COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Assessment of Key Competences in initial education and training: Policy Guidance Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes
Date: 2012-11-20
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: assessment, educational reform, language teaching, mathematics, new educational methods, new technology, teaching curriculum, teaching quality

EUROPEAN 
COMMISSION 

Strasbourg, 20.11.2012  
SWD(2012) 371 final 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Assessment of Key Competences in initial education and training: Policy Guidance 

Accompanying the document 

Communication from the Commission 

Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes 

{COM(2012) 669 final} 
{SWD(2012) 372 final} 
{SWD(2012) 373 final} 
{SWD(2012) 374 final} 
{SWD(2012) 375 final} 
{SWD(2012) 376 final} 
{SWD(2012) 377 final} 

EN 

   EN 

 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table of Contents 

I.  THE  KEY  COMPETENCES  FOR  EUROPEAN  CITIZENS 

IN  THE 

KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY ......................................................................................... 6 

1.  We  have  a  clear  definition  of  the  key  competences  needed  for  the  21st 

century............................................................................................................... 6 

2. 

3. 

The main challenge now is to assess all key competences................................ 7 

Yet too little is done on assessment .................................................................. 9 

II.  STRENGHTHENING  ASSESSMENT  OF  ALL  KEY  COMPETENCES: 

LESSONS FROM MEMBERS STATES ................................................................. 11 

1. 

Defining key competences as tangible learning outcomes.............................. 12 

1.1  Mother tongue, Foreign languages, Mathematics and Science ................ 13 

1.2  ‘Learning to learn’.................................................................................... 13 

1.3 Social and civic competence and creativity .............................................. 16 

1.4  Digital competence................................................................................... 17 

1.5  Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship .................................................. 18 

1.6  Cultural awareness and expression........................................................... 21 

2. 

Using assessment to measure learning outcomes............................................ 22 

2.1 Standardised tests ...................................................................................... 23 

2.2 Attitudinal questionnaires ......................................................................... 25 

2.3 Performance-based assessments................................................................ 26 

3. 

Using assessment to encourage the development of key competences........... 28 

3.1 Peer and self-assessment ........................................................................... 31 

3.2 Portfolio and e-portfolio assessment ......................................................... 32 

3.3 E-assessment ............................................................................................. 34 

4.  Mainstreaming assessment of key competences ............................................. 39 

4.1 Curriculum and consultation ..................................................................... 39 

4.2 Textbooks and resources ........................................................................... 41 

4.3 Assessment guidance................................................................................. 42 

4.4 Monitoring and evaluation ........................................................................ 43 

4.5 Training and development......................................................................... 44 

4.6 Professional networks ............................................................................... 47 

4.7 School organisation ................................................................................... 48 

 
 
 
 
5. Conclusion: towards a coherent implementation strategy..................................... 51 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  

The “Rethinking Education” Communication aims to help Member States by setting out a range 
of fields in which the efficiency of education and training systems can be improved.  

This Staff Working Document highlights the evidence base for the policy proposals outlined in 
the  “Rethinking  Education”  Communication  on  key  competences.  Its  findings  are  based  on 
analyses,  coordinated  by  the  Commission  in  cooperation  with  Member  States,  of  best  policy 
practice across the EU and beyond, and on comparative data and current research.  

Global competition for skills, technological advances, the impact of the internet and new media 
on employment, learning and private lives, the growing diversity of our societies – all are forces 
which  are  reshaping  our  education  systems  and  changing  the  content  of  and  approaches  to 
teaching  and  learning.  To  face  the  current  crisis,  increase  productivity  and  encourage  growth, 
education systems have a crucial role in building the right 21st century skills and competences. 

Already  in  2006,  The  European  Union  adopted  a  European  Reference  Framework  of  Key 
Competences  for  Lifelong  Learning  to  identify  the  key  competences  necessary  for  personal 
fulfilment, active citizenship, social cohesion and employability in a knowledge society. Its major 
innovation is to move from a static conception of curricular content to a dynamic combination 
of  knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  appropriate  to  the  many  and  varied  real-life  contexts  on 
which  people  need  to  use  them.  It  includes  not  only  the  key  competences  that  relate  to 
traditional  school  subjects  but  also  those  more  cross-curricular  (or 
'transversal')  key 
competences  that  enable  people  to  pursue  learning  throughout  their  lives,  contribute  to 
democratic societies and to succeed in today's and tomorrow's world of work with its demand 
for high skills combined with creativity and the ability to innovate.  

Many  Member  States  have  reformed  their  school  curricula  and  vocational  programmes  in 
recent  years,  to  introduce  part  or  all  of  the  approach  set  out  in  the  Key  Competences 
Recommendation.  This  involves  a  major  paradigm  change  from  transmitting  a  static  body  of 
pre-defined knowledge to a more dynamic and holistic development of competences.  

Yet, the key challenge for education systems in many Member States is the assessment of these 
competences. Assessment is one of the most powerful influences on teaching and learning but 
it tends to put too much emphasis on subject knowledge, and less on skills and attitudes, and to 
neglect altogether the increasingly important cross-curricular competences such as learning to 
learn or entrepreneurship.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Progress  have  to  be  made  on  assessment  approaches  to  take  into  account  all  competences 
needed for the 21st century. Many promising  developments  in  Member States can  be  used as 
best practice examples to support efforts to improve assessment in European countries. These 
include  broadening  the  scope  of  assessment  of  traditional  school  subjects  (mother  tongue, 
foreign  languages,  mathematics  and  science)  and  introducing  assessment  for  those  key 
competences that are less familiar and present a new challenge (digital competence, learning to 
learn,  social  and  civic  competences,  sense  of  initiative  and  entrepreneurship,  and  cultural 
awareness and expression).  

Generally,  examples  in  this  document  show  that  reforming  assessment  has  no  major  financial 
consequences:  reforms  build  on  existing  expertise  and  utilize  existing  structures.  However, 
developing  e-assessment  requires  infrastructure,  development  work,  training  and  promotion. 
Ensuring teachers' assessment competences obviously require investment. Nevertheless, in the 
long  run  e-assessment  will  result  in  savings  due  to  easier  access  to  the  material.  As  regards 
teachers'  competence  development,  virtual  platforms  and  supporting  teachers'  professional 
networks can reduce these costs and make implementation more effective.  

This document takes stock of these developments and provides policy makers with an overview 
of current trends in assessment and examples of how assessment can be extended to support 
the development of all key competences – not only those that are easy to assess.  

The  focus  of  this  document  is  on  assessment  of  individual  learners  rather  than  evaluation  of 
programmes, institutions or systems.  

How to read this document? 

This  document  is  a  result  of  the  work  of  the  Thematic  Working  Group  ‘Assessment  of  Key 
Competences’  and  its  predecessor,  the  Peer  Learning  Cluster  'Key  Competences  –  Curricular 
Reform'. It builds on the process of peer learning in the context of the Education and Training 
2010  and  2020  work  programmes  and  thus  on  the  expertise,  examples  and  experiences  in 
participating countries. 

Section  I  ‘THE  KEY  COMPETENCES  FOR  EUROPEAN  CITIZENS  IN  THE  KNOWLEDGE  SOCIETY’ 
provides a summary on what key competences are and which competences are currently being 
assessed.  

Section  II  ‘STRENGHTHENING  ASSESSMENT  OF  ALL  KEY  COMPETENCES:  LESSONS  FROM 
MEMBERS STATES’ illustrates how Member States have specified key competences in learning 
outcomes and how they have developed assessment for summative and formative purposes. It 
continues with implementation of assessment reforms and presents the other policy areas that 
need to be addressed to make reforms successful. 

APPENDIX  I  describes  the  key  competences  set  out  in  the  Recommendation  of  the  European 
Parliament  and  the  Council  of  18  December  2006  on  key  competences  for  lifelong  learning 
("The Key Competences for Lifelong Learning - the European Framework"). 

A literature review on assessment of key competences and extended examples of assessment 
policies  are  available  at  http://ec.europa.eu/education/index_en.htm.  This  supporting 

4 

 
 
document  also  includes  a  glossary.  The  references  e.g.  in  footnotes  of  this  this  document  are 
listed  in  full  in  the  bibliography  which  forms  part  of  the  literature  review.  A  JRC-IPTS  report 
"Review of Evidence on the Use of ICT for the Assessment of Key Competences" (in press) will 
be available at: http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications/search.cfm. This website includes also 
other IPTS publications on e-assessment that contribute to Chapter 3.3. of this document. 

5 

 
 
I. 

1. 

THE  KEY  COMPETENCES  FOR  EUROPEAN  CITIZENS  IN  THE 
KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY 

We  have  a  clear  definition  of  the  key  competences  needed  for  the  21st 
century 

Key competences are a combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to a specific 
context.  The  European  Framework  on  key  competences  for  lifelong  learning  defines  eight  key 
competences  necessary  for  personal  fulfilment,  active  citizenship,  social  cohesion  and 
employability in a knowledge society. Critical thinking, creativity, initiative, problem-solving, risk 
assessment,  decision-taking,  and  constructive  management  of  feelings  play  a  role  in  all  of  the 
key competences. All of the key competences are equally important because each of them can 
contribute to a successful life in a knowledge society.  

Key competences1 

Since  2006,  the  Reference  Framework  has  been  influential  in  reforms  of  school  curricula  and 
vocational  programmes  across  the  EU.2  Many  Member  States  have  reformed  their  school 
curricula  and  vocational  programmes  in  recent  years,  to  introduce  part  or  all  of  the  approach 
set out in the Key Competences Recommendation. Austria, Belgium French Community, Czech 
Republic,  Spain,  Hungary,  Island,  Luxembourg,  Latvia,  the  Netherlands,  Poland,  Romania  have 
used  the  framework  to  structure  the  entire  curricula  and  many  countries  have  used  the 
framework to enhance the role of cross-curricular work. This involves a major paradigm change 
from  transmitting  a  static  body  of  pre-defined  knowledge  to  a  more  dynamic  and  holistic 
development of competences.3  

1 

For definitions of each key competence, see Appendix I 

2  Communication 'Key Competences for a Changing World', COM (2009) 648 final. 

3  Gordon et al (2009) 

6 

 
 
 
                                                            
When  the  EU  reviewed4  the  implementation  of  the  Key  Competences  Recommendation,  it 
confirmed  the  extent  of  this  change  in  the  teaching  and  learning  requirements  of  national 
curricula in the Member States. The traditional barriers between school subjects were breaking 
down,  new  demands  were  being  made  within  these  subjects,  and  wholly  new  subjects  and 
approaches were being introduced, such as entrepreneurship education and "learning to learn" 
as a distinct educational objective.  

The  key  challenge,  and  key  weakness,  that  this  review  highlighted  was  the  assessment  of 
learning.  While  curricula  and  teaching  were  in  the  process  of  profound  change,  the  way  the 
students' outcomes were assessed, evaluated and certified had changed little over decades: 

"A  large  number  of  countries  are  introducing  reforms  that  explicitly  use  the  Key  Competences 
framework as a reference point. Good progress has been made in adapting school curricula. But 
there  is  still  much  to  be  done  to  support  teachers’  competence  development,  to  update 
assessment methods, and to introduce new ways of organising learning." 

2. 

The main challenge now is to assess all key competences 

The  purposes  of  assessment  and  evaluation  vary  from  gathering  data  for  use  in  international 
comparisons of education  systems to providing tailored support for individual  learning. In this 
document assessment is taken to relate to judgements on the progression of competences of 
the  individual  learner  and  achievement  of  the  learning  goals,  and  on  the  effectiveness  of 
institutions or systems, often based on aggregated assessment data.  

The table below summarises the different contexts, functions and uses of assessment: 

Table 2: Assessment and evaluation 

Context 
System 

Institution 

Learner 

Function 
International comparisons; 
National standards; Accountability. 
Monitoring against national standards; 
Internal quality assurance; 
Developing internal policies and procedures. 

achievement 

national 
Monitor 
standards 
objectives; 
diagnose  strengths  and  weaknesses;  track 
progress. 

curriculum 

against 

and 

system 

development, 

into  national  data-gathering 

Uses 
Policy 
monitoring 
Feed 
processes; 
Feedback  to  tutors,  trainers,  teachers, 
learners, parents. 
learner  on  progress; 
Feedback 
feedback  to  tutors  and  teachers  on 
success of teaching approach. 

to 

The  National  Assessment  framework  (NA)  in  Slovenia  illustrates  the  different  assessment 
purposes.  Its  primary  goals  are  to  improve  students'  competences  and  improve  the  quality  of 
teaching. 

National Assessment Framework in Slovenia 

For students (and parents) and teachers the basic objective of the National Assessment Framework 
of is to provide students with information about their achievement of curriculum standards. 

For  schools,  the  analysis  of  students’  achievements  and  the  comparison  with  the  average 
performance helps schools in the evaluation of their work. It should also help planning the teaching 

4  COM (2009) 640 final 

7 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
and learning activities in the school and give valuable information for planning of in-service teacher 
training. 

Schools' evaluation reports, in turn, feed into the evaluation of the school system as a whole. 

Assessment is crucial for the development of key competences for two principal reasons. Firstly, 
by  focusing  on  certain  learning  outcomes,  assessment  sends  a  clear  signal  that  these 
competences  are  the  priority  for  teaching  and  learning.  Secondly,  by  providing  information 
about learners’ progress towards these learning outcomes, assessment helps to adapt teaching 
and learning more effectively to learners' needs.  

Moreover,  assessment  has  important  consequences  for  our  educational  paths.  It  not  only 
affects how others see us but also how we see ourselves. More specifically, it affects how we 
think  about  ourselves,  what  we  feel  about  ourselves  and  how  we  behave  in  response. 
Ultimately, it impacts on whether or not we become lifelong learners.5 Assessment policy – and 
its  implementation  in  schools  –  therefore  needs  to  be  handled  carefully  and  informed  by 
evidence. This document is for policy makers grappling with this responsibility. 

information  about 

By  providing 
learning  outcomes, 
assessment helps to adapt teaching and learning more effectively to learners' needs. Moreover, 
the  feedback  given  through  assessment  has  an  important  impact  on  the  learner's  motivation, 
self-esteem and awareness of his/her own learning process. 

learners’  progress  towards  these 

Assessment  also  underlies  important  transitions  such  as  gaining  a  place  at  university  or  an 
apprenticeship, or getting a job. How learning outcomes are assessed, recorded and certified is 
crucial.  If  assessments  do  not  reliably  reveal  the  competences  that  are  needed  for  success  in 
study  or  work,  if  they  do  not  fit  the  curricula  that  has  been  followed,  then  they  distort  and 
impede people's life chances, and they make it harder for employers to select the right people 
for their workforce or colleges to select the right people for their courses.  

Assessment  is  often  controversial.  In  several  Member  States,  there  is  public  debate  about 
whether  tests  have  become  easier  compared  with  a  past  "gold  standard".  Employers  and 
universities complain that good grades do not indicate the same level of performance as they 
once did. At the same time, assessment has to develop to relate to new curricular and learning 
demands,  new  skills  and  new  ways  of  expressing  them.  Controversies  concerning  assessment 
may  derive  from  the  fact  that  its  (changing)  scope  and  purposes  are  not  well  understood  or 
clear  to  all  stakeholders.  It  is  thus  vital  to  communicate  clearly  what  different  types  of 
assessments are supposed to measure or not.  

Aware of the importance of assessment to individuals and the quality of teaching and learning, 
many  of  the  Member  States  have  identified  key  principles  to  be  taken  into  account  in 
developing and implementing assessment policies. These can be summarised as follows: 

• 

• 

Assessment  should  be  fair:  its  methods  should  be  related  to  the  goals  and 
objectives  set beforehand and its  purpose and consequences should be clear to 
all concerned. Assessment should take into account students' prior learning and 
their skills – such as language skills – to assess the progress made properly.  

Assessment  should  be  reliable  and  valid  so 
that  assessors  working 
independently  and  using  the  same  methods  come  to  same  judgements.  The 

5 

Stobart (2008) 

8 

 
 
 
                                                            
better the expected learning outcomes are described, the higher the validity and 
reliability of the assessment is. 

• 

Assessment  should  be  learner-centred:  it  should  give  valuable  and  forward-
looking information for the learners, their parents, teachers and schools on how 
to improve teaching and learning practices, making it thus an integral part of the 
teaching-learning process.  

Across  Member  States,  there  are  promising  one-off  developments  to  broaden  the  scope  of 
assessment of the key competences strongly associated with traditional school subjects (such as 
mathematical competence) and those that present a new challenge – such as learning to learn, 
social  and  civic  competence  and  digital  competence.  These  developments  are  recent  and 
valuable and need to be introduced more widely across EU Member States.  

3. 

