COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Exploiting the employment potential of green growth
Date: 2012-04-18
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: change of job, economic instrument for the environment, environmental economics, environmental protection, job creation, skilled worker, soft energy

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Strasbourg, 18.4.2012  
SWD(2012) 92 final 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Exploiting the employment potential of green growth 

Accompanying the document 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Towards a job-rich recovery 

{COM(2012) 173 final} 
{SWD(2012) 90 final} 
{SWD(2012) 93 final} 
{SWD(2012) 95 final} 
{SWD(2012) 96 final} 
{SWD(2012) 97 final} 
{SWD(2012) 98 final} 
{SWD(2012) 99 final} 
{SWD(2012) 100 final} 

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COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Exploiting the employment potential of green growth 

Accompanying the document 

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS 

Towards a job-rich recovery 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. 

2. 

3. 

3.1. 

3.2. 

3.3. 

3.4. 

3.5. 

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 4 

Defining and measuring 'green jobs' ............................................................................ 5 

Labour market challenges to developing a green economy ......................................... 6 

Drivers influencing the rate of employment creation .................................................. 6 

Sectoral developments affecting job creation prospects .............................................. 7 

Managing labour shortages and skills transformation ............................................... 10 

Securing sufficient levels of investment .................................................................... 15 

Job quality .................................................................................................................. 16 

Disclaimer:  This  document  is  a  European  Commission  staff  working  document  for 
information  purposes.  It  does  not  represent  an  official  position  of  the  Commission  on  this 
issue, nor does it anticipate such a position.   

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1. 

INTRODUCTION  

The gradual transition towards a competitive, low carbon and resource efficient economy is 
above  all  an  opportunity  to  minimise  the  negative  consequences  of  climate  change  and 
resource  depletion  for  future  generations.  In  the  current  recessionary  context,  this  shift  also 
represents and unprecedented chance for the EU to reconsider its traditional economic model 
based on labour and capital productivity and begin a move towards a new one founded on the 
principle of resource efficiency. Transforming our economies will bring advantages in terms 
of  enhancing  energy  security,  improving  the  health  of  European  citizens  and  boosting 
international  competitiveness  of  EU  industries.  In  relation  to  employment,  many  new  jobs 
will be created and redefined while others might be lost.  

The  right  choice  of  employment  and  skills  policies  can  make  an  important  contribution  to 
realising  this  vision  by  capitalising  on  new  possibilities  and  at  the  same  time  addressing 
existing bottlenecks. It is therefore essential that labour markets and associated policies at EU 
and Member State level act as a catalyst and not an obstacle that could halt this transformation 
process.  Governments  will  need  to  engage  public  and  private  actors,  mobilise  existing 
resources and financial instruments at European and national level to ensure that policies are 
backed up by funds to business, entrepreneurs, workers and the research community so that 
new companies and jobs can flourish. Whilst freeing up credit and building consensus might 
seem like a difficult choice at present, all stakeholders must perceive this shift as a medium to 
long  term  development  that  will  require  resolute  short  term  action  if  it  is  to  succeed.  A 
unique  opportunity  is  therefore  before  Europe  to  leap  into  a  new  economic  era  of 
competitiveness. 

This Staff Working Document informs and advances an on-going strategic reflection process 
on  how  to  build  a  competitive,  low  carbon  and  resource  efficient  economy  in  line  with  the 
Europe 2020 Strategy. Employment policies are only a piece in a bigger puzzle but in depth 
discussions  and  smart  articulation  of  tools  and  policies,  including  the  European 
Employment Strategy, can go a long way in tackling the challenge. The emphasis placed on 
the  transition  towards  a  greener  economy  in  worldwide  fora  (G20,  ILO,  UNEP  –  Rio+20, 
OECD) also calls for the EU and its Member States to provide clear and credible answers on 
this front. 
As  a  follow  up  to  the  EU  flagship  initiative  on  new  skills  and  jobs1,  the  December  2010 
EPSCO  conclusions2,  the  conclusions  of  the  informal  European  Council  of  January  2012  3 
and the report by the European Parliament4, the Commission has undertaken research on how 
to build a competitive low carbon and resource efficient economic model. The results of this 
work have been used to feed into this Staff Working Document.  

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COM (2010) 682 final, An Agenda for new skills and jobs: A European contribution towards full 
employment, available at:   
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:0682:FIN:EN:PDF  
Doc. 18131/10, available at: http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/10/st18/st18131.en10.pdf  
Statement of the Members of the European Council of 30 January 2012, available at: 
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/127599.pdf  
European Parliament (2010), Report on developing the job potential of a new sustainable economy 
(2010/2010(INI)), A7-0234/2010, available at: 
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&reference=P7-TA-2010-
0299&language=EN&ring=A7-2010-0234  

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2. 

DEFINING AND MEASURING 'GREEN JOBS'  

Development of a competitive, low carbon and resource efficient economy will bring about a 
fundamental transformation in terms of business processes and related skill sets, whilst also 
giving  rise  to  so-called  'green  jobs'.  In  the  longer  term,  many  of  existing  jobs  will  be 
transformed  into  'green  jobs'.  In  this  context  also  the  concept  of  'green  jobs'  could  refer  to 
each  sector  of  the  economy  and  not  only  to  certain  sectors  such  as  renewables  or  energy 
efficiency. This paper understands 'green jobs' as 

…covering all jobs that depend on the environment or are created, substituted or redefined 
(in terms of skills sets, work methods, profiles greened, etc.) in the transition process 
towards a greener economy. 

This  broad  definition  is  complementary  and  not  opposed  to  the  one  coined  by  the  United 
Nations  Environmental  Program  (UNEP)5.  For  instance,  additional  employment  will  be 
created through increasing of the renovation rates of buildings, development and deployment 
of new technologies such as renewables or carbon capture and storage, some employment will 
be  substituted  as  manufacturing  of  hybrid  cars  gradually  replaces  production  of  traditional 
cars, and existing jobs will be redefined as gas-fitters move towards installing gas combined 
heat  and  power  instead  of  traditional  systems  or  the  builders  constructing  new  buildings 
would move to the retrofitting business6, etc. 

