COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Rethinking Education : Country Analysis Part I Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes
Date: 2012-11-20
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU Member State, economic growth, education statistics, educational reform, job creation, teaching curriculum














EUR-Lex - 52012SC0377 - EN











|



52012SC0377

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Rethinking Education : Country Analysis Part I Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes /* SWD/2012/0377 final */









Table of contents
Introduction. 3
Lithuania. 4
Luxembourg. 9
Latvia. 14
Malta. 19
Netherlands 25
Poland. 30
Portugal 35
Romania. 40
Sweden. 45
Slovenia. 50
Slovakia. 55
United Kingdom. 60
Annexes 65
  Annex 1.  Summary statistics on the
headline target ......................................... 63
  Annex 2.   Methodology figures on the
headline target........................................ 65

Introduction 

The
following individual country summaries pinpoint the main challenges to skills
provision specific to the different European countries and outline the most
significant measures adopted to respond to such challenges.
The specific
information contained in the summaries underpins the key messages of the
Rethinking Education Communication by providing relevant quantitative and
qualitative evidence, established through a methodology, building on the
commonly accepted Joint Assessment Framework (JAF).
The
summaries closely reflect the structure of the Rethinking Education
Communication and complement the cross-country analysis presented in the Education
and Training Monitor.
The
summaries will provide essential elements for monitoring the implementation of
the country‑specific recommendations (CSRs) resulting from the European
Semester under the Europe 2020 strategy.
Part II of
this Staff Working Document covers the following Member States: Lithuania, Luxembourg, Latvia, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Slovenia, Slovakia and United Kingdom.
Lithuania
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[1]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets,
Lithuania performs better than the EU average (7.9% v. 13.5% in 2011) in terms of
early school leaving (ESL), after having witnessed a significant decrease in
the share of early school leavers over the past decade (from 13.4% in 2002 to
below the national Europe 2020 target of 9%). Lithuania's tertiary attainment
rate (45.4% in 2011) is significantly above the EU average of 34.6%. The
analysis of sub-indicators shows markedly higher returns to education and a
more favourable family background than what is observed, on average, at the EU
level. As the proportion of 20-24 year olds with at least an upper secondary
education is well above the EU average, it is likely that the performance of Lithuania as regards the tertiary educational attainment of the 30-34 years-old group will
continue to improve for some time. As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, Lithuania performs below the EU benchmark on participation in early childhood education.
School education produces relatively weak results in terms of basic skills:
15-year olds' performance on PISA tests remains below the EU average, Lithuania
is underperforming in reading (share of low-achievers is 24.3% v. the EU
average of 20% in 2009) and maths (share of low-achievers is 26.2% v. the EU
average of 22.2% in 2009). Participation of adults in lifelong learning is low
in EU comparison (5.9% v. 8.9% in 2011). 
ICT skills of the population are slightly
above the EU average, although a lower share of pupils used computers at school
in 2007 (21.9% of 4th grade pupils in LT, 60.7% in EU). Concerning the
distribution of tertiary graduates by field compared with the EU average,
Lithuania shows a high share of graduates in social science, business and law
(45.8% as against 35.7% in 2010) and a low share of graduates in health and
welfare (9.6% vs. 15.1%). As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the
population believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a
business (35% in 2011) is among the lowest in the EU, and lower than in the
neighbouring countries Latvia (47%) or Poland (52%). Employment in medium level
qualification jobs in Lithuania up to 2020 is forecast to increase faster than
the EU average (17.2% in Lithuania, 4,8% in the EU), while the forecast shows
possible decrease for high level qualification jobs (-9% in Lithuania, 19.7%
increase in the EU). 
Public spending on education in Lithuania is slightly above the EU average (5.64% in Lithuania, 5.41% of GDP in the EU, 2009); it
has been steadily increasing since 2007.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The updated curricula based on key
competences were adopted in 2008 for primary and general education, and in 2011
for upper secondary education. Apart from the focus on the development of key
competences, it provides for a more individualised approach to learning and
allows for a more flexible planning of the learning process, together with the
promotion of creative thinking and entrepreneurship. A number of programmes
financed by the European Social Fund (ESF) support the changes in the
curriculum, teacher education, initial VET, non-formal training and other
areas. 
A reform of the apprenticeship system
(the new Law on Apprenticeships adopted in 2007) is still on-going, but the
measures concerning apprenticeships and skills matching are steps in the right
direction.
In 2010, public consultations on the
future of education in Lithuania were held with a range of interest groups. In
2012, the new National Education Strategy 2013 - 2022 was developed and
presented to the general public.
In order to improve the quality of higher
education, a complex reform was launched in 2009. It aims at increasing the
quality of higher education, its effectiveness, efficiency and access. The
measures taken include improving the governance of universities, opening it to
the public and partnership with business. Further measures focus on creating
competition between universities for students and the public funding (via the
"student's voucher" system) and increasing the quality of study
programmes and research. The reform instigated consolidation of some
universities. The developments are expected to foster the diversification of
funding sources for universities via closer cooperation between higher
education institutions and business, and via more effective use of the EU structural
funds.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Lithuania revised
its Lifelong Learning Strategy in 2008. The strategy mainly focuses on VET,
adult learning, non-formal learning and the development of the qualifications
system. The Lithuanian National Qualification Framework was developed with the
support of the ESF and adopted in 2011. It provides a description of
qualification requirements for the labour market. The main objective of the
framework is to ensure better correspondence between labour market needs and
the provision of qualifications (in vocational, higher and continuing education
and training). It is intended to improve the links and increase the
transferability from vocational education and training to higher education,
from initial VET to continuing vocational training, and to establish links to
non-formal and informal learning. The NQF is also designed to improve quality
assurance in qualifications.
The use of ICT is an integral part of the
updated curricula for primary, lower and upper secondary education (ISCED 1, 2
and 3). The curricula prescribe the teaching of ICT as a separate subject and
they recommend the use of ICT as a general tool across other educational areas
of the curriculum. A special institution called ‘Centre of Information
Technologies in Education’ is responsible, among other tasks, to provide the
education community with the necessary ICT tools to create, communicate and
collaborate. The Centre also organises and coordinates in-service training of
teachers and other staff of the educational institutions in the application of
ICT. A special internet portal "e-School" for educational resources
has been set up, and provides the teaching community, learners and parents with
new pedagogical materials and tools for learning.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

In recent years the public spending on
education and training has been increasing in Lithuania and was slightly above
the EU average in 2009.
Following the 2009 university reform,
there is a variety of possible funding sources for higher education
institutions (HEI). The current system is based on a student voucher system,
which channels public funds to the institution chosen by the student, whether
private or public. Public funding for research to HEI is allocated as a
combination of basic funding and competitive (programme-based) funding, the
distribution in 2011 reaching 50% basic funding, and 50% competitive funding. 
The revision of the legal base in 2010
introduced the possibility to publicly fund privately-organised early childhood
education and care through the system of "child vouchers". These
measures are designed to help increase the accessibility of early childhood
education and care in Lithuania.

Conclusion

While Lithuania is performing above the
EU average in tackling early school leaving and tertiary education attainment,
it ranks below the EU average for student achievement in basic skills (literacy
and numeracy). The effectiveness of the recent curricular reforms as well as
the higher education reform will need to be assessed in the medium term. Lithuania needs to focus on the relevance of the outputs of the education and training
system for the economy and society, and the overall quality of compulsory
education and initial VET. The measures to ensure the provision of necessary
labour market relevant skills need to be pursued and reinforced, also through
the EU structural funds. 
In the context of growth-friendly fiscal
consolidation there is a need to preserve an adequate level of expenditure on
education and training while increasing its efficiency.
Luxembourg
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2= average
of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[2]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Regarding Europe 2020 targets, Luxembourg has one of the lowest early school leaving rates in Europe  – 6.2% in 2011, compared to
the 13.5% EU average. However, early school leaving remains a problem among the
migrant population. The tertiary education attainment (TEA) rate according to
the Eurostat methodology is - at 48.2% in 2011 - well above the EU average of
34.6%. The figure of 48.2% is misleading because Eurostat measures the TEA
based on the working population in Luxembourg, but a high percentage of this
population is not resident in the country. The tertiary attainment of the
resident population is actually lower, currently at about 30%. In its 2012
National Reform Programme, Luxembourg has adopted the Eurostat methodology –
thus including also the non-resident workers – but proposes to set the national
TEA target at 66% instead of 40%. The analysis of sub-indicators shows positive
participation patterns in early childhood and vocational education, favourable
family background and higher returns to education, especially for tertiary
education.
In 2010, participation in early childhood
education stood at 94.6%, marking a slight decrease from the 95% in 2006, but
remained above the EU average of 92.3%. Luxembourg scores among the best
performers in the EU regarding graduate employment rates – 86,1% in 2011. Luxembourg is also above the EU average in adult participation in lifelong learning (13.6%
vs 8.9% in 2011). The performance of Luxembourg’s education system is
relatively weak when measured by PISA scores, but the multilingual system somewhat
obscures Luxembourg’s true skill level in the test result. There has also been
a negative tendency in reading, mathematics and science since 2006 – with rates
respectively dropping from 22.9% in 2006 to 26% in 2009; from 22.8% to 23.9%
and from 22.1% to 23.7%. These percentages are above the EU average in each
discipline.
Luxembourg scores
higher in ICT skills and foreign languages knowledge than the EU average. It
has a very high share of graduates in social science, business and law and in
education and training, as well as a low share in maths, science and
technology. The employment pattern in Luxembourg up to 2020 is forecast to be
characterised by a strong increase in high and medium qualification jobs and a
very sharp decline in low qualification jobs.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Luxembourg
introduced a reform of fundamental schools in 2009. The main aspects include a
competence and cycle-based approach, implementation of study plans for each
cycle, evaluation according to portfolios, and a strong cooperation between
parents, teachers and the Ministry with the objective of identifying problems
and skill shortcomings at an early stage. In addition, efforts were made to
better integrate immigrant children into the school system. These reforms are currently being
implemented so it is too early to assess their impact. In addition, new
guidance procedures will be implemented as of 2013, covering Cycle 4 of primary
education to the lower secondary school classes.
Particular attention is paid to language
competences. German is studied as a compulsory subject from the age of 6. At 7,
all pupils start learning French as a compulsory subject. At the age of 12,
pupils choosing some educational paths/types of schools have to learn English
as a third language. English becomes compulsory for all pupils when they reach
14. The obligation to learn all three languages lasts until pupils are 19. At
15, pupils choosing some educational paths/types of schools study a fourth
foreign language as a compulsory subject until they are 19.
Early school leaving remains a problem
among the migrant population. For children where none or only one of the
official languages is spoken at home, gaining proficiency in all three official
languages is difficult. A list of names of early school leavers drawn up on a
monthly basis is sent to regional centres of the Local Youth Action group to
determine why they dropped out and to help them to find a training programme or
integrate them into the labour market. Luxembourg has taken several measures to
increase the number of students embarking on higher education studies: allowing
validation of prior learning and experience giving access to university
studies; offering more varied higher education studies; establishing a link
between higher education programmes and companies’ needs in order to promote
employability; offering financial support to all students whether they are
studying in Luxembourg or outside the country; tutoring of students at the
University of Luxembourg.
The reform of Vocational Training
reviewed and adapted a total of 118 tailor-made training schemes and has given
students the opportunity to obtain three diplomas: the Certificat de
capacité professionnelle (CCP - Certificate of Professional Competence),
the Diplôme d’aptitude professionnelle (DAP-Professional Qualification
Diploma) and the Diplôme de technicien (DT - Technician Diploma). The
diplomas now combine a new form of skills acquisition, based on competences,
with a focus on practical training with actors from the field with the
objective to increase the employability of students.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

The government has put a focus on a
global and more coherent lifelong learning (LLL) strategy with a series of
reforms and initiatives. As a result, the number of LLL courses has increased in
recent years to 4930 in 60 subjects. In November 2011, the National Agency for
the European Education and Lifelong Learning programme (ANEFORE) launched the
S3L project to investigate how lifelong learning is perceived in Luxembourg. The results will feed into a White Paper on future strategies. From 2012 on,
lifelong learning in the private sector will be co-financed by the state at a
rate of 20% instead of 14.5% (35% for young unskilled workers and older
workers). Greater adult participation in LLL would help to tackle the country’s
structural unemployment since residents are facing competition from a large
pool of often highly skilled potential workers from neighbouring countries.
Regarding teacher training and
motivation, no measures have been announced in recent years. Moreover, in recent years more fixed-term staff (chargés) have
been recruited, with a considerably lower remuneration than permanent teachers
(professeurs). However, the government has announced it will recruit
more teachers in order to meet the current challenges of the ongoing reforms.
Luxembourg has a
national strategy on the use of ICT in education. There is also a general national ICT strategy covering, inter alia,
the following areas: ICT in schools, e-Inclusion, digital media literacy and
e-Skills development.
The E-Bac programme launched by
the Luxembourg government focusses on providing adults who do not complete
secondary education with the opportunity to get their final qualification (baccalauréat)
via distance learning thanks to more flexibility, and to apply for higher
education studies. It is currently possible to follow classes for the last
three years of secondary education. The “blended learning” concept has been
adopted: participants can do 75% of their course work via distance learning and
25% in class. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Education in Luxembourg is mostly funded
by the State (59.9%) and the municipal level (22.1%). Other actors such as
professional associations or private actors contribute a small amount to
general expenditures. The size of the country, the availability of funding and
the collaboration between the various actors enable strong partnership at the
national level to set up initiatives in the field of education, vocational
training, and lifelong learning. Luxembourg has had a long tradition of social
dialogue at tripartite level (government, trade unions, and employers’ unions)
and major reform proposals are discussed in collective bargaining arenas prior
to their implementation.
In the context of the European Social
Fund (2007-2013), Luxembourg has defined a series of priorities centering on a
double-fold strategy. On the one hand, funds are allocated to promote job
creation through reinforcing investments into human capital; on the other hand,
efforts are made to help more vulnerable groups, especially in times of crisis
(youth, older workers, jobseekers).  One example is the 'Perspective 45'
initiative the targets older workers and jobseekers and focusses on reskilling
priorities. 

Conclusion

Luxembourg
performs well on most indicators measuring skills. In many cases it performs
better than the EU average and, although it has not yet reached the benchmark,
it seems to be on the right track to achieving it. What requires attention in
this seemingly well performing country is the difference in performance levels
between the residents and the immigrant communities. Efforts are needed in the
first instance to measure these differences and only afterwards to find the
appropriate strategies to address them.
Far-reaching reforms in fundamental,
secondary and professional education are in the process of being implemented,
with a view to obtaining better school achievement and preparing students for
an increasingly competitive employment market. Luxembourg has chosen to define
and implement a new teaching and skills acquisition approach with a focus on
more individualised tutoring and practical work experience. The knowledge of
foreign languages has been identified as a cornerstone of the education system
and a strategic positive driver on the employment market. Despite the fact that
the government agreed upon increasing the number of teachers and professors in
fundamental and secondary education, a large number of fixed-term contracts or
less-qualified chargés can hamper the efficient implementation of
reforms.
Latvia
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[3]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Latvia has showed progress in reducing early school leaving and raising the tertiary
attainment rate, and currently performs better than the EU average in both
areas, although significant gender gaps persist. As regards the other ET 2020
benchmarks, participation in early childhood education has remained broadly
constant in recent years and is below the EU average (87.4% vs. 92.3% in 2010).
In terms of basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests in reading
and science recently improved and continues to outperform the EU average, but
worsened in mathematics, where it is now just in line with the EU average. The
gender gap is very high in reading, where only 8.7% of girls are low-achievers,
compared with 26.6% of boys. The employment rate of graduates suffered from the
recent economic crisis, but after a trough of 64.6% in 2010, rebounded in 2011
(72.7%). Participation of adults in lifelong learning is very low in EU
comparison (5.0% vs. 8.9% in 2011) and even decreased by around 2 percentage
points over the last few years.
ICT skills of the population appear close
to the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population
believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a business rose
significantly in recent years. As regards the distribution of tertiary
graduates by field compared with the EU average, Latvia shows a very high share
of graduates in social science, business and law (54.4% as against 35.7% in
2010) and a low share of graduates in mathematics, science and technology
(14.3% vs. 21.9%). Latvia's employment pattern up to 2020 is forecast to
diverge markedly from the EU average in both medium and low qualification jobs,
with a moderate decline in the former and a large increase in the latter.
However, low qualification jobs are projected to represent only 16% of total jobs
in 2020, still below the EU average (18%). Public spending on education in Latvia is somewhat above the EU average (5.64% vs. 5.41% of GDP in 2009), although
expenditure in higher education is considerably lower (0.79% as against 1.22%
of GDP in 2009).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

In the area of basic skills, the National
Centre for Education is responsible for a comprehensive curriculum reform for
6-11 years old pupils. The aim of the reform is to promote pupil-centred
teaching, as well as reading literacy. One of the outcomes of curriculum reform
for 6-11 years old pupils is a legislative change implying that from the school
year 2012/2013 learning the first foreign language will be compulsory from the
1st grade.
A positive development for monitoring
early school leaving has been the setting up of a State Education Information
System (SEIS) in the academic year 2010/2011 by the Ministry of Education and
Science. SEIS contains information about education institutions, academic
programmes, students and teaching staff. It enables efficient tracking of the
educational process and provides accurate identification of students who have
not commenced studies in the compulsory educational system and also of students
who have discontinued studies prematurely. Based on SEIS data, the State
Education Service takes steps in cooperation with local authorities to
establish the reasons for drop-out. In addition, the Central Statistical Bureau
compiles data on the number of students at vocational education institutions
and the reasons for leaving them. While compensation measures include
pedagogical support to students with learning difficulties, targeted measures
to bring early school leavers back into education are not well developed.
One of the main measures implemented in
higher education is a large-scale assessment of study programmes that will form
the basis for future decisions. Higher education suffers from low international
competitiveness (low share of international students, publications and
international lecturers) and weak cooperation between universities and
businesses. 

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Concerning teachers' education and training,
two projects, running until end-2012 and co-financed by the European Social
Fund, have to be mentioned. The first ("Support to Ensure Sufficiency of
General Secondary Education Educators in Priority Subjects") aims to
provide teachers of priority subjects at general education institutions and
vocational education institutions with grants in exchange for creative approaches
to teaching and involvement in research. The second ("Competence Promotion
of the Educators Involved in Vocational Education, Teaching Comprehensive
Subjects") intends to ensure that vocational educators teaching
comprehensive subjects improve their general and specific competences (e.g.
foreign languages, ICT skills). The two measures seem to have contributed to
the improvement of skills among pupils.
In the area of qualifications, a specific
project (Improvement of National Qualification System, Vocational Education
Contents and Cooperation among the Bodies Involved in Vocational Education)
aims to improve the quality and efficiency of vocational education by, inter
alia, creating a sectoral qualification system; implementing a modular approach
for acquiring basic profession, speciality and specialisation; and developing
the recognition of skills acquired in contexts other than those of formal
learning. The measure can be considered as effective since many of the
recommendations evolving from the project have already been followed through
adopting the appropriate legislative and implementing acts. 
Implementing the Lifelong Learning
strategy remains a challenge, especially as regards the quality and
effectiveness of the existing schemes whose relevance to labour market needs
appears insufficient.
Several European Social Fund programmes
are carried out with the aim of modernising the learning environment. In
particular, the programme “Ensuring the Necessary Material Basis for Quality
Acquisition of Natural Sciences”, in cooperation with universities, scientific
institutions and entrepreneurs, promotes the use of advanced teaching methods
(electronic teaching materials, opportunities of the e-learning environment),
so as to give pupils the opportunity to better learn the subjects they are
interested in. The measure is being implemented until the end of 2012.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Education and training budgets suffered
significant cuts during the crisis and measures are being taken to ensure
cost-efficiency: for example, the general education school network has been
consolidated and the ‘money follows the pupil’ funding model introduced.
Funding from the EU structural funds has been invested in developing
specialised vocational schools, modernising higher education and creating
competence centres. In 2010–2011, development of a performance indicator-based
financing model of higher education was launched. At the moment, an expert
group is planned to be established to identify and evaluate some more
alternative options for higher education financing and conduct research on
financial aspects. By 2014, it is planned to prepare the normative basis for a
new higher education financing model and to implement it.
To ensure equal access to higher
education, improvements to the mechanism for awarding scholarships and student
loans have been introduced. These include broadening study opportunities and
promoting more guidance on the choice of subject areas. In 2010 60 % of the
total number of scholarship recipients received scholarships for higher
education studies based on social criteria (low family income, disability,
etc.). From the academic year 2011-2012 a new system of distributing
scholarships has come into force, based on academic merits as the main
criteria. In the new system social criteria will be taken into account only in
the case of equal academic merits. It will be important to monitor the effect
of the new system on enrolment and graduation.
Concerning partnerships in education, in
2010 Latvia started to implement a number of measures (also financed by EU
Structural Funds) to make higher education more attractive and competitive. An
Action Plan for 2010–2012 is being implemented in cooperation with the Latvian
Employers’ Confederation, the Latvian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and
professional associations.

Conclusion

In recent years Latvia has adopted a number of measures in the areas of education and training with a view to
increasing both the levels and relevance of skills. However, the education
system faces a number of challenges to better comply with the current labour
market needs as well as to help raise the innovation potential of the Latvian
economy. 
The share of students enrolled in
vocational education is among the lowest in EU and adult participation in
lifelong learning remains limited. Although Latvia even exceeded its national
EU2020 target regarding early school leaving in 2011, this is more due to
worsening labour market prospects of young people which compel them to stay
longer in education, than to policy actions. If comprehensive measures
including targeted measures to bring early school leavers back into education are
missing, the level of early school leaving is likely to return to the
pre-crises level.
Overall participation and attainment
levels do not pose a problem in the Latvian higher education system; nevertheless
there are some areas where quality and efficiency could be improved. Latvian
universities perform poorly in worldwide rankings, while the higher education
network is too large in view of the population served and too generous
regarding the study programmes on offer. Evidence from employers and
recruitment agencies points to skills' shortages in ITC, pharmaceuticals and
engineering: the higher education system has not produced enough graduates in
mathematics, science and technology and no quick improvement in this area can
be expected in light of recent enrolment rates.
Malta
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[4]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training[5]

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Malta
is still the poorest EU performer in terms of the rate of early school leaving
(33.5% in 2011), although it showed good progress over the last five years (a
6.4 percentage point decrease), and is one of the countries with the lowest
tertiary attainment rate, with no significant recent progress. The analysis of
sub-indicators shows that the family background is particularly unfavourable.
As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, participation in early childhood
education decreased in recent years and is now below the EU average (89.0% as
against 92.3% in 2010). In terms of basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on
PISA 2009+ tests is markedly worse than the EU average in all subjects; girls
tend to largely outperform boys also in mathematics. The relatively mild
economic crisis experienced by Malta only had a modest impact on the employment
rate of graduates, which remains among the highest in the EU (91.2% in 2011).
Participation of adults in lifelong learning increased somewhat since 2006, but
remains low in EU comparison (6.6% vs. 8.9% in 2011).
ICT skills of the population are close to
the EU average. Figures for foreign language skills are positively influenced
by the fact that English is Malta's second official language. As regards the
distribution of tertiary graduates by field compared with the EU average, Malta
shows a very high (and increasing) share of graduates in humanities and arts
(18.9% as against 11.5% in 2010) and a still low (albeit rising) share of
graduates in mathematics, science and technology (16.3% vs. 21.9%). The
employment pattern in Malta up to 2020 is forecast to be characterised by a
strong increase in medium qualification jobs. Public spending on education as a
share of GDP is at the EU average (5.46% vs. 5.41% in 2009), but declined by
more than one percentage point in 2006-2009.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

A National Policy and Strategy for the
Attainment of Core Competences in Primary Education has been in place since
January 2009. This policy proposes an integrated approach that includes the
four components of: (i) the prevention of attainment deficit in core
competences through early support; (ii) the early identification of core
competences attainment deficit; (iii) the integration into mainstream teaching;
(iv) the intervention with respect to core competences attainment deficit in
early primary education. This is done in terms of working with the whole range
of stakeholders, at school and College level.  
Concerning early school leaving, the
Research and Development department, the National Commission for Higher
Education and other stakeholders set up a working group and discussed improving
data collection on early school leavers with the National Statistics Office,
which has launched a survey on early school leavers with results expected in
the course of 2012. In addition, the University of Malta launched a project at
the beginning of 2012 to monitor disadvantaged secondary school students and
the reasons why they tend not to finish their studies. 
To improve the relevance of skills for
the labour market, Malta is introducing vocational subjects in secondary
schools, interesting career paths through vocational educational training and
higher education in those sectors in demand by industry, and second-chance
learning opportunities in key competences.
Overall, the various measures taken in
recent years and initiatives now underway demonstrate that the government and
the educational institutions are aware of the challenges of the Maltese
education and training system. These policy efforts need to be maintained in
order to ensure lasting results. At the same time, the issue of early school
leaving still has not been fully addressed. In particular, a comprehensive system
for collecting and analysing information on early school leaving to underpin
targeted policy making and monitoring is not yet in place.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Measures to stimulate open and flexible
learning, especially in higher education, include the creation of the Malta
Qualifications Framework and validation of non-formal and informal learning.
Students over 25 years-old who lack the minimum qualifications may nevertheless
take a higher education degree (through a maturity clause). To improve
completion rates, the University of Malta awards a Higher Education Certificate
to students who have successfully completed the first year but do not go for a
full bachelor’s degree, while the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology
offers Vocational Educational Training degrees at bachelor level as an
extension of short-cycle vocational degrees. The government set up a working
group in 2011 to explore new possibilities for learning in higher education;
the results are expected in the course of 2012. A draft Lifelong Learning
Strategy was launched in July 2012 by the Directorate for Lifelong Learning
(DLL), created in 2009.
Skill shortages in high value-added areas
have been partly addressed by introducing flexible courses in collaboration
with industry and higher education institutions, while projects funded by the
European Social Fund are addressing sectoral skills needs and qualifications.
In addition, a new 2012 Euro Plus Pact commitment establishes a sector skills
committee, which will be responsible for examining occupational standards and
validation of competences and learning outcomes in order to reduce skill gaps.
Overall, these measures appear promising;
their adequate implementation will be key in ensuring positive results.
The Maltese government has invested
heavily in ICT-related infrastructure and hardware in schools. Thus, all
pre-primary and primary classrooms are connected to the world-wide web, with
each pre-primary classroom having two desktop computers to be used by the
pupils while in every primary classroom four desktop computers are to be found.
As from September 2011 an interactive whiteboard has been installed in each
classroom up to lower-secondary school. 
Moreover an e-learning platform was
established and currently all primary class teachers are being trained in its
use. The platform is to provide the right medium for teachers and pupils alike
to participate and collaborate with each other.  Among other features it
includes built-in tools, where pupils can get more personalised feedback on the
level of learning they achieve from their teachers.  Thus, each pupil can gauge
where s/he stands in terms of learning.  Another advantage would be that of
providing pupils with school/class work that meets their own level of
understanding.  This may increase pupils’ motivation to learn since the
platform will allow them to focus more on their achievement rather than on that
of the class as a whole and to work on those areas that they need to improve
on.
Finally, the Malta Council for Science
and Technology will be building a National Centre for Interactive Science in
2013. This will serve as an educational and entertainment platform for
students, parents and professionals with the objective of increasing the
interest in science, engineering and technology.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

The government has been increasing its
investment in the Malta Government Scholarship Scheme, specifically in the area
of science and technology, including at postgraduate and doctoral levels. It is
also providing more information and guidance on scholarships for prospective
tertiary students.
Malta has started
developing its partnerships between education and businesses. This is mainly
being carried out at tertiary level with the creation of specialised courses as
required by the multi-national companies who choose to operate from Malta. This is particularly true for the air-servicing, pharmaceutical and ICT industries.
In other areas, partnerships are present but they are less formal in nature,
although a considerable amount of students, especially in the areas of care and
child care, are allowed to practice in private businesses. Lack of resources
for SMEs to invest in partnership initiatives is one of the main problems.
Moreover, educational institutions are still traditionally seen as the only
places in which learning can take place and the role of workplaces in offering
learning experiences is not yet sufficiently promoted.