Yet too little is done on assessment  

Despite the awareness of the impacts of assessment, it still tends to focus only on a narrow part 
of  key  competences.  The  key  competences  are  wide-ranging  and  holistic.  If  only  some 
competences are assessed, teachers and learners will tend to focus on these competences, with 
the result that some learners will not receive a complete education. Furthermore, if only some 
aspects of each competence are assessed – such as knowledge -, then the development of the 
other  aspects  -  such  as  useable  skills  and  attitudes  -  will  be,  at  best,  incidental,  and  may  not 
happen at all. No matter how broad the intended learning outcomes are, if assessment is too 
narrowly defined, it will result in narrow teaching and learning.  

In  many  Member  States,  nationally  standardised  tests  are  used  to  inform  decisions  about 
learners’  progression  through  school  and  to  certify  achievement  (including  selection  into 
different  school  types),  to  monitor  schools  or  education  systems  as  a  whole,  or  to  identify 
individual learning needs. In compulsory education, these tests are generally limited to certain 
key  competences.  National  tests  in  communication  in  the  mother  tongue  or  mathematics  are 
therefore  widespread.  In  many  Member  States,  there  are  also  national  tests  in  science  or 
foreign  languages.  However,  few  organise  national  tests  relating  to  the  other  transversal  key 
competences, which gives the impression that these important competences are seen as lower 
priorities. 

National tests of key competences in compulsory education, 2008/096 

6  Eurydice (2009) 

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Digital competence

The  figure  above  focuses  on  national  tests  that  can  be  used  for  summative  or  formative 
purposes.  It  shows  strikingly  how  the  key  competences  that  are  crucial  for  lifelong  learning, 
innovation  and  social  and  cultural  development  are  not  covered  by  national  assessment 
regimes. 

A similar mapping of national tests was done in 2011/2012, but it concentrated on only six of 
the  eight  competences,  excluding  'learning  to  learn'  and  'cultural  awareness  and  expression'. 
This mapping reveals that not much has changed in the focus of the national tests in four years: 
traditional school competences continue to be tested to a greater extent than more transversal 
competences. The most important change in the testing of transversal competences has been 
the increase in the number of countries that test social and civic competence (from 4 in 2008 to 
11 in 2012).7 By contrast, digital competence and entrepreneurship continue to be left out. 

However,  national  tests  are  only  part  of  the  picture.  The  assessment  of  key  competences  is 
sometimes  also  organised  at  local  level  or  school  level  under  the  responsibility  of  teachers, 
particularly when the purpose is to inform day-to-day teaching and learning. Thus, while a major 
study of the 27 Member States found that national tests were limited to the key competences 
mentioned above, it also showed that a wider range of key competences was being addressed 
by teachers and learners themselves. In addition, there are some national initiatives seeking to 
expand  assessment  to  a  wider  range  of  competences.8  More  in  detail,  the  review  of  the 
implementation  of  the  Key  Competences  Recommendation  reveals  that  interdisciplinary 
projects are used as part of final exams in Austria, Denmark and Germany. In Cyprus, Denmark 
and Austria ICT-based and web-based assessment methodologies are emerging. Many countries 
have  started  to  make  the  best  out  of  standardised  test  by  giving  feedback  to  teachers  and 
learners  in  schools;  this  is  taking  place  in  Austria,  Cyprus,  Germany,  Denmark,  Spain,  France, 
Ireland,  Lithuania,  Norway,  Portugal  and  Slovenia.  Formative  assessment  – 
Hungary, 
"assessment for learning" is well developed in UK-Scotland and UK-England; these countries are 
strong in linking the development of curricula and teacher education with assessment reforms. 
"Tools" for formative assessment, such as self-assessment, peer assessment and portfolios are 
promoted in Austria, Cyprus and Ireland, for instance. 

7 (2010/C 117/01) and Eurydice (forthcoming) How do countries respond to changing skills demands? 
Some challenges and policy issues in the implementation of key competences 
8  Gordon et al (2009), Pepper (2011), Eurydice 2012 

10 

 
 
 
                                                            
However, it is worth noting that despite these promising initiatives there is a need to harness 
assessment  more  systematically  to  support  the  development  of  all  key  competences.  This 
requires  mapping  all  the  objectives  and  intended  outcomes  of  learning  against  existing 
assessment,  developing  methods  to  fill  the  gaps,  and  making  sure  that  teachers  have  the 
competences  and  working  conditions  to  integrate  assessment  into  the  teaching  and  learning 
process most effectively. 

II. 

STRENGHTHENING  ASSESSMENT  OF  ALL  KEY  COMPETENCES: 
LESSONS FROM MEMBERS STATES 

This section focuses on developing assessment for all key competences. While the first section 
gave  an  overview  on  key  competences  and  the  importance  of  assessment,  this  section  gives 
more detailed guidelines and examples from Members States on how to make it happen. 

It develops a comprehensive assessment strategy that should be constructed around four main 
steps: 1) analysing which of the key competences are covered by national tests and other forms 
of summative assessment; 2) how key competences can be turned into more detailed learning 
outcomes  that  can  be  accurately  and  meaningfully  assessed;  3)  how  broadening  the  scope  of 
assessment  can  reveal,  report  and  develop  more  of  those  competences  and,  finally,  4)  how 
reforms of assessment can be implemented and what other policy areas are needed to support 
implementation. 

The  OECD  country  report  from  the  Flemish  Community  of  Belgium  illustrates  the  shift  of 
emphasis in assessment and why these steps presented in this chapter are necessary9: 

The changing view of learning and education which has characterized education policy over the 
last  decade  entails  a  change  in  how  assessment  and  evaluation  are  viewed.  The  shift  from  the 
traditional  ‘test  culture’  towards  a  ‘broad  assessment  culture’  has  recently  gained  importance. 
The  broad  assessment  culture  relates  to  the  implementation  of  ‘active  learning  methods’. 
Students are no longer perceived as passive subjects, but they are involved in the assessment of 
their  performances  and  progress,  and  may  even  be  involved  in  the  assessment  of  their 
classmates. 

The  broad  assessment  culture  evaluation  is  not  just  the  last  part  of  the  learning  process,  but 
instead an integrate part of learning. Evaluation not merely serves the goal of judging students, 
but also (and more importantly) guides students to gain knowledge, skills and attitudes through 
feedback  mechanisms.  This  means  that  evaluation  is  conducted  continuously,  because  both 
teachers and students need up-to-date information on individual performances in order to create 
effective learning environments. Evaluation as part of the learning process helps students in their 
development  of  holistic  competences:  next  to  assessment  of  cognitive  performances,  also 
dynamic-affective, relational and motor aspects are continuously assessed. 

The  broad  assessment  culture  naturally  entails  different  evaluation  methods  than  only  the 
classical tests: observation, portfolios, reflection sheets, peer and self-assessment are only a few 
examples  of  the  wide  range  of  assessment  possibilities.  The  teacher  needs  to  consider  which 

9  OECD  Review  on  Evaluation  and  Assessment  Frameworks  for  Improving  School  Outcomes:  Country 

background report for the Flemish Community of Belgium 

11 

 
 
                                                            
assessment method contributes most to guiding students to the aspired objectives. 

Within  this  culture  it  is  more  important  to  provide  information  on  the  progress  of  a  student 
compared  to  his  previous  achievements,  than  answering  the  question  ‘what  grades  did  this 
student achieve on a pre-determined scale from one to ten, or compared to his classmates?’ The 
broad assessment culture shifts from pre-determined or peer- group norms to an individual norm 
(without losing sight of the pre-determined attainment targets and developmental objectives out 
of sight) 

1. 

Defining key competences as tangible learning outcomes 

As  noted  in  the  previous  section,  the  European  Reference  Framework  defines  the  scope  of 
knowledge, skills and attitudes to be developed in a wide range of everyday contexts by the end 
of initial education. It does not describe them as specific learning outcomes that are needed to 
guide day-to-day teaching and learning, however, examples from Member States and evidence 
from the research literature indicate that it is important to make key competences "assessment 
ready" by specifying them as concrete and tangible learning outcomes.10 This specification is to 
be  done  by  policy  makers,  teachers  and  learners  within  their  individual  education  systems, 
institutions and programmes of learning. 

Policy  makers  can  ensure  that  these  learning  outcomes  are  consistently  specified  across 
curricula, syllabi, specifications, standards or similar framework documents. However, teachers 
have a crucial role to play in interpreting these documents. Importantly, they can identify and 
plan opportunities for learners to develop their key competences within their specific subjects, 
across several subjects in collaboration with other teachers or beyond subjects as, for example, 
in  whole  school  projects.  Developing  key  competences  across  curricula  and  programmes  may 
mean teachers working together in ways that are unfamiliar, such as across departments. It is 
therefore  crucial  that  teachers  and  school  leaders  have  a  shared  understanding  of  the  key 
competences to be developed and the responsibilities and roles of each member of the school 
community  in  how  key  competences  are  taught,  learned  and  assessed.  Effective  cooperation 
and  collaboration  between  teachers  and  school  leaders  will  enable  learners  to  make 
connections across their learning and develop more holistic perspectives that prepare them for 
life and work.  

The amount of detail that is specified in framework documents varies according to the purposes 
of the assessment. For example, high stakes summative assessments need to be highly reliable 
to  ensure  that  their  consequences  are  fair.  To  provide  a  basis  for  consistent  assessment 
practices,  the  learning  outcomes  for  assessments  such  as  school-leaving  examinations  are 
therefore  generally  more  detailed  and  are  centrally  specified.  However,  defining  learning 
outcomes  in  excessive  detail  risks  reducing  learning  to  sequences  of  isolated  tasks  and 
restricting  learners’  opportunities  to  demonstrate  the  range  of  their  competences.  A  balance 
therefore  needs  to  be  struck  between  specification  in  policy  documents  and  scope  for 
interpretation by teachers and learners themselves in practice11. However, this interpretation 
needs  to  be  founded  on  a  shared  understanding  of  key  competences.  This  can  be  addressed 
through the training, guidance, networks and evaluation detailed in Chapter 4 of this document.  

10  CEDEFOP (2011b), Looney (2011), Black & Wiliam (1998b), Brennan (2006) and Wolf (2001) 

11  Cedefop (2010) and Cedefop (2012) 

12 

 
 
 
                                                            
The  Czech  Republic  provides  an  example  of  learning  outcomes  to  be  achieved  by  the  end  of 
initial  education  –  developed  at  national  level  –  and  those  to  be  achieved  at  interim  stages 
developed  by  teachers  with  their  students.  This  example  focuses  on  civic  competence  and 
shows how it is to be developed in contexts across several subjects, areas or fields. 

National and local learning outcomes for key competences in the Czech Republic: 

Nationally: For basic education, the Framework Education Programme (FEP) identifies a similar range of 
key competences at national level as the Reference Framework does at European level. It also identifies 
educational content in subjects, areas or fields which provide contexts for the application of 
competences. Each competence is expressed as a set of specific goals, which define the level of 
competence that learners should develop by the end of compulsory schooling (grade 9). For example, 
one of the goals for civic competence is that the student ‘considers and judges phenomena, processes, 
events and issues from diverse perspectives’. This goal implies not only knowledge and skills but also 
certain attitudes, such as openness and tolerance. 
Locally: Every school develops a School Education Programme (SEP) within the structure and content 
set out in the FEP but according to their local circumstances and their learners’ needs. There is a 
curriculum handbook providing teachers with examples of how to detail key competences and relate 
them to content areas at two stages: the end of compulsory education (grade 9); and an interim stage 
(grade 5). Since the same level of competence can be demonstrated in different ways depending on the 
educational area and the exact context, these are simply illustrations for teachers and learners to use 
when reviewing examples of work to assess progress.  

The Czech example shows how the task of specifying key competences is divided between the 
national  level  actors  and  local  school  and  teachers.  While  the  national  level  work  provides 
school  guidelines  and  ensures  overall  coherence,  the  work  done  by  schools  and  teachers 
ensures ownership and understanding of how key competences can be developed within day-
to-day learning contexts. 

This  chapter  now  presents  how  each  key  competence  can  be  made  assessment  ready  by 
specifying them as concrete learning outcomes. 

1.1  Mother tongue, Foreign languages, Mathematics and Science 

The  specification  of  key  competences  as  learning  outcomes  is,  in  general,  more  advanced  for 
those  competences  that  are  closer  to  traditional  school  subjects.  Mother  tongue  and  foreign 
languages  include  outcomes  such  as  reading,  writing,  speaking  and  listening  skills:  often  the 
attitudinal aspects such as readiness to communicate are specified as well. Mathematics12 and 
science outcomes often include the capability to solve basic mathematical operations but also 
more  transversal  skills,  such  as  problem  solving,  initiative  and  the  ability  to  come  up  with 
creative solutions. Often the real challenge of specifying key competences as learning outcomes 
is related to the more transversal competences.  

1.2  ‘Learning to learn’ 

Developing  a  shared  understanding  of  what  'learning  to  learn'  means  in  practice  may  be  a 
particular challenge.13 Yet some Member States have already developed learning outcomes for 

12  See example of mathematics in Austria in the accompanying document [URL] 

13  Fredriksson & Hoskins (2008) 

13 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
this  key  competence.  To  demonstrate  some  of  these,  examples  from  two  Member  States  are 
shown here.  

The  first  example  is  from  Lithuania  and  is  significant  for  three  reasons.  Firstly,  it  shows  how 
attitudes can be explicitly incorporated into learning outcomes. Secondly, it demonstrates how 
the  degree  to  which  a  competence  has  been  acquired  can  be  assessed  with  levels  indicating 
each  learner’s  progress.  Thirdly,  the  learning  outcomes  are  written  from  the  student’s 
perspective to help them monitor their progress with their teachers. 

Learning outcomes and levels for 'learning to learn' in Lithuania: 

An EU-funded project in Lithuania identifies four elements within learning to learn competence 
for learners in the 11-12 and 13-14 age groups: 

1.  Attitude towards learning and willingness to learn 

2.  Setting objectives and planning activities 

3.  Organisation and management of activities 

4.  Reflection on learning activities and outcomes, and self-assessment. 

These  elements  are  described  in  more  detail  for  each  of  the  age  groups  at  four  levels  of 
progression towards development of the competence. The descriptions for learners aged 11-12 
are shown here. 

14 

 
 
 
 
 
First steps 

Going in the right 
direction 

Close to the target 

Competence acquired 

1. Why I learn (Attitude towards learning and willingness to learn) 

I learn when others 
urge, encourage, and 
persuade me. I feel 
secure when somebody 
helps me. When I work 
together with others, I 
observe more often 
how others are doing 
things.  

I learn because I have 
to, but I eagerly learn 
only what I am 
interested in. I am self-
confident when I have 
to complete easily 
understandable tasks. 
When I work together 
with others, I try to 
express my opinion.  

I understand that 
learning is my duty and I 
therefore try to learn not 
only things that I am 
interested in. I usually 
feel self-confident when 
I have to perform both 
usual and new non-
complex tasks, and I am 
not afraid of making 
mistakes. When I work 
together with others, I 
often express my opinion 
and I help others 
whenever I can.  

I learn eagerly and 
responsibly, because I like 
learning and understand 
that what I learn now will 
serve me in the future. I 
am self-confident, I am 
not afraid of challenges, 
and I welcome various 
new tasks. When working 
together with others, I 
not only learn from them 
but also help them 
eagerly and confidently.  

2. What I learn (Setting objectives and planning activities) 

I set learning goals and 
plan learning activities 
when others help me. I 
manage to complete 
tasks on time when 
others urge me to.  

I consult others to set 
my learning goals and 
plan my learning 
activities. I manage to 
complete certain tasks 
on time.  

I try to set my learning 
goals autonomously and 
plan my learning 
activities. I usually 
manage to adhere to the 
schedule and complete 
tasks on time.  

I set my learning goals 
autonomously. I 
successfully plan my 
learning and am therefore 
able to complete most 
tasks and tests on time.  

 3. How I learn (Organised and targeted learning activities)  

I use such learning 
methods and choose 
such information 
sources and learning 
tools which are offered 
to me by others.  

With the help of 
others, I decide what 
learning method, 
learning tools, and 
information sources 
are best to perform a 
certain task. 

I try to use different 
learning methods and I 
use various information 
sources. I try to obtain 
any required learning 
tools in advance.  

I successfully use various 
learning methods and 
choose appropriate 
information sources. I 
obtain any required 
learning tools in advance.  

 4. I reflect on my progress (Reflection on learning activities and outcomes and self-assessment) 

When others help and 
encourage me, I 
observe my learning 
progress and 
sometimes listen to 
advice given to me and 
try to follow the 
advice.  

When others help me, 
I reflect on how and 
what I achieved in 
learning and in what 
areas and how I should 
improve.  

I autonomously reflect 
on how and what I 
achieved in learning; 
others help me to plan in 
what areas and how I 
should improve.  

I autonomously reflect on 
how and what I achieved 
in learning and plan in 
what areas and how I can 
improve. 