Several  difficulties  exist  when  measuring  'green  jobs'  defined  that  way  primarily  because 
these  are  not  a  clearly  delineated  part  (and  certainly  not  a  sector)  of  the  labour  market.  In 
terms of the skills that these jobs require, these are not necessarily distinct from many existing 
skills, and empirical data shows that skill requirements for jobs associated with a competitive, 
low  carbon  and  resource  efficient  economy  can  already  be  found  in  existing  occupations. 
Therefore, it would be safe to assume that specific skill sets will evolve as jobs change and 
adapt to new business practices. Finally, the very concept of a 'green job' is a moving target, 
since  virtually  every  new  product  is  greener  than  the  one  it  replaces  and  involves  more 
intelligent  use  of  resources,  changes  in  production  processes  and  associated  skills  and 
technological evolution, all of which affect training and education curriculums. 

At EU level Eurostat collects data on the so-called "eco-industries" (i.e. environmental goods 
and  services  sector  (EGSS)7.  This  measurement  is  more  limited  than  the  abovementioned 

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UNEP defines green jobs as positions in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, installation, and 
maintenance, as well as scientific and technical, administrative, and service-related activities that 
contribute substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality. Specifically, but not 
exclusively, this includes jobs that help to protect and restore ecosystems and biodiversity; reduce 
energy, materials, and water consumption through high-efficiency and avoidance strategies; de-
carbonize the economy; and minimize or altogether avoid generation of all forms of waste and 
pollution.  
UNEP/ILO (2009), Green Jobs: Towards decent work in a sustainable, low-carbon world; available at: 
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_158727.
pdf  
Eurostat (2009), The environmental goods and services sector. A data collection handbook, available at: 
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-RA-09-012/EN/KS-RA-09-012-EN.PDF 

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definition  for  'green  jobs'  but  is  the  only  source  of  harmonized  European  data  providing 
information on employment related to activities with environmental purposes.8  

The overall employment in the so-called "eco-industries" as defined by Eurostat is estimated 
at  1-2%  of  total  European  employment.  Job  creation  in  these  industries  has  been  positive 
throughout  the  recession  in  comparison  to  many  other  sectors,  even  if  investments  have 
dropped, and is forecast to continue to be quite sound in future years. Average annual growth 
in employment in the eco-industries in 2000-2008 was 2.7%. Total numbers employed have 
grown from 2.4 million in 2000 and 3.0 million in 2008 and are forecast to reach 3.4 million 
in 20129.  

At present, the size of the "eco-industries" sector in Europe is larger than the aerospace and 
defence sectors10. Estimates for countries such as United States and Germany indicate that 2-
3% of total employment is related to activities to reduce CO2 emissions11.  

Available evidence on a sectoral level regarding the impact on employment shows that certain 
sectors are already experiencing strong employment dynamics, with solar, wind and biomass 
technologies progressing most rapidly12. All in all, the renewables sector in Europe has seen 
an increase of more than 300,000 employees within only five years (2005-2009)13.  

3. 

LABOUR MARKET CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPING A GREEN ECONOMY  

Current  available  evidence  in  so  called  'green  jobs'  and  eco-industries  appears  to  point  to  a 
bright future in terms of potential for employment creation in this area. Indeed, the sector has 
shown  some  impressive  resilience  and  positive  growth  in  the  face  of  the  crisis.  Below  an 
overview of the main drivers having an effect on job creation rates in the context of a greener 
economy is provided, as well as a qualitative assessment of job creation potential and labour 
market challenges and factors that can be expected as a result of this transformation.  

3.1. 

Drivers influencing the rate of employment creation 

Several factors will affect the employment creation potential associated with a transition to a 
new economic model based on a more efficient use of resources. These include particularly 
the  additional  investments  needed  to  reach  the  EU  2020  targets  (especially  the  Climate 
and Energy 20-20-20 targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing the share of 
renewables  and  improving  energy  efficiency)  and  to  pursue  the  2050  vision  in  line  with 
targets  as  set  out  in  the  2050  Low-carbon  and  Energy  Roadmaps14.  For  example,  the 

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In  addition  the  Commission  pursues  work  and  research  to  develop  and  produce  measures  other  that 
GDP  that  better  encompass  environmental  quality  and  sustainability.  See:  http://www.beyond-
gdp.eu/index.html. 
For all data linked to "eco-industries" see: Ecorys (forthcoming), The number of jobs dependent on 
environmental and resource efficiency improvements, Study for European Commission, Directorate 
General for Environment 
See: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sustainable-business/eco-industries/index_en.htm  
EC/ILO (2011), Towards a greener economy: the social dimensions, p. 16, available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=87&langId=en&moreDocuments=yes  
The first two are developed for electricity generation while the latter is predominantly for the heating 
sector. 
European Renewable Energy Council statistics available at: http://www.erec.org/statistics.html  
COM (2011) 112 final, A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050, available 
at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0112:FIN:EN:PDF; COM 
(2011) 885/2, Energy Roadmap 2050, available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy2020/roadmap/doc/com_2011_8852_en.pdf  

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Renewable  and  the  Energy  performance  of  Buildings  Directives  were  crucial  for  the 
development of renewables and energy efficiency market niches and led to new employment 
opportunities.  The  impact  was  coupled  with  a  number  of  regulatory,  financial  and  fiscal 
policies at Member States level. The process of job creation in energy efficiency will intensify 
with  the  implementation  of  more  measures  under  the  Ecodesign  and  Energy  Labelling 
Directives and upon the adoption of a new Energy Efficiency Directive and more measures on 
financing.  

Other important drivers will be higher prices of energy goods, needed to recover the cost of 
investments in the long run; and factor substitution between labour, capital and energy caused 
by higher carbon prices if emission permits are auctioned and/or by regulation that affects the 
allocation of production factors.  

