Commission Staff Working Document Accompanying document to the COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF REGIONS'Education and Training for a smart, sustainable and inclusive Europe'Analysis of the implementation of the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET2020) - Country analysis
Date: 2011-12-20
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU Member State, cooperation in the field of education, education statistics, job creation, level of education, public investment

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Brussels, 20.12.2011 
SEC(2011) 1608 final 

Commission Staff Working Document 

Accompanying document to the  

COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN 
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF REGIONS 

'Education and Training for a smart, sustainable and inclusive Europe' 

Analysis of the implementation of the strategic framework for European cooperation in 
education and training (ET2020) - Country analysis 

{COM(2011) 902 final} 
{SEC(2011) 1607 final} 

 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 

The  Commission  Communication  on  the  draft  2012  Joint  Report  of  the  Council  and  the 
Commission  on  the  implementation  of  the  strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in 
education and training (ET 2020)1 is accompanied by two Staff Working Documents (SWDs). 

While the other SWD examines the progress made in the implementation of ET2020 from a 
thematic, cross-country perspective, the present SWD examines the progress made at national 
level towards the ET 2020 objectives on a country-by-country basis. 

Country analysis 

The  present  SWD  is  a  collection  of  individual  country  briefs  summarising  the  main 
developments in education and training in the individual countries in the period 2009–2011 in 
relation  to  the  ET2020  and  Europe  2020  priorities  and  the  outcome  of  the  first  European 
Semester,  including  the  country-specific  recommendations  (CSRs)  issued  by  the  Council  in 
June 2011. 

The country summaries are primarily based on the national progress reports provided by the 
competent authorities in the first half of 2011, in response to a common questionnaire. They 
also  take  into  account  information  contained  in  the  Member  States’  National  Reform 
Programmes (NRPs) submitted for the first European Semester and other official information 
sources, such as Cedefop and Eurydice. 

Structure and content of the country summaries 

Each country summary starts out with a review of the country’s performance in relation to the 
ET2020 benchmarks, including the Europe 2020 headline targets for early school leaving and 
tertiary attainment. 

Section 2 is devoted to the outcome of the European Semester 2011. It includes excerpts from 
the Commission Staff Working Documents accompanying the Recommendation for a Council 
Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the  economic  and 
employment policies of the Member States in relation to education and training issues.2 

those  Member  States 

issued  Country-Specific 
For 
Recommendations (CSRs) relating to education and training following the European Semester, 
this section also quotes the text of the specific Recommendation. 

the  Council  has 

for  which 

For  countries  receiving  financial  assistance  under  a  Memorandum  of  Understanding  (MoU) 
on Specific Economic Policy Conditionality, section 2 includes, where appropriate, excerpts 
from the MoU referring to education and training. 

Section  3  analyses  in  detail  national  developments  in  relation  to  the  Europe  2020  headline 
target addressing early school leaving and tertiary (or equivalent) attainment. 

Section  4  reports  on  developments  with  regard  to  mobility,  in  particular  in  relation  to  the 
Europe  2020  ‘Youth  on  the  Move’  flagship  initiative  and  to  European    and  other  mobility 
programmes.  The  analysis  is  based  on  data  from  Eurostat  (UOE)  on  long-term  mobility  in 
higher education and on data from the Lifelong Learning Programme on short-term mobility. 

1   Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and 

training ( ET 2020 ), OJ C 119, 28.5.2009, p. 2–10. 

2   http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/reaching-the-goals/monitoring-progress/recommendations-

2011/index_en.htm 

- 1 - 

 
 
 
                                                 
Section  5  describes  developments  in  other  Europe  2020  priority  areas,  in  particular  lifelong 
learning strategies and the flagship initiative Agenda for New Skills and Jobs. 

Section 6 looks at the impact of the economic and financial crisis on the country’s education 
and training budget. 

Finally, short conclusions are presented in section 7. 

- 2 - 

 
 
  
 
AUSTRIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

AUSTRIA   

Participation 
education 

in 

early 

childhood 

(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

Low achievers 

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

Science 

from  education  and 

leavers 

Early 
training 

(age 18–24) 

Tertiary education attainment 

(age 30–34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

Austria 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

84.6 % 

91.3 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

19.3 % 

21.5 %06

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

20.0 %06 

23.2 %09

24.0 %06

22.2 %09 

16.3 %06 

21.0 %09

20.2 %06

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

10.2 % 

8.7 %b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

21.004 

23.5 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

8.6 % 03 

13.7 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

03= 2003, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 3 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

The share of people with a migration background in the labour force in Austria is high by EU 
standards.  The  problems  faced  by  migrants  on  the  labour  market  are  twofold:  firstly,  pupils 
with  a  migration  background  have  lower  education  outcomes  than  their  peers;  secondly, 
migrants  are  three  times  more  likely  to  be  employed  below  their  qualification  levels  than 
Austrians. The main challenge is low education outcomes: migrants are 3.5 times more likely 
to  be  early  school  leavers  than  natives  (22.1 %  compared  to  6 %).  One  of  the  reasons  is  the 
strong influence of socio-economic background on educational achievement in Austria, which 
can partly be explained by ‘early tracking’ into two different schooling streams at the age of 
10. In urban regions in particular, this tends to cause ‘downward’ selection of pupils with a 
disadvantageous  socio-economic  background  and  reduces  de  facto  permeability  between 
upper  secondary  education  and  training  streams.  This,  combined  with  widespread  half-day 
schooling, seems to have a negative effect on the educational attainment of vulnerable youth. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (4) 

Take measures to enhance participation in the labour market, including the following: reduce, 
in a budgetary neutral way, the effective tax and social security burden on labour, especially 
for  low-  and  medium-income  earners;  implement  the  National  Action  Plan  on  the  equal 
treatment of women and men in the labour market, including improvements in the availability 
of care services and of all-day school places to increase the options for women to work full-
time  and  in  the  high  gender  pay  gap;  take  steps  to  improve  educational  outcomes  and 
prevent school drop-out. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

In the past, early school leaving (ESL) has fluctuated around 10 %, but decreased to 8.7 % in 
2009 and 2010, well below the EU average (2008: 10.1 %). Austria has set itself the target of 
an ESL rate of not more than 9.5 % by 2020. 

As  noted  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  on  the  implementation  of  the 
integrated  guidelines,  socio-economic  background  has  a  strong  influence  on  achievement  in 
the  Austrian  education  system,  and  pupils  from  a  disadvantageous  background  face  a  much 
higher  risk  of  drop-out  than  their  peers.  A  particular  challenge  is  to  unlock  the  potential  of 
Austria’s  young  population  with  a  migrant  background  (around  17 %  of  all  pupils  have  a 
mother  tongue  other  than  German,  with  much  higher  rates  in  urban  regions),  since 
achievement gaps compared to native peers are among the highest in the EU. 

Educational deficits tend to add up from early childhood: while overall participation in early 
childhood  education  has  increased  in  Austria  (from  84.6 %  in  2000  to  91.3 %  in  2009), 
immigrant children have a lower rate of participation here too. 

The Austrian National Reform Programme and the ET 2020 national report acknowledge the 
negative  consequences  of  early  drop-out  in  education,  namely  fewer  job  opportunities,  a 

- 4 - 

 
 
higher risk of unemployment and social exclusion. Consequently, educational reform focuses 
on increasing equal opportunities and qualification levels, in particular for migrants. 

In  cooperation  with  the  Bundesländer  and  municipalities,  the  federal  government  has 
launched  several  initiatives  to  tackle  educational  disadvantages  from  an  early  age.  A 
compulsory  free-of-charge  year  of  kindergarten  at  age  5  was  introduced  in  2010,  together 
with  a  nation-wide  education  plan  to  improve  the  quality  of  provision.  Further  measures 
include early language skills assessment and individualised support in kindergarten to develop 
a sufficient level in the language of instruction before entry into primary school. 

Other recent measures to tackle early school leaving include more individualised teaching (in 
particular  within  the  reform  project  ‘Neue  Mittelschule’,  which  will  gradually  replace  the 
‘Hauptschule’  by  2019),  smaller  class  sizes  (down  from  30  to  25),  more  places  for  all-day 
schooling  and  after  school  care,  a  ‘training  guarantee’  (Ausbildungsgarantie)  up  to  age  18, 
and  ESF-funded  programmes  to  keep  pupils  with  significant  (language)  deficits  in  the 
mainstream educational system. 

These  measures  point  in  the  right  direction.  It  is  moreover  positive  that  quality  early 
childhood  and  basic  education,  steps  to  tackle  inequalities  and  provision  of  second-chance 
upper  secondary  education  free  of  charge  have  also  become  key  objectives  of  the  recently 
adopted  LLL  strategy  (see  section  5).  This  should  help  to  further  improve  cooperation  and 
coordination among stakeholders and services responsible for labour market, youth and social 
affairs. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Tertiary attainment is 23.5 %, low in comparison to the EU average of 33.6 % (ISCED levels 5 
and 6). It has to be noted, however, that Austria has traditionally obtained a large part of its 
higher-skilled labour force from VET colleges that grant ISCED 4a level qualifications. This 
is also why the government included this qualification level (ISCED 4: 13.4 % in 2009) in its 
national target (38 %). Nevertheless, the government is aware that more tertiary qualifications 
are necessary, and reaching the target by 2020 would represent an improvement on the current 
situation. In particular, despite good progress towards the 2010 benchmark for tertiary MST 
graduates,  the  shortages  in  these  subjects  are  considered  an  obstacle  to  future  growth  in  a 
number of economic sectors. 

High drop-out rates from university (around 40 %) remain a challenge, even though study fees 
have  been  widely  abolished  for  almost  all  students  and  financial  grants  were  increased  in 
2008  and  2009.  In  2010,  EUR  194  million  were  disbursed  to  some  46 000  students  as  non-
refundable  study  grants  (18 %  of  all  students).  Additional  financial  support  measures  are 
available. 

Regarding measures to increase the number of tertiary graduates, the 2011 Austrian National 
Reform  Programme  and  the  progress  report  on  ET  2020  highlight  counselling  for  tertiary 
studies and increasing the number of graduates in natural sciences and technology as among 
the main challenges. Information and orientation is gradually being widened and improved to 
include compulsory advice for prospective students (‘Studienwahlberatung NEU’). 

The growing number of applicants for Universities for Applied Sciences (Fachhochschulen), 
focusing  on  disciplines  such  as  engineering,  business  management  and  ICT,  is  being 
addressed  by  the  provision  of  more  study  places.  Other  measures  aim  to  improve  access  to 
university studies for people in the labour market (berufsbegleitendes Studieren). Additional 

- 5 - 

 
 
funds  (€ 34  million)  have  been  set  aside  to  improve  the  student/teacher  ratio  in  the  period 
2010–12. 

While such measures may have some potential to reduce drop-out rates and to achieve a better 
distribution of students across the full range of subjects (access to universities is mostly free), 
they are no substitute for a comprehensive strategy to deal with the steadily growing numbers 
of students, due also to high incoming mobility (‘mass university’), and persisting structural 
challenges to the Austrian university system. 

A recently published report, developed by independent experts in August 2011, proposes for 
the  "mapping  process  for  the  Austrian  higher  education  system"  a  number  of  measures  to 
improve the governance of universities, including their long-term financing. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Austria has an outbound long-term mobility (4.3 % of students 
per  year)  above  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme (1.4 % of students in 2008/09) is also above the EU average. 

Learning  mobility  for  pupils,  trainees,  students  and  learners  as  well  as  education  staff  is 
mainly  supported  by  the  EU’s  Lifelong  Learning  Programme.  In  addition,  the  national 
Performance agreements (Leistungsvereinbarungen) between universities and the ministry for 
science  contain  supporting  measures  for  international  mobility.  Austria  is  also  particularly 
attractive for incoming PhD students: their share is the highest in Europe, in 2010 amounting 
to 22 % of all PhD students. 

Mobility in VET is supported by the organisation of pool projects (for individual applications) 
and supplementary national funding. 

School  teachers  participate  via  the  AUPRAX  initiative  in  exchanges  with  their  European 
colleagues.  Despite  the  important  role  of  VET  in  Austria,  the  participation  of  VET 
professionals in Leonardo da Vinci is below the EU average. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

In July 2011 the four ministries responsible for education and training, science and research, 
economy, family and youth, and labour and social affairs, supported by the social partners and 
all  key  stakeholders,  agreed  on  a  joint  strategy  ‘Lifelong  Learning  2020’,  based  on  a  set  of 
guiding principles, benchmarks for 2020, and 10 action lines, including concrete operational 
measures for LLL implementation (see Staff Working Document, section 4.1). In addition, a 
lifelong guidance strategy is already being implemented, for example through the promotion 
of basic competences for education, VET and career plans (‘Career Management Skills’). 

the  public  employment  service 
A  ‘Standing  Committee  on  New  Skills’, 
(Arbeitsmarktservice),  is  addressing  the  preparation  of  employees  and  job-seekers  for  the 
upcoming changes and challenges in the labour market. 

led  by 

Other  measures  include  quality  development  by  introducing  educational  standards  and 
standardised tests in the field of education, setting standards in VET, ‘Literacy’ (a project for 
improving  reading  competences),  competence-oriented  teaching,  and  a  quality  initiative  for 
VET  (QIBB).  Work  on  the  National  Qualification  Framework  and  the  Bologna  Process  is 
ongoing. 

- 6 - 

 
 
The adoption of ‘Lifelong Learning 2020’ demonstrates that progress is being made to further 
strengthen the links between education, training, employment and social affairs and ensure a 
more  flexible  qualification  system.  The  broad  agreement  among  stakeholders  on  shared 
objectives  can  be  considered  an  important  success  factor  for  the  future  improvement  of 
lifelong learning structures and services. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Austria 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

5.74 % 

5.46 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Investment in education, as a percentage of GDP, has decreased since 2000, but is still above 
the EU average. 

In comparison to other budget headings, public spending on  education and training was not 
negatively  affected  by  the  financial  crisis.  School  education  saw  no  significant  cuts  in  the 
crisis  years,  the  2011  budget  increasing  to  almost  € 8  billion,  3.9 %  more  than  in  2010. 
Savings  due  to  declining  number  of  pupils  are  being  offset  by  higher  expenditure  on  the 
recent reforms (smaller classes, new middle school, quality assurance, all-day schools, etc.). 
In  addition,  € 80  million  per  year  will  be  made  available  up  to  2014  to  provide  additional 
study places and improve the quality and performance of tertiary education. 

Fully  in  line  with  the  Annual  Growth  Survey  and  the  Conclusions  of  the  Spring  European 
Council, Austria is maintaining its investment in education and training as a growth-friendly 
measure in times of crisis. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

In  the  context  of  its  educational  reform,  aiming  to  increase  equal  opportunities  and 
qualification levels, in particular for migrants, Austria is taking steps to improve educational 
outcomes  and  to  prevent  school  drop-out.  These  include  more  individualised  teaching, 
increased  provision  of  all-day  schooling,  measures  to  improve  early  childhood  education 
(including  compulsory  kindergarten  at  the  age  of  five),  and  the  reform  project  ‘Neue 
Mittelschule’,  aiming  at  mitigating  the  consequences  of  early  separation  of  pupils  into 
‘academic’  and  ‘general’  streams  at  the  age  of  10,  while  the  two  parallel  tracks  ("Neue 
Mittelschule" and "Gymnasium") will continue to exist. 

Measures  are  also  being  taken  to  increase  the  capacity  and  quality  of  tertiary  education,  in 
particular by providing information and counselling, increasing the number of students in the 
Universities  for  Applied  Sciences  and  improving  access  to  higher  education  institutions  for 
people on the labour market. 

Implementing the comprehensive Lifelong Learning 2020 strategy adopted in July 2011 will 
help to achieve the targets. However, sustained efforts will be needed, in particular to reach 
the target for tertiary or equivalent education and to effectively address equity issues. 

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BELGIUM 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

BELGIUM   

Belgium 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

99.1 % 

99.3 %09  

85.2% 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

19.0 % 

17.7 %09 

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

17.3 %06 

19.1 %09 

24.2006 

22.2 %09 

17.0 %06 

18.0 %09 

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

13.8 %  11.9 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Higher education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

34.5 % 

44.4 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

8.6 %04  

7.2 %  

8.5 % 03 

9.1 % 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01= 2001, 04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 8 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Regarding  education  and  training  policy,  Belgium’s  ambition  is  to  raise  the  percentage  of 
people aged 30–34 with a higher education from 43.2 % in 2009 (42 % according to Eurostat) 
to 47 % in 2020, and to reduce the percentage of early school leavers (ESL) from 11.7 % in 
2009 (11.1 % according to Eurostat) to 9.5 % by 2020. Educational policy is the responsibility 
of the communities. The Flemish community and region has already reached a number of the 
Europe 2020 policy targets and has set additional ambitious targets. As the NEET27 indicator 
and the ESL indicators have been generally decreasing over the last ten years, with Belgium 
performing  better  than  the  EU  average  thanks  to  longstanding  efforts  at  policy  level,  the 
Belgian national targets for education and ESL seem to be realistic. However, this is possibly 
being driven by the Flemish community (8.6 % in 2009), so the main challenge is to ensure a 
significant decreases in the high ESL rate and proportion of 20–24 year-olds without at least 
secondary  education  in  the  other  regions/communities  (in  2009,  13.8 %  and  20.5 %  in 
Wallonia  and  15.6 %  and  25.2 %  in  the  Brussels  Capital  Region,  respectively).  Therefore, 
even though Belgium has a modern education system and is performing better overall than the 
EU average in the area of education, this masks significant regional differences, and several 
problems remain to be tackled, in particular the low qualifications of young people (mainly in 
Wallonia and the Brussels Capital Region), non-EU citizens and women (in particular in the 
Brussels Capital Region), and skills mismatches and shortages in future-oriented occupations. 
Belgium  is  also  one  of  the  few  countries  where  participation  rates  in  lifelong  learning  have 
declined  significantly  in  recent  years.  To  increase  lifelong  learning  and  improve  the 
qualifications of jobseekers, the social partners have agreed to spend 1.9 % of the total payroll 
on the education and training of employees. As this target has currently not been reached, a 
penalty  mechanism  for  sectors  that  fail  to  make  additional  training  efforts  was  to  enter  into 
force in 2011. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Belgium performs better than the EU average in the area of early school leaving, and aims to 
further reduce the rate from 11.9 % (Eurostat) in 2010 (11.7 % according to the 2011 NRP) to 
9.5 % by 2020. Due to longstanding efforts at policy level, rates have constantly declined over 
the  last  decade,  although  significant  disparities  remain  between  community/regions.  Both 
communities  are  investing  in  improving  the  quality  and  attractiveness  of  VET,  in  flexible 
pathways and in closer education–enterprise cooperation. 

Flanders has already achieved the national target and intends to decrease the ESL rate further 
from 8.6% in 2009 (9.6% in 2010) to 5.2% by 2020. The Flemish ESL objective is part of a 
broader  objective  to  reduce  by  2020  the  number  of  secondary  education  drop-outs  without 
sufficient  starting  qualifications  (upper  secondary  education  or  equivalent)  by  50 %  and  the 
7.3 % NEET rate among young people. 

The  evidence-based  policy  pursued  by  the  Flemish  community/Flanders  region  involves  a 
comprehensive  approach  and  a  wide  range  of  active  prevention,  intervention  and 
compensation measures as well as possible sanctions (e.g. school allowances linked to regular 
school  attendance).  It  is  supported  by  strong  analysis  of  data  and  information  to  enable 

- 9 - 

 
 
measures to target particular groups and take the personal situation of pupils into account (e.g. 
positive discrimination). Implementation is monitored and evaluated within a comprehensive 
strategy. Measures include the active encouragement of nursery education participation, early 
mastery of the instruction language, a truancy action plan (2006 plan under evaluation, to be 
renewed in 2011) with the involvement of various actors and the parents, and various second-
chance offers. Other measures to ensure the full-time involvement of apprentices in education 
until  the  age  of  18  (since  2008–9),  the  ongoing  modularisation  of  IVET  (up  to  2015)  and 
better pupil guidance (decree planned by 2014) are also relevant. In addition, a broader reform 
to make technical and professional education more attractive is under discussion. 

The  French  community  continues  to  focus  on  measures  to  address  the  problem  of  low 
performance  levels  in  compulsory  education  and  training  by  improving  the  quality  of  the 
education and training system, mainly through financial and other measures to reinforce the 
acquisition  of  basic  competences  (primary  and  first  cycle  of  secondary  as  from  2006).  In 
addition, an important reform was introduced in 2009 to make VET more flexible, modular 
and closer to labour market needs. As part of this approach measures have been taken since 
2006  to  address  ESL  (‘Positive  discrimination’,  measures  to  tackle  relegation  mechanisms, 
specific measures such as ‘SAS’ or transition centres, school mediators). Since 2009, further 
measures have been taken (e.g. desegregation measures, improved monitoring of youngsters 
in  ‘alternate  training’,  and  a  2009  action  plan  to  combat  violence  at  school).  The  measures 
planned mainly include the creation of an observatory of violence at school and soft measures 
such  as  better  information  and  training  of  professionals,  pupils  and  victims.  The  Brussels 
region continues to actively implement measures to combat absenteeism.  

The time horizon of the French community/Wallonia/Brussels regions policy and measures is 
2014.  There  is  a  lack  of  comprehensive  analysis  of  ESL  phenomenon  and  of  systematic 
monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the ESL measures including  prevention, 
intervention and compensation measures. General indicators exist for the performance of the 
education and training system, but do not include specific indicators on drop-out/ESL.   

The  Belgian  2011  NRP  acknowledges  that  reforms  are  needed  in  some  areas,  in  particular 
vocational  education  and  training,  in  order  to  improve  quality  and  meet  the  demands  of  the 
labour  market  (mainly  for  young  people  in  Wallonia  and  Brussels  and  for  migrants  and 
women in Brussels) and to tackle skills mismatches for future-oriented jobs. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

In 2010, Belgium exceeded the 40 % EU target for tertiary education graduates, with 44.4 % 
according  to  Eurostat  (43.2 %  according  to  the  2011  NRP).  The  national  target  is  47 %  by 
2020.  Flanders  has  set  itself  a  specific  objective  to  increase  the  rate  from  45.0 %  (2010)  to 
47.8 % by 2020. 

In  both  communities,  access  to  higher  education  is  open  (with  few  exceptions),  with  low 
tuition  fees.  Communities  have  improved  their  financial  support  for  students/learners,  with 
particular  attention  to  students  from  low  socio-economic  backgrounds.  One  of  the 
consequences is that relatively high numbers of students enter the higher education system. In 
2008,  the  Flemish  community  put  in  place  individual,  institutional  and  structural  measures 
through a new community funding model. This aims to widen participation, in particular by 
attracting  ‘non-traditional  learners’,  provide  appropriate  guidance  and  counselling  and 
improve  the  completion  rate  (e.g.  through  an  institution-funded  premium  for  students  from 
disadvantaged groups and working adult learners, equal treatment of full-time and part-time 
students,  and  flexible  study  pathways).  The  funding  model  also  provides  for  targeted 

- 10 - 

 
 
allocations  to  reward  the  achievement  of  agreed  objectives  for  participation  and  completion 
rates. The aim is to achieve a ‘higher education participation rate of 60 % for children from 
parents  without  a  higher  education  degree’  (‘Pact  2020’)  by  devoting  attention  to  students 
from more vulnerable backgrounds. 

The funding model also shifts responsibility to students for their study progress, as they can 
be  penalised  if  their  performance  remains  below  expected  standards  (e.g.  higher  education 
institutions might charge higher tuition fees or refuse registration). 

The study allowance system will be expanded to encompass HB (hoger beroepsonderwijs — 
higher vocational education) level 5 and second-chance education. 

The introduction of short-cycle higher vocational education programmes should also help new 
groups of students to progress to a bachelor’s programme. 

These  measures  are  monitored  yearly.  A  first  evaluation  of  the  results  of  the  performance 
agreements was launched in 2008. 

In  the  French  community,  in  order  to  widen  participation,  measures  focus  on  additional 
financial support to attract students from lower socio-economic backgrounds. As from 2010 
–  2011,  students  holding  a  grant  are  exempted  from  paying    tuition  fees  and    there  is  also 
other  measures  to  reduce  the  cost  of  course  material.  Students  of  modest  conditions  not 
eligible to receive a grant will pay reduced fees of up to 50 %. 

Various measures are designed to improve the completion rate, including student support for 
the transition from school to higher education institutions (HEI). As regard the obligation for 
students  to  demonstrate  sufficient  mastery  of  the  instruction  language  as  a  prerequisite  for 
enrolment, previous disposals have been updated namely with references to language levels of 
the  Common  European  Framework  of  Reference  to  be  attained  (2010).  The  obligation  of 
universities  (2004)  to  devote  a  minimum  percentage  of  their  budget  to  support  ‘first 
generation’  students  was  extended  to  the  other  HEIs  in  2008.  At  university  level,  limited 
flexibility  has  been  introduced  to  extend  the  length  of  the  study  period  needed  to  obtain  a 
degree.   

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Belgium has an outbound long-term mobility (2.9 % of students 
per  year  in  2008/9)  near  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus  programme  (1.3 %  of  students  in  2006/7  and  1.48%  2008/9)  is  above  the  EU 
average. 

