less threat-
ened by gender equality. 

(17)  See footnote 16.

‘Men learn that by engaging in gender equality 
work they can inﬂ uence it and participate in build-
ing  a  new  culture  where  gender  equality  is  no 
longer only a women’s cause. And as more men 
engage, the threshold for joining becomes lower.’ 
(Jari Hautamäki, Lyömätön Linja Espoossa, Finland)

7.  Targeting  men,  especially  those  with 
a powerful role in institutions, may help 
encourage  other  men  to  participate  in 
gender equality actions.

‘Making these men visible for other men and the 
whole society also has a strong awareness- raising 
role, and can make other people believe that it is 
not awkward for men to deal with gender equality 
issues.’ (Judit Takacs, Institute of Sociology,   Hungarian 
Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary)

‘The most important thing about the involvement 
of men in gender equality is visibility on alterna-
tives to the mainstream. Men who don’t recognise 
themselves in the mainstream need to be given 
a voice and women need supporting.’ (Ton van Elst, 
MOVISIE, the Netherlands)

‘Decision-makers are usually men and these are the 
people that need to be inﬂ uenced. They must be 
made to feel responsible for the changes that need 
to be brought about.’ (Nicos Peristianis, Sociologist, 
Chairman of the Board of the University of Nicosia and 
Chairman of the Board of the Mediterranean Institute 
of Gender Studies)

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

‘If men are involved in gender equality processes, 
the chance is much higher that they support the 
processes. Moreover, involving men at executive 
level increases the likelihood that future managers 
will support these processes.’ (Andreas Haase, Editor 
of Switchboard journal, Germany)

8.  Engaging men may encourage the devel-
opment of eﬀ  ective partnerships between 
men and women, and between men’s and 
women’s organisations.

‘Cooperation between women and men, instead of 
“sex wars”, can be the ﬁ rst step in changing patterns 
of general social relations in Polish society.’ (Dariusz 
Bugalski, Journalist, Poland)

9.  Some  men  and  boys  are  discriminated 
against on grounds directly linked to gen-
der(18), including their sexuality and/or associa-
tion with ‘feminine’ characteristics or activities. 
It is, therefore, in their interests for the current 
gender order to change.

Men’s diversity

Men as a group have an advantage over women 
because of their sex (the ‘patriarchal dividend’) and 
this dominance is usually built into social relations 
and structures to make it appear normal and natu-
ral. However, the beneﬁ ts men derive individually 
are not experienced equally and men’s lives reﬂ ect 
their diﬀ erent actual or perceived relations to the 
power they hold.

There  is  no  one  universal  form  of  ‘masculinity’ 
– indeed there are signiﬁ cant diﬀ erences between 
men  (as  there  are  between  women).  The  term 

(18)  Hearn, J. (2001), ‘Men and Gender Equality: Resistance, 

Responsibilities and Reaching Out’, Örebro, Sweden, 
15 and 16 March 2001.

‘masculinities’(19) is often used to reﬂ ect the various 
ways in which men relate to hegemonic notions of 
masculinity(20). ‘Masculinities’ can be understood as 
collective and individual experiences and practices, 
conditioned and sustained by cultures within par-
ticular groups or institutions (e.g. the army, prisons, 
sports clubs, factories and schools).

‘Intersectionality’ highlights how various socially 
and culturally constructed categories such as gen-
der, race, class, disability, sexual orientation and 
other aspects of identity interact on multiple and 
often simultaneous levels, contributing to syste-
matic social inequality. The concept of ‘masculini-
ties’ can be similarly linked to these social divisions. 
An emerging theme in research literature on mas-
culinity is the dynamic interrelationships between 
these strands and their impact on women, children 
and men. It is essential to be aware of how speciﬁ c 
strands interconnect and to address them.

Gay, bisexual and transgender men

The lives of gay, bisexual and transgender men 
are structured by their experiences in a dominant 
heterosexual culture and in particular by homo-
phobia. Although same-sex relationships are legal 
in all countries in the study, progress has histori-
cally been very uneven and such recognition is 
still relatively recent in many EU states, particularly, 
but not exclusively, in Central and Eastern Europe. 
Public attitudes also vary widely, as evidenced by 
the touchstone issue of same-sex marriage; a 2006 
Eurobarometer poll(21) showed majority support in 
the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, Lux-
embourg, Spain, Germany and the Czech Repub-
lic, but very low levels in Romania, Latvia, Cyprus, 

(19)  Use of the term ‘masculinities’ has been criticised for a range 

of reasons; some prefer the term ‘male practices’; see, for example, 
Hearn, J. (1996), ‘Is Masculinity Dead? A Critique of the Concept 
of Masculinity/Masculinities’, Mac an Ghaill, M. (ed.), Understanding 
Masculinities, Open University Press, Milton Keynes.