Conclusion

Since Malta has few natural resources,
economic growth is overwhelmingly dependent on the skills of its population.
The country is faced with a threefold challenge: a high rate of early school
leaving, a relatively modest rate of tertiary education attainment and a
vocational training system in need of modernisation. 
The Commission and Council in the
European Semester 2012 recommended steps to combat early school leaving and to match
the skills required by the labour market. The measures which are already in
place against early school leaving seem to be pointing in a positive direction,
while their proper implementation and the evaluation of their impact will be
crucial. Concerning participation in tertiary education, the recent policy efforts
need to be maintained in order to ensure lasting results and achieve the
ambitious target of a 33% tertiary attainment rate by 2020. Finally, Malta has also been strengthening links with business and industry, in particular in
tertiary VET, to improve effectiveness and address specific skill shortages.
Netherlands
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[6]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, in
2011 the Netherlands already outperformed the EU benchmarks for 2020 on both
early school leaving (9.1% compared to 10%) and tertiary attainment rate (41.1%
as against 40%). The Netherlands shows a very high rate of early childhood
education, having made significant progress since 2006 and approaching full
coverage of the target population. School education keeps producing very
positive results for reading, mathematics and science as documented by PISA tests for 15 year-olds, despite a slight decline in mathematics in recent years.
Language teaching starts generally at a later age in international comparison,
but the average number of languages learned at ISCED 2 level (2.1) is far above
the EU average (1.5). Moreover, 65.7% of pupils master the first foreign
language at end of lower secondary education. The participation in lifelong
learning in the Netherlands confirms the overall positive performance, being
close to double that of the current EU average.
The share of population with high ICT
skills is above the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, 42% of the
population believe to have the required skills and knowledge to start a
business. This is the same value as in the UK and is higher than in France (38%) and Germany (37%) but lower than in Spain (51%). The number of graduates in maths,
science and technology is low in EU comparison. Employment in high
qualification jobs up to 2020 is expected to increase faster than the EU
average, whereas a more moderate decline is forecast for jobs requiring low
level qualifications. Public spending in education as a share of GDP in the Netherlands has been structurally above the EU average in the last few years (5.94%
compared to 5.41% in 2009).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

In February 2011, the government
presented a new action plan, covering 2011–2015, for secondary vocational
education (MBO), focusing on skills. Therein, the government mandates the
newly-created Education-Business Alliance to develop the qualification
structure. In order to reduce the drop-out rate from the 2012/2013 school year
onwards, students in vocational training will be able to enrol in fields of
training containing modules from different courses with related content, rather
than following standard courses.
The new strategy "Quality in
Diversity" for higher education/ advanced vocational education and
training (VET) calls for streamlining the existing system with less but better
focused study programmes, including in professional higher education. This
includes a requirement for additional training of teachers. 
Within the Deltaplan Bètatechniek
(2004-2010) and the Masterplan Bèta en Technologie (2011-2016), the National
Platform for Science & Technology has been commissioned by the government,
education and business sectors to ensure availability of sufficient people with
a scientific or technical educational background. It aims not only to make
careers in science more appealing, but also to introduce innovation in education
that inspires and challenges young people by targeting schools, universities,
businesses, ministries, municipalities, regions and sectors. By 2020, it has
set out, among other objectives, to increase the share of science and
technology students by 15% in higher education and to ensure that 40% of all
graduates hold degrees in this area by 2025. According to a 2009 evaluation, this
programme has been very successful having achieved results at all levels of
education as well as on the labour market and in the different regions. 
The programme Improvement in Literacy
and Mathematics ("Verbetertrajetecten Taal en Rekenen") aims at
improving literacy and mathematics skills of young learners in primary schools
through developing a specific approach. It has been in action since 2008 and reached
1831 primary schools in the school year 2010-2011. The evaluation shows the positive
effects of the programme. Participating schools have indeed improved the
literacy and mathematics skills of their pupils. From 2008-2009 poor
performance dropped from 50% to 25%. Also scores of primary school exit exams
were better for participating schools than for non- participating schools.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

A measure named Visualisation
of Success, Quality agenda for secondary education 2008-2011 ("Success in
Beeld, Kwaliteitsgenda voortgezet onderwijs 2008-11") aims to improve the
quality and strategic positioning of secondary schools by supporting middle
management to identify their own school policy, as well as the weaknesses and
strengths of their own quality policy.  It seeks to achieve measurable
improvement in the areas of language and mathematics and to stimulate young
people to develop and use their talents as much as possible, as well as to
foster the notion of citizenship. Teachers should be supported to make their
own professional choices. Finally the quality of exams ensuring specific
knowledge will be improved whilst at the same time safeguarding minimum quality
standards in each school.
The Action Plan Teacher
2020 aims at keeping and upgrading the quality of teaching by creating positive
career prospects, increasing the educational level of teachers, requiring
ideally a master degree and fostering self-commitment of teachers to constantly
update their knowledge as well as by structurally introducing peer reviews.
Concrete agreements have been established for 2012-2015 including, among others,
scholarships for teachers and for promotion purposes.
The Netherlands has a national ICT strategy covering areas such as e-Government, infrastructure and
broadband connectivity, ICT Security, e-Learning and ICT in schools, but no
overarching strategy for ICT and education.
One of the initiatives was
to establish Kennisnet, a public educational organisation creating a platform to
support and inspire Dutch primary, secondary and vocational institutions in the
effective use of ICT, notably by informing them of the opportunities offered by
ICT. The approach is based on balanced and coherent use of four building
blocks: vision, expertise, digital learning materials and ICT infrastructure.
Kennisnet aims at removing barriers for and between schools and at encouraging
interaction within the educational sector.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

The Action Plan secondary
education "Focus on craftsmanship" ("Focus op vakmanshap
2011-2015) seeks to provide good quality initial vocational education for young
people and making vocational education competitive compared with general
education. This should be achieved through simplifying the vocational and adult
education system, more teaching time by better qualified teachers, better
structured exams within the context of a reduced number of qualifications and
education and training programmes. Education Networks Enterprise 2009 provides
subsidies supporting initiatives to implement entrepreneurship education in
partnership with primary, secondary schools, vocational education and local
business. Jet-Net Youth and Technology Network Netherlands reached a critical
number of actors comprised of national and international companies,
representatives of relevant ministries, trade organisations and the national
Science and Technology Platform. They aim to assist secondary schools to better
understand the role and the attractiveness of industry and technology and cover
up to a third of the upper secondary general (HAVO) and pre-university (WVO)
schools.
Since 2008 long term
agreements with universities and with institutions of professional higher
education have been concluded to combat the high dropout rate and generally
increase the quality of education. Since 2012, 7% of the budget allocated to
the tertiary education sector will be distributed based on performance related
to prior agreed targets. 

Conclusion 

Overall, the education and training system of
the Netherlands performs rather positively. The Netherlands outperforms the EU
average as regards early school leaving and tertiary attainment rates, as well
as students' achievement in basic skills (literacy, numeracy and science). At
all levels of education there is room for improvement with regard to the
quality of education focusing more on results and on the professionalisation of
teachers.  Current reforms, therefore, target overall the improvement of the
quality of the education system instead of concentrating on quantity. However,
a mismatch between labour market needs and the skills obtained in the Dutch
education system, in particular in the VET sector, persists. Other areas of
concern relate to drop outs and persistently long graduation time in higher
education. Current reforms are intended to create institutions with a clearer
profile, better structured and targeted courses and more favourable
teacher-student ratios. At the same time, in the context of growth-friendly
fiscal consolidation there is a need for preserving expenditure in education
and training while increasing its efficiency. 
Poland
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[7]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Poland is one of
the best performers in the EU regarding early school leaving, with a rate of
5.6% vs. the EU average of 13.5% in 2011. The rate of tertiary education
attainment strongly increased over the last decade and was 36.9% in 2011,
slightly above the EU average of 34.6%. 
As regards the ET 2020 benchmarks,
participation in early childhood education is one of
the lowest among the EU Member States (76.3 % against the EU average of 92.3 %
in 2011), despite a steady increase since 2000. In
terms of basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests continues to
outperform the EU average, while improving in particular in science. The
employment rate of graduates has increased by 4.3 percentage points since 2006
and remains slightly below the EU average (75.4% vs. 77.2% in 2011). The
participation of adults in lifelong learning has decreased in recent years and
remains low in EU comparison (4.5% vs. 8.9% in 2011). 
ICT skills of the population are low in
comparison with the EU average. Concerning the distribution of tertiary
graduates by field compared with the EU average, Poland shows a high share of
graduates in social science, business and law and in education and training,
and a low share of graduates in science, mathematics and technology and in
health and welfare. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population
believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a business is
higher than the EU average. Foreign language learning remains an issue with a
performance below EU average both for students and the adult population. The
employment pattern in Poland up to 2020 is forecast to be fairly different from
the EU average, with a stronger decrease in medium qualification jobs than in
low qualification ones. 
The level of public spending on education
has remained stable since 2000 and is relatively close to the EU average, at
5.10 % versus EU average of 5.41 % in 2009. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Three fundamental reforms of the national
education system are being implemented in Poland, in general, vocational and
higher education respectively.
The goal of the reforms is to address
both the mismatch of skills with the needs of the labour market and the
adaptation of the Polish education system to the challenges of the
knowledge-based economy - changing demographics and social and economic
factors, such as the growing need for mathematics, science and technology (MST)
as well as engineering graduates. 
Organisational and curricular changes
have been introduced in order to overcome the current negative trend in
mathematics education. In 2010 Poland introduced a compulsory mathematics exam
in the matura (exit national examination for upper secondary education).
This stemmed from a desire to improve the level of mathematics teaching and to
better prepare secondary vocational school graduates to study in the fields of
science and technology, which should translate into increased numbers of
tertiary or equivalent education students in technical fields. Starting from
September 2012, the new core curricula for secondary vocational schools will
also be introduced. 
In the case of general education, new
core curricula are also in the process of implementation.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

To improve the permeability between
educational sectors and the flexibility of learning pathways, Poland has decided to undertake a programme called "Vocational School as a Favourable
Selection"(2010-12). Although growing interest in the choice of vocational
schools by graduates of lower secondary schools has been observed in recent
years, the percentage of students continuing their education in general upper
secondary schools is rather constant and fluctuates around 44% of the cohort.
At the same time, labour market projections for 2020 indicate a constant demand
for well‑trained technical staff and, in some cases, even sizable
temporary increases of this demand in some sectors (e.g. the construction
sector). The objective of the programme is to increase the attractiveness of
vocational schools, in order to steer the interest of lower secondary school
graduates to continue their education in vocational schools of all types. The
programme also aims at strengthening and promoting the cooperation between
vocational school and employers. This initiative is co-financed by the ESF
through the National Operational Programme "Human Capital".
The implementation at national level of
the principles of European cooperation developed in the areas of EQF, EQARF,
ECVET and EUROPASS will also contribute to reducing barriers to learning
mobility. 
Poland is
implementing the "Distance Learning Project" (2009-14), whose
beneficiaries are employees, teaching staff and educational institutions. Its
aims are to promote, disseminate and implement a distance learning system in
educational institutions, to provide high quality services in the distance
education system through the development of standards for designing and
conducting on-line courses, and to improve the competence of educational
institutions staff in implementing and using distance learning solutions. Its
main outcomes are a diagnosis of distance education in Poland and in selected European Union countries (2009), an evaluation of learning needs of teachers
and students in the field of distance learning (2010) and the development of a
model for implementation and dissemination of distance learning in Poland (2012). The project also comprises the creation of a dedicated web portal for
institutions implementing distance learning, including a repository of
knowledge for the implementation and dissemination of distance education (2013)
and the development of multimedia e-learning courses for selected modular
units, and courses for teachers and students (2014). This is particularly
important for students in rural and remote areas of the country and happens in
conjunction with the rolling-out of internet broadband connection of the
Eastern part of Poland thanks to financing from EU Structural Funds. The
project itself is co-financed by the ESF.
In 2012, 3,500 Polish primary schools
(27% of all potential applicant schools) applied for inclusion in the “Digital School” piloting project. To support the process, the Ministry of National
Education has invested heavily in the project and funds are earmarked for
hardware, software, interactive boards and multimedia teaching aids. EU
Structural Funds are also used in this case e.g. for equipping schools with
computers and modern ICT equipment.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

In Poland the cooperation between
schools, vocational education and training institutions, higher education
institutions and external actors (industry, NGO’s, professional organisations
etc.) is traditionally quite limited. 
Current reforms of the education system
aim at changing this status through the integration of educational institutions
with the labour market actors. For instance, the on-going higher education
reform is intended to encourage universities to provide more flexible,
higher-quality curricula, which would reduce the skills mismatch by involving
employers in the education process and by strengthening university-business
links, in order to ensure an appropriate range of fields of studies that meet
the needs of the job market. 
In addition, the on-going works on the
Polish Qualification Framework (NQF), to be referenced to the EQF in 2012, and
the ECVET system, are designed to ensure greater flexibility and openness of
the education system.

Conclusion

The future national strategy called
Lifelong Learning Perspective (2012-20) and its accompanying Action Plan
represent significant progress towards developing a comprehensive approach to
lifelong learning, including the provision of skills in the future. This
initiative is set to be adopted in the course of 2012 and could play a key role
in fostering human capital development and constitute a guiding principle for
all Polish sectoral economic strategies. 
In 2012–13 Poland is starting to
modernise its vocational training system. This should enable an increase in the
provision of apprenticeship places and to promote dedicated vocational training
aimed at developing the necessary skills of the older and the unskilled
workforce.
Poland is also
implementing a new higher education reform, in force since 2011, intended to
reduce skills mismatches, in line with the 2011 European Semester
recommendation, by introducing a novel approach based on learning outcomes,
which is consistent with the objectives of the European Qualifications
Framework (EQF).
In the future one of the major challenges
for Poland will remain the provision of a skills response which is better
adapted to the needs of the labour market, given in particular a high
unemployment rate among young people, including higher education graduates. In
this respect Poland will have to invest, in particular, in the development of
future skills forecasting and effective mechanisms for reducing existing skills
mismatches.
Portugal
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[8]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Portugal performs below the EU average in the area of early school leaving (ESL) (23.2% vs.
13.5% in 2011) although its performance has improved significantly during the
period 2006-2011 (39.1% in 2006). The examination of sub-indicators reveals
that the family background of the 18-24 years old cohorts is particularly
unfavourable. Portugal has also made significant progress in tertiary
educational attainment; even if the share of tertiary graduates is still below
the EU average (26.1% vs. 34.6%), it has practically doubled since 2006
(18.4%). As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, participation in early
childhood education is below the EU average (89.3% vs. 92.3% in 2010). In terms
of basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests has evolved positively
in the last decade. While in the PISA 2000 and 2006 surveys the percentage of
low achievers was significantly higher than the EU average in all three areas
assessed, in 2009 that percentage for reading and science literacy was already
lower than the EU average. Only in mathematics did Portugal fail to perform
better the EU average, despite the significant progress achieved. The
employment rate of graduates has decreased since 2006 from the level of the ET
2020 target to slightly below EU average. Participation of adults in lifelong
learning is above the EU average (11.6% vs. 8.9% in 2011); this significant
progress over the past 5 years should, however, be interpreted with some
caution, following a break in the series.
ICT skills have progressed and are consistently
above EU average, while perception of entrepreneurship skills has declined but
remains higher than the EU average. In what concerns the distribution of
tertiary graduates by field compared with the EU average, Portugal shows a 
high share of graduates in engineering, manufacturing and construction (18.3%
against 12.3% in 2010) and in health and welfare (20.8% against 15.2% in 2010),
and a low share of graduates in science, mathematics and computing (6.5%
against 9.1% in 2010) but remains above EU average (even if decreasing since
2008) in percentage of graduates in mathematics, science and technology per
1000 of the population aged 20-29 (14.4% against 12.5% in 2010). Finally, Portugal performs below EU average in percentage of students reaching B1 level or higher in
the first foreign language at the end of lower secondary education (30.3% vs.
43.5%). Employment in high qualified jobs in Portugal up to 2020 is forecast to
increase somewhat less than the EU average, while in medium qualified jobs a stronger
increase is expected. Employment in low qualified jobs should decrease less
than EU average. On investment in education as % of GDP, Portugal performed slightly above EU average from 2000 (5.42%) to 2007 (5.10%); while in 2008 the
share decreased to 4.89%, it was up at 5.79% in 2009.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

In 2010/2011, the government has started
implementing a curricular reform with the aim to strengthen teaching and
learning of the following subjects: Portuguese, foreign languages, mathematics,
and natural and social sciences. It introduces significant changes in the
curricular structure of the 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic
and secondary education, reducing curricular dispersion, reinforcing the
teaching of the above subjects and defining for each of them and for each cycle
a set of learning outcomes and their development by grade. External assessment
and monitoring of the learning process is ensured through the introduction of
nationally standardised tests and examinations in more grades and subjects.
Several previously launched initiatives
continue to be supported, like the national reading literacy strategy (Plano
Nacional de Leitura), focusing on the development of reading and writing
skills, and the Action Plan for Mathematics to improve mathematics skills of
primary and basic level students and under which the following aspects were
developed during the 2011/2012 school year: generalisation of the mathematics
curriculum, development of a database of educational resources for mathematics,
the assessment of mathematics textbooks, and the development of schools'
projects for the improvement of mathematics learning from 1st to 9th
grades. To address low achievement, the government implements the 'Programme
for more Success in School' (Programa Mais Sucesso Escolar) supporting the
implementation of alternative school and curriculum management models through
four year contracts with a view to increase students' success rates mainly in
Portuguese, mathematics and English.
The government has also initiated a major
restructuring of the VET system including a review of current VET offers and
curricula to eliminate overlaps and to adapt them to future labour market needs;
the creation of professional schools of reference in economic sectors relevant
to employment creation and in partnership with private stakeholders; the
development of  incentives for companies to create openings for on the job
training and apprenticeships and the implementation of a network of vocational
centres aimed at providing education and training guidance to both youngsters
and adults and at liaising with companies at local level. 
In order to fight youth unemployment, the
programme 'Youth Impulse' (Impulso Jovem) has recently been launched and
supports a number of on the job training activities such as the 'Passport for
jobs' six-month internships in companies, nationally or internationally, in
social-economy institutions, in youth and sports associations, in agricultural
exploitations and in public sector bodies. Finally, the programme 'Stimulus
2012' (Estímulo 2012) aims at promoting the return to the labour market of the
unemployed through support to companies hiring and providing adequate training
to those with higher employability difficulties.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

A major step in the modernisation of the
Portuguese education and training system was the development of the National
Qualifications System from 2007 onwards. It is composed of the National Agency
for Qualification, the National Council for Vocational Training, Sectoral
Councils for Qualification and entities delivering certified training. Its main
instruments are the National Qualifications Catalogue, providing a repository
of all market relevant training courses and permanently updated in association
with stakeholders, the National Qualifications Framework referenced to the
European Qualifications Framework and the System for Recognition, Validation
and Certification of non-formal and informal competences. Its main aims include
strengthening integration between the general and the professional education
and training offer; building certification mechanisms into the system for
school and professional competences acquired in informal and non-formal ways
and promoting the relevance, certification and recognition of the education and
training offer; facilitating the qualification of lifelong learning, promoting
flexibility of the offer by organising it into short modular units that can be
independently certificated and credited and building up the oversight and
quality control mechanisms for the education and training pathways in the
National Qualifications System.
Also Portugal's renewed and more
diversified framework for higher education has been opened to new layers of
society. Between 2005 and 2009, the number of higher education graduates
increased by about 20%. The on-going measures which are expected to contribute
to attain the national Europe 2020 target set for tertiary attainment include
the extension of compulsory education until the age of 18, the Confidence
Contract signed in 2010 by the government and all public universities,
polytechnics and higher education institutions, the increase in the number of
students enrolled in technical specialisation courses, the extension of the
distance learning supply network, and the increased diversification of 3rd
cycle courses in cooperation with the private sector.
The Technological Plan for Education
2007-2010 aimed at reinforcing the role of information and communication
technologies (ICT) as basic tools for teaching and learning and at promoting
educational success among students. The present national strategy on the use of
ICT in education relies on the infrastructure (high-speed broadband, Internet
access in classrooms) and equipment (desktop computers, video projectors and
interactive whiteboards) deployed in schools in the last few years. The
strategy is steered by the Educational Resources and Technology Unit of the
Ministry of Education and includes initiatives covering curricula and
extra-curricular activities, distance collaboration, digital learning
resources, e-safety, curriculum integration, dissemination and continuing
professional development. Particularly noteworthy is the Schools Portal
educational repository, which holds about 1800 learning resources uploaded in
their majority by teachers, and its catalogue of education blogs which provides
a source of information for sharing best practice with regard to the use of
blogs as educational tools and services. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

The education system faces the significant
challenge of seeking to sustain and improve current performance levels while undergoing
a substantial budget reduction due to the
implementation of the economic and financial assistance programme under the
Memorandum of Understanding signed with the European Commission, the IMF and
the ECB. It can be estimated that from 2010 to 2011, expenditure by the
Ministry of Education (excluding higher education) fell 11.2%.
Curriculum restructuring, re-organisation
of the school network and improvement in human resources management are some of
the areas where efficiency gains could be obtained. As 90% of the current educational
expenditure is concentrated in staff costs, flexibility to reduce expenditure
is very limited. Therefore, achieving an effective school network is of extreme
importance. A possible path is linking funding to performance. 

Conclusion

Although Portugal still performs below or
close to the EU average in several of the most important indicators, including
ESL and tertiary attainment, its progress in recent years has been quite
significant and consistent, including the investment in expanding and
diversifying training opportunities to low qualified adults under the framework
of the modernisation of the National Qualifications System. The challenge it
faces is, however, extremely difficult as it should continue to improve
organisational effectiveness and increase performance while maintaining or,
even, reducing funding. The main priorities should continue to be: the
improvement of young students' basic skills, foreign language learning and
transversal subjects such as entrepreneurship; the reduction of early school
leaving; the restructuring of secondary education including the reorganisation
of the schools network and the restructuring of VET; and, finally, the
improvement of the qualifications level of the adult population under a
coherent lifelong learning strategy. In this context, it is fundamental that Portugal takes the best advantage possible of the opportunities provided by the next
structural funds programming phase for the modernisation of the education and
training system.
Romania
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[9]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Romania performs below
the EU average in both Europe 2020 headline indicators. The early school
leaving rate (17.5% in 2011) is well above both the EU average (13.5%) and the
10% EU benchmark. Tertiary or equivalent attainment rate (20.4% in 2011) is
over 14 percentage points below the EU average (34.6%), despite some rapid
progress over the past 5 years. As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks,
participation in early childhood education (82.1% in 2010) is far below the EU
average. Romania is among the worst performers in the EU on basic skills. More
than two out of five 15 year-olds do not have adequate levels in reading, maths
and science to equip them for adult life. Nevertheless, the latest PISA survey shows fast improvement in reducing low achievement. The employment rate of
graduates has further decreased during the economic crisis and is well below
the EU average (70.4% vs. 77.2%). There is also a significant mismatch between
the education offer of universities and the labour market needs and this is
also visible in the unemployment rates which are particularly high among young
university graduates. For the age group 20-24, 29.4% of tertiary graduates were
unemployed in 2011 compared to 22.9% of secondary graduates. Over-qualification
representing 39.8% of job mismatches is widespread. Adult participation in
lifelong learning remains stagnant at very low levels (1.6% in 2011),
registering a significant gap compared to EU27 average (8.9%). Participation
rates are particularly low among low skilled adults. Only 0.3% of adults with
less than upper secondary education participated in education and training in
2011, compared to 3.6% of adults with tertiary education. 
ICT skills of adults are low. Concerning
the distribution of tertiary graduates by field compared with the EU average, Romania has a very high (and increasing) share of graduates in social science, business and
law, as well as a low share of graduates in education and training and in
health and welfare. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population
believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a business is
close to the EU average. According to CEDEFOP skill forecasts, Romania will register a deficit of medium and high level skills in 2020. A particularly
difficult challenge is lower achievement and higher early school leaving in
rural areas. As regards investment in education, Romania has the lowest share
of GDP allocated to education in the EU (2009 data). The education sector at
all levels was hit particularly hard by the economic crisis.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The new education act adopted in January
2011 is a major reform of the education system at all levels. An on-going
reform of the curriculum, in accordance with the new education act adopted in
January 2011, aims to reinforce basic and transversal skills, aligning the
curriculum to European key competences. In order to develop evidence on student
performance, Romania intends to develop and implement national summative tests
in 3rd, 6th and 9th grades. The law introduces
a unitary system of early childhood education and care (0-6 years),
curriculum-based, under the authority of the Ministry of Education, with
specific educational requirements for staff (university education required for
teachers at ages 3-6). A compulsory preparatory class for 6 year olds has been
established in primary schools in September 2012. A reformed vocational
education and training path, with a stronger work related practical dimension
started in September 2012.
Building on a strong tradition in the
teaching of foreign languages, the new education law strengthens the compulsory
teaching of two foreign languages. The baccalaureate examination will include
the compulsory examination of two foreign languages. Romania is one of the few
EU countries in which entrepreneurship is taught as a compulsory subject in
secondary education. A large number of programmes aim to stimulate
entrepreneurship education, notably a programme for simulated training firms,
with take-up in one thousand VET schools.
The on-going higher education reform aims
at strengthening quality in higher education. It overhauls the management of
higher education institutions and raises requirements for the organisation of
masters and doctoral courses. A new university ranking published in 2011 is a
first step towards more strategic use of funding in supporting quality. 
A number of programmes financed by the
European Social Fund support the changes in early childhood education and care,
in curriculum, assessment and teacher education. A new programme launched in
the spring of 2012 aims to train teachers in the use of assessment and in
implementing national standardised assessments. 
Implementing a large package of reforms
needs both broad political support and extensive consultation with
stakeholders. The envisaged decentralisation of the education system would also
require a strategic, long term implementation commitment from all political
actors. Administrative capacity in education policymaking, both in central and
in decentralised structures, is uneven and remains a major challenge. There is
very limited use of evidence based policymaking, little data for monitoring the
quality of education and such data is not used for informing policymaking. 