Both  communities  consider  mobility  to  be  a  priority.  They  provide  additional  funding  to 
support  the  European  education  programmes,  in  particular  Erasmus,  Comenius  and 
Grundtvig.  Particular  attention  is  paid  to  supporting  pupils/students  from  lower  socio-
economic backgrounds.    

The  Flemish  community  uses  various  financial  and  other  measures  and  programmes  to 
increase  the  mobility  of  pupils/students  and  teachers  at  all  levels  of  education  (except 
secondary) with a particular focus on mobility in higher education. 

At school level, mobility schemes target not only neighbouring and other European countries 
but also Morocco, the country of origin for many pupils with a migrant background, in order 
to increase intercultural competence and tolerance.   

In higher education, the aim is to reach a mobility target of 20 % graduate students by 2020. 
For the period 2012–2025, a gradual budgetary increase of € 4.2 million by 2020 is planned. 

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The  action  plan  to  promote  the  mobility  of  HE  students  from  all  cycles  (BA,  MA,  PhD), 
teachers,  researchers  and  staff  is  being  drawn  up,  with  the  focus  on  increasing  the 
participation  of  currently  underrepresented  outgoing  groups  (e.g.  SNE).  Various  new 
outgoing  mobility  programmes  for  students  are  being  set  up.  Better  access,  improved 
guidance and financial support for incoming students are also planned. According to a 2010 
survey, there are no longer any real obstacles to student learning mobility. Consequently, 
incentives will be offered to motivate students. As regards teachers, the new mobility action 
plan, with due regard to the autonomy of individual institutions, provides for recognition of 
mobility as a fundamental element in the teaching career path. 

In  the  French  community  there  are  initiatives  at  school  level  (e.g.  language  immersion 
mobility grants for pupils ending secondary education — Walloon region), but the main focus 
is on student mobility at HE level. 

An HE mobility council, set up in 2007, provides advice on mobility policy and is responsible 
for ensuring consistent management of the budget to support the different outgoing mobility 
schemes (national, European, others). This mobility budget has been progressively increased. 
Incoming  students  may  receive  different  forms  of  in-kind  support.  An  organisation 
(Wallonie-Bruxelles Campus) was set up in 2010 to promote French HEIs abroad. At policy 
level, joint/multiple degrees are encouraged and there is ongoing reflection on the inclusion of 
mandatory mobility windows in curricula. The HE mobility council is planning a qualitative 
and  quantitative  survey  of  mobility  barriers  (2012)  to  complement  a  2007  survey  on  the 
mobility of students receiving study grants, which mainly addressed the financial barriers. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, VET, OTHER MEASURES 

Belgium  is  one  of  the  countries  where  participation  rates  in  lifelong  learning  have  declined 
significantly  in  recent  years.  The  rate  started  to  drop  in  2004,  falling  to  6.8 %  in  2009.  The 
2011 NRP acknowledges that the situation should be improved. A set of measures have been 
taken at federal and community/regional levels. 

Flanders  has  been  pursuing  an  explicit,  coherent  and  comprehensive  lifelong  learning 
strategy, as set out in three main policy documents (Competence Agenda 2010 and the 2009–
14  policy  notes  on  education  and  on  employment).  Responsibility  for  its  implementation  is 
shared  with  stakeholders  (e.g.  sectors).  Key  principles  of  the  strategy  are:  creation  of 
conditions for improved employability, activity and qualifications for all; an active integrated 
skills  development  approach  for  different  target  groups  among  both  employed  and 
unemployed;  enhanced  structural  collaboration  between  education  and  the  labour  market  in 
combination with the promotion of lifelong careers orientation; providing individual targeted 
incentives  for  training;  recognition  of  acquired  competences;  and  flexible  pathways.  The 
target is 15 % adult participation in LLL by 2020 (Pact 2020). 

The Flemish qualification framework was adopted in 2009. The corresponding link with the 8 
EQF levels was established in April 2011. By using a learning outcome approach, the NQF 
supports the recognition of formal, non-formal and informal learning. The new single central 
Flemish agency for quality in education and training (AKOV), set up in 2009 for coordinating 
quality assurance for all education, training and RPL systems, is now operational. It has been 
tasked,  among  other  things,  with  the  development  and  introduction  of  the  Flemish 
qualification structure. 

Since  June  2008,  a  number  of  projects  have  been  launched  to  establish  a  comprehensive 
system for anticipation of needed skills, to identify ‘horizontal mismatches’ and to assess the 
key competences to be acquired in short-cycle higher vocational education. 

- 12 - 

 
 
In addition to measures to improve the quality and efficiency of VET, a thorough reform of 
secondary education is envisaged to ensure that vocational and technical courses of study are 
updated. A draft decree on the reform of secondary education is scheduled for 2014. 

The French community/Walloon and Brussels regions continue to pursue a lifelong learning 
approach including the cooperation and involvement of education and training providers and the 
world of work, flexible pathways and more targeted adult education. The main focus is on the 
development of closer synergies between education and training providers to promote a more 
efficient, integrated, transparent and targeted quality offer for education and training across the 
lifecycle, with particular attention to VET, alternate training and adult education (EPS). There 
is a strong emphasis on closer cooperation by education and training providers with the world 
of work. This cooperation is guiding many initiatives, such as the setting up of the Professions 
and Qualifications Service (SFMQ) in 2009, education zones, the development of catchment 
areas and synergy centres, prior learning recognition, and lifelong careers orientation.   

The ongoing reform of VET aims to make it more attractive, flexible and relevant to labour 
market  needs.  It  includes  modularisation  (‘qualification  by  units  (CPU)’  trial  as  a  way  to 
implement  the  ECVET  system),  further  fostering  of  the  development  of  dual  education,  the 
promotion of vocational guidance, more on-the-job training, and continuation of measures to 
improve access to appropriate equipment and technology. 

Adult education measures include more flexible pathways for VET pupils to adult education, 
possibility for recognition of formal, non-formal and informal learning, and aligning adult HE 
with the Bologna process (2008).   

Little progress has been made on the Belgian-French qualification framework. A final version 
is expected by 2012. The approach will be similar to the Flemish qualification framework. 

As regard skills forecasts, the recently created sectoral skill council (SFMQ) has been tasked 
with the development of job profiles and corresponding ‘qualification’ profiles which might 
help in forecasting skills. Surveys to assess skills needs and mismatches are carried out on a 
regular basis (annual survey of jobs with skills shortages in Brussels). 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

6.0%01 

6.46% 

4.88% 

5.07% 

Belgium 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

01= 2001 

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  has  not  changed  in  Belgium  since 
2000,  whereas  it  has  slightly  increased  in  the  EU  as  a  whole.  In  Belgium,  however,  it  still 
exceeds the EU average by about 1 percentage point. 

Both communities report that the economic crises have had no significant negative impact on 
the education and training budget: savings have been made by dropping non-priority measures 
and postponing a planned budget increase. 

In  budgetary  terms,  tertiary  education  is  the  only  sector  that  has  seen  continuous  growth  in 
real  terms.  However,  the  increase  has  not  matched  the  mass  expansion  of  higher  education, 

- 13 - 

 
 
 
leading to a decrease in per capita spending on higher education. In both communities, due to 
the crisis, the planned HE budget increase has been postponed or spread over a longer period. 

Regarding  private  expenditure  on  education  and  training,  a  decreasing  trend  has  been 
observed for many years. The private sector is not abiding by its commitment to spend 1.9 % 
of the total payroll on the training of employees. A penalty mechanism for sectors that fail to 
make additional training efforts entered into force in 2011. 

Structural  savings  decided  in  close  consultation  with  the  education  partners  amounted  to 
1.4 %  of  the  Flemish  education  budget  in  2010,  including  non-renewal  of  innovative 
projects,  dropping  of  mentoring  for  students  opting  for  work  experience,  cancellation  of 
various support schemes for teachers, non-indexation of operational resources for mandatory 
education, and reduced lump-sum payments for higher education institutions. 

As regards the French community, the economic crisis is reported to have had no significant 
negative  impact  on  public  investment  in  education.  Nevertheless,  certain  measures  in 
compulsory education have been cut, and the planned HE budget increase approved in 2008 to 
cover a period of 8 years is now spread over 15 years (total of € 30 m). According to Eurydice, 
savings in compulsory education have been made mainly by cancelling non-priority measures 
and  reducing  the  planned  increase  in  operational  grants  for  schools.  Positive  discrimination 
measures have been maintained.   

There  has  been  no  decrease  in  the  total  budget  for  VET  and  continuous  training,  although 
amounts  have  been  reallocated  to  target  particular  groups.  The  2011  NRP  acknowledges 
future budgetary needs to address the increase in the number of pupils expected in the coming 
years, in particular in Brussels. 

The European structural funds (Wallonia-Brussels) are being used to support training both to 
reintegrate  non-working  people  within  the  labour  market  and  to  increase  training  provision. 
As  a  consequence  of  the  crisis,  there  has  been  a  limited  reallocation  of  ESF  funding  for 
EU2020 targets. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

Generally  Belgium’s  education  system  performs  better  than  the  EU  average,  albeit  with 
important  differences  between  the  communities.    However  several  problems  remain  to  be 
tackled and further efforts are necessary in particular in order to address skill mismatches, to 
tackle  labour  market  barriers  for  different  age  and  social  groups  (mainly  senior  workers  in 
Flanders, young low qualified workers in Brussels and Wallonia, non-EU citizens and women 
in  Brussels)  and  to  increase  labour  mobility,  in  particular  between  regions.  There  is  a 
particular challenge for vocational education and training and lifelong learning participation. 

- 14 - 

 
 
BULGARIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

BULGARIA   

Bulgaria 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

73.4 % 

78.5 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

95 % 

Reading 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

40.3 % 

41.0 %09

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

53.3 %06  47.2 %09

24.0 %06

22.2 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Science 

42.6 %06  38.8 %09

20.3 %06

17.7 %09 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

20.5 %01 

13.9 %  

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

19.8 % 

27.7 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

1.3 % 03 

1.2 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 15 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

The  upcoming  Law  on  Pre-School  and  School  Education  is  expected  to  provide  some 
solutions,  building  on  the  positive  results  of  the  recent  school  decentralisation  reform.  This 
law  is  also  intended  to  expand  pre-school  education,  which  is  the  foundation  for  further 
learning,  and  to  improve  learning  outcomes  and  educational  achievement  at  primary  and 
secondary  level.  Tertiary  attainment  rates  (27.9 %  in  2009)  remain  below  the  EU  average 
(32.3 %),  despite  a  positive  trend  in  the  last  decade.  Bulgaria  has  significantly  delayed  its 
reform  of  higher  education.  The  new  Higher  Education  Law,  already  tabled  in  2010  but 
subsequently withdrawn, would provide an efficient, single legislative instrument to address 
reform needs. These include: improving quality; increasing the mobility of higher education 
students, anticipating skills needs and modernising curricula; enhancing competition between 
higher education institutions; and improving the governance of universities. Slow progress in 
the legislative area is hampering an increase in tertiary achievement rates, improvement of the 
quality of higher education institutions, and therefore smart economic growth. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (5) 

Take  steps  to  address  the  challenge  of  combating  poverty  and  promoting  social  inclusion, 
especially  for  vulnerable  groups  facing  multiple  barriers.  Take  measures  for  modernising 
public  employment  services  to  enhance  their  capacity  to  match  skills  profiles  with  labour 
market  demand;  and  focusing  support  on  young  people  with  low  skills.  Advance  the 
educational reform by adopting a Law on Pre-School and School Education and a new Higher 
Education Act by mid-2012. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

The current early school leaving rate of 13.9 % in Bulgaria is close to the EU average. This 
shows a positive trend despite the recent (2007) reform which involved the closure of around 
500  schools  between  2007  and  2009,  leading  partly  to  regional  increases  in  the  number  of 
early school leavers. While the proportion of students leaving the education system early has 
stabilised, Bulgarian pupils achieve on average very low scores in international achievement 
tests.  According  to  the  latest  PISA  assessment  (2009),  two  out  of  five  15  year-olds  are 
currently low achievers in basic skills, which is the lowest performance in the EU. 

The negative demographic trend has led to school closures and consolidations, increasing the 
risk of drop-outs in some cases. However, progress in school autonomy reform has not only 
brought about efficiency gains but has also increased coverage of the shrinking age cohorts of 
students. This progress is visible, and acknowledged by institutions such as the World Bank.3 
The  Government  has  also  announced  a  new  School  and  Preschool  Education  Act,  which  is 
expected to lead to important reforms at system level. 

3   http://siteresources.worldbank.org/BULGARIAEXTN/Resources/305438-

1224088560466/Bulgaria_School_Autonomy_Reforms_FINAL_ENG_for_web.pdf. 

- 16 - 

 
 
                                                 
The national report lists a number of measures to tackle early school leaving, with the main 
focus on prevention, such as offering after-school education to students in primary and lower 
secondary education, providing textbooks and teaching aids to first- to seventh-grade students, 
optimising the school network by providing transport to state-owned and municipal schools, 
and  providing  meals  to  every  student  in  the  first  to  fourth  grades  and  in  the  preparatory 
groups. 

As the current measures only partially respond to the need to address early school leaving, the 
underlying  drivers  for  the  high  number  of  early  school  leavers  should  be  clearly  identified. 
Specifically,  an  update  on  the  situation  of    disadvantaged  groups,    including  Roma  and 
children living in rural areas might be useful. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Tertiary attainment in Bulgaria, while growing in recent years, is still below the EU average 
(27.7 % in 2010). Given the importance of tertiary education for productivity, innovation and 
growth, and considering Bulgaria’s target of raising the attainment rate to 36 % by 2020, more 
attention should be devoted to higher education. 

In addition, growth in the share of maths, science and technology graduates between 2000 and 
2008  has  been  modest  (21.8 %),  despite  favourable  employment  prospects  and  high  returns. 
Better information and further financial incentives should be provided to ensure that students 
undertake  study  programmes  with  a  high  social  return.  The  impact  of  the  incentives 
introduced, such as grants, has so far been limited; the improved grant policy announced in 
the  National  Reform  Programme  and  in  the  ET2020  national  report  will  therefore  require 
close monitoring. 

A long-awaited reform, the Higher Education Act, announced in spring 2009 and intended to 
address the effectiveness of tertiary education, its quality assurance and its governance and to 
overhaul  the  current  systems,  has  been  withdrawn.  The  plans  included:  reforming  curricula 
and  mobility;  encouraging  higher  education  to  cooperate  more  with  industry;  introducing  a 
rating  system  to  enhance  competition  between  higher  education  institutions;  and  improving 
the governance of universities. The rating system was said to play a significant role in budget 
allocation in 2011. 

In  its  ET2020  national  report,  Bulgaria  refers  to  ‘a  trend  of  transition  [..]  from  [an]  elite  to 
mass  system  for  high-quality  higher  education’  which  poses  a  number  of  challenges. 
Incentives focus on encouraging admission to higher education and increasing the number of 
higher  education  graduates.  It  is  less  evident  how  the  quality  of  higher  education  is  to  be 
increased.  There  are  currently  only  a  few  quality  assurance  measures  for  higher  education, 
and  the  need  to  modernise  higher  education  does  not  seem  to  be  reflected  in  legislative 
proposals.  It  is  important  to  keep  to  the  objective  of  increasing  the  numbers  of  higher 
education graduates while at the same time raising quality standards. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As  regards  tertiary  education,  Bulgaria  has  a  high  outbound  long-term  mobility  (7.3 %  of 
students  per  year),  which  is  nearly  three  times  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term 
mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (0.5 % of students in 2008/09) is below the EU 
average. 

Bulgaria  supports  mobility  at  all  levels  of  the  education  system  and  in  various  forms  of 
informal  and  independent  learning.  The  country  has  identified  the  lack  of  foreign  language 

- 17 - 

 
 
skills  as  a  major  obstacle  for  mobility,  and  is  actively  addressing  it  by  promoting  foreign 
language skills in schools and by training foreign-language lecturers at universities. Bulgaria 
is  working  to  increase  mobility  in  three  ways.  Firstly,  it  promotes  mobility  for  education 
purposes (incoming and outgoing) in various education sectors (school education, vocational 
education  and  training,  higher  education,  adult training).  Secondly,  it  promotes  mobility  for 
education purposes among teachers and staff in various education sectors (school education, 
vocational  education  and  training,  higher  education,  adult  training).  Lastly,  it  supports 
measures to identify and reduce barriers to mobility for education purposes. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES   

In  Bulgaria,  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning  (1.2 %  in  2010)  is  the  lowest  in  Europe. 
This  low  rate  is  likely  to  create  bottlenecks  on  the  labour  market.  Coupled  with  negative 
demographic trends, shortcomings in the upskilling and reskilling of the adult population can 
hamper future economic growth. 

Bulgaria  has  had  an  explicit  lifelong  learning  strategy  since  2008,  focusing  primarily  on 
continuing  VET  and  adult  learning.  However,  no  evaluation  of  its  implementation  has  yet 
been  undertaken.  A  renewed  focus  on  the  strategy  and  its  execution  would  be  necessary  in 
order to raise the acceptance and impact of lifelong learning in Bulgaria. 

The  current  priorities  enshrined  in  the  Lifelong  Learning  Action  Plan  2010–2011  include 
developing  a  system  for  studying  and  forecasting  the  needs  for  a  workforce  with  given 
qualifications as well as analysing schemes for financing LLL within the EU. The Action Plan 
devotes particular attention to training for learning, reading and writing and the acquisition of 
key  competences  by  persons  over  16  within  the  Teaching  Reading  and  Writing  to  Adults 
project.  Further  measures  supported  by  the  Action  Plan  target  disadvantaged  groups,  i.e. 
persons who have left school early, people with disabilities, and the unemployed. Changes in 
the regulatory framework are also envisaged. 

As regards new skills for new jobs, a project was launched in 2010 to ‘develop a component 
for forecasting in the Bulgarian national system and for defining the needs for knowledge and 
skills based on certain European practices and foreign experience.’ The IT-based tool is to be 
developed following a call for proposals, which is still to be published. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Bulgaria 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

3.97 % 

4.61 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Investment in education as a percentage of GDP increased only slightly between 2000 and 
2010 and is still below the EU average. 

The  budgets  of  the  Ministry  of  Education,  Youth  and  Science  and  of  the  state-owned 
universities were reduced by 20 % in 2010 in comparison to 2009. The decrease did not affect 
expenditure on education activities delegated by the government (the budgets of schools and 
units  applying  the  delegated  budgets  system)  or  the  salaries  of  teachers  and  trainers,  which 
remained stable. However, the decrease had a strong impact on policies and reforms in upper 

- 18 - 

 
 
 
secondary  education.  From  2009  to  2011,  the  funds  for  national  programmes  for  the 
development  of  upper  secondary  education  decreased  from  BGN  263.4  million  to  BGN  30 
million. There are no signs of resumed activity in the fields where budget cuts were highest. 

These trends do not appear to be consistent with the recommendation addressed to Bulgaria 
following the 2011 European Semester, which is to safeguard and give priority to investment 
in growth-enhancing policy areas such as education. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

The planned education reforms provide an opportunity to address the manifold challenges 
both in pre-school and school education and in tertiary education. Building on the results of 
the recent school decentralisation reform, and with the aim of modernising and raising the 
quality of the system, the upcoming Law on Pre-school and School Education should focus on 
financial autonomy, quality assurance and accountability. A new higher education law should 
address reform needs and modernise the higher education system through improving quality 
by investing in the training of academic staff and encouraging closer cooperation between 
universities and businesses with view to addressing skills mismatches. In line with the 
recommendation from the European Semester to keep tight control over expenditure growth, 
while prioritising growth-enhancing expenditure, implementation of the reforms needs to be 
accompanied by adequate financing and investment.  

- 19 - 

 
 
CYPRUS 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

CYPRUS   

Cyprus 

EU average 

EU 
Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

64.7 % 

86.4 % 

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

21.3 % 

20.0 %09  17.0 % 15 % 

24.0 %06 

22.2 %09 

20.3 %06 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

18.5 % 

12.6 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

31.1 % 

45.1 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

7.9 %03 

7.7 % b 

8.5 %03 

9.1 % 

12.5 % 15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 20 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

The strategic objective of Cyprus is to become a regional centre providing high value-added 
services  as  well  as  to  exploit  the  growth  and  job-creation  potential  of  the  green  and  care 
sectors. Some of the building blocks are already in place. Cyprus’s performance in education, 
with excellent results at both secondary and university levels, and with a tertiary attainment 
rate of 44.7 % of the population aged 30–34, makes for a highly skilled population. While the 
tertiary  attainment  level  of  the  adult  population  is  one  of  the  highest  in  Europe  (34.1 %  in 
2009), the newly established universities have encouraged even more people to enter higher 
education.  Early  school  leaving  is  well  below  the  EU  average  and  public  education 
expenditure  is  high.  However,  vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  is  not  an  attractive 
option. More importantly, high youth unemployment (17.8 % in 2010) in tandem with a large 
proportion  of  people  with  high  educational  attainment  in  total  unemployment  (28.9 % 
compared to an EU average of merely 16.1 % in 2008) signals a significant skills mismatch in 
the  Cypriot  economy.  Also,  participation  in  lifelong  learning  (7.8 %  in  2009)  is  low  for  a 
country with good educational levels, with the gap compared with the EU average even more 
pronounced among particular groups (low-skilled, older people and unemployed). 

To  address  these  issues,  the  NRP  envisages  the  establishment  of  a  series  of  new 
postsecondary  VET  institutions  as  of  2011–2012,  together  with  the  introduction  of  the  new 
Apprenticeship System in the school year 2012–2013. According to the NRP, the reform of 
upper secondary and technical vocational education and the development of new curricula are 
expected to be completed by 2015. Overall, the country’s strategic objective of shifting from 
low  to  high  productivity  jobs  would  benefit  greatly  from  the  re-orientation  of  the  education 
and training system to bring about a better mix of skills, to match labour market demand. Key 
parameters  for  this  re-orientation  would  include  the  reinforcement  of  vocationally  oriented 
skills and the upgrading of skills, particularly among low-skilled and older workers. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (5) 

Take  further  steps,  within  the  reforms  planned  for  the  vocational  education  and  training 
system, to match education outcomes to labour market needs better, including by setting up 
post-secondary  vocational  education  and  training  institutes.  Take  measures  to  increase  the 
effectiveness of the vocational training system by increasing the incentives for and improving 
access  to  vocational  education  and  training,  especially  for  low-skilled  workers,  women  and 
older workers. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Cyprus  performs  better  than  the  EU  average  in  the  area  of  early  school  leaving  (12.6 %  in 
2010). The target set for 2020 (10 %) takes into account the expected increased proportion of 
migrant children. In fact, this represents a particular challenge for the country’s education and 
training  system.  It  is  estimated  that  currently  13 %  of  the  Cypriot  workforce  is  of  non-EU 
origin, many coming from the Middle East. Children of the migrant workforce are at a higher 

- 21 - 

 
 
risk  of  dropping  out  of  school,  due  to  their  parents’  educational  background  but  also  to  the 
challenge of learning Greek and integrating in the Cypriot education system. 

Cyprus  needs  to  improve  its  teacher  training  and  the  quality  of  teachers  in  disadvantaged 
areas,  and  in  schools  with  high  migrant  numbers,  and  should  also  facilitate  transitions  for 
those  at  risk.  The  Pedagogical  Institute  of  Cyprus  focuses  on  special  training  of  teachers 
appointed  in  these  schools,  on  a  school  basis  approach.  In  addition,  the  Organisation 
Committee  of  Zones  of  Educational  Priority  (ZEP),  in  cooperation  with  Universities  and 
NGOs,  organises  training  seminars  for  teachers who  work  with  socioeconomically  deprived 
students.  Finally,  the  Education  Psychology  Services,  in  cooperation  with  University 
Departments,  organizes  seminars  to  secondary  school  teachers  that  are  participating  to  the 
“Literacy Programme”. 

There have been several national measures over the last few years to help integrate migrants. 
These  include  initiatives  to  improve  the  teaching  of  Greek  to  migrant  children.  Another 
measure is the ZEP scheme, targeting cities where there are many migrants, with the aim of 
integrating  migrant  families  and  their  children  within  indigenous  social  and  educational 
structures. 

The Centre of Educational Research and Evaluation helps to identify early those at risk, and 
the establishment of an Observatory for Violent Behaviour in May 2010, which collects data 
and liaises with the International Observatory for School Violence, has helped to reduce the 
number of early school leavers. 

To  reach  the  10 %  target  by  2020,  Cyprus  is  preparing  a  number  of  reforms,  including  (i) 
restructuring the education system and modernising the content of education by modernising 
and  upgrading  the  curriculum  for  all  public  schools  (from  pre-primary  to  upper  secondary 
education),  (ii)  upgrading  vocational  education  and  training,  and  (iii)  adopting  measures  to 
facilitate the integration of students at risk within the school system. 

The new apprenticeship system, which should be fully up and running by October 2012, will 
also target those who have dropped out to assist them in getting back on track and enhancing 
their employability. 