The  second  example  is  from  France,  where  'learning  to  learn'  and  sense  of  initiative  and 

15 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
entrepreneurship  are  combined  in  learning  outcomes  relating  to  autonomy  and  initiative.  The 
example  is  significant  for  showing  how  a  competence  can  be  divided  into  fields,  items  and 
assessment  indicators.  These  are  set  out  in  teaching  resources  called  reference  grids  for  the 
assessment of competences. These reference grids comprise the assessment requirements for 
competences in the first, second and third cycles of basic education. The example is an extract 
from the reference grids for the third cycle (the end of lower secondary education) and is also 
significant in referring to learners’ development of competences in and beyond school settings. 
Learners’  development  of  the  competences  is  recorded  in  a  Personal  Competences  Booklet, 
which is detailed in the section on using assessment to develop learners’ key competences  

Learning outcomes for the autonomy and initiative competence in France 

Competence: Autonomy and initiative 
Field: Take action in your courses of learning and guidance 
Item: To be able to self-assess and to write about your interests and the competences you have 
acquired. 
Detail of item 

•  Locate and identify the competences you have acquired. 
• 
•  Analyse the consistency between your aims and your present direction. 

Identify and order your interests and your personal aspirations. 

Assessment indicators: 
Self-assessment here refers to the student’s holistic understanding of themselves and to self-assess 
in relation to individual achievements. In and beyond school settings, the student knows how to: 
-use the tools provided in the disciplines to identify strengths and weaknesses; 
-identify their interests in school activities 
-anticipate the results of an assessment or task and its impact 
-identify the activities that can contribute to everyday life. 
The student can analyse the advantages and disadvantages of their choices. The student 
appreciates the difficulties and obstacles. The student considers alternative choices. 

These two examples show how specific learning outcomes of the 'learning to learn' competence 
can  be  formulated.  The  Lithuanian  example  also  demonstrates  how  the  'learning  to  learn' 
competence can be described as levels that help learners and their teachers to assess progress. 
The  French  Personal  Competences  booklet  exemplifies  how  these  learning  outcomes  can  be 
recorded  and  communicated  so  that,  for  instance,  parents  can  follow  and  support  their 
children's learning skills. 

1.3 Social and civic competence and creativity 

Member  States  have  also  expressed  particular  interest  in  the  assessment  of  social  and  civic 
competences,  creativity,  and  problem-solving.  The  example  is  from  Ireland,  where  learning 
outcomes for each key skill are first specified, and then embedded in contexts provided by the 
syllabus  for  each  subject.  Learning  outcomes  in  creativity  and  critical  thinking  are  therefore 
embedded  in  subjects  such  as  politics  and  society.  Importantly,  a  process  of  auditing  ensures 
that  the  key  skills  are  embedded  in  subjects,  assuring  that  these  different  documents  are 
consistent  and  coherent.  Extracts  of  the  learning  outcomes  for  the  key  skill  in  creativity  and 
critical  thinking  and  the  active  citizenship  topic  in  the  politics  and  society  syllabus  are  shown 
below: 

Critical and creative thinking and politics and society in Ireland:  

16 

 
 
 
 
Key skill: 

Elements: 

Learning outcomes: 

Critical and 
creative 
thinking 

Thinking 
imaginatively, 
actively seeking 
out new points of 
view, problems 
and/or solutions, 
being innovative 
and taking risks. 

recognise that different mind-sets are associated with 

• 
different forms of thinking 

•  be motivated to seek out alternative perspectives and 
viewpoints and to reframe a situation 

•  be willing to take risks and to learn from mistakes and 
failures 

•  be  persistent  in  following  through  ideas  in  terms  of 
products and/or actions 

•  develop  a  strong  internal  standard  in  relation  to  the 
merits of their own work. 

Subject: Politics and Society 

Student learns about: 

Student should be able to: 

Identifying, evaluating 
and achieving personal 
and collective goals, 
including how to 
develop and evaluate 
action plans. 

• 

Set  realistic  personal  and  collective  goals  and  targets  to 

be achieved within a time frame 

• 

Construct  action  plans  to  help  reach  the  targets  and 
identify methods for monitoring how well the plans are working (e.g. 
deadlines, feedback from others) 

• 
goals 

• 

Co-operate  with  group  members  to  identify  collective 

Co-operate with group members to identify how different 

roles can contribute to the overall goals 

• 

• 

Communicate ideas and needs within the group 

Engage  in  personal  reflection  on  the  process  of  setting 

goals or targets. 

In  Ireland,  the  approach  is  therefore  to  embed  key  competences  in  subjects  and  the  example 
above  –from  upper  secondary  level  –  gives  guidelines  to  teachers  and  students  on  what 
developing  these  competences  and  assessing  them  means  in  practice.  (See  accompanying 
document at [add URL] for a more detailed description of Key Skills in Ireland) 

1.4 Digital competence 

The next example is from the UK- Northern Ireland, where the cross-curricular skill called 'Using 
ICT' is divided into: explore, express, exchange, evaluate and exhibit. Each of these elements is 
described at five levels, set out as ‘can do’ statements. These are applied in subjects and areas 
across the curriculum. The levels for exchange and evaluate are shown here because exchange 
emphasises responsible attitudes and evaluate supports learning to learn. The expectation is for 
pupils to reach Level 2 at age 7 and Level 4 by the end of primary school at age 11. However, it 
is  recognised  that  learners'  progress  at  different  rates  and  some  will  be  above  or  below  this 

17 

 
 
 
 
 
 
level. Teachers are encouraged to develop the broad levels into narrower sub-levels in order to 
monitor and report their pupils’ progress with more precision. 

Using ICT in UK- Northern Ireland 

Level 1 

Level 2 

Level 3 

Level 4 

Level 5 

Requirements for 
Using ICT 

Exchange 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Know what 
digital 
methods can 
be used to 
communicate 

Identify and 
talk about 
ways of 
communicat
ing digitally 

Communicate 
safely and 
responsibly using 
a range of 
contemporary 
digital methods 
and tools, 
exchanging, 
sharing, 
collaborating and 
developing ideas 

Use a 
contempora
ry digital 
method to 
communicat
e or 
contribute 
to a 
supervised 
online 
activity 

Use 
contempora
ry digital 
methods to 
communicat
e, exchange 
and 
collaborate 
in 
supervised 
online 
activities 

Use a range of 
contemporary 
digital methods 
to 
communicate, 
exchange and 
share their 
work, 
collaborating 
online with 
peers 

Evaluate 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Pupils can: 

Talk about 
their work 

Talk about 
how to 
improve 
their work 

Make 
modification
s to improve 
their work 

Use 
appropriate 
ICT tools and  

features to 
improve 
work  

Use appropriate 
ICT tools and 
features to 
carry out on-
going 
improvements 
and evaluate 
process and 
outcome 

Talk about, 
review and make 
improvements to 
work, reflecting 
on the process 
and outcome and 
consider the 
sources and 
resources used, 
including safety, 
reliability and 
acceptability 

1.5 Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship 

initiative 

is  a  Croatian 

This  next  example  is  from  the  South  East  European  Centre  for  Entrepreneurial  Learning 
(SEECEL)14 specifying the learning outcomes related to sense of initiative and entrepreneurship. 
including  the  following  countries:  Albania,  Bosnia  and 
SEECEL 
Herzegovina,  Kosovo,  Macedonia,  Montenegro,  Serbia  and  Turkey.  SEECEL  has  developed  a 
three-level assessment for entrepreneurship as a key competence at ISCED 2. The levels include 
measuring  the  progress  of  any  given  school  in  becoming  an  entrepreneurial  school  using  10 
indicators,  the  assessment  of  teachers  and  school  managers  through  a  questionnaire  and  the 
assessment  of  defined 
learning  outcomes 
(knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes)  defined  as  "Specific  Measurable  Attainable  Relevant  and 
Timely (SMART)" are based on Bloom's taxonomy. They are implemented across the curriculum 
in  existing  subjects  –  hence  learning  outcomes  are  assessed  using  methods  normally  used  to 

learning  outcomes  at  ISCED  2 

level.  These 

14  http://www.seecel.hr/  

18 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
assess those subjects. Alongside  these  methods, self-evaluation is also used for both students 
and teachers. 

Defining learning outcomes for entrepreneurial learning  
at the ISCED 2 level, SEECEL in Croatia: 

KNOWLEDGE 

SKILLS 

ATTITUDES 

19 

 
 
 
Learning 
outcomes  

1. Define and explain the 
difference between 
being an entrepreneur 
and acting 
entrepreneurially 

2. Explain why scarcity 

necessitates decision 
making. 

3. Recognise and define 
what products and 
services are in supply 
and demand at local 
and national level. 

4. Define criteria necessary 
for decision making at 
individual and group 
level and explain their 
impact. 

5. Compare benefits with 

costs. 

6. Calculate productivity 

and identify 
comparative 
advantages. 

7. Identify different job 
opportunities. 

8. Identify and describe at 
least two different 
career paths. 

9. Explain the importance 
of externalities and 
sustainable planning 
(think green) for 
entrepreneurial 
activities. 

1. Demonstrate ability to 
work individually and 
in teams. 

2. Demonstrate ability to 
communicate ideas to 
others efficiently. 

3. Demonstrate ability for 
creative and innovative 
thinking. 

4. Demonstrate planning, 
delegation and leading 
skills during group 
work. 

1. Take responsibility for  
completing  tasks, 
fulfilling obligations 
and meeting 
deadlines. 

2. Take initiative to 
network with 
individuals and 
groups. 

3. Demonstrate ability to 
work independently. 

4. Demonstrate ability to 

respect others. 

5. Demonstrate ability to 
use brainstorming 
method. 

5. Demonstrate ability to 
accept innovation 
and change. 

6. Develop decision making 

6. Demonstrate 

responsibility for 
public goods. 

grid. 

7. Demonstrate ability to 

recognise and list risks. 

8. Identify environmental 
consequences of their 
actions. 

9. Illustrate ability to solve 
problems and to make 
decisions together with 
others. 

10. Demonstrate ability to 
evaluate results and 
processes from group 
work. 

11. Demonstrate how to 
set up a production 
plan. 

10. List the phases of 

12. Present an 

entrepreneurial activity 
in a classroom or 
school level example. 

entrepreneurial idea. 

13. Appraise own assets 
and competences. 

11. Identify steps in 

problem solving and 
risks and give examples 
of each. 

12. Develop an 

entrepreneurial idea. 

13. Explain public goods 
and give examples. 

20 

 
 
Teaching and 
learning 
methods 

Lectures 
Discussions 
Group work 
Peer group presentation 
Local visits 

Lectures 
Discussions 
Group work 
Peer group presentation 
Local visits 

Assessment 
methods 

Essays Presentations 
Project/ group work 

Practical assessment 
Fieldwork 
Presentation 
Project work 
Self-evaluation 

Teachers as facilitators 
Lectures 
Discussions 
Group work 
Peer group presentation 
Local visits 
Practical assessment 
Field work 
Project work 

1.6  Cultural awareness and expression 

A  final  example  of  the  specification  of  learning  outcomes  relates  to  the  key  competence  in 
terms of  cultural awareness and expression. As cultural competences are generally defined in 
learning outcomes in school curricula, the following example from Malta is chosen to show how 
key  competences  can  be  incorporated  into  national  qualifications  frameworks  and  learning 
outcomes  for  vocational  education  and  training.  The  recently  developed  Maltese  national 
qualifications framework requires mastery of a vocational field to include acquisition of all eight 
key  competences.  Mastery  at  each  of  three  levels  is  specified  as  learning  outcomes  in  the 
framework. As in the European Qualifications Framework, the key competences are described in 
terms of knowledge, skills and competences. Each key competence is also presented in different 
strands, so that cultural awareness and expression contains culture and the expressive arts and 
culture  and  the  workplace.  The  example  shows  an  extract  from  the  learning  outcomes  for 
culture  and  the  expressive  arts  at  Level  2  and  culture  and  the  workplace  at  Level  3  of  the 
national qualifications framework. 

Key competences in the national qualifications framework in Malta 

Cultural awareness and 
expression 

Culture and the 
expressive arts  
(extract from Level 2) 

Culture and the 
workplace (extract from 
Level 3) 

Knowledge 

Skills 

Competences 

Learners will have… 
− awareness of the 
interdependence 
between cultural 
heritage and natural 
heritage, and the 
need to safeguard 
them 

Learners will know… 
− cross-cultural 
ethics and etiquette 
that affect the 
workplace and can 
enhance work 
effectiveness. 

Learners will be able 
to… 
− appreciate the 
relationship between 
cultural heritage, 
human rights 
(including those of 
minority groups) and 
the requirements of 
mutual respect. 
Learners will be able 
to… 
− identify and rectify 
areas of cross-cultural 
misunderstanding that 
may cause conflict in 
the workplace.  

Learners will 
demonstrate… 
− reflecting on how 
their response to their 
environment, their 
interaction with nature 
and their history 
enhances their sense of 
identity and continuity. 

Learners will 
demonstrate… 
− working effectively 
both as an individual 
and as a member of a 
group to bring about 
significant change 
within the workplace. 

21 

 
 
 
 
 
These are some examples of how Member States are specifying knowledge, skills and attitudes 
in five ‘transversal’ key competences. Specifying intended learning outcomes represents a focus 
for planning teaching, for reflecting upon learning and for developing assessments that promote 
the development of key competences. 

As teachers are not often prepared to assess the full set of key competences within their initial 
education, it is crucial to ensure their get support during their careers to put in place effective 
assessment practices. An example from the Czech Republic shows an option on how to achieve 
this. 

Guidelines for schools to specify competences in Czech Republic 

To help the schools, the Research Institute of Education in Czech Republic published documents 
specifying individual key competences in a set of goals and delivered model examples concerning how 
to develop and evaluate key competences comprehensively.  Practical suggestions as to the 
development and evaluation of key competences are also published at the www.rvp.cz methodological 
portal. 

2. 

Using assessment to measure learning outcomes 

Reporting learners’ development of key competences is a challenge to existing assessments that 
focus  on  knowledge  and  skills  limited  to  subject  contexts.  Key  competences  emphasise 
knowledge,  skills  and  attitudes  required  for  contexts  that  extend  beyond  subject  boundaries. 
The  previous  section  showed  how  key  competences  can  be  specified  as  learning  outcomes 
within, across or beyond subject contexts. Assessment methods can then be designed to ensure 
that information about learning in relation to these outcomes is actually gathered and used to 
report learners’ progress. 

This  section  focuses  on  summative  assessment  of  key  competences,  which  means  assessment 
for the purpose of reporting learners’ achievements at the end of a period of learning. Assessing 
the  breadth  and  complexity  of  key  competences  is  a  particular  challenge  for  summative 
assessments  in  high  stake  contexts.  This  type  of  assessment  typically  reports  learners’  key 
competences for selection, certification or qualification. To ensure their consequences are fair, 
these assessments require carefully controlled conditions. However, these conditions can be an 
obstacle  to  assessing  students  in  real-life  contexts  or  authentic  representations  of  them. 
Innovative methods that bring these contexts into assessments or bring assessments into these 
contexts are therefore required. 

This section presents examples of summative assessments, sometimes in high stakes situations, 
using one or more of the following methods to assess the development of key competences: 

(1) 

(2) 

Standardised  tests  where  all  questions  or  ‘items’  address  aspects  of  key 
competences 

Attitudinal  questionnaires  with 
assessment 

these 

tests  or  with  performance-based 

22 

 
 
 
 
(3) 

Performance-based  assessment,  sometimes  in  conjunction  with  standardised 
tests 

Examples  from  Member  States  and  the  literature  show  how  these  assessment  methods  can 
strongly  influence  teaching  and  learning  practices  in  favour  of  the  development  of  key 
competences. Of course, the reverse is also true: if summative assessment does not incorporate 
key competences, it can serve to limit the curriculum.15 

2.1 Standardised tests 

Although  national  standardised  tests  in  Member  States  typically  focus  on  key  competences 
associated with traditional subjects, there are examples specifically designed to assess a wider 
range  of  key  competences,  notably  social  and  civic  competences.  Items  in  these  tests  often 
present learners with a problem context and require them to find, communicate and justify a 
solution  or  response.  As  a  result,  they  help  to  address  the  creativity  and  problem-solving 
themes  that  cut  across  the  key  competences.  These  test  items  can  also  present  learners  with 
complex  contexts  using  texts  or  pictures  that  are  rich  in  information.  Some  items  may  then 
extend  the  challenge  by  requiring  learners  to  draw  upon  their  wider  understanding  of  the 
context. Learners may therefore be required to work through a chain of reasoning with several 
steps.  As  a  result,  learners  can  apply  different  combinations  of  knowledge  and  skills  whilst 
relying on supporting attitudes such as persistence. 

Tests  items  can  use  a  range  of  response  formats  to  assess  different  elements  of  learners’  key 
competences.  These  include  multiple  choice  (where  one  choice  is  deemed  correct),  complex 
multiple  choice  (where  more  than  one  choice  may  be  correct),  short  or  extended  response 
formats (to a greater or lesser extent requiring learners to formulate their own responses). In 
Spain and Poland, standardised tests with a range of response formats assess different aspects 
of learners’ social and civic competences. 