The employment impact can also be reinforced by the way in which green-tax revenues are 
recycled should market based instruments be used to reach the Europe 2020 targets. Recent 
studies show that the best employment outcomes will be yielded when revenues are used to 
subsidise  low-carbon  technologies,lower  taxes  and  social  security  contributions  paid  by 
employers  and/or  employees,  or  raise  or  introduce  in-work  benefits  that  top  up  the  wage 
income  of  most  disadvantaged  working  households15.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  average 
contribution of environmental taxes in the EU amounts to 6.3% of the overall tax bill. If all 
Member  States  were  to  raise  this  figure  to  10%  the  result  would  yield  an  additional  tax 
revenue equivalent to around 1.4% of EU GDP that could be used to reduce budget deficits or 
labour taxes16. 

Studies  show  that  the  positive  job  creation  impacts  of  green  policies  would  outweigh  the 
shortcomings.  For  example,  the  increased  investments  in  energy  efficiency  would  stimulate 
job creation in the construction and manufacturing of construction materials and sectors and 
would have limited impact on the reduction in jobs in the fossil fuels mining sectors. 

Sectoral developments affecting job creation prospects 

3.2. 
A recent study by the European Commission17 sought to analyse the sectors and occupations 
which  might  benefit  from  a  transition  to  the  low  carbon  economy  in  the  coming  decades. 
These are outlined in table 1. 

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Cambridge Econometrics et al, (2011), Studies on sustainability issues – green jobs; trade and labour; 
Final Report, Research Project for the European Commission, DG Employment, Social Affairs and 
Inclusion prepared by Cambridge Econometrics, GHK and the Warwick Institute for Employment 
Studies; Institute of Communication and Computer Systems of National Technical University of 
Athens, (2010), MODELS, Final Publishable Activity Report for Contract No: 044089 (SSPI). OECD 
(forthcoming), The jobs potential of a shift towards a low-carbon economy, study prepared for the 
European Commission, DG Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, p.90. OECD analysis did not 
include recycling of revenues towards R&D and low-carbon technologies. 
Ecorys (2011), The role of market-based instruments in achieving a resource efficient economy,: 
Cambridge Econometrics et al, (2011), op.cit. 

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Table 1. Sectors and occupations with potential to benefit from the low-carbon transition 

Source: Cambridge Econometrics et al, (2011) 

Several  studies  show  the  potential  employment  gains  at  EU  level  in  a  more  disaggregated 
manner.  They  illustrate  types  of  employment  critical  for  achieving  green  growth.  However, 
these  estimates  are  not  cumulative  as  they  are  based  on  various  modelling  exercises 
performed  under  different  scenarios  and,  are  subject  to  some  forecasting  uncertainty.  Some 
selected results from recently conducted studies are outlined below.18  

In the coming years, advancement and implementation of climate adaptation measures will 
spur  demand  for  both  high-  and  low-skilled  labour.  Construction  will  be  one  of  the  sectors 
directly benefiting from this as major investments in adaptation could offer employment and 
income  opportunities  in  activities  such  as  extending  coastal  defences,  reinforcing  buildings 
and  infrastructures,  water  management  and  relocation  of  exposed  settlements19.  Other 
activities  will  also  gain,  such  as  the  development  and  manufacture  of  advanced  water 
management  technologies;  development,  distribution,  and  cultivation  of  drought-resistant 

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For a more detailed overview of studies see: Cambridge Econometrics et al, (2011), op.cit., available at: 
,http://ec.europa.eu/social/keyDocuments.jsp?policyArea=&type=0&country=0&year=0&advSearchKe
y=tacklingclimatechange&mode=advancedSubmit&langId=en 
UNEP/ILO (2008), Green jobs. Towards decent work in a sustainable, low carbon world, available at: 
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_158727.
pdf. Also according to an on-going study commissioned by DG MARE, "Blue Growth: scenarios and 
drivers for sustainable growth from the oceans, seas and coasts", (ECORYS) both coastal protection and 
the marine and maritime monitoring and surveillance sectors are set to grow both in terms of turnover 
and employment. 

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seeds;  development  of  ecosystem  based  adaptation  measures;  integrated  modelling  and 
climate risk assessment; or development of early warning systems.20  

Climate  adaptation  measures  will  also  decrease  disruptions  on  economic  activity  and 
workforce  availability  due  to  climate  change  related  natural  phenomena  (e.g.  floods,  heat 
waves,  changes  in  precipitation  patterns).  The  forthcoming  EU  Adaptation  Strategy  will 
provide additional evidence on the employment implications of adaptation to climate change.  

In terms  of  resource  efficiency, a number of tested policy simulations demonstrate that the 
EU could realistically reduce the total material requirements of its economy by 17%. It could 
then  boost  the  GDP  by  up  to  3.3%  and  create  between  1,4  and  2,8  million  jobs.  Every 
percentage point reduction in resource use could therefore lead to up to 100,000 to 200,000 
new jobs21. 

The implementation of individual energy efficiency measures could lead to 2 million green 
jobs  being  created  or  retained  by  202022.  These  are  jobs  mainly  for  the  renovation  of  the 
building  stock,  the  uptake  of  products  covered  by  eco-design  and  labelling  measures  (e.g. 
electric  motors  and  drivers,  refrigerators  and  freezers,  circulators),  and  the  improvement  of 
energy  efficiency  in  the  manufacturing  sector.  A  large  part  of  these  jobs  would  be  in  the 
construction  sector  –  linked  to  a  move  from  new  construction  to  renovation  of  existing 
buildings – therefore having a direct positive impact on one of the sectors worst affected by 
the  economic  crisis.  Taking  into  account  the  scope  of  the  challenge  to  renovate  Europe's 
buildings stock this could be a long-term engagement, lasting for at least 30 years, mainly for 
local SMEs. 