Making  vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  more  attractive  could  be  another  way  of 
reducing early school leaving, also among Greek Cypriots. To this end, efforts should focus 
on  curriculum  reform,  internationalisation,  greater  mobility,  and  an  improved  transition 
between general education and VET pathways as well as VET and the labour market. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Cyprus has one of the highest tertiary attainment rates in the EU, with 45.1 % compared to the 
European average of 33.6 % in 2010. The Cypriot target is to reach 46 % by 2020, which is the 
highest  target  in  Europe.  Demand  for  higher  education  is  high,  with  82 %  of  students 
completing upper secondary education. 

In  order  to  improve  participation,  the  following  priority  areas  have  been  defined:  (i) 
strengthening  the  links  between  technical  vocational  education  and  training  and  the  labour 
market,  (ii)  expanding  and  modernising  the  higher  education  system,  and  (iii)  promoting 
transnational mobility. 

Recently,  a  fourth  private  university,  ‘Neapolis  University  —  Cyprus’,  was  given  an  initial 
operating licence in the city of Paphos, as from the academic year 2010–2011. The Council of 

- 22 - 

 
 
Ministers has approved the foundation of the Medical School at the University of Cyprus and 
the Department of Sciences of Rehabilitation at the Cyprus University of Technology. 

Cyprus  plans  to  expand  post-secondary  technical  and  vocational  education  by  2012–2013, 
which is highly important for increasing the skill levels and employability of young workers 
and upper secondary graduates. 

Science and technology are focal disciplines at university level, which is very important in the 
drive  to  improve  research  and  innovation.  Cooperation  between  higher  education  institutes, 
business  and  the  labour  market  is  important.  Private  colleges  are  encouraged  to  offer  short-
term  professionally  orientated  programmes  lasting  1–2  years.  This  helps  to  create  flexible 
pathways between academic higher education and the development of vocationally orientated 
skills, and will help to boost skill levels to ease young graduates onto the labour market and 
combat the relatively high levels of graduate youth unemployment. This policy is consistent 
with the European Semester recommendation to better match labour market needs. In general, 
new curricula will be fully implemented by 2016–2017 for the full development of new skills 
and  key  competences.  Strengthening  the  anticipation  capacities  of  the  system  could  further 
increase  its  efficiency.  Concerning  VET,  post-secondary  institutes  for  technical  and 
vocational education and training will be established, as will the new modern apprenticeship 
system, following up the European Semester recommendation. 

Moreover,  in  2010  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  Culture,  in  order  to  establish  a  strong 
student welfare system so as to enhance equity and widen access to higher education, widened 
its  financial  support  to  Cypriot  students  by  creating  a  special  ‘student  financial  support 
package’,  which  aims  to  support  students  of  low  socioeconomic  status.  Through  this 
‘package’, targeted grants are given to eligible Cypriot students to cover living expenses and 
expenses  on  books  and  computers.  Eligibility  is  based  on  socioeconomic  criteria,  and  the 
amounts  given  are  over  and  above  the  (€ 1700)  financial  support  provided  to  every  Cypriot 
student. 

Furthermore, under a new law, the Minister of Education and Culture can regulate increases 
in  the  fees  for  private  universities.  There  is  no  high  drop-out  rate  in  higher  education  in 
Cyprus. All the financial incentives described above contribute to this by eliminating financial 
considerations as a reason for student drop-outs. Public universities have a long tradition of 
student welfare services that support students likely to drop out of their studies. The Ministry 
of  Education  and  Culture  also  supports  the  creation  of  Student  Welfare  Offices  in  private 
universities. Fees for attending undergraduate courses at public universities are paid fully by 
the  government.  At  the  same  time,  under-represented  groups  such  as  adult  learners  will  be 
accepted by universities on the basis of special criteria (lower marks in entry exams). 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Cyprus has a very high outbound long-term mobility (58.4 % of 
students per year), more than half of the student population, one of the highest in Europe and 
about  20  times  the  EU  average  (2.8 %).  Students  mostly  study  in  the  UK,  the  USA  and 
Greece. However, short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (0.6 % of students 
in 2008/09) is below the EU average with indications of increasing trends. 

International  short-term  mobility  is  also  funded  through  the  EU’s  Lifelong  Learning 
Programme,  Erasmus  Mundus  and  Tempus.  The  Cyprus  Pedagogical  Institute  encourages 
staff  mobility  as  well  through  participation  of  teacher  trainers  in  various  European 
programmes. 

- 23 - 

 
 
The main obstacles to mobility are recognition, foreign language skills, leave of absence from 
work,  finding  placement  positions  and  also,  for  incoming  mobility,  expensive  housing  in 
Cyprus and lack of public transportation. 

Europass is being promoted to recognise competences, and language preparation is offered by 
the LLP National Agency (NA) for outgoing mobility. In addition, the NA encourages SMEs 
to see a value in training staff, and publishes information on its website to facilitate matching 
between individuals and institutions. It also helps incoming students to find group housing. 

The  national  qualifications  framework  (NQF)  is  intended  to  help  with  the  problems  of 
recognition, so EQF–NQF links then need to be fully implemented. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

There  is  a  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy  2007–2013  focusing  on  adults.  ESF  projects  support 
adult learning and adult training centres to foster greater labour market participation among 
women and elder people through continuous training. 

Adult participation in lifelong learning (LLL) is relatively low (7.7 % in 2010) for a country 
with a highly educated populace. The target is to reach 12 % by 2020. The comparison of the 
citizens'  participation  rate in  LLL  programmes  between  2003  and  2010  raises  the  need  to 
investigate the stagnation of the rate below 8%. One of the main factors to be examined, in 
order to form the appropriate corrective policy, is the impact of the rapid increase of foreign 
workers in Cyprus who are also included in the research sample. 

New skills for new jobs and skills forecasting are important in Cyprus as there are skills gaps 
and a high level of youth and graduate unemployment. A greater emphasis is being placed on 
VET  at  upper  secondary  level,  post-secondary  level  and  tertiary  level.  New  post-secondary 
VET  institutes  will  be  opened  in  2012–2013.  The  new  apprentice  system  should  be  up  and 
running by February 2012, and the universities are setting up courses targeting people on the 
labour  market.  But  in  general  VET,  especially  at  upper  secondary  level,  is  still  seen  as  the 
cinderella  of  educational  pathways,  with  only  13 %  of  upper  secondary  pupils  in  VET 
streams. Indeed, there are only 11 upper secondary VET schools on the island. Some aspects 
in  following  up  the  European  Semester  recommendation  are  therefore  particularly 
challenging. 

The  HRDC  (Human  Resource  Development  Authority)  carries  out  systematic  long-term 
employment  forecasts,  annual  investigations  of  skills  needs  with  the  involvement  of  social 
partners, and identification of green skill needs. The Ministry of Education and Culture also 
helps to identify skill needs, together with the University of Cyprus, the Pedagogical Institute 
and  the  social  partners.  The  Department  of  Labour  has  recognised  the  need  for  short–term 
employment forecasts (skill needs forecasts) and will attempt to address the issue. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Cyprus 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 

5.35 % 

7.41 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

- 24 - 

 
 
 
Despite the crisis, the budget of the Ministry of Education and Culture increased by 12.5 % in 
2009,  3.5 %  in  2010  and  2.4 %  in  2011.  To  fund  the  necessary  educational  reforms,  the 
percentage of GDP spent on education rose from 7.1 % in 2007 to 7.8 % in 2009. Reforms are 
being  implemented  at  a  slow  but  steady  pace.  The  HRDA  has  also  put  forward  a  special 
prevention  action  plan,  together  with  the  Ministry  of  Labour,  to  reduce  unemployment  and 
target its causes. This has entailed an increase in the HRDC budget from € 12 642 261 in 2009 
to € 18 715 326 in 2010, or 40 % in percentage terms. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

While Cyprus has in general a good educational performance, a major challenge is to catch up 
with  the  EU  average  as  regards  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  so  as  to  support  the 
participation of low-skilled and older workers and women in the labour market. 

Efforts  are  under  way  to  implement  the  recommendations  to  reinforce  vocational  education 
and  training,  by  creating  new  post-secondary  institutes  by  2012/13  and  establishing  a  new 
apprentice  system  in  2012.  These  efforts  will  need  to  be  sustained  and  intensified  to  render 
these  educational  paths  more  attractive  and  to  improve  overall  quality,  also  by  improving 
counselling and targeting within a  lifelong learning perspective, in order  to help  curb  youth 
unemployment. 

- 25 - 

 
 
 
CZECH REPUBLIC 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

CZECH REPUBLIC  

Czech Republic

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

90.0 % 

90.0 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

17.5 % 

23.1 %09

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

19.2 %06 22.3 %09

24.006 

22.2 %09 

15.5 %06 17.3 %09

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

5.7 %02 

4.9 %b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

13.6 % 

20.4 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

5.1 %03  

7.5 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03

= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ 

- 26 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Despite the relatively low rate of early school leaving in the Czech Republic (5.4 % in 2009), 
recent international studies have revealed shortcomings in quality and equity at primary and 
lower-secondary  level,  related  in  particular  to  inadequate  training  of  teachers.  The  limited 
availability  of  pre-school  facilities  also  plays  a  role,  as  this  may  create  an  education  deficit 
which is difficult to remedy, particularly for children from low socio-economic backgrounds. 
At tertiary level, while the ratio of young people enrolled in universities is currently above the 
EU average, due to recent measures to ease access to tertiary education, the Czech Republic 
still had the second lowest tertiary attainment rate in the EU in 2009, and progress between 
2000  and  2009  was  also  below  the  EU  average.  In  addition,  the  ranking  of  Czech  tertiary 
education  institutes  in  international  quality  surveys  remains  low.  Furthermore,  spending  per 
learner  on  formal  education  (at  comparable  prices)  is  in  the  lower  quarter  for  the  EU 
countries, and is especially low on primary education. 

The NRP correctly identifies the main weaknesses of the Czech education system and outlines 
measures  for  all  stages  of  education.  At  the  lower  levels,  it  aims  to  improve  teachers’ 
competences in order to cope with the envisaged increase in the inclusiveness of education. 
Appropriate  sequencing  and  communication  of  reforms  remains  an  important  issue,  so  that 
schools  and  teachers  are  well  prepared  to  handle  these  changes.  Recent  reforms  (e.g.  the 
curriculum  reform)  have  had  limited  success,  mainly  because  of  insufficient  initial  and  in-
service training and a lack of understanding of the aims of the reforms. 

Regarding  tertiary  education  reform,  the  NRP  indicates  that  most  measures  are  likely  to  be 
implemented by 2013. The main principle of the reform is to increase the quality of tertiary 
education by linking the financing criteria primarily to the quality of each institution. Smooth 
functioning of the system would be conditional on the transparency of the quality evaluation 
and its ownership by all stakeholders. An important part of the package is the introduction of 
deferred tuition fees, which could help to address, at least partially, the issue of underfunding. 
Completing  the  tertiary  education  reform  is  also  crucial,  given  its  links  to  innovation  and 
competitiveness. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (6) 

Establish a transparent system of quality evaluation of academic institutions and link it to its 
funding in order to improve the performance of tertiary education. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

The  Czech  Republic  already  performs  above  the  EU  headline  target  for  early  leavers  from 
education and training. The early school leaving rate was 4.9 % in 2010, one of the lowest in 
the  EU  (EU  average:  14.1 %),  and  the  national  target  is  not  to  exceed  5.5 %  by  2020.  This 
target  is  slightly  below  current  performance,  and  the  challenge  is  to  maintain  the  low  level 
given weak annual fluctuations. 

- 27 - 

 
 
 
 
Despite the favourable data, the rate will be continuously monitored and corrective measures 
will be taken if it starts to increase. 

Early school leaving in the Czech Republic is addressed by a targeted counselling system for 
pupils  at  risk,  together  with  a  high  degree  of  permeability  between  education  paths  (in 
particular towards vocational training). Some effective measures are in place to compensate 
for  early  school  leaving,  such  as  the  possibility  for  early  school  leavers  to  complete  later 
courses required for compulsory education. Early school leavers can also enrol for vocational 
training courses without completing compulsory education.  

It  is  relevant  to  mention  in  this  context  that  the  impact  of  socio-economic  background  on 
educational  attainment  is  significant  in  the  Czech  Republic.  This  seems  to  indicate  that 
removing  the  associated  disadvantages  remains  a  challenge  for  the  initial  education  system. 
The national action plan for inclusive education appears to be a positive move towards a more 
equitable  balance.  On  a  more  general  level,  the  PISA  scores  of  Czech  pupils  have 
deteriorated,  calling  for  a  more  efficient  approach  to  raising  and  monitoring  learning 
outcomes,  and  for  improved  teacher  education  and  training.  Some  of  the  more  recent 
measures,  such  as  the  planned  standardised  testing,  would  appear  to  be  steps  in  the  right 
direction,  provided  that  the  testing  is  part  of  a  more  complex  system  of  monitoring.  In 
addition, the system for monitoring schools should lead to further support for currently under-
performing schools. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Since  2008  there  has  been  a  rapid  annual  improvement  in  tertiary  education  attainment 
(20.4 % in 2010). However, the Czech Republic is still far below the EU average of 33.6 %, 
and  in  2010  had  one  of  the  lowest  shares  of  30–34  year-olds  with  tertiary  attainment  in  the 
EU. 

The national target for tertiary education is 32 %, which seems to be very ambitious compared 
to  the  2010  figures.  However,  based  on  the  current  data  on  students  enrolled  at  higher 
education  institutions  and  projected  demographic  trends,  an  increase  to  30–32 %  in  2020  is 
envisaged. 

The Czech Republic has nevertheless made significant progress in the area of MST graduates, 
where the growth rate has been well above the EU average. On the other hand, the share of 
female graduates has improved but not reached the EU level. 

In  the  near  future,  the  Czech  Republic  does  not  intend  to  increase  entry  rates  to  higher 
education  because  the  increase  has  been  significant  and  very  fast  in  previous  years,  mainly 
due to the newly established system of private higher education institutions, and is now in line 
with  countries  with  similar  education  systems  (e.g.  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland).  The 
focus  will  be  on  the  quality  of  higher  education  and  its  relevance  to  labour  market  needs, 
rather than the quantity of graduates. However, the Czech Republic intends to facilitate access 
to  higher  education,  particularly  for  underrepresented  groups,  via  a  system  of  student  loans 
and grants. 

i.e. 

These  measures  are  consistent  with  one  of  the  flaws  identified  in  the  2011  European 
Semester, 
the  related  specific 
recommendation. However, given the ambitious national target set by the Czech Republic for 
tertiary attainment, a considerable degree of commitment will also be required to address this 
other challenge. 

tertiary  education,  and 

insufficient  quality 

in 

- 28 - 

 
 
4.  MOBILITY 

There  are  a  whole  range  of  mobility  schemes  in  the  Czech  Republic:  learning  mobility  for 
pupils, trainees, students and adult learners as well as education staff is mainly supported by 
the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme.  The  EU  Youth  in  Action  programme  is  seen  as  an 
important  tool  in  fostering  EU  awareness  outside  formal  education.  There  are  also  other 
financial mechanisms and bilateral and multilateral agreements supporting learning mobility 
for  learners  and  teachers.  The  funding  of  the  main  mobility  schemes  is  complemented  by 
national  co-financing.  Also,  some  national  schemes,  targeted  mainly  at  higher  education, 
support incoming and outgoing mobility. 

As regards tertiary education, the Czech Republic has an outbound long-term mobility (2.6 % 
of  students  per  year)  near  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus programme (1.4 % of students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. In 2009, 5.69 % 
of HE graduates spent a period abroad during their studies, which lasted on average 6 months. 

In the past, insufficient information at schools appeared to be a major obstacle to mobility, but 
this  problem  has  been  gradually  redressed.  Also,  documents  facilitating  mobility  and  the 
transparency of qualifications are more and more widely used in the Czech Republic. 

This  overview  seems  to  indicate  that,  in  the  Czech  Republic,  access  to  learning  mobility  is 
seen as an important right of every learner. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

In 2007 the Czech Republic adopted a resolution on a Lifelong Learning Strategy to provide a 
framework  for  developing  lifelong  learning  in  the  period  2007–2015.  The  measures 
implementing the strategy primarily involve projects under the Education for Competitiveness 
Operational Programme, co-funded by the ESF, and will cover initial, tertiary and continuing 
education,  in  particular  the  link  between  initial  and  continuing  education.  A  National 
Qualifications  System  (NQS)  is  also  being  developed  as  part  of  these  projects.  The  Czech 
Republic  has  also  adopted  various  measures  to  support  the  openness  of  and  transferability 
between secondary programmes, secondary and tertiary studies, and continuing education. 

Recent reforms adopted in the Czech Republic have focused on the quality and efficiency of 
education and vocational training, mainly through the adaptation of curricular documentation. 
One of the measures concerns reinforcing foreign language skills. Within this priority, there 
will be a focus on teacher training, with salary increases linked to progress. A coherent system 
of initial and in-service training is considered to be crucial. 

From  2002  to  2007,  the  Czech  Republic  had  one  of  the  worst  performances  in  the  EU 
regarding  participation  in  lifelong  learning  (it  was  only  5.7 %  in  2007  and  around  the  same 
during the period 2002–2007). Even if it has since risen faster than the EU average (to 7.5 % 
in 2010), it is still below the EU average (9.6 %). In spite of the apparent progress achieved in 
the  development  of  continuing  education,  it  is  still  necessary  to  enhance  the  motivation  of 
adults  to  participate  in  lifelong  learning,  especially  the  low-skilled  and  the  elderly,  who  are 
the hardest hit on the labour market. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

- 29 - 

 
 
 
 
Czech Republic 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

3.97 % 

4.08 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Public investment in education, as a percentage of GDP, has increased slightly since 2000, but 
the Czech Republic is still below the EU average. All types of schools are underfinanced. 

As stated in the ET 2020 report, the budget of the Ministry of Education (ME) covers approx. 
80 %  of  all  education  expenditure.  Public  investment  in  education  has  been  negatively 
affected by the crisis and the education budget as a proportion of GDP has been decreasing in 
recent years. The ME budget (without EU and FM funds) was 3.42 % in 2009, but decreased 
to 3.34 % in 2010 and to 3.18 % in 2011. Expenditure is expected to decrease further in 2012 
(3.05 %) and 2013 (2.89 %). 

These  trends  do  not  appear  to  be  consistent  with  the  general  recommendation  from  the 
European Semester 2011 to give priority to investment in growth-enhancing sectors such as 
education. 

However, the co-financing for the ESF-funded projects will be maintained. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

The  planned  complex  reform  of  the  higher  education  system  provides  an  opportunity  to 
respond to the double challenge of ensuring the sustainable and sufficient funding of higher 
education  and  improving  its  quality  and  performance.  The  measures  announced  include  a 
revised funding mechanism increasingly linked to the outcomes of research projects and the 
introduction of tuition fees with the aim of boosting private funding. In addition, the number 
of  students  studying  in  masters  programmes  is  to  be  regulated  and  the  quality  of  students 
entering  higher  education  is  to  be  ensured  by  standardised  secondary  school-leaving 
examinations. Strengthening the responsiveness of the higher education system to the needs of 
the  labour  market  and  industry  remains  an  important  challenge,  however.  Finally,  in  the 
implementation of reforms to improve the quality of public finances, attention must be given 
to safeguarding expenditure on growth-enhancing items such as education.  

- 30 - 

 
 
 
DENMARK 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

DENMARK   

Denmark 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

95.7 % 

91.9 %09 

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

17.9 % 

15.2 %09 

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

13.6 %06 

17.1 %09 

  24.006 

22.2 %09 

Science 

18.4 %06 

16.6 %09 

  20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

11.7 % 

10.7 %b 

 17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

33.1 % 

47.0 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

  40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

24.2 % 03 

32.8 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03

= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08=2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 31 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Despite Denmark’s generous spending on its education system, educational outcomes are only 
average in several key areas. Denmark has the fourth lowest youth education attainment level 
in the EU-27. In 2009, only 70 % of 20–24 year-olds had completed at least upper secondary 
education. Early drop-out rates from vocational youth education (almost 50 %) are rather high. 
Addressing  these  challenges  should  also  be  seen  in  the  context  of  future  skills  needs  and 
possible  labour  shortages.  A  rise  in  overall  education  levels  and  educational  quality  could 
positively  impact  on  labour  supply  and  productivity  growth.  The  Danish  government  has 
taken a wide range of initiatives to  address educational performance issues. To increase the 
attractiveness of vocational youth education and to reduce drop-outs, efforts include measures 
to  upgrade  the  qualifications  and  competences  of  staff  and  the  provision  of  more  practical 
training  placements  in  companies  and  the  public  sector,  allowing  for  shorter  and  more 
practical sequences for students with a practical orientation. 

In addition, the government has thoroughly reformed compulsory education, focusing efforts 
on  teacher  education,  national  testing,  and  more  lessons  in  specific  subjects.  Recent 
initiatives,  still  not  adopted  by  parliament,  target  the  quality  of  compulsory  education  and 
should  be  seen  in  the  light  of  the  government’s  goal  of  95 %  of  young  people  completing 
upper  secondary  education  in  2015.  The  creation  of  more  apprenticeships  for  vocational 
education and training also plays an important role, since the lack of apprenticeships impacts 
vocational education attainment levels negatively. In this context it should be noted that the 
government (in November 2010) has concluded an agreement with an overall budget of DKK 
2.4 billion to ensure 8 900 apprenticeships for vocational youth education in 2011. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (3) 

Speed  up  the  implementation  of  reforms  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  education  system. 
Reduce  drop-out  rates,  particularly  in  the  vocational  education  sector,  and  increase  the 
number of apprenticeship places available. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Denmark performs better than the EU average as regards early school–leaving, with a rate of 
10.7 % compared to the EU average of 14.1 % in 2010, although the rate has decreased only 
moderately over the last decade (from 11.7 % in 2000). Denmark has set a national target of 
10 % early school leavers in 2020, which seems broadly in line with the development between 
2000  and  2010.It  is  notable  that  while  Denmark’s  performance  on  the  early  school  leaver 
indicator is good, performance on upper secondary completion is relatively poor. The reason 
is that a relatively large share of 18–24 year-olds undertake educational activities (i.e. do not 
come  under  the  definition  of  early  school  leavers)  without  obtaining  an  upper  secondary 
education before they turn 24. 

- 32 - 

 
 
 
Since  2006,  there  has  been  a  focus  on  ensuring  that  more  young  people  complete  upper 
secondary  education  as  part  of  the  Danish  globalisation  strategy.  Progress  is  to  be  achieved 
through a wide range of initiatives addressing both primary and lower secondary education as 
well  as  upper  secondary  education,  where  the  contribution  of  vocational  education  and 
training programmes is crucial. 

In  line  with  the  challenges  identified  in  the  European  Semester  and  the  relevant  specific 
recommendation, particular focus is placed on the drop-out rate in vocational education and 
training  programmes.  Data  are  collected  on  student  participation  and  completion.  They 
provide  the  basis  for  a  systematic  and  targeted  effort  by  schools  to  prevent  drop-out. 
Moreover, since 2008 all institutions offering vocational education and training programmes 
have  been  required  to  draw  up  action  plans  to  help  ensure  that  more  students  complete  an 
upper secondary education. It is up to the individual college to decide which initiatives are to 
be launched locally to achieve the optimal effect. 

Similarly,  several  initiatives  have  been  launched  to  raise  standards  in  primary  and  lower 
secondary  education.  These  include  mandatory  national  tests,  more  timetabled  lessons  in 
specific  subjects,  extension  of  compulsory  education  from  nine  to  ten  years,  pre-school 
education made compulsory, improved physical environment, etc. 

The  measures  outlined  above  appear  to  be  consistent  with  the  overall  European  Semester 
analysis and indications. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

As regards higher education attainment, Denmark has progressed significantly, from 33.1 % in 
2000 to the current rate of 47 % (2010), which is well above the EU average of 33.6 %. 

However, the growth in MST graduates is below the EU average, although the share of female 
MST graduates is above the EU average and the gender balance has improved markedly. 

Denmark has signed up to the EU headline target for tertiary attainment of at least 40 % 30–34 
year-olds having completed a tertiary or equivalent education in 2020. To achieve the national 
Europe 2020 target, Denmark is implementing reforms under three distinct headings: young 
people must seek admission to, be admitted to and complete a study programme. 

To enhance young people’s interest in tertiary education, various information campaigns have 
been undertaken to broaden the appeal and is attempting to encourage young people to start 
tertiary education earlier. 

There is on-going dialogue with universities to increase capacity and ensure that the present 
capacity  is  used  to  the  full.  This  includes  development  contracts  with  higher  education 
institutions targeting issues such as quality, increased intake and efficiency. 

To improve completion rates, the development contract between the ministry of education and 
each  institution  sets  out  specific  requirements  for  the  completion  rate  of  students  in  tertiary 
education.  Moreover,  a  number  of  initiatives  have  been  taken  to  improve  programme 
completion,  including  a  clearer  semester  structure,  a  closer  linkage  between  exam  and 
teaching content, and improved study guidance. 

Attention has also been given to the need to get young people through the education system 
faster  (Danes  have  a  comparatively  high  average  graduation  age).  The  Labour  Market 
Commission  estimates  that  reducing  the  average  study  period  by  half  a  year  could  increase 
employment by 8 000.  