Test items for social and civic competence in Spain 

15  Black (1998), Koretz (2005), Morris (2011), Redecker (2012) and Stobart (2008)  

23 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
The general diagnostic evaluation provides information on learners’ development of key competences in 
order to enhance teaching and learning across schools in Spain. Standardised tests assess a representative 
sample of students in the fourth year of primary education (ages 9-10) and the second year of secondary 
education (ages 13-14).  

This example relates to test items for social and civic competence in primary education. These items focus 
on: the individual; society; social organisation; societies in the past; and, current democratic societies and 
human rights. To assess different aspects of the competence, several different response formats are used, 
such as true-false, matching, sentence completion and short response items. Many of the test items are 
multiple choice, reflecting an emphasis on reliability.  

Two items are reproduced here, indicating some contents and formats of the test of social and civic 
competence in primary education. One multiple choice item focussing on civic knowledge is: 

A) Rules of our towns and cities are written by political parties. 
B) Are dictated by the different ministries. 
C) Are approved by the governments of the municipalities. 
D) Are included in the Spanish Constitution. 

Other items involve more reflection, description or explanation, such as this short response item: "Give 
two advantages of working together in a school." 

Social studies questions from an upper secondary examination in Poland: 

In Poland, the requirements for social and civic competences are defined in the core curriculum and 
provide the basis for external examinations. Some contrasting test items from the upper secondary social 
studies external examination are: 

• 

List three political rights of the EU citizen. 

•  Choose four sentences that are opinions [from eight sentences] 

•  Can  Polish  society  influence  public  matters  in  local  communities?  Write  an  essay,  express  your 
point of view and describe three forms of social involvement and three forms of political involvement. 

Although tests may focus on one particular competence, other competences are often 
necessarily assessed too. This is likely when assessments model real-life contexts. The OECD’s 
PISA survey provides some insight into the value of assessing multiple competences 
simultaneously to reflect the complexity of real-life. Whilst PISA assesses mathematical 
competence, its incorporation of individual, societal, occupational and scientific contexts in test 
items means that other competences are also addressed. Thus a mathematics item which asks 
students to respond to a journalist’s claim that the number of robberies has “hugely increased” 
gains information on civic competence too. Conversely, another item from the social studies 
examination in Poland requires some mathematical competence. 

Look at the charts and describe the differences between them. Chart one: Do you feel 
you can influence the decisions taken in your country? Chart two: Do you feel you can 
influence the decisions taken in your local community? 

A  further  example  of  the  assessment  of  combinations  of  competences  comes  from  Germany, 
where  test  items  are  being  developed  in  order  to  assess,  for  example,  communication 
competence  in  biology,  chemistry  and  physics.  Similarly,  PISA  science  and  mathematics  test 
items often require students to interpret a large amount of information presented as texts or 
graphics,  which  consequently  means  that  the  communication  competence  is  also  assessed.  In 
these examples, learners are required to use combinations of competences, as in many real-life 
situations. In order to gain a clear picture of each key competence, these combinations can be 
varied systematically. 

24 

 
 
 
Also the development of social and civic competences can be monitored by standardised test, 
as the following example from Malta shows: 

Monitoring social and civic competences through standardised tests in Malta 

The nationally standardised Social Studies annual examinations at the end of Year 4, Year 5 and Year 
6 are based on the content, skills and attitudes envisaged in the syllabus of each year. Apart from the 
fact that students have to answer questions that are purely theoretical and knowledge-based, they 
are also tested on practical situations or case-studies. For example, students are given a number of 
case-studies where students need to put their theoretical knowledge into action and demonstrate 
how they would have reacted or behaved in a particular situation.  

These are called ‘application questions’. A number of questions are directly or indirectly linked to the 
social and civic competencies envisaged in European Framework of key competences. For example, 
certain issues that are asked reflect not only the local/national level, but also the wider European and 
global dimension. In these examinations students need to demonstrate “full respect for human rights 
including equality as a basis for democracy, appreciation and understanding of differences between 
value systems of different religious or ethnic groups.” Examinations therefore include a range of 
issues such as sustainable development, democracy and human rights, respect for the values and 
privacy of others, community cohesion, justice, equality, citizenship, civil rights, work organisations, 
gender equality and non-discrimination, society and culture. 

2.2 Attitudinal questionnaires 

Some  assessments  combine  tests  that  focus  on  knowledge  and  skills  (or  cognition)  with 
questionnaires  that  focus  on  attitudes  (or  affect)  and  learning  practices  (or  metacognition). 
Major international surveys such as PISA, TIMSS and PIRLS offer examples of questionnaires that 
incorporate attitudes to learning. However, unlike knowledge and skills, these attitudes are not 
seen as learning outcomes in their own right. The Framework for a European Test to Measure 
Learning  to  Learn  differed  in  this  respect,  using  tests  to  assess  learning  outcomes  relating  to 
cognition and questionnaires to assess learning outcomes relating to affect and metacognition. 
However,  it  transpired  that  these  aspects  of  learning  to  learn  were  too  closely  linked  to  be 
assessed through separate tests and questionnaires. 

There  are  also  more  general  problems  with  the  use  of  questionnaires  to  assess  attitudes  as 
learning  outcomes.  Firstly,  attitudes  vary  over  time  and  between  real-life  contexts  but 
questionnaires provide only snapshots in ‘test’ contexts. Secondly, these snapshots are indirect 
measures,  reliant  on  the  accuracy  of  learners’  self-reports.  Thirdly,  these  self-reports  may  be 
influenced by the ‘social desirability’ of particular responses to questionnaire items, particularly 
if  learners’  perceive  their  answers  as  having  consequences  for  themselves.  Overall,  to  assess 
attitudes to learning and learning to learn more generally, the research evidence suggests it is 
better to use techniques such as observation and dialogue than  questionnaires and tests. The 
contribution  of  these  techniques  as  performance-based  assessments  is  explored  in  the  next 
section. However, questionnaires may nonetheless have a specific role to play in assessing one 
important  aspect  of  learning  to  learn,  namely  the  accuracy  of  learners’  self-assessments. 
Indeed,  questionnaire  items  that  ask  learners  to  self-assess  their  competences  are  well-
established and can be found, for example, in PISA questionnaire items relating to self-efficacy. 

Comparing  learners’  self-assessment  judgements  with  standardised  tests  can  yield  useful 
information  about  their  learning  to  learn  competence,  particularly  their  metacognition. 
Furthermore, there is evidence that these judgements play an important role in helping learners 
to overcome difficulties. Learners have little to gain from inflating their judgements when they 

25 

 
 
 
 
know these will be compared with standardised judgements. It is therefore possible to combine 
the use of questionnaires and tests to assess this specific aspect of learning to learn for either 
summative  or  formative  purposes.  Further  research  evidence  and  results  from  pilot  projects 
should be considered. For example, in Lithuania, an EU-funded project relating to competences 
in  learning  to  learn,    initiative  and  creativity  is  producing  and  piloting  an  instrument  with 
assessment  tasks  for  students,  together  with  a  student  questionnaire  and  a  teacher 
questionnaire.16 

2.3 Performance-based assessments 

Several  countries  in  and  beyond  Europe  have  expanded  the  range  of  methods  they  use  in 
summative  assessments.  This  includes  assessments  in  high  stakes  situations  such  as  school-
leaving examinations. The range of methods generally includes standardised tests, reflecting the 
demand  from  higher  education,  employers,  students  and  their  parents  for  highly  reliable 
results. However, the tests are often combined with other methods to gain more and different 
types of information on which to base inferences about learners’ key competences. These other 
methods  can  be  characterised  as  performance-based  assessment  and  they  include  portfolios, 
projects,  coursework,  reflective  diaries,  presentations,  interviews,  role  plays  or  group  work. 
Furthermore,  these  methods  are  also  often  used  instead  of  standardised  tests,  particularly  in 
lower stakes situations. 

There  are  two  important  reasons  for  performance-based  assessment  of  key  competences. 
Firstly,  since  it  is  predicated  on  observation,  dialogue  or  sustained  tasks,  it  can  increase  the 
range  and  authenticity  of  the  ‘real-life’  contexts  in  which  learners  are  assessed.  This  not  only 
focuses teaching and learning on key competences but also contributes to the development of 
key  competences.  Secondly,  it  can  incorporate  more  direct  measures  of  attitudes  in  these 
contexts, such as observations. Two more general reasons are also apparent. On the one hand, 
performance-based assessment increases the number of assessment ‘events’, providing a fuller 
picture of performance. This can include information about learners’ progression. On the other 
hand, it can provide more information not only about the products of learning but also about 
the learning process itself. Information about the learning process is clearly an important target 
for assessments of learning to learn. Portfolio assessment is particularly well-suited to gathering 
information about the learning process and promoting key competences. The next section will 
focus more on these aspects of assessment of key competences. 

The  Slovenian  example  illustrates  how  performance-based  assessment  can  be  incorporated  in 
high-stakes summative assessment. 

Including laboratory work in examination in Slovenia 

In Slovenia laboratory work in science is assessed as 20% of the final certificate in science subjects in 
the Matura examination. The laboratory work examination is part of the school-based examination 
for the final certification. The other 80% is based on external examination. The assessment of 
laboratory work in the final examination provides a strong incentive for teachers to use more student 
centred, inquiry driven laboratory work in their teaching, in line with curricular requirements. 

16  Boekaerts  (2005),  Fredriksson  &  Hoskins  (2008),  Greene  &  Azevedo  (2007),  OECD  (2011)  and 

Pepper (2011) 

26 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
Since  performance-based  assessment  is  often  based  on  performances  during  the  period  of 
learning,  the  teacher  often  acts  as  the  assessor.  Whether  performance-based  assessment  is 
used  on  its  own  or  in  conjunction  with  standardised  tests,  measures  therefore  need  to  be  in 
place  to  ensure  that  it,  too,  is  standardised.  This  ensures  that  any  variation  in  the  way  that 
learners’  work  is  assessed  is  kept  to  an  acceptable  minimum.  Teacher  education,  assessment 
guidelines, work examples, task or item banks, moderation meetings and inter-school networks 
play  an  important  role  in  developing  consistent  assessment  practices.  When  these  types  of 
measures  are  implemented,  teacher  assessment  judgements  can  meet  the  minimum  levels  of 
reliability required for summative assessment. 

Examples  from  Germany  and  Austria  show  how  external  examiners  can  review  and  moderate 
teachers’  assessment  judgements  to  increase  the  comparability  of  results  between  students, 
teachers and schools. In Austria, the range of assessment methods for the high stakes school-
leaving  examination  has  been  broadened  in  order  to  address  cross-curricular  competences 
valued by higher education and employers. In Germany, the range of assessment methods for 
the general secondary final examination has also been broadened to address a wider range of 
key competences. The methods in these examples have the potential to assess the full range of 
key  competences  from  communication  in  the  mother  tongue  to  sense  of  initiative  and 
entrepreneurship. The examples are detailed below. 

Performance-based assessment for the school-leaving qualification in Austria 

In Austria, the qualification for entry to university or tertiary education uses a range of assessment 
methods to assess competences across the curriculum. These methods include: 

•  A multi-disciplinary paper on a research project 

•  A standardised, competence-based written examination at the end of the final year 

•  An oral examination in front of a representative of the examinations commission after the 
written examination, when they present and defend their project. 

These methods assess a wide range of competences, including those relating to communication, 
mathematics, science, languages, learning to learn, initiative and entrepreneurship, and social and 
civic competences. Importantly, these competences are assessed in relation to real-life contexts 
provided by the research project. 

27 

 
 
 
Performance-based assessment for the school-leaving qualification in Germany 

To assess a wider range of key competences, Baden-Württemberg has introduced two new elements 
into the final examination for general education students in Year 10 in the Realschule:  

1. The EuroKom (European communication) exam counts for around one half of the final grade in the 
obligatory foreign language. Students take the 15-minute examination individually or in pairs and it 
consists of three elements: 

a)  a  pre-prepared  presentation,  followed  by  questions,  on  a  topic  discussed  and  agreed  in 
advance with the examining teacher  

b)  an oral comprehension exercise 

c)  a role-play based on an authentic situation.  

2. In addition to written examinations in the core subjects of German, mathematics and the 
obligatory foreign language, pupils must also take a cross-curricular competence examination. Like 
EuroKom, this examination consists of a pre-discussed and pre-prepared presentation, followed by 
questions from the examiners. However, in this case the examination is taken by students in groups 
of between three and five, and must cover at least two curricular subjects. The examiners are 
teachers in these subjects, including an external moderator from a different school. 

If safeguards for the reliability of assessment judgements are put in place, performance-based 
assessment offers a great deal of promise for a more complete assessment of key competences, 
even for summative assessment in high stakes situations. Given the particularly strong influence 
that  high  stakes  assessment  exerts  on  teaching  and  learning  practices,  performance-based 
assessment  can  therefore  promote  the  fuller  development  of  key  competences.  Furthermore, 
since  performance-based  assessment  can  include  information  about  learners’  progression 
during  a  period  of  learning  and  summarise  learners’  achievements  at  the  end  of  a  period  of 
learning, it may serve both formative and summative purposes.17 

3. 

Using assessment to encourage the development of key competences 

This  section  focuses  on  formative  assessment,  which  means  assessment  for  the  purpose  of 
helping  learners  develop  their  key  competences.  Formative  assessment  is  a  powerful  set  of 
practices for encouraging the development of competences, because it: 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

Involves  the  learner  in  clarifying  learning  outcomes,  setting  goals,  planning 
learning and assessing progress 

Provides  timely  feedback  via  teachers  and  peers  or  directly  to  the  learner, 
enabling them to make informed adjustments to plans and goals 

Generates  information  about  key  competences  that  is  valid  for  the  purpose  of 
informing  next  steps  in  teaching  and  learning,  enhancing  motivation  and 
achievement 

17  Black (2010), Looney (2011, 2009), Simon & Forgette-Goroux (2000) 

28 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
(4) 

Gathers  information  about  learners’  knowledge,  skills  and  supporting  attitudes 
as  they  are  developed  and  applied  in  a  variety  of  contexts  over  an  extended 
period of time. 

More  generally,  the  role  of  formative  assessment  in  promoting  learning  in  schools  was 
popularised  by  research  on  ‘Assessment  for  Learning’  (AfL).  In  England,  for  instance,  it  is 
defined  as  “the  process  of  seeking  and  interpreting  evidence  for  use  by  learners  and  their 
teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best 
to  get  there.”18  It  is  used  in  day-to-day  learning  and  teaching  situations,  for  periodic 
assessments as a broader view of progress is gained across subject for teacher and learner as 
well  as  for  formal  recognition  of  pupils’  achievement  that  is  reported  to  parents/carers  and 
next teacher(s).  

AfL has influenced policies and practices in several countries. For example, it provided the basis 
for  the  ‘Assessment  is  for  Learning’  initiative  in  UK-  Scotland.  This  initiative  sought  to  embed 
formative assessment in teaching and learning by developing a three-way relationship between 
the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment.  

The Assessment is for Learning initiative in Scotland 

Assessment is for Learning (AifL) in Scotland supports the innovations taking place under the 
Curriculum for Excellence reform. It expands the formative assessment concept in terms of a three-
way relationship between curriculum, learning and teaching, and assessment:  

•  Assessment  of  learning  is  about  gathering  and  interpreting  the  evidence.  It  connects  the 

curriculum and assessment. 

•  Assessment  for  learning  is  about  supporting  classroom  learning  and  teaching.  It  connects 

assessment and learning/teaching. 

•  Assessment as learning is about learning how to learn. It connects learning/teaching and the 

curriculum. 

This initiative resulted in the development of an integrated assessment system where:  

•  formative  assessment  emphasises  self-assessment  and  teachers  use  a  range  of  evidence  to 

monitor their pupils’ progress 

•  teachers’  moderate  their  own  summative  assessment  judgements  using  external  tests  and 

each other’s judgements by working collaboratively 

•  to  avoid  distorting  the  curriculum,  information  from  external  assessments  that  monitor 

standards is based on a sample and is not used for formative or summative purposes. 

AIFL takes a whole-school approach to assessment, mobilising the support of teachers, parents, 
managers and pupils and engaging in assessment for learning at every level in the system. Teachers 
are supported through dedicated training and on-line resources including a self-assessment toolkit, 
case studies on target-setting, tracking and recording progress, and support for teacher networking 
and mechanisms for the sharing of good practice and for facilitating teachers’ access to relevant 
research.  

An extensive programme of staff training, guidelines, rubrics and resource materials and a web-site 
with access to on-line tool-kits and materials has been developed to ensure implementation of AifL. 