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

The new education law reforms initial
teacher education, introducing two-year pedagogical master degrees.
Implementation is still in early phases. Teachers will also have a compulsory
one year induction in the profession. A structure for quality assurance of
continuing professional development of teachers has been set up. There has been
good progress in developing a variety of continuing professional development
opportunities for teachers. A number of structural funds programmes target
updating the competences of teachers, including vocational teachers or aim to
strengthen the school guidance network, seriously affected by the consequences
of the economic crisis. 
Regarding flexible pathways, the new
education law reforms the structure of vocational education, allowing more
permeability and flexibility between vocational, technical and academic tracks.
The new law also explicitly encourages the participation of non-traditional
learners in tertiary education and supports the recognition of prior learning. Romania has not adopted yet a lifelong learning strategy. Romania continues progress
towards the National Qualifications Framework, and plans to revise the
Occupations Classification. Many legal provisions are still to be implemented,
as secondary regulation has not yet been adopted. 
There has been progress in establishing
an accreditation system for adult education and a number of programmes in this
area have been financed from the structural funds. The
second chance schools could be further supported in order to reach the low
skilled. Further incentives for employers engaging in
continuing vocational training and closer integration with active labour market
policies are needed for scaling up participation, particularly for low skilled
adults.
Romania has
invested considerable effort in upgrading the material basis for ICT in schools
and the broadband connections of schools. A compulsory digital competence
certification is part of the Baccalaureate Examination. The role of ICT
competences in the secondary curriculum has been strengthened. A number of
portals for teachers allow the sharing of teacher developed educational
materials. Nevertheless, a restrictive policy on official textbooks and a
prescriptive curriculum act as barriers to teachers’ development of their own
teaching materials.
Several on-going programmes use digital
resources for the continuing professional development of teachers. While the
course modules are quality assured, their effectiveness compared to other forms
of provision is unclear. 
In higher education, there has also been
a significant rise in distance and online provision. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Romania has
introduced a number of measures aiming to increase private investment in
education. The new education act opens the possibility to publicly fund
privately organised education in early childhood and compulsory education. 
The state funds a limited share of
tuition fees in higher education, based on merit, while a large number of
students pay tuition fees. There are a large number of private higher education
institutions, contributing to the rapidly rising graduation rates.
Nevertheless, the national ranking of universities classified these
institutions as belonging to the lowest quality category. 
A system of skills councils exists at
regional and local level, aimed at increasing the relevance of vocational
education and training. There are a limited number of partnerships between
industry and higher education institutions.

Conclusion

Romania faces a major challenge in
raising the quality of education and training. Current performance on basic
skills is very low at school level and there is no data on the level of basic
skills of the adult population. Quality issues and skills
mismatches with labour market demand
affect a large share of vocational and tertiary education.
The new education law adopted in 2011 is a major reform of the entire education
system, setting a long term agenda for upgrading the quality of education at
all levels. Implementation needs to be continued, based on a broad political
consensus and on an effort to build up administrative capacity and evidence-based policymaking at both
central and local level. 
The main challenge in increasing the
supply of skills remains the underfinancing of the sector. While Romania faces
some of the most serious problems in skills supply in the EU and is currently
implementing one of the most ambitious reform agendas, the budget allocated to
education is the lowest in the EU.
Sweden
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on Language
Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[10]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Sweden
outperforms the EU average for both Europe 2020 headline indicators.  The early
school leaving rate (6.6% vs. 13.5% in 2011) is well below the 10% EU benchmark
and continued to decrease over the past 5 years. Tertiary or equivalent
attainment rate (47.5% vs. 34.6% in 2011) is at all-time heights and is over 10
percentage points higher than the EU average. The analysis of sub-indicators
shows high investment in education, favourable family backgrounds, better
participation and/or completion patterns in early childhood education and VET,
as well as in upper secondary education. As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks,
participation in early childhood education is above the EU average and is just
above the 95% EU target set for 2020. In terms of basic skills, 15-year olds'
performance in PISA tests worsened between 2006 and 2009 in all three areas,
nevertheless Sweden still performed better than the EU average in reading and
in mathematics in 2009. There is however a significant gender gap in reading,
with 24.2% of boys being low-achievers compared to 10.5% of girls. The
employment rate of graduates remained stable despite the economic crisis and is
well above the EU average (84.4% vs. 77.2% in 2011). The rate has even
increased by over 1 percentage point since 2006. The traditionally high adult
participation in lifelong learning further increased in the last 5 years and is
over 16 percentage points higher than the EU average (25% vs. 8.9% in 2011).
ICT skills of the adult population are
far above the EU average. In EU comparison, Sweden has a very high share of
graduates in health and welfare (24.9% as against 15.1% in 2010) and a rather
low share of graduates in social science, business and law (24.1 vs. 35.7%).
Foreign language learning starts in primary education, all primary school
pupils (100%) learn English as a first foreign language. Figures indicate excellent
English language skills; Sweden is only outperformed by Malta where English is the country's second official language. Sweden's employment pattern up to
2020 is forecast to be fairly different from the EU average in high and low
qualification jobs, with a modest increase in both, while the increase in
medium qualification jobs is close to the EU average. Public spending on
education in Sweden is above the EU average (7.26% vs. 5.41% of GDP in 2009).
Among the EU Member States, only Denmark and Cyprus allocate a higher share of
GDP to education. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The declining performance of pupils in
international surveys such as PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS, paired with the growing
number of adults with low basic skills, have called for extensive reforms in
Sweden.
On 1 July 2011, the new Education Act
came into force, introducing a wide range of measures at all levels of the
education system, including pre-primary, primary, secondary, upper secondary
and adult education. The Act introduces new curricula for schools and for early
childhood education and it foresees more national tests of basic skills in
schools. One important innovation of the Act is granting special support to
pupils who run the risk of not reaching the achievement targets set. The Act
also increases the power of school authorities, headmasters and teachers,
including in identifying the pupils in need of special support and in designing
the programme of action. In this vein, the majority of schools have teachers
specialised in supporting pupils in reading literacy. In addition, to improve
pupils' basic skills, a new programme for strengthening mathematics education,
natural sciences and technology was introduced in the 2012 budget. In upper
secondary education, the reform aims at ensuring that more pupils leave upper
secondary school with pass grades and improving pupils' skills both for the
labour market and further studies. To this end, the vocational track has been
further differentiated and the apprenticeship system has been introduced as an
alternative route to attain a Vocational Diploma. 
Sweden continues
to modernise its higher education, by introducing a new quality evaluation
system, consolidating the quality assurance system and by introducing from 2013
quality based resource allocation for higher education institutions. The recently
established higher vocational education programmes at post-secondary level have
high demand, and high insertion rates for graduates on the labour market.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

With regard to flexible pathways, the
reformed upper secondary education brings in higher levels of differentiated
pathways, with greater curriculum differentiation between the academic,
vocational and apprenticeship tracks. Vocational programmes are also advised
and supported by tripartite National and Local Programme Councils, which also
track successful graduates. While the majority of vocational programmes in the
new upper secondary system no longer provide automatic entry to higher
education, graduates from vocational programmes are entitled to further
education in upper secondary schools or in municipal adult education in order
to gain access to higher education institutions.
The National Agency for Higher Vocational
Education (NAHVE), established in 2009, monitors the standards of vocational
programmes. It also collects information about skills needs and ensures that
higher vocational education programmes are aligned with labour market needs.
The continuing lack of attractiveness of
the teaching profession remains an important bottleneck to increasing the
quality of education in Sweden. To raise the status of the teaching profession
and to strengthen the competence of teachers, the Government currently
implements the reform of initial teacher education. The new teacher education
programme, which came into force as part of the Education Act in 2011, puts
more emphasis on in-depth subject studies and imposes tougher requirements for
being qualified to teach particular subjects. Furthermore, additional resources
are being made available for continuing professional development of teachers, under
the so-called 'Boost for Teachers' initiative, and measures are implemented for
ensuring more progression in the teaching career and moving towards a clear
enforcement of a qualifications framework for teachers.
In the area of ICT, Sweden implements a major strategic reform "ICT for Everyone – A Digital Agenda for Sweden". The aim of the programme is to group all on-going activities in a horizontal,
comprehensive strategy to make the most of the opportunities offered by
digitalisation both to the individuals and businesses. Regarding education,
under a specific chapter of the "Digital Agenda", called "A
National Broadband Strategy", the objective is that on completing primary
and lower secondary education, every pupil is able to use ICT tools for
knowledge-seeking, communication and learning.  
To this end, in the new school curriculum
ICT skills are taught cross-curricular and the core content of a number of
subjects, including history, social science, mathematics and natural science
require the use of ICT. The National Agency for Education (Skolverket) implements
a number of projects supporting the integration of ICT both in the teaching and
in the new curricula: i. "ICT in the school" spreads knowledge across
schools about the use and design of digital learning tools; ii. "Check-out
the Source" provides day-to-day support to teachers on information
retrieval, copyright and secure internet usage whereby raising teachers'
digital competences; iii. teachers and headmasters receive continuing
professional development in ICT in 200 communities. The Swedish government made
considerable funding available for these activities and the National Agency for
Education also monitors the project outcomes in terms of teachers' use of ICT
and ICT skills obtained in the education system. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Sweden has a long
tradition of promoting the redistributive role of the state, social inclusion
and equality, underpinned by high levels of taxation and public spending.
However, there is an on-going debate on how to establish funding mechanisms in
education that improve the efficiency and quality of the provision. Expert
opinion is divided on whether the introduction of so-called "independent
schools" in 1992 has enhanced educational achievement or in these privately-run,
publicly funded schools, profit takes precedence over quality. 
A further challenge the system faces is
an increased decentralisation over the past decade. While it is the Ministry
for Education that sets the framework for education at all levels i.e. key
objectives and the curriculum are defined in the Education Act, local
municipalities are responsible for providing and operating schools. Within this
framework, schools and teachers are free to select teaching methods and
materials.      
Establishing partnerships in vocational
education and training has been long overdue. In 2008 the OECD recommended that
a National Commission for VET is established, composed of different government
ministries and the social partners. Currently, social partners play a
significant role in VET for adults through joint business-labour occupation
advisory committees (yrkesråd) and they also oversee the certification of most
VET occupations at sectoral level. 

Conclusion

Sweden faces the
challenge of skills supply. Due to demographic changes, the number of people
retiring exceeds the number of young people entering the labour market. Until
now, Sweden has addressed this challenge using its rather flexible wage-setting
system and providing incentives also via the tax system for inactive or
unemployed people to return to full-time or part-time employment.[11] 
Nevertheless, the challenge of low labour
market integration of young people and immigrants remains important. Labour
market participation of these groups is often hampered by their lack of skills
needed at the Swedish labour market. 
To address this challenge, the Swedish
government embarked on a comprehensive reform of the education system in 2010.
The New Education Act, which replaces the Act from 1985, has introduced reforms
which are both relevant and ambitious. It is however too early to assess if the
policy responses offered by the Act will be successful and deliver the intended
results. While the implementation of the measures will need to be closely
monitored, it should also be borne in mind that the increased decentralisation
of the Swedish education system makes it more challenging to implement
comprehensive national strategies on the ground.
Slovenia
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[12]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Slovenia strongly outperforms the EU average in terms of early school leaving (ESL) (4.2%
compared to the EU average of 13.5% in 2011). In the past 3 years (2008-2011),
the country has made progress towards reducing the ESL rate except for the
sub-group of born abroad. As far as tertiary attainment is concerned, Slovenia (37.9%) is above the EU average of 34.6% but has not yet reached the Europa 2020
benchmark and its national 2020 target of 40%. As regards the other ET 2020
benchmarks, participation in early childhood education is close to the EU
average (92% in 2010). While the performance of school education worsened in
the last years, Slovenia still outperforms the EU average, with the exception
of reading. Whilst the share of 15 year-old low achievers in mathematics and
science is respectively 2 and 3 percentage points lower than the EU average, in
reading it is 1.5 percentage points higher. Girls perform better than boys in
reading and science. The employment rate of graduates (76%) is a little lower
than the EU average (77.2%) and declined by close to 5 percentage points in the
last 5 years due to the economic crisis. Adult participation in lifelong
learning (15.9% in 2011) is nearly double that of the EU average (8.9%) and has
already surpassed the ET 2020 benchmark. 
ICT skills of the adult population are
above the EU average. In EU comparison, Slovenia has a high (although
declining) share of graduates in social science, business and law (44.3% vs.
35.7% in 2010) and a low share of graduates in health and welfare (8.7% as
against 15.1%). As
regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population believing to have the
required skills and knowledge to start a business (51%) is among the top 2
performing countries, jointly with Spain and distinctively higher than in
Germany (37%), France (38%) or the UK (42%). Employment in high qualification
jobs in Slovenia up to 2020 is forecast to increase faster than the EU average,
whereas comparatively less medium qualification jobs are expected to be
created. Public spending on education in Slovenia remained broadly stable
between 2006 and 2009 (5.70%) and above the EU average. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Weaknesses in the Slovenian education
system, identified also in the 2011 White Paper on Education, are currently being
addressed with a variety of measures. Measures concentrate mainly on the
modernisation of the curricula (2008-2012) in mathematics, natural sciences
(physics, biology and chemistry) as well as in the three nationally recognised languages
(Slovenian, Italian and Hungarian). Curriculum is reformed at all pre-university
education levels, through updating their content and through introducing
innovative didactical approaches, including new teaching methods. Actions also
seek improving the quality of teachers but also target developments in specific
subjects, and are implemented by specific development teams or in entire
schools. With respect to literacy, the school related approach is important
given the widely differing results between different schools. In-class room
activities are complemented by initiatives addressed to the general public such
as, "Read books, move it" ("Knijgajamo migajmo"), which
contribute to improving the reading habits of upper secondary school pupils.
Additional projects address the competences of pre-school and school teachers to
improve their "learning to learn" skills as well as introducing a
competence–based "learning to learn" approach into their teaching. 
The government intends to continue
reforming vocational education and training (VET), including by making it more
attractive and more relevant for the needs of the labour market. The main
challenge remains to overturn the decline in enrolment and to intensify
co-operation with employers both in defining the curricula and providing short
apprenticeships.    
Adult learning receives special
attention in Slovenia. Since 2011, a National Programme of Adult Education has
aimed to improve the educational level, skills and employability of adults
within a philosophy of adult learning. It looks to increase adult participation
in the labour market and targets 180.000 participants. The programme is
accompanied by a project, Education and training of educators of adults,
intending to raise the motivation of educators, course planning and teaching
skills.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Slovenia has an education system that is
generally considered to be efficient and open, which facilitates changes
between different tracks. Drop-outs and early school leavers have access to
second chance education and there is a flexible path between vocational
education and general education. 
Slovenia has progressed in developing a
national qualifications framework (NQF). The proposal for a comprehensive NQF
includes all nationally recognised qualifications and supports validation of
non-formal and informal learning. The NQF will be referenced to the European
Qualifications Framework (EQF) with the referencing report still expected to be
finalised in 2012. These developments are paired with strengthening the use of
instruments such as Europass, ECVET and EQARF. In addition, efforts are being
made to better connect various services active in the areas of career guidance,
counselling and validation. The Labour Market Act adopted in January 2011 puts
particular emphasis on guidance and counselling with guidance services being
introduced throughout the whole cycle of education. 
A current, on-going programme on the
"Development of literacy and recognition and validation of the results of
non–formal education  2011-2014" is developing a methodology including
descriptors in order for allowing the recognition and validation of skills
acquired by early school leavers in the context of non-formal education. 
Highly educated teachers are civil
servants and are rather young (majority between 35-45 years). The above
mentioned curricula reform also includes the continuous modernisation of
teaching methods.
Slovenia has a national strategy on the use of
ICT in education dating from 2006. 92% of households with children have access
to a computer. 62% of individuals aged 16-24 declare having high computer
skills, which is far above the EU average of 45%. It is likely that this
positive development is the result of a policy that promotes ICT from primary
school. Whilst ICT is not foreseen as a separate subject in ISCED 1, it is
optional in ISCED 2 and compulsory in ISCED 3. The on-going curriculum reforms
at primary, secondary and vocational school and training level ensure a
competence oriented approach developing all key competences. In 2011 the
National Foundation Institute published the Baselines for the preparation of
Electronic Textbooks. The first e-textbooks for primary education have been
approved by the National Expert Council for General Education. The ESF and the
government finance jointly a number of projects, for instance for CPD or
e-textbooks. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

In 2009 Slovenia invested 5.70% of its
GDP in education, which is slightly above the EU average. 0.56% is directed to
pre-school education, 2.49% to basic education, 1.26% to upper secondary
education and 1.36% to tertiary education. So far the financing of education
follows rather traditional and centralised patterns with private funding levels
being slightly below the EU average.
Efforts to close the gap between the
school system and the labour market have led to the "Unified Regional
Scholarship scheme" that has been implemented recently. It links secondary
school pupils, pre-graduate and graduate students to employers of a specific
region. The programme "Pre-graduate Activate" encourages students
just before graduation to seek training with a potential employer. Combined
with mentoring, this programme allows also for the creation of partnerships
between universities and the business sector.

Conclusion

While the Slovenian education system
performs well, there are shortcomings with matching the skills obtained in the
education system to the needs of the labour market. Skills mismatch is a
challenge both for the low-skilled but also for the high-skilled tertiary
graduates. Although Slovenia recognises the importance of a national forecast
of future skills needs on the labour market, a comprehensive system to identify
current and projected labour market needs is yet to be developed.
In addition, the performance of
15-year olds', as measured by international tests has failed to improve and has
even deteriorated. In order to reverse this trend and to remedy apparent
weaknesses, for example in literacy, reform efforts need to be continued and
eventually intensified. The completion of a national qualifications framework
that is referenced to the European Qualifications Framework will be an
important development to this end. Furthermore, special attention will have to
be devoted to more efficient inclusion of vulnerable groups.  
The current context of consolidation
of public expenditure in Slovenia, with an impact on teacher pay inter alia, risks
leading to a less favourable situation in the field of education in the near future.
In the context of growth-friendly fiscal consolidation there is a clear need to
preserve expenditure in education and training while increasing its efficiency.
Slovakia
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[13]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the
Europe 2020 targets, Slovakia is one of the EU best performers in the area of
early school leaving (5.0% compared to the EU average of 13.5% in 2011) and
already meets its 2020 national target (6%). The younger age group benefits
from a favourable family background in comparison to the EU average. Slovakia's tertiary attainment rate (23.4%) is significantly lower than the EU average of
34.6%, but the number of new students in tertiary education has risen rapidly
and the country is making good progress towards the attainment of its national target
(40%). Participation in early childhood education (77.5%) is low compared to
the EU average (92.3%) and has a slightly negative trend. School education in Slovakia has mixed results in terms of basic skills: despite improvements in reading and science, 15
year-olds' performance on PISA tests remains below average, while results in
mathematics remain slightly above an EU average. Low employment rate of
graduates (70.3% in 2011) points to a problem of skills mismatches in Slovakia. Participation of adults in lifelong learning is very low in EU comparison and
continues to decrease (3.9% vs. 8.9% in 2011). This is particularly an issue
for the long-term unemployed. 
ICT skills of the
population are slightly below the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, the
share of the population believing to have the required skills and knowledge to
start a business (53%) is the highest in the EU. The average number of foreign
languages learned per pupil is close to the EU average (1.4 vs. 1.5). The
number of graduates in mathematics, science and technology is high in EU
comparison. Employment in low and medium qualification jobs in Slovakia until 2020 is forecast to decrease, while employment in high qualification jobs is
expected to increase much faster than the EU average (39.2% as against 19.7%).
Public spending on education as a share of GDP in Slovakia, despite recent
increases, continues to be the lowest in the EU (4.09% in 2009).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

In the area of
primary and secondary education, Slovakia is implementing a curricular reform
from 2008 which has introduced two-level (state and school) curricula and
provided schools with more autonomy and a framework to better reflect local and
regional labour market needs. The reform has created conditions for flexibility
and innovation at school level. This is generally welcomed by stakeholders but
further support in ensuring schools utilise these opportunities is needed. The
reform was also aimed at supporting key competences of pupils and addressing
low performance in the area of reading and writing skills for children and
young people. In relation to future skills shortages (need for more STEM
graduates), Slovakia is considering re-introducing mathematics as an obligatory
part of the secondary school leaving exam ("maturita"). Given the
openness of the Slovak economy, an important emphasis is placed on language
skills with two compulsory foreign languages (from 3rd/6th
grade). Emphasis is also put on ICT with a specific national strategy but
substantial improvements have not yet been achieved. Entrepreneurship is integrated in the curricula
supported by a number of very good projects in this field. The reform has
strengthened the role of pre-primary education. The last year of kindergarten
is free of charge, with the aim to increase participation (in particular that of
children from marginalised, Roma communities). The kindergartens are now
covered by school legislation and are supposed to develop their own curricula. 
A specific
challenge in the system is the integration of children from marginalised Roma
communities. Most Roma receive inadequate education: only one in five 18–24
year-olds has completed secondary, post-secondary or vocational education and
training (VET). Access to pre-school education is limited and pre-school
enrolment among Roma children is very low (18 % vs the national average of 72 %
in 2011). Moreover, the education system fosters segregation. 
The issue of
youth unemployment has been a challenge in Slovakia for a long time. In
relation to the E&T system, it points to the problem of skills mismatches.
The main approach to address this issue is to raise the proportion of
work-based learning in both VET and higher education (HE) and promote lifelong
learning for the unemployed. While the legislative changes in 2009 provided a
framework for the active involvement of employers in the organisation of VET, a
dual apprenticeship scheme is missing. According to the last national reform
programme, Slovakia plans to develop such a scheme with a greater involvement
of companies in providing apprenticeship places. 
The number of
students in HE has risen rapidly from a low level and Slovakia is making good progress towards the tertiary education attainment target. However, the
situation of higher education graduates in the labour market has changed and
the unemployment rate more than doubled between 2008 and 2010. The main reason is
structural mismatches, both horizontal (with estimated 34% of graduates being
in jobs which required only upper-secondary level), as well as vertical (with
25% being in jobs which do not correspond to the field of their studies). Another shortcoming is the focus on
theoretical preparation and lack of practical experience. In contrast to other
EU countries, where bachelor degrees are labour-market-relevant and a
cost-effective alternative to master degrees, only a small share of students in
  Slovakia enters the labour market with just a bachelor degree (0.7% of all
graduates).

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

The main
bottleneck in raising quality remains a lack of attractiveness around the teaching
profession (masters level qualification is required in order to become a
teacher in Slovakia) and hence a failure to attract talented young people into
the profession. Some measures (a new career system for teachers with focus on
professional development) have established a positive basis for strengthening
the position. A national
system for the testing of the mother tongue language and mathematics (3 stages
in the 4th, 9th grade and at the upper secondary leaving exam) provides a good
basis for analysis and evidence-based policy.  Furthermore, the National school
inspection body developed a system of indicators to monitor teaching methods
and pedagogies with respect to the development of key competences (particularly
communication in mother tongue, digital competence and the situation of
students/pupils from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds) in a
cross-curricular manner. However,
the attractiveness of the profession, mainly due to salary levels, remains low. 
While it is
possible to move within the formal education system there are very few alternative
ways to achieve formal qualifications. It is possible to move from general
education to VET and vice versa, from VET to HE and also from one higher
education institution to another. However, for early school leavers, the only
way to achieve a formal qualification is by completing a given programme and
the assessment. Despite existing legal basis, there are practically no
possibilities for the validation of non-formal an informal learning. 
The national
qualifications framework (NQF) and the related register is expected to be the
complementary tool to  National System of Occupation (described below) to
improve the labour market relevance of the education and training system.
However, the development of the Slovak NQF is still in early stages despite the
fact that it was already defined in the 2009 Act on lifelong learning. For the
moment, it does not exist and the actual work on its development is to start in
2012. 
In general,
lifelong learning/continuous training is a weakness of the Slovak education and
training system – it is
underfinanced and inefficient. There are no incentives (for individuals or
employers) to stimulate participation in lifelong learning and continuing
training. There is very little publicly funded provision and ESF funding in
this field is mostly used for active labour market policies. The inefficiencies
are linked, among other factors, to the absence of a complex system of labour
market research. Similarly, little efforts seem to be placed on the role of
guidance in this field.
There
is a national strategy on ICT in education which aims to integrate ICT in
education (2007). Actions cover students (digital competence as part of education),
teachers (teacher training and standards for ICT) as well as infrastructure
(improving IT equipment). National school inspection notes a range of
shortcomings in the implementation of this strategy and limitations in
integration of ICT into education.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Expenditure in
education and training in Slovakia is one of the lowest (using different
indicators) in the EU at all levels (primary, secondary, VET and higher
education). There has been a
recent change in higher education to strengthen the link between research
performance and public funding (with a split of 60% per capita and 40% per
research performance). The
area of continuing training is largely underfunded. Basically all the reform
efforts, as well as the modernisation of education infrastructure, are financed through structural funds.
The national system of occupations (NSO),
currently being built up, will provide an overview of the occupational profiles
of different professions in various sectors. One of the elements of this
initiative is the setting up of national sectoral councils with the main role
to define skills needs. However, it has created some duplications and overlaps
in governance structure, in particular in relation to the new VET governance
which has separate skills councils at different levels (national, regional,
sectoral).