- 33 - 

 
 
4.  MOBILITY 

The  number  of  Danish  young  people  taking  a  full  or  partial  degree  programme  abroad  is 
rising. This can be attributed partly to the introduction of a national grant for studying abroad, 
which  came  into  force  on  1  July  2008  and  which  gives  students  in  higher  education  the 
possibility to receive a grant to cover tuition fees in connection with study periods or taking a 
full Master’s degree programme abroad. 

As  regards  tertiary  education,  Denmark  has  an  outbound  long-term  mobility  (2.4 %  of 
students per year) slightly below the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (0.7 % of students in 2008/09) is also slightly below the EU average. 

It is estimated that 16 % of higher education students have been on a study period or a work 
placement  abroad  lasting  more  than  three  months.  Moreover,  the  number  of  international 
students who come to Denmark to study has been rising each year since 2000/01. To promote 
Denmark  as  an  attractive  study  destination,  a  number  of  initiatives  were  launched  in  the 
period 2009–2011 to attract and retain international students. 

In  vocational  education  and  training,  several  possibilities  are  available,  in  particular  the 
programmes  ‘Exchange  and  internships’,  ‘Cooperation  and  projects’  and  ‘Competence 
development and study visits’. The majority of trainees choose to go on an internship period 
in  the  Nordic  countries  and  the  English-speaking  countries,  although  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands  are  also  popular  internship  destinations.  The  national  scheme  ‘Internships 
Abroad’  (PIU  —  Praktik  i  udlandet)  aims  to  give  apprentices  and  trainees  the  international 
competences  needed  in  an  increasingly  globalised  world.  The  scheme  covers  internship 
agreements arranged throughout the world. 

In  primary/lower  secondary  education  and  general  upper  secondary  education,  various 
initiatives have been launched that are expected to strengthen the international dimension in 
the teaching and mobility of pupils, teachers and guidance counsellors within primary/lower 
secondary education and general upper secondary education. 

Mobility  is  not  highlighted  as  a  specific  goal  in  adult  education  provisions.  The  measures 
outlined above appear to be broadly consistent with the Council recommendation ‘Youth on 
the move — Promoting the learning mobility of young people’ of May 2011. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

In  2006,  the  Danish  government  laid  down  a  coherent  strategy  for  lifelong  learning.  This 
strategy is based on the work of the Globalisation Council and the broad political agreement 
entitled  ‘Agreement  on  future  prosperity  and  welfare  and  investment  in  the  future’.  The 
strategy  and  the  substantial  funds  allocated  to  its  implementation  have  created  the  basis  for 
the coherent long-term development of human resources over the period 2007–2012. 

The  strategy  includes  initiatives  for  all  levels  of  the  education  system.  The  vocational 
education  and  training  system  has  been  thoroughly  revamped,  including  an  increase  in  the 
number of work placements, quality development and an effort to reduce drop-out. Moreover, 
to  reduce  drop-out  at  the  interface  between  primary,  lower  secondary  and  upper  secondary 
education,  the  government  has  strengthened  guidance  services.  The  strategy  also  includes 
targeted  offers  for  adults  at  higher  education  level,  and  a  focus  on  recognition  of  prior 
learning  acquired  through  informal  and  non-formal  education.  To  further  support  lifelong 
learning  and  mobility,  a  Danish  national  qualification  framework  for  lifelong  learning  was 
developed and implemented from 2007 to 2010. The referencing to EQF will be completed in 
May 2011.   

- 34 - 

 
 
In  line  with  the  outcomes  of  the  2011  European  Semester  and  the  corresponding 
recommendation, Denmark has also improved financial incentives in vocational education and 
training  to  encourage  companies  to  establish  more  apprenticeship  contracts.  For  continuing 
training,  a  number  of  initiatives  have  been  taken  to  make  adult  vocational  training  more 
attractive,  targeted  and  flexible  in  relation  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  and  those  of 
enterprises.  Moreover,  in  2010  13  regional  adult  education  and  training  centres  were 
established  to  improve  the  overall  infrastructure  for  guidance  and  provision  of  adult 
vocational education and training. 

Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning  in  Denmark  has  been  increasing  significantly  since 
2000. It is now the highest in the EU and more than three times the EU average. 
Recent initiatives to improve skills forecasting include the ‘On-indicator’ which measures the 
extent  to  which  each  particular  programme  matches  labour  market  needs.  It  combines  the 
likelihood of admission to a programme with the employment of new graduates. The idea is to 
obtain a picture of the match between programme places and current labour market demand 
for graduates from specific programmes. Moreover, since 2008 the Ministry of Education has 
set  aside  funds  for  carrying  out  centralised  analyses  and  forecasts  within  the  vocational 
education and training field with the aim of identifying the future needs of the labour market 
for skilled labour. 

These  measures  should  help  avert  the  skills  imbalances  expected  in  the  labour  market,  as 
referred to in the European Semester analysis. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Denmark 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

8.29 % 

7.75 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Denmark  has  the  highest  public  spending  on  education  in  the  EU  and  continues  to  allocate 
nearly 8 % of GDP to education, although this percentage is declining. 

The economic crisis and the rise in unemployment have contributed to increased demand for 
education  at  both  upper  secondary  and  tertiary  level.  As  a  consequence  of  the  ‘taximeter’ 
system, which is activity-dependent, the level of spending has risen in step with the increased 
demand. Hence, expenditure rose by more than 14 % from 2008–2010. In order to encourage 
companies to offer more training contracts, the financial reward for creating work placements 
has been raised. 

To  consolidate  Danish  public  finances,  a  fiscal  consolidation  package  was  implemented  in 
2010, which has also hit the education system with both general and selective cuts. However, 
the total level of educational expenditure is expected to remain stable in the years ahead. 

Taking into account the general European Semester recommendation to promote expenditure 
in growth-enhancing sectors such as education and training despite tight budget policies, the 
quality and efficiency of expenditure will be crucial in this context. 

- 35 - 

 
 
 
 
7.  CONCLUSIONS  

In  line  with  the  specific  recommendation  of  the  European  Semester,  Denmark  has  pursued 
efforts to improve the quality of its education system, e.g. by establishing a Danish national 
qualification framework for lifelong learning and referencing it to EQF. 

To  monitor  the  high  drop-out  rates  in  vocational  education  and  training,  Denmark  has  been 
systematically collecting data on pupil participation and completion to help identify potential 
drop-outs  and  enable  preventive  measures  to  be  taken.  In  particular,  all  institutions  offering 
vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  programmes  have  been  required  to  draw  up  action 
plans to ensure that more pupils complete upper secondary education. 

In line with the outcomes of the 2011 European Semester, Denmark has increased financial 
incentives  in  VET  to  encourage  companies  to  establish  more  apprenticeship  contracts  and 
thus help to raise vocational education attainment levels. 

- 36 - 

 
 
ESTONIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

ESTONIA   

Estonia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

87.0 % 

95.7 %09

85.2%  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

13.6 %06 13.3 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

12.1 %06 12.6 %09

24.006 

22.2 %09 

Science 

7.7 %06

8.3 %09

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

15.1 % 

11.6 %  

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

30.8 % 

40.0 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

6.7 % 03 

10.9 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u=unreliable 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 37 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Notwithstanding the very good performance of Estonia in PISA, and the overall high share of 
people  with  tertiary  education,  there  are  significant  skills  gaps,  an  excessive  number  of 
schools and tertiary education institutions, and a rather unfocused professional education. A 
comprehensive education reform could also improve public sector efficiency, as currently the 
system appears too fragmented at local level, leading to inefficient subsidies and low quality 
services. 

The  government  has  set  quite  an  ambitious  target  for  lifelong  learning  (LLL).  Though  the 
possibilities  for  training  and  retraining  will  be  extended,  there  is  a  wide  participation  gap 
between  those  already  well-qualified  and  those  in  need  of  additional  training.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  advisable  to  further  target  the  most  disadvantaged  social  groups,  increase  the 
attractiveness of LLL, raise awareness of its importance, and involve employers. 

In parallel, the government intends to address the high rate of early school leaving (ESL) for 
boys and the high number of young people with a low education level. The target set for ESL 
(9.5 % in 2020) is to be achieved through careful implementation of the recent Schools Act, 
extended  career  counselling,  and  the  development  of  key  competences,  creativity  and 
entrepreneurship.  However,  the  response  to  the  ESL  problem  remains  fragmented  and 
insufficient.  The  transition  from  school  to  the  labour  market  could  be  smoothed  by 
establishing  a  system  for  learning  assistance  that  would  start  as  early  as  pre-school  level. 
However,  the  government  continues  to  delegate  most  activities  to  local  authorities,  which 
have been unable to cope with existing tasks. Increasing the efficiency of local authorities is 
therefore a key challenge. More generally, far-reaching reforms to  prevent  drop-out, mainly 
concentrating  on  disadvantaged  groups  and  early  intervention,  may  be  necessary,  and  the 
possibilities for re-entering mainstream education could be increased. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (4) 

While  implementing  the  education  system  reform,  give  priority  to  measures  improving  the 
availability of pre-school education, and enhance the quality and availability of professional 
education. Focus education outcomes more on labour market needs, and provide opportunities 
for low-skilled workers to take part in lifelong learning. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Enhancing the quality, availability and effectiveness of education are the main priorities of the 
Estonian  government  in  the  field  of  education,  as  formulated  in  the  National  Reform 
Programme in April 2011. 

Estonia has set itself the target of reducing early school leaving to 9.5 % by 2020. Between 
2000 and 2009, the number of early school leavers fell only gradually (from 15.1 % in 2000 to 
13.9 % in 2009), but in 2010 decreased sharply to 11.6 %. Therefore, the national target seems 
ambitious  but  achievable.  Early  school  leaving  and  drop-out  are  seen  as  one  of  the  biggest 

- 38 - 

 
 
challenges for education in Estonia, so the government has started  implementing  preventive 
measures and preparing further measures. 

Participation in early childhood education has increased significantly over the last decade, and 
with  95.7 %  in  2009,  Estonia  performs  better  than  the  EU  average  and  is  already  above  the 
2020  EU  benchmark.  However,  a  gap  exists  in  public  early  child  care  (1.5-2  year  olds), 
corresponding to the end of parental leave and the start of pre-school education, which has an 
adverse  effect  on  the  employability  of  young  parents  and  is  only  partially  compensated  by 
private day care facilities. 

Priority  is  being  given  to  implementation  of  the  new  state  curricula  for  basic  schools  and 
upper  secondary  schools  and  support  systems  as  set  out  in  the  Basic  Schools  and  Upper 
Secondary  Schools  Act.  The  Estonian  Education  Information  System  (EHIS)  contains 
information  on  every  student,  which  allows  data  to  be  gathered  on  early  school  leaving  in 
terms  of  level  of  education  and  age  group.  School  drop-out  in  Estonia  is  highest  in  the  last 
two  years  of  basic  school  (grades  7–9),  first-year  general  upper  secondary  school  and  first-
year  vocational  education  (21.1 %).  The  average  drop-out  rate  in  vocational  education  and 
training during the 2009/10 academic year was 18.1 % (national data). 

This  shows  that  the  learning  process  and  learning  environment  do  not  support  the  proper 
development  of  pupils’  abilities  during  basic  school.  Secondly,  the  education  and  career 
counselling system has also been insufficiently effective so far. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Estonia  has  set  a  national  target  of  40 %  for  higher  education  attainment.  This  is  on  the 
assumption  that  in  the  long  term,  the  primary  priority  of  educational  policy  is  to  raise  the 
quality  and  international  competitiveness  of  higher  education  and  increase  the  number  of 
student  places  provided  by  the  state.  The  percentage  of  people  with  tertiary  education  in 
Estonia  has  seen  stable  growth  in  the  past  ten  years  and  has  already  reached  40 %  (from 
30.8 % in 2000 to 40 % in 2010). 

The growth in the share of MST graduates between 2000 and 2009 was   50.1 %, significantly 
higher than the EU average growth rate of 41.5%. Furthermore, the gender balance improved 
by 4.1% percentage points between 2000 and 2009, with the share of female MST graduates  
reaching 39.8% in 2009, well above the EU average of 32.3% . 

According to projections, the number of students entering tertiary education will decrease by 
around 5 % a year in the near future. Estonia plans to increase entry rates to tertiary education 
by various measures, such as offering state-provided study places for at least 50 % of general 
upper  secondary  graduates,  implementing  flexible  forms  of  study  and  providing  special 
support for students with special needs. 

Other  measures  aim  to  improve  the  completion  rates  of  students  in  tertiary  education.  The 
drop-out  rate  has  ranged  between  13.8–16.5 %  during  recent  years.  The  TULE  programme 
targets  individuals  who  interrupted  their  studies  during  the  period  of  economic  boom  by 
offering around 800 such persons the possibility to return to their studies in the period 2010–
2013. A new educational support system, based on a socio-economic distribution principle, is 
under development. The network of study and career counsellors has been strengthened and 
recognition  of  prior  learning  and  work  experience  has  been  implemented,  which  will  also 
contribute to increasing attainment rates in tertiary education. 

The internationalisation of Estonian tertiary education is part of the higher education strategy 
for  2006–15.  The  main  courses  of  action  include  the  creation  of  a  supportive  legal 

- 39 - 

 
 
environment,  the  internationalisation  of  teaching  and  development  of  a  support  system  for 
internationalisation,  as  well  as  a  new  strategy  for  marketing  Estonian  higher  education  to 
foreigners. 

Reforms  in  tertiary  education  will  also  need  to  respond  to  the  challenge  of  making  tertiary 
education more cost-effective, as pinpointed in the outcome of the European Semester. This 
would  require  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  tertiary  education  institutions,  and  a  clearer 
division of labour between the different institutions coupled with a more precise definition of 
their competences. The planned institutional accreditation system, which is to be developed in 
2011, would be a right step in this direction by helping tertiary education institutions in better 
defining their profile. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Estonia has an outbound long-term mobility (4.9 % of students 
per  year)  clearly  above  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus programme (0.8 % of students in 2008/09) is near the EU average. 

Estonia promotes the European and international dimension at nearly all stages of education, 
but particularly in tertiary education. 

Outcome-based  curricula  as  well  as  possibilities  for  recognition  of  prior  learning  are 
beneficial  for  learning  mobility.  There  are  short-term  mobility  opportunities  for  higher 
education  (3–21  days)  under  various  mobility  schemes  besides  Erasmus,  as  well  as 
opportunities for mobility periods of 1 semester or 1 academic year. There is active marketing 
of  Estonian  higher  education  for  foreign  students,  which  has  increased  the  number  of 
incoming students by 8 % yearly, mainly at master’s and doctoral level. 

Both  vocational  and  higher  education  institutions  have  acquired  the  possibility,  through  EU 
support, to invite foreign lecturers and researchers, to modernise their study facilities and to 
renew their curricula, also in foreign languages. 

The  main  obstacle  as  regards  VET  mobility  remains  the  limited  availability  of  financial 
resources for such programmes. In order to encourage the mobility of adult students, Estonia 
participated  in  the  ‘Learning  Ambassador’  programme,  through  which  successful  students 
introduced their mobility experiences to others. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Estonia  is  currently  in  the  process  of  renewing  its  previous  lifelong  learning  strategy. 
Currently there are different strategies in the field of education, which are closely connected 
with one another and together seek to develop a lifelong learning system in the country. 

The  Estonian  Cooperation  Assembly,  together  with  the  Estonian  Education  Forum  and  the 
Ministry of Education and Research, began drafting the ‘Estonian Education Strategy 2020’ 
during the second half of 2009. The future strategy aims to offer coordinated solutions for key 
topics in the Estonian education sector. 

framework 

Estonia has progressed in developing a national qualifications framework. The new national 
qualifications 
competence-based  professional 
qualifications and formal educational qualifications into one system. The new framework is to 
be  implemented  by  2013  (i.e.  through  development  of  new  qualification  standards,  new 
curricula and procedures for awarding qualifications). 

is  overarching, 

linking 

- 40 - 

 
 
Estonia  has  undertaken  to  increase  its  efforts  to  raise  the  participation  rates  of  adults  in 
lifelong learning, by setting an additional national target in its National Reform Programme. 
The participation rate among the 25–64 age group is to be increased from the current 10.9 % 
in 2010 to 20 % by 2020. To do this, additional substantive and financial measures need to be 
implemented.  The  emphasis  will  be  on  measures  such  as  broadening  the  opportunities  for 
adults  to  take  part  in  training  and  retraining  measures,  increasing  the  financing  of  adult 
training  measures  and  offering  vocational  education  to  adults  who  lack  professional 
education. 

A further national target aims to reduce the share of adults without any vocational education 
or training from the current 32 % to 30 % by 2020. The number of people who lack vocational 
education or training is highest in the youngest age group, among those aged 25–34 — 35 % 
in  2010.  The  target  takes  into  consideration  ongoing  measures  to  provide  those  who  have 
discontinued their education with opportunities to acquire a degree. Additional measures are 
also planned to reach this target. 

In  response  to  the  need  to  match  skills  with  labour  market  needs,  the  Estonian  Ministry  of 
Economic  Affairs  and  Communications  has  made  a  forecast  of  labour  market  needs  for  the 
coming 7 years. However, an analysis by the Bank of Estonia shows that precise prediction of 
the skills needed after the economic recovery is problematic. Recent measures target raising 
the overall level of skills and key competences, through the new curricula for basic schools 
and  upper  secondary  schools,  flexible  study  opportunities,  an  increased  role  for  lifelong 
learning, reducing drop-out at all levels of education, and fostering more cooperation between 
education institutions and enterprises. 

A large proportion of ESF resources in Estonia is devoted to education and improving labour 
market  readiness.  In  the  area  of  VET,  measures  include  curriculum  development,  in-service 
training  of  VET  teachers,  and  infrastructure  development  for  VET  institutions.  A new  VET 
law  is  expected  for  2012.  The  process  will  include  internal  evaluation  of  VET  schools  and 
accreditation  by  external  experts.  Finally,  the  Professions  Act  envisages,  from  2011,  the 
possibility  to  combine  graduation  from  an  educational  institution  and  awarding  of  a 
professional qualification, provided that the study programme corresponds to the professional 
standard and is accredited. These measures are consistent with the specific recommendation 
from the European Semester and offer the possibility to tackle the two major bottlenecks in 
the country’s education system through improving responsiveness to labour market needs by 
enhancing vocational training and promoting lifelong learning. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Estonia 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

6.10 % 

5.67 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

While Estonia in the period 2004–2007 had a lower level of investment in education than the 
EU  average,  the  share  in  2008  exceeded  the  EU  average.  Nevertheless,  public  spending  on 
education as a percentage of GDP has decreased compared to the level in 2000. 

The  country  has  given  priority  to  investment  in  education  in  recent  years,  and  education  is 
generally seen as an important area in Estonia. The education sector is designated as a priority 
for  the  coming  years  in  the  government  coalition  programme,  agreed  on  4  April  2011.  In 

- 41 - 

 
 
 
recent years, Estonia has invested 14–15 % of total public expenditure in education. In 2010, 
the  budget  of  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  Research  increased  by  12 %  in  comparison  to 
2009. However, growth was based mostly on an increase in the amount of foreign assistance. 
The  budget  grew  by  2 %  when  foreign  assistance  is  factored  out.  In  comparison,  the  state 
budget increased by 0.4 % during the same period and shrunk by 1.5 % without foreign aid. 
Therefore,  one  can  state  with  certainty  that  education  was  a  priority  area  in  Estonia  and 
experienced smaller cuts during a time of spending cuts. 

During  the  crisis  years  the  general  interest  in  education  increased.  The  number  of  adults 
enrolled in evening and distance courses for basic and general secondary education increased 
by 12.6 % in 2009 compared to the year before. There was significant growth in the number of 
students  enrolled  in  VET,  despite  the  demographic  decline  in  the  main  age  group  entering 
VET. As a consequence, the ministry reduced the per capita amount for VET students in order 
to be able to satisfy the increased demand. A large number of persons who had taken a break 
from education for a few years, or discontinued their studies at another educational institution, 
entered vocational education and training during the years 2009 and 2010. 

During the years 2009 and 2010, the basic payment for state-provided study places in higher 
education  institutions  was  reduced  by  16.1 %  in  connection  with  the  economic  crisis.  The 
crisis  also  had  an  impact  on  the  education  choices  of  higher  education  students  —  while 
enrolment  in  state-provided  study  places  increased  by  a  few  percentage  points  during  the 
2009/10 and 2010/11 academic years, enrolment in non-budgetary (i.e. paid) places declined 
by  7 %  in  2009/10  and  by  12 %  in  2010/11.  National  funding  for  new  enrolments  in  higher 
education  will  rise  by  10 %  as  of  autumn  2011.  The  basic  payment  for  professional  higher 
education  studies  will  rise  by  22.2 %  and  be  made  equivalent  to  the  basic  payment  for  BA 
studies. 

Investment  in  education  has  enjoyed  priority  over  the  past  years,  and  as  stated  in  Estonia’s 
NRP,  education  spending  is  set  to  play  an  even  more  prominent  role  in  government 
expenditure.  It  will  be  important  to  combine  the  increased  expenditure  with  the  planned 
efficiency gains. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

The main priority for Estonia will remain improving the quality of the education system, in 
particular by making VET more relevant for the needs of the labour market.  

As regards general education Estonia plans to adopt measures aimed at reducing drop-out 
rates, optimize the network of upper secondary schools and increase the access as well as the 
availability of career guidance and counselling services. 

Estonia aims to increase the adult participation rate in lifelong learning to 20 % and reduce the 
share of adults without professional or vocational education to below 30 %, both in line with 
the recommendation from the European Semester.  

During  the  process  of  renewing  its  lifelong  learning  strategy    and  in  the  planned  'Estonian 
Education  Strategy  2020'  could  involve  putting  a  stronger  focus  on  specific  target  groups, 
such as low-skilled workers.  

As mentioned by the recommendation another area which will deserve further attention is 
early child care.   

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FINLAND 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

FINLAND  

Finland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

55.2 % 

73.1 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

7.0 % 

8.1 %09 

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

6.0 %06 

7.8 %09  24.006 

22.2 %09 

4.1 %06 

6.0 %09  20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

9.0 % 

10.3 % 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

40.3 % 

45.7 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

22.4 % 03

23.0 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 % 10 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 43 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Youth unemployment, a major concern at the beginning of 2010, eased considerably during 
the  year  and  has  continued  to  improve  in  2011.  Nevertheless,  even  taking  into  account  the 
improvement  and  the  fact  that  statistics  may  be  exaggerating  the  problem  (Finnish 
unemployment  numbers  also  include  full-time  students  who  are  looking  for  a  part-time  job 
alongside their studies) youth unemployment remains high and above the EU average (21.4 % 
vs 20.9 % in 2010). To counteract the demographic changes, a fast transition from education 
and training to work is crucial. Currently, young people enter the labour market relatively late 
in Finland. 

Finland’s target for education and training by 2020 is to raise the proportion of 30–34 year-
olds having completed tertiary education to 42 % and to lower the proportion of early school 
leavers  among  18–24  year-olds  to  8 %  or  less.  According  to  the  EU  Labour  Force  Survey, 
45.8 %  of  30–34  years  olds  have  tertiary  attainment,  which  is  above  the  EU  average.  The 
share of early school leavers (9.9 % in 2009) is below the EU average (14.4 %). The Finnish 
education  and  training  system  is  generally  performing  very  well.  However,  adapting 
education and training to meet labour market needs remains a continuous challenge. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (4) 

Take  measures  to  improve  the  employability  of  older  workers  and  their  participation  in 
lifelong learning. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

While the share of early school leavers (10.3 % in 2010) is below the EU average (14.4 %), it 
has  remained  largely  unchanged  over  the  last  decade.  Finland’s  target  is  to  increase  the 
completion rate for upper secondary education to 95 %, which can be translated into a target 
of  reducing  the  proportion  of  early  school  leavers  among  18–24  year-olds  to  not  more  than 
8 %.  Measures  to  reduce  early  school  leaving  include  prevention  and  intervention,  such  as 
flexible basic education (‘Jopo’), improved guidance and counselling, language learning (both 
the language of instruction and the mother tongues of students with an immigrant or minority 
background), intensified special educational needs support, a more work-related approach to 
learning with those at risk, and programmes for immigrant students to help them succeed in 
VET.  Youth  workshops,  intensified  outreach  activities  and  a  guarantee  for  either  education, 
training or a job placement in close collaboration between the individual and job centres are 
measures to compensate for early school leaving. 

The  measures  set  out  in  the  National  Reform  Programme  and  the  national  ET2020  report 
seem to provide the right responses to the structural challenges implied by the stagnating (and 
recently even slightly growing) early school leaving rate. Making apprenticeship-based VET 
more attractive for young people could, however, be another step towards lowering drop-out 
rates  among  groups  at  risk.  Another  measure  is  Job  Start  aimed  at  young  people  who  have 
completed their basic education but do not yet have a clear idea of their choice of occupation 

- 44 - 

 
 
or  who  do  not  possess  the  necessary  competences  for  applying  for  VET  and  succeeding  in 
their studies. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

According  to  Eurostat’s  Labour  Force  Survey  in  2010,  45.7 %  of  30–34  year-olds  have  a 
tertiary  attainment  above  the  EU  average.  However,  the  plan  is  to  exclude  college-level 
qualifications from the indicator in the forthcoming years, which will reduce the figure to 37–
38 %.  In  this  context,  Finland’s  target  is  to  raise  the  proportion  of  30–34  year-olds  having 
completed  tertiary  education  to  42 %.  At  the  same  time,  smaller  age  cohorts  and  the  aim  to 
raise pass rates to 75 %, mean that the number of study places does not need to be increased. 