Rather  than  seeing  assessment  as  an  activity  distinct  from  teaching,  formative  assessment  is 
integral to pedagogy and central to learning. Over the course of a period of learning, teachers 
can  draw  upon  a  wide  variety  of  sources  of  information  about  the  progress  of  their  learners, 

18  Assessment Reform Group,2002 

29 

 
 
 
                                                            
enabling  them  to  make  informed  adjustments  to  their  teaching.  The  sources  may  include 
classroom  dialogue  with  learners,  observations  of  individuals  working  alone  or  in  groups, 
examples of students’ work, overall test results, responses to individual test questions or peer 
and  self-assessments.  In  France,  teachers  draw  upon  these  sources  to  record  their  pupils’ 
development  of  competences  in  a  booklet  that  accompanies  them  throughout  compulsory 
education, as detailed below. Teachers identify relevant information about each of their pupils’ 
progress  for  this  booklet  using  the  reference  grids  that  detail  the  learning  outcomes  for  each 
competence. 

A Personal Competences Booklet for each pupil in France 

A  Personal  Competences  Booklet  (PCB)  has  been  developed  at  national  level  and  disseminated  to 
teachers throughout the country. The PCB details each competence defined nationally and its fields 
and  items.  Teachers  note  pupils’  progress  in  acquiring  the  competences  in  the  PCB,  which  follows 
them as they pass through compulsory education (age 6-16). The booklet serves as a communication 
tool  between  the  teacher  and  learner,  and  between  the  school  and  parents.  It  contributes  to  a 
national evaluation at the end of secondary education. 

In  Malta  lower-secondary  assessment  includes  information  on  pupils'  attitudes  and  personal 
and social skills. 

A personal profile is set for each pupil in lower secondary education. Evaluation criteria used in this 
context  relate  to  active  participation  in  the  classroom  and  the  school policy  (the  ability  to  discuss, 
engage  in  dialogue,  debate,  organize  and  work  in  groups).  Marking  is  based  on  observations  of 
pupils’ behaviour in the class and school and pupils' involvement in activities/projects in and outside 
school. Assessments recorded in the personal profile serves the student for identifying his/her needs 
to  develop  learning  at    upper  secondary  but  it  does  affect  the  decision  on  delivering  the  lower 
secondary certificate 

Compiling assessment information from a variety of sources can be a challenge. E-assessment 
can  make  this  task  easier  as  it  can  integrate  information  from  various  sources  and  analyse  at 
least some of this information and then provide feedback19. The ICT-based 'Learning analytics' 
that are currently being developed would not only allow the compilation of information from a 
variety  of  sources,  but  also  the  formative  assessment  of  this  information.  It  is  important, 
however, to emphasise that the feedback these systems provide needs to be specific enough to 
help  individual  learners  –  and  this  is  not  always  the  case.  A  good  example  of  feedback  that  is 
targeted is the 'Intelligent tutoring systems' or ITSs for mathematics education. These systems 
adapt  the  tasks  according  to  the  learners'  skill  levels  and  provide  them  instant  feedback  and 
targeted support at least as regards procedural understanding.  

Alternatively,  learners  themselves  may  integrate  the  various  sources  by  using  peer  or  self-
assessment to select content for their portfolios or e-portfolios. Since peer and self-assessment 
and  portfolio  assessment  can  make  particular  contributions  to  the  development  of  key 

19 http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu  

30 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
competences,  they  are  the  focuses  for  the  next  two  sections.20  E-assessment  is  further 
presented later in the text.  

3.1 Peer and self-assessment 

In theory, learner self-assessment is an inevitable result of successful formative assessment. To 
make sense of teachers’ feedback, learners need to reflect on their own learning. Furthermore, 
through  peer  assessment,  learners  can  help  each  other  to  reflect  on  their  learning.  Peer  and 
self-assessment are linked to many key competences, such as initiative and  entrepreneurship, 
learning  to  learn  and  social  competence,  and  cross-cutting  themes,  such  as  critical  thinking, 
creativity, 
initiative,  problem-solving,  risk  assessment,  decision-taking,  and  constructive 
management of feelings. 

In  practice,  both  peer  and  self-assessment  are  formative  assessment  interventions  that  are 
successful  in  improving  motivation  and  attainment,  even  for  learners  as  young  as  five-years 
old.21  Although  peer  and  self-assessment  for  the  formative  purpose  is  generally  honest  and 
trustworthy,  there  is  evidence  that  learners  need  to  develop  this  competence  gradually  over 
time.  Consequently,  teacher  education  needs  to  include  training  in  facilitating  peer  and  self-
assessment. This investment in training is worthwhile because the results of effective peer and 
self-assessment are committed, effective and independent learners. These forms of assessment 
can also, in the longer-term, reduce the assessment burden on teachers.  

Everyone  involved  in  formative  assessment,  including  learners  themselves,  needs  a  good 
understanding  of  the  intended  learning  outcomes  and  the  criteria  by  which  success  will  be 
judged. Where the key competences represent an unfamiliar approach to learning, developing 
learners’  understanding  of  the  learning  outcomes  is  particularly  important.  To  develop  this 
understanding,  teachers  can  share  and  discuss  the  learning  outcomes  and  criteria  with  their 
learners.  Learners  can  then,  in  turn,  peer  and  self-assess  themselves  against  these  outcomes 
using the criteria, give feedback to one another and consider the next steps. As they do so, they 
become  more  competent 
in  working  alone  and  with  others,  developing  various  key 
competences in the process.22 For instance, peer and self-assessment tools are currently being 
developed  for  ICT-based  'learning  management  systems'  such  as  Moodle  to  enable  coherent 
formative performance. These systems already provide a means of cooperation and provision of 
feedback from teachers to learners and between peers.23 

There are several examples of Member States placing an emphasis on learners’ development of 
self-assessment  competence  and  this  is  sometimes  explicitly  linked  to  learning  to  learn.  In 
addition, in the Czech Republic, some schools have piloted the use of a self-assessment booklet 
to record each learner’s development of key competences. 

Learners’ formative use of assessment information is promoted  
in several Members States: 

20  Allal  &  Lopez  (2005),  Black  &  Wiliam  (1998a),  Harlen  (2007),  Köller  (2005),  Looney  (2010)  and 

Wiliam & Thomson (2007) 
21  Black and Wiliam (1998b). 
22  Black & Wiliam (1998b), James et al (2007), Mills & Glover (2006) and Wiliam & Thomson (2007) 

31 

 
 
 
                                                            
 
• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Estonia’s cross-curricular ‘learning competence’ is partly about learning ‘to monitor and assess 
one’s thinking and learning activities’.  

In Finland, assessment in basic education aims to encourage pupils to develop their self-
assessment skills, by reflecting on their development and helping to set targets in their individual 
study plan.  

In Lithuania, learning to learn includes specific learning outcomes relating to ‘reflection on 
learning activities and outcomes, and self-assessment’. 

The Netherlands’ cross-curricular general objectives for secondary education refer to learning to 
learn, including ‘assessing information on the grounds of reliability, representativeness and 
usefulness’.  

In Greece, self-assessment is intended to enable pupils to acquire meta-cognitive skills through 
the control and management of their own learning.  

•  Within the UK, the key skills qualification in ‘improvement of own learning and performance’ 
offered in England, Wales and Northern Ireland includes an element of self-assessment. 

A pilot for a self-assessment booklet in the Czech Republic 

A process of learner self-assessment of key competences has been piloted in some schools in the Czech 
Republic.  In  these  schools,  each  learner  has  a  self-assessment  booklet  that  specifies  their  goals  and 
details their progress towards these goals. This provides a focus for discussions that include learners,
teachers  and  parents  and  has  helped  to  embed  formative  assessment  of  the  competences  in  the
culture of the schools. 

3.2 Portfolio and e-portfolio assessment 

Where information is collected during a period of learning, performance-based assessment can 
help learners to develop their key competences. It can do so indirectly, through feedback into 
teaching and learning but it can also do so directly, through the types of performance it requires 
from students. For example, learners giving presentations have an opportunity to develop the 
communication  competence  necessary  for  a  particular  public-speaking  context.  Learners 
compiling a  portfolio of evidence about their key  competences  have an opportunity  to reflect 
on  their  learning  process  and  develop  various  competences  including  learning  to  learn.  When 
they  develop  this  portfolio  in  cooperation  with  their  teachers  and  peers,  they  also  have  a 
particular  opportunity  to  develop  their  social  competence.  When  an  e-portfolio  is  used,  they 
also have an opportunity to develop their digital competence.  

Portfolios  provide  a  method  of  storing  a  variety  of  examples  demonstrating  learners’ 
development  and  application  of  key  competences  in  a  range  of  contexts  during  the  learning 
process.  The  examples  selected  as  entries  for  portfolios  can  be  drawn  from  contexts  that  are 
difficult  to  reproduce  in  standardised  tests,  such  as  those  involving  social  interactions. 
Furthermore, portfolios are particularly valuable for identifying the application of combinations 
of competences required in real-life contexts. When used in connection with explicit guidelines, 
portfolios  can  provide  a  structure  for  learners  to  carefully  select  entries  with  the  support  of 
their teachers. Reflecting on the learning outcomes and the progress towards them is therefore 
integral  to  the  assessment.  Portfolios  can  then  act  as  a  resource  that  informs  discussions  not 
only between teachers and students about next steps in learning, but also parents. 

Perhaps  for  the  reasons  outlined  here,  an  international  trend  towards  the  use  of  portfolio 
assessment  is  apparent.  In  several  cases,  this  portfolio  assessment  uses  ICT.  Such  e-portfolio 
assessment  has  been  implemented  in  schools  in  Austria,  Belgium,  Portugal,  Romania,  Turkey 
and  the  UK,  piloted  in  Bulgaria,  France,  Greece  and  Iceland,  and  planned  in  several  other 
countries. E-portfolios expand the range of possible formats for entries, so that audio-visual files 

32 

 
 
 
 
 
and internet links can be included. They also provide a flexible format for sharing the content 
and gaining the feedback of teachers and peers, such as through a school intranet-based social 
network. This requires ICT infrastructure and some digital competence on the part of learners 
and teachers but can reduce the administrative burden on teachers. It is worth noting though 
that  this  works  best  when  there  are  also  opportunities  for  face-to-face  interaction,  and  the 
wider development of social competence. In some cases, portfolio or e-portfolio entries may be 
accompanied by learners’ narratives about their reflections on and explanations for their choice 
of entries. Teachers may then gain further insights into their students’ attitudes to learning and 
their progress towards the learning outcomes.24 

Several  examples  below  show  how  (e-)portfolios  are  contributing  not  only  to  formative 
assessment but to summative assessment as well by building up evidence of competence during 
a period of learning. 

Portfolio assessment of cross-curricular key competences in Austria: 

A  project  in  the  Austrian  province  of  Vienna  is  using  portfolios  to  assess  the  cross-curricular  key 
competences of students in the cohort aged 15 in lower secondary general education schools. 

Whilst all eight key competences are assessed, the emphasis is on digital competence, learning to learn, 
social  and  civic  competences,  sense  of  initiative  and  entrepreneurship,  and  cultural  awareness  and 
expression.  

Each key competence is divided into indicators and descriptors, which provide a focus for the evidence of 
students’  competences  chosen  for  inclusion  in  portfolios.  Teachers  assess  students’  competences  in 
relation to each of the descriptors at four levels: not observed; partial; expectation met; excellent. 

The portfolios have a formative purpose and a summative purpose. During the period of learning, students 
receive  feedback  on  their  progress  in  demonstrating  each  key  competence.  At  the  end  of  the  period  of 
learning,  students  receive  an  attachment  to  the  lower  secondary  leaving  certificate  complementing  the 
subject specific marks with cross-curricular competences. 

The learning achievement portfolio of key competences in Slovenia: 

Slovenia’s recent reforms to vocational education have led to the development of a learning achievement 
portfolio  for  the  assessment  of  the  eight  key  competences.  This  development  was  influenced  by  the 
European language portfolio. 

The purpose of the portfolio is formative: to help students set goals, plan their learning and develop their 
competences. Students therefore use the portfolio throughout their programme of learning. The portfolio 
is not scored but teachers are obliged to monitor their students’ development of competences through the 
portfolio.  

The  portfolio  includes  worksheets  about  the  student  goals,  his/  lifelong  learning,  his/her    achievements 
and provides a basis for the collection of information and documents to monitor the progress of students 
in developing key competences and specific vocational competences. 

The experimental competences booklet in France 

In France, an Experimental Competences Booklet is being tested in about 140 schools. This booklet takes 
the form of a national digital portfolio. It has to be gradually built by the pupils, accompanied by their 
teachers and associations or professional organisations in close collaboration with their parents. It lists the 
competences developed inside and outside the school and sums up all the diplomas and the certificates 
which pupils receive during their schooling. 

24  Pepper (2011), Redecker (2012), Simon & Forgette-Goroux (2000) 

33 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
3.3 E-assessment 

As  with  portfolio  assessment,  the  potential  of  e-assessment  relates  to  both  formative  and 
summative purposes of assessment. In theory, most of the assessment methods presented in 
previous  sections  –  whether  related  to  standardised  tests  or  peer-assessment  –  could  be 
replaced by ICT-based assessment. However, using e-assessment just for the sake of it does not 
guarantee improved assessment of key competences. The key to taking up e-assessment is to 
use  it  in  ways  that  bring  added  value  by  making  previously  in-assessable  learning  outcomes 
assessable.25 

E-assessment includes a wide variety of assessment methods ranging from simpler forms, such 
as  computer-based  testing,  to  more  complex  forms  of  assessment,  such  as  using  augmented 
reality and immersive games in assessment. Even these simpler forms can provide students with 
instant feedback, adapt the level of difficulty according to their skills and offer guidance in the 
process to help students develop appropriate solution strategies. At the same time as reducing 
test  times  and  test  fatigue,  such  adaptive  testing  can  produce  more  useful  information  about 
learners’ key competences. As described in the previous section, e-portfolios allow students to 
show their progress and can support self- and peer assessment thus encouraging self-regulated 
learning.  Embedding  learning  and  assessment  into  computer  simulations,  virtual  laboratories 
and  games  takes  the  learning  process  even  further  by  enabling  students  to  develop  their 
scientific enquiry, analysis, interpretation and reflexion skills in a real-life context.26.  

There  are  also  new,  emerging  e-assessment  methods,  such  as  learning  analytics  that  could 
become  reality  within  five  years.  Learning  analytics  would  allow  the  interpretation  of  a  vast 
amount of data produced by students in electronic environments, thus enabling the assessment 
of  progress  and  tailoring  of  education  for  the  individual  students.  Moreover,  it  could  allow 
embedding assessment in computer simulations, virtual worlds and immersive games. Already 
widely used in the US are the intelligent tutoring systems for mathematics instruction, which are 
built around a similar idea as learning analytics but also provide instant feedback and targeted 
support for students. 

Hence,  as  can  be  noted  from  the  variety  of  e-assessment  methods,  the  real  significance  of  e-
assessment  may  be  in  transforming  what  is  actually  assessed.  By  simulating  real-life  contexts 
and  repeatedly  sampling  performance,  e-assessment  opens  up  new  possibilities  for  eliciting 
information  on  learners’  key  competences.  Rather  than  explicitly  presenting  learners  with 
information, simulations can require learners to make sense of the context for themselves. 

Simulations  can  also  create  dynamic  contexts  which  interact  with  learners.  This  means  that 
every action leads to a reaction, requiring repeated re-evaluation of the task conditions, much 
as in real life. For example, online games can transpose the social and political context of a real-
world problem into a virtual model.  

Currently, however, these more complex forms of e-assessment are not widely used in Europe 
and even though there is an abundance of educational simulations available, many of these do 
not include or embed assessment. The two most commonly used methods of e-assessment are 
still computer-based tests and e-portfolios. In the first case, however, the added value of ICT is 
often  unutilised  and  instead  traditional  tests  have  essentially  been  migrated  onto  screen 
format.  

25 25 JRC-IPTS (http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications)  

34 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
 
There are some initiatives in Europe that illustrate, however, that computer-based testing can 
be used in innovative ways to enhance the assessment of key competences27, including adaptive 
tests and the assessment of  the digital competence itself: 

Adaptive testing of skills in UK Northern Ireland 

In  the  UK(Northern  Ireland),    computer  based  diagnostic  tests  of  literacy  and  numeracy  skills, 
administered each  year  between  the  age of    7  and  11  in  all  schools  provide  a  tool  for  teachers  to 
adjust instruction to the needs of their students and to recognise and assess learning difficulties. The 
tests are centrally designed by the Curriculum Authority and are “adaptive” - students who answer a 
question  correctly  are  given  a  harder  question,  while  those  who  answer  incorrectly  are  given  an 
easier  question.    These  assessments,  which  last  approximately  30  minutes  each,  are  computer 
graded.    The  data  are  intended  for  use  within  the  schools.    There  is  no  central  collection  of  data, 
although  schools  are  required  to  report  the  results  to  parents.  The  use  of  these  tests  has  been 
supported through a considerable financial effort involving school-based seminars and e-learning for 
most primary teachers and extensive central ICT support and design of the software over more than 
6  years.  An  important  element  in  their  implementation  was  extensive  consultation  with  teachers 
and teacher unions on their aims and contents, prior to adoption and during implementation28. 