(20)  Connell, R. W. (1995), Masculinities, Polity, Cambridge.

(21)  European Commission (2006), ‘Public Opinion in the European 

Union’, Standard Eurobarometer 66.

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Bulgaria, Greece, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary and 
Malta. Against this background, it is unsurprising 
that there has been a backlash to the emergence 
of a more visible LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and 
transgender) movement in some of the latter coun-
tries. In Latvia, for example, the ﬁ rst Pride March 
(2005) provoked negative changes to the Constitu-
tion, deﬁ ning marriage as a union between a man 
and a woman to avoid the possibility of same-sex 
marriage. Baltic Pride 2010 took place in Vilnius 
(Lithuania) with a heavy police presence, accom-
panied by violence from opponents of gay rights.

The main focus of LGBT groups in relation to gen-
der identity and sexual orientation is linked to some 
of the concerns of (women’s) groups working for 
gender equality. In particular, the focus is on the 
role of LGBT groups in questioning and undermin-
ing hegemonic (heterosexual) forms of masculinity. 
However, alliances between these groups can some-
times be uneasy(22). The particular circumstances of 
gay, bisexual and transgender men as members 
of largely invisible minorities also require special 
consideration. Distinct issues may include: identity 
development; coming out to friends and family; gay 
parenting; and experiences of discrimination, harass-
ment and violence(23). There are also concerns about 
gender division and traditional gendered patterns 
within the gay community and movement.

In the study, a reasonable spread of organisations 
was identiﬁ ed that work with men on LGBT issues 
in  Member  States.  The  actors  covered  a  wide 
range of issues, from political representation to 
awareness-raising, education, health advice (men-
tal and physical), individual counselling, research 
and  social  events.  Examples  of  these  organisa-
tions  include:  Homosexuellen  Initiative  Wien 
(Austria);  Landsforeningen  for  bøsser,  lesbiske, 
biseksuelle og transpersoner (Denmark); Lesben 

Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

und  Schwulenverband in Deutschland (Germany); 
Cassero (Italy); Mozaīka (Latvia); Stowarzyszenie 
Lambda Warszawa (Poland); Legebitra (Slovenia); 
and Stonewall (United Kingdom).

Men from ethnic minorities

Another critical research strand is the experience 
and position of men from ethnic minorities. While 
concerns of men (and women) from ethnic minority 
groups are sometimes addressed under the label 
‘diversity’, an intersectional approach brings inter-
locking power relations and inequalities and their 
eﬀ ects on individuals more clearly into focus.

The issues facing men from ethnic minorities over-
lap with those facing other men (indeed, some men 
have ‘multiple memberships’ of minority and major-
ity communities); however, practices are shaped 
by their diﬀ erent cultural and religious identities. 
More broadly, they are aﬀ ected by a complex mix of 
racism, discrimination, and educational and social 
disadvantage. The ways these experiences play out 
in practice vary considerably between groups.

The intersection of race and gender issues is also 
complicated. It is often argued that traditional gen-
der roles remain unquestioned for men in many 
ethnic minority groups. In campaigns for racial 
equality, there is also historical evidence of male 
activists  deliberately  sidelining  or  submerging 
gender inequalities faced by women from ethnic 
minorities. However, an interviewee from Germany, 
Michael Tunc, warned of the dangers of oversimpli-
ﬁ cation into stereotypes of the male oppressor and 
female victim. While acknowledging that the ‘patri-
archal dividend’ also applies to migrant men, he 
argued that ‘men are often still seen as patriar chal 
and traditional and it is not perceived that there are 
men with an immigrant background who see the 
beneﬁ ts of equal opportunities policy’(24).

(22)  National Report on Romania.

(23)  Stepelman, L. M., ‘Working with Gay Men’, Flood, M., Gardiner, J. K., 

Pease, B., Pringle, K. (2007), International Encyclopedia of Men and 
Masculinities, Routledge, London/New York.

(24)  Interview with Michael Tunc, Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft 

Männlichkeiten und Migration, Germany.

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

Among the actors in the database, very few were 
identiﬁ ed that stated speciﬁ cally that their main 
focus was working with men from ethnic minorities. 
However, there were some cases where the target 
reached in practice was mainly an ethnic minority 
group. In the United Kingdom, the South London 
organisation Working with Men has a high propor-
tion of Afro-Caribbean staﬀ  and undertakes much 
work with this community, particularly on educa-
tion and fatherhood. An interesting ‘cross-strand’ 
example was found in Germany, where Gays und 
Lesbians aus der Türkei (Gays and Lesbians from 
Turkey) has developed materials with education 
professionals from schools and those involved in 
youth and outreach work for tackling sexism and 
homophobia among young men (project on eman-
cipatory work with boys). Although most members 
of this organisation are of Turkish or Kurdish ori-
gin, it also has Arab, Iranian, American, Swedish, 
 Cameroonian and Indian members.