With regard to MST graduates, the absolute number has increased since 2000, although less 
than  the  EU  average.  The  share  of  female  MST  graduates  is  also  slightly  below  the  EU 
average. 

By international standards, study times in Finland are long. Measures are thus being taken to 
reform admission and speed up graduation with a view to lowering the age of entry into the 
labour  market.  Moreover,  structural  changes,  such  as  mergers  of  institutions,  are  seen  as  an 
opportunity to allocate funding  efficiently to  quality, for instance by improving the teacher-
student ratio. 

With these measures, Finland seems to be on track towards achieving the 2020 target. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Finland has an outbound long-term mobility (2.7 % of students 
per  year)  near  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme  (1.1 %  of  students  in  2008/09)  is  above  the  EU  average.  Tertiary  mobility  has 
grown by nearly 40 % from 2000. Today, one fifth of students in polytechnics and universities 
participate  in  a  mobility  scheme.  As  regards  teachers  and  researchers,  there  has  been  an 
increase  in  mobility  in  the  polytechnics.  Concrete  targets  have  been  set  for  mobility  up  to 
2015. 

In general education, the Comenius and Nordplus programmes along with many international 
private organisations are used for student mobility and school cooperation. In VET, Leonardo 
da  Vinci  was  the  most  popular  scheme  (45 %  of  the  total),  although  nearly  37 %  of  this 
mobility  was  financed  by  VET  institutes  themselves.  The  current  policy  of  merging  VET 
institutions into bigger entities is seen as conducive to internationalisation and mobility, due 
to  increased  resources.  Moreover,  modularisation  and  compatibility  with  the  credit  transfer 
system facilitate mobility. 

As  regards  teachers’  mobility,  there  were  more  incoming  teachers  than  outgoing.  Most 
teacher mobility was financed by the institutions themselves. 

As internationalisation is highly valued in curricula, national funding supplements Comenius 
and other mobility programmes. New quality criteria for mobility were introduced in 2011. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Finland’s lifelong learning policy is implemented by two ministries: the education system as a 
whole, including the voluntary adult education sector, is under the Ministry of Education and 
Culture, while labour market training is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Employment 

- 45 - 

 
 
and  Economy.  The  emphasis  of  LLL  policy  has  for  several  years  been  on  ensuring  equal 
access and improving the quality of education and training. 

With  regard  to  widening  participation  in  early  childhood  education  and  care,  Finland  has 
made  considerable  progress  since  2000,  but  is  still  20  percentage  points  below  the  EU 
average.  It  should  however  be  noted  that  the  statistical  data  for  Finland  in  this  field  are 
currently  being  improved  due  to  concerns  about  their  validity  and  comparability  with  other 
EU countries. 

While  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning  is  already  more  than  twice  the  EU  average, 
additional  measures  have  been  taken  to  further  increase  access  and  participation.  Specialist 
VET  qualifications  now  provide  a  general  eligibility  for  higher  education  and  an  allowance 
has  been  introduced  to  encourage  employees  to  update  their  skills.  Moreover,  receiving 
unemployment  benefit  no  longer  rules  out  participation  in  training.  A  Council  for  Lifelong 
Learning,  established  in  2009,  issues  expert  opinions  on  LLL  and  includes  all  relevant 
stakeholder groups. 

The  Government  Institute  for  Economic  Research  is  responsible  for  labour  forecasts,  which 
are used by the National Board of Education for educational forecasts. In collaboration with 
these two, regional councils coordinate the anticipation of medium and long-term education 
and  training provision  needs.  The national development  plan for education  and  training sets 
the targets for provision in initial VET, polytechnics and universities. 

Finland  has  overall  a  well-developed  lifelong  learning  system  with  a  high  level  of 
permeability  through  flexible  pathways  and  with  particularly  high  participation  rates  in 
continuing  education  and  training.  However,  the  relatively  high  youth  unemployment,  as 
noted  in  the  Staff  Working  Document  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines, 
indicates certain  challenges  for the transition from education to the labour market. Targeted 
measures  in  line  with  the  Agenda  for  New  Skills  and  Jobs,  such  as  further  increasing  the 
practical relevance of curricula, could be beneficial in this respect. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Finland 

EU average 

2000 

5.89 % 

2008 

6.13 % 

2000 

4.88 % 

2008 

5.07 % 

Investment in  education as a percentage  of  GDP  increased slightly in Finland and exceeded 
the EU average by over 1 percentage point in 2008. 

For decades, Finland has invested heavily in the education and competences of the population. 
The extensive education and training supply has promoted equality and social mobility. Even 
during the economic and financial crisis Finland continued to invest in education and devoted 
resources to competence development, creativity and innovation, targeted to changing needs. 
Recent  measures  include  the  reduction  of  class  sizes  in  compulsory  education,  diversifying 
university funding under the Universities Act and setting up a business cluster to exploit the 
successful elements of the Finnish education and training system. 

With  its  funding  priorities  for  education  and  training,  Finland  is  in  line  with  the  Annual 
Growth Survey and the Conclusions of the Spring European Council, which both advise such 
growth-friendly investment in times of crisis as well. 

- 46 - 

 
 
 
7.  CONCLUSIONS  

Finland’s  education  system  performs  well  in  terms  of  both  the  quantitative  targets  and  the 
quality  of  educational  outcomes,  as  measured  by  PISA.  However, 
the 
responsiveness  of  the  education  and  training  system  to  labour  market  needs  and  reducing 
youth  unemployment  remain  challenges.  Current  measures  taken  in  the  area  of  higher 
education  respond  to  this  challenge  by  shortening  graduation  times  and  accelerating 
graduates’ transition to employment. 

increasing 

While adult participation in lifelong learning is one of the highest in Europe and provision for 
lifelong  learning  has  traditionally  been  good  in  Finland,  further  efforts  should  be  made  to 
ensure  adequate  provision  for  up-skilling.  Current  initiatives,  including  the  allowance 
provided  to  employees  to  upgrade  their  skills  and  the  direct  progression  routes  from 
vocational  qualification  to  higher  education,  are  good  steps  in  this  direction.  Nevertheless, 
given the demographic challenges, targeted measures should be developed for older workers, 
also with the aim of keeping them active longer on the labour market. 

- 47 - 

 
 
FRANCE 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

FRANCE   

France 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

100 % 

100 %09 

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

15.2 % 

19.8 %09

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

- 

- 

22.5 %09

24.006 

22.2 %09 

19.3 %09

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

13.3 % 

12.8 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

27.4 % 

43.3 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

7.1 % 03 

5.0 % 10

8.5 % 03

9.1 % 10 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 48 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

France  is  above  the  EU  average  on  the  two  headline  targets  in  the  field  of  education  and 
training (early school leavers and higher education attainment). There is, however, room for 
improvement,  in  particular  to  tackle  inequalities  in  education  and  training.  Two  major 
weaknesses  of  the  French  education  and  training  systems  are  school  failure  and  low  adult 
participation in lifelong learning. Too many young people leave school without basic skills or 
without qualifications and are unemployed or trapped in poor-quality jobs. At the other end of 
the  age  spectrum,  the  employment  rate  of  seniors  is  low  in  France.  Improving  access  for 
adults to education and training is crucial to increase the employability of the workforce and, 
in particular, the employment rates of low-skilled and older people. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States Recommendation (3) 

Encourage access to lifelong learning in order to help maintain older workers in employment 
and enhance measures to support return to employment. Step up active labour market policies 
and introduce measures to improve the organisation, decision-making, and procedures of the 
public employment service to strengthen services and individualised support provided to those 
at risk of long-term unemployment. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

France performs above the EU average as regards early school leaving with a rate of 12.8 % 
compared  to  the  EU  average  of  14.1 %  in  2010,  but  the  rate  has  decreased  only  moderately 
over the late decade (from 13.3 % in 2000). France has set a national target of 9.5 % by 2020. 
Considering  the  modest  improvement  between  2000  and  2010,  this  represents  a  significant 
decrease, which would help to tackle the problem of youth unemployment and labour market 
segmentation. 

The  government  envisages  a  wide  range  of  initiatives,  including  better  monitoring  of  early 
school leavers (national evaluation, better exchange of information among different services 
at  national  and  local  level),  plans  to  prevent  and  correct  low  achievement  (plan  to  prevent 
illiteracy, new ambition for sciences and technologies at school), individualised support and 
guidance (in particular with the reform of upper secondary education) and some measures to 
tackle  inequalities  (disadvantaged  areas,  migrants  who  do  not  speak  French,  special  needs). 
There  is  particular  emphasis  on  experimental  initiatives,  such  as  boarding  schools  for 
disadvantaged  pupils  (internats  d’excellence).  Most  of  these  measures  focus  on  secondary 
level (programme CLAIR, internats d’excellence) and compensatory programmes (les écoles 
de  la  deuxième  chance,  établissements  de  réinsertion  scolaire,  micro  lycées).  There  is  less 
emphasis  on  prevention  measures  at  primary  or  pre-primary  level  or  the  education  and 
training of teachers. 

- 49 - 

 
 
3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

France has progressed significantly from 27.4 % in 2000 to the current tertiary attainment rate 
of  43.5 %  (2010),  which  is  well  above  the  EU  average  (33.6 %).  France  has  set  a  national 
target of 50 % higher education attainment for the 17–33 age group by 2012. 

The reforms of upper secondary education (lycées) aim in particular to increase entry rates to 
higher education. Enhanced guidance and better information systems (‘Admission Post-Bac’) 
should  contribute  to  this  objective.  In  addition,  the  reform  of  vocational  upper  secondary 
education  (baccalauréat  professionnel)  should  reinforce  the  attractiveness  of  VET  and 
facilitate  the  transition  of  students  from  VET  to  higher  education.  Financial  support  for 
disadvantaged groups has increased (with more and better scholarships). 

The development of university guidance and implementation of a special plan (Plan Réussir 
en  Licence)  should  limit  drop-out  in  the  first  years  of  university,  which  is  a  major  issue  in 
France, and improve the transition from university to the labour market. After an experimental 
phase, the most successful measures will be rolled out generally in 2011. The content of Plan 
Réussir en Licence will also be reviewed to include transversal competences and to enhance 
transparency  and  quality  assurance.  The  ongoing  measures  expected  to  contribute  to  the 
national  target  also  include  the  development  of  more  flexible  pathways  between  different 
forms  of  tertiary  education  (classes  préparatoires,  BTS,  DUT,  licence,  première  année  de 
médecine). 

4.  MOBILITY 

France  is  committed  to  promoting  the  outgoing/incoming  learning  mobility  of  students  in 
different education sectors. Regarding pre-school and school education, France has made use 
of Comenius and Leonardo da Vinci, but has also issued a ministerial circular to encourage 
the  administrations  within  the  regions  (‘académies’)  to  develop  a  mobility  strategy  and  a 
decree  to  encourage  schools  to  develop  cooperation  and  partnerships  with  European  and 
foreign counterparts. 

The  number  of  French  students  studying  abroad  under  the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme 
(LLP)  has  significantly  increased  (+6.3 %  in  2009–2010  compared  to  2008–2009),  making 
France the main ‘provider’ of Erasmus students. To facilitate learning mobility, the ministry 
of  higher  education  has  also  promoted  bilateral  agreements  for  the  recognition  of  diplomas 
and the development of joint masters. National and regional authorities also provide financial 
support for mobility. 

The share of incoming students in French higher education is also significant. To facilitate the 
integration of foreign students, France adopted a new visa policy in 2009. It also established 
special centres in 2007 (Centres pour les études en France), which now manage most of the 
demand and inflow. 

There  is  particular  emphasis  is  on  the  mobility  of  teachers  under  the  LLP,  and  a  specific 
programme  ‘Jules  Verne’  was  launched  in  2009.  However,  the  coverage  of  this  programme 
(162 teachers) remains modest at this stage. 

Beyond  financial  support  and  cooperation  schemes,  France,  in  particular  via  the  ‘Agence 
Europe  education  formation’,  promotes  mobility  through  awareness-raising  campaigns  and 
seminars. 

- 50 - 

 
 
5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

One of the major education and training bottlenecks in France is the low adult participation in 
lifelong learning. Here, France performs below the EU average (5 % in 2010 compared to an 
EU  average  of  9.1 %)  and  its  performance  is  deteriorating  (from  7.1 %  in  2000  to  5 %  in 
2010).  While  improving  the  access  of adults  to  education  and  training  is  crucial  to  increase 
employment  rates  among  the  low-skilled  and  older  people,  the  participation  of  adults  in 
training is below the EU average and there has been no progress in the last decade.  In 2009, 
the law on guidance and vocational training had the objective to encourage the development 
of  a  coordinated  national  strategy,  planned  and  implemented  by  national  authorities,  the 
regions  and  the  social  partners,  “and  aiming  at  allowing  each  person,  beyond  his  status,  to 
obtain  and  update  knowledge  and  skills  that  foster  professional  evolution,  and  make  him 
improve in at least one level of qualification during his professional career.” 

Key  competences  (including  basic  skills  such  as  literacy,  numeracy,  digital  literacy)  form  a 
basis for further learning. In line with the European Framework of Key Competences, France 
has  implemented  a  competence-based  approach  at  primary  and  secondary  levels,  with  the 
reform  of  curricula  and  specific  attention  to  the  evaluation  of  key  competences.  Specific 
measures are being developed for transversal competences (uses of ICT in education, foreign 
languages, Plan ‘Entrepreuneurs étudiants’). 

France has developed flexible pathways between the different layers, levels and sectors of the 
education  and  training  system  (for  example  between  vocational  schools  and  higher 
education).  In  line  with  EQF,  the  integration  of  higher  education  diplomas  in  the  national 
qualifications  framework  (Répertoire  national  des  certifications  professionnelles)  should 
improve the transparency of education and training supply and further the development of a 
learning  outcomes  approach  in  higher  education.  The  well-developed  system  for  the 
validation of informal and non-formal learning is being continuously improved. 

Guidance  and  individualised  support,  which  is  a  particular  challenge  in  France,  have  been 
reinforced, in particular at secondary level (parcours de découverte des metiers, entretien en 
troisième, orientation au lycée) for the transition between school and higher education, and in 
higher education. The law on guidance and vocational training (2009) established a ‘right to 
lifelong guidance’ and a public guidance service. 

France has a well-developed system of for the anticipation and assessment of skills needs at 
national  level  (Centre  d’analyse  stratégique,  Céreq),  at  regional  level  (Observatoires 
régionaux  de  l’emploi  et  de  la  formation)  and  at  sectoral  level  (Observatoires  des  métiers). 
Recent initiatives to improve skills forecasting and matching include preparatory work for the 
publication of a ‘panorama’ of jobs and qualifications and a special report on the transition of 
young people from school to work, both undertaken by the Centre d’Analyse stratégique. The 
development  and  review  of  diplomas  and  certifications  takes  into  account  labour  market 
needs  and  involves  employers.  This  is  the  case  for  vocational  diplomas  in  particular,  which 
are  reviewed  with  the  social  partners  (Commissions  professionnelles  consultatives,  Comité 
interprofessionnel  consultatif).  Higher  education  diplomas  are  reviewed  by  the  Agence 
d’évaluation de la recherche et de l’enseignement supérieur and by the Commission des titres 
d’ingénieurs.  Partnerships  between  education,  training  and  business  are  encouraged  at  all 
levels. 

As  regards  adult  learning,  a  special  fund  has  been  created  to  support  the  training  of  low-
skilled  workers  and  unemployed  people:  Fond  paritaire  de  sécurisation  des  parcours 
professionnelles. 

- 51 - 

 
 
6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

France 

EU average 

2000 

6.03 % 

2008 

5.58 % 

2000 

4.88 % 

2008 

5.07 % 

On investment in education as a percentage of GDP, France has been performing above the 
EU  average,  although  investment  rates  have  decreased  over  the  last  decade.  In  2011,  the 
school  education  budget  amounts  to  60.5  billion  euros,  which  is  by  far  the  most  important 
item of State expenditure. 

At primary and secondary level, various measures have contributed to reducing expenditure: 
reduction  of  teaching  posts,  reductions  in  ancillary  staff  (outside  teachers  of  foreign 
languages), changes in the procedure for the replacement of absent teachers, school grouping, 
increasing the size of classes, reduction of education provision for 2-year-old children (except 
in disadvantaged areas). 

The government has given priority to higher education, which has largely been spared severe 
budget cuts and has significantly increased. Thus, in 2010, France launched a programme for 
investment  in  the  future,  ‘Investissements  d’avenir’,  with  € 21.9 bn  devoted  to  higher 
education  and  research,  including  the  actions  ‘Initiatives  d’excellence’,  ‘Laboratoires 
d’excellence’,  and  ‘Equipements  d’excellence’.  The  action  ‘Opération  Campus’  addresses 
housing development. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

While  France’s  education  and  training  system  performs  above  the  EU  average  in  terms  of 
most quantitative targets, it needs to tackle the two major bottlenecks: school failure and low 
adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning.  Too  many  young  people  leave  school  early  without 
qualifications,  while  too  many  seniors,  especially  those  with  low  skills,  leave  the  labour 
market early. 

Current  measures  in  the  area  of  school  education  address  both  early  school  leaving  and 
tertiary  achievement,  such  as  better  monitoring  of  early  school  leavers,  raising  the 
attractiveness of vocational training and improving higher education provisions. 

A  more  ambitious  strategy  is  needed  in  the  field  of  adult  learning  so  as  to  raise  the 
employability  of  the  adult  workforce.  Additional  reforms  are  necessary  in  the  fields  of 
guidance, active outreach to the disadvantaged, and in-work training. 

- 52 - 

 
 
 
GERMANY 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

GERMANY   

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

Low achievers 

Reading 

(15 year-olds; 

PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

Science 

Early leavers from education and training 

(age 18–24) 

Tertiary education attainment4 

(age 30–34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

Germany 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

82.6 % 

96.7 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

22.6 % 

18.5 %09

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

19.9 %06

18.6 %09

  24.006 

22.2 %09 

15.4 %06

14.8 %09

  20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

14.6 % 

11.9 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

25.3 % 

29.8 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

6.0 % 03

7.8 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03

= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08=2009, e09 =2009; e = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

4  

In  the context of  the Europe 2020 headline target on  Tertiary  or  Equivalent  Education Attainment  (40%), 
Germany  had  an  attainment  rate  of  33%  in  2000  and  41.3%  in  2010.  This  includes  also  ISCED  level  4 
qualifications ("post-secondary non-tertiary education") which are considered by Germany as "equivalent" 
to tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 and 6). ISCED level 4 attainment accounted for 11.6% of the 30-34 
year-olds in 2010. 

- 53 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Continued reforms to improve the quality of the education system and access to it are central 
for  addressing  emerging  shortages  of  skilled  labour  in  order  to  maintain  Germany’s 
comparative  advantage  in  technologically  advanced  products  and  to  reverse  the  trend  of 
declining productivity growth, thus laying the basis for sustained employment and real income 
growth. In the past,  educational  attainment rates in Germany have  improved only slowly, at 
both upper secondary and tertiary levels, and are today below the EU average, especially for 
younger cohorts. Combined with ongoing demographic change, leading to a shrinking cohort 
size,  this  might  result  in  a  shortage  in  the  supply  of  medium/high-qualified  labour  in  the 
medium and long terms, particularly in maths, science and technology subjects. 

While  early  school  leaving  in  Germany  is  below  the  EU  average,  it  is  falling  fairly  slowly. 
Socially  disadvantaged  groups,  including  young  people  with  a  migrant  background,  face  a 
much  higher  risk  of  early  drop-out  from  education  and  training  than  their  peers,  and  their 
attainment rates tend to remain low, also given the traditionally short school days. Although 
declining, there are also still large differences in skill levels (as measured for example by the 
OECD’s  PISA  studies)  between  pupils  and  the  link  between  achievement  and  socio-
demographic background remains strong. 

Reforms  to  improve  the  lower  levels  of  the  education  system,  starting  with  better  access  to 
quality pre-school education and care, also benefit upper secondary and tertiary education and 
enhance  vocational  training  outcomes.  The  share  of  low  achievers  and  drop-outs  at  school 
level  could  be  further  reduced,  e.g.  by  widening  early  language  learning,  better  individual 
support  for  pupils  at  risk  (including  guidance,  tutoring,  social  workers),  wider  provision  of 
all-day  schools,  and  broad  measures  to  effectively  facilitate  transition  from  school  to 
professional training. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

(3) Enhance participation in the labour market by improving equitable access to education and 
training  systems  and  by  taking  further  steps  to  reduce  the  high  tax  wedge  in  a  budgetary 
neutral way and improve work incentives for persons with low income perspectives. Increase 
the number of fulltime childcare facilities and all-day schools. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Germany has set itself the target of reducing early school leaving to less than 10 % by 2020 
(and has a specific target to reduce drop-out in vocational education and training at national 
level).  After  falling  slowly  but  continuously  over  several  years  to  11.1 %  in  2009,  the  early 
school  leaving  rate  increased  to  11.9 %  in  2010,  though  was  still  below  the  EU  average  of 
14.1 %.  This  change  in  the  long-term  trend  might  be  explained,  at  least  partly,  by  the 
flourishing economy combined with smaller cohorts entering the labour market and hence a 
shortage of young people. 

The German National Reform Programme and the ET2020 national report acknowledge the 
need for continuous reform to improve equitable access to quality education and training as 

- 54 - 

 
 
central  to  addressing  emerging  shortages  of  skilled  labour  due  to  demographic  change.  As 
noted  in  the  Staff  Working  Document,  socially  disadvantaged  groups,  including  migrants, 
face  a  much  higher  risk  of  low  achievement  and  drop-out  from  the  German  education  and 
training systems. 

The federal government (Bund) and the 16 regions (Länder) have agreed on a comprehensive 
bundle  of  measures  and  targets  to  tackle  early  school  leaving,  which  are  set  out  in  the 
Qualifizierungsinitiative, agreed in 2008 between the Bund and the Länder, and in the strategy 
for  better  support  for  low-achieving  pupils  (agreed  between  the  Länder  in  2010), 
complemented  by  the  national  training  pact  (agreed  between  Bund,  Länder  and  employers’ 
associations). 

Measures to combat early school leaving focus on prevention, intervention and compensation. 
They  include  early  language  learning  for  migrant  children  and,  in  line  with  the 
Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines,  improved  access  to 
quality  early  childhood  education  and  care.  However,  availability  and  quality  standards,  in 
particular  staff  training  and  child  to  staff  ratio,  vary  greatly  across  the  16  Länder.  Further 
priorities  include:  competence-based  and  individualised  learning  approaches;  learning  and 
career  guidance;  partnerships  and  networks  between  schools,  the  world  of  work  and  other 
services; support for transition and mentoring for pupils at risk; various second chance offers. 

The  implementation  of  these  measures  is  supported  by  a  comprehensive  strategy  for 
monitoring the education system (adopted in 2006). 

While these measures clearly have the potential to reduce the risk of socially disadvantaged 
people,  in  particular  migrants,  dropping  out  of  education  and  training  and  to  weaken  the 
strong  structural  link  between  educational  achievement  and  socio-demographic  background, 
implementation  of  the  Qualifizierungsinitiative  seems  to  lag  behind  and  the  recent  negative 
change in the ESL rate means it will be an even more important challenge to implement these 
measures effectively on a large scale. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Regarding tertiary or equivalent attainment, the German NRP has set a national target of 42 % 
for 2020. Due to the high importance of VET for the provision of medium- to higher-skilled 
labour the German government has decided to include ISCED level 4 qualifications (11.4 % in 
2009)  in  their  target.  While  in  the  past,  the  German  tertiary  attainment  rate  grew  only 
moderately compared to the EU average, it is expected to increase at a higher pace over the 
coming years due to a high influx of new students. Their number increased by 22 % between 
2006  and  2009,  and  an  additional  275 000  young  Germans  are  expected  to  take  up  tertiary 
education  between  2011  and  2015  due  to  the  reform  of  general  upper  secondary  education 
(shortening of duration from 3 to 2 years). 

Also,  the  hitherto  relatively  low  number  of  graduates  in  maths,  science  and  technology 
subjects,  identified  as  a  potential  bottleneck  to  future  growth,  is  growing  considerably, 
increasing in 2009 by 8.7 %, which is more than twice the EU average growth rate (+3.2 % in 
2009, the number of MST graduates per 1000 young people, 13.5%, is now approaching the 
EU average, 14.3%). 