Conclusion

Due to the
alarming rate of youth unemployment and skills shortages reported by companies,
the education and training system receives the increasing attention of policy
makers, business, media and the gneral public. Slovakia is well on track to
reach its national targets in the area of early school leaving and tertiary
attainment, but more efforts to increase quality and expenditure in education
and training may be necessary. The main reforms in school education focused on
basic skills and key competences seem to be heading in the right direction;
however, it is too soon to assess their impact. What seems to be a major bottleneck
in increasing overall quality and implementation of these reforms is the lack
of support for teachers and the low level of attractiveness of the teaching
profession. The announced measures in the area of VET (dual apprenticeship) and
HE (focus on employability, promotion of STEM studies) are positive, but require
support in terms of increased funding, improved systems of quality assurance
and better quality of teaching staff. In terms of funding, the over-reliance on
ESF as the main tool to support reforms does not appear sustainable. In
general, while efforts are mainly focused on addressing the needs of the
majority population, the situation of vulnerable groups (particularly
marginalised Roma communities) calls for greater action. 
United Kingdom
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[14]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in primary
and secondary education, participation in vocational education and training
[VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, the UK performs below the EU average for the early school leaving rate (15.0% vs. 13.5% in
2011), but significantly above for the tertiary attainment rate (45.8% as
against 34.6% in 2011). As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, participation
in early childhood education is above the EU average. In terms of basic skills,
15 year-olds' performance on PISA tests continues to outperform the EU average,
although it remained broadly constant in recent years in readings and
mathematics and only modestly improved in science. The employment rate of
graduates suffered from the recent economic crisis and decreased by 5
percentage points since 2006, but remains well above the EU average (81.2% vs.
77.2% in 2011). Also participation of adults in lifelong learning decreased in
recent years (although the figures are affected by breaks in series), while remaining
high in EU comparison (15.8% vs. 8.9% in 2011).
Concerning ICT skills of young people, a
very high share of pupils in the 4th grade uses computers at school.  As
regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population believing to have the
required skills and knowledge to start a business is close to the EU average.
Having English as mother tongue, foreign language skills are not very developed
in the UK. The number of graduates in mathematics, science and technology is
high in EU comparison. The employment pattern in the UK up to 2020 is forecast
to be fairly different from the EU average in medium and low qualification
jobs, with a stronger increase in the former and a very large decrease in the
latter, which are expected to represent only 11% of total jobs in 2020
(compared with an EU average of 18%). Public spending on education in the UK is above the EU average (5.67% vs. 5.41% of GDP in 2009.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

In the area of basic skills, a review of
the National Curriculum in England is currently under way and new programmes of
study are planned to be introduced in September 2014. While its primary aim is
to give schools greater freedom over the curriculum, the review is also driven
by the view that students in England specialise at too early a stage. The
proposals published in June 2012 by the Department for Education concerning
primary schools include more demanding programmes in English, mathematics and
science, as well as making a foreign language compulsory from the age of seven.
In Wales, starting from September 2012, the National Literacy and Numeracy
Framework sets out annual expected outcomes in literacy and numeracy for
learners aged 5 to 14. It also includes new reading and numeracy tests to
support teachers in understanding skill development. In the long-term, the
framework is expected to provide a much stronger feedback loop to teachers to
plan effective and sufficient literacy and numeracy teaching across the
curriculum.
To fight early school leaving, the
government is, inter alia, raising the age for leaving compulsory education in England from 16 to 17 in 2013 and to 18 from 2015. Although this measure is very
significant, it remains to be seen whether students will be endowed with the
right skills for the labour market. In 2010 Scotland launched 16+ Learning
Choices, a new model for organising and supporting post-16 transitions covering
learning, planning and delivery, personalised and financial support. It is a
universal offer for all 15-18 year olds, but it targets those more likely to
drop out of education at the end of compulsory education; however it is too
early to assess its impact.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Segmentation of the education system has
been a long-standing challenge across the UK. Successive attempts at
qualification reform have attempted to promote comparability of and
transferability between academic and vocational routes. Since 2010, the
government has used a performance measure for the English Baccalaureate, which
is not a qualification in itself – but, rather is a way of focusing of school
achievement across a core set of subjects. Implicitly, this aims to move
schools away from increasingly offering vocational subjects that may not be
relevant for entry to higher education or for the labour market and marks a
reappraisal of the role of vocational learning in secondary schools.
Recent measures to improve skills
forecasting have included a series of proposals with increased focus on basic
skills, simplifying funding arrangements and reducing central bureaucratic
control over colleges and training organisations. In Scotland, an integrated
employment and skills (IES) service has been put in place to make it quicker
and easier for job-seekers to access professional advice, and a new Labour
Market Intelligence framework will set out a clear strategy for improving
provision of information and access.
In general, all schools have a range of
ICT tools available for use by teachers and pupils. These may include
computers, tablet PCs, digital cameras, mobile devices and robots. Interactive
teaching with electronic whiteboards is widespread as is access to virtual
learning environments and other digital resources.
The new curriculum for schools in Scotland from age 3-18 (Curriculum for Excellence), gradually implemented over 2008-2012,
ultimately aims at developing four ‘capacities’ in young people to become:
successful learners; confident individuals; responsible citizens; effective
contributors. The approach is to capture the ‘totality of experiences’ in
designing, planning and delivering learning, including recognising the
contribution of experiences outside of the classroom. Early evidence at the
draft outcomes and experience stage showed that stakeholders (teachers, school
leaders and local authority officers) welcomed the openness and flexibility of
the new approach; however more time is probably needed to exploit the potential
of the new curriculum in terms of personalised pathways and blended forms of
learning.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

As the government is expecting
universities to rely more and more on the income they receive from students, it
is reducing direct funding accordingly. As from the academic year 2012-13,
tuition fees paid by students are increasing to up to GBP 9 000 per year in England and Wales. In its place, the government will provide institutions with up-front loans of GBP
3.6 billion in 2012-13, rising to GBP 5 billion in 2013-14. The premium that
universities receive for taking in students from poorer backgrounds remains
unchanged. It will be important to monitor the effect of increased tuition fees
on enrolment and graduation, as well as the way in which the mix of graduate
skills fits with the needs of the economy.
In England the Employer Ownership of
Skills Programme, piloted in 2012, tests the potential to raise business
engagement and investment by routing public investment directly to employers
rather than via providers. Businesses have been invited to set out the public
investment they need to support their own investment in skills, training and
apprenticeship opportunities. While it is too early to assess the effectiveness
of the approach, it is worth noting that the design of the pilot supports
investment that can show a return on public expenditure. The challenge to be
addressed in this area is the still limited supply of work-based
apprenticeships, as there is relatively little tradition among UK employers of commitment to providing vocational training opportunities for young people.

The Academies Programme and the Free
Schools Programme in England are the most relevant initiatives concerning
partnerships in school education. Academies were first introduced in 2002
targeting poorly-performing schools, then the programme was extended to all
schools (starting with those offering outstanding provision) from 2010. Free
schools are a more recent development, as they were launched in September 2011.
Both programmes are on-going and target potentially all primary and secondary
schools. Academies are free from local authority control and have the ability
to set their own pay and conditions for staff. Part of the academy programme
targets underperforming schools (which may be forced rather than choose to
become academies). In these cases, sponsors are introduced to improve
performance and lead the new academies. These sponsors can come from a variety
of places – businesses, charities, faith bodies, other successful schools etc.
The free schools programme offers similar freedoms to parents and local
communities that wish to join together to set up new education establishments.
According to the National Audit Office, most academies are achieving
improvements in academic attainment for their pupils compared with their
predecessor schools; however, the gap in attainment between more disadvantaged
students and other pupils has increased in academies more than in comparable
maintained schools.

Conclusion

The skills challenges faced in the UK are rather long-standing in nature. The notion that a significant minority of young
people leave secondary education without the skills and qualifications to
compete in the labour market is not a new one. Yet it is a policy concern that
is amplified by the economic crisis, which has disproportionately affected
young people (especially low-skilled). 
A key priority articulated in the skills
strategy for England is to achieve more shared responsibility for learning
between government, individuals and employers. This also implies asking
individuals to contribute more directly to learning with a view to making
education and training more responsive and higher-quality. The approaches being
trialled to support employer leadership in skills are interesting and, if
successful, may finally provide the step change in the perceived value of
vocational training. What is clear is that these providers will have to become
increasingly responsive, as will the universities looking to attract students
paying significant fees. 
The focus on system reform – rather than
discrete measures or initiatives – is also seen strongly at school level. It is
not yet clear whether the reforms in England, notably raising the length of
compulsory education, will lead to an effective balance between academic and
other forms of learning; the approach is different in Scotland, where no legal
requirement to continue learning after 16 years of age exists but there is a
new curriculum explicitly set within a broader notion of the ‘capacities’ of
young people. Time will tell which approach is more effective in raising basic
skills through increased and more sustained participation in learning.

Annexes
Annex 1.     Summary statistics on the headline target
1.1      Early leavers from education and training

 

1.2      Tertiary educational attainment


Annex 2.     Methodology
figures on the headline target

This
annex contains further information on the methodology behind the figures used
for both components of the Europe 2020 headline target: early school leaving
and tertiary attainment[15].
These figures are featured in section 2 of each country sheet. 
When
comparing sub-groups and sub-indicators to the corresponding EU average,
standardized values are adopted. These standardized values are based on the
following calculation:
Firstly,
the charts focus on specific population sub-groups: native-born, foreign-born,
female, male. The figures for foreign-born students are not always provided,
following the approach of EUROSTAT, which does not provide figures for the
subset of the foreign-born population for the following countries: Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Malta, Poland, Romania and Slovakia. 
Secondly, sub-indicators are used to shed light on the
countries’ performance in the domain of educational attainment. Although most
sub-indicators do not constitute policy levers that can be used as such to
reach national targets by 2020, they are measures that help to explain behaviour
in the medium and long term.
 The sub-indicators for early school leaving 
 EMPL DIFF || Difference in employment rates || Difference in the employment rate in percentage points between individuals aged 20 to 64 with an educational attainment corresponding to ISCED 3 or 4 and those with an educational level corresponding to ISCED 0-2 (year 2011) 
 EDUC MOTHER (low) || Educational attainment of females aged 45-54 || Proportion of females aged 45 to 54 whose educational attainment corresponds to ISCED 0-2 (year 2011) 
 INV PRIM SEC || Investment in primary and secondary education || Annual expenditure on public and private educational institutions in EUR PPS at primary and secondary levels (ISCED 1 to 4) divided by the size of the cohort aged 6-18 compared to the GDP per capita in EUR PPS (year 2009) 
 VET || Participation in Vocational Education and Training (VET) || Proportion of ISCED level 3 students who participate in VET (year 2010) 
 ECE || Early childhood education || Proportion of pupils aged between 4-years-old and the starting age of compulsory education who are participating in early childhood education (year 2010) 
The
differences in employment rates are indications of labour market returns to
upper secondary and to high education. A higher return is believed to increase
the incentives to stay longer in the educational system. The educational
attainment of females aged 45-54 and 55-64 are proxies for the family
background of the target population of each headline indicator. A vast
literature highlights mother‘s education as a key determinant for explaining
differences in educational attainment.
Spending
per individual in the relevant age-group for each level of education compared
to the GDP per capita constitutes the measure of investment in education and
training systems and is a proxy for the quality of the supply of education. The
indicators employed here are slightly different from the more common “spending
as a percentage of GDP” or “spending per student” in order to take into account
demographic effects and not penalize countries with a high share of students
but that spend less on a per capita basis compared to other countries that
spend more on relatively fewer students. 
 The sub-indicators for tertiary educational attainment 
 EMPL DIFF || Difference in employment rates || Difference in percentage points in employment rate between individuals whose educational attainment is equal to ISCED5-6 and those whose educational attainment corresponds to ISCED3-4 (year 2011) 
 EDUC MOTHER (high) || Educational attainment of females aged 55-64 || Percentage of the females aged 55-64 having completed ISCED 5-6 (year 2011) 
 INV TERTIARY || Investment in tertiary education || Annual expenditure on the tertiary education (ISCED 5-6) divided by the size of the cohort aged 20-24 compared to the GDP per capita expressed in PPS) (year 2009) 
 UPPERSEC || Upper secondary educational attainment || Percentage of population aged 20-24 having completed at least upper secondary education (year 2009) 
 COMPLETION RATE || Completion rate at ISCED level 5A || Proportion of those who enter a tertiary-type A programme and go on to graduate from at least a first tertiary-type A programme (reference year: 2008)[16] 
The
participation in pre-primary education and the number of students enrolling in
VET programmes are believed to be associated with subsequent school outcomes.
Vocational programmes help reducing early leaving from education and training
and can help to make educational systems more socially inclusive. Early
childhood education is associated with better performance later in life. Rising
skill demands in European countries have made qualifications at the upper
secondary level the minimum credential for successful entries in the labour
market. Upper secondary education completion informs about the pool for new
entrants into higher education while the completion rate in tertiary education
allows contrasting countries in terms of the internal efficiency of the
tertiary educational system.
[1]               See annex 2.
[2]               See annex 2.
[3]               See annex 2.
[4]               See annex 2.
[5] The
Maltese series on ESL are under review by the Maltese Statistical Office and
Eurostat. The review concerns the classification of certain qualifications at
secondary level. The revision applies to all years covered (2006-2011) and
would mean a reduction of about 9 percentage points for the 2011 rate of early
school leavers.
[6]               See annex 2.
[7]               See annex 2.
[8]               See annex 2.
[9]               See annex 2.
[10]             See annex 2.
[11]http://www.ifau.se/Upload/pdf/se/2012/wp12-01-Evaluation-of-the-Swedish-earned-income-tax-credit.pdf
[12]             See annex 2.
[13]             See annex 2.
[14]             See annex 2.
[15]                             This
methodology is based on the Joint Assessment Framework (JAF) introduced by the
Directorate-General Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion (DG EMPL).
Sub-groups and sub-indicators for the twofold Europe 2020 target on education
and training are based on data provided by EUROSTAT and were developed by the
Centre for Research on Lifelong Learning (CRELL), which is co-ordinated by the
Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (DG JRC). For more details
about the methodology, see:
http://crell.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download/ReqNo_JRC70190_monitoring_the_eu_headline_target_pubsy.pdf.
[16]             Data for COMPLETION RATE
comes from OECD (2010, table A4.1).
Table of contents
Introduction. 3
Austria. 4
Belgium. 9
Bulgaria. 15
Cyprus 20
Czech Republic. 25
Germany. 30
Denmark 36
Estonia. 42
Greece. 47
Spain. 52
Finland. 57
France. 63
Hungary. 68
Ireland. 73
Italy. 79

Introduction 
The following
individual country summaries pinpoint the main challenges to skills provision
specific to the different European countries and outline the most significant
measures adopted to respond to such challenges.
The specific
information contained in the summaries underpins the key messages of the
Rethinking Education Communication by providing relevant quantitative and
qualitative evidence, established through a methodology, building on the
commonly accepted Joint Assessment Framework (JAF).
The
summaries closely reflect the structure of the Rethinking Education
Communication and complement the cross-country analysis presented in the Education
and Training Monitor.
The
summaries will provide essential elements for monitoring the implementation of
the country‑specific recommendations (CSRs) resulting from the European
Semester under the Europe 2020 strategy.
Part I of
this Staff Working Document covers the following Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, Estonia, Greece, Spain, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland and Italy.
Austria
1. Performance summary                                       

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[1]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets,
Austria performs well with regard to early school leaving (ESL), but a large gap
in early school leaving rates persists, in particular between natives and foreign-born
people (2011: 6.3% for the former, 19.8% for the latter). All the relevant
sub-indicators have improved recently. Tertiary attainment (ISCED levels 5 and
6) is 23.8%, low in comparison to the EU average of 34.6%. However, Austria includes in its national 2020 target for tertiary attainment (38%) also ISCED 4a
qualifications which it considers as "equivalent" (total ISCED 4a, 5,
6 in 2011: 35.8%).  As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, educational
deficits tend to add up from early childhood: while overall participation in
early childhood education has increased in Austria (from 88.1% in 2006 to 92.1%
in 2010), immigrant children have a lower rate of participation here too. Despite
high spending on education, the Austrian education system shows low educational
outcomes with below average PISA results in all tested subject areas, coupled
with a strong influence of socio-economic background on educational achievement.
Participation of adults in lifelong learning is high in EU comparison (13.4 %
vs. 8.9% in 2011).
With regard to ICT skills, Austria is performing above the EU average: 45% (as against 27%) of the population has high
computer skills. As far as entrepreneurship is concerned, recent data is
lacking, but traditionally the share of the population believing to have the
required skills and knowledge to start a business is above the EU average. Austria has a relatively high share of graduates in mathematics, science and technology. Employment
in high qualification jobs up to 2020 is forecast to increase significantly
faster than the EU average (31.1% vs. 19.7%), whereas employment in medium
qualification jobs will drop by 1.7%. The employment in low qualification jobs
will decrease less substantially than the EU average (-9.4% vs. -20.1%). Public
spending on education as a share of GDP in Austria is above the EU average
(6.01% vs. 5.41% in 2009); it has increased since 2006 by 0.61 percentage
points.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Austria is currently implementing several
reform measures, of which the most important being the replacement of General
Secondary Schools (Hauptschule) by New Secondary Schools (Neue Mittelschule). The
  New Secondary School reform is designed to improve educational outcomes and
to mitigate the consequences of early selection of children. However, the early
tracking of children into two different school types (New Secondary School and
secondary academic school, i.e. Gymansium lower level) at the age of ten is
still retained.. The reform was launched as a pilot in 2008/2009 and has now become
a part of the regular school system: by 2018/19 all classes of the General
Secondary Schools are supposed to be transformed into the new system. New
pedagogical concepts form an integral part of the reform and entail a more
individualised approach to learning, a more differentiated teaching including
team teaching and a more favourable teacher-pupils ratio, which go hand in hand
with supplementary financial support. 
More emphasis is being put on quality
assurance by the introduction of quality standards in general education and VET
and the new standardised "Matura" examination. The educational
standards (in mathematics and German for the fourth grade and mathematics,
German and English for the eighth grade) were designed to promote
competence-oriented teaching. In 2011/12 the 8th grade students were tested in
maths, and in the next years testing of one subject will be done each year. The
testing of VET standard is in the pilot phase, from 2014/15 onwards a new
examination model will be introduced for the secondary academic schools and in
2015/16 for the secondary vocational schools. 
With regard to ESL, new measures for an
early intervention against school drop-out (youth and apprentices coaching) and
free-of-charge courses to acquire certification for basic education for people
without a final qualification ("second-chance education") have also
been introduced. However, the coaching measures have not been embedded in a
comprehensive strategy combating ESL.
Despite significant improvements in the
recent past, tertiary education still suffers from capacity shortages. A steadily
growing number of students, also due to high incoming mobility (‘mass
university’) and high drop-out rates (around 40%) remains the main challenge,
together with a considerable gap in funding. Improving educational outcomes, combating early school leaving and
increasing higher education capacity could also be addressed through EU
Structural Funds.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Early tracking predetermines to a large
extent future education pathways, making it more difficult to reach higher
education levels at a later stage. This leads to suboptimal results, in
particular for those with a migrant background, which are aggravated by the
predominance of half-day schooling. In response, Austria reformed the lower
secondary school education (Neue Mittelschule) and also intends to expand the
provision of after-school care places from 105,000 in 2011/2012 to 210,000 in
2014/2015. The dual system was improved by the introduction of modular
apprenticeships, which are divided into basic, main and special modules aiming
at the enhancement of flexibility, and the creation of a better link between
initial and continuing VET against the background of on-going changes in the
labour market. 
The Austrian higher education system
offers only a limited range of part-time study opportunities, although there
has been significant improvement over the last decade, in particular with the
extensive development of study programmes at universities of applied sciences
(Fachhochshulen). Many of these study programmes are also available as
part-time studies. Recent data reveal that almost half (47% in 2010/11) are
offered as part-time study programmes. In contrast, traditional universities
are still characterised by a profound lack of part-time study programmes. This
is particularly relevant as participation in tertiary education for people coming
from less privileged backgrounds is often only possible in the form of
part-time studies. Most universities agreed to introduce at least one part-time
master’s degree programme between 2010 and 2012.
The most important action in the field of
digital competence is the national strategy “efit21 – digital agenda for
education, culture and arts” pursuing inter alia four strategic objectives in
the field of education. The main focus is placed on teaching digital competence,
with the aim of raising awareness of the necessity of digital skills for
personal, professional, social and cultural success. The coverage and promotion
of ICT in education comprises the provision of central services like learning
platforms and content portals for new types of learning, modernising the ICT
teacher training, linking ICT initiatives with e.g. educational standards and
competence-based teaching and learning. ICT is integrated in curricula and
teachers and students are recommended to use it actively in class, homework and
for project work. Moreover, digital competence is a learning outcome in primary
and secondary education.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

The public expenditure on education was
6% of the Austrian GDP in 2009, at the same level of expenditure observed
around 1995. The main concern is the lack of efficiency in educational
spending, where Austria commits an above-average amount of resources to attain
only average educational outcomes. Thus it can be deduced that Austria could save a considerable amount of resources while still achieving the same
educational outcomes.  
The division of responsibilities in the
management of the education system is excessively fragmented and bureaucratic
due to the federalist institutional structure, thus representing a major
challenge for profound reforms. Even minor reforms, such as the supersession of
the district school boards (Bezirksschulräte) face political disagreement
between the different layers of government (ministries of the Federal
government and Länder governments). A more comprehensive reform of teacher
education via harmonisation and unification as well as the enhancement of
permeability between different school types was started in 2009, but no results
have been achieved yet due to its implication on teachers' legal status, their
employing entity ("Bund" or "Länder"), remuneration and
organisation of schools. 
The funding for Higher Education is
almost exclusively based on public sources, which also calls for the fostering of
cooperation between universities and business.

Conclusion

The high level of public spending on
education does not correspond to the average performance of students in most
international student testing, indicating low efficiency of Austria's school system. School administration is expensive and bureaucratic, with significant room
for efficiency gains. However, a comprehensive school administration reform is
blocked due to opposition on regional and federal state level, so far
preventing any major reform. With regard to ESL, Austria is already
outperforming the Europe 2020 target, but efforts have to be continued to
reduce the ESL rate of migrants. Moreover the decrease of early school leavers
between 2008 and 2011 may partly be explained by the economic crisis and young
people’s decision to stay in training instead of entering the labour market early
at a very challenging time. 
Progress has recently been made in the
reform of lower secondary school education and quality assurance by the
introduction of quality standards at all levels of education. Improving
educational outcomes and increasing general tertiary graduation rates remain the
main challenges in Austria. Key trends show that Austria will face a
significant shortage of engineering and science graduates in the coming years,
threatening to compromise the country’s competitive strength. Unless the
challenges are addressed in a timely manner, Austria risks losing its leading position
in the EU with regard to low overall and youth unemployment rates.
Belgium
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2= average
of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[2]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets,
Belgium still outperforms the EU average in terms of early school leaving (ESL)
despite the fact that it is one of the two countries which was faced with an
increase of the ESL rate between 2009 and 2011 (from 11.1 % to 12.3%). Belgium's tertiary attainment rate surpasses significantly the EU average (42.6% vs. 34.6%
in 2011). The analysis of sub-indicators shows high and increasing investment
rates in primary, secondary and tertiary education, favourable family
environments for both headline indicators, better participation and completion
patterns in upper secondary education and early childhood education. As regards
the other ET 2020 benchmarks, Belgium ranks amongst the best performers as
regard participation in early childhood education. In terms of basic skills,
15-year-olds' performance on 2009 PISA test is better than the EU average in
reading and mathematics and very close to it for science. The national average
rate masks persisting regional/community differences, in particular, in the
area of ESL (the ESL rates in Walloon and Brussels regions amount respectively
to 14.7% and 18.9%) and basic skills with the Flemish, German and French
speaking communities Pisa results respectively significantly above, close or
below the EU average. Differences between nationals and migrants are
significant at national and community levels, in particular in the Flemish
community. Youngsters with migrant backgrounds are twice as much at risk of
becoming ESL and are overrepresented in low achievers for basic skills. Belgium is one of the few countries where participation rates in Lifelong Learning declined
continuously in recent years. 
The employment rate of graduates remains
above the EU average (80.0% vs. 77.2% in 2011).  Participation rates in
Lifelong Learning are below the EU average. ICT skills levels are close to the
EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population believing
to have the required skills and knowledge to start a business is slightly above
the EU average. As regards the distribution of tertiary graduates by field
compared with the EU average, Belgium shows a high share of graduates in health
and welfare (23.0% as against 15.1% in 2010) and a low share of graduates in
business and administration (14.9% vs. 20.2%) as well as in maths, sciences and
technology ( 16.6% vs. 21.9%). The employment pattern in Belgium up to 2020 is forecast to be fairly different from the EU average in medium qualification,
with a strong increase in demand (13.5 % vs. an EU average of 4.8%). Public
spending on education as a share of GDP in Belgium is above the EU average
(6.57% vs. 5.41% in 2009) and remains one of the highest whilst rather stable
since 2000. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The Flemish community evidence-based policy and measures are focused
more and more on well targeted groups (e.g. Roma) and on
early prevention and detection of learning difficulties taking the personal situation of
the students into account. An improved definition of learning outcomes for all
basic skills has been implemented
between 2010-2012, as a follow up of the 2006 major reform of the core curriculum. The Flemish Government is preparing measures for combatting low
literacy as part of the action plan for groups at risk in secondary education.
The aim is to develop tailor-made student-centred strategies. Since 2010, in addition to an early good mastering of Dutch, priority is given to the mastering of at least two foreign languages.
As part of the comprehensive ESL policy, a second truancy action plan has been
adopted in early 2012. 
To reduce skills mismatch, the project
Platform ‘ Flemish labour market research of the future’ (VLAMT, 2010-12) seeks
to experiment with methods for detecting and analysing trends and their impact
on occupations and skills. In order to tackle the insufficient growth rate in
mathematics, science and technology graduates, an action plan (2012-2020) has been launched to stimulate careers in those fields. It covers all levels
of education as well as employment services.
In the French speaking community, further
steps to develop the monitoring and evaluation of the education and training
system have been taken with the introduction in
2010-2011 of two non-mandatory
external summative assessments
of competences in secondary
education. A project to equip schools with a scoreboard
of relevant indicators is foreseen. However some difficluties are being
encountered in gathering personal data needed to develop a more targeted and
personalised policy. 
Improvements of the framework curriculum
of technical and vocational training related to the final learning outcomes were
initiated in 2010. While these are positive steps,  a more profound revision appears
necessary to complement the broad generic key competences approach. The Council
for Education and Training (CEF) made recent recommendations to integrate the
learning outcomes concept in the decrees related to mandatory, higher and adult
educations.
The implementation
of a ‘qualification by units’ (‘CPU’) in VET should be extended to the
remaining 50% schools of the 5 pilot sectors in 2012-2013. During the 2011-12
academic year, interesting pilot 'alternate schemes' have been introduced for
higher education at master level. A strategic policy document on an in depth
reform of the higher education landscape is announced by the end of 2012. As regards skills
forecasts, the recently created sectoral skills council (SFMQ) has been tasked
with the development of job profiles and corresponding ‘qualification’
profiles. 

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Belgium is among
the three European countries which are the most affected by a shortage of
qualified teachers. The profession is not seen as very attractive and a
significant number of teachers abandon the profession in the first years. The
situation is more acute in the French speaking community with a 40% drop-out
rate during the first 5 years. A CEF recommendation was published in 2012 to support
comprehensive policy measures for attracting, training, retraining and
retaining teachers. An evaluation of initial teacher training has been
published early 2012. The VET reform foresees common training of trainers from
the different VET providers. The recent Flemish action plan for
entrepreneurship education (2011-2014) aims at providing teachers with the
training needed to help them create positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship
and self-employment. All teachers, but especially VET teachers have the
opportunity to do an internship in an enterprise. The German speaking Community
places focus on better training of teachers and a professionalisation of school
management.
Addressing a persistent decrease in
participation rates in Lifelong Learning (LLL) remains a challenge. The Flemish
speaking community has made significant progress in increased flexibility of
all educational pathways. This encompasses the recent revision of the higher
education programme design which is now organised in a fully flexible way as
well as adult education courses. The implementation of transparency and
recognition tools in the three communities is progressing, albeit at a
different pace. The corresponding links of the Flemish qualifications framework
with the 8 EQF levels was established in 2011. NQF preparation is now well
advanced in the French and German speaking communities  and the adoption is
expected by the end of 2012.
There are community strategies related to
ICT which include equipment and  training provision for teachers. Digital competences and recommendations related to the use of ICT are
mentioned in the central steering document for primary and general education
(ISCED 1- 3), ICT being a cross-curricular objective at ISCED 1 and 2 levels.
The use of ICT for education is a key component of the Flemish speaking
community implementation of flexible and modular educational pathways. Policy
attention is also given to the Open Educational Resources (OER) development.
The authorities are involved in producing or funding educational materials
where these cannot be obtained which is the case for digital learning material
in special needs education and for adult learning and media literacy. A new strategy on media literacy is under development which includes initial and in training provision for teachers. 
Initiatives to reinforce measures of the
French and German speaking communities are being taken at regional level. The ‘ICT Master Plan Wallonia,
digital territory of excellence’ adopted in 2011 highlights the need to
optimise the integration of ICT into education. A proposal for a ‘Digital school of tomorrow’ in Wallonia was tabled
in April 2011 by a task force. The adoption of a new
plan for ICT in education in Wallonia is planned early 2013. Since 2011, the Walloon
region provides its inhabitants with free access to a
platform supporting online learning for languages with the highest demand This
platform provides access to OER and to self-assessment tools.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

A 2012 study analysed potential savings
in the Flemish education sector without compromising the level of quality. It
questions the inefficiency of the high number of pupils and students who have
to repeat a school year (estimated to be twice as high as the international
average) as well whether the high number of teaching hours, as is the case in Flanders, is necessary. Results of PISA survey have persistently
highligthed the low performance and inefficiency of the French speaking
education and training system. Pressure on smart
funding is high as public spending on education in the French-speaking Community
as a share of GDP is slightly above the
national and EU average rates. The importance of this financial effort is to be
seen in the context of a relatively low and declining GDP of the Community and an
increasing number of pupils are expected in particular in the Brussels region. Criticism addressed to the ‘differentiated measures’' suggest that the
allocation of funding does not address systemic reform
but simply provides additional resources to certain schools. Closer synergies between education and training providers are
expected to lead to more efficient spending.
In order to guarantee enough workplaces for learning
and to ensure they offer enough quality, an effective cooperation between
education institutions and the concerned professional sectors is necessary. The
Decree on secondary, after secondary and higher professional education will be
evaluated in 2013. Special focus in this evaluation will be placed on the
results and the quality of the different cooperation partnerships including
with the employment agency (VDAB). 