A more speciﬁ c and identiﬁ able group of organi-
sations  are  working  with  migrant  men.  In  the 
Netherlands, Platform Buitenlanders Rijnmond is 
an umbrella organisation for migrant self-organisa-
tions in the Rotterdam region, and Inter-Lokaa l in 
Nijmegen has run a parenting project in an asylum 
centre for refugee men, a project for Somali men 
entitled ‘Somali men in the picture’ and provided 
empowerment training for unemployed migrant 
men. In Denmark, KVINFO, a knowledge centre 
and research library on gender, gender equality 
and ethnicity, has established mentor networks 
for male migrants in two areas of the country to 
support their integration at work and socially. It has 
also presented online positive integration stories 
of men. In Germany, foundations are being laid for 
a federal network on masculinities, migration and 
multiple identities to improve nationwide commu-
nication between professionals. It will also promote 
more nuanced discussion of issues, improve pub-
lic awareness, and undertake advocacy work and 
lobbying to move beyond stereotypes by showing 
the diverse situations and experiences of migrant 
groups and intersections between them.

Boys and young men

Work with boys and young men reﬂ ects long- standing 
and widespread concerns, and in some cases ‘moral 
panics’ about their health (e.g. suicides and mental 
health), education (e.g. school expulsions and aca-
demic underachievement) and behaviour (e.g. risk-
taking and violence). Often these concerns intersect 
with other identity issues, such as race and religion.

A wide range of programmes that involve work with 
boys and/or young men have been established 
in EU states and were identiﬁ ed in the database. 
Although these were found in many countries, 
there  were  exceptions  where  work  with  these 
groups is barely developed. The work includes: pro-
grammes for fathers and sons (Stichting P=P, the 
Netherlands); health interventions (Men’s Moment, 
Finland; UMO.se, Sweden; CALM, United Kingdom; 
Brook, United Kingdom); career guidance (Neue 
Wege, Germany); programmes to tackle homopho-
bia (KomBi, Germany); anti-violence initiatives (Crisis 
Intervention Society, Poland; Fryshuset, Sweden; 
Respect, United Kingdom; Youth Action, Northern 
Ireland); and education programmes (e.g. Macho 
Factory, Men for Gender Equality, Rädda Barnens 
Ungdomsförbund, Sweden; Association for Gender 
Equality and Liberty, Romania; Boys Development 
Project, United Kingdom).

The ideological orientation, content and form of 
work with boys and young men vary signiﬁ cantly. 
Traditional approaches focus primarily on chan-
nelling ‘masculine energy’ in appropriate ways, 
largely through conventional approaches such as 
football and other sports; however, there is a risk 
here of reinforcing stereotypical notions of mascu-
linity. In contrast, some interventions have a prime 
focus that certain boys/young men can become 
‘troublesome’ because of the way they position 
themselves in opposition to femininity, monopo-
lising space, being disruptive and causing sexual 
harassment. A third alternative is to take a more 
developmental approach, concentrating on the 
impact of male socialisation and engaging with 
the realities of young men’s lives, without neces-

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

currently being evaluated and it will be interesting to 
see the beneﬁ ts it has for men and gender equality.

Men with disabilities

Men with disabilities live their lives in ways that con-
tradict the usual stereotypes of masculinity. They 
are often unwilling or feel unable to live up to ‘ideal’ 
models of masculinity based on body strength and 
performance(27). Men’s common perception that 
they must live up to the standards expected of their 
gender – for example, that they cannot ‘fail’, must 
be ‘strong’ and ‘tough’ – can therefore be at odds 
with the reality of life for disabled men.

Gender perspective is rarely visible in initiatives 
aimed at disabled men. Only one organisation that 
had given speciﬁ c consideration to the issues facing 
men with disabilities (the Estonian Union of Disabled 
Women) was included in the database. While this 
organisation’s major focus is on work with women, 
the project had undertaken research in relation to 
the experiences of disabled men(28). This highlighted 
particular concerns around reproductive health and 
sexuality, family life, fatherhood, poverty and social 
exclusion. In addition, the organisation’s question-
naire response revealed some hidden attitudes and 
experiences among men with disabilities. They may 
be scared of poorer health, incapacity and sexual 
problems and may well not have discussed sexual 
issues with their partners. Tackling violence was also 
regarded as an important priority.

sarily accepting their negative behaviour(25). There 
is some overlap between diﬀ erent methods and no 
consensus on the most eﬀ ective ones. However, 
it is increasingly recognised that it is important 
to engage with boys and young men’s thoughts, 
feelings and needs, while not sidelining the con-
cerns of girls and young women.