Current  measures  to  improve  tertiary  attainment  rates  are  coordinated  under  the  pact  for 
higher education (‘Hochschulpakt 2020’, € 3.2 billion) and focus on increasing the number of 
study  places  to  meet  the  foreseeable  high  demand  over  the  coming  years,  facilitating 
pathways  from  VET  to  higher  education  and  access  for  non-traditional  students,  and 

- 55 - 

 
 
improving  the  quality  of  teaching  (‘Qualitätspakt  Lehre’,  € 2  billion  between  2011–20). 
Measures to improve the attractiveness of MST studies will be continued. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As  regards  tertiary  education,  Germany  has  an  outbound  long-term  mobility  (3.5 %  of 
students per year) slightly above the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (1.0 % of students in 2008/09) is also slightly above the EU average. 
A recent study indicates, however, that implementation of the Bologna structure has not yet 
led to an increase in student mobility.5  

The government has decided to top up funds supporting student mobility until 2015 through 
the  ‘Bologna-Mobilitätspakt’.  An  important  focus  is  on  adapting  mobility  offers  to  the 
Bologna structure and reducing obstacles to mobility, including through better recognition of 
learning  outcomes  (implementation  of  the  ‘Lisbon  Convention’)  and  through  provision  of 
guidance on mobility (all higher education institutions now have an ‘international office’). 

The government also supports transnational cooperation by higher education institutions with 
partner  institutions,  joint  study  programmes,  and  actions  to  promote  the  incoming  and 
outgoing mobility of students with high potential. 

In the area of VET, learning mobility under the LLP had 9600 participants in 2010, or 0.7 % 
of  all  VET  students,  above  the  EU  average  (0.5 %).  Over  a  three-year  VET  period,  this 
implies  a  participation  rate  of  about  2 %.  However,  a  study  commissioned  by  the  German 
government provides evidence that total mobility in initial VET (including mobility supported 
by Leonardo da Vinci and all other sources, including private sources) is higher (around 3 % 
between  2007  and  2009).  To  further  increase  VET  mobility,  the  government  increased  the 
national  contribution  to  LLP  funding  (Leonard  da  Vinci)  from  € 800 000  to  € 3 m  in  2010. 
Furthermore, bilateral  cooperation and exchange programmes support transnational mobility 
and  cross-regional  training  schemes.  Since  2005  the  law  on  vocational  training  has  allowed 
VET students to undertake parts of their training abroad. 
At school level, Germany contributed € 18 m to the implementation of LLP Comenius actions 
in  2010.  Mobility  actions  for  pupils  and  teachers  are  complemented  by  programmes  for 
school partnerships and the internationalisation of schools (€ 6.6 m in 2010). Information and 
counselling are seen as important tools to increase mobility at school level. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Due  to  the  division  of  competences  between  different  government  levels,  Germany  has  no 
fully  coherent  and  comprehensive  lifelong  learning  strategy  in  place.  However,  it  has  been 
shifting  the  focus  of  education  and  training  policy  increasingly  towards  a  lifelong  learning 
approach.  The  federal  government’s  strategy  paper  on  learning  across  the  life  cycle 
(‘Konzeption  Lernen 
initiative 
(‘Qualifizierungsinitiative’)  agreed  in  2008  between  Bund  and  Länder,  aim  to  improve  the 
general  skill  levels  of  the  population  from  a  lifelong  learning  perspective.  More  equitable 
access  to  quality  education  from  an  early  age,  flexible  pathways,  and  lifetime  provision  of 
skills  and  competences  are  the  main  principles  of  these  initiatives,  underpinned  by 
benchmarks  until  2015.  The  various  measures  will  be  implemented  in  accordance  with  the 
division of competences between the different government levels. 

the  qualifications 

im  Lebenslauf’), 

together  with 

5   See Forschung & Lehre, issue 09/11. 

- 56 - 

 
 
                                                 
Germany is at an advanced stage in developing its national qualifications framework (DQR) 
and plans to reference it to the EQF in 2012. Linked to this, the pilot project DECVET is to 
trial a credit transfer system in line with ECVET. Within DEQA-VET, the national partner of 
ENQA-VET,  Germany  has  developed  a  programme  for  interlinking  and  improving  the 
relevance of the numerous regional initiatives to support people in completing their vocational 
training (‘Perspektive Berufsabschluss’). There is also a focus on improving the quality and 
relevance of the transition between school education and initial vocational training, including 
through the programme ‘Jobstarter Connect’ 

Germany  pays  significant  attention  to  the  anticipation  of  skills  needs.  For  example,  the 
‘FreQueNz’  network  synthesises  and  disseminates  nationwide  the  results  of  individual 
anticipation projects. The regional labour market monitor, established in 2010, also includes 
data  on  education  and  training.  The  results  of  skills  forecasting  are  regularly  fed  back  into 
curricular  reform:  in  particular  in  the  area  of  dual  VET,  an  institutionalised  adaptation 
procedure,  closely  involving  the  social  partners,  guarantees  the  continuous  updating  and 
relevance of curricula. 

These ongoing initiatives are important steps in gradually overcoming the segmentation of the 
German LLL system, including through better coordination between the Länder, which have 
virtually  full  responsibility  for  education  and  training,  but  also  between  sub-systems  (e.g. 
VET  and  higher  education)  and  across  sectors  (in  particular  employment,  youth,  social 
affairs). They also demonstrate a broader awareness of the importance of lifelong learning in 
the face of growing skills shortages and social disparities. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Germany 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

4.46 % 

4.55 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  changed  only  slightly  in  Germany 
between 2000 and 2008, in line with the slight increase at EU level. The gap between German 
performance and the EU average has therefore remained stable. 

During the crisis, total public spending on education and training in Germany increased from 
€ 93.4  billion  in  2008  to  € 98.9  billion  in  2009  and  further  to  € 102.8  billion  in  2010. 
Acknowledging  the  key  role  of  education  and  training  for  future  growth,  the  federal 
government  decided  in  2009  to  invest  an  additional  sum  of  € 6  billion  in  education  and 
training  over  the  years  2010–13.  Also,  investment  at  Länder  level  increased  considerably 
between  2009  and  2010  (+  4.9 %).  Moreover,  around  € 4.6  billion  available  for  the  ESF 
programming  period  2007–13  are  being  spent  on  the  qualifications  of  young  people,  the 
unemployed and workers. 

In  addition,  the  economic  recovery  programmes  of  the  federal  government  for  2008/2009 
included  investment  in  local  infrastructure  (€ 8.67  billion),  with  the  focus  on  the 
modernisation of educational infrastructure. 

Fully  in  line  with  the  Annual  Growth  Survey  and  the  Conclusions  of  the  Spring  European 
Council,  Germany  has  —  even  in  times  of  crisis  —  substantially  increased  investment  in 
education and training as a growth-friendly measure. 

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7.  CONCLUSIONS  

With  a  view  to  addressing  emerging  shortages  of  skilled  labour  and  supporting  equitable 
access  to  education  and  training,  Germany  is  in  particular  taking  measures  to  tackle  early 
school leaving, including through improved access to quality early childhood education and 
care, and measures to increase the capacity and quality of the tertiary sector, both supported 
by  substantial  additional  investment.  With  the  impact  of  demographic  change  becoming 
visible on labour markets, it will be important to implement these measures effectively on a 
large scale. Therefore, the implementation of the strategic commitments between federal level 
and Länder governments under the Qualifizierungsinitiative should be sped up. 

- 58 - 

 
 
GREECE 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

GREECE   

Greece 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

69.3 % 

68.2 %09 

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

24.4 % 

21.3 %09 

21.3 % 

20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

32.3 %06

30.3 %09  24.006 

22.2 %09 

24.0 %06

 25.3 %09 20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

18.2 % 

13.7 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

25.4 % 

28.4 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

2.6 % 03

3.0 %  

8.5 % 03 

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 
03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009 e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and 
science: 25 EU countries, MST: growth 2004–2008’EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 59 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

The  fifth  update  (December  2011)  of  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding  between  the 
European Commission and the Hellenic Republic includes the following section on education: 

To upgrade the education system 
] 

Government prepares, and starts implementing, an action plan for the improvement of 
the  effectiveness  and  efficiency  of  the  education  system  taking  into  account  the 
measures recommended by the independent taskforce' s report. [end-October 2011] 
Based  on  the  recommendations  of  the  blueprint  and  the  action  plan,  the  existing 
legal/institutional  framework  for  primary,  secondary  and  tertiary  education  will  be 
amended  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  efficiency  and  effectiveness  of  the  education 
system.  The  Government  starts  publishing  a  bi-annual  progress  report  on  the 
implementation of the law on quality assurance in Higher Education. [Q4-2011] 
The new tertiary education framework law, aimed at reducing excessive costs 
and at improving its overall efficiency and effectiveness, is implemented. [Q2-
2012].  

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

As regards early school leavers, Greece performs slightly better than the EU average and has 
made progress since 2000. 

The Europe 2020 national target set by Greece for early school leaving is 9.7 %. 

Greece has pursued efforts to further reduce early school leaving and improve the provision of 
basic skills. Under the National Strategic Framework in the field of education, where school 
education  is  central,  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  Lifelong  Learning  launched  a  national 
action plan in March 2010 under the title ‘The new school’ in order to promote reform in the 
field of school education. 

Strengthening  the  provision  of  early  childhood  education  and  care  and  raising  its  quality, 
which  can  contribute  substantially  to  preventing  early  school  leaving,  remains  a  key 
challenge.  Greece  has  the  lowest  level  of  pre-school  education  in  the  EU  after  Poland  and 
there are no data on 0–5 year-olds. Currently, demand far exceeds provision. 

A  pilot  scheme  of    Education  Priority  Zones  was  introduced  in  some  socio-economically 
disadvantaged areas in the school year 2010–2011.  Its aims include addressing early school 
leaving  and  raising  participation  in  tertiary  education.  The  scheme  provides  stronger  pre-
primary,  all-day  primary  and  remedial  ISCED2  provision.  This  initiative  seems  to  be  a 
promising project, which could be extended in the future to other priority areas. 

While the number of all-day primary schools in urban areas is increasing (from 800 to 961), 
all-day  provision  in  more  remote  areas  is  low.  There  is  concern  that  this  may  create 
inequalities in the quality of provision and in educational outcomes. The government’s initial 
(2009) plan to turn all primary schools into all-day schools by 2013 and to support this with 
adequate numbers of specialist teachers currently seems difficult to attain. 

- 60 - 

 
 
 
 
Another challenge is the need to provide learning support within schools to those who need it.  
This would help reduce the number of early school leavers and low achievers, and would also 
help reduce demand for private supplementary tutoring. 

Monitoring will be an important element for ensuring the effectiveness of the measures aimed 
at tackling early school leaving. 

In  July  2011,  the  international  independent  task  force  set  up  by  the  Greek  government  for 
education  policy  under  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding  submitted  proposals  to  improve 
the efficiency of both compulsory and tertiary education in Greece.6   

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The share of young adults with tertiary education attainment has grown only moderately since 
2000 and was below the EU average in 2010. 

The national target set by Greece for 2020 is to increase tertiary attainment to 32 % from the 
current level of 28.4 %. 

A  reduction  rather  than  an  increase  in  the  number  of  tertiary  students  was  noted  for  the 
academic  year  2011–2012,  with  10 250  fewer  students  than  in  2010.  The  2020  attainment 
target may therefore constitute a major challenge. 

The effort to raise participation in tertiary education towards the national target will need to 
the  participation  and  success  of  under-represented, 
include  measures 
disadvantaged and non-traditional learners. 

to  promote 

One area in which Greece has made significant progress is in the number of MST graduates, 
with at present the highest number of women with an MST degree in the whole of the EU. 

The  government  is  currently  undertaking  structural  reform  of  tertiary  education.  An 
international independent task force set up by the Greek government for higher education has 
supported  this  process  with  proposals.  The  new  national  strategy  is  focused  around  the 
following pillars: 

(cid:131)  a new management approach, greater autonomy for higher education institutions and 

an enhanced culture of evaluation; 

(cid:131)  reorganisation of learning procedures and curricula in order to promote mobility and 

interdisciplinarity; 

(cid:131)  promotion of the international dimension of higher education institutions; 

(cid:131)  redeployment of institutions to better serve regional development and labour market 

needs. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards higher education, Greece has  an  outbound  long-term  mobility  (5.2 % of students 
per  year)  which  is  above  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus  programme  (0.5 %  of  students  in  2008/09)  is  below  the  EU  average.  The  EU 
Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) is one of the most important tools for learning mobility. 

6   OECD, Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education: Education Policy Advice for Greece, 

2011. 

- 61 - 

 
 
                                                 
In the recent past, steps have been taken to promote outgoing and incoming learning mobility 
at all education levels in Greece. 

Law  3879/2010  ‘Development  of  lifelong  learning  and  other  provisions’,  in  force  since 
September 2010, places emphasis on the recognition and accreditation of all types and levels 
of formal, informal and non-formal learning, which could increase mobility. 

Curricular  reform  in  upper-secondary  education  has  put  much  emphasis  on  the  teaching  of 
foreign languages, with the introduction of a State certificate of foreign language competence 
that might support participation in learning mobility.  

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

The  country’s  new  national  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy  announced  in  February  2011  is 
currently being implemented with the aim of providing more and better learning opportunities 
for adults and non-traditional learners. It is an adult education plan with two strands: initial 
and continuing training for the labour market; and general adult education. 

The plan, however, is not an overarching strategic vision for learning within the meaning of a 
‘coherent and comprehensive LLL strategy’. The self-imposed national target is to reach 6 % 
of adult participation in LLL by 2013. To this end, a € 140 m adult education programme for 
400 000 citizens was due to start in September 2011. As regards adult participation in lifelong 
learning,  at  present  Greece  has  a  very  low  performance,  which  has  only  slightly  increased 
since 2000. 

It is relevant to mention that the recent higher education reform will also enable universities to 
provide lifelong learning opportunities to local and regional populations. 

The third reform of initial VET (iVET) in a decade is currently in progress, aiming to improve 
the quality and attractiveness of VET and its relevance to the needs of the labour market, and 
to  create  more  flexible  pathways  between  general  and  vocational  tracks  and  pathways  from 
iVET  into  further  learning  and  higher  education.  Improving  the  quality  of  school  VET  will 
help to achieve the EU2020 national targets for education and training. The reform recognises 
the  need  for  intensified  intervention  to  broaden  the  target  groups  and  improve  the 
attractiveness, accessibility and quality of provision. 

Ensuring the quality and functionality of VET infrastructures will also be a challenge for the 
Greek authorities. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Greece 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

3.39 % 

4.04 %05 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

05= 2005 

Already before the current crisis, public investment in education and training in Greece was 
one of the lowest in the EU. In early 2011, it further decreased to 2.75 % of GDP. As further 
cuts have been implemented more recently in response to the budgetary crisis, investment is 

- 62 - 

 
 
 
now  significantly  lower  than  in  previous  years.  At  the  same  time,  private  household 
expenditure  on  education  services  (especially  for  private  supplementary  tutoring  on  core 
subjects)  continues  to  be  very  strong.  In  Greece,  tutoring  was  estimated  in  2008  to  cost 
€ 952.6 million, according to a recent study.7 

Due to the present general economic situation, Greece has recently drastically reduced teacher 
recruitment and made significant cuts in salaries and pensions in the education sector. It has 
also  put  in  place  a  scheme  of  school  mergers  affecting  more  than  20 %  of  education 
institutions. 

As set out in the MoU, an independent task force of education policy experts, jointly set up by 
the  Greek  administration  and  the  OECD,  is  now  delivering  policy  guidance  to  help  Greece 
improve the overall efficiency of its education system. 

In  parallel,  Greece  has  decided  to  promote  more  efficient  use  of  the  scarce  resources 
available, as the protection of public investment in education and training is considered to be 
crucial to support both short-term recovery and long-term sustainable growth, in line with the 
recommendations  made  by  the  European  Council  and  the  European  Commission  following 
the 2011 European Semester. 

In  the  current  context,  ‘smart  spending’  includes  taking  full  advantage  of  the  European 
Structural  Funds,  which  could  underpin  education  reforms  and  also  finance  educational 
infrastructure. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

Greece needs to continue to reform both compulsory and tertiary education within a context of 
budgetary  austerity,  in  line  with  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding.  Here,  the  possibilities 
offered by the European Structural Funds need to be used to the maximum to ensure effective 
delivery of the necessary reforms. 

7   European Commission (2011), The Challenge of Shadow Education: private tutoring and its implications 
for policy makers in the European Union; a study submitted to the European Commission by the NESSE 
network of experts: http://www.nesse.fr/nesse/activities/reports. 

- 63 - 

 
 
                                                 
HUNGARY 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

HUNGARY   

Hungary 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

93.9 % 

94.8 %09

85.2%  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

22.7 % 

17.6 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

21.2 %06 

22.3 %09

24.006  22.2 %09 

15.0 %06 

14.1 %09

20.306  17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

13.9 % 

10.5 % b 

16.0 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

14.8 % 

25.7 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

4.5 % 03 

2.8 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 64 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Hungary is one of two countries where stimulus measures have not been implemented in the 
education  sector.  Public  investment  in  higher  education  is  low,  as  is  the  tertiary  attainment 
rate  (in  2009:  HU:  23.9 %,  EU  average:  32.3 %).  The  number  of  students  entering  higher 
education  is  high  (69 %  in  the  age  group  20–24),  but  they  take  a  long  time  to  graduate  and 
many do not reach graduation. Budgetary planning is likely to remain a constraint under the 
ongoing  fiscal  consolidation  programme.  Consequently,  part  of  the  financing  could  come 
from  adequate  absorption  of  EU  funds  (ESF  funds  were  also  drawn  on  during  the  crisis), 
although budgetary planning may also have to compensate for the additional financing needs 
of this sector with savings in other areas. 

The  planned  higher  education  reform  seeks  to strengthen  the  link  between  higher  education 
output and the needs of the labour market. At overall European level, Hungary has the lowest 
participation  in  vocational  education  and  training.  The  country  has  already  introduced 
measures  to  modernise  its  vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  system,  including  the 
more structured involvement of chambers of commerce in redesigning features of the system. 
The performance of educators may be unfavourably influenced by the relatively low prestige 
and  rewards  of  the  teaching  profession.  Research  universities  are  also  lacking,  and  the 
corporate sector does not play a significant role in financing. Furthermore, there is currently 
no independent  quality measuring system in  place  to provide a basis  for improving  the  link 
between financing and performance. 

Although the percentage of early school leavers (at 11.7 % in 2008) is below the EU average, 
the  number  of  unemployed  and  inactive  early  school  leavers  is  high  in  Hungary  compared 
with  other  Member  States.  In  addition,  according  to  the  PISA  2009  study,  the  Hungarian 
education  system  shows  a  particularly  strong  relationship  between  the  socio-economic 
background of pupils and their performance at school. Home and family background, as well 
as the size of locality, have a large influence on the performance of school children. Hungary 
is  targeting  a  further  reduction  in  early  school  leaving  to  10 %  by  2020,  in  line  with  the 
proposed EU-wide target. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

The National Reform Programme of April 2011 identifies better adjustment of the education 
system to labour market needs as the main priority of the Hungarian government in the field 
of  education  in  the  period  up  to  2020.  The  better  acquisition  of  basic  skills  by  all  learners, 
including disadvantaged groups, and the restructuring of the vocational education and training 
system are high on the agenda in the area of school education. 

As stated in the outcome of the European Semester, while Hungary performs better than the 
EU average in tackling early school leaving, this represents a major challenge at the level of 
the labour market: early school leavers in Hungary are twice as likely to become unemployed 
or inactive as in the EU as a whole. 

In addition, although Hungary succeeded in reducing the number of early school leavers in the 
last  decade  (from  13.9 %  in  2000  to  10.5 %  in  2010),  progress  has  stalled  over  the  last  few 
years.  Future  demographic  developments,  including  an  increase  in  the  number  of 

- 65 - 

 
 
disadvantaged pupils, may pose additional challenges in the years to come. This might explain 
why Hungary’s early school leaving target is 10 % by 2020. 

In order to reduce the drop-out rate, the Hungarian education system is trying to fight social 
disadvantages  through  preventive  measures  such  as  early  development  of  small  children 
(obligatory  admission  of  multiply  disadvantaged  children  to  kindergarten,  support  for 
kindergarten education), and by identifying at-risk groups and pupils with special educational 
needs  (disadvantaged  and  multiply  disadvantaged  children/pupils).  There  are  also 
programmes  to  promote  successful  school  careers  for  disadvantaged  groups  (’Útravaló’ 
scholarship  programme,  Arany  János  Talent  Care  Programme  for  Disadvantaged  Pupils, 
Tanoda  Programme  with  individualised  teaching  and  learning  in  an  informal  environment). 
The inclusive pedagogical system and strengthening of the vocational education and training 
system contribute to the prevention of early school leaving. The programmes ‘Second Chance 
secondary  school  programme’  and  ‘One  Step  Forward’  are  designed  as  compensation 
measures  for  drop-outs  who  wish  to  continue  their  studies,  the  latter  supporting  the 
acquisition of vocational qualifications. 

In order to improve the quality and effectiveness of education, the National Curriculum has 
been  aligned  with  the  key  competences  defined  by  the  EU  Recommendation  on  Key 
Competences.  Between  2009  and  2011  the  emphasis  of  the  programme  shifted  towards  the 
extensive training of teachers. A further measure to improve the effectiveness and quality of 
school  education  was  the  introduction  of  nationwide  student  competence  assessment  in 
reading and mathematical literacy, obligatory for each student in grades 6, 8 and 10. 

While  all  these  measures  are  consistent  with  the  challenges  identified  in  the  European 
Semester,  preventive  measures  seem  to  be  the  most  appropriate  to  reduce  early  school 
leaving, particularly among disadvantaged groups. These measures need to be combined with 
improved possibilities for early school leavers to re-enter mainstream education. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

While the Hungarian tertiary education system has undergone several reforms in recent years, 
further efforts are needed to increase both its cost-effectiveness and efficiency and its labour 
market relevance. As pinpointed in the outcome of the European Semester, the planned higher 
education reform provides an opportunity to meet this dual challenge. 

Hungary shows a low tertiary attainment rate (25.7 % in 2010), which is well below the EU 
average  (33.6%  in  2010).  At  the  same  time,  Hungary  has  a  low  investment  rate  in  higher 
education.  The  level  of  public  expenditure  in  higher  education as  a  proportion  of  GDP  is 
lower than the EU average (1.02% in Hungary vs. 1.14% EU average in 2008).  Nevertheless, 
the number of students entering higher education has grown significantly in the last 10 years, 
even though the demographic trends show a decline since 2004. With regard to graduates in 
maths,  science  and  technology,  the  increase  in  their  number  has  been  higher  than  the  EU 
benchmark  and  progress  has  been  similar  to  that  of  the  EU  as  a  whole.  As  far  as  female 
participation  is  concerned,  progress  has  been  even  faster  than  the  EU  average.  In  order  to 
further  increase  the  number  of  graduates  in  maths,  science  and  technology,  the  government 
has increased the number of study places in these subjects and is encouraging students to take 
secondary school-leaving exams in science. 

Upon  admission  to  tertiary  education,  preference  is  given  to  applicants  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds,  those  with  disabilities  and  those  who  are  on  unpaid  leave  from  work  for 
childcare.  Today,  69  %  of  upper  secondary  graduates  from  ISCED  3A  programmes enter 
directly higher education, which is one third of the 20-24-year-old population, and about 40 

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per cent graduate in time. Therefore, and in light of the national target of 30.3 % for tertiary 
attainment by 2020, the biggest challenge in tertiary education remains the reduction of high 
drop-out  rates  and  also  long  graduation  times.  In  addition,  further  measures  will  need  to  be 
implemented  to  reduce  the  number  of  graduates  who  do  not  receive  their  diploma  upon 
graduation  as  they  cannot  prove  their  foreign  language  knowledge  (in  2010,  23 %  of  all 
students in the full-time studies concerned). 

The diversification of the institutional training structure (higher vocational training, bachelor 
programmes, master’s programmes, undivided programmes, PhD training, postgraduate study 
programmes,  in-service  training  courses,  courses  aimed  at  acquiring  partial  skills)  enhances 
the higher education supply, improves the system’s responsiveness to the needs of the labour 
market  and  provides  opportunities  for  learners  to  join  or  return  to  tertiary  education. 
Furthermore,  a  major  project 
is  currently  under 
implementation. Higher education institutions are also legally obliged to provide support for 
talented students and for disadvantaged students (scientific circle activities, mentoring, career 
counselling). 

to  validate  former  qualifications 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Hungary has an outbound long-term mobility (1.8 % of students 
per  year)  clearly  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus programme (0.9 % of students in 2008/09) is near the EU average. 

In both 2009 and 2010, the Lifelong Learning Programme was the largest source of financing 
in Hungary for both incoming and outgoing mobility. 

A  national  programme,  based  on  the  model  of  the  Leonardo  Programme,  has  supported  42 
projects  for  the  foreign  professional  placement  of  vocational  pupils.  As  a  result  of  the 
initiative,  584  students  obtained  a  professional  placement  abroad  in  2009  and  in  2010.  This 
initiative has served to further the practical training, foreign language skills and labour market 
chances of students who are — for the most part — from a disadvantaged background. 

Hungary  participates  in  the  CEEPUS  programme  (Central  European  Exchange  Programme 
for University Studies), but as a result of the financial crisis, was forced to reduce the number 
of months offered to partner countries for receiving students and teachers. 