Conclusion

Generally Belgium’s education system
performs better than the EU average. The skills challenges faced in Belgium are rather long-standing in nature as well as the different community/regional
levels of performance and the inequity of the systems. However, the economic
crisis, the expected increase of the number of pupils with migrant backgrounds
as well as the change in the employment pattern, where a significant rise in
the demand for jobs with medium qualifications is forecast, amplify the challenges.
The timely implementation of the VET reform initiated by all communities in
cooperation with the education and training providers and the employment sector
is essential to respond to the challenges. The initiation of a systemic and
targeted approach to support pupils with migrant backgrounds is positive and the
initial results appear promising. Addressing this issue is particularly important
for the French speaking community where the percentage of pupils with migrant
background is significantly higher. 
Innovation and growth could be hampered
by the lack of entrepreneurial skills and the insufficient growth rate of
graduates in mathematics, science and technology. Communities have started to
address this issue at a different pace. Addressing Lifelong learning
participation remains an issue. It is not yet clear if the strategy and
measures adopted in Flanders will be sufficient to reach the ambitious
objective of 15% participation rate by 2020. Little progress has been made by
the French speaking community, the Walloon and Brussels regions in the adoption
of a 2020 Lifelong strategy.
Bulgaria
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[3]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning Europe 2020 headline targets,
when it comes to early school leavers (ESL) Bulgaria is slightly outperforming
the EU average (12.8% vs. 13.5% in 2011). It has shown a steady improvement
since 2006 (17.3%) and has made progress towards achieving the national 2020
target of 11%. By contrast, it is lagging behind in tertiary education
attainment (27.3%). Furthermore, since 2008 there has been a slight decrease in
the percentage of females who complete higher education. However, for both
headline indicators labour market incentives are high and increasing, while the
family background is more favourable compared to the EU average. With regard to
the ET 2020 benchmarks, Bulgaria scores below the 95% EU benchmark in early
childhood education participation (79.2%) and shows a negative trend – in 2006
this number was 80.5%. Even more dramatic is the situation regarding employment
levels of young graduates – 57.5% compared to 69.6% in 2006 and an EU average
of 77.2%. In addition, adult participation in lifelong learning (1.2% in 2011)
is the lowest in the EU. 
The low quality of Bulgarian education is
demonstrated by the worst results among EU countries in the 2009 PISA study in both reading and mathematics. In science, Bulgaria's results are close to the
lowest performers in the EU. This may partly be due to the difference in
teaching and learning methodologies applied in Bulgaria and those tested by the
  PISA study, but in more general terms demonstrate the steady decline of the
school education quality in the past two decades.
The share of people with high ICT skills
in the age range 16-74 is significantly lower than the EU average (11% vs.
27%). It is a similar picture for the language skills of lower secondary
students. With regard to the distribution of tertiary graduates by field,
Bulgaria shows a clear disproportion in favour of the social sciences, business
and law (51.6% as against an EU average of 35.7%) and low (and decreasing)
interest in education and training (5.5% from 6.9% in 2006) and humanities and
art (6.8% from 8.4% in 2006), as well as a low number of MST graduates.
Employment in high qualification jobs in Bulgaria up to 2020 is forecast to increase
slower than the EU average. In 2009, public expenditure on education as a share
of GDP was well below the EU average (4.58% vs. 5.41%).  

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The draft new Law on Preschool and School
Education, currently under reading in the National Parliament, envisages
entrepreneurship, creativity and developing a sense of initiative as the main
goals of the educational system in Bulgaria. Entrepreneurship will be included
as one of the subjects. The Ministry determines on a national level the total
number of school hours, but schools have autonomy to distribute these hours
among a range of subjects. On the basis of the Law, state educational standards
shall be created. Some of them concern: preschool education; general education;
vocational training; curricula; assessment of the results of education of the
students; civil, health and intercultural education; textbooks and educational
supplements.
In 2011 a project called “School on two
speeds” started to be implemented for students in ISCED 0 and 1. The main aims
are: 1) to decrease the risk of early school leaving; 2) to work out measures
to support children with learning difficulties, who are at risk of early school
leaving.
The Law on University Education and Lifelong
Learning is currently being updated. A new system of universities’ rating was
adopted (March 2012) that aims to improve the transparency of tertiary
education, measurement of quality and differentiated financing of universities
based on demonstrated quality. The initiative has been
co-financed by the European Social Fund.  
Drafting the new Law on Preschool and
School Education undoubtedly constitutes a step in the right direction; however
the Bulgarian authorities should make efforts and assign the necessary level of
priority to this draft when it comes to adopting it in the Parliament, as
recommended by the Commission and Council in the European Semester 2012. Once
adopted, close attention should be paid to ensure the correct implementation of
this law and the results are to be carefully studied. 

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

A draft Bulgarian National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) for lifelong learning was presented in spring 2011 and approved
by the Minister for Education, Youth and Science (MEYS) on 3 June 2011. The
Bulgarian government sees the NQF as a precondition for implementing the
European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and an important national priority. The
approved framework builds on the proposals of a working group set up by the
MEYS in April 2008 on how to relate national qualification degrees to the EQF,
how to pursue sectoral qualifications development, and on necessary changes in
national legislation.
In 2008, the implementation of the module
“Qualification of teachers” within the national programme “Qualification” was
launched by the MEYS with the aim to improve the quality of foreign language
proficiency of the teachers. The national programme “Qualification” covers a
period of four years and initially includes development of working plans,
programmes and modules for improving key competences and the creation of
innovative practices.
Overall, the policy measures taken are a
step in the right direction. However, when it comes to teachers' qualifications
and performance, there is a vast space for improvement – starting from modernising
universities' curricula in pedagogy disciplines, through introducing on the job
qualification courses, to adopting measures to motivate and retain teaching and
training personnel, in order to avoid the predicted staff shortage.
In 2010, interactive classes were
introduced in 4th – 12th grades. In 2012, a new national ICT programme for
schools for the next four years was launched. It will renovate the
technological facilities in Bulgarian schools and bring the latest IT
developments, such as computer and terminal solutions with central management,
zones for wireless access, interactive peripherals, etc. The later initiative
could facilitate the openness of the teaching and learning processes in the
near future. Given the poor quality of general education in Bulgaria, the inadequate or low qualifications of teaching staff and their low motivation, as well
as the poor physical condition of education infrastructure, the measures taken
in the field of ICT and Open Education seem inadequate and untimely, as they
come before the necessary improvements in the above mentioned areas.  

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Most expenditure for the education and
skills sector in Bulgaria is funded by the state budget. Public expenditure for
education was almost seven times higher than private expenditure in 2008 and
2009 and determined the dynamics of total educational expenditure increase (2.5
times for the period 2000-2009). Since 2007 the European Social Fund is a very
important source for additional funding providing a total of EUR 371.4 million
(2007-2013) for improving the quality and access to education and training.  Private
schools, kindergartens and universities are self-supporting, mainly through
paid tuition fees. Public funds are not provided to the private educational
institutions.
In the period of recent crisis the cuts
implemented have affected education and training at all levels and of all
kinds. The MEYS, however, does not publish precise information about the scope
of the reductions. 
The application of the schemes financed
from the European Social Fund via the Operational Programme “Human Resources Development”
(OP HRD) provides an important financial relief after 2008. A common issue is
the relatively low absorption of already contracted funds. A positive
evaluation should be granted to the provision of vouchers for adults to gain
new skills. The use of the funds from OP HRD contributed to the application of
innovative practices including for basic and transversal skills training.
According to the reports of the Employment Agency, young people's demand is towards
these innovative trainings, whereas adults aged 40+ years are oriented towards
courses traditionally organised by the Employment Agency and financed by the
State Budget. 

Conclusion

Bulgaria scores
very poorly as regards student achievement in basic skills (especially in
reading and mathematics). This low achievement is linked to the poor education
provision paired with a lack of incentives for teachers to perform better. Despite
the fact that some serious reforms have been initiated at all education levels,
  Bulgaria is facing the challenge of improving the overall quality and
efficiency of the education and training system. In order to achieve it in the
long run, in the short term attention needs to be paid to adopting the reform
laws and to enforcing their implementation while carefully monitoring their
impacts. A lot remains to be done to improve teachers' motivation and to
attract more young people to this professional path. In addition, the MEYS
should considerably accelerate the implementation of the on-going ESF
co-financed operations (improving qualification of teachers, introducing ICT in
education, promoting student practices).
Cyprus
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[4]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Cyprus performs better than the EU average in the area of early school leaving (ESL). Cyprus has one of the highest tertiary attainment rates in the EU with 45.8% compared to
the European average of 34.6% in 2011. Also the share of young adults with at
least an upper secondary education is high compared in EU comparison. As
regards the other ET2020 benchmarks, Cyprus performs below the EU average with
respect to early childhood education and care (87.7%
compared to 92.3% in 2010). As regards basic skills, Cyprus performs below the EU average. Relating to literacy, based on relevant research and
available data regarding “Functional Illiteracy”, during the school year
2008-2009, the percentage of students with high likelihood of remaining
illiterate (by the age of 15) was estimated at 10%. The equivalent for students
with inadequate numeracy skills was estimated at 7%. Underperformance can be
traced to specific reference groups, mainly boys that do not speak Greek at
home. The share of MST (mathematics, science and
technology) graduates in 2011 was amongst the lowest in Europe (13.3%). Cyprus is lagging behind in lifelong learning participation compared to the EU average
(7.5% as against 8.9% in 2011). 
ICT skills of the population are slightly
below the EU average. The employment rate of graduates aged 20-34 is 73.1%
(2011), which is below the EU average (77.2%) and places Cyprus at the end of the second third of EU countries. Foreign language
learning is widespread, with students at ISCED 2 level learning on average two
foreign languages, thus placing Cyprus among the 5 best performing EU
countries. Compared with the EU average, Cyprus has a
very high share of graduates in social science, business and law and a very low
share of graduates in science, mathematics and technology. Employment in medium
and high qualification jobs up to 2020 is forecast to increase faster than the
EU average. Cyprus spends 7.98% of GDP on education (2009 data), considerably
more than the EU average (5.41%) and is second only to Denmark (8.72%). This results from modest but continuous increases over the last few years. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The new National Curriculum, which
includes competences in Reading, Mathematics, Science, Foreign languages
(English), Digital competences, and Social and Civic Competences, is partially
applied in primary education from the school year 2011-12 and will be
completely implemented  by the school year 2014-2015. ICT is taught in primary
schools.   
The 2012 National Reform Programme (NRP)
for Cyprus prioritises predominantly the creation of job positions in the
sectors for the highly skilled. This is complemented by a mapping of the
needs/demands in education and for special skills by the Ministry of Education.
This is the basis for further development of the education and training sector.

An important challenge facing the
education and training system in Cyprus, including vocational education and
training (VET), is the provision of more adapted responses to the needs of the
labour market, given the increasing unemployment of young people.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Cyprus has taken
several positive steps in order to improve the openness of education and
training systems and pathways. Particular attention is being given to teacher
training with an emphasis on those in deprived areas, as well as in schools
with high migrant concentration. Generally, the Cyprus Pedagogical Institute
organises various trainings and conferences that aim at informing teachers
about the integration of ICT in learning and teaching. It has established a
Memorandum of Understanding with Microsoft (partners in learning) for issues
that are related to ICT besides running training courses to provide basic
skills in the area of ICT.
Cyprus is a
country that exhibits an excellent performance in both secondary and university
level education. However, the low lifelong learning
rate limits the capacity for addressing skill mismatches. The national comprehensive Lifelong Learning Strategy 2007-2013 is
gradually being implemented and promotes lifelong learning though measures that
increase adult education and offer access to relevant programmes. 
Vocational education and training (VET)
is also among the areas with low participation levels. The 2011 NRP includes a
number of measures that aim at addressing this issue, including the
establishment of new post-secondary VET institutes and of the new
apprenticeship system from 2012-2013 onwards.
The 2011 NRP also includes measures for
recognising prior learning as well as for the establishment of a National
Qualifications Framework making reference to the European Qualifications
Framework (EQF) as well as the European Credit Transfer System for Vocational
Education.
There is a national strategy on the use
of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in education that is related to a general
national ICT strategy covering the following areas: e-Government;
infrastructure and broadband connectivity; e-Learning; ICT in schools; ICT security; e-Inclusion; digital media Literacy and e-Skills
development.
The Ministry of Education and Culture is
currently implementing an ICT integration plan aiming at effectively using ICT in the educational process and to enhance the
digital literacy of students and teachers. It provides schools with advanced
ICT infrastructure and equipment and aims at improving the teaching and learning
aids, in accordance with the current curricula reform and pedagogical methods.
For this purpose the Ministry has initiated two strategic projects: 1) the
eContent and educational software acquisition and 2) the creation of the
Schoolnet DIA.S. (Educational Portal and LMS). Specific attention is given to
the training of teachers ensuring their competence in using ICT tools and on
pedagogical innovation and progress. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Being the second largest investor in
education and training in the EU, Cyprus has also a large private expenditure
in education and training. In 2008 it accounted for
1.6% of GDP compared to 1.7% in the United Kingdom and less than 1% in almost
every other EU Member State.
Only very recently have some initiatives
better interlinked education and training with the business environment using,
among others, experiences gained in EU funded projects.  This led to
establishing university-industry liaison offices in all recognised local
Universities, both public and private. For instance, the European Social Fund
Project “Development and Operation of Enterprise Liaison Offices in
Universities Operating in the Republic of Cyprus” aims to boost the
communication and cooperation between Business and Academia.
The governance of education and
vocational training institutions remains centralised at the Ministry of
Education and Culture and the Cyprus Pedagogical Institute in the case of
formal education, whilst the vocational training system is managed by the Human
Resource Development Authority of Cyprus (HRDA). Relevant skills are identified
either through suggestions from the private sector or gap analysis and needs
assessments performed by the Authority itself. The influence of the private
sector remains limited when it comes to decision making regarding education and
vocational training. 

Conclusion

Like in other European countries, the
effects of the global financial crisis were felt in Cyprus as well. Despite the
general tendency of applying austerity measures that take the form of budget
cuts and consequently have an effect on the quantity as well as the quality of
initiatives in terms of education and training, this was not the case for
Cyprus. The budget of the Ministry of Education and Culture was not decreased
and a number of initiatives in relation to the educational reform are being
implemented, sometimes at a slow but generally steady pace. 
However, more needs to be done to maintain areas of excellence and catch up in other areas. Even
though it is widely accepted that Cyprus has a good educational system,
catching up in adult participation in lifelong learning
to levels known in other EU Member States remains a key challenge in order to
enhance the skills profile and occupational mobility of the workforce, in line
with the country-specific recommendation received in the European Semester 2012.
It is important to encourage and support the involvement of low-skilled and
older workers as well as women in the country’s labour market. Furthermore, the creation of new post-secondary institutes
and the establishment of a new apprenticeship system so as to support
vocational education and training are in progress. These efforts will need to
be persistent not only to make these alternative educational pathways more
attractive, but also in order to improve their general quality. 
Czech Republic
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[5]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, the Czech Republic already performs better than the EU headline target regarding early school
leaving (ESL). The early school leaving rate was 4.9% in 2010 i.e. one of the
lowest in the EU and the national target is not to go beyond the rate of 5.5%
by 2020. The Czech Republic's tertiary attainment rate (23.8% in 2011) is
significantly lower than the EU average of 34.6%, even if there has been
considerable progress since 2008. 
As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks,
the Czech Republic performs slightly below the EU benchmark on participation in
early childhood education. In terms of basic skills: 15-year-olds' performance
on PISA tests in 2009 worsened in mathematics and science compared to 2006,
while it moderately improved in reading. The national average masks significant
disparities between schools. In fact, according to PISA, the impact of the
pupils' socio-economic background on educational attainment is significant in
the Czech Republic, as the system has a strong tendency to concentrate children
with similar household characteristics and similar performance in the same
schools. Performance is actually in line with or above the EU average in the
selective grammar schools, but markedly worse in the rest of basic and
vocational schools. Participation of adults in lifelong learning used to be low
in EU comparison but grew significantly in the last years (11.4% vs. the EU
average of 8.9% in 2011). Lifelong learning participation is still low for the
low-skilled (2.8% in 2011), who would benefit the most from further education.
ICT skills of the population are close to
the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, only 39.2% of Czechs believe that
they have the required knowledge, skills and competence to set up a business
which is rather low compared to other EU countries (according to the 2011
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor).  The Czech Republic shows a high share of
graduates in education and training and a low (and declining) share of
graduates in health and welfare. A significant increase in the population with
high level qualifications took place in the period 2000-2010 and this trend is
expected to continue, according to Cedefop calculations, in the period
2010-2020. By 2020, job demand is expected to concern primarily highly
qualified jobs in non-market services, distribution and transport and business
and other services. Public spending on education is below the EU average (4.38%
of GDP in year 2009, compared to 5.41% in the EU) and the gap seems most severe
in primary and pre-primary education, where the below-average supply of
pre-primary education facilities is an important explanatory factor.
Expenditure on tertiary education of 1.0% of GDP is around the EU average and
has been stable in recent years. This masks a growing substitution between
funding provided directly from the state budget and resources channelled
through EU funds. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The Czech Republic implemented curricular
reforms focusing on increasing quality and efficiency of basic education (ISCED
0, 1, 2 and 3) and vocational training, mainly through the creation of school
curricula based on the national framework curricula. The reform aimed at the
development of key competences across all school levels. It provides for
simplification of the school curricula where autonomy to schools is given to
design their own plan according to the guidelines provided in the national
framework and according to their profile. However, the reforms have had limited
success, mainly because of insufficient initial and in-service training and a
lack of understanding of the aims of the reforms. As a response to the
worsening of the pupils´ achievement in international comparisons, it was decided
to introduce a standardised national computer-based testing at key levels of
compulsory education. This would appear to be a step in the right direction,
provided that the testing is part of a more complex system of monitoring and
does not lead to reducing learning to preparation for tests and unhealthy
competition between schools.  On the contrary, an efficient
improvement-oriented system of monitoring of schools should lead to further
supporting of currently under-performing schools, teachers and pupils. There
are also on-going reforms or initiatives in the field of VET, in particular
when it comes to schools self-evaluation, development of qualification
standards and transformation of VET schools into centres of lifelong learning.
The early school leaving in the Czech Republic is mainly prevented by a high degree of permeability between education paths
(in particular towards the vocational training). Some effective measures are in
place to effectively compensate early school leaving, such as the possibility
for early school leavers to complete later on courses required for compulsory
education. Early schools leavers can also enrol for vocational training courses
without completing the compulsory education. 
In order to tackle the low quality of
higher education, a complex reform has been planned for several years. It aims
to enhance the accreditation system, differentiate among higher education
institutions (HEI), adjust their governance structures and strengthen the link
between results and funding. A clearer profiling of HEI providing first degrees
or higher qualifications is expected to improve quality and the employability
of first-degree graduates. However, greater emphasis on systematic data
collection and analysis and their use in public debate would strengthen the
credibility of the reform, which faces strong opposition from the academic
community. 

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

The Czech Republic adopted and
implemented a comprehensive Lifelong Learning Strategy, in which different
partners have been involved, including social partners and the civic sector.
The Act on Verification and Recognition of Qualifications is a basis for the
system of the validation and recognition of qualifications, and all relevant skills
and knowledge can be recognised, no matter where and how, they were obtained.
The National Qualifications Framework, which provides a description of
qualification requirements for the labour market, has been implemented through
a number of ESF funded projects in all regions of the Czech Republic. At the core of this reform is the work of sectoral councils which have the objective
to monitor labour market needs and identify needs of a given sector in terms of
human resources and skills and competences. This results in the definition of
partial qualifications. This information is translated into a structure of
occupations, related to partial qualifications standards and supported by
assessment standards. The partial qualification and assessment standards are
linked to the system for recognition of non-formal and informal learning and
also to the further education courses developed by VET schools for adults. 
The most significant measure in the field
is the 'Strategy for development of ICT in education' in the period 2009-2013,
introduced in 2008. The Strategy entails dedicated funding for ICT equipment
and a series of interconnected actions. The use of ICT is also mentioned as a
component of communication competency in the national framework curricula for
primary and general secondary education (ISCED 1, 2 and 3). The framework
curricula prescribe the teaching of ICT as a separate subject and they
recommend the use of ICT as a general tool and/or for specific tasks across
other educational areas of the curriculum. The use of ICT is recommended for
students in class, however it lacks guidelines concerning teachers' use of ICT
in classroom teaching. The school reform and in particular the curriculum
reform brought in new focus for education. Therefore, a methodological portal
was set up, with the help of ESF funding, in order to provide the teaching
community with new pedagogies and tools focused on teaching key competences.
The schools could also use ESF funding, through the initiative 'EU money for
schools', in order to buy the ICT equipment for their schools.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

The on-going higher education reform has the
objective of improving the quality and ensuring sustainable funding of higher
education in the Czech Republic. Performance based funding was introduced as of
2010. However, this link between the budget of each higher education
institution (HEI) and a set of quality indicators in the current system of
funding has been primarily set to mitigate the funding pressures stemming from
the growing numbers of students. It appears to be fairly loose and there is no
clear evidence that it has an impact on improving the quality of output.
As public funding is limited, the
government's objective is to keep the rate of admissions at the current level
while improving the quality of programmes. In 2012, HEI can decide to admit
more students than the number of publicly funded places for a given year but
these students will be charged a fee by the HEI. The original reform proposal
also aimed to introduce generalised tuition fees and attract more private
funding into HE, but these measures are on hold, following massive protests
against the higher education reform in spring 2012. 

Conclusion

The quality of compulsory and tertiary
education remains a challenge, as identified by the Commission and Council in
the European Semester 2012. The relevant measures to ensure the provision of
necessary basic and labour market relevant skills need to be pursued and
reinforced, also through the EU structural funds.  
Despite the above average performance in
the past, the Czech Republic now ranks below EU average for student achievement
in basic skills (literacy, numeracy and science). While serious reforms have
been initiated at all education levels, the Czech Republic is still facing the
challenge of improving the overall quality and efficiency of the education and
training system. The curricular reforms as well as the higher education reform
have attracted attention and concentrated resources, for implementation and
parallel measures. They will require time and mediation to overcome resistance
and promote ownership in specific interest and professional groups. Finally, in
the context of growth-friendly fiscal consolidation there is a need for
preserving expenditure in education and training while increasing its
efficiency. 
Germany
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
07 =2007, 08 =2008,
09 =2009, 10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b=
break, p= provisional; Number of countries included in EU average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at school=13; 1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing; 
Germany includes in the
calculation of its national Europe 2020 target for tertiary education (42%) all
qualifications attained at ISCED level 4 as "equivalent" (ISCED 4A:
e.g. evening classes for Abitur, combinations of apprenticeships and other
programmes giving access to tertiary education; ISCED 4B: e.g. combinations of
two ISCED 3B VET programmes). ISCED 4 attainment (30-34) was at 11.5% in 2011. 

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[6]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, the
early school leaving rate is better than the EU average and improved between
2006 and 2009. Since then it remained at around 11 % (11.5% in 2011). As
regards tertiary attainment, figures have increased by more than 5 percentage
points since 2006 but performance remains at 30.7% (2011) below the EU average,
especially for females. However, Germany includes in its national 2020 target
for tertiary attainment (42%) also ISCED 4 qualifications which it considers as
"equivalent" (total ISCED 4, 5, 6 in 2011: 42.3%, above the national
2020 target). With a view to the other EU benchmarks, participation in
early childhood education has increased further over recent years (96.2% in
2010) and has surpassed already the EU benchmark. In terms of basic skills,
15-year-olds' performance on PISA tests in reading and mathematics improved and
continue to outperform the EU average, whereas in science they have already
surpassed the EU benchmark. The employment rate of graduates has increased over
recent years and is, due to the quick recovery from the crisis and current
economic boom, at 88.2% clearly above EU average and also above the
2020-benchmark. Participation of adults in lifelong learning is below EU
average (7.8% vs. 8.9% in 2011) but has slightly increased as opposed to the
decreasing EU average.
ICT skills of the population are close to
the EU average. According to the latest PISA survey in 2009, 95% of German
students have access to computers and the internet at school, and the ratio of
computers to students aged 15 is 1 for every 11 students which is below the
OECD average. Compared with the EU average, Germany has a high share of
graduates in humanities and art as well as in health and welfare and a low
share of graduates in social science, business and law. As regards
entrepreneurship, the share of the population believing to have the required
skills and knowledge to start a business decreased slightly in recent years by
2 percentage points. Germany's employment pattern up to 2020 is forecast to
remain largely unchanged apart from low qualification jobs, for which a
decrease by around 6 percentage points in volume is forecasted. In particular
with a view to high qualification jobs the forecast is very distinct to the EU
average (expected increase of only 0.4% vs. 19.7% in the EU). Public spending
on education in Germany is growing but still somewhat below the EU average (5.06%
vs. 5.41% of GDP in 2009).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Based on a sophisticated system of dual
VET provision that assures practical training of young people close to the
labour market, the relevance of work specific skills can be considered very
high. Germany pays also significant attention to the anticipation of skills
needs, e.g. through the ‘FreQueNz’ network where the results of
anticipation projects are synthesised and disseminated nationwide. As regards
basic skills, the PISA study shows an important gap between high performing and
low performing pupils, notably those pupils with a migrant background. As a
consequence, it remains difficult for low performers to acquire a qualification
and/or enter dual VET, despite shrinking age cohorts of young people and
relatively good supply of apprenticeship places. Given the demographic
situation – Germany has the lowest birth rate in the EU - this poses an
important risk to an adequate future skills supply.
In the past years several measures have
been agreed between Bund and Länder ("Qualifizierungsinitiative"
2008) or at Länder level within the KMK (Kultusministerkonferenz) with a view
to improving the quality of school education and supporting disadvantaged
groups. The measures, gradually implemented by the Länder, include early
learning of German language for migrant children, competence-based and more
individualised teaching approaches, better and earlier career guidance, and closer
links between schools and the world of work to support transitions for pupils
at risk. For example the initiative "Lesenstart" ("start
reading"), launched by the federal government in 2012, aims to reach
parents from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds, notably migrants, and
equips them with reading material for children as of age 1. Tackling the educational
disadvantage of migrants is also a key element of the National Action Plan
for Integration, adopted in January 2012.
Lead initiatives with a view to
supporting transition from school to VET are the existing "Ausbildungspakt"
(national training pact), extended until 2014, and the 2010 adopted "Bildungsketten"
(chains of education) and ‘Jobstarter Connect’ which aim to provide
early support and guidance for pupils at risk. There is growing awareness among
stakeholders of the need to reform the overly complex and inefficient school to
VET transition system.
As regards the relevance of skills at
higher qualifications levels, the number of dual tertiary programmes, whereby
students can acquire at the same time a VET and an academic qualification
through combined in-company training and tertiary studies, are growing quickly
and most of the Länder are actively promoting this trend. With a view to basic
skills of adults, a scientific study revealed that an estimated 7.5 Mio Germans
are (functional) illiterates. Bund and Länder have agreed in 2011 to implement
a strategy to fight basic skills deficiencies ("Grundbildungspakt").