Testing digital competence among Norwegian schoolchildren 

The  Norwegian  Centre  for  ICT  in  Education  has  been  piloting  tests  for  digital  literacy  in  Oslo  and 
Bergen, the two largest cities in Norway. 

The test in Oslo has been conducted annually since 2008. Today, learners in the 4th grade and in the 
12th  grade  (upper  secondary  education)  take  this  test  every  year.  The  test  assesses  the  following 
competencies:  basic  digital  skills,  digital  communication,  digital  information  processing,  digital 
production and critical thinking. The different elements of the test are weighed differently. In Bergen, 
a similar test is made for 5th graders. 

Norway is also developing a diagnostic test in digital skills.  This test will be an optional test, and it is 
based on a new framework developed by the Ministry of Education and Research and the Norwegian 
Directorate  for  Education  and  Training.  The  framework  defines  four  “digital  areas”:  To  acquire  and 
process  digital  information,  produce  and  process  digital  information,  critical  thinking  and  digital 
communication. 

The test has been piloted and it aims map the knowledge level, strengths and weakness of students to 
help  plan  an  effective  early  intervention.  The  4th  grade  is  chosen  for  this  test,  because  the  learners 
will, according to the curriculum, start using digital tools in the 2nd grade. 

The development and availability of test items is governed by a new framework for basic skills in the 
Norwegian  curriculum  being  implemented  in  2012.  The  test  items  cover  a  spectrum  of  test  tasks, 
however, according to the informant at the National Centre for ICT in Education, there is a lack of test 
items that require simulations and test items anchored in real world problems and challenges. 

As regards basic skills and tackling low-achievement, ICT-based testing can provide an effective 
diagnostic  assessment  tool  and  provide  pupils,  teachers  and  parents  with 
important 
information on progress: 

Diagnostic Assessment in Hungary in Mathematics, Reading and Science 

27   http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications)  

28 See also Chapter 4 on effective implementation of assessment policies 

35 

 
 
 
                                                            
The  Centre  for  Research  on  Learning  and  Instruction  at  the  University  of  Szeged  in  Hungary  is 
developing  an  online  assessment  system  with  substantial  funding  from  The  Social  Renewal 
Operational  Programme    and  the  European  Social  Funds.  Through  this  project,  the  goal  is  to  lay  the 
foundation for a nationwide diagnostic assessment system for the grades 1 through 6. The project will 
develop  an  item  bank  with  nine  dimensions  (including  reading,  mathematics  and  science  in  three 
domains    as  well  as  a  number  of  other  minor  domains.  According  to  the  project  management,  the 
project has a high degree of transferability and can be regarded as close to the framework  used in the 
PISA assessment. 

The project currently covers both core subjects such as mathematics, science and reading and is also 
looking at the feasibility of expanding diagnostic assessment to include other cognitive and affective 
domains.  

ICT-based national assessment of key competences in Czech Republic 

In  the  Czech  Republic  there  is  an  ICT-based  national  assessment  of  key  competences  in  3  different 
grades every year.  The compiled results of this assessment are public, but with a secured password 
parents  can  see  the  individual  result of their  children as  compared  to  the  average,  and  schools  can 
also  obtain  (with  a  password)  the  results  of  their  classes.  This  information  should  be  used  by  the 
school  for  further  development.    Schools,  therefore,  through  their  students'  performance,  get  also 
information about the performance of the teachers.  

The  examples  below  show  how  ICT-based  assessment  can  also  be  used  in  support  the  more 
learn  and  digital 
transversal  key  competences  such  as  entrepreneurship, 
competence: 

learning  to 

Computer-based test on entrepreneurship in UK Wales 

Gower  College  Swansea  is  a  further  education  college  in  the  UK,  providing  upper  secondary  and 
vocational  education  and  training  to  the  local  community.  It  has  integrated  the  completion  of  an  e-
survey  on  entrepreneurship  into  the  induction  programme  for  all  new  full  time  students  starting 
courses at the college – around 1200 each year. During their first week at college these new students 
have to complete a number of computer based skills assessments for numeracy and literacy and the 
college has added in the Enterprise Catalyst (www.enterprisecatalyst.co.uk) as their final task in this 
process. The catalyst assesses their current levels of entrepreneurial awareness, skills and interest in 
starting  a  business,  when  they  start  college  and  before  they  undertake  any  enterprise  activities  or 
events.  They  receive  a  personalised  report  showing  their  'Enterprise  Fuel',  with  information  about 
their strengths and skill areas which they could consider developing further. At the end of their first 
year the students then complete the catalyst again to see the distance travelled. The college can then 
pay for a summary report showing overall measures for all students in the college, and this can provide 
an insight into the average measures of attitudes and skills as well as intention to start a business. In 
the future this data can be compared each year. This will be expanded to the new Welsh Enterprise 
Academy  launched  in  the  college  in  September  2012,  and  there  are  also  plans  to  expand  this 
methodology to all vocational colleges in the region through the South West Wales Regional Hub for 
Entrepreneurship Education. 

The  added  value  of  e-assessment  is  evident  in  performance-based  assessment.  Here,  e-
assessment can provide different ways of capturing information. For example, when compiling 
examples of their work in e-portfolios, learners’ can submit information in a variety of formats, 
including video, audio, pictures and text. This can contribute to developing and applying digital 
competence  specifically  and  communication  competence  more  generally.  The  example  from 
England illustrates how this can be put into practice. 

36 

 
 
 
e-Portfolio assessment of cultural and artistic expression in England: 

In the eSCAPE project, a six-hour collaborative design workshop replaced school examinations in design 
and technology for students aged 16 in 11 participating schools across England. Design and technology 
incorporates  aspects  of  the  key  competence  relating  to  cultural  and  artistic  expression.  Students 
worked individually, but within a group context, to build their design solution. Students were given a 
number of staged assessment instructions and information via a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). The 
handheld  device  also  acted  as  a  tool  to  capture  assessment  evidence  –  via  video,  camera,  voice, 
sketchpad and keyboard. During the six hours, each student developed their design prototype and the 
PDA provided a record of their progress, interactions and self-reflections. At the end of the assessment, 
evidence  was  collated  in  a  short  multimedia  portfolio  loaded  onto  a  secure  website.  The  project 
resulted in 250 e-portfolios and the reliability of the assessment method was reported as very high. 

An initiative in UK-Wales shows how web-based assessment can be applied to 'soft skills' such 
as confidence, self-esteem, motivation, ability to co-operate, self-discipline and wellbeing.  

E-assessment of 'soft skills' in UK Wales 

The Welsh Assembly has funded the development of a web-based  tool which providers can use to 
record learners' 'soft skills' outcomes in a systematic way29. The tool is split into two sections:  

I: Learners self-assess themselves against a series of statements relating to the following themes at 
the  start,  the  mid-point  and  the  end  of  their  learning:  Attendance,  Timekeeping,  Relationships, 
Participation, Self-esteem, Working with others, Beliefs and Responsibilities.  

II:  Once  the  learner  completes  each  session,  they  are  informed  to  arrange  a  planning  session  with 
their  tutor.  The  tutor  then  completes  an  assessment  of  the  learner  against  a  series  of  statements 
relating to the same themes at the same points in learning. 

Furthermore, learning software with integrated assessment and feedback loops is starting to be 
exploited as a means of fostering the development and assessment of key competences, as 
illustrated in the following case that is developed in Norway and that could give an example for 
further developments of such software.30 

The Norwegian Kikora Software for Mathematical Competence 

Kikora  is  both  a  Norwegian  software  company  as  well  as  a  piece  of  educational  software  for 
mathematics. The development of the software was facilitated through a development grant from the 
Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research in 2006-2007. 

The core of the Kikora software is that it contains a feedback function that gives the learner line by line 
feedback on all calculations. The software also contains a reporting tool that enables the teachers to 
track  the  progress  and  critical  learning  areas  of  the  students,  which  in  turn  facilitates  mapping  and 
planning of one-to-one  activities based on the individual student profiles. The program also contains 
an item bank with approximately 3000 tasks for students in lower and upper secondary education. The 
selection of the items pays attention to the need for items that will support the progress of learners 
with  mathematics  challenges  as  well  as  learners  who  perform  well  in  mathematics.  The  content  is 
strictly anchored in the requirements of the mathematics curriculum in Norwegian education. Kikora’s 
success  is  linked  to  the  fact  that  the  software  can  give  learners  line-by-line  instant  feedback,  thus 
combining assessment with tutoring. According to the company, this approach to feedback loops and 

37 

 
 
 
                                                            
 
 
 
the reporting system for teachers for group or class monitoring stimulate deeper learning among the 
students.  

ICT and the Internet resources can be used also in final exams to provide with a large amount of 
information to students to cope with. Despite these 'open resources', plagiarism can also be 
avoided, as the Danish examples shows. 

ICT at final exams in upper secondary education in Denmark 

In  Denmark,  ICT  has  been  used  in  summative  assessment  for  a  number  of  years.  The  development 
includes  three different areas: 

1. Digital tests with access to the Internet. 

2. Digitization of the logistics concerning written assessments 

3. Development of digital tests. 

The first project has been testing classic written examinations, in which the students are given access 
to the Internet, but without being able to communicate with other students. Access to the Internet is 
justified by developing test items with a high degree of curriculum relevance that requires access to 
the internet. 

The  second  project  aims  at  digitizing  the  entire  chain  of  logistics  necessary  to  conduct  a  written 
examination. Firstly, schools are enabled to download the written examination from an Internet site. 
Secondly, a concept with dedicated software is developed that can act as the foundation for the digital 
operation of the written examination. 

The third project aims at transforming basic tests, e.g. in English and Mathematics, into fully digitized 
tests. 

The Danish case addresses the gap between the kind of resources learners can access when engaging 
in  learning  activities  at school  or  at  home  and  the  lack of  resources  available  at  written, summative 
assessments.  This  gap  has  been  subject  to  discussions  in  the  educational  community  and  among 
national  authorities  for  a  number  of  years.  The  prevailing  paradigm  among  educational  authorities 
has,  so  far,  been  to  prioritize  security  and  preventing  plagiarism  before  an  exam  situation  that  is  as 
similar to a real-life and workplace settings as possible.  

One  of  the  hallmarks  of  the  Danish  example  is  that  in  order  to  reduce  the  risk  of  plagiarism  and 
cheating,  the  selection  of  test  items  have  been  revised  in  order  to  neutralize  the  possible  benefits 
Internet access could have. This is an innovation that has attracted considerable interest from many 
countries within and outside Europe. 

Despite these promising examples a recent report31 of the Commission on the evidence of the 
use of ICT for the assessment of key competences concludes, however, that the current use of 
e-assessment is scattered and limited to some competences (or elements of the competences) 
such  as  communication 
languages  and 
in  mother  tongue,  communication 
mathematical competences – areas where digital teaching and learning programmes are most 
common. There is little evidence of some of the more transversal competences, such as learning 
to learn, and sense of initiative and entrepreneurship..  

in  foreign 

31  http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu  

38 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
 
In order to improve the exploitation of the potential of e-assessment, better coordination and 
leadership  is  needed  with  curriculum  development,  development  of  digital  learning  material 
and  assessment.  This  is  crucial  to  ensuring  that  the  use  of  ICT  is  embedded  systematically  in 
teaching and learning for pupils at all ages, and that ICT providers, and curriculum experts and 
teachers  work  together.  Moreover,  for  the  use  of  ICT  to  become  mainstream  in  school 
education, the digital competence of teachers needs to be further developed in initial education 
and  also  through  peer  learning  and  teacher  networks  throughout  their  careers.  An  example 
from Slovenia illustrates how the digital competence of teachers can be enhanced. 

National programme for e-competent teachers in Slovenia 

In  Slovenia,  a  national  programme  for  e-Competent  teachers  elaborated  competence  standards  for 
teachers, for ICT coordinators in schools and for school leadership, covering a range of competences 
for  planning,  performing  and  evaluating  teaching  by  using  ICT  to  critical  use  and  evaluation  of 
processes  and  resources.  It  provides  a  bottom-up  teacher  continuing  professional  development,  as 
pioneering subject teachers with experience in ICT provide the training to their colleagues in the same 
subject.  The training combines seminars with e-education and a certification of the e-competences of 
teachers  not  only  in  the  use  of  ICT,  but  also  in  didactic  use  of  ICT  tools  in  their  own  subjects.  In 
parallel,  schools  are  offered  consultancy  for  implementing  a  whole  school  adoption  of  ICT  moving 
towards  e-contents  and  an  e-learning  environment.  The  programme  has  been  co-financed  by  the 
European Social Fund. 

The  examples  show  that  developing  e-assessment  requires 
in  developing 
infrastructure and programmes. However, one can expect that once developed, savings will be 
gained  through  easier  access  and  management  to  assessment  tasks  and  lack  of  printed 
materials.  Obviously,  training  teachers  to  use  and  interpret  results  will  generate  costs.  Here 
again, however, the long term benefits include better professional competences of teachers and 
more effective teaching and learning of key competences. 

investment 

4. 

Mainstreaming assessment of key competences 

So  far  this  section  has  looked  at  how  key  competences  can  be  defined  as  tangible  learning 
outcomes and how they can be assessed. The remaining part of this section will look at how to 
ensure  that  key  competences  are  taken  into  account  at  all  levels  of  teaching  and  learning 
through the coherence and alignment of assessment practices. These range from curriculum to 
textbooks  and  resources  to  assessment  guidance  and  the  monitoring  and  evaluation  of 
assessment practices. 

4.1 Curriculum and consultation 

Intended  learning  outcomes  are  described  in  framework  documents  such  as  curricula, 
programmes,  standards  or  syllabi.  They  provide  a  focus  for  the  assessment  of  actual  learning 
outcomes. There has been a growing trend at primary and secondary level (both in general and 
vocational education and training to base these framework documents on overarching intended 

39 

 
 
 
 
 
 
learning  outcomes.  These  are  variously  described  as  aims,  capacities,  competences,  goals, 
objectives, pillars, skills or themes. Even though these overarching outcomes are generally still 
organised  according  to  subjects  or  areas,  the  aim  is  for  learning  that  increasingly  cuts  across 
these boundaries.32 

Overarching learning outcomes in curricula in UK- Scotland and Finland 

In UK-Scotland the Curriculum for Excellence integrates curriculum goals and content with assessment 
and  the  development  of  teacher  competences.  It  defines  five  levels  of  learning.  The  first  four  levels 
describe  the  experiences  and  outcomes,  with  progression  to  qualifications  described  under  a  fifth 
level, the senior phase. The framework is however designed to be flexible in order to permit careful 
planning for those with additional support needs, including those who, for example, have a learning 
difficulty and those who are particularly able or talented. A lot of emphasis has been put on quality 
assurance  and  that  activities  are  fit  for  purpose,  proportionate,  manageable  and  accessible.  In 
addition, a framework for assessment provides an outline of the approaches to assessment to support 
the purposes of learning to pupils from 3 to 18 years olds.  

The Finnish National core curriculum also takes a holistic approach: it includes the objectives and core 
contents of different subjects, as well as the principles of pupil assessment, special-needs education, 
pupil  welfare  and  educational  guidance.  The  principles  of  a  good  learning  environment,  working 
approaches as well as the concept of learning are also addressed in the core curriculum. The guidelines 
for  assessment  include  "work  skills"  that  are  part  of  the  assessment  of  subjects,  continuous 
assessment and feedback on pupil's social skills ("behaviour") and pupil's capacity for self-assessment. 
These  guidelines  are  to  help  implement  the  overall  goals  for  each  individual  to  become  a  lifelong 
learner,  capable  of  thinking  and  acting  and  evaluating  critically  and  to  develop  schools  as  learning 
environment to make it happen. 

Public  consultation  is  important  before  the  introduction  of  new  frameworks  that  describe 
intended  learning  outcomes.  It  provides  an  opportunity  to  communicate  potential  changes 
widely  and  to  build  a  broad  consensus,  serving  as  a  step  towards  implementation.  It  also 
provides  an  opportunity  to  engage  a  wide  range  of  expertise  in  planning  the  changes. 
Incorporating the issue of  assessment in these  consultations similarly provides an opportunity 
to  build  consensus  and  engage  expertise  on  assessment.  Furthermore,  public  discussion  of 
assessment  can  raise  awareness  of  issues  such  as  the  intended  assessment  purposes  and 
unavoidable measurement error, thereby promoting responsible use, realistic expectations and 
trust in assessment systems.33 

The list of groups and individuals with an interest in education is boundless but consultation will 
certainly  include:  parents  and  students;  teachers  and  their  professional  bodies;  teacher 
educators; higher education institutions and academics; and, employers and their organisations. 
Timescales  for  implementing  policies  therefore  need  to  allow  for  publicising  consultations, 
gathering and analysing responses and formulating policies. Furthermore, more than one round 
of consultation is possible, such as when there is consultation on initial and subsequent policies, 
perhaps with some piloting of changes in a limited number of schools in between. 