Older men

Although the socioeconomic status of older men 
tends to be superior to that of older women, they 
often face signiﬁ cant health problems: they usu-
ally die before women (although the gap is gener-
ally narrowing) and are more vulnerable to certain 
 diseases. Some groups of men (e.g. widowed men 
or those that never married) face a particular disad-
vantage and can suﬀ er from social isolation. Older 
men are also less likely than women to use existing 
care services, owing to factors such as traditional 
notions of male independence and self-reliance 
and the ‘feminised’ feel of much provision(26).

Very little speciﬁ c work with older men that takes 
into account gender considerations was found in 
this research. One targeted programme was the UK’s 
Men in Sheds. This approach to the provision of day 
services is speciﬁ cally designed to appeal to older 
men who are unlikely to make use of mainstream 
day services, even though they may be isolated and 
lonely. Originally developed in Australia, it involves 
the provision of a workshop, tools and equipment 
with which older men can use their skills and be 
involved in productive activities while enjoying the 
beneﬁ ts of working in a social group. It can also pro-
vide a route for older men to access information, 
advice, health promotion and other services that 
they might not otherwise seek. The programme is 

(25)  Interview with Trefor Lloyd, Boys Development Project, 

United Kingdom.

(26)  Arber, S., Davidson, K., Ginn, J. (eds) (2003), Gender and Ageing, 
Open University Press, Maidenhead; Ruxton, S. (2007), Working 
with Older Men: A review of Age Concern services, Age Concern 
England, London.

(27)  Shakespeare, T. (1999), ‘When is a man not a man? – When he’s 

disabled’, Wild, J. (ed.), Working with Men for Change, UCL Press, London; 
Gerschick, T. (2005), ‘Masculinity and degrees of bodily normativity in 
Western culture’, Kimmel, M., Hearn, J., Connell, R. W. (eds), Handbook of 
Studies on Men & Masculinities, Sage, California/London/New Delhi.

(28)  Rohtmets, K. (2007), ‘Täisväärtuslik pere- ja seksuaalelu puuetega 

meestele’ (A quality family and sexual life for men with special 
needs), funded by the Open Estonia Foundation.

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

Men’s social backgrounds: 
class, inequality and location

Finally, other aspects of men’s social backgrounds 
such as class and location are also important to con-
sider. While shifting capital ﬂ ows and investment 
patterns in recent years have enabled some men to 
accumulate vast wealth, others have experienced 
a signiﬁ cant decline in jobs in speciﬁ c sectors or 
countries/regions. This has aﬀ ected women too, 
with job losses in sectors with a greater concentra-
tion of working class men (e.g. construction and 
manufacturing) mirrored by sectors with a higher 
concentration of working class women (e.g. services 
and retail).

The Irish National Report for the study provides 
a graphic description of the impact of boom and 
bust on men; although the context is speciﬁ c, many 
of the eﬀ ects are echoed elsewhere in the EU.

‘The  boom  was  construction-led  and  provided 
high  earnings  for  traditional  male  skilled  and 
unskilled labour. It was a good time to be a man. 
The traditional provider role based on hard graft 
and physical labour was rewarded and the role 
aﬃ  rmed if you were in employment. If you were 
not, it left a sense of failure and shame; not even 
in  this  boom  when  everything  was  going  well 
could  he  deliver.  When  the  bubble  burst,  this 
consensus about performance of the traditional 
role  also  burst.  Unemployment  among  men 
rocketed, especially in the construction industry. 
All of the success that aﬃ  rmed that role melted, 
the wealth that was earned was no longer there 
to sustain the lifestyle that had grown up on its 
back. Many men were left bereft, as they could no 
longer rely on their labour or indeed on their tra-
ditional resilience; they were now living in a time 
and a context over which they had no control.’ 
(Sé Franklin, Irish National Report)

Why do men hesitate to get 
involved in gender equality issues?

The study data revealed a range of obstacles and 
challenges to involving men in gender equality 
strategies. These exist at a range of levels, from 
those facing individual men (and women) to wider 
societal factors.

In  some  countries,  a  major  obstacle  was  high-
lighted in that gender equality is not on the 
public agenda at all. This, of course, obstructs any 
attempts to involve men in working towards such 
a goal. This may be particularly true in Central and 
Eastern Europe for historical reasons. Under these 
circumstances, men are understandably less willing 
to demonstrate their support publicly(29), even those 
who are interested and potentially supportive.

Another  widespread  obstacle  frequently  high-
lighted in the study interviews, replies to question-
naires and country reports is that in many – if not 
most – EU countries, gender equality is still seen 
as a ‘women’s issue’. The Scottish organisation 
Children in Scotland stated that: ‘Gender equality is 
still widely perceived to be concerned exclusively 
with promoting the rights and interests of women. 
There is limited understanding that public sector 
duties also apply in relation to men and fathers as 
service users.’