Job potential from renewable energy (RE) sector development is estimated at 3 million jobs 
by  202023.  Also,  implementation  of  the  revised  Energy  Taxation  Directive  could  create  1 
million  jobs  by  203024  in  cumulative  terms.  These  might  be  associated  equally  with  high-, 
medium-,  as  low-skilled  positions  in:  equipment  manufacturing  and  distribution,  project 
development,  construction  and  installation,  operation  and  maintenance.  A  closer  look  at  the 
types  of  employment  created  in  the  renewable  energy  field  reveals  that  the  policy  approach 
matters.  More  ambitious  RES  policy  targets  trigger  investments  and  hence  employment  in 
knowledge intensive generation technologies while a less ambitious policy target provides an 
impulse for employment via biofuels. Capital-intensive technologies such as photovoltaic and 
wind  off-  and  on-shore,  solar  thermal  and  heat  pumps  dominate  in  absolute  terms  under  a 
strong RES promoting policy. For many of these technologies, the construction phase is the 
most labour intensive one. However, this is not the case for biomass-based renewable energy 
use. 

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See for instance: Oxfam America (2010), A fresh look at the green economy. Jobs that build resilience 
to climate change, available at: http://www.oxfamamerica.org/files/a-fresh-look-at-the-green-
economy.pdf  
GWS (2011), Macroeconomic modelling of sustainable development and the links between the economy 
and the environment, Report for the European Commission, DG Environment prepared by Cambridge 
Econometrics, the Institute of Economic Structures Research (GWS), the Sustainable Europe Research 
Institute (SERI) and the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy (WI); available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/studies_modelling/pdf/report_macroeconomic.pdf  
COM (2011) 109 final, Energy Efficiency Plan 2011, available at: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0109:FIN:EN:PDF  
COM (2011) 31 final, Renewable Energy: progressing towards the 2020 target, available at: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0031:FIN:EN:PDF 
COM (2011) 168/3, Smarter energy taxation for the EU: proposal for a revision of the Energy Taxation 
Directive, available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/taxation/excise_duties/energy_products/legislation/index_en.htm  

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Raising  revenue  through  carbon  pricing,  such  as  through  auctioning  of  allowances  via  the 
Emissions  Trading  System  (ETS)  or  taxing  CO2  in  other  non-ETS  sectors  and  lowering 
taxation  on  labour  can  have  positive  effects  for  employment.  Full  recycling  of  revenues  to 
reduce the costs of labour potentially could increase employment in the EU by 0.7% or up to 
1.5 million jobs by 202025. 

Moving away from a wasteful economy towards one based on durability and reparability of 
products  is  likely  to  create  job  opportunities  throughout  the  product  lifecycle  in  terms  of, 
maintenance, repair, upgrade, and reuse. Full implementation of the EU waste acquis would 
increase  the  annual  turnover  of  the  EU  waste  management  and  recycling  sector  and  create 
over  400  000  jobs  by  2020.  Some  research  shows  also,  that  by  recycling  70%  of  key 
materials the EU could create over 560 000 new jobs by 202526. 
Achieving  the  objectives  of  the  EU  2020  Biodiversity  Strategy27  is  expected  to  have  a 
positive  impact  on  jobs  and  to  create  a  need  for  special  skills.  Conserving,  managing  and 
restoring  the  natural  environment  will  push  up  demand  for  workers  in  sustainable 
agriculture  and  forestry,  eco-tourism,  sustainable  fisheries,  the  marine  environment, 
environmental  monitoring,  nature  conservation,  forestry,  use  of  genetic  resources 
(pharmaceutical,  cosmetic),  spatial  planning  for  green  infrastructures,  and  more  resource 
efficient  methods  of  managing  maritime  space28.  These  niche  opportunities  also  offer  good 
prospects  for  the  development  of  social  economy  activities  and  reinsertion  of  vulnerable 
workers. The numbers of jobs provided directly and indirectly by biodiversity and ecosystem 
services is significant – in the EU they are projected at 14.6 million of people29. 

3.3.  Managing labour shortages and skills transformation  

As  stated  in  the  Commission  flagship  initiative  ‘An  agenda  for  new  skills  and  jobs:  A 
European contribution towards full employment’30, Europe has to be able to rely on a skilled 
workforce, capable of contributing and adjusting to technological change with new patterns of 
work organisation.  

The gradual shift towards a new economic model will lead to a progressive redefinition of 
many jobs across almost all sectors. New skills will be demanded of employees in order to 
satisfy  business  growth  needs  and  meet  changes  in  job  profiles  and  content.  A  more  low 
carbon  and  resource  efficient  economy  is  likely  to  create  demand  for  both  transversal 
competences  and  "specific"  skill  sets31.  Transversal  competences  are  gaining  in  importance 
since  a  lot  of  green  projects  are  done  within  multidisciplinary  teams  bringing  together 
professionals  with  different  backgrounds.  In  this  context,  certain  skill  sets  are  essential  in 
order  to  ensure  successful  outcomes,  among  these:  strategic  planning,  leadership  and 

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SEC(2011) 288 final, Impact assessment. Accompanying document to the Roadmap for moving to a 
competitive low carbon economy in 2050, p. 90; available at: 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52011SC0288:EN:NOT  
Friends of Earth (2010), More jobs, less waste – potential for job creation thorough higher rates of 
recycling in the UK and EU, available at: http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/jobs_recycling.pdf  
COM (2011) 244 final, Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020, 
available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/comm2006/pdf/2020/1_EN_ACT_part1_v7[1].pdf  
http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/maritime_spatial_planning/index_en.htm 
GHK (2011), The Social Dimension of Biodiversity Policy; available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/biodiversity/pdf/Social%20Dimension%20of%20Biodiversity.p
df  
COM (2010) 682 final, op.cit. 
CEDEFOP (2009), Green economy, Skillsnet Sector Flash, June, available at: 
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/Projects_Networks/Skillsnet/Flashes/SkillsnetSF_GreenEco(
HR).pdf 

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management  skills,  communication  in  order  to  advise  users  about  new  technologies, 
adaptability/transferability skills, systems analysis , risk analysis, coordination, etc.  
The "specific" skills associated with the green economy are not entirely new skills32. They are 
add-on  or  a  mixture  of  existing  skills  such  as  knowledge  of  sustainable  materials,  relevant 
traditional  skills  for  installation  of  new  technologies  (e.g.  fitting  or  electrical  skills  for 
installation  of  solar  tube  or  panel  technologies),  skills  to  measure  the  carbon  footprint  and 
environmental impact assessment skills (e.g. energy assessment, diagnostic skills). 