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

As regards flexible learning pathways the
Länder ministers within the KMK have agreed in 2009 to grant, when fulfilling
certain criteria such as professional experience, access to higher education
also to people who have acquired a dual VET qualification but no general
university entrance qualification (e.g. "Abitur"). The so-called “Hochschulzugang
für beruflich qualifizierte Bewerber" exists now in all Länder and
students can obtain financial support (“career advancement grants”). Though
take up is still low at the moment, together with the rapid expansion of dual
tertiary VET, this may further contribute to increasing permeability between
VET and higher education.
In 2011, the federal government adopted a
law introducing a nationally standardised system for the assessment of
professional qualifications acquired in foreign countries (Berufsqualifikationsfeststellungsgesetz).
Based on individualised reviews EU and non-EU-citizens
are entitled to receive a decision of equivalency of
their professional qualifications acquired abroad in relation to comparable
professions in Germany. In case of partial equivalency a full qualification may
be achieved through targeted up-skilling. 
There is a national strategy on the use
of ICT in school education ("Schulen ans Netz") which focuses
on support and training for teachers and other educational staff,
awareness-raising on chances and risks of new media and promotion of
e-learning. Also the general national ICT strategy covers the topics
e-Learning, ICT in schools, Digital-Media Literacy and e-skills development.
As regards development of digital
competence and ICT use in school, a general reference is made to this issue in
the central steering documents for primary and general secondary education,
adopted by the KMK. At primary level, the steering documents recommend the use
of ICT as a general tool and/or for specific tasks of the curriculum: language
of instruction, mathematics, foreign languages, natural sciences, social sciences
and arts. At secondary level, the steering documents recommend the use of ICT
as a general tool and/or for specific tasks across the above-mentioned subjects
as well as ICT as a separate subject depending on the 'Land' and included in
the technology subject. Since the Länder are
responsible for the organisation of their education system and curricula the
extent to which Länder-level curricula make specific reference to ICT-use
varies. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

With a view to public-private cooperation
the social partners traditionally play an important role in Germany for identifying skills needs and ensuring sufficient numbers of skilled people for the
labour market. The dual VET system heavily depends on strong commitment of
employers who do not only provide the practical training, but are responsible
also for final exams, and have a key role in ensuring relevance and updating of
curricula. This system comprises also an effective element of cost-sharing: while
employers' net-investment (after deduction of productive contributions of
apprentices) amounts to ca. EUR 14.7bn a year (84% of total costs)[7], surveys underpin the
long-term benefits for employers that clearly outweigh initial investment.
Thus, employers have a strong interest in filling the increasing number of open
apprenticeship posts in certain sectors and regions due to shrinking age
cohorts and a general trend to follow general education leading directly to
tertiary education. The national training pact (Ausbildungpakt), first
concluded in 2004 between federal government and employers to assure sufficient
numbers of apprenticeship places, is now focusing increasingly on providing
better guidance to pupils interested in VET with a view to improve matching
between provision and (declining) demand for apprenticeship places. Also, more
emphasis is now on making low achieving pupils fit for apprenticeships
including through basic skills training and the provision of short term
traineeships offered by companies ("Einstiegsqualifikationen")
which are subsidised by the public employment service. 
Increasingly, partnerships are also being
developed between schools and businesses to improve relevance of teaching and
of early career orientation (e.g. in Baden-Württemberg 90% of all
lower-secondary schools have entered into a partnership with one or several
companies). The federal initiative "JOBSTARTER", first launched in
2006, financially supports cooperation between companies and schools until 2013
with 125 Mio EUR. In its current period a focus is on sustainable skills
provision with an important focus on enhancing the number of apprenticeship
places in emerging sectors such as renewable energies.
Another partnership initiative between
public and private actors with a view to tackling potential skills shortages in
MST and engineering subjects is the "Komm mach MINT"
initiative. Based on a 2008 pact, renewed in 2011, concluded between
ministries, social partner associations, and actors from the worlds of business
and research, it aims to attract more girls and young women into STEM
professions.
With a view to funding of higher
education, a 2010 federal law established a national programme on
scholarships for high performing tertiary students ("Deutschlandstipendium").
While 50% of the 300 EUR monthly scholarship are provided by the federal
government, for the other 50% universities need to recruit sponsors (companies,
foundations, alumni, etc.) for match funding. While the funding volume is
developing rather slowly, this initiative may, in the long run, help to develop
a sustainable culture of sponsoring and increase private investment in higher
education. An important decision to assure smart funding must be seen in the
2008 commitment of the Länder ("Qualifizierungsinitiative") to retain
those resources in the education system, which may become available due to
demographic development, and to use these for quality development.[8]

Conclusion

While Germany is today still in a
favourable position with a view to the necessary skills mix for its economy,
notably highly relevant job specific skills provided through dual VET, there is
a risk that a too high share of its shrinking population does not acquire the
necessary skills needed in its high-tech economy. 
Thus, even more effort may be necessary
to develop learning approaches that allow all pupils regardless of their
socio-economical background to acquire the necessary skills for entering
professional training, as recommended by the Commission and Council in the
European Semester 2012. With a view to keeping the VET system attractive also
for high performing students, the increasing number of dual tertiary programmes
as well as the facilitation of access to tertiary education for VET graduates
can be seen as promising developments. More proactive support might be
necessary to help a greater number of people pursuing such a path leading to
higher skills levels. In this respect, building on the strong partnership
tradition may help to find more innovative solutions for addressing effectively
potential skills gaps.
Denmark
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[9]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Denmark has
achieved the two Europe 2020 headline indicators and is performing well above
the EU average on both. As regards the early leaving school rate (9.6% in
2011), it has decreased significantly in recent years for the sub-group of born
abroad. The tertiary attainment rate has also decreased marginally from 43% in
2006 to 41.2% in 2011 but is still significantly above the EU average (34.6%).
As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks,
the participation rate in early childhood education has also declined
marginally to 91.1% in 2011, thus failing the threshold of 95%. Denmark is above the EU targets for the three basic skills in reading, mathematics and
science but the performance in mathematics worsened significantly between 2006
and 2009 whereas the share of low-achievers in reading and science fell during
the same period. Girls outperform boys in reading like in the other Nordic
countries, whereas in Denmark boys have a lower percentage of low achievers in
both mathematics and science than girls. The employment rate of graduates has
decreased significantly to 83% in 2011 but from a comparably very high level of
90.9% pre-crisis level in 2007. This level is above the current EU average of
77.2%. Denmark has the highest level of adult participation in lifelong
learning among EU Member States at 32.2% in 2011, - a level which has been
slightly increasing since 2006 and is nearly three times the present EU average
of 8.9%.
Denmark has a
comparatively high penetration of computer use in schools (78.8% of pupils in 4th
grade use computers at school (average for countries where data is available is
60.7%). Likewise ICT skills of the population are above the EU average. As
regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population believing to have the
required knowledge to start a business is 35%, as against the EU average of
43%. Foreign language learning starts in primary education where all pupils
learn English as a first foreign language and this continues into lower
secondary education (ISCED 2) where opportunities for studying other languages
are available. Danish pupils study more foreign languages than the EU average. Denmark has a high share of graduates in health and welfare compared with the EU average.
The forecast for the Danish employment pattern up to 2020 would increase the
demand for high and low skilled persons whereas the demand for medium skilled
would fall significantly. This forecasted employment pattern is in marked
contrast to the overall EU forecast of a positive demand for medium skilled and
a negative development for low skilled. Finally, Denmark is keeping its
position as the country within the EU where the government is spending most on
education as a percentage of GDP (8.72% in 2009). 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Denmark, as shown
above, does well in many areas of education and also spends generously on
education policies. However, in several key areas, as also documented by the PISA results, the educational outcomes are only average, pointing towards deficiencies in
the cost-effectiveness of the education system.
In general there is no national strategy
in Denmark for basic skills as such. However, traditionally educational goals
are defined at a central level. For example, since 2009, all curriculum
subjects in primary and lower secondary schools share the common objective of
improving pupils' reading skills. National tests in Danish reading have been
introduced and are conducted regularly to identify individual learning needs.
Specialist reading teachers are widely available in the country as are digital
reading and writing programmes for students. Available evidence also shows that
the test results are used actively by teachers for improving skill levels of
pupils.
Overall, Denmark has taken and is still
initiating a number of policy measures for increasing the skill levels by
implementing focused measures at different education levels. At primary and lower secondary level (the unified ‘Folkeskole’),
efforts have mostly addressed basic skills and efficiency in delivery. The
efforts to improve basic skills have centred on strengthening evaluation, i.e.
by introducing national tests. General upper secondary education has been
reformed with a view to preparing students for working and studying in
interdisciplinary teams.
The VET sector is being reformed at the
moment in Denmark and negotiations are taking place in order to implement the
reforms. Reforming the vocational education system should bring the following
benefits: (i) Further strengthen the roles of guidance centres and trade
committees for matching VET with labour market needs; (ii) Develop incentives
for the creation of more apprenticeship places. It will also be beneficial to
support high-quality and attractive vocational upper secondary education
through the application of the European Quality Assurance Framework for VET and
also through the introduction of training placements abroad in VET programmes
(including considering the introduction of shorter programmes).
Overall, the long term supply of labour
in Denmark is under pressure due to demographic ageing. Currently, unemployment
is relatively high, and there is little evidence of bottlenecks. However, in
the future, a need to increase the supply of labour presents a challenge. In
addition, there is evidence that the skills levels in the Danish population are
not sufficient in view of the challenges ahead. Historically, the Danish system
of continuing education has been very strong in keeping the skills of the
working population updated, but increasingly, a large share of the population
is outside the labour market, and other measures are needed to ensure the skill
supply. 

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Adult education sector is
well-established in Denmark. In 2009-10, the adult
education reform created 13 ‘VEU Centres’ (Centres for Adult Education and
Training). The Centres were formed by merging previously separate schools and
training centres providing education and training for adults in basic skills,
occupational skills, as well as transversal skills. The aim was to improve the
links between general education for adults and continuing vocational education
and training, to provide employers with a single access point for competence
development of their employees and to create institutions that can advise
enterprises with respect to competence development.
Higher education institutions have been
streamlined in order to ensure that qualifications are more easily
understandable in an international perspective and to improve transparency and
access between qualifications.
Denmark has a national strategy for the use of ICT
in education. ICT is not prescribed as a separate subject, but its use is
recommended for specific tasks across different curriculum areas. Digital
competences are identified as a learning outcome in central steering documents
at primary and secondary education. While there are no national examinations,
there are central recommendations for on-screen testing in primary and general
secondary education. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

With the Agreement on the
implementation of the globalisation fund of 2006, a total of approximately
DKK 17 billion were allocated to strengthen upper secondary education, higher
education as well as adult education and continuing training in the period
2007-2012. More specifically, in the period 2007- 2012,
approx. DKK 9.9 billion were allocated to strengthen upper secondary education,
approx. DKK 4.8 billion were allocated for initiatives
in higher education and approx. DKK 2.5 billion were
allocated to strengthen adult education and continuing training. The objective
of the allocations was to increase the proportion of young people with upper
secondary education and/or higher education as well as to enhance the quality
of education.
There has been an agreement on more than
DKK 1 billion to be spent on increased activity in 2012 and 2013. The
Government wants 60 per cent of the youth cohort to complete higher education.
Therefore, with the Agreement on the Budget Bill for 2012 a total of DKK 420
million has been allocated for 2012 and DKK 630 million for 2013 to be spent on
increased higher education activity. 
The high drop-out rates in vocational
education and training (almost 50 per cent) are linked to the fact that Denmark has a lack of apprenticeships
available, which continues to be a challenge despite numerous initiatives to
tackle the issue. The amount of available apprenticeship slots in the private
sector has been decreasing in connection with the on-going economic crisis and
the in-school alternative training has been criticised by observers for not
providing a "real work place experience" and thus not facilitating
the transition to the labour market, which is intended to be the advantage of
the dual Danish apprenticeship system. Moreover, employers lack incentives to
create apprenticeship places. 
For 2013, in order to fight youth
unemployment, the government proposed a new package stimulating job rotation,
apprenticeships and vocational education. DKK 300 million are allocated to
provide education for the unemployed who will lose their unemployment benefits
in 2013 and DKK 600 million are allocated between 2012 and 2016 to tackle youth
unemployment.

Conclusion

During the 2000s, a number of important reforms
have been introduced to strengthen lifelong learning and to ensure that the
education system at all levels of education is more in line with what will be
required in the labour markets of the future, and thereby to improve the
competitiveness of Danish companies in the global competition. In addition,
financial incentives have been introduced to improve efficiency and completion
at the levels of the education system above compulsory school. However, it is
crucial to ensure the balance between increasing the capacity and maintaining
good quality of education and training provided. 
Concerning basic skills of children and
young people as measured by the PISA tests and the (outdated) survey of basic
skills of Danish adults, the skills of the Danish population are just at or
slightly above European average, despite the high public expenditure on
education as a share of GDP. Increasing the cost-effectiveness of the education
system, as recommended by the Commission and Council in the European Semester
2012, will thus be important. 
As there is a close correlation between
educational level and labour market opportunities, and persons with no formal
education beyond compulsory schooling have considerably increased risk of being
unemployed and also of exiting the labour force altogether. Therefore, there is
currently widespread concern in Denmark concerning the future of young persons
with no formal education beyond compulsory education and considerable resources
are being invested in upgrading skills for the most vulnerable youth groups.
New reforms are underway focussing particularly on upper secondary vocational
training (dual training – apprenticeships) and targeted measures for the most
vulnerable young people.
Estonia
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[10]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Estonia outperforms the EU average for both the early school leaving rate (10.9% vs. 13.5%
in 2011) and the tertiary attainment rate (40.3% as against 34.6% in 2011). A
significant reduction of the early school leaving rate for males and a strong
increase in tertiary attainment of females took place in recent years. As
regards the other Education and Training 2020 benchmarks, participation in
early childhood education decreased by around 5 percentage points over 2006-10
and is now slightly below the EU average. In terms of basic skills, 15-year-olds'
performance on PISA tests in readings, mathematics and science continues to
largely outperform the EU average, although it remained broadly constant in
recent years. The employment rate of graduates suffered from the recent
economic crisis, but after reaching its lowest level at 64.3% in 2010,
rebounded in 2011 (75.1%). Participation of adults in lifelong learning
increased by 5.5 percentage points over 2006-11 and is now slightly above the
EU average (12.0% vs. 8.9% in 2011).
ICT skills of the population are slightly
above the EU average. The number of graduates in science, mathematics and
technology is low in EU comparison. Foreign language skills are more developed
than the EU average. Estonia's employment pattern up to 2020 is forecast to
diverge markedly from the EU average in both high and low qualification jobs,
with a modest increase in the former and a large increase in the latter.
However, low qualification jobs are projected to represent only 12% of total
jobs in 2020, still well below the EU average (18%). Public spending on
education as a share of GDP increased in recent years, also due to a strong GDP
decline in 2008-09, and is now above the EU average (6.09% vs. 5.41% in 2009).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Presently there are important disparities
in performance between different linguistic groups in Estonia. Therefore, the Estonian government undertook the deployment of the Language Immersion
Programme, first introduced in 2000. In the programme at least 50% of the
subjects are taught in the target language (in this case, Estonian). At present the majority of
Russian-speaking kindergartens and schools have joined the programme (17
kindergartens and 31 schools) on a voluntary basis and about 2,500 students in
all have enrolled so far. There is an indication that the positive effect of the language immersion programme on students’
language skills (i.e. Estonian as a second language) is starting to show, as
the schools participating in the programme tend to have better examination results
than the national average. As regards the promotion of mathematics, science and
technology (MST) studies, the programme TeaMe is funded by the ESF and
runs until 2015. It aims to increase the public awareness of the impact of
research and development on the competitiveness of the economy, to inform young
people and promote science related professions and career options and to
disseminate scientific thinking. Also, the recent higher education reforms
intend to steer more graduate students towards MST subjects. The participation
rate of adults in lifelong learning is rather low in Estonia. Therefore, a
comprehensive programme was initiated by the Ministry of Education and Research
(MoER), funded with the help of the ESF. It is entitled “Work-Related Training
and Development Activities of Adult Population" (2007-13). The programme
addresses the need to enhance the opportunities for the adult population
participation in lifelong learning and to achieve a better match between skills
supply and demand in the labour market. The training courses were provided in
all Regional Vocational Centres and Professional Higher Education Institutions.
A total of 33,000 adult learners are expected to get high-quality training, to
enhance work-related skills and competences and thus promote labour market
mobility. The overall funding for the project was €8.6 million p.a.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

To address i.a. the high drop-out rate
from higher education, the Programme for Continuation of Interrupted Education
Path at Higher Education Institutions (TULE) was introduced in 2010. The
programme targets those who dropped out of higher education institutions
between 2003 and 2009. The programme provides the opportunity to come back and
finish studies free of charge at a higher-education level and thus ensures an
increase in the provision of a highly qualified workforce for the Estonian
labour market. TULE is being implemented in cooperation between the Department
of Higher Education of the Ministry of Education and Research (MoER) and 13
Estonian higher education institutions with a total budget of €8 million p.a.,
95% co-financed by the European Social Fund (ESF) and 5% co-financed by the
state and other partners (higher education institutions participating in the
Programme). The number of
students entering the programme is ca. 800 per year, and the graduation rate is
at 80%. In order to address high drop-out rates from VET the KUTSE Programme
was initiated in 2010 and will end in 2013. The budget for the programme is €
1.9 million p.a. euros, and most of this funding is meant for financing studies
of students who previously dropped-out of VET, but also adult learners. About
40 VET schools can participate in the programme. The aim is to steer at least
400 drop-outs or adults with lower qualifications to graduation. Participating
VET schools provide counselling and career guidance, as well as recognition of
prior learning and working experience. In addition, in vocational education and
training (VET) at tertiary level the credit system and the recognition of prior
learning outcomes (VÕTA) system have been introduced. It incentivises adult
learners to continue their learning path. The VÕTA system has been implemented
mainly at higher education institutes (advanced tertiary VET).
In general education there is a widely
recognised need to enhance ICT education at school by
e.g. updating the ICT skills of teachers and teachers
of educators. Therefore the “Õppiv Tiiger” (The Learning Tiger)
Programme (2008-13) was launched in order to support access to lifelong
learning and enhance the quality of technology learning in different areas,
especially in general and vocational education. The
programme’s activities include the education of teacher trainers and adults
concerning the use of modern education technology methods, advanced training of
teachers and managers of schools in ICT use in teaching, and the development of
innovative study programmes and materials for adults. The funding for this
venture is of €1.3 million euros p.a., co-financed by the European Social Fund
(ESF) and the Estonian state budget. As there is strong
demand for ICT specialists in Estonia the government has introduced the “Tiigriülikool”
(Tiger [Leap] at University) Programme (2009-12 to enhance the knowledge
society and the use of ICT in higher education. It is foreseen that with the
help of the programme the ICT skills of graduates are likely to increase and
the supply of ICT skilled specialists for high-tech industries (e.g. Skype) is
also set to grow. Tiger Leap intends to achieve this goal by strengthening ICT education at tertiary
level, through the modernisation of the ICT infrastructure as well as the
development of ICT skills by academic staff. More specifically, it foresees
four types of activities: improvement of the ICT infrastructure at
universities, enhancement of e-learning, support for ICT specialities and study
programmes in higher education, and support for the ICT College. The programme
provides support for university teachers, the preparation and implementation of
e-learning study materials, training for teachers, etc.  It has a budget of €
2.2 million per year. Also at tertiary level, the Roadmap for ICT
implementation in education is focused on improvement of teachers’ educational
ICT skills, teaching practices in technology rich environments, and
Estonian-language digital learning materials.  The EST_IT@2018 foresight action
plan for higher education is implemented through IT-ACADEMY programme.  The
goal of the IT-academy is to increase the number of highly-qualified ICT
specialists coming from higher education institutions. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

As regards examples of partnerships in Estonia the “Training of Adults in Training Centres of Non-formal Education” Programme
(2008-13), providing training of basic and transversal skills for adults, has
been implemented by the Estonian Non-formal Adult Education Association (ENAEA)
with the support of the “Training of Adults in Training Centres of Non-formal
Education”. It provides training for the adult population, including the
unemployed and other vulnerable groups on the labour market by teaching basic
and transversal skills and other work-related skills to improve employability.
The training courses are provided by the ENAEA network, which consists of about
60 member organisations, covering all of the regions of Estonia. The scope of courses is wide and includes ICT, language and communication skills,
entrepreneurship courses, etc. At least 40.000 adults are expected to
participate in the training courses in locations across the country. In order
to support and promote the development of entrepreneurial skills in general and
in particular in vocational education, the programme “Become Enterprising and
Creative in the Student’s Firm” funded by the European Social Fund (ESF), has
been implemented by the NGO Junior Achievement Development Agency Eesti (JA).
To date, the JA has provided entrepreneurship training and developed about
1,700 students’ firms. Many participants in their programmes have become
successful entrepreneurs.  From 2011 to 2013 the JA is set to continue the
programme to enhance entrepreneurship education in vocational schools. Finally,
the previously described programmes “Tiigriülikool” and “Õppiv
Tiiger” are both conducted in cooperation with the Tiigrihüppe SA (Tiger
Leap Foundation).

Conclusion 

Estonia is
confronted with relatively significant skill mismatches, inter alia as a
result of a structural shift from non-tradable to tradable sectors. Estonia is also faced with a problem of a high number of people without any professional
education, since about 30% of Estonians aged 25-64 years have graduated from neither
VET nor university. Therefore this group has only compulsory or upper-secondary
general education at the moment.
A number of initiatives (e.g. TULE,
KUTSE) intend to address these two important challenges in the field of
education and training, often with the assistance of financing from EU
structural funds. 
Greece
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[11]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training 

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Greece performs better than the EU average in early school leaving (13.1% in 2011 having
dropped from 15.5% in 2006). However the national average masks significant
variation between different geographical areas, types of schools and social
groups. For instance, the sub-group of people born-abroad is lagging behind.
Tertiary attainment rate (28.9% in 2011) is lower than the EU average of 34.6%
and has been increasing very slowly over the past decade (25.4% in 2000). As
regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, Greece performs significantly below the
EU average in early childhood education. School education produces rather weak
results in terms of basic skills: the
share of low achievers in reading, mathematics and science remains above the EU
average and with a persistent achievement gaps between migrants and natives. The employment rate of
graduates suffered hugely from the economic crisis and has decreased by over 16
percentage points since 2006, further increasing the gap in relation to the EU
average (50.2% vs. 77.2% in 2011). Youth unemployment has surged to record levels exceeding 55%
with young women being the hardest hit. Approximately one third of the unemployed
youth are long term unemployed and low skilled. Adult participation in lifelong learning is
far below the EU average and one of the lowest in the EU (2.4% in 2011). 
ICT skills of the adult population are
close to the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the
population believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a
business (50%) is among the highest in the EU. Learning of foreign languages
starts in primary school and figures indicate above EU average language skills.
The employment pattern in Greece up to 2020 is forecast to be different from
the EU average, with a stronger decrease in low qualification jobs and stronger
increase in both medium and high qualification jobs.            

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Since late 2009, the "New School" reform is the main
umbrella initiative aiming to improve compulsory education and to tackle low
performance in basic skills. Structured around twenty broad objectives, the
reform put emphasis on foreign languages, revised curricula, all-day provision,
the first steps towards a culture of evaluation, teacher training, reform of
special needs provision, a pilot scheme of Education Priority Zones and a
"digital school" pilot scheme. The implementation of this
reform in the current economic context remains nevertheless a challenge.
Piloted initially in 800 primary schools,
which later increased to 961, all-day provision is a key component of
the “New School” reform. The savings-motivated reduction of the number of all-day primary
schools in rural
and isolated areas in 2011 (with a parallel increase in urban areas) raises
concerns about unequal treatment. In addition, the government's initial (2009)
plan to make all primary schools all-day schools by 2013 looks unattainable. 
In addition to the New School reform, 2010-2011 saw the announcement of the third school VET reform in ten years, to
mark a shift away
from narrowly specialised job-specific skills towards broader vocational and general
knowledge, skills and competences, and to develop pathways through VET to further learning and tertiary
education. As VET
is still seen as the place for low achievers and registers high dropout rates,
the implementation of this reform
remains a challenge. 
In the field of tertiary education, structural reform legislation
voted through the Greek Parliament in 2011 with a big majority remains only
partially implemented. The reform law includes, inter alia, changes in the governance and
financial autonomy of universities, their re-organisation around
"schools" rather than narrowly specialised "departments",
mergers and redeployment of institutions to better serve regional development
and labour market needs, internationalisation to attract foreign students and
staff, implementation of a culture of evaluation,
better use of universities to provide lifelong learning opportunities to local
and regional populations, better monitoring of inputs and outputs.
A great deal of foreign language teaching
and learning (and certification) still takes place outside the formal education
system, in private profit-making language schools. Beyond compulsory education,
the State Certificate of Language
Competence validates the skills of Greek natives in modern languages and the
skills of foreign
nationals in the Greek language. It is aligned to the six levels proposed in the European
Language Passport.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Progress is being made in Greece in terms of promoting pathways across education and training sub-systems through
progress in the development of a National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and
through a new agency responsible for this, the National Organisation of
Certifying Qualifications (EOPP). EOPP’s mission is to develop the NQF, to
align it with the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and to develop the
recognition of qualifications acquired through formal, non-formal and informal
learning.
Furthermore, the National
Lifelong Learning Strategy is another major policy initiative announced (in 2011) which has not been fully
implemented. Although branded "lifelong learning" this initiative is not
an overarching strategic vision for learning in the meaning of a “coherent and
comprehensive LLL strategy”. Rather, it is an adult education plan with
two strands: a) initial and continuing training for the labour market; b)
general adult education. Improving access of adults and of non-traditional learners to diverse and flexible learning opportunities is
crucial for adult skills in Greece. 
The “Digital School” strand of the New School reform is the main vehicle for exploiting the potential of ICT
and open education resources. This scheme has been piloted in 800 primary and
1250 lower secondary schools aiming to provide a platform for digital content
and tools and for teacher training. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Public
investment in education and training is one of the lowest in the EU (2,75% of
GDP in early 2011, and subsequently further reduced). The need to consolidate
public finances has led to drastic reductions in the recruitment of teachers
and in teacher salaries. While the LLL Implementation Report 2011 argues that
the quality of the education provided has not been affected by spending cuts
(since some compensating measures have been taken such as extensive school
mergers which reduced operating costs) there is a risk that low public spending
will undermine reform efforts and the convergence towards the 2020 EU targets. 
At the same
time, the Ministry of Education has been orienting itself towards more
efficient spending, and towards revitalising human and capital resources which
had not been used efficiently previously. An independent task force of education
policy experts set up in cooperation with the OECD in 2011 offered some
guidance on how Greece could improve the overall efficiency of its education
system. In the current context, the best possible use of the EU Structural
Funds is crucial as it can enable reforms in this field to continue and can
also finance infrastructure, including in early childhood education and care.
Efforts are
being made to strengthen links and partnerships for lifelong learning in the
context of National Lifelong Learning Strategy, as well as to consolidate the
functions of national educational agencies to avoid overlap. For instance, an
Institute of Educational Policy has been created to which the main functions of
four existing services (Pedagogical Institute, Centre of Educational Research,
Institute for Education for Greeks Abroad and Intercultural Education,
Organisation of Teacher Training) are being transferred and rationalised in
order to avoid overlap. However, a major governance gap relates to the lack of
a tradition of cooperation between different levels of governance and even
within the same level of governance in Greece. 