One Irish interviewee characterised this very com-
mon attitude as ‘gender is for women, it’s not for 
men  or  about  men’  (Colin  Fowler,  Men’s  Health 
Forum). Many men believe that gender equality 
does not, therefore, have much, if anything, to do 
with them and has nothing positive to oﬀ er them. 
For many, the general perception is that gender 
equality is promoted by feminist approaches that 
only seek to ‘take rights away from men and give 
them to women’(30). From this perspective, gender 
equality is often regarded by men warily or with 

(29)  Interview with Tatyana Kmetova, Bulgaria.

(30)  Interview with Jari Hautamäki, Lyömätön Linja Espoossa, Finland.

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hostility. As a Finnish interviewee put it: ‘Feminism-
ﬂ avoured gender equality is a bogey for most men, 
something alien, something not familiar, something 
frightening’ (Tomi Timperi, Miessakit, Finland).

Even when gender equality is part of public dis-
course, many interviewees felt strongly that there 
is considerable pressure on men to conform 
to traditional roles and stereotypes.

An  Irish  respondent  stated  that:  ‘Tradition  tells 
a man of the plan for his life: play and learn, then 
work to provide, have a family, retire. Little has 
changed’ (Colin Fowler, Men’s Health Forum). A Greek 
interviewee argued that: ‘The expression of feel-
ings is not allowed in this masculine model (Men 
don’t cry). Men are scorned if they are interested 
in gender equality issues or if they are involved in 
housework’. (Anna Karamanou, former Chairperson 
of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender 
Equality of the European Parliament).

Interviewees also noted that traditional masculine 
attitudes can make it ‘diﬃ  cult for many men to 
acknowledge their vulnerability to health prob-
lems’  (Men’s  Health  Forum,  United  Kingdom).  If 
a man displays any kind of weakness, this can also 
be denigrated – including by men themselves – as 
feminine or gay: ‘There is an absolute terror in indi-
vidual men of gender bending, of coming across 
as gay, and female, and so on’ (Henk De Smaele, 
University of Antwerp, Belgium).

Some interviewees also noted the role that some 
women play in bolstering the status quo by 
overprotecting and/or serving their male partners 
and children(31) or by not allowing or encouraging 
them to participate in care work: ‘The dominant 
perception  is  that  women  are  the  gatekeepers 
of the family, irrespective of their participation in 
the  labour  market’  (Renee Laiviera, Founder and 
chairperson of the Malta Confederation of Women’s 
Organisations).

Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

Others  highlighted  how  other  groups  and 
institutions  (e.g.  peers,  the  media  and  the 
educational system) can also reinforce tradi-
tional stereotypical roles. One UK organisation 
argued: ‘We face continuing mistrust from funders, 
policymakers and others, who see our attempt to 
promote men’s involvement in caregiving as anti-
women’. (Adrienne Burgess, Fatherhood Institute).

A range of suggestions were made by interviewees 
to tackle the weight of established stereotypes and 
traditions, including:

• 

improved support for women to enable 
them to participate in the labour market and 
civic activities, and for men to encourage 
them to play a more active part as fathers/
carers (e.g. through speciﬁ c leave targeted 
at fathers);

•  awareness-raising programmes targeted 
at men (e.g. seminars/training for staﬀ  in the 
public and private sectors on gender equal-
ity issues);

• 

social  awareness  campaigns  targeting 
men and highlighting the beneﬁ ts of gen-
der equality and how men can play a greater 
role in moving towards this;

•  media  balance  (e.g.  efforts  to  shift  tra-
ditional  patterns  of  representation  and 
involvement of men and women in all forms 
of media);

•  gender mainstreaming in education at all 
levels (e.g. within curricula, management 
and organisations)(32).

Against this background, it is unsurprising that 
interviewees throughout the EU felt that many 
men display either apathy or resistance to 
change in the direction of gender equality. 
This is especially the case if equality entails giving 

(31)  Interview with Nicholas Christakis, Professor of Social Psychology, 
Department of Communication and Mass Media, University of 
Athens.

(32)  For example, interviews with Lazar Lazarov, policymaker and former 
Deputy Minister of Labour and Social Policy, Bulgaria and Anna 
Karamanou, former Chairperson of the Committee on Women’s 
Rights and Gender Equality of the European Parliament. 

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

up some privileges (e.g. higher-status jobs, better 
pay, more media attention, greater inﬂ uence and 
occupying public positions) and results in them 
having less power at work and in the home. As Timo 
Honkasalo of Finland’s Profeministimiehet noted 
in an interview: ‘The biggest barrier is apathy, or 
at least reluctance. Even for men who in principle 
support gender equality, practical work to promote 
it seems to be an insurmountable barrier.’ Jeﬀ  Hearn 
argued in his interview that: ‘The biggest risk is that 
men start to use gender equality rhetoric to gain 
more power and even to attempt to redeﬁ ne gen-
der equality, to put down feminism and feminist 
efforts.’  Timo  Honkasalo  added:  ‘In  addition  to 
such reluctance, there is active resistance. Activists 
who engage in gender equality work may even be 
considered traitors. This can only be overcome by 
gender equality consciousness, implanted as early 
as possible’.