Public consultations on key competences in some Member States 

32  Gordon  et  al  (2009),  Pepper  (2011)  and  Schneider  &  Stern  (2010),  Cedefop  (2010)  and  Cedefop 

(2012) 

33  Newton (2005) 

40 

 
 
                                                            
In Austria, standards in German, mathematics and English specify the objectives of the curriculum and 
provide a basis for external standardised tests. The standards were developed after discussions began 
in the late 1990s. They were first piloted in 18 schools in 2004 and then in 100 schools in 2006. This 
piloting  identified  teachers’  support  and  guidance  needs  and  led  to  refinements  in  the  standards. 
Legislation was passed in 2009 and a large sample of students was assessed. All students are assessed 
in mathematics in 2012, in English in 2013 and in German in 2014. 
In  the  Czech  Republic,  subject  expert  panels  developed  standards  for  competences  in  Czech, 
mathematics  and  English.  This  process  was  interspersed  with  two  rounds  of  public  consultation.  An 
information campaign led to a large response from the public via the internet using a questionnaire or 
individual  responses.  This  broadened  the  public  debate  and  engaged  stakeholders  such  as  teachers, 
employers, academics and parents. The consultation played an important role in gaining support for 
the implementation of the standards.  
In  Portugal,  a  communication  strategy  was  established  early  in  the  process  of  introducing  key 
competences.  The  ‘essential  competences’  for  basic  education  are  the  outcome  of  a  wide-ranging 
debate which took place between 1996 and 2001. The process of defining these competences involved 
schools,  higher  education  institutions,  specialists  and  researchers,  educational  associations  and 
movements, and civil society in general. This led to the project for flexible curricular management in 
which  many  schools  participated  between  1997  and  2002.  The  curricular  reorganisation  of  basic 
education was then implemented nationally from 2001, initially in the first and second stages of basic 
education but then gradually in the third stage, one year at a time. Since 2004/05, the whole of basic 
education has been governed by the competence-based curriculum. 

4.2 Textbooks and resources 

The revision of textbooks and other teaching resources to better support the acquisition of key 
competences  is  an  important  means  of  supporting  changes  in  teaching  practices,  including 
assessment.  However,  this  is  often  overlooked  until  curriculum  and  assessment  reform  is 
underway. A recent Cedefop study reveals that in some European countries adequate textbooks 
to  support  outcomes  oriented  curricula  are  not  available  for  the  VET  qualifications.  Even  if  a 
competence-based approach calls for a wider approach in teaching and learning, textbooks can 
and  should  support  the  implementation  of  it.  Although  the  regulation  of  textbooks  and  other 
resources varies according to the education system, the need to plan the time and allocate the 
resources  necessary  for  revisions  is  universal.  Some  types  of  policy  responses  from  Member 
States include: 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

Engaging  textbook  and  resource  developers  and  publishers  during  policy 
development  in  order  to  help  them  prepare  for  subsequent  changes  to  the 
curriculum and assessments. 

Enabling  teachers  to  reduce  their  reliance  on  textbooks  and  providing  training 
and support for teachers in carefully selecting and developing a wider range of 
resources. 

that  developing  key  competences  means 

Recognising 
them 
comprehensively  rather  than  in  distinct  and  isolated  sections  appended  to 
otherwise traditional resources. 

integrating 

41 

 
 
 
 
 
(4) 

Encouraging teachers to use resources flexibly, for example by using end of unit 
tests  at  the  beginning  of  units  in  order  to  identify  students’  difficulties  and  re-
focus their teaching accordingly.  

Examples of changing textbooks and resources to develop and assess key 
competences 

In  Greece,  although  the  eventual  goal  is  to  reduce  dependence  on  textbooks  alone,  the  reform  that 
introduced cross-curricular objectives began with the development of a new generation of textbooks.  

In  Belgium  (Flemish  Community),  the  government  engaged  with  textbook  publishers  during  the 
development of cross-curricular objectives. 

 In  Austria,  textbooks  that  the  Ministry  of  Education  identifies  as  consistent  with  the  key  competences 
approach  are  free  to  students.  This  has  encouraged  publishers  to  promote  key  competences  in  their 
textbooks.  

In  some  education  systems  such  as  Belgium  (French  Community),  the  quality  of  teaching,  training  and 
textbooks  are  all  subject  to  external  inspection,  including  the  extent  to  which  they  promote  a  common 
core of competences. 

4.3 Assessment guidance 

Assessment  guidance  can  help  teachers  to  integrate  the  assessment  of  their  learners’  key 
competences  into  their  practices  for  formative  or  summative  purposes.  Guidance  for  the 
assessment of key competences can help to: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Develop  a  common  language  and  shared  understanding  of  assessment  and  key 
competences 

Detail  and  clarify  the  intention  of  national/regional  legislation  or  policy 
documents 

Encourage disciplined innovation within a national/regional framework  

Generate and share examples considered to be good practice.  

In some Member States, practical examples of the assessment of key competences have been 
collected  from  schools  and  teachers  for  dissemination  to  other  schools  and  teachers  through 
training, seminars, handbooks, guidance, websites and networks. These examples take the form 
of cross-curricular planning, lesson plans, examples of learner’s work and teachers’ assessment 
judgments. They can be generated by teachers or co-developed with resources from initiatives 
or  pilots  and  shared  through  networks.  Examples  are  also  sometimes  developed  by  national 
experts, when technical or extra examples are needed, and disseminated in guidance. 

Examples of assessment practices for key competences can: 

• 

• 

Convince teachers that assessing key competences is practicable and that it can 
help learners to make progress 

Spread  effective  practices,  including  through  research,  and  encourage  wider 
changes in practice and further innovation  

42 

 
 
 
 
• 

Increase  the  comparability  of  teachers’  assessment  judgements  within  and 
between schools.  

Where teachers are responsible for summative assessments, the comparability of judgements is 
an important issue. Examples can be chosen to be typical of designated levels of competence. 
They can be indicative of the learning outcomes needed for a particular level of competence but 
also  offer  insights  into  learning  processes.  To  encourage  creativity  rather  than  conformity,  a 
range  of  examples  is  needed.  To  ensure  interest  and  relevance,  examples  should  be  kept 
updated. Publishing examples online makes this more practical.34 

Examples of guidance for assessing key competences 

In Austria, pupils' competences in German, mathematics and English are the focus of summative tests in 
the  final  years  of  primary  education  and  lower  secondary  education.  A  pilot  system  called  'informal 
competence diagnostics' is being used in the prior year groups. Schools and teachers participating in the 
pilot  have  online  access  to  a  large  bank  of  formative  test  items  that  are  similar  to  the  summative  test 
items. Teachers can administer them to their pupils at the start and end of the year and receive feedback 
on  their  students’  progress.  This  can  inform  next  steps  in  teaching  and  learning  prior  to  the  summative 
tests.  Teachers  are  supported  in  this  with  examples  of  proto-typical  tasks,  in-service  training  on  the 
competences,  continuously  updated  web-based  examples  and  a  free  online  handbook  for  practitioners. 
These sources of guidance encourage peer assessment, team work and the explanation of answers. 
In Hungary, a ‘curricular support system’ is designed for teachers. This includes the curriculum framework 
and  guidelines,  guidance  on  teaching,  assessment  tools,  textbooks  and  training.  Firstly,  this  provides 
teachers with details of the strategy, values, competences and tasks. Secondly, it provides the pedagogical 
concepts, curriculum content, guidance on organising learning and guidance on assessment. 
In the UK- Northern Ireland an online library of examples has been developed. Schools will be required to 
assess  pupils’  cross-curricular  skills  in  Communication,  using  Mathematics  and  using  ICT  in  primary  and 
lower secondary education with reference to the ‘Levels of Progression’. A number of examples of pupils’ 
work in Communication and using Maths have already been collected and given a level using the Levels of 
Progression.  The  examples  are  available  to  teachers  via  an  online  exemplification  library  which  can  be 
searched  by  skill  or  by  level.  There  is  also  a  task  writing  tool  available  online.  This  is  an  interactive 
template  designed  to  support  teachers  in  writing  and  structuring  assessment  tasks  for  cross-curricular 
skills. 
The Assessment is For Learning initiative in the UK- Scotland also includes systematic guidance for teacher. 

4.4 Monitoring and evaluation 

The  effectiveness  of  the  supporting  policies  as  a  whole  is  dependent  on  acknowledging  that 
implementation  of  assessment  practices  for  key  competences  is  a  process  of  change  with 
starting  points,  resource  requirements  and  rates  of  progress  that  vary  within  and  between 
country  contexts.  An  informed  process  of  change  therefore  begins  by  monitoring  the  state  of 
current  practices.  The  specific  nature  of  supporting  policies  and  practices  that  will  be  needed 
can then be identified. The on-going monitoring of assessment practices, both before and after 
changes  to  policies  are  made,  provides  an  evidential  basis  for  evaluating  their  impact  on 
practices  and  adjusting  supporting  policies  (for  example,  additional  assessment  guidance  or 
training  for  teachers).  Early  evaluations  may  indicate  an  ‘implementation  dip’  as  teachers  and 
learners  become  familiar  with  the  new  arrangements.  Results  can  then  be  made  widely 

34  Sadler (1989) 

43 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
available  so  as  to  build  on  these  early  experiences,  informing  not  only  assessment  policy  but 
also assessment practices.35 

In some contexts, there may already be widespread practices and supporting policies that can 
be  re-focussed  on  assessing  key  competences.  In  others,  supporting  policies  will  need  to  be 
created  anew  but  there  may  be  localised  innovations  that  can  be  evaluated,  modified  as 
appropriate and scaled up across the education system. Alternatively, limited pilots can trial and 
evaluate new assessments so that refinements can be made before resources are committed to 
system-wide changes. If monitoring and evaluation is integrated into the policy process, it can 
inform future developments. It can draw on various sources including: independent, academic 
or  action  research;  assessments  surveys  designed  for  use  in  evaluations;  and,  internal  or 
external  evaluations  or  inspections  of  education  and  training  providers.  Indeed,  the  self-
evaluations of school and training providers can make an important contribution to enhancing 
not only policy but also practices that support the development of key competences. 

School self-evaluation of Education for Sustainable Development in Cyprus 

The  curriculum  for  Education  for  Sustainable  Development  (ESD)  covers  all  grades  of  primary 
education. Schools are required to complete a regular self-evaluation of teaching and learning in ESD 
at school and class level. The evaluation is intended to inform and improve teaching and learning.  

Two  methods  are  used:  a)  a  report  which  is  based  on  specific  indicators  that  are  covered  in  the 
curriculum  and  b)  a  portfolio  which  includes  activities,  worksheets,  photos  etc.,  which  confirm  the 
attainment of the intended learning, social, civic and cultural outcomes. 

In  addition  to  policies  that  aim  to  improve  the  coherence  and  alignment  of  assessment 
practices,  there  is  a  need  for  policies  to  ensure  that  teachers  develop  and  extend  their 
assessment  competences,  including  through  training  and  development,  professional  networks 
and developing the school organisation as a whole. 

4.5 Training and development 

To support the development of their learners’ key competences, teachers need to develop their 
own  key  competences  as  well  as  pedagogic  practices  that  support  the  development  of  key 
competences.  This  is  particularly  important  as  teachers  in  many  countries  report  focussing  on 
knowledge  transmission  to  learners  in  passive  roles  rather  than  actively  involving  learners  in 
developing broader competences. There is wide variation between teachers, as well as between 
schools,  in  beliefs  about  learning,  in  teaching  techniques,  and  indeed  in  effectiveness;  this 
suggests  that  professional  development  needs  to  be  targeted  at  individual  teachers  and  be 
based upon an individualised assessment of their training needs.36 

National  frameworks  can  define  the  professional  competences  required  of  teachers.  They  can 
partially  mirror  the  key  competences  expected  of  learners.  In  this  way,  part  of  teachers' 
preparation for assessing their learners' key competences can include the experience of having 
their  own  key  competences  assessed.  Such  frameworks  also  necessarily  describe  pedagogical 
competences, such as assessment of learners’ competences, including: 

Fullan (2001) 

35 
36  OECD  (2009).  Teacher  learning  communities  can  help  to  target  this  training  (see  Professional 

Networks). 

44 

 
 
 
                                                            
• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Assessing key competences for formative purposes 

Assessing key competences for summative purposes 

Identifying  specific  learning  outcomes  and  opportunities  for  assessing  key 
competences 

Techniques  for  generating  assessment  information  (e.g.  using  dialogue  or 
developing tests) 

Interpreting  various  sources  of  assessment  information  (including  data  from 
tests) 

Facilitating peer and self-assessment  

Assessing  competences  across  the  curriculum  in  collaboration  with  other 
teachers 

Reporting assessment information to colleagues, learners and parents 

Attitudes  that  support  professional  reflection  and  enquiry,  and  changes  that 
improve assessment practices. 

In  order  to  encourage  teachers  to  continue  to  develop  their  assessment  (and  other) 
competences throughout their career, frameworks of teacher competence can be differentiated 
by career phase (e.g. initial education, induction phase and in-service phase).37 Examples from 
Hungary  and  UK-  Northern  Ireland  illustrate  some  of  these  differentiated  requirements  for 
teachers at different stages of their careers. 

Some statements of assessment competences in frameworks for teacher education 

Hungary’s  set  of  competences  for  teachers  states  that  teachers  should  ‘use  various  forms  of 
assessment in order to assess the development of pupils and their learning achievements (...) to apply 
the  outcomes  of  various  assessment  forms  and  instruments  and  to  develop  self-assessment’.  This 
relates to the need to: ‘apply a wide variety of procedures and methods of organising learning in order 
to create an effective learning environment’. 
In  UK-  Northern  Ireland  there  are  27  professional  competence  statements  for  teachers.  These 
competences are  differentiated  at four  levels:  initial  teacher  education,  induction,  early  professional 
development,  and  continuing  professional  development,  collaborative  practice  and  school 
improvement.  Two  of  the  professional  competence  statements  focus  on  assessment  and  refer  to 
different assessment purposes: 
Teachers  will  focus  on  assessment  for  learning  by  monitoring  pupils’  progress,  giving  constructive 
feedback to help pupils reflect on and improve their learning. 
Teachers  will  select  from  a  range  of  assessment  strategies  to  evaluate  pupils’  learning,  and  use  this 
information in their planning to help make their teaching more effective. 
Teachers use an e-portfolio to compile evidence about their development and reflections in relation to 
the competences. 

37  A  handbook  for  policy  makers  on  induction  programmes  for  beginning  teachers  is  available  from: 

http://ec.europa.eu/education/school-education/doc/handbook0410_en.pdf 

45 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
Since  teachers  ultimately  exercise  important  discretion  in  how  policies  are  implemented 
through their practices, their commitment to assessing key competences is crucial.38 One of the 
aspects  of  assessment  competence  listed  above  is  therefore  attitudes  that  support  reflection 
and enquiry, and changes that improve assessment practices. Although supportive attitudes are 
a  necessary  condition  for  change,  they  are  not  sufficient.  Provision  for  training  and 
development  also  needs  to  target  the  knowledge  and  skills  implied  by  the  other  aspects  of 
assessment competence listed above. The following example from Belgium Flemish Community 
shows  how  assessment  competences  are  integrated  in  teacher  education  and  teachers' 
professional development39: 

Basic assessment competences for teachers in the Flemish Community of Belgium 

The basic competences for both primary and secondary school teachers include the expectation that a 
recently  graduated  teacher  “is  able  to  choose  and  draw  up  tasks  and  assignments  using  different 
evaluation methods, with respect to objectives. In the light of ‘broad student assessment’, the teacher 
is  able  to  use  observation  instruments  in  co-operation  with  colleagues  and  knows  how  to  give 
concrete  and  personal  feedback  to  parents.  Based  on  the  results  of  the  evaluation  prospective 
teachers  can  adjust  their  pedagogies  and 
implement  methods  for  differentiation  between 
students.”40 The Teacher Training Institutes’ curricula need to guide prospective teachers towards the 
basic competences providing them an integrated mixture of knowledge, skills and attitudes, including 
student  assessment  skills.  After  graduating  from  initial  teacher  training,  teachers  continue  to  learn 
and to professionalise by means of in-service training. Courses on assessment are an important part of 
the  wide  range  of  in-service  training possibilities. It  is  common practice  to  invite  experts on  various 
items (e.g. student assessment) to provide training opportunities for the teachers.  

Moreover, the School Advisory Services motivate and support schools to draw up an ‘evaluation and 
reporting policy.  