In an initial phase, high-skilled workers may benefit more as the transition to new activities 
calls  for  the  roll  out  of  advanced  technologies33.  Indeed,  many  of  these  sectors  are 
characterised  by  intense  innovation  implying  that  generic  skill  requirements  might  be 
somehow  higher  overall  than  for  similar  occupations  in  other  parts  of  the  economy.  With 
market  deployment  of  new  technologies,  lower-skilled  workers  will  also  benefit  from 
diversifying  and  enhancing  their  skills  to  adjust  their  current  job  content  or  to  fill  new 
positions.  This  is  currently  the  case  in  the  area  of  building  renovation  where  in  addition  to 
planners (e.g. architects, designers, engineers and auditors), lower-skilled workers are needed 
to  carry  out  the  actual  work.  As  for  the  medium  skilled  workers,  the  challenge  will  be  to 
ensure that their skills are up-to-date and to prevent them from falling down the skills ladder 
as a result of inadequate adaptation and access to training possibilities. 

Ensuring  that  workers  have  the  right  skills  will  be  a  challenging  task  as  it  will  require 
mapping  employers'  fast  evolving  needs  in  a  nascent  field  and  delivering  adequate  and 
increasingly demanded tailored training. This will be essential in avoiding a ‘muddle through’ 
approach where insufficient planning is done by enterprises, especially SMEs, and employees 
receive  inappropriate  re-skilling  and  the  possibility  of  recruiting  new  competent  staff  is 
disregarded34.  Multiple  entry  routes,  varied  levels  of  qualification  and  insufficient 
recognition of skills acquired through non-formal or informal learning could limit mobility 
lack  of  qualified  professional 
of  workers 
coaches/trainers  enabling  the  delivery  of  new  skills  to  workers  could  well  slow  down  the 
process of equipping the workforce with the skills sought by employers.  

into  green  occupations.  Moreover,  a 

Certain  sectors  already  face  skill  shortages  and  European  companies  are  lacking  the 
qualified labour needed for working with emerging low-carbon technologies. For instance, in 
Germany  the  renewables  industry  has  pointed  to  a  lack  of  qualified  workers,  including 
technical engineers, while companies  in Britain are facing a shortage  of supply of technical 
specialists,  designers,  engineers  and  electricians  in  sectors  going  green  (Ecorys,  2008).  An 
acute  shortage  of  engineers  was  reported  also  by  wind  energy  companies  in  other  EU 
countries35.  

The more environmentally friendly modes of transport are also vulnerable to skill shortages in 
part related to deep demographic trends but also to more immediate causes such as changes in 

32 

33 

34 

35 

Szovics, P., M. Tessaring, Cl. Walmsley and J. McGrath (2008), Identification of future skill needs for 
the green economy, Conclusions from the workshop on Future skill needs for the green economy, 
October, available at: 
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/etv/Upload/Projects_Networks/Skillsnet/Flashes/GreenEco-
conclusions.pdf; and GHK (2009), Thematic Expert Work on Green Jobs for DG EMPL/D1, 
unpublished report submitted by GHK for DG Employment, European Commission. 
In this respect, figures show that three quarters of high-skilled workers in the EU-15 are employed in 
low-carbon intensive sectors. 
CEDEFOP (forthcoming), Green Skills and Environmental Awareness in Vocational Education and 
Training 
Blanco, M. and G. Rodrigues (2009), Direct employment in the wind energy sector: An EU study, 
Energy Policy, Vol. 37, No 8, pp. 2847-2857. 

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the  organisation  of  markets  or  the  economic  crisis  itself  which  has  slowed  down  the  hiring 
and training of new workers. In the railway sector for example, the average age of workers is 
rising constantly and skill renewal is thus a major challenge.36 A lack of skilled personnel is 
also  a  problem  for  sea  and  inland  navigation  and  may  soon  harm  the  different  forms  of 
collective public transport as well as the greening of transport and logistics in general. As for 
the  maritime  economy  the  potential  for  green  jobs  is  not  fully  perceived  due  to  the  lack  of 
visibility. This creates a barrier to growth, despite the fact that qualifications required in the 
maritime context are often similar to those required in land-based sectors. As a consequence, 
these sectors are also suffering from a shortage of workers.  

A  fundamental  weakness  in  the  EU’s  skills  base  is  the  deficit  in  management  skills  and 
technical,  job-specific  skills,  especially  related  to  science,  technology,  engineering  and 
mathematics (STEM). This might weigh even more heavily on the EU's capacity for green 
growth  than  shortages  in  specialist  clean-tech  know-how37.  At  the  same  time,  research  and 
innovation  are  critical  to  make  new,  more  efficient  and  cost-effective  low-carbon  energy 
technologies  commercially  attractive  at  the  scale  needed  to  deliver  a  sustainable  energy 
system by the middle of the century, to regain a European industrial leadership on low carbon 
technologies  as  prioritised  within  the  Strategic  Energy  Technology  (SET-)  Plan38,  and  to 
achieve the European Commission's 2050 Low-carbon and Energy Roadmaps vision39. 

Whilst companies may take it upon themselves to revamp employees' skills, the role of Public 
Employment Services (PES) is key in preparing jobseekers to benefit from new job openings 
by ensuring quick labour market transitions and successful matching practices. A pro-active 
approach  by  PES  is  needed  to  provide  comprehensive  services  such  as  counselling,  advice, 
training and general re-skilling initiatives with a particular effort made to ensure participation 
of  the  most  vulnerable.  Ensuring  that  Active  labour  market  policies  provide  return  on 
investment  in  employment  terms  and  that  they  are  targeted  and  designed  to  meet  labour 
demand needs, will be of critical importance so that they can lead to a real work experience 
and/or placement. 