To tackle this resistance, interviewees felt that it 
is  important  to  demonstrate  through  practical 
examples that sharing power will have consider-
able beneﬁ ts for men, women and children(33). US 
sociologist  Michael  Kimmel  wrote  that  gender 
equality oﬀ ers men the possibility of ‘richer, fuller 
and happier lives, with our friends, with our lovers, 
with our partners, with our children’(34).

Interviewees saw one factor undermining men’s 
conﬁ dence in becoming involved in gender equal-
ity as the lack of positive male role models in 
society and the media(35). For instance, in relation 
to Lithuania, Dr Margarita Jankauskaitė (Centre for 
Equality Advancement) suggested in her interview 
that: ‘If a famous basketball player publicly shows 
that he takes care of his daughter and changes 

(33)  Interview with Jari Hautamäki, Lyömätön Linja Espoossa, Finland; 

interview with Geraldine Reymenants, Instituut voor Gelijkheid 
van Vrouwen en Mannen, Belgium.

(34)  Kimmel, M., Gender Equality: Not for Women Only, lecture 

presented at the symposium ‘Women, Business and Society 
in the 21st Century’, Madrid, 18 April 2005.

(35)  Interview with Peter Pavlik, Gender Studies, Prague, 

Czech Republic.

her nappies, he sends a politically correct mes-
sage to his fans, especially to younger ones, that 
it is normal to do so. However, publicly seen and 
admired men are essentially chauvinist and sexist.’ 
She concludes that diﬀ erent male examples are 
desperately needed, and that authoritative men or 
men in power should be the main target of gender 
work because everyone pays attention to what they 
say in public. Similarly, Jouko Huttunen (Father-
hood research, Finland) argues that there are not 
enough inﬂ uential role models in men’s immediate 
neighbourhoods, workplaces or even the media. He 
proposes that the best-known male politicians and 
male heads of inﬂ uential corporations, trade unions, 
etc., should be obliged to support gender equality 
initiatives (e.g. by taking parental leave).

Another perceived obstacle is that attempts to 
engage  men  in  gender  equality  strategies 
are sometimes regarded as a distraction from 
the fundamental task of empowering women, 
and that ‘if men join in the struggle, they will take 
over’(36). There is also a risk of diverting resources 
away from support for women in a context where 
such  resources  (e.g.  for  refugees  or  rape  crisis 
centres) are already under threat. Engaging men 
in gender equality should not therefore involve 
abandoning support for projects and strategies 
that focus on women.

What would foster greater 
involvement of men?

Many interviewees felt that addressing apathy 
or resistance among many men must also be 
accompanied by eﬀ  orts to address the real 
problems that some men experience. Such dif-
ﬁ culties (e.g. poor health and high suicide rates) are 
sometimes erroneously used to argue that gender 
equality has ‘gone too far’ and to justify attempts to 

(36)  Dr Marceline Naudi, Lecturer, Department of Social Policy 
and Social Work, Faculty of Economics, Management and 
Accountancy, University of Malta.

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When  we  do  engage  with  men, 
they  are  almost  always  actively 
supportive.

shore up men’s position and undermine important 
advances in the status and rights of women and 
children. These perspectives are frequently based 
on a false and apolitical notion of symmetry (men’s 
problems are equal to women’s problems), denying 
any deeper structural analysis(37). Nevertheless, it is 
necessary to respond eﬀ ectively to the issues raised 
and not ignore them. Henning von Bargen (Gunda 
Werner Institute for Feminism and Gender Democ-
racy,  Heinrich  Böll  Foundation,  Germany)  argues 
that: ‘There are ‘blind spots’ regarding men in the 
debate about gender, for example violence against 
men. These issues have to be taken seriously and 
we have to ﬁ nd an adequate approach to deal with 
them. Otherwise, these topics will be addressed by 
men’s rights activists in an inadequate way.’

A related challenge, interviewees noted, is how to 
convince men, beyond those who are already 
active or potentially interested, that partici-
pating in gender equality efforts is worth-
while. One strategy is to focus on ‘opportunity 
moments’ in men’s lives when they may be more 
open to re-examining and reﬂ ecting on the ways 
in which they live and making changes. These may 
include becoming a father, experiencing illness or 
a relationship breakdown. Another approach is to 
focus more actively on media strategies and to 
explore how to promote a more attractive ‘oﬀ er’ 
to men using modern means of communication. In 
the vast majority of cases, it is likely that encourage-
ment will work better than attempts to cajole men 
into acting for gender equality.