Conclusion

The Greek education and training system
faces serious challenges in terms of its quality, its effectiveness and its
capacity to ensure a successful transition of young people to employment.  In
relation to basic skills, resources and opportunities should be shifted towards schools with a  disadvantaged
intake, participation in quality ECEC, the expansion and quality of all-day
provision, the quality,
attractiveness and labour market relevance of VET. In relation to adult skills, more
emphasis could be placed on addressing the horizontal skills mismatches of
tertiary education graduates who often have the right level of qualification
for the job but not the right skills, as well as the vertical skills mismatches
as the Greek economy appears to be creating demand for medium and low skilled
jobs against the increasing volume of tertiary education graduates. The
strategic reform of the VET system and of post-secondary non-tertiary provision
will be key.
Low public investment makes convergence
towards the EU targets difficult and undermines reform efforts. Investment in
this field is crucial to support both short-term recovery and long-term sustainable
growth in Greece. In the current context, however, whereby new spending may not
be an option, “smart spending” would include taking full advantage of the
possibilities of the Structural Funds which can underpin education reforms and
also finance educational infrastructure. However, perhaps more than lack of
funds, implementation
of reforms
remains the key issue in the Greek context. Strategic long-term planning and continuity, capacity and resources at the
sub-national levels combined with adequate central guidance, policy and programme
evaluation, concrete
and measurable targets for each level of education and age-group, time-frames
for implementation and tools to monitor progress, effective cross-policy synergies,
cooperation between
different levels of governance but also within the same level of governance, partnerships with key
stakeholders at local and regional level, all seem to be big challenges in education
reform in Greece. These governance bottlenecks matter for skills policies, not
least because issues of skills supply, matching, and use, are complex and
require multidisciplinary and integrated approaches to be resolved. In the
current context, a better focus on monitoring and evaluation will help identify what works,
will help make the necessary adjustments to existing measures, and will
ultimately increase their efficiency and effectiveness.
Spain
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[12]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, despite
some progress since 2008 Spain still underperforms the EU average in the area
of early school leaving (ESL), with 26.5% compared to 13.5% in 2011, and with
striking differences between the regions (from 13% to 37%). The analysis of
sub-indicators shows an unfavourable family background of the population aged
18-24. Spain’s tertiary attainment rate however has already reached the 2020
European target (40.6% in 2011, with 35.7% for men and 45.9% for women). As
regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, Spain performs above the benchmark on
participation in early childhood education (99.4% in 2010), which is relevant
for prevention of ESL. School education in Spain produces medium results in
terms of basic skills: despite some recent improvements in the three fields
concerned (reading, mathematics and science) 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests remains slightly below the EU average, coupled with big regional disparities. In
addition, females perform much better in reading, ten points difference in
percentage, males perform better in mathematics, five points difference in
percentage, and the two are close to equal in science. The employment rate of
graduates is below the EU average (66.4% in 2011) and declined significantly in
recent years due to the on-going economic crisis. Participation of adults in
lifelong learning is 10.8% vs. 8.9% in the EU in 2011.   
ICT skills of the population are somewhat
above the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the population
believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a business (51%)
is one of the highest in the EU. As regards the distribution of tertiary
graduates by field compared with the EU average, Spain shows a high share of
graduates in education and training and services, as well as a low share of
graduates in social science, business and law. Employment in medium and high
qualification jobs in Spain up to 2020 is forecast to increase faster than the
EU average, in medium qualifications (32.2% vs. 4.8%) and in high qualification
(26.2% vs. 19.7%). Public spending on education in Spain increased over the
last decade and was getting closer to the EU average (5.01% vs. 5.41% of GDP in
2009).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Competences on Education and Training are
attributed to the 17 Autonomous Communities according to the 1978 Constitution.
The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport develops cooperation plans and
programmes with the Autonomous Communities, the main goal being to improve the
quality of education and training. The programmes carried out since 2010 aim at
developing key competences in a number of areas. 
The inclusion of key competences in the
curriculum (2006 Organic Law on Education) has been implemented by different
Territorial Cooperation Programmes such as: ‘Programme for the consolidation of
key competences’ as a core element of the curriculum, ‘Learn to Learn
Programme’, ‘Reading in the digital era’ and the ‘Plan for the promotion of
foreign language learning’. The promotion of digital competences has been
developed as well by means of the Territorial Cooperation Programmes for the
integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) in
publicly-funded schools. The modification of the structure of Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria (ESO), or upper secondary education– has made vocational
education more attractive for students and contributes to the prevention of
ESL. It also guides young people in training and professional pathways, and
supports their adaptation to the continuously changing working conditions. A
project of Royal Decree developing the training and apprenticeship contract and
establishing the basis for a dual VET system is at an advanced stage of
preparation.
In vocational training, one of the declared objectives
is to encourage creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. It is foreseen
that every vocational training program will include, from 2012/2013 onwards, a
module on business and entrepreneurship. 
Within the framework of the ‘Strategy
University 2015’, skills and abilities oriented towards innovation and the
promotion of creativity and entrepreneurship, especially in PhD studies, are proposed to be included in
the university curriculum.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

In 2012 six cooperation programmes have
been maintained between the central Government and Autonomous Communities,
which directly aim at stimulating open and flexible learning. The following
budgets correspond to the amount the central Government will contribute to each
programme.
The Plan ‘PROA’ (60 million €) is an
orientation and support programme whose goal is to provide reinforcement for
students experiencing difficulties. The Plan contributes to the fight against
early school leaving. The ‘Plan to fight against Early School Leaving’ (40.8
million €) finances specific actions proposed by the Autonomous Communities.
The ‘Plan for improvement of foreign language learning’ (13.3 million €) is in
particular relevant, as foreign language learning constitutes a priority for
the Government.
The ‘Programme for Innovation’ in the
area of vocational education and training aims at enhancing the use of
technologies and supporting cooperation with the world of business (11.2
million €). The Programme facilitates the acquisition and transfer of knowledge
through collaboration between internal and external networks. Finally, the
'Programme for the recognition of professional competences’ (20.1 million €)
leads to the recognition and certification of lifelong work experience.
The promotion of the digital competence
has been developed by means of the Territorial Cooperation Programmes, i.a.
through the increased provision of information and communication technologies
(ICT) in publicly funded schools. 
In 2009-2010 the average number of pupils
per PC in Spanish schools (public and private, in primary, secondary education
and VET) was 4.3%, varying in the Autonomous Communities from 1.7% to 7.4%. The
use of the internet by children (10-15 year olds) has increased dramatically in
the recent years; nevertheless it is higher at home than at school (72.3% vs.
52% in 2010).
Intensifying the use of ICT is one of the
priority objectives of the Government. From 2012 onwards, a Territorial
Cooperation Programme on ICT (41.5 M€) will be further developed.  It will
promote the use of virtual learning environments as well as individual
learning. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Cooperation and
partnerships, given the territorial and political organisation in Spain, are the usual way of working together at national, regional and local level,
according to the different administrations' competences in the field of
education and training. 
The latest measures
regarding education public expenditure adopted by the Royal Decree Law of 20
April 2012, concern the rational use of all resources available in education:
increasing the number of teaching hours per teacher; reviewing class-sizes and
therefore the student/teacher ratio; adjusting the offer of upper secondary
education and first-cycle university degrees to real demand; as well as
reviewing the university fees in order to adjust them to the real cost of
higher education. These measures to secure funding of education aim at reducing
costs without decreasing the quality of the educational service.
As regards
initiatives developing partnerships with business, Vocational Education and
Training is being reformed in order to increase the length of traineeships in
companies and to establish the contract of apprenticeship, thus establishing a
linkage between training and work experience. Increasing private funding in
higher education and overcoming the transfer deficit from research and
innovation to the productive sector are among the measures that Spain is
considering to adopt in order to increase the quality and efficiency of higher
education.

Conclusion

In this time of high unemployment rate,
particularly youth unemployment, re-thinking skills in the context of education
and training constitutes for Spain a medium to long term key challenge.
Updating and adapting skills to present and future labour market needs requires
the involvement of civil society, particularly the business world, in order to
enhance a lifelong learning culture of innovation and mobility.  
To address the 2011 and 2012
country-specific recommendations adopted by the Council, Spain has implemented a number of measures in the education and training field. Moreover, the Government
approved in September 2012 a draft project of Organic Law on measures to
improve the quality of Education. Among others, Spain also implements numerous
policies to address early school leaving, although the rate remains very high,
with strong regional disparities. In terms of adult participation in lifelong
learning, while Spain performs slightly better than the European average,
further efforts are needed to increase the participation of older workers with
a view to provide more up-skilling and re-skilling. 
Given the economic and financial situation,
  Spain is facing the challenge of preserving expenditure in education and
training within the objective of a growth-friendly fiscal consolidation. There
is room for improving efficiency of spending, as well as involving and
motivating stakeholders from the early stages of this difficult exercise. The
recent Royal Decree Law of 20th April 2012 includes
urgent measures of rationalisation of public expenditure in the educational
field. The key focus of the current debate in education is how best to allocate
adequate human and financial resources. 
 
Finland
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[13]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high education
background of the mother, difference in employment rate for high/medium
education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets,
Finland performs significantly better than the EU average for both the early
school leaving rate (9.8% vs. 13.5% in 2011) and the tertiary attainment rate
(46.0% as against 34.6% in 2011), although no further progress has taken place
over the last five years. The analysis of sub-indicators shows a high investment
in education, favourable family background, better participation and/or
completion patterns in VET and upper secondary education. Participation in
early childhood education is well below the EU average (73.1% vs. 92.3% in
2010). In terms of basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests in
reading, mathematics and science continues to be the best in the EU, despite a
certain degree of stagnation in recent years. The employment rate of graduates
remained close to the EU average throughout the economic crisis. Participation
of adults in lifelong learning is the third highest in the EU (23.8% in 2011).
A large share of the population has high
level computer skills. Compared to the EU average, Finland shows a very high
(and increasing) share of graduates in science, mathematics and technology
(31.8% vs. 21.9%), as well as a low share of graduates in social science,
business and law (23.0% vs. 35.7%). With regard to entrepreneurship, the share
of the population believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start
a business is below the EU average. On average, Finnish pupils at ISCED 2 learn
more than two foreign languages. The employment pattern in Finland up to 2020 is forecast to be very similar to the EU average in medium and low qualification
jobs, with a more modest increase in high qualification jobs (which already
accounted for 43% of total jobs in 2010 compared with an EU average of 34%).
Public spending on education as a share of GDP is among the highest in the EU
(6.81% in 2009) and has continued increasing over the last few years.

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Finland has
adopted a holistic approach via the 'Education and Research Development Plan'
(2011–2016), according to which the competitiveness of Finnish labour requires
a well‑functioning educational system. The Plan aims at strengthening one
of the most comprehensive educational systems in the world to guarantee equal
opportunities for all. It outlines 188 actions such as: raise the education
level of the population - in particular of the labour force, improve the
efficiency of the education system, prevent children's and young people's
exclusion and enhance adults' education and training opportunities. Attention
is also paid to the quality and internationalisation of education. Finland aims for excellence in professional expertise, higher education and research, as
well as development and innovation activities. 
Finland has also
made significant efforts to anticipate the needs for future skills and
competences, particularly in post-compulsory education and in all vocational
and professional fields. The Finnish National Board of Education initiated the
National Project on Anticipation of Competences and Skills Needs (VOSE,
2008-12). VOSE is a cooperation project engaging stakeholders such as the state
administration, social partners, vocational education providers, universities -
including of applied sciences, local authorities, research institutes, and student
organisations, to develop methods and processes for anticipating competences
and skills needs, and networking between institutions. New procedures will be
tested through VOSE in two fields - social welfare and health care, and real
estate and construction. The scheme is supported by the European Social Fund
(ESF). Combined government and ESF funding is €5.3 million.
Finland is
officially a bi-lingual country (Finnish, Swedish) and English is widely known.
However, the need to learn foreign languages other than English has emerged,
given the decreasing number of students choosing such languages (only 5 %,
compared to 95 % for English). The KIELITIVOLI (Language Circus) Programme (2009-11) tackled this issue
by giving pupils in lower primary education the opportunity to learn languages
other than English and offering
a coherent learning path throughout the school system. The initiative was part
of the governmental education programme for 2008-2011 and responded to the
global need for better language learning in a competitive economy. The
government made funding available for municipalities responsible for education
to help them collaborate with other institutions in order to increase
stakeholders’ knowledge and  language learning, enlarge the offer available and
its quality, using i.a. ICT. The National Board of Education coordinated the
venture with Finnish municipalities, 88 of which participated. The programme
included coordination events, information campaign kits for parents, a
web-based game for students, and teachers’ professional development. The target
languages were German, French, Russian, and Spanish. The Finnish government is
due to decide in early 2013 whether this action will be resumed in the future.
Finland also features schemes for migrants,
such as the 'AIKIS' initiative, providing language learning material for the
immigrant population learning Finnish and Swedish, the 'Preparatory education
for the immigrant population' and the 'Basic Education of Roma Pupils' actions.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Finland has a
long-standing tradition of flexible paths and permeability between different
educational sub-systems. For instance, the 'Hyvä startti!' Programme
(’Job start’ – education preparing for vocational education and training)
running since 2006 works to facilitate the transition from basic to vocational
education. It aims to reduce drop-out in the early stages of training and help
students to complete their studies and obtain a qualification. The target group
are students who left compulsory education with no idea of what occupation to
choose, and/or those without sufficient knowledge and skills to apply for or
cope with vocational education and training. The Ministry of Education has set
a target of at least 80% of students to continue towards vocational training
and an additional 10% to be steered towards upper secondary school or another
type of education. In 2010, 43 institutions participated in the programme, and
the results are encouraging given that around 70% of participants found a place
in further education and training. 
The JOPO (flexible basic education)
Programme aims at developing new teaching methods and procedures to help reduce
drop-out rates at primary level, particularly of pupils
in the last years of basic education. This initiative
develops new methods catering for individual pupil needs using; activity based
learning, small group teaching, on-the-job learning, and different learning
environments. JOPO activities support pupils in finishing school and applying
for further training through guidance and counselling, early intervention and
intensified school-home cooperation. This in turn helps to reduce school
drop-out rates, eases the transition from basic education, and offers further
training possibilities. In 2009 about 100 educational institutions and 950
students took part in this scheme. The Ministry of Education has made funding available for
municipalities, holding the responsibility for basic education, in order to
implement programmes to reduce drop-out rates between the end of compulsory
education and the next level of studies.  JOPO activities seem to be effective,
since the educational situation of nearly 90% of the pupils had improved during
their participation in the scheme. JOPO had its most visible effect in ensuring
that pupils obtain their school-leaving certificate, in reducing absenteeism
and improving study motivation. 
As regards ICT, Finland has developed the 'Learning environments' initiative in order to provide better learning
contexts (including both physical and digital) and increased use of ICT in
schools. The action is project based and the stakeholders design products and
development programmes to create better and more holistic learning environments
for the use of ICT in teaching and learning. 445 projects were funded in 2007
and 2008, and about 100 in 2009. In 2012, up to €6.5 million were earmarked for
this scheme by the National Board of Education.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

The 'Youth Guarantee' ('Social Guarantee
for Young People: education, work, and tailored services') is one of the major
political and social priorities of the Finnish government and an example of an
ambitious partnership with shared responsibility between authorities, trade
unions, and young people. It is based on a Public-Private-(People)-Partnership
model, in which youngsters are active participants shaping their own future.
The action targets the engagement into a first job or a training position for
young adults having obtained an upper secondary qualification. The guarantee is
meant to ensure that all young adults find their way into education, working
life and society. It aims to provide each person under the age of 25 and each
recent graduate below 30 years of age with a study place, a traineeship, an
apprenticeship or a job. The objective is to ensure that by the end of the
decade 90% of young adults (20–24) have a degree other than the upper secondary
qualification. The guarantee was launched in the autumn of 2011 and will become
permanent as of 1 January 2013. A budget of €60 million p.a. is foreseen. 
Another example in this field is the
'SANSSI-kortti' action. It is a youth employment action targeting those under
the age of 30 who have completed education. The rationale is to make sure that
youngsters are not excluded from the labour market early on and do not stay
unemployed for a long period of time. Young people (over 17 years old) can
register online to receive a voucher for subsidised work from the Employment
and Economic Development Office. Each employer can receive up to €670/month to
cover the employment costs. The subsidy is available for up to 10 months. In
2011, 18.500 young people received the voucher and 3.200 managed to secure a
job.
The 'Skilled workforce through
Recruitment Training, Specialised Training and Change Training' scheme brings
in the contribution from the business community. It targets unemployed people
with the aim to reduce skills gaps in the labour market. By training a current
or new employee, an enterprise may secure availability of workforce, promote
professional integration and contribute to prolonging working lives,
maintaining jobs and preventing unemployment. The training provided is based on
joint planning and financing by the employer and the employment and economic
development administration. Employers play a key role in selecting the
students. Three different schemes are available. In most cases, the training
lasts from 3 to 9 months. Participants receive either pay for the training
period or, subject to certain preconditions, a training allowance and
maintenance support for labour force training. The scheme is co-financed by the
employment and economic development administration and by employers. 

Conclusion

With regard to basic skills, Finland has been able to maintain its high position in PISA in 2009 in literacy, in numeracy and in
science. In order to improve language skills outcomes, measures are taken to
widen the offer of foreign language studies (other than English). Additionally,
there are initiatives targeting the acquisition of basic skills for
disadvantaged groups of pupils at primary and secondary school, e.g. those at
risk of dropping-out of basic education, Roma pupils and preparatory education
for immigrant students. Furthermore, as of January 2013, the “Social Guarantee
for Young People: education, work and tailored services” will be reinforced.
In the context of an ageing population,
the employability of older workers and the need to delay their exit from the
labour market on the one hand, and the increasing level of youth unemployment
and a lack of relevant skills among young job seekers on the other, are growing
sources of concern for Finland. However, Finland has been able to maintain its
education budget throughout the financial crises, and its public expenditure on
education has remained above the EU average despite a generally difficult
economic context.
France
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[14]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the EU related targets, in
2011 France outperformed the EU average on early school leaving (ESL) with 12%
compared to 13.4%, although there has been no improvement in recent years. Its
tertiary attainment rate of 43.4% in 2011 is already a better result than the
EU target for 2020 of 40%. France had full coverage of early childhood
education (100%) already before 2006. However, school education only shows average
results for reading, mathematics and science as documented by the 2009 PISA tests for 15 year olds. In general, France's relative position vis-à-vis the EU
average has deteriorated over the last decade. Compared with 2006, performance
in mathematics remained stable, whilst results for reading and science improved
at a slower pace than the EU average. While the employment rate of graduates is
close to the EU average, adult participation in lifelong learning is very low
in EU comparison (5.5% vs. 8.9% in 2011).
ICT skills in France are close to the EU average. As regards entrepreneurship, France shows some improvement over
time, as 38% of the population believe to have the required skills and
knowledge to start a business in 2011 compared to 33% in 2006. This is about
the same value as for Germany (37%), but below the EU average (43%). With
regard to language teaching, France shows very stable performances throughout recent
years as pupils continue to learn on average 1.5 languages. This coincides with
the EU average. However actual performance of pupils at the end of upper
secondary level remains modest, as only 14.3% achieve B1 or higher performance.
The number of graduates in mathematics, science and technology is high in EU
comparison. Employment in high qualification jobs is forecast to increase very
strongly in France and represent 43% of total jobs in 2020 (compared to an EU
average of 34%). Public spending in education as a share of GDP in France has been constantly above the EU average, but with no significant increase in recent
years. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Improved curricula and reforms of
primary and secondary schools (2008) have focussed, among other factors, on
literacy. In 2010, these activities were complemented with a national plan to
fight illiteracy developing three axes: (1) training of teachers and research
about innovative methods/good practices; (2) development of partnerships to
promote books and reading; (3) individualised assistance to pupils at all
levels. 
To improve science performance, the
2011 initiative "A new ambition for science and technology in school"
encourages secondary school children to engage in collective projects on
science and technology based on multi-disciplinary approaches and utilising
innovative methods. 
School reform in 2008 has determined
learning outcomes for mathematics in primary and secondary schools. From 2012,
mathematics is also being promoted through a national day for mathematics. All
levels of schools are being targeted and these activities are complemented by
conferences organised by well-known universities as well as radio and TV
transmissions on national level. 
As far as foreign languages are
concerned, the recent primary and secondary school reforms have made learning
one language compulsory as of the age of 7 and a second language as of the age
of 13. In 2010 the latter has been reinforced. Further considerations on how to
strengthen language training will be elaborated by the Strategic Committee for
Languages established early in 2011 by the Ministry of Education.
To combat early school leaving,
specific actions have been taken, in particular to target pupils and students
from disadvantaged backgrounds. "Boarding schools of excellence"
(2008) as well as the programmes CLAIR and, since 2011, ÉCLAIR address these
target groups in primary and in lower, as well as in upper secondary education.
Better counselling at the end of the secondary school and the plan "Réussite
en licence" were initiated in 2008 in order to reduce the distinctly high drop-out
rate during the first year of university. 
Important reforms have been initiated
over recent years, reforming curricula and reinforcing guidance in schools and
in vocational as well as tertiary education. Given the multitude of
intervention, implementation needs to be consolidated. The new government has
called for wide public consultations on the future of school ("Refondons
l’École de la République") whilst taking some immediate measures in 2012,
mainly related to teacher ratios and training. Further reforms are foreseen in
2013, centred on increasing the number of teachers and improving the conditions
for the teaching profession. In VET two initiatives have been proposed and
discussed in September 2012. Further Higher Education reform is being discussed
in a conference on the future of Higher Education and Research since July 2012.
The discussion focuses on success for all students, revival of research and
innovation as well as a redefinition of the roles of the actors in Higher
Education and Research, including governance and financing.    

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Historically, French education has
been rather segmented and characterised by a lack of permeability between
education pathways. The recent reforms of primary and secondary education aimed
to address these issues amongst others. 
A pathway for the discovery of
occupations (Parcours de la Découverte de Métiers, PDMF) has been introduced in
the context of the 2008 reforms of secondary schools. Its goal is to have
pupils gaining a good understanding and a realistic perception of the world of
work leading also to the acquisition of social and civic competences. The plan
"Étudiants Entrepreneurs" (2009-2014) aims at bridging gaps between
business and the higher education system whilst fostering entrepreneurship
among students. This has resulted so far in establishing "entrepreneurship
contact points" in 300 higher education institutions, including 71
universities.
Overall, first steps to make a
centralised and rather segmented system more permeable have been initiated;
however there is still room for improvement.
There is a national ICT strategy in
education with the objective to bridge the digital divide and inequalities
through a rural digital schools plan. It aims at promoting the use of ICT for
teaching and learning, in teacher training and to develop the ICT skills of all
students. All levels of education are targeted. 
Digital competence and the use of ICT
are not prescribed for ISCED 1,2 and  3 as a separate subject, but recommended
as a general tool / and or for specific tasks across different subjects. This
ranges from using spread sheets in mathematics, to online dictation in
languages or consulting online maps in geography. 
In this sense key skills and
competences ("socle commun de connaissances et de compétences") for
ISCED 1 and 2 have been integrated in order to ensure mastery of common ICT and
communication techniques. Individual knowledge in five concerned areas is being
certified by an "attestation de compétences" and registered in a
skills book for each pupil that accompanies him throughout his school life at all
levels. This strategy has opted for a rather transversal experiencing and using
of ICT rather than concentrating learning only in specifically dedicated
subjects. 

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

A more
comprehensive budgeting approach no longer organises the budget strictly along
the lines of ministry missions, programmes and actions. Actions in the field of
education are implemented in this new context that requires adopting
performance oriented and public management approaches through a law on guidance
and funding of schools in 2005.
Major changes in
governance were introduced in 2007 by the "Law on the Liberties and
Responsibilities of universities". This law not only made universities
more autonomous and more accountable, aiming to increase their efficiency, but
also strengthened the link between training and the labour market. The relationship
between the State and universities is governed on the basis of multiannual
contracts.
Introducing the
notion of performance in French education has been a major development for the
French education system, encouraging all actors to focus on the results
achieved and the improvements made. All levels concerned (school, academia,
Ministry) are invited to better report on their efforts to be efficient. This
is an important step towards a more efficient and better performing education
system. 