On the side of employers, special attention should be paid to SMEs and their needs, as they 
could especially benefit from external support in upgrading the skills of their workforce in the 
transition to a greener economy. Often, SMEs are not aware of training schemes offered by 
PES and/or are sceptical about such programs because of the disruption it may cause to their 
business. However, SMEs are open to in-house informal training (e.g. tutorship, mentorship, 
apprenticeship) as a preferential way of recruiting proven workers.  

The importance of human capital investments in enabling the transition to a low-carbon and 
more  resource  efficient  economy  is  well-recognised  in  the  Commission's  proposal40  for  the 
European Social Fund 2014-2020. ESF resources can be used by national, regional and local 
authorities for example to strengthen provision of relevant skills through their education and 

36 

37 

38 

39 
40 

CER Annual report 2009-2010, pp 28-29, available at: http://www.cer.be/publications/annual-
reports/2011-annual-report-2009-2010-a-closer-look-at-the-railways 
Cedefop (2010), Skills for green jobs, European Synthesis Report, available at: 
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/Files/3057_en.pdf 
COM (2007) 723 final, A European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan). Towards a low 
carbon future, available at: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0723:FIN:EN:PDF; and COM (2009) 519 
final, Investing in the Development of Low Carbon Technologies (SET-Plan), available at: http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2009:0519:FIN:EN:PDF 
COM (2011) 885/2, op. cit.  
COM (2011) 607 final, Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on 
the European Social Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1081/2006, available at: 
http://ec.europa.eu/esf/BlobServlet?docId=231&langId=en. 

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training systems, support the adaptation of workers and enterprises or improve the capacity of 
PES to assist in green transitions. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  shift  to  a  low  carbon  economy  is  expected  to  have  very  diverse 
effects in terms of the overall levels of skills required, but also in terms of how novel these 
skills  are  compared  to  familiar  occupational  requirements  for  which  training  is  already 
established41  –  this  is  demonstrated  by  various  examples  of  greening  of  occupations  as 
depicted in Table 2. 

Table 2. The skill profile of low carbon occupations: selected illustrative examples 

Occupations 

Growth profile 

Skill profile 

Policy challenges and national 
initiatives 

Recycling & Waste management (continued development of long-established sector) 

Waste sorting and reception 

Long-established 
occupation 

Hazardous waste 
management specialist 

Growing demand 
expected in medium 
and long run due to 
tighter regulations 

Low qualification 
(minimal on-the-job 
training) 

Low job quality and health risks 
are main concerns, not skill 
deficits 

Medium and high 
level 

Identified shortage of qualified 
workers e.g. in Spain in the 
medium term 

Transportation (increase energy efficiency and/or reduce the environmental impact of various modes of 
transportation) 

Specialized technicians of 
fuel cell batteries, automotive 
maintenance technicians 

Automotive engineers, freight 
forwarders, fuel cell 
engineers, logistics analysts, 
logistics engineers, logistics 
managers, supply chain 
managers, transportation 
engineers and transportation 
planners 

Introduction of 
renewable and 
cleaner fuels for 
transportation 

Reorganisation and 
the re-engineering of 
the transportation 
systems 

Low to medium 
level for installation 
and maintenance 

Uncertainty about which fuels 
for transportation will 
eventually mainstream 

Medium and high 
level skills, 
combined with 
sector-specific, pre-
existing medium and 
high-level 
competencies 

Best candidates could be 
incumbent employees with 
retraining to get needed skill 
mix, but with a substantial 
retraining process for some 
occupations and a role for new 
professional development tracks 
in tertiary education  

Vehicle manufacturing (energy-efficiency, waste and product lifecycle management, shift of business model 
from products to services) 

Engineering technicians, 
welders, transportation 
equipment painters, metal 
fabricators, computer-
controlled machine operators, 
engine assemblers, and 
production helpers 

Greening production 
techniques for 
vehicles components 

Low to medium 
general skills with 
medium job-specific 
skills 

Computer software engineers, 
electrical engineers and 
operations managers 

Changes in 
production methods 
and business models 

Medium and high 

Mining and extractive industry (shrinking the environmental footprint) 

Close integration of industry and 
education. For example, in the 
UK North East’s Low Carbon 
Economic Area (LCEA),: the 
National Training Centre for 
Sustainable Manufacturing was 
created 

E.g. the Low Carbon Future 
Leaders Graduate Placement 
Scheme in the UK 

Operators of heat 
coproduction, Geospatial 
Information Technologists 

Upgrading core 
technologies 

Medium 

E.g. Eesti Energia's training 
programmes for current and new 
employees 

Geospatial Information 

Supply chain re-

High level for 

Estonia, for example, revised 

41 

OECD (forthcoming), op. cit. 

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Occupations 

Growth profile 

Skill profile 

Scientists and Technologists, 
managers for heat 
coproduction, energy 
auditing, and technology 
developers and managers 
Source: OECD ( forthcoming) 

organization, and 
upgrading 
management 
practices 

development of new 
technologies and 
production re-
organization 

Policy challenges and national 
initiatives 

and coordinated higher-
education programmes in 
mining 

Finally, shifts both within and across sectors require support for those with low and obsolete 
skills, so as to prevent the risk of structural unemployment and inactivity prospects.  

In declining sectors some skills/occupations are already becoming obsolete. For instance, 
utility  meter  reading  services  will  be  phased  out  by  the  introduction  of  ‘smart’  household 
meters that automatically relay data to utility companies. The skills composition of workers 
in  high-  and  low-carbon  intensive  sectors  will  influence  the  employment  transition  to  a 
greener  economy.  Evidence  shows  that  in  all  but  two  countries,  the  share  of  low-skilled 
labour  in  high-carbon  sectors  is  higher42  than  in  low  carbon  sectors.  Moving  workers  from 
high to low carbon intensive sectors will thus require additional re-skilling strategies.  