The research evidence identifies two contrasting approaches to this training and development. 
A  constructivist  approach  enables  teachers  to  take  responsibility  for  developing  their  own 
practices within the framework for teacher education. A transmission approach develops these 
practices  on  behalf  of  teachers  and  offers  them  to  teachers  for  them  to  use.  There  is  some 
research  evidence  to  suggest  that,  whilst  the  transmission  approach  can  result  in  changes  in 
practices that are procedurally consistent with the training and development, the constructivist 
approach can result in  changes that have a stronger conceptual  basis. That is to say, teachers 
experiencing  training  where  they  are  supported  in  developing  their  own  practices  are  more 
likely  to  understand  the  underlying  principles  and  potential  benefits  of  changes  in  their 
assessment practices. This approach is more resource-intensive, requiring that teachers already 
have the requisite key competences and time for discussion, reflection and planning. However, 
this constructivist approach can result in practices that are more appropriate to each individual 
learning  environment,  and  to  which  teachers  have  a  stronger  and  potentially  long-term 
commitment.  Furthermore,  the  constructivist  approach  appears  more  consistent  with  the 

38  Bowe, Ball and Gold (1992)  
39 OECD Review on Evaluation and Assessment Frameworks for Improving School Outcomes: Country 
background report for the Flemish Community of Belgium  
40 http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/nieuws/archief/2006/2006/1214-vernieuwen.htm  

46 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
emphasis on a range of learning contexts emphasised by key competences, and therefore more 
likely to help teachers promote them in and beyond the classroom.41 

involved 

The need for assessment competence and associated training and development extends beyond 
those  directly 
in  assessments  to  head  teachers  and  senior  managers.  Their 
participation  in  professional  development  can  enable  them  to  understand  the  challenges  and 
opportunities  their  staff  will  face,  and  can  help  them  to  lead  the  development  of  an 
organisation-wide assessment policy. This policy can encompass a range of assessment methods 
with  purposes  that  are  clear  to  teachers  and  learners.  The  need  for  assessment  competence 
also  extends  beyond  teachers  to  others  whose  work  impinges  on  the  assessment  of  key 
competences,  such  as  teacher  educators,  test  developers,  external  assessors,  inspectors  and 
advisors.  Their  specific  training  needs  will  need  to  be  analysed.  Lastly,  through  everyday 
activities,  learners  can  themselves  be  trained  in  peer  and  self-assessment,  enhancing  their 
motivation and improving their learning outcomes more generally.42 

4.6 Professional networks 

Professional  networks  provide  a  mechanism  for  education  professionals  such  as  teachers, 
trainers,  researchers  and  officials  to  reflect  upon  and  enhance  the  effectiveness  of  their 
assessment  practices.  These  networks  can  operate  within  and  between  organisations  at  all 
levels:  school,  local,  regional,  national  and  international.  They  can  extend  to  non-formal 
education providers as well, such as museums or employers. Increasingly, ICT has an important 
role to play in facilitating the exchange of information and ideas. These networks are consistent 
with  an  approach  to  implementation  that  synthesises  top-down  and  bottom-up  processes  by 
incorporating  horizontal  processes.  In  practice,  this  means  education  professionals  providing 
one another with a balance of pressure and support for changes in their practices.43 

Professional  networks  can  act  as  teacher  learning  communities,  providing  targeted  and 
sustained  professional  development  that  gradually  but  fundamentally  changes  assessment 
practices. Teacher learning communities can facilitate professional development activities, such 
as: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Discussing the key competences and developing a shared understanding of their 
meaning 

Considering  the  implications  for  teaching  and  learning,  including  assessment 
practices 

Exchanging  evidence,  experience  and  ideas  on  the  assessment  of  key 
competences  

Observing and discussing one another’s assessment practices  

41  Cedefop (2010); (2011a), Fullan (2001), Gardner et al (2011), Gordon et al (2009) and Wiliam (2007) 
42  Black & Wiliam (1998b), Fullan (2001) and Harlen & Deakin Crick (2003) in the literature review. 
43  Fullan (2001) and Hill & Hupe (2002) 

47 

 
 
 
 
                                                            
• 

Providing  feedback,  support,  encouragement  and  focus  for  developing  key 
competences. 

This  approach  acknowledges  that  teachers  need  to  be  able  to  exercise  their  professional 
judgement  and  to  construct  their  practices  in  fluid  and  varied  learning  environments.  One 
for  key  competences 
further  activity  could  be  researching  assessment 
collaboratively.  Teachers  in  many  countries  see  collaborative  research  as  an  effective  form  of 
professional  development.  The  development  of  teacher  learning  communities  needs  to  be 
paired with policies that give more recognition to teacher effectiveness and innovation.44 

techniques 

There is evidence that, as a whole, these activities can support not only formative assessment 
but also summative assessment. In particular, teachers can compare, discuss and resolve their 
assessment  judgements  as  a  basis  for  securing  the  comparability  of  assessment  results  within 
and  between  schools  and  training  providers.  This  can  create  a  positive  feedback  loop  that 
enhances the reliability of teachers' judgements of their students’ key competences.45 

Examples of teacher networks developing assessment practices for key competences 

In Estonia, a formative assessment network with resources from the Ministry of Education has been 
developed under the leadership of one pioneering school and their work is increasingly focussing on 
the key competences in the new school curriculum. Teaching teams from a total of 20 schools have 
undergone  formative  assessment  training  and  participate  in  the  network.  Regular  meetings  of  the 
network  move  from  school  to  school,  providing  an  opportunity  for  teachers  to  hear  about  each 
other’s assessment practices and see them in action. 

In Spain, ComBas (competencias basicas or key competences) is a joint collaborative project between 
the Ministry of Education and the Autonomous Communities. The aim is to develop a shared approach 
to the integration of key competences into compulsory education and 150 schools are participating in 
the project. The aim also  is to enable teachers to identify the assessment criteria for key competences 
and  develop  more  specific  indicators.  The  goal  is  to  develop  educational  guidelines  and  a  virtual 
environment on the curricular integration of competences for schools to use. It has provided guidance 
on the assessment methods through networking, virtual media, training and discussion forums. The 
project  brings  together  policy  and  practice,  with  the  guidelines  of  the  Ministry  of  Education  on  the 
one hand and the work of the schools on the other. 

Supporting  professional  networks  and  ICT-based  platforms  for  teachers  to  learn  from  each 
other and to improve their competences through collaboration can lead to saving in teachers' 
professional  development:  courses  and  information  online  combined  with  fora  for  exchanges 
can,  in  the  long  run,  require  less  funding  while  providing  more  flexible  forms  of  professional 
development for teachers. 

4.7 School organisation 

Staff in schools, colleges  and training  providers should share responsibility for developing and 
implementing  school-wide  procedures  for  assessing  key  competences  that  include  both 

44  Gardner et al (2011), OECD (2009), Resnick et al (2010) and Wiliam & Thomson (2007) 
45  Black (2010) 

48 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
formative  and  summative  purposes.  These  procedures  can  be  underpinned  by  assessment 
principles  such  as  validity,  reliability,  equity  and  the  idea  that  all  assessment  should  promote 
learning. Although senior teachers will lead the development of assessment procedures, all staff 
and students can contribute their perspectives to their development and periodic review. 

Within these procedures, teachers need the scope to develop their assessment practices. This 
could include cooperating with teachers across subject boundaries to assess key competences in 
holistic  contexts  that  reflect  real-life  situations.  Teachers  also  need  time  to  reflect  upon  their 
assessment  practices  and  to  observe  those  of  other  teachers.  This  can  provide  a  basis  for 
discussion  and  constructive  feedback,  which  can  be  extended  through  teacher  learning 
communities operating within and between schools. 

The  assessment  principles  and  purposes  need  to  be  clear  to  all  those  involved,  including 
learners  themselves.  This  can  be  done  in  such  a  way  that  it  helps  learners  to  focus  on  their 
attainment of different levels of key competence rather than on their performance in relation to 
their  peers.  This  has  positive  consequences  for  learner  motivation  and  attainment.  It  is  also 
important  that  learners  understand  the  formative  purpose  of  peer  and  self-assessment,  and 
develop  an  understanding  of  the  learning  outcomes  associated  with  key  competences  so  that 
they can use them as the basis of their assessments.46 

Roles  for  senior  teachers,  teachers  and  learners  in  assessing  key  competences  can  be 
summarised as follows: 

Summary of the roles of school staff in assessing key competences 

Senior teachers, 
School leaders 

• 

Lead  the  development  and  periodic  review  of  school-wide  procedures  for 
assessing  key  competences  that  include  both  formative  and  summative 
purposes and are underpinned by assessment principles. 

•  Develop  an  atmosphere  for  assessment  of  openness,  discussion  and 
collaboration, and provide teachers with the support and resources they need 
to develop their assessment practices for key competences 
Identify  opportunities  to  participate  in  teacher  learner  communities  that 
encourage  and  support  teachers  to  observe  or  discuss  their  assessment 
practices for key competences and offer support and feedback to one another 

• 

Teachers 

• 

Identify  opportunities  for  learners  to  develop  and  demonstrate  their  key 
competences  within,  across  and  beyond  subject  boundaries,  including  by 
working closely with colleagues and learners themselves  

•  Use a range of assessment techniques and sources of information that focus on 
assessment  criteria  for  key  competences  and  are consistent  with  each 
assessment purpose and the assessment principles 

•  Reflect  on  their  assessment  practices  and  how  they  impact  on  learning 
outcomes, observe colleagues’ assessment practices and give feedback, discuss 
how  to  put  new  ideas  into  practice  and  contribute  to  the  review  and 
development of school assessment procedures 

46  Black & Wiliam (1998b), Dweck (1999) and Harlen & Deakin Crick (2003) 

49 

 
 
                                                            
Learners 

• 

• 

Increasingly  understand  the  purposes  and  principles  of  assessments  of  key 
competences  and  use  assessment  information  to  promote  their  learning  and 
that of their peers 
Focus  on  their  learning  using  assessment  criteria  for  key  competences  rather 
than their performance and social comparisons with peers 

•  Peer  and  self-assess  progress  towards  developing  key  competences 

in 
conjunction  with  feedback  from  teachers,  and  learn  to  give  constructive 
feedback themselves 

•  Contribute  their  perspectives  on  assessment  practices  and  procedures  using 
formal  channels  (eg  questionnaires)  and  informal  channels  (eg  conversations 
with teachers) 

The following two examples from the Netherlands and Germany show how the commitment of 
the  management  and  teachers  themselves  is  vital for  a  true  change  in  teaching,  learning  and 
assessment practices.  

Assessment in ROC (Regional Training Centre) Nijmegen in the Netherlands: 

The  ROC  Nijmegen  offers  vocational  education  and  training  for  students  on  the  MBO  pathway.  It  is 
international in outlook and its 10,000 or so students come from several different countries. It has a 
campus  with  initial  training  opportunities  for  students  such  as  shops,  salons  and  workshops.  Four 
years  ago  the  ROC  began  to  focus  on  competence-based  teaching  in  the  classroom  and  workplace, 
which meant a change in assessment too. 

 In order to assess their competences, students are required to perform tasks in connection with criteria 
and  indicators  developed  at  ROC  level  with  reference  to  occupational  standards  at  national  level.  In 
order to determine whether their competence can be deemed sufficient, both processes and outcomes 
are  assessed.  Assessment  for  certification  is  school-based  but  the  student’s  own  teacher  is  not  the 
assessor  and  the  internal  assessment  is  subject  to  external  audit.  These  measures  are  intended  to 
safeguard  impartiality  and  ensure  comparability.  Employer  feedback  forms  an  important  part  of  the 
assessment.  Logs,  report  and  portfolios  contribute  to  formative  and  summative  assessment.  Situation, 
task, action, results (STAR) interviews and role play simulations focussing on the assessment criteria also 
contribute to summative assessment.  

The  key  to  successful  paradigm  change  to  competences-based  teaching, 
learning  and 
assessment at ROC was the commitment of the leadership and management to the change. A 
lot  of  resources  were  devoted  to  teachers  to  discuss  and  explore  what  a  competence-based 
approach  means  in  practice.  Collaboration  with  employers  has  also  been  vital  for  the 
understanding of the need for the development of assessment that reveals and reports the key 
competences that are needed in the world of work today. 

Another example from Germany illustrates the ways that schools can be supported to evaluate 
their performance and improve their quality.  

Computer-based assessment in schools in Germany 

Since  2005  all  interested  schools  in  Germany  have  had  access  to  SEIS  (Self-Evaluation  in  Schools),  a 
self-assessment  tool.  It  is  based  on  an  internationally  accepted  standard  of  educational  quality,  one 
that continues to be refined in cooperation with academic specialists and educational experts from a 

50 

 
 
 
 
number  of  countries.It  provides  tools  to  assess  the  student  outcomes,  the  quality  of  teaching  and 

learning, school  culture,  leadership  and management, professionalism  of  teachers  and the  goals  and 
strategies identified by the school. From the student perspective, there are items to look into personal 
competences, learning skills, support to become an independent learner etc. School ethos, teachers' 
commitment  and  competences  and  evaluation  practices  are  part  of  the  analysis.  More  than  5,200 
schools in Germany already use the SEIS tool, that has been developed by Bertelsmann Stiftung and 
that is available online.47 

5. Conclusion: towards a coherent implementation strategy 

Chapter  4  has  highlighted  the  key  policy  areas  that  policy  maker  need  to  address  in  order  to 
create effective assessment of key competences of students.  

In  addition  it  is  important  to  ensure  that  countries'  assessment  and  evaluation  frameworks 
systematically and coherently support schools to develop key competences48. 

In order to ensure coherence between different measures it is important to: 

-  clarify  what  competences  are  included  in  international  and  national  evaluations  used  by  the 
country (national tests and other feedback from schools, such as exploiting regular summative 
end-of-the-year assessments).  When results of such evaluations are interpreted (i.e. analyzed 
what  they  tell  about  learning  outcomes  and  what  not),  a  clear  communication  strategy  is 
needed to avoid misinterpretations by stakeholders and/or the public.  

-  analyse  and  communicate  how  the  learning  outcomes  of  key  competences  are  included  in 
external evaluations of schools and how these evaluations can support school to develop their 
assessment cultures and assessment competences to cover all key competences 

-  define  what  policies  are  needed  to  develop  schools'  self-evaluation  and  to  enhance  school 
leaders' and  teachers' skills to evaluate their own work, interpret results and turn results into 
improved teaching and learning and supportive school ethos. 

It is clear that evaluation  and assessment systems  need to keep up with  the  evolving goals of 
education.  Thus,  a  strategy  should  build  on  continuous  research  and  systematic  collection  of 
evidence. As the stakes of assessment are high for many stakeholders, it is vital to involve, not 
only policy makers and research, but teachers and their representatives, parents and students 
themselves in the development of assessment strategy.  

47  http://www.seis-deutschland.de/  
48 

See  also  the  OECD  review  "Evaluation  and  Assessment  Framework  for  Improving  School  Outcomes 
http://www.oecd.org/edu/preschoolandschool/oecdreviewonevaluationandassessmentframeworksforimprovingsch
ooloutcomes.htm  

51 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                            
Appendix I - EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF KEY COMPETENCES FOR LIFELONG LEARNING49 

Communication 
in the mother 
tongue 

Communication in the mother tongue is the expression and interpretation of 
concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and written form, and to 
interact linguistically in an appropriate and creative way. 

Communication 
in foreign 
languages 

Communication in foreign languages broadly shares the dimensions of 
communication in the mother tongue but particularly emphasises skills such as 
mediation and intercultural understanding.  

Mathematical 
competence 
and basic 
competences in 
science and 
technology 

Mathematical competence is developing and applying mathematical thinking in order 
to solve a range of problems in everyday situations. Building on a sound mastery of 
numeracy, the emphasis is on process and activity, as well as knowledge.  

Competence in science refers to the willingness to use the body of knowledge and 
methodology employed to explain the natural world in order to identify questions 
and to draw evidence-based conclusions.  

Competence in technology is viewed as the application of that knowledge and 
methodology in response to perceived human wants or needs. Competence in 
science and technology involves an understanding of the changes caused by human 
activity and responsibility as an individual citizen. 

Digital competence involves the confident and critical use of Information and 
Communication Technology (ICT) for work, leisure and communication. It is 
underpinned by basic skills in ICT 

Learning to learn is pursuing and persisting in learning, organising one’s own learning, 
including through effective management of time and information, both individually 
and in groups. 

Digital 
competence 

Learning to 
learn 

Social and civic 
competences 

Social competence covers all forms of behaviour that equip individuals to participate 
in an effective and constructive way in social and working life, and particularly in 
increasingly diverse societies, and to resolve conflict where necessary.  

Civic competence equips individuals to fully participate in civic life, based on 
knowledge of social and political concepts and structures and a commitment to active 
and democratic participation. 

Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship refers to an individual’s turning of ideas into 
action. It includes creativity, innovation, risk-taking and ethical values, as well as the 
ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. 

Sense of 
initiative and 
entrepreneurshi
p 

Cultural 
awareness and 
expression 

This refers to the creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions in a range of 
media, including music, performing arts, literature, and the visual arts. It includes an 
appreciation of the importance of this creative expression. 

49  NB:  this  table  contains  the  generic  definitions  of  key  competences.  For  the  respective  definitions  of 
at: 

knowledge, 
http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11090_en.htm  

Recommendation 

attitudes, 

please 

skills 

and 

see 

the 

52