Conclusion

The quality of the French education
system is demonstrated by the fact that it outperforms the EU average for ESL
and has reached the Europe 2020 target in tertiary educational attainment and the
ET2020 benchmark in participation in early childhood education. A problematic
sector remains adult participation in lifelong learning where France scores persistently below the EU average and where performance actually worsened in recent
years. This was also the subject of country-specific recommendation to France in the European Semester 2012.
As far as basic skills are concerned, France's performance has gradually declined from a comfortable position above EU averages
to just below the EU average. Foreign language training lags seriously behind
in EU comparison. Initiatives have been introduced to address all these issues
and efforts have to be kept up.
Overall, education in France has witnessed fundamental reforms at all levels over the last decade that attracted
attention and concentrated resources for implementation and parallel measures. Education
is high on the government agenda. Full implementation is still a matter of time
and of mediation in order to overcome resistance in specific interest groups.
It will continue requiring important human and financial resources. There is
still room for improving guidance and monitoring tools. Since 2007, in line
with the general trend aiming at reducing the budget deficit, investment in
education has been reduced. The current government is reversing this tendency
having identified education as only one of three public sectors to invest in in
a general climate of fiscal consolidation.
Hungary
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[15]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for low/medium
education, low education background of the mother, investment in primary and
secondary education, participation in vocational education and training [VET]
and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets,
Hungary outperforms the EU average in terms of early school leaving (11.2% vs.
13.5% in 2011) while the country's tertiary attainment rate is significantly
lower than the EU average (28.1% as against 34.6% in 2011). The tertiary
attainment rates of the natives, males and females, have increased more than
the EU average in the past three years. As regards the other ET2020 benchmarks,
participation in early childhood education is above the EU average. In terms of
basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests is better than the EU
average in reading and science, with clear improvement in recent years. The
share of low achievers in mathematics is slightly higher than the EU average
and worsened between 2006 and 2009. The employment rate of graduates decreased
substantially, by over 6 percentage points, during the recent economic crisis
and fell from just above the EU average in 2006 (79.8% vs. 79.0%) to well below
the EU average in 2011 (73.5% vs. 77.2%). The participation rate of adults in
lifelong learning continues to be one of the lowest in Europe (2.7% vs. EU
average of 8.9%), and has even shown further decrease in recent years.
Less than half of the pupils in the 4th
grade use computers at school, which is well below EU average (42.9% as against
60.7% in 2007). The share of individuals aged 16-74 years, however, with high
ICT skills, outperforms the EU average. Hungary has a low number of graduates
in science, mathematics and technology in EU comparison. As regards
entrepreneurship, the share of the population believing to have the required
skills and knowledge to start a business dropped by 3 percentage points between
2006 and 2011 (from 43.0% to 40.0%) and fell below the EU average (43.0%) in
2011. The average number of foreign languages learned per pupils at ISCED 2
level is lowest in Europe, at the same level as the English speaking countries
of UK and Ireland. Employment in high qualification jobs up to 2020 is forecast
to increase faster than the EU average, while there will be a decrease in
demand for medium and low qualification jobs. Public spending on education as a
share of GDP in Hungary is below the EU average (5.12% vs. 5.41% of GDP in
2009), with a slight decrease between 2006 and 2011. 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

After publishing the first PISA results, the education discourse in Hungary has been largely influenced by the
concept of competences and skills. Improving the skills supply was the focus of
subsequent education reforms at all levels. Central elements of the reforms
have been the introduction of a focus on key competences in the national core
curriculum (2003, amended in 2007) and the establishment of a nation-wide
competence-based assessment system to assess in each school-year the skills of
selected grades (standard assessment in numeracy and literacy, with additional
assessment in certain other skills). Education programme packages have been
developed and gradually introduced in schools, based on the EU's framework for
key competences, alongside the restructuring of teacher training. These reform
efforts are reflected in the results of PISA 2009 survey, notably in the areas
of reading and science. The results of the national assessment of key
competences also show a slow, but steady improvement. In the area of vocational
education and training (VET) different reforms were implemented in the last
decade which also strengthened the role of competence-based training. 
To address the significant differences
between the performance of different schools, resulting both from the
geographical location and the socio-economic background of the parents, Hungary
has introduced a number of policy measures, focusing in particular on
(multiple) disadvantaged groups, among which Roma are over-represented.
Nevertheless, these measures are not explicitly embedded in the new law on
general education, adopted at the end of 2011. Compulsory kindergarten
attendance from the age of 3, coupled with the expansion and reinforcement of
high-quality early childhood education and care, is expected to improve the
education prospects of disadvantaged children and to decrease segregation in
school education.
The higher education system has been
gradually reformed in the framework of the Bologna process. In order to
counterbalance the insufficient supply of graduates from science, technology
and engineering areas, whose share among tertiary graduates also remains below
the EU average, recent measures taken by the Hungarian authorities prioritise
financial allocation to subject areas conducive to innovation and thus economic
growth. Raising the profile of science and mathematics already in school
education would be helpful to prepare pupils for future tertiary studies in
these areas.
Hungary is
building a comprehensive system for the anticipation and assessment of skills
needs, relying on a variety of tools and involving various levels and sectors.
The development of skills forecasts at national level is on-going. Furthermore,
outcomes of graduate tracking and middle-to long-term employment forecasts are
considered in the definition of the number of state-financed places in higher
education.  

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

The government decree on the Hungarian
Qualifications Framework was adopted in July 2012. The decree includes the
matrix of 8 comprehensive national qualification levels and their descriptors
(4 categories: knowledge, skills, attitudes and autonomy/responsibility). The
identification of the national level of qualifications and decision on
referencing the national qualifications framework to the European Qualifications
Framework is still outstanding.
In the framework of the on-going VET
reform, the apprenticeship system will be reinforced. This is expected to contribute
to the improvement of the labour-market relevance of
the training, currently identified as a challenge. The
provision of higher level vocational programmes is regulated by the Act on
Higher Education. Higher level vocational programmes, offered by a great number
of higher education institutions, lead to a higher level vocational
qualification without a higher education degree. They provide 120 ECTS, 30-60
ECTS of which can be validated as part of specific first-cycle programmes in
the case of further studies. The programmes offer higher level vocational,
technical and professional skills and can therefore react more quickly to the
needs of the labour market.
Education quality is strongly influenced
by the quality of teachers. In Hungary teachers are poorly paid in both
absolute and relative terms. In addition, there are few incentives to
participate in further training or to use new teaching methods, adapted to the
needs of the pupils. Tailor-made support for pupils would be especially
important for schools with a high number of disadvantaged pupils, backed up by support
mechanisms for teachers (for example professional supervision and mentoring).
There is a long-term national strategy on
ICT in education, elaborated by the Ministry of Education in 2003. The main
cornerstones of the strategy are: internet access, ICT infrastructure, digital
content provision, teacher training. Digital competence and the use of ICT are
mentioned in the central steering documents for primary and general secondary
education (ISCED 1, 2 and 3). Steering documents (National Core Curriculum)
recommend the use of ICT as a general tool and/or for specific tasks across the
different subjects at ISCED 1, 2 and 3, but ICT is also taught as a separate
subject. Over the course of the last 6 years a massive, though uneven
development of ICT equipment was carried out for schools. It resulted in a
large-scale use of ICT tools in the teaching process and contributed to the
improvement of ICT skills of students.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Budget cuts resulting from the financial
crisis are most present in higher education. The state has significantly
decreased the number of state financed places in enrolment. Universities face
structural changes which may contribute to a change in the institutional
landscape. In school education and VET, the state is taking over the payment of
teacher salaries, but leaves the maintenance responsibility of the schools to
the local governments.
Chambers of Commerce and Industry became
an important player in the VET provision. They have an enhanced role in
defining teaching content, revision of official list of vocations and defining
the number of places offered at regional level. In addition, chambers, employers
and other stakeholders are also consulted when study places both in VET and
higher education are defined. Higher education institutions cooperate in
particular with employers and their organisations to adapt their courses to the
needs of the labour market. Some degree courses are offered as part-time
programmes and distance learning programmes to accommodate the needs of working
people. 

Conclusion

The current good performance of Hungary in tackling early school leaving (ESL) and regarding a number of other Education
and Training 2020 indicators is challenged by demographic developments, notably
by the increase in the number of disadvantaged pupils, and certain recent
legislative changes. The new laws on education contain elements which, if not
implemented carefully, might have a negative impact not only on ESL but might
increase social inequalities and segregation. The effects of the lowering of
the compulsory school age from 18 to 16 years, the shortening of the duration
of VET, the substantial decrease of time devoted to the acquisition of key
competences in VET, the modification of the national core curriculum by
limiting the freedom of individual schools to define their institutional
curriculum need to be closely monitored and evaluated. Improving the output of
ISCED 2 education would seem necessary to counterbalance the reduced attention
to basic skills in vocational education. Targeted measures, involving special
guidance and social support, would be necessary to prevent ESL in VET.
Moreover, pupils leaving vocational training should be more adequately prepared
for the labour market, including the acquisition of key competences.
Drastic cuts in higher education,
including the recent reduction in the number of state-financed places and high
study fees, imply the risk that the number of entrants, particularly from
disadvantaged backgrounds, may decrease. Finally, the effectiveness of adult
learning policies could be improved through better targeting and regular
monitoring and evaluation.
Ireland
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[16]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
 
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and
training [VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
 
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
 
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets,
Ireland performs better than the EU average for the early school leaving (ESL)
rate (10.6% vs. 13.5% in 2011), although the born abroad sub-group has experienced an increase in the ESL
rate in the past three years, and has the highest tertiary attainment rate in
the EU (49.4% in 2011). As regards the other ET 2020 benchmarks, participation
in early childhood education is below the EU average (85.4% vs. 92.3% in 2010).
In terms of basic skills, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests continues to
outperform the EU average, although in recent years it deteriorated quite
significantly in reading and mathematics and remained broadly constant in
science. The recent economic crisis had a strong impact on the employment rate
of graduates, which has decreased by 17 percentage points since 2006 and is now
below the EU average (71.4% vs. 77.2% in 2011). Participation of adults in
lifelong learning remains fairly low in comparison with the EU average (6.8%
vs. 8.9% in 2011).
ICT skills of the population are close to
the EU average. Ireland has a high number of graduates in science, mathematics
and technology in EU comparison. As regards entrepreneurship, the share of the
population believing to have the required skills and knowledge to start a
business is slightly above the EU average. Given the fact that the English
language is commonly used in Ireland, foreign language skills are not very
developed at present. The employment pattern in Ireland up to 2020 is forecast
to be fairly different from the EU average in medium and low qualification
jobs, with a stronger increase in the former and a very large decrease in the
latter, which are expected to represent only 14% of total jobs in 2020
(compared with an EU average of 18%). Public spending on education as a share
of GDP increased by almost 2 percentage points over 2006-09, also due to a
strong GDP decline in 2008-09, and is now above the EU average (6.50% vs. 5.41%
in 2009). 

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

Given inter alia the deterioration
of the performance of Ireland in the area of educational achievement (PISA 2006 and 2009), as both literacy and numeracy, the Irish government adopted in July of
2011 the 'Literacy and Numeracy for Learning and Life Strategy' (2011-20). Its
aim is to ensure that every child leaving school masters the necessary reading
and mathematical skills. It also sets out a programme of reforms in initial
teacher education and professional development. It is estimated that the cost of implementation of the actions of
this strategy will be €6 million in 2012, rising to €19 million per annum by
2017.
In practical terms Ireland tackles the issue of low-achievement primarily through a targeted approach called the
‘Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools’ (DEIS). This national action
plan launched in 2005 fosters educational inclusion at both primary and
secondary school levels, especially in disadvantaged communities. The plan
comprises a standardised system for identifying and regularly reviewing the
levels of disadvantage. It includes a general 'School Support Plan’ for
priority intervention in difficult geographical areas, as well as a number of
thematic sub-programmes, such as ‘Ready, Set, Go – Maths’, ‘Reading Recovery’
and ‘Maths Recovery’ actions. There are currently 670 primary schools and 195
post-primary schools in Ireland receiving assistance under the School Support
Plan within the context of the DEIS programme, which has an overall budget of
€158 million in 2012.
At the same time Ireland pursued, and even intensified, the implementation of the 'Youthreach' initiative. It targets
young people aged 15-20 who have dropped out of school without any
qualifications or vocational training. It integrates elements of education,
training and work experience. In 2010, 2.385 'Youthreach' learners achieved
certification and of those completing, 15% progressed to employment, while 52%
progressed to further education and training. This initiative is co-funded significantly by the European Social
Fund (ESF), i.e. it has received in 2012 an additional financing of €25 million
from the ESF within the context of the Youth Opportunities Initiative.
Finally, Ireland has also decided to
invest early on in education to i.a. prevent early school leaving at a later
stage, notably through the Universal Free Preschool Year in Early Childhood
Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme. The Early Start programme is a pre-school
programme for 3 and 4 year-olds which offers one year of preschool (meeting the
ISCED Level 0 classification) to children in designated areas of disadvantage.
The programme aims to provide children who are most at risk of educational
exclusion with an educational programme that will enhance their personal
development and prevent failure at school. In 2012 this initiative had a budget
of €175 million p.a.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

In the light of the recent economic
down-turn in Ireland and the importance of skills mismatches caused by the
burst of the real estate bubble, measures intended at the re-entry of learners
into education are of particular importance. In this regard the Back to
Education Initiative (BTEI), which has been in place since 2002, provides
part-time further education programmes for young people and adults.  The aim of
BTEI is to give persons who would like to return to education the opportunity
to improve their skills and knowledge in a flexible way.  This means that
beneficiaries can combine a return to learning with family and other personal
commitments. The BTEI aims, in particular, at increasing the participation of
young people and adults with less than upper secondary education, by providing
a range of part-time accredited learning opportunities, leading to the awarding
of qualifications recognised under the National Framework of Qualifications
(NFQ), while also facilitating the access, transfer and progression of
participants towards other education or employment pathways.
Another action in this area is the
'Springboard' initiative, managed by the Higher Education Authority (HEA) in Ireland, and aimed at job seekers who wish to take up a part-time course at the level of
higher education. Eligible courses are in seven identified skills areas where
there are currently employment opportunities available. The initiative, which
was introduced in 2011, is particularly targeted at those who lost their jobs
in the course of the recession and would benefit from up-skilling or
reskilling. The main incentive for the unemployed is the opportunity to study
part-time for undergraduate and post-graduate degrees, whilst maintaining their
welfare benefits and being able to continue with their studies in case they
find employment. In all there
were 5,875 free part-time places made available in higher education in 2011. At
the end of December 2011 there were 4,305 people taking part in this scheme.
The overall budget for this action in 2011 was of €19.7 million last year.
In order to increase the use of ICT
resources Irish authorities have developed the 'e-Learning at the Library'
initiative. The aim of the programme is to up-skill people in digital
competence and IT skills. The project is a partnership between the nationwide
public library, the Foras Áisenna Saothair (FÁS, the Training and
Employment Authority) and the An Chomhairle Leabharlanna (the Library
Council of Ireland). The
programme addresses the needs of both those with no ICT skills and those with
insufficient ones. Therefore, less advanced persons may learn how to use e.g.
the internet, e-mail etc. and other more proficient learners are encouraged to
work through the European Computer Driving Licence. The newly revised programme will lead to a nationally recognised
FETAC award – Computer Literacy. Given the fact that this initiative is based on the network of local
public libraries it also reaches people living in often remote and mainly rural
local communities.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

As regards the particular challenge posed
by numeracy, the Irish authorities have undertaken the development of an
innovative 'Project Maths', in partnership with the National Council for
Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA). The aim of this initiative is to improve
achievement in mathematics amongst secondary school students (age 13-18). It
focuses on student understanding of mathematical concepts, relating mathematics
to everyday experiences and developing problem solving skills. The NCCA leads
this initiative, which began in 2008 as a pilot project in 24 schools, and is
now being extended to the whole of the country, starting from 2010. The
experience of the pilot allowed the NCCA to develop and revise the mathematics
syllabus and develop novel teaching and learning resources, as well as new
methods of assessment.
As regards innovative partnerships with
the business community and co-financing models, Ireland has been implementing
the 'Skillsets' initiative since 1999. Its goal is to promote and facilitate
training and up-skilling of learners by supporting and funding networks of
companies under the Training
Networks Programme (TNP). At present, there are over 50 networks designing and
delivering training in a variety of sectors and regions. Their member
enterprises themselves design, manage and deliver training programmes both to
employees as well as now to job-seekers. Presently job-seekers may participate
in the programme totally free of charge and receive on-the-job training with
the current employees of the company in question. This valuable initiative is
co-financed by the Department of Education and Skills (DES) and the member
companies belonging to the various networks. Since its inception, over 60,000
Irish enterprises have participated in 'Skillsnets', forming over 350 networks,
with as many as 275.000 employees overall benefiting from training and/or
up-skilling measures throughout the period. 

Conclusion

The main present challenge for Ireland as regards education and training is to preserve expenditure on education and
training against the background of strict fiscal consolidation, inter alia to
facilitate future growth of its economy. School outcomes and educational achievements have significantly deteriorated
over recent years, particularly in reading and mathematics, in addition Ireland
also features a relatively high level of early school leaving, although still
performs better than the EU average. However, recent initiatives targeting
disadvantaged groups are starting to have positive effects in these areas.
At present Ireland features a relatively
modest level of participation in adult learning and the country is faced with a
very high rate of youth unemployment. However, the development of new training
opportunities, in particular the up-skilling of the work force and of the
unemployed as well as re-entry into education, is likely to support progress
towards the Europe 2020 objectives. Ireland will experience in the future a
significant need for both learning provision and educational infrastructure,
due to the strongly increasing demographic trends, as enrolment figures are
expected to continue to rise over the medium term at all levels of education.
This will also require an adequate response from the Irish authorities.
Finally, the impact of the current economic down-turn and the savings made in
the education sector will have to be further monitored as regards Ireland.
Italy
1. Performance summary

1.1      Overview of benchmarks and skill levels

Source:  Eurostat (LFS): 1, 2                CRELL
(based on Eurostat LFS): 4        Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 8
             Eurostat (UOE): 3, 9a,
10, 12   OECD (PISA): 6                                  European Survey on
Language Competences (ESLC): 9b
             Eurostat (ISS): 7b                   Eurydice
(based on IEA TIMSS): 7a       Cedefop: 11
Additional notes:
07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009,
10 =2010, 11 =2011, e= estimate, b= break, p= provisional
Number of countries included in EU
average: PISA=25, Entrepreneurship=18, Language skills=13, ICT/Computers at
school=13
1=
having carried out 5-6 specific computer related activities, 2=
average of skills tested in reading, listening, writing

1.2      Position
in relation to Europe 2020 targets and ET2020 benchmarks

Deviation (%) from EU average and
relative position to the EU benchmarks, top performers and low performers in
EU27
Source: DG EAC
2. Europe 2020 targets: patterns of sub-groups and sub-indicators[17]

2.1      Early leavers from education and training

§         
Early school leavers of
specific population sub-groups (country
of birth and gender)
§         
Early school leavers and
sub-indicators
(Difference in employment rate for
low/medium education, low education background of the mother, investment in
primary and secondary education, participation in vocational education and training
[VET] and in early childhood education [ECE])
Source: JRC-CRELL

2.2      Tertiary educational attainment 

§         
Tertiary educational
attainment of specific population sub-groups (country of birth and gender)
§         
Tertiary educational
attainment and sub-indicators
(Completion rate in higher education, upper
secondary educational attainment, investment in tertiary education, high
education background of the mother, difference in employment rate for
high/medium education)
Source: JRC-CRELL

3. Key findings on benchmarks and skills levels

Concerning the Europe 2020 targets, Italy still performs below the EU average in terms of early school leaving (ESL),
especially in Southern regions and as regards the born abroad population
sub-group. Italy's tertiary attainment rate (20.3%) is significantly lower than
the EU average of 34.6%, with females clearly outperforming males, and it only
increased by 2.6 percentage points over 2006-2011. Italy also features low
participation and high drop-out rates in tertiary education. As regards the
other ET 2020 benchmarks, Italy performs above the EU benchmark on
participation in early childhood education, which is relevant for prevention of
ESL. School education in Italy produces rather weak results in terms of basic
skills: despite recent improvements, 15-year olds' performance on PISA tests remains quite poor, although the national average masks significant regional
disparities. Performance is actually in line with or above the EU average in
the northern regions, but markedly worse in the South. The employment rate of
graduates is the third lowest in the EU (57.6% in 2011) and has declined
significantly in recent years due to the on-going economic crisis.
Participation of adults in lifelong learning is low in EU comparison (5.7% vs.
8.9% in 2011). Lifelong learning participation is especially low for the
low-skilled (1.2% in 2011), who would benefit the most from further education.
ICT skills levels, as well as
entrepreneurship attitude, are close to the EU average. As regards the
distribution of tertiary graduates by field compared with the EU average, Italy shows a very high (and increasing) share of graduates in humanities and arts (17.1%
as against 11.5% in 2010) and a low share of graduates in business and
administration (10.7% vs. 20.2%). Employment in medium and high qualification
jobs in Italy up to 2020 is forecast to increase somewhat faster than the EU
average, also because now it represents a lower share of total employment (64%
as against 77% in 2010). Public spending on education as a share of GDP in Italy has slightly increased over the last decade but is well below the EU average (4.70%
vs. 5.41% in 2009), especially with regard to tertiary education (0.86% vs.
1.22%).

4. Major policy initiatives and reforms
4.1      Initiatives
and measures to increase the relevance and level of skills

The ongoing reform of upper secondary
school curricula (ISCED 3), currently in its second year of implementation and
to be completed in 2015,  has been aimed at reducing skills mismatch and
further connecting the worlds of education and work, with a focus on key
competences development and the introduction of the study of citizenship across
all school levels. It provides for simplification of the school curricula:
fewer options, fewer overall classroom hours but more foreign-language
teaching. Recent measures to curb the ESL phenomenon in general aim at reducing
disparities between the North and the South and also include the setting up of
a new National Pupils Registry to monitor whether compulsory education is
complied with and to keep track of early school leaving, absenteeism or
irregular attendance with a view to adopting ad hoc preventive measures. A
reform of the apprenticeship system aimed at facilitating the entry of young
people (aged up to 29 years) into the labour market entered into force in
October 2011, with large support from the social partners. To reduce skills
mismatch, a new unit has been established at the Ministry of Labour to collect
skills requirements at geographical and sector level, and the setting up of a
national centre for skills forecasting is planned.
Despite significant improvements during
the last decade, further efforts appear to be needed –also through the EU
structural funds - to improve the overall quality of school education and
performance to ensure the achievement of the ESL target. In particular, there
is no evidence of a comprehensive strategy to combat early school leaving
involving prevention, intervention and compensation measures.The challenge of reducing
high university drop-out rates has to be addressed in order to increase
tertiary attainment rates, as recommended by the Commission and Council in the
European Semester 2012. The measures concerning apprenticeships and skill
matching are steps in the right direction, which need to be pursued and
reinforced.

4.2.     Initiatives
and measures to stimulate open and flexible learning

Following up the Bologna process, Italian
Initial Teacher Education (ITE) has been placed at master level (ISCED 5) for
all teachers of all school levels, and entrusted to university subject
faculties in the case of secondary school teachers.  The reform, finalised in
2010, closed previous ITE regional institutions for secondary teachers (SSIS)
in 2009; no ITE provision has thus been available since 2009, except for
teachers of ISCED 1, whose training is provided by Education faculties and
regulated by previous reforms. The first cohort of secondary teacher candidates
following the 2010 reform is due to start ITE courses in the academic year
2012/2013. The main challenges currently concern the profiles, skills and
training needs of an increasingly ageing teaching workforce, together with the
– so far limited – flexibility of learning pathways, in particular as far as
ISCED 3 and tertiary education are concerned. Even though the Italian teaching
workforce is predominantly an ageing one, the teacher demand forecast for the
future years is quite low, as pension reforms are significantly raising the
retirement age and fiscal consolidation policies are producing personnel cuts,
increased workloads and bigger class sizes.
Italy has
developed a National Qualifications Framework for the Higher Education Area,
published in 2010, in order to promote quality, transparency of qualifications
and professional/learning mobility within the European Higher Education area. A
2010 agreement between State, Regions and social partners established 21
vocational qualification profiles (three-year length) and 21 vocational
certificate profiles (four-year length). In April 2012, the government
concluded an agreement with the regional authorities to set up a system for the
certification of skills and vocational and training standards. The
implementation of this new framework, with a view of having the competences
recognised across the country and not only at regional level, will be crucial.
The most significant measure in the field
is the national digital agenda (Piano Nazionale Scuola Digitale), introduced in
2009, which has entailed dedicated funding for ICT equipment and a series of
interconnected actions. The measure targets students and teachers across all
school levels (from ISCED 1 to ISCED 3) and promotes educational innovation
through the diffusion of technologies applied to teaching. It covers not only
in-service teacher training, but also basic and transversal skills development
in young people, in an integrated way. Moreover, in the framework of
e-government 2012 Plan, implemented by the Ministry of Public Administration
and Innovation, all schools should be connected and equipped with technological
tools for didactics and for relationships with families by 2012. The Ministry
started the setup of a national database of ICT and technological equipment
used for teaching in Italian schools in 2010; however it is too early to
evaluate the impact of this national digital agenda.

4.3.     Initiatives
and measures to secure smart funding and developing partnerships

Following the 2010 university reform, an
increasing share of public funding for universities is to be allocated on the
basis of teaching and research performance. However, the share of public
funding distributed according to these principles only rose from 7 % in 2009 to
13 % in 2012. Consequently, there is still scope for strengthening the link
between universities' research/teaching performance and the allocation of
public funding. In order to increase levels of tertiary education attainment
and give wider opportunities for university access, a fund for university merit
was set up in 2011, with a € 10 million endowment. While the creation of the
fund is a promising step, the amounts involved appear quite limited. As asked
by the European Council of 30 January 2012, the Italian authorities and the
Commission examined measures for reducing youth unemployment. They include a
reprogramming and better use of EU structural funds towards supporting, inter
alia, education, apprenticeship and mobility. For instance, relevant actions in
these fields include: tackling early school-leaving and developing
key-competencies (EUR 125 million), promoting transition from education to work
(EUR 99 million) and supporting linguistic internships abroad (EUR 186
million).
Since 2007, regions have been given the
possibility of setting up post-secondary technical schools (ITS, Istituti
Tecnici Superiori). ITS offer post-secondary courses of two years/four
semesters, focused on a specific professional sector. They have a special
foundation status and may involve various institutions and stakeholders: secondary
schools, university departments concerned with scientific/technological
research, enterprises of the specific technical/professional sector, and local
authorities. The ITS can be considered as a relevant step in promoting the
development and modernisation of the post-secondary non-tertiary education
system.

Conclusion

Italy 's ESL
performance remains far below the EU average. While the recently established
pupil monitoring system is a positive step towards preventing ESL, striking the
right balance among targeted ESL prevention, intervention and compensation 
measures will be important for Italy to ensure a faster improvement in ESL
rates. Considering Italy's target to raise the tertiary attainment rate to
26-27% by 2020, reducing the high drop-out rate is key. Increasing adults'
participation rates in lifelong learning, which are currently very low, remains
a challenge.
Despite some progress, Italy still ranks below EU average for student achievement in basic skills (literacy, numeracy and
science). While serious reforms have been initiated at all education levels, Italy is facing the challenge of improving the overall quality and efficiency of the
education and training system, in particular in the South. The reforms of
secondary school and university have attracted attention and concentrated
resources, for implementation and parallel measures. They will require time and
mediation to overcome resistance and promote ownership in specific interest and
professional groups, as well as in trade unions. Finally, in the context of
growth-friendly fiscal consolidation there is a need for preserving expenditure
in education and training while increasing its efficiency.
[1]               See annex 2.
[2]               See annex 2.
[3]               See annex 2.
[4]               See annex 2.
[5]               See annex 2.
[6]               See annex 2.
[7] "Duale Ausbildung
sichtbar gemacht", BMBF 2007
[8]               Final document of the Bund-Länder
education summit of 22 October 2008.
[9]               See annex 2.
[10]             See annex 2.
[11]             See annex 2.
[12]             See annex 2.
[13]             See annex 2.
[14]             See annex 2.
[15]             See annex 2.
[16]             See annex 2.
[17]             See annex 2.