This  transition  process  might  impact  on  particular  regions,  urban/rural  development 
and workers' mobility. Employment in areas with a high concentration of either traditional 
energy-intensive and high-carbon industries or by poor economic diversification risk being hit 
during  the  transition  process  and  development  of  integrated  strategies  for  economic 
revitalisation  of  such  areas  is  therefore  an  important  element  of  the  transition  process.  The 
fisheries sector offers a good example as changes to fisheries policy and the scaling down of 
the  fishing  fleet  has  put  many  workers  at  risk  of  redundancy.  This  requires  accompanying 
long-term 
targeted  measures 
unemployment  or  inactivity.  Growing  sectors  may  offer  opportunities  to  use  skills  acquired 
from  workers  employed  in  declining  sectors.  This  is  notably  the  case  for  some  coastal  and 
maritime activities. Synergies between such sectors could be developed hence facilitating the 
sectoral mobility of workers. 

this  particular  group  from  falling 

that  prevent 

into 

However,  and  contrary  to  other  transitions  (e.g.  globalisation,  ICT),  short  to  medium  term 
costs  linked  to  firm  restructuring  in  the  context  of  a  green  economy  might  not  be  fully 
compensated by productivity improvements and companies could be searching for additional 
compensation  through  cheaper  labour.  A  potential  risk  exists  that  the  low  pay  trap  or 
unemployment will affect in particular older and low-skilled workers over-represented in 
the  most  polluting  industries43.  Investments  in  innovation  and  re-skilling  are  crucial  for 
counteracting this threat. 
Much of the adjustment in the high-carbon sector is expected to occur in only 15 industries44 
occupying up to 12% of EU workers (or some 24 million people). At the same time, the gap 
between EU-15 and EU-10 is particularly striking – more than 20% of all employees in the 

42 
43 
44 

EC/ILO (2011), Towards…, op.cit., p. 52 
OECD (forthcoming), op.cit. 
These include following industries: electrical energy, gas, steam and hot water; coal and lignite, peat; 
products of agriculture, hunting and related services; other non-metalic mineral products; crude 
petroleum and natural gas; basic metals; sewage and refuse disposal services; glass and glass products; 
coke, refined petroleum products, nuclear fuel; other land transportation services; articles of paper and 
paper board; manufactured gas and distribution services of gas; pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals, 
botanical prod.; chemicals, chemical products, manmade fibres; air transport services. 

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EU-10 are working in the top 15 emitting industries, which is more than double the rate in 
EU-15 countries45. 

3.4. 

Securing sufficient levels of investment 

If  the  transition  to  a  resource  efficient  and  low  carbon  economy  is  to  succeed,  smart 
investment plans will be needed to capitalise on emerging opportunities and tap into the 
job creation potential in this area. Recent developments show that as many other segments 
of the economy, the clean technologies area is also vulnerable to the impacts of the economic 
and financial crisis, as well as to the increasing competition from emerging economies such as 
China and India.46 Indeed, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), investments 
in renewable energies dropped by 14% in Europe during the second semester of 2008 alone, 
and they decreased further in 2009 by 10%, while increasing by more than 50% in China. The 
February  2012  Renewable  Energy  Country  Attractiveness  Indices  cites  China  as  the  most 
attractive location in which to invest in renewable energy projects, followed by the US47. 

Strategic  medium  to  long  term  policy  planning  in  this  field  will  require  that  governments 
create  conditions  for  substantial  investments  in  low  carbon  and  resource  efficient 
industries, while ensuring compliance with the EU State aid rules, in an attempt to prepare the 
ground  for  tomorrow's  economic  model.  For  instance,  the  main  driver  of  the  employment 
effects  in  the  promotion  of  the  renewable  energy  sector  are  the  considerable  investments 
required to upgrade the energy infrastructure.  

Analysis  undertaken  by  the  Commission  suggests  that  whilst  annual  capital  investment  in 
renewable  energy  today  averages  €  35  bn,  this  would  need  to   rapidly  double  to  €  70  bn  to 
ensure  we  achieve  our  renewables  goals.  Previous  analysis  showed  that,  from  a  base  of  1.4 
million  people  across  the  EU,  i.e.  0.7%  of  the  total  EU  workforce,  the  renewable  energy 
sector  would  generate  roughly  2.3  million  jobs  in  2020  under  business  as  usual,  and  2.8 
million  jobs  under  ambitious  policies  consistent  with  the  2020  targets  (growing  up  to  3.4 
million in 2030)48. 

The analysis on the 2050 Low-carbon Roadmap shows that to prepare the transition to a low-
carbon economy, over the next 40 years additional annual investment equivalent to 1.5% of 
EU's  GDP,  or  around  €  270  billion,  would  be  n eeded  on  top  of  current  annual  investment 
equivalent to 19% of GDP in 2009. It is not a net cost for the economy or a reduction of GDP, 
but an additional investment in our own economy that would bring multiple benefits such as 
reduced  energy  bill,  less  health  care  costs  and  damage  to  ecosystems,  crops,  materials  and 
buildings.  

Joint public-private ventures can use public finances, while ensuring compliance with the 
EU  State  aid  rules,  and  regulatory  policy  to  support  the  scaling  up  of  private  investment  in 
energy  efficiency.  As  identified  by  the  International  Energy  Agency  (IEA)49  three  main 
mechanisms  are  needed  to  put  in  place  such  initiatives  i)  dedicated  credit  lines  ii)  risk 
guarantees and iii) energy performance service contracts. Equally important factors in making 

45 
46 

47 

48 
49 

EC/ILO (2011), op.cit., p.17 
E.g. European Restructuring Monitor reported that Danish turbine maker Vestas, a world-leader in the 
field, announced it would have to cut more than 2,300 jobs – 10% of its workforce – to restore 
profitability as it faces firm competition from China. And in Spain approximately 15 000-25 000 jobs 
were lost because of austerity measures and withdrawal of the feed-in tariffs to solar energy contributed 
to the bankruptcy of a number of newly created establishments.  
Ernst&Young (2012), Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Indices, available at: 
http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Industries/Power---Utilities/Renewable-energy-country-attractiveness-
indices 
See: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/studies/renewables_en.htm  
See: http://www.iea.org/publications/free_new_Desc.asp?PUBS_ID=2489  

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such  initiatives  a  success  are  careful  planning,  diligent  implementation,  continuous 
monitoring of measures and regular evaluation of results.  