The scholarships of the Hungarian Scholarship Committee (financed by the Hungarian state 
budget) enable 500–700 students to study abroad every year. The scholarships provided under 
bilateral  agreements  and  educational  work  plans  allow  participation  in  partial  and 
postgraduate studies, foreign research institutions, workshops and artistic activities. 

The European Social Fund has supported the institutional developments needed at universities 
to  enhance  their  international  competitiveness  and  to  attract  foreign  students.  Preparing 
materials in foreign languages is an obligatory part of the projects for training and curriculum 
development. This is promoted by a subsidy granted to tertiary education institutions, among 
other  things,  for  curriculum  development  in  foreign  languages.  Around  60–70  courses  in 
foreign languages are offered by institutions. The number of international students in Hungary 
has been steadily increasing over the past few years. The number of international students in 
study programmes provided in a foreign language will definitely grow, while the number of 
international  students  participating  in  study  programmes  in  Hungarian  will  not  change 
significantly. 

By  law,  higher  education  institutions  must  set  aside  funds  from  the  statutory  grant  they 
receive  from  the  state  to  support  their  students  in  completing  part  of  their  studies  abroad. 

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Students  taking  part  in  full-time  degree  programmes  may  obtain  a  student  loan  for  their 
subsistence abroad. The three-year agreements with tertiary institutions — connected to their 
budgetary support — encourage the reception of international students and the creation of the 
necessary conditions. 24 out of 28 state-owned tertiary institutions had increased mobility of 
incoming  and  outgoing  students  included  among  the  target  indicators  of  these  three-year 
agreements.  More  and  more  institutions  are  initiating  joint  study  programmes  through 
accreditation of a common study programme for Hungarian and foreign universities. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Hungary  adopted  its  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy  in  2005.  The  strategy  covers  all  levels  of 
education,  although  its  primary  focus  is  on  the  formal  sector.  The  strategy  builds  upon 
existing national and international knowledge and integrates the relevant EU policy concepts. 
Its  priorities  are  in  line  with  those  laid  down  in  the  framework  strategy  for  education  and 
training 2020. The Hungarian Parliament reports on the implementation of the strategy every 
two years (2007, 2009, 2011, 2013). Although the strategy as such does not have an assigned 
budget, over the past five years the implementation of the strategy has been supported through 
programmes financed from the European Social Fund. 

The establishment of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) is ongoing. Following a 
study  on  European  practices  in  the  field  of  qualifications  frameworks,  an  Expert  Working 
Group has started to prepare a proposal regarding a legal and institutional framework for the 
NQF, which is expected to be adopted in 2011. 

Adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning  in  Hungary  is  one  of  the  lowest  in  the  EU,  and  the 
country’s  performance  has  not  improved  since  2003.  The  benchmark  indicator,  which 
measures  the  frequency  of  participation,  is  now  less  than  one  third  of  the  EU  average.  To 
remedy the situation, recent legal changes enable adult education providers to offer courses in 
an easier and more flexible manner. This simplification aims to contribute to expanding the 
educational services provided by public cultural institutions and thus reduce the inequality of 
learning opportunities, especially in disadvantaged regions and towns. In addition, the amount 
that  small  and  medium-sized  enterprises  can  set  aside  to  train  their  own  workers  instead  of 
paying their obligatory vocational contribution has been doubled. This should lead an increase 
in  the  participation  of  adults  in  training  courses.  In  the  last  two  years,  the  number  of 
participants in adult education has grown (by 8 % from 2008 to 2009 and by 25 % from 2009 
to  2010),  but  this  is  probably  because  in  the  reference  period  adult  education  institutions 
complied  better  with  registration  requirements.  On  the  employers’  side,  the  amount  of  the 
vocational  training  tax  reduction  available  for  training  their  own  employees  has  remained 
more  or  less  the  same  in  gross  terms  as  in  the  previous  years.  The  main  measures  taken  to 
recover from the economic crisis targeted the promotion of adult education and training. The 
so-called 4+1 (‘Four days of work, one day of learning’) programme was launched with co-
financing by the European Social Fund and attracted around 12 000 participants. 

Various measures have been implemented in the area of vocational education and training and 
higher  education  to  improve  the  assessment  of  future  skills  and  skills  forecasting.  The 
Regional  Development  and  Training  Committees  determine  for  the  regional  integrated 
vocational training centres — and thus indirectly for the vocational schools operating under 
them  —  the  orientation  and  extent  of  vocational  training  provided  as  full-time  education, 
decide  on  the  development  subsidies  for  a  given  region,  make  suggestions  as  to  what 
qualifications  are  to  be  classified  as  shortage  qualifications  and  identify  the  qualifications 
demanded by the regional economy. In order to facilitate vocational education and training, 
financial  incentives  have  targeted  mainly  students  with  a  student  contract  and  trainer 

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companies. There is an ongoing project, financed by the European Social Fund, with the aim 
of  providing  decision-makers  with  mid-  and  long-term  labour  market  forecasts  based  on 
mathematical-statistical models. The forecasts will be available from 2013. 

In  the  area  of  higher  education,  current  law  requires  all  higher  education  institutions  to 
monitor graduates’ career paths. A standard career monitoring system is being established and 
the  implementation  of  institutional  career  monitoring  systems  is  being  funded  by  the 
European Social Fund. One of the functions of career monitoring is to provide feedback about 
the competences needed by the economy and to inform higher education institutions of these 
requirements. The Hungarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry conducts regular surveys 
among  companies  on  how  higher  education  graduates  succeed  at  the  workplace.  Labour 
market needs are addressed by an advisory body, the Higher Education and Research Council, 
which continuously examines the relations between the labour market and higher education in 
its forums. In higher education institutions, the management financial council has an indicator 
function  to  call  attention  to  economic  and  social  needs,  especially  in  preparatory  work  for 
decisions on development. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Hungary 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

4.42 % 

5.10 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Public investment in education, as a percentage of GDP, grew significantly between 2000 and 
2008, whereas in the EU as a whole it increased only slightly. As a result, Hungary is now just 
above the EU average performance. 

Since 2006, the total amount of statutory grants and grants provided from the central budget 
for school education tasks has been continuously declining, and in 2010 was only 80 % of the 
2006  figure.  Due  to  the  recession,  additional  reductions  in  spending  were  required  in  both 
2010  and  2011,  when  budget  expenditure  was  blocked.  The  net  reduction  in  state 
contributions and grants for school education (falling from HUF 410.4 billion in 2010 to HUF 
404.2 billion in 2011) resulted from the decrease in the number of children and students and 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  users  of  education-related  services  (increased  number  of 
beneficiaries  of  free  or  subsidised  meals).  New  projects  have  only  been  implemented  using 
EU  grants  and  domestic  co-financing,  and  the  existing  development  plans  have  been 
reviewed. 

The economic crisis beginning in the second half of 2008 did not affect the statutory grants 
provided  from  the  national  budget  to  school-based  vocational  training  (at  least  at  their 
nominal  value).  However,  local  governmental  contributions  were  reduced,  teachers’  wages 
were  frozen,  the  13th-month  salary  was  terminated,  and  that  part  of  the  allocation  for 
education  and  training  within  the  Labour  Market  Fund  available  to  the  minister  responsible 
for  education  was  entirely  withdrawn.  As  a  result,  the  sector  is  facing  stricter  financial 
conditions.  Since  2007  the  budget  available  for  vocational  catch-up  training  for  those  who 
have not completed primary education has been decreasing. 

In the period from 2008 to 2010 state grants provided to higher education institutions fell by 
10–11 % in real terms. However, within this sum, the amount of student and social assistance 

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did  not  change.  For  several  years,  budgetary  support  for  tertiary  education  has  remained 
unchanged at around 1 % of GDP. 

While  certain  budgetary  consolidations  have  proved  necessary  in  line  with  the  country’s 
convergence programme, it is crucial that all further changes in the education budget and their 
impact be closely monitored. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

The  main  policy  challenge  for  Hungary  remains  to  reduce  the  disparities  between  the 
composition  and  structure  of  the  human  capital  trained  in  the  education  system  and  the 
demands  of  the  labour  market.  The  planned  reform  of  higher  education  already  seeks  to 
improve  the  responsiveness  of  the  system  to  the  needs  of  the  economy.  In  addition,  recent 
measures implemented to modernise the vocational education and training system, including 
an  enhanced  role  for  the  chambers  of  commerce,  are  also  steps  in  this  direction.  However, 
continuous low participation of adults in lifelong learning, which is also reflected in the low 
occupational  mobility  of  the  work  force,  hampers  competitiveness  and  contributes  to  low 
adaptation to change. Disadvantaged groups should receive increased attention early on in the 
education  system  to  avoid  them  leaving  school  early  and  becoming  unemployed  or  inactive 
later on as a result. 

While the budgetary situation in Hungary remains challenging, all efforts need to be made not 
only  to  increase  cost-effectiveness  but  also  to  secure  an  adequate  level  of  financing  in 
education and training. 

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IRELAND 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

IRELAND   

Ireland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

75.0 % 

73.4 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

11.0 %  17.2 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

16.4 %06 20.8 %09

24.006 

22.2 %09 

Science 

15.5 %06 15.2 %09

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

14.6 %02 10.5 % b

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

27.5 % 

49.9 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

  40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

5.9 % 03 

6.7 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009 e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

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2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recital (7) 

On 7 December 2010, the Council adopted Implementing Decision 2011/77/EU on granting 
Union  financial  assistance  to  Ireland  for  a  period  of  three  years  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Treaty and Regulation (EU) No 407/2010 of 11 May 2010 establishing a European financial 
stabilisation  mechanism.  The  accompanying  Memorandum  of  Understanding  signed  on  16 
December 2010 and its first update lay down the economic policy conditions on the basis of 
which the financial assistance is granted. Implementing Decision  2011/77/EU  was amended 
by  Implementing  Decision  2011/326/EU.  The  first  update  of  the  Memorandum  of 
Understanding was signed on 18 May 2011. 

Recommendation 

Implement  the  measures  laid  down  in  Implementing  Decision  2011/77/EU,  as  amended  by 
Implementing  Decision  2011/326/EU,  and  further  specified  in  the  Memorandum  of 
Understanding of 16 December 2010 and its update of 18 May 2011. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Ireland’s early school leaving rate of 10.5% is almost 4% lower than the EU average and is 
nearly at the EU benchmark of 10%. Ireland’s proposed Europe 2020 target for ESL is 8%. 
This target is attainable in accordance with the current trend. Some of the success in reducing 
ESL  can  be  attributed  to  DEIS  (Delivering  Equality  of  Opportunity  in  Schools),  a  national 
action plan for educational inclusion, which focuses on the needs of 3 to 18 year-olds from 
disadvantaged  communities.  It  has  875  participating  schools,  some  22 %  of  all  schools  in 
Ireland. DEIS adopts an integrated approach with early intervention as the core principle and 
enhancing  attendance,  progression,  retention  and  attainment  as  central  aspects.  Among  the 
key issues and needs addressed by DEIS are: 

• 

• 

improved  identification  of  disadvantage,  enabling  resources  to  be  targeted  more 
effectively; 
targeted  reductions  in  pupil-teacher  ratios  and  additional  non-pay  allocations  for 
schools based on level of disadvantage; 

•  access to additional literacy/numeracy support and programmes; 
•  access  to  Home/School/Community  Liaison  and  School  Completion  Programme 

(SCP) services; 

•  enhancing research and evaluation of outcomes. 

An evaluation of DEIS by the independent Educational Research Centre is underway. 

In order to proactively prevent ESL the introduction in January 2010 of the Universal Free 
Preschool  Year  in  Early  Childhood  Care  and  Education  (ECCE)  Scheme  is  a  major 
development  in  the area of early childhood education  and care.  By  September  2010, 63 000 
children, or 94 % of the eligible child cohort, were taking part in the scheme. The Early Start 
programme  is  a  pre-school  programme  for  3  and  4  year-olds  which  offers  one  year  of  pre-
school  (meeting  the  ISCED  Level  0  classification)  to  children  in  designated  areas  of 
disadvantage.  The  programme,  which  can  cater  for  1 650  children,  aims  to  provide  children 

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who  are  most  at  risk  of  educational  disadvantage  with  an  educational  programme  that  will 
enhance their development and prevent failure at school. 

To  compensate  for  early  school  leaving,  Ireland  implements  the  Youthreach  programme 
targeting  young  people  aged  between  15  and  20  who  leave  school  early  without  any 
qualifications. The programme provides two years of integrated education, training and work 
experience, with a strong emphasis on personal development. Basic skills training, practical 
work  training  and  general  education  are  the  key  features  of  the  programme,  and  the 
application  of  new  technologies  is  integrated  within  all  aspects  of  the  programme  content. 
With 6 000 places available nationwide under the programme in 2010, Youthreach achieved 
an  overall  progression  rate  of  approximately  65%  to  employment    or  further  education  and 
training. 

Ireland also implements a range of further education and training programmes, the objectives 
of which include the provision of second chance education for people who did not complete 
secondary level. For example, the Back to  Education Initiative (BTEI) programme is a part-
time initiative for learners who wish to pursue part-time or modular programmes. Under the 
BTEI a programme may be offered for as little as 1 hour per week or as much as 17 hours per 
week,  depending  on  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  prospective  learners.  BTEI  offers  free 
tuition to anyone over 16 years of age with less than upper second-level education, and aims 
to give adults an opportunity to combine their return to learning with family, work and other 
responsibilities. BTEI had 28 000 participants in 2010. 

As regards low achievers, the  PISA study results show a  significant deterioration in reading 
performance  between  2000  and  2009,  a  similar  trend  as  regards  mathematics  between  2006 
and  2009,  and  a  stable  performance  in  science  between  2006  and  2009  (with  15.5%  low 
achievers in science in 2006 and 15.2% in 2009). 

The rollout in 2011 of a new plan to improve literacy and numeracy teaching and learning in 
Ireland’s schools, will help address this situation in addition to contributing to achieving the 
national early school leaving target. The National Strategy to Improve Literacy and Numeracy 
among Children and Young People is designed to improve literacy and numeracy outcomes in 
response to both recent PISA results and reports indicating that standards in these areas were 
deteriorating.  The  Strategy  has  implications  for  teacher  training  in  the  broadest  sense,  for 
curriculum reform more generally, and for the use of assessment in schools and more broadly 
within  the  educational  system.  It  proposes  very  significant  improvements  to  teacher 
education. It calls for initial teacher education courses for primary teachers to move to a four-
year  degree,  with  substantial  school-based  time  and  an  increase  in  literacy  and  numeracy 
modules (and other pedagogical courses), at the expense of the humanities subjects which the 
bulk  of  student  teachers  take  to  degree  level.  Teacher  education  courses  for  the  majority  of 
secondary  teachers  will  move  from  one-  to  two-year  post-degree  courses  with  a  greater 
proportion  of  teachers  studying  concurrent  degree  programmes  (i.e.  programmes  in  which 
students undertake academic subjects and pedagogical studies). 

Another  initiative  in  this  area  is  Project  Maths,    a  major  programme  for  reform  in 
mathematics.  It  began  in  all  second-level  schools  at  both  junior  and  senior  cycles  in 
September 2010, building on the experience of 24 schools that began the programme in 2008. 
Project Maths is designed to encourage better understanding of mathematics, to reinforce its 
practical  relevance  to  everyday  life  and  to  ensure  better  curriculum  continuity  across  the 
system.  It  is  supported  by  comprehensive  investment  in  the  professional  development  of 
teachers, which will continue until at least 2013. 

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3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Ireland  has  already  achieved  a  high  tertiary  attainment  rate  for  30–34  year-olds  (49.9 %  in 
2010) as the participation rates of both secondary education graduates and adult entrants have 
been  increasing  steadily  over  the  last  decade.  Using  the  related  National  Skills  Strategy 
targets  as  a  basis,  Ireland’s  proposed  2020  target  figure  for  tertiary  attainment  is  60 %.  In 
addition, Ireland has set itself the target of 48 % of the labour force (i.e. the population in the 
age range 25–64) with tertiary attainment by 2020. 

 In  general  terms  Ireland  performs  relatively  well,  and  clearly  above  EU  average,  when  it 
comes  to  Mathematics,  Science  and  Technology  (MST)  graduates  per  1.000  young  people. 
However,  as  regards  MST  graduates  from  higher  education,  their  number  has  decreased  by 
13.6% during the period from 2000 to 2009. At the same time the share of female graduates 
has also decreased from 37.9% in 2000 to 30.7% in 2009. 
In  the  future  it  is  expected  that  the  recent  increase  in  the  enrolment  figures  of  new  entrants 
will lead to a growth in the number of MST graduates. 
The National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030 was published in early January 2011 and 
provides a framework for the development of the higher education sector for the next twenty 
years. The recommendations of the Strategy aim to increase the quality and flexibility of the 
system  to  ensure  that  it  is  responsive  to  the  needs  of  an  increasingly  diverse  cohort  of 
students. 

Ireland’s  National  Plan  for  Equity  of  Access  to  Higher  Education  2008–2013  establishes  a 
number  of  benchmarks  and  actions  to  increase  access  by  under-represented  groups, 
particularly disadvantaged  students,  mature  students  and  students  with  disabilities.  The  plan 
also recognises the importance of further education in providing the relevant skills to enable 
learners to access higher education. A mid-term review of the Plan was being finalised at the 
time of writing. In addition, the administration of student grant schemes for tertiary education 
is  currently  undergoing  a  radical  restructuring,  under  the  Student  Support  Act,  which  was 
signed into law in February 2011. 

The core funding of higher education institutions in Ireland is being developed to incentivise 
lifelong  learning  policy  and  practice.  From  2010,  the  annual  budget  of  all  publicly  funded 
institutions  includes  a  ‘core  access  grant’  calculated  on  the  basis  of  a  weighting  of  33 %, 
linked  to  the  number  of  ‘access  students’  enrolled  in  each  institution,  including  numbers  of 
mature/lifelong learners. The proportion of full-time entrants who engage in tertiary education 
as  mature  students  in  Ireland  increased  from  9 %  in  2004  to  14 %  in  the  2009/10  academic 
year. They should comprise 20 % of all full-time entrants by 2013. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Ireland has an outbound long-term mobility (17.7 % of students 
per year) much higher than the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (0.8 % of students in 2008/09) is near the EU average. 

Investing  in  Global  Relationships:  Ireland’s  international  education  strategy  2010–2015 
(published in September 2010) places significant emphasis on learning mobility, particularly 
within  staff  and  student  cohorts  in  the  higher  education  system.  Among  other  things,  this 
strategy  considers  the  barriers  to  enhanced  mobility,  and  makes  recommendations  to 
education institutions to overcome these barriers. 

The  strategy  recommends  the  introduction  of  international  strategies  for  higher  education 
institutions to set out an internationalisation vision and targets for each institution. This will 

- 74 - 

 
 
include  the  mobility  of  learners  and  staff  (e.g.  through  building  mobility  windows  into 
academic programmes). 

The strategy also recommends reform of a (modestly funded) existing scholarship programme 
to  promote  inward  and  outward  mobility,  and  active  consideration  is  being  given  to  this 
recommendation. 

The High Level Group on International Education, which draws together representatives from 
government departments, state agencies and the education sector and reports to the Minister 
for Education and Skills, meets on a quarterly basis. 

The Annual Erasmus Lecture, information dissemination (including the Eurolink newsletter), 
‘valorisation’ and networking seminars/events, which apply equally to students and education 
professionals,  along  with  Erasmus  Staff  Ambassadors,  are  designed  to  promote  mobility  in 
higher education. 

Several national and regional information meetings are held each year to promote the Lifelong 
Learning  Programme  in  general  and  specific  sub-programmes  (Comenius  for  schools, 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  for  VET  and  Grundtvig  for  adults).  Topics  covered  include  the 
opportunities  for  teachers,  school  principals,  trainers,  training  centre  managers,  guidance 
counsellors, human resource specialists and other VET professionals to benefit from learning 
mobility actions. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Although there is no overarching strategy document, publication of the White Paper on adult 
education, Learning for Life, in 2000 marked the adoption of lifelong learning as a governing 
principle  of  education  and  training  policy  in  Ireland.  The  introduction  of  the  National 
Framework  of  Qualifications  in  2003  has  made  it  easier  for  learners  to  understand  how  the 
education system works and how one award can lead on to another. It helps the learner map 
out  the  route  that  their  education  will  take  and  clarifies  for  prospective  employers  that  the 
NFQ is a system of 10 levels ranging from basic education at level 1 to doctorate level at level 
10. 

The  Expert  Group  on  Future  Skills  Needs  (EGFSN)  advises  the  Irish  government  on  the 
current and future skills needs of the economy and on other labour market issues that impact 
on Ireland’s enterprise and employment growth. It has a central role in ensuring that labour 
market needs  for  skilled workers are anticipated and met. Since 2009 the Expert Group has 
completed  analysis  of  future  skills  requirements  in  some  key  exporting  sectors  of  the 
economy  —  the  BioPharmaChemical  sector,  Enterprises  in  6  sub-sectors  of  the  Green 
Economy (Nov 2010), ICT skills updates to meet recent developments (May 2011), the Food 
& Beverages sector (Nov 2009) and the key locally traded sector Wholesale & Retail. 

The  National  Skills  Strategy  was  prepared  by  the  EGFSN  in  2007.  It  identifies  Ireland’s 
current  skills  profile,  provides  a  strategic  vision  and  specific  objectives  for  Ireland’s  future 
skills  requirements,  and  a  road  map  for  how  the  vision  and  objectives  for  2020  can  be 
achieved.  The  Strategy  sets  out  clear  long-term  objectives  for  the  education  and  training 
innovation-driven, 
requirements  needed 
participative and inclusive economy with a highly skilled workforce by 2020. An additional 
500 000 individuals within the workforce will need to be upskilled and to progress by at least 
one NFQ level over and above their current level of education and training. A report update of 
March  2010  concluded  that  significant  progress  had  been  made  towards  meeting  the 
objectives set out in the National Skills Strategy. The most significant challenge for the period 
to 2020 is upskilling those at NFQ Levels 1–3 to NFQ Levels 4 & 5.   

to  develop  Ireland  as  a  knowledge-based, 

- 75 - 

 
 
The Department and the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) engage on 
an  ongoing  basis  with  the  EFGSN  and  other  industry  and  social  partner  interests  on 
curriculum reform. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Ireland 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

4.28 % 

5.62 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Public investment in education as a percentage of GDP has increased significantly in Ireland 
since  2000  within  a  context  of  strong  economic  growth  during  the  period  2000–2008, 
implying strong growth of spending in absolute terms. 

In  the  economically  challenging  period  since  2009,  while  the  government  has  sought  to 
protect  education  expenditure  from  both  current  and  capital  saving  measures  across 
departments, it has nevertheless been necessary  to implement significant savings across the 
education  sector.  The  budgets  of  2009  and  2010  identified  savings  of  € 150 m  (€ 256 m,  or 
about 3 % of current expenditure, in a full year) and € 96 m (€ 163 m, or about 2 % of current 
expenditure,  in  a  full  year),  respectively.  A  number  of  measures  introduced  in  2009  were 
subsequently  moderated  or  reversed  as  a  result  of  commitments  made  in  the  October  2009 
Renewed Programme for Government. 

The budget of 2011 provides for further current expenditure savings of some € 175 m (€ 320 
million  annually  or  some  3.5 %  of  current  expenditure  by  2014)  to  be  secured  across  the 
education  sector.  This  € 175 m  is  broken  down  into  € 74 m  in  pay  and  € 101 m  in  non-pay 
savings (€ 181 m pay and € 139 m non-pay annually by 2014). Notwithstanding these savings, 
the current allocation for 2011 is actually higher than the outturn for 2010. This is due to the 
fact that the 2011 allocation also takes account of upward expenditure pressures, mainly due 
to increases in pension expenditure and the impact of significantly increasing demographics 
(with  enrolment  over  the  next  four  years  projected  to  increase  by  6 %,  5 %  and  18 %  in 
primary,  secondary  and  tertiary  education,  respectively)  on  teacher  numbers  and  on  student 
support payments. 

The  savings  are  spread  across  the  education  and  skills  sector  and  include  reductions  in  the 
school transport scheme, staff numbers, student support and training allowances. For higher 
education specifically, a new student contribution charge of € 2 000 has replaced the Student 
Services  Charge  of  € 1 500  as  from  the  2011/2012  academic  year.  In  2011,  the  Higher 
Education Authority is undertaking further work on the sustainability of the existing funding 
framework to inform policy options for future funding of the sector. The allocation for capital 
expenditure has also been reduced by some 40 % since 2008, although falling land values and 
tender prices have significantly moderated the impact of these reductions on the educational 
building programme. 

Under the terms of the EU/IMF Programme of Financial Support and as set out in the National 
Recovery  Plan  2011–2014,  which  commit  the  government  to  reducing  overall  current 
expenditure by € 7 billion by 2014, bringing spending back to 2007 levels, further reductions 
in expenditure on education of the order of €350m will be required by 2014. 

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7.  CONCLUSIONS 

Ireland offers a contrasted picture as regards the performance of its education system, with a 
very  high  rate  of  higher  education  attainment,  but  also  challenges  relating  to  early  school 
leaving  and participation in adult learning. School achievement has deteriorated, particularly 
in  reading  and  mathematics  but  recent  initiatives  targeting  disadvantaged  groups  are  having 
positive effects. 