On the basis of its grass-roots contact with men, the 
White Ribbon Campaign in the United Kingdom 
argued positively, and perhaps surprisingly, that 

(37)  Interview with Professor Brid Featherstone, Open University, 

United Kingdom.

Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

‘when we do engage with men, they are almost 
always actively supportive’. Nevertheless, men may 
be compelled to reassess their options in some situ-
ations. For instance, one interviewee argued that 
men in Greece ‘will be forced to change due to 
changing circumstances and the economic crisis, 
taking up traditionally “female” jobs such as car-
ers’ (Maria Stratigaki, former General Secretary for 
Gender Equality, Ministry of Interior, Decentralisation 
and E-Government, Athens).  She  concludes  that 
a policy of positive action in employment sectors 
where men are under-represented might help in 
this direction.

Other suggestions from respondents in the inter-
views included the following.

Showing  and  proving  the  benefits  of  gen-
der equality for men: a number of interviewees 
stressed the importance of showing men that they 
beneﬁ t from gender equality, as well as women.

‘We  should  stress  the  benefits  for  personal, 
family  and  social  life  and  for  society  from 
the  participation  of  men  in  gender  equality.’ 
(Maro Varnavidou, Secretary-General of the National 
Machinery of Women’s Rights, Ministry of Justice and 
Public Order, Cyprus)

‘The topic needs a more positive image (i.e. as has 
happened with smoking and a healthy lifestyle). 
The positive impact on the life of men themselves 
should  be  discussed  more  and  promoted,  to 
encourage them to behave diﬀ erently and break 
gender stereotypes and prejudices that still prevail 
in society. There should be a message like it is great 
to be a “new man’’.’ (Gabriel Bianchi, Slovak Academy 
of Sciences, Slovakia)

‘Young fathers enjoy having a real relationship to 
their children. They also enjoy having more roles 
in  the  household  and  are  no  longer  the  help-
less man at the stove after coming home from 
work,  like  their  fathers  and  grandfathers.  They 
gain power in education and household aﬀ airs.’
(Jonni Brem, Men’s Counselling Centre, Vienna, Austria)

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

Interviewees  also  noted  that  support  from 
women and women’s groups was important, 
though not always easy to gain.

‘In  the  first  years  of  feminism,  there  was 
some kind of hostility against men; we need 
to  involve  them  in  a  more  positive  way, 
stressing  the  benefits  of  this  participation.’ 
(Maro  Varnavidou,  Secretary-General  of  the 
National Machinery of Women’s Rights,   Ministry of 
Justice and Public Order, Cyprus)

‘The men involved in gender equality lack positive 
feedback from women’s NGOs.’ (Gabriel Bianchi, 
Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia)

‘Building alliances takes time, energy, resources 
and goodwill, with both sides showing perse-
verance and patience and the courage to get it 
wrong and work it through. It is the struggle to 
hear each other that a useful process can come 
up with new outcomes.’ (Sé Franklin, Men’s Devel-
opment Network, Ireland)

‘The main barriers and challenges are in com-
munication with feminist NGOs and activists. 
However, to overcome those barriers and work 
in  closer  cooperation  is  an  effective  way  to 
overcome barriers which men are facing when 
involved in gender equality.’ (Martin Jara, League 
of Open Men, Czech Republic)

‘The  collaboration  between  Praxis  and  the 
feminist  collectives  has  been  a  necessity.’ 
(Vincent Libert, Director of Praxis, Belgium)

It is important to take into account the diversity 
among men in their identities, motivations, atti-
tudes and roles(38). Diﬀ erent groups of men and 
boys have diﬀ erent and conﬂ icting interests, and 
many are fully supportive of moves towards gender 
equality: ‘When working with men, one must pay 
attention to the way in which one speaks on the 
sociocultural level. There are subcultures where the 
vision of masculinity is very diﬀ erent. This is not just 
about listening to the middle classes. If we want to 
reach a large audience, we have to pay attention 
to these subcultures and use appropriate language 
in order to open new avenues of discussion’. (Max 
Nissol, Genres Pluriels, Belgium).

A  number  of  interviewees  said  they  felt  it  was 
important to ensure that men feel they are lis-
tened to, although this should not go so far that 
men take over activities and campaigns.

‘One success factor is when men feel they are 
listened to and that their perspective has been 
taken into account with real interest; and after-
wards that these viewpoints have been taken into 
account when drawing up policies.’ (  Geraldine 
Reymenants, Instituut voor   Gelijkheid van Vrouwen 
en Mannen, Belgium)

‘Men have to be heard if they are going to commit 
themselves. And the manner in which gender equal-
ity is presented can mean a lot.’ (Jari   Hautamäki, 
Lyömätön Linja Espoossa, Finland)

(38)  Crowley, N. (2006), ‘Men in Gender Equality’, Varanka, J., 
Narhinen, A., Siukola, R. (2006), Men and Gender Equality: 
Towards Progressive Policies, Finnish Ministry of Social Aﬀ airs 
and Health, Report 2006:75.