Ensuring  that  SMEs  fully  benefit  from  the  transition  to  a  low  carbon  economy  in  terms  of 
improved  competitiveness,  growth  and  market  coverage  is  also  of  utmost  importance.  A 
strong SME sector is fundamental for a healthy economy. Indeed, studies show that50 about 
two  thirds  of  the  jobs  created  in  the  renewables  sector  are  based  on  SMEs.  Policies  must 
therefore take into account the specificities and needs of this particular group of companies. 
For  instance,  transition  to  a  greener  economy  will  require  adaptation  of  workforce  skills  in 
order  to  ensure  the  necessary  supply  of  high-skilled  or  intermediary-skilled  workers. 
Normally SMEs are at a disadvantage when recruiting such workers, as SMEs cannot match 
the  wages  and  non-financial  arrangements  offered  by  larger  companies.  Also,  it  has  to  be 
noted  that  SMEs  have  more  difficulties  to  train  their  workforce  in-house  as  compared  to 
larger companies. 

3.5. 

Job quality 

'Green  jobs'  will  only  be  sustainable  if  they  also  integrate  safe,  healthy  and  decent  working 
conditions.  They  should  not  only  be  good  for  the  environment  but  also  for  workers.  As  the 
Community  Strategy  2007-2012  on  Health  and  Safety  at  Work  acknowledges,  occupational 
safety  and  health  plays  a  vital  role  in  increasing  the  competitiveness  and  productivity  of 
enterprises and contributing to the sustainability of the economy. 

The greening of the economy stimulates the demand for high, medium and low skilled jobs. 
Increased demand for high-skilled labour is likely to have an overall positive impact on job 
quality  as  in  general,  the  higher  the  level  of  skill  (or  qualification)  associated  with  an 
occupation,  the  higher  the  job  quality.  It  is  however  also  to  be  expected  that  there  are 
occupations,  which  are  currently  associated  with  relatively  high  quality  employment,  which 
may contract, i.e high quality jobs amongst office clerks in high-carbon industries and skilled 
agricultural and fishery workers while job quality in newly arising 'green' economic activities 
is generally satisfactory.  

Adjustments  in  the  transition  to  a  more  low  carbon  and  resource-efficient  economy  may 
equally create  challenges in  terms of improving the gender balance on the labour market in 
terms  of  both  quality  and  quantity  of  green  jobs.  Apart  from  the  total  and  sectoral 
employment effects it is to be noted that women and young people are currently more likely 
to  be  employed  in  non-green  occupations  compared  to  other  workers.  Some  sectors  (as  for 
instance,  the  maritime  economy)  suffer  from  a  lack  of  attractiveness  and  difficulties  in 
appealing to young people into what is perceived to be 'dirty' manual work. The job potential 
in  sectors  suffering  from  the  image  problems  therefore  remains  underexploited  as  many 
typically  male-dominated  jobs  are  sometimes  wrongly  seen  as  having  unattractive  work 
conditions with low pay51.  Here  again, the increased skills requirements associated with the 
need for greater efficiency in using natural resources may improve job quality and perception. 

Where jobs are created in companies and sectors with little tradition of social dialogue and 
employee  representation,  safeguarding  the  fundamental  rights  of  workers52,  ensuring  equal 
pay  and  decency  of  work  can  present  particular  challenges.  Changes  in  working  conditions 

50 
51 
52 

EC/ILO (2011), Skills..., op.cit. 
CEDEFOP (forthcoming), op.cit. 
Such as: freedom of assembly, workers' rights to consultation within the undertaking, right of collective 
bargaining and action. Also a requirement of adequate representation of women in the collective 
structure is a way to ensure that social partners work towards new jobs that provide quality work for 
both women and men. 

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and their impact on workers will have to be accounted for while social security coverage of 
workers  as  well  as  the  portability  of  social  rights  of  mobile  workers  are  also  issues  to  be 
addressed. 'Green' construction, building insulation activities and consumer waste disposal are 
examples  of  sectors  experiencing  employment  growth  and  meriting  further  investigation  of 
possible problematic areas in terms of job quality, such as precarious forms of employment or 
health and safety issues53. Risks can include manual handling during collection and sorting of 
waste management and potential exposure to hazardous chemicals. 

Indeed, examples exist of 'green jobs' where workers’ health was damaged (e.g in the waste 
management sector)54. Also, jobs where traditional skills are needed but in new contexts (e.g. 
installation  of  solar  panels)  attract  workers  from  traditional  sectors  who  may  not  have  the 
appropriate skills to perform these new jobs in a safe and healthy manner (e.g. electricians not 
trained for working at height, or construction workers not trained against electrical hazards). 
This shows the importance of ensuring that workers have the adequate prevention culture and 
occupational safety and health skills to perform green jobs.  

53 

54 

For more information see: WALQING (Work and Life Quality in New & Growing Jobs) project 
financed under the 7th Framework Programme, available at: http://www.walqing.eu/  
EU-OSHA (forthcoming), Foresight of new and emerging risks to occupational safety and health 
associated with new technologies in green jobs by 2020. This foresight project has 3 phases. Phase 1 
report on key drivers of change, available at: http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/foresight-
green-jobs-drivers-change-TERO11001ENN/view. Phase 2 report on key new technologies, available 
at: http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/foresight-green-jobs-key-technologies 
EU-OSHA (2009), Expert forecast of emerging chemical risks related to occupational safety and 
health, available at: http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/TE3008390ENC_chemical_risks  
EU-OSHA (2007), Expert forecast of emerging biological risks related to occupational safety and 
health, available at: http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/7606488 

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