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Chapter 4 - Overview of emerging issues 

There  are  subcultures  where  the 
vision of masculinity is very diff er-
ent. Th  is is not just about listening 
to the middle classes. If we want 
to reach a large audience, we have 
to  pay  attention  to  these  subcul-
tures and use appropriate language 
in  order  to  open  new  avenues  of 
discussion’.

‘It takes courage to become engaged in gender 
equality as a man. Men run the risk of becoming 
outsiders in their organisation. Managers have to 
create an open climate that is held in high esteem 
for these issues, otherwise men will not run the risk.’
(Andreas  Haase,  Editor  of  Switchboard  journal, 
Germany)

Finally, the risks of not engaging with men 
should not be ignored. As the UK’s Coalition on 
Men and Boys argued in a report(39): ‘Focusing exclu-
sively on women can leave them with even more 
work to do and may entrench static deﬁ nitions of 
women (e.g. as ‘carers’) and men (e.g. as ‘bread-
winners’). Moreover, the vast majority of decision-
makers (most of whom are male) will continue to 
ignore the relevance of gender issues; as a result, 
gender will remain a peripheral issue and will not be 
integrated eﬀ ectively into policy and programmes.’

(39)  Ruxton, S. (2009), ‘Man Made: Men, masculinities and equality 

in public policy’, the Coalition on Men and Boys.

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Conclusions and ways to go forward

Conclusions and ways 
to go forward

The research for this report has identiﬁ ed a consid-
erable amount of work in the area of men working 
for gender equality and men and masculinities in 
many EU Member States. Most of this work is being 
carried out by NGOs, although there are some inter-
esting national and regional government initiatives 
in some countries. Collected information is stored 
in the database, which is accessible through EIGE’s 
website (http://www.eige.europa.eu).

However, it must be acknowledged that this area 
is very much in its infancy and is also patchy com-
pared with work on gender equality from women’s 
perspective. Asked about gaps in this work, most 
respondents for this research would concur with 
the view that: ‘This whole area is a gap’ (Malta) 
and: ‘This work is only beginning – it is working 
in patches, by geography, in diﬀ erent sectors’ (Ire-
land). This is not just true in some newer Member 
States where gender equality work has developed 
relatively recently, but also in countries where work 
on men and gender equality has advanced furthest. 

This research project was, therefore, very much 
needed as a step to mapping and understanding 
the work being done in this arena in all 27 Member 
States and building on good practice. Some reﬂ ec-
tions on further ways to increase men’s involve-
ment in gender equality now follow.

There is a need to take evaluation and monitoring 
forward, spreading knowledge across EU Member 
States and providing technical assistance on how 
to perform impact evaluation of programmes, pro-
jects and organisations that could be adapted for 
diﬀ erent country contexts. The latter could be part 
of a larger eﬀ ort to provide toolkits on engaging 
men and boys in gender equality adapted to an 
EU context.

Another way forward is to encourage European 
institutions involved in work on gender equality to 
also pay attention to men and masculinities. As the 
study found that most work on men and masculini-
ties is being carried out at NGO level, it is particu-
larly important to broaden the work to include the 
public sector, local, national and regional govern-
ments, and business organisations. In some coun-
tries, researchers have identiﬁ ed work already being 
carried out by the public sector and connections 
between interested governments from diﬀ erent 
EU countries could be facilitated. A signiﬁ cant chal-
lenge is to make masculinity issues and responses 
to them explicit rather than implicit within existing 
policymaking.

There has been limited time and resources to inves-
tigate good practices in this research project: more 
work on this theme is necessary and important.

Many people working on this issue are not aware 
of  the  innovative  work  on  this  theme  in  other 
countries. The links between men and masculini-
ties and broader work on gender equality are also 
not clear. It is therefore essential to bring people 
together to share ideas and practices, for example 
at  conferences  and  seminars.  The  topics  could 
include evaluation methods, violence prevention 
or intersectionality. Another option would be to 
set up mentoring arrangements between actors 
with diﬀ erent levels of knowledge and expertise 
in some of these areas, so that they can learn from 
each other and work together on practical projects.

Taking into account the fact that the ﬁ eld of involv-
ing men in gender equality is an emerging area, the 
core research team believes that opportunities at 
EU and national levels available to NGOs and other 
actors developing the ﬁ eld would be a strategic 

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Conclusions and ways to go forward

contribution at this stage. It is essential to keep in 
mind, however, that funding for work of this kind 
should not detract from funding for the crucial work 
being done with women’s organisations on gender 
equality.

Last, but not the least, is the role of the European 
Institute for Gender Equality in further develop-
ment and update of the database produced for 
this research.

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