The development of vocational training opportunities, in particular the up-skilling of the work 
force  and  of  the  unemployed,  is  likely  to  support  progress  towards  the  Europe  2020 
objectives. 

With significantly increasing demographics, enrolment figures are expected to continue to rise 
over  the  medium  term  at  all  levels  of  education.  This  should  bring  new  demands  for  both 
learning provision and infrastructure. 

In  this  context,  the  main  challenge  for  Ireland  will  be  to  preserve  expenditure  on  education 
and training against the background of strict fiscal consolidation, to facilitate future growth. 

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ITALY 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

ITALY   

Italy 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

100 % 

98.2 %09

85.2 %  91.7%09 

95 % 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Reading 

Low achievers 

(15 year-olds; 

PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

18.9 %  21.0 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

32.8 %06 24.9 %09 24.006 

22.2 %09 

Science 

25.3 %06 20.6 %09 20.306 

17.7 %09 

Early leavers from education and training 

(age 18–24) 

25.1 % 

18.8 %  

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 

(age 30–34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

11.6 % 

19.8 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

6.3 %04

6.2 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 78 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2. 

 EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Given  the  persistently  high  government  debt  and  lagging  productivity  growth  over  the  past 
decade,  Italy  faces  public  finance  constraints  and  wide-ranging  structural  challenges  and 
bottlenecks  to  growth.  The  latter,  generally  more  severe  in  the  southern  regions,  concern: 
competitiveness;  the  labour  market;  the  business  environment;  education;  and  research  and 
innovation. These challenges coincide with those acknowledged by the Italian authorities in 
the  NRP.  As  regards  human  capital,  despite  some  progress,  Italy  still  has  a  relatively  high 
number of early school leavers and low tertiary education attainment levels. Moreover, Italian 
students score poorly on the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 
with  performance  in  the  northern  regions  in  line  with  or  above  the  EU  average  but 
significantly worse in the south. Resources devoted to higher education are low compared to 
the  EU  average,  both  in  terms  of  share  of  GDP  (0.76 %  vs  1.12 %  of  GDP  in  2007)  and  as 
measured  by  per  student  spending  (€ 7211  EUR  vs  € 9101  in  PPS  in  2007).  Participation  in 
lifelong learning is still lagging behind the EU average and is particularly low for older and 
low-skilled workers. 

As  regards  specific  measures  for  young  people,  the  government  plans  to  expand 
apprenticeship schemes in order to boost the employment prospects of vocational trainees and 
early school leavers. The key measure is expansion of the opportunities for apprenticeship, by 
giving  students  the  opportunity  to  work  as  an  apprentice  in  a  firm  as  an  alternative  to 
classroom learning during the last year of compulsory education. Measures are also envisaged 
to  improve  education  and  training  policies  with  a  view  to  facilitating  the  transition  from 
school to work, matching skills better to job requirements and reducing the school drop-out 
rate (measured as the percentage of the population aged 18–24 with at most lower secondary 
education  and  not  in  further  education  or  training),  which  currently  stands  at  19.2 %.  These 
measures seem consistent with the planned target of reducing the school drop-out rate to 15–
16 % by 2020. However, no strategy for reducing the high early school leaving rate seems to 
have  been  put  in  place,  as  the  NRP  does  not  indicate  which  specific  factors  driving  early 
school leaving will be addressed and how. 

Furthermore, the NRP does not clarify whether a system of skill certification and vocational 
training standards at national level, to which the government is committed, is going to be put 
in place. The absence of such a system hampers the recognition of training qualifications from 
one region to another. 

Italy has a high risk of poverty and social exclusion (24.7 % as against 23.1 % at EU level), 
mainly affecting people with low educational attainment, children, women, large households 
and households whose head is unemployed. 

The  education  system  has  undergone  a  series  of  reforms  with  a  view  to  modernising  it  and 
improving its cost-efficiency. The reform of primary education implemented in 2009 led to a 
significant cut in the number of teachers. Part of the reduction in current expenditure is meant 
to  be  redirected  to  finance  investment  in  school  infrastructure,  especially  ICT.  A  reform  of 
upper secondary education is being implemented as from the current school year and will be 
completed  in  2015.  It  provides  for  simplification of  the  school  curricula  (fewer  options  and 
fewer overall classroom hours but more foreign-language teaching), entailing also a reduction 
in the number of teachers. 

- 79 - 

 
 
Improving  the  performance  of  the  tertiary  education  system  is  considered  in  the  NRP  as  a 
priority for Italy, also in order to reach the 2020 target of a 26–27 % tertiary attainment rate 
for the 30–34 age group. The December 2010 reform of universities concerns three key areas: 
governance,  funding  and  recruitment.  In  particular,  financial/administrative  management  is 
now  clearly  separated  from  management  of  teaching  and  research  activities.  Furthermore,  a 
growing  share  of  funding  is  to  be  allocated  to  universities  on  the  basis  of  teaching  and 
research  performance.  A  newly  established  National  Agency  for  Evaluation  of  Universities 
and Research (ANVUR) will evaluate research and education institutions. Lastly, recruitment 
and  career  mechanisms  are  to  be  made  more  transparent  and  merit-based.  The  reform  thus 
tackles  some  of  the  key  weaknesses  of  the  Italian  university  system,  although  a  successful 
implementation will take time and require the cooperation of all actors involved. 

A  final  structural  issue  for  Italy  is  its  effectiveness  in  using  EU  cohesion  policy  funds  to 
support growth and job creation. […] 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

As pinpointed in the European Semester, early school leaving remains a major challenge for 
Italy, which still performs below EU average levels. Italy has set national targets for reducing 
drop-out rates to 17.9 % in 2013, 17.3 % in 2015 and 15–16 % in 2020. This target takes into 
account  additional  planned  efforts  in  2007–2013,  supported  by  structural  funds  and  by 
regional  policy  nationwide,  as  well  as  the  associated  objectives  for  southern  Italy.  The 
accuracy  of  the  estimations  decreases  as  the  time  horizon  increases,  since  it  depends  on 
variables  that  cannot  at  present  be  assessed;  a  review  of  the  2020  figure  is  therefore 
recommended around 2015. 

Overall, the target appears to  be broadly in accordance with the trend, but lacking ambition 
given the current slow increase in performance. 

The  measures  adopted  aim  to  curb  the  ESL  phenomenon  in  general,  reducing  disparities 
between north and south and improving the quality of education, such as more flexible paths, 
with  easier  transitions,  improved  guidance,  and  more  focus  on  basic  skills  and  key 
competences.  Measures  also  include  the  setting  up  of  a  new  National  Pupils  Registry  to 
monitor  whether  compulsory  education  is  complied  with  and  to  keep  track  of  early  school 
leaving,  absenteeism  or  irregular  attendance  with  a  view  to  adopting  ad  hoc  preventive 
measures. As regards the prevention of early school leaving, it is significant to note that Italy 
performs  above  the  EU  benchmark  on  participation  in  early  childhood  education.  Where 
compensation  is  concerned,  adult  education  opportunities  target  early  school  leavers  as  the 
main beneficiaries. 

Despite significant improvements during the last decade, further efforts appear to be needed –
through the structural funds but also through more general measures — to improve the overall 
quality of school education and performance to ensure achievement of the ESL target. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The  European  Semester  also  highlighted  that  Italy’s  tertiary  attainment  rate  (19.8 %)  is 
significantly lower than the EU average of 33.6 %. Italy also has low participation and high 
drop-out  rates  in  tertiary  education.  Nevertheless,  the  number  of  MST  graduates  has 
considerably increased and is now above the 2010 EU benchmark. 

- 80 - 

 
 
Italy intends to raise the tertiary attainment rate to 27 % by 2020. This objective confirms the 
current trends but lacks ambition. 

Italy has been implementing measures to increase access and attainment in tertiary education 
since 1999, when a reform aligned the system with the Bologna process. The reform increased 
the  share  of  secondary  school  graduates  enrolling  in  tertiary  education,  reaching  a  peak  of 
74.4 % in 2003/2004. 

Also, public funding of higher education institutions is linked to the number of students, thus 
providing an incentive to reduce drop-out rates. Completion rates are assessed in the quality 
assurance procedure. 

Despite  some  undeniable  efforts,  further  action  is  needed  to  improve  tertiary  attainment. 
Inefficiencies  in  the  system  need  to  be  tackled,  such  as  the  high  drop-out  rate,  the 
fragmentation  of  paths  and  the  low  correlation  between  funding  and  performance.  The  key 
measures of the university reform adopted in December 2010 are steps in the right direction. 
They should be implemented and completed as appropriate to speed up raising the attainment 
rate. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Italy has an outbound long-term mobility (1.8 % of students per 
year)  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme  (0.9 %  of  students  in  2008/09)  is  slightly  above  the  EU  average.  Thanks  to 
growing  management  autonomy,  higher  education  institutions  have  been  developing  their 
own mobility and internationalisation strategies. A new law adopted in 2010 aims to promote 
the international recruitment of teachers and researchers. 

By 2020, Italy aims to reaching the target of 20 % of graduates with mobility experience set 
by the ministers responsible for higher education in Leuven / Louvain la Neuve. 

Initial learning mobility peaked in 2004 (+9.5 %), while lifelong learning mobility peaked in 
2005 (+9.7 %). In 2007, with the launch of the LLP, the trend diversified for the two distinct 
types  of  mobility:  initial  learning  decreased  (-6.9 %  as  compared  to  the  year  before)  while 
there was a significant increase (+74.6 %) for lifelong learning. 

Further action would be appropriate to improve the balance between outgoing and incoming 
mobility, which is currently negative for incoming mobility. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Italy  does  not  have  one  single  comprehensive  lifelong  learning  strategy  but  individual 
strategies  for  general  education,  vocational  education  and  training  and  employment,  with 
some  common  principles  and  intersections.  In  accordance  with  the  holistic  approach  to 
lifelong  learning  agreed  at  EU  level,  the  various  sector-specific  policies  could  be  more 
effectively structured under an overarching concept to help maximise their effectiveness. 

The participation of adults in lifelong learning is low in comparison with the EU as a whole 
(6 % vs  9.3 % in 2009). It is at around half of the 2010 target of 12.5 % and is even further 
from the 2020 target of 15 %. Lifelong learning is especially low for the low-skilled (1.1 %), 
who would benefit the most from further education. The insufficiently developed continuing 
education and training system contributes to the high share of the labour force with only low 
qualifications. Better consistency and closer coordination between the different policies would 
be likely to improve participation in LLL. 

- 81 - 

 
 
The  measures  implemented,  such  as  the  national  law  on  continuous  vocational  training,  the 
inter-professional funds introduced by the budget law and managed by the social partners, and 
the programmes financed by the ESF and managed at regional level since 2001, would require 
further monitoring and evaluation. 

Italy expects to face a shortage in new job-related high and intermediate skills, as well as a 
general mismatch between the skills provided by the education and training system and labour 
market requirements. By 2020, it risks becoming one of the EU countries with a large poorly 
qualified  proportion  of  the  workforce.  A  new  unit  has  therefore  been  established  at  the 
Ministry  of  Labour  to  collect  skills  requirements  at  geographical  and  sector  level,  and  the 
setting up of a national centre for skills forecasting is planned. 

The 2010 Agreement between the state, regions and social partners established 21 vocational 
qualification  profiles  (three-year  length)  and  21  vocational  certificate  profiles  (four-year 
length). 

A  Government  Decree  on  apprenticeship  was  adopted  on  29  July  2011,  defining  the 
apprenticeship  contract  as  ‘an  employment  contract  of  indefinite  duration  with  training  and 
employment purposes’. A national monitoring centre will be established to assess and forecast 
regional  and  sector-specific  skills  requirements  with  the  help  of  professional  associations, 
labour advisors, work agencies, bipartite bodies, etc. 

These  measures  address  two  major  challenges  —  the  development  of  apprenticeships  and 
skills certification — highlighted during the European Semester, and are therefore steps in the 
right direction, which need to be pursued and reinforced. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Italy 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

4.55% 

4.58% 

4.88% 

5.07% 

Public spending on education in Italy is below the EU average (4.58 % vs 5.07 % of GDP in 
2008);  it  has  slightly  increased  over  the  last  decade  but  the  gap  has  widened.  Spending  per 
student relative to GDP per capita is relatively high in primary education (22.7 % vs 26.6 % in 
2007), and is at the EU average in secondary education (25.1 % in 2007). 

Despite a relatively high level of expenditure, school education in Italy produces poor results 
in terms of the performance of 15 year-olds on PISA tests, where the national average masks 
significant regional disparities: performance is significantly worse in the south. Some recent 
improvements seem to suggest that the measures implemented, mainly financed from the ESF, 
have been successful, although they mostly focused only on prevention. It is also hoped that 
the increase in the length of compulsory education introduced by the Finance Law in 2007 is 
having  a  positive  effect,  as  statistics  suggest.  Nevertheless,  further  efforts  would  be  needed, 
including the development of a comprehensive strategy. 

Resources devoted to higher education are low compared to the EU average, both in terms of 
share of GDP (0.76 % vs 1.12 % in 2007) and in terms of per student spending (€ 7210.9 vs 
€ 9101  in  PPS  in  2007).  The  correlation  between  funding  and  performance  is  also  weak. 
Owing  to  the  importance  of  tertiary  education  for  boosting  innovation  and  growth,  and 

- 82 - 

 
 
 
considering Italy’s target to raise the attainment rate to 27 % by 2020, directing more funds to 
higher education should be considered. 

The  budget  allocated  to  vocational  training  and  retraining  as  part  of  active  labour  market 
policies  has  been  increased  significantly  as  a  result  of  the  economic  crisis  over  the  period 
2009–2010. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

Italy has progressed in tackling the challenges identified in the European Semester 2011, but 
the  country’s  early  school  leaving  performance  remains  far  below  the  EU  average.  The 
recently established  pupil monitoring system appears to be an important step for preventing 
ESL.  Striking  the  right  balance  between  ESL  prevention,  compensation  (e.g.  by  increasing 
adult  participation  rates  in  lifelong  learning,  which  are  currently  very  low)  and  targeted 
intervention measures will be important for Italy to ensure a faster improvement in ESL rates. 

While serious reforms have been initiated at primary and secondary school level as well as in 
higher  education,  and  modernisation  measures  are  planned  in  VET,  Italy  is  facing  the 
challenge of integrating the different levels of lifelong learning to improve the overall quality 
and efficiency of the education and training system, in particular in the south. 

Investment  in  education  remains  below  the  EU  average.  This  will  be  another  important 
challenge  for  Italy,  against  the  background  of  the  European  Semester  recommendation  to 
prioritise  growth-enhancing  expenditure  in  sectors  such  as  education  and  training  even  in 
periods of strict fiscal consolidation. 

- 83 - 

 
 
LATVIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

LATVIA   

Latvia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

65.4 % 

89.6 %09 

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

30.1 % 

17.6 %09 

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

20.7 %06

22.6 %09 

24.006 

22.2 %09 

17.4 %06

14.7 %09 

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

16.9 %02

13.3 % 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

18.6 % 

32.3 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

7.8 % 03

5.0 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

02 =2002, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 84 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recital (1) 

On 20 January 2009, the Council adopted Decision 2009/290/EC1 to make available to Latvia 
medium-term financial assistance for a period of three years under the provisions of Article 
143 of the Treaty. The accompanying Memorandum of Understanding signed on 28 January 
2009 and its successive supplements lay down the economic policy conditions on the basis of 
which the financial assistance is disbursed. Decision 2009/290/EC was amended on 13 July 
2009  by  Council  Decision  2009/592/EC.8  The  last  supplement  to  the  Memorandum  of 
Understanding was signed in June 2011. 

Recommendation 

Implement  the  measures  laid  down  in  Decision  2009/290/EC,  as  amended  by  Decision 
2009/592/EC, and further specified in the Memorandum of Understanding of 20 January 2009 
and its subsequent supplements, in particular the last supplement of 7 June 2011. 

Supplemental  Memorandum  of  Understanding  (fourth  addendum  to  the  Memorandum  of 
Understanding), 7 June 2011 

To implement effective active labour market and education policies: 

a)  by  end-July  2011,  prepare  proposals  to  the  Commission  as  regards  re-allocating 
sufficient  additional  funding  within  EU  Structural  Funds  for  active  labour  market 
measures  in  2012–2013;  in  this  context,  line  ministries  in  cooperation  with  social 
partners and branch associations shall assess the adequacy, priorities and financing of 
existing  and  planned  active  labour  market  programmes,  with  a  view  to  facilitate 
through  training  and  other  activation  measures  the  participants’  transition  to  regular 
employment,  including  self-employment.  Improve  supply  of  relevant  labour  market 
skills by promoting up-skilling, re-skilling and work-based training measures. 

b)  by end-September 2011, introduce monitoring system of training providers, based on, 
inter  alia,  job  placement  rates  and  customer  survey  results,  and  by  end-March  2012, 
complete an independent evaluation of the voucher system functioning, in particular as 
regards relevance of training to labour market needs.   

c)  during  2011,  further  strengthen  the  capacities  of  the  State  Employment  Agency  to 
allow more efficient job counselling services through a lower number of unemployed 
per case-handler and introduction of innovative working methods. 

d)  continue  reforms  in  vocational  education  by,  inter  alia,  consolidating  the  number 
vocational  education  institutions  and  assessing  the  study  programmes  in  line  with 
labour market needs and implementing the ‘money follows student’; continue reforms 
in  higher  education  by  assessing  and  consolidating 
the  study  programmes, 
concentrating the resources, and implementing the performance based financing. 

8   OJ L 202, 4.8.2009, p. 52. 

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3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

In  the  last  decade  Latvia  showed  progress  in  reducing  the  number  of  early  school  leavers 
(from 16.9 % in 2002 to 13.3 % in 2010) and currently performs better than the EU average of 
14.1 %.  Based  on  current  trends,  Latvia  is  therefore  likely  to  reach  its  national  target  of 
13.9 %. 

However,  Latvia  presents  a  mixed  picture  as  far  as  school  achievement  is  concerned.  It  has 
made visible progress since 2000 in reducing its rate of low achievers, in particular as regards 
reading and science, but the situation has deteriorated slightly in the field of mathematics. 

A positive development for monitoring early school leaving has been the setting up of a State 
Education  Information  System  (SEIS)  in  the  academic  year  2010/2011  by  the  Ministry  of 
Education  and  Science  (MoES).  SEIS  contains  information  about  education  institutions, 
academic  programmes,  students  and  teaching  staff.  It  enables  efficient  tracking  of  the 
educational process and provides accurate identification of students who have not commenced 
studies  in  the  compulsory  educational  system  and  also  of  students  who  have  discontinued 
studies  prematurely.  SEIS  covers  both  general  and  vocational  education  institutions.  At  the 
beginning of 2011, it showed that approximately 2 % of children of mandatory schooling age 
who are registered in the Latvian population register are not registered with any educational 
institution. Based on SEIS data, the State Education Service takes steps in cooperation with 
local  authorities  to  establish  the  reasons  for  drop-out.  In  addition,  the  Central  Statistical 
Bureau compiles data on the number of students at vocational education institutions and the 
reasons for leaving them. 

In February 2011, procedures were adopted for a single mechanism to regulate the conduct of 
educational institutions where a student is not present at the start of the school year or in any 
particular course. 

The measures planned by the Ministry of Education and Science for the prevention of early 
school  leaving  include:  enhancement  of  academic  content  in  the  first  stage  of  elementary 
education  (grades  1  to  6)  in  order  to  ensure  better  compatibility  with  age-related  learning 
capabilities;  introduction  of  advanced  learning  methods  by  encouraging  an  individualised 
approach  to  the  learning  process;  introduction  of  flexible  learning  models,  including  night 
schools,  involving  the  development  of  distance  learning  options  for  individuals  wishing  to 
obtain  secondary  education,  starting  in  the  academic  year  2011/2012;  offering  flexible 
vocational  education  programmes  structured  as  learning  modules;  and  providing  the 
opportunity  for  secondary  school  leavers  to  obtain  Level  2  or  3  professional  qualifications 
within 1 to 1.5 years. 

Compensation  measures  include  pedagogical  support  to  students  with  learning  difficulties. 
Students with social behavioural disorders are provided with special educational programmes, 
which  provide  for  simultaneous  acquisition  of  curricula  and  social  skills,  focusing  on  an 
individual pedagogical approach. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Tertiary attainment rates have improved significantly in the last decade (from 18.6 % in 2000 
to  30.1 %  in  2009  and  32.3 %  in  2010),  and  the  EU  average  of  33.6 %  has  almost  been 
reached. 

- 86 - 

 
 
Latvia has set a national target of 34–36 % graduates by 2020, which, based on current trends, 
is likely to be achieved. 

The  number  of  students  has  grown  significantly  since  the  1990s,  but  the  increase  slowed 
down after 2007 due to both demographic decline and the unchanged number of state-funded 
study places. The Latvian authorities estimate that in the coming 4–5 years the overall number 
of students is set to decrease due to the decline in the purchasing power of the population and 
to unfavourable demographics. 

In  2010  Latvia  started  to  implement  a  number  of  measures  (also  financed  by  EU  Structural 
Funds) to render higher education more attractive, accessible and competitive. An Action Plan 
for 2010–2012 provides for the following measures: improvement of the quality of study and 
scientific activity; upgrading of material and technological provision and increased efficiency 
of  resource  use  in  higher  education  and  scientific  institutions;  internationalisation  of  higher 
education; integration of the higher education and science sector with the economy and social 
development.  The  Plan  is  implemented  in  collaboration  with  the  Latvian  Employers’ 
the  Latvian  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  Industry  and  professional 
Confederation, 
associations. 

To  ensure  equal  access  to  higher  education,  improvements  to  the  mechanism  for  awarding 
scholarships  and  student  loans  have  been  initiated.  These  include  broadening  study 
opportunities and promoting more guidance on the choice of subject areas. In 2010 60 % of 
the total number of scholarship recipients received scholarships for higher education studies 
based on social criteria (low family income, disability, etc.). 

Nevertheless,  from  the  academic  year  2011-2012  a  new  system  of  distributing  scholarships 
has come into force, based on academic merits as the main criteria. In the new system social 
criteria will be taken into account only in the case of equal academic merits. 

The growth in MST graduates in Latvia since 2000 is less than one third of the EU average. 
The  share  of  female  MST  graduates  is  around  the  EU  average  and  the  gender  balance  has 
improved only slightly during recent years. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Latvia has an outbound long-term mobility (2.9 % of students 
per year) close to the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the EU Erasmus 
programme (0.9 % of students in 2008/09) is also close to the EU average. 

Latvia promotes the outgoing and incoming learning mobility of students in higher education. 
It  relies  on  the  Erasmus  mobility  programme  but  also  on  international  cooperation 
programmes such as bilateral programmes for higher education cooperation and the Nordplus 
programme. To increase the internationalisation of higher education, Latvia has also adopted 
measures  to  encourage  the  interest  of  foreign  students  in  Latvian  higher  education 
programmes, namely joint projects for Baltic cooperation. 

Latvia aims to increase the share of international students in Latvia to 3 % of the total number 
of  students  by  the  fourth  quarter  of  2012.  Measures  to  identify  and  reduce  obstacles  to 
learning  mobility  include:  promotion  of  study  programmes  in  EU  languages;  negotiation  of 
bilateral  agreements  with  third  countries  for  the  recognition  of  academic  degrees  and 
qualifications; and provision of scholarships to foreign students, researchers and teaching staff 
under bilateral and trilateral inter-governmental and inter-departmental agreements. 

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5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

A  lifelong  learning  strategy,  co-financed  by  the  Structural  Funds,  has  been  developed  since 
2009. The strategy involves local authorities, social partners and higher education institutions. 
According  to  the  Lifelong  Learning  Policy  Guidelines,  local  authorities  must  provide  basic 
skills to 15 % of adults within their territory. 

Adult participation in lifelong learning remains limited and has been decreasing since 2003, 
hence widening the gap in relation to the EU average. 

Latvia  has  implemented  measures  in  vocational  and  higher  education  to  address  youth 
unemployment and the incompatibility of skills with labour market requirements. 

As of 1 October 2010, the Ministry of Education and Science is providing an opportunity to 
950  secondary-school-leavers  to  obtain  Level  2  and  3  vocational  qualifications.  These 
measures  encourage  the  acquisition  of  basic  skills  and  more  rapid  integration  within  the 
labour market by ensuring a balanced acquisition of skills and competences for professional 
activity and continued education. 

Measures were also taken in the academic  year 2010/2011 for adults who wish to complete 
basic and secondary education. Access to second-chance education is offered through evening 
courses,  tuition,  social  and  pedagogical  support,  and  special  education  programmes  for 
various target groups. 

In  2010  and  2011,  legislation  was  passed  to  regulate  the  assessment  of  professional 
competence  acquired  outside  the  formal  educational  system  and  to  establish  procedures  for 
persons who have acquired professional competences at Level 1, 2 or 3. 

In  the  area  of  higher  education,  the  Action  Plan  2010–2012  includes  measures  for  ensuring 
the  compatibility  of  study  programmes  with  economic  needs,  by  increasing  the  role  of 
entrepreneurs  and  employers  in  accrediting  professional  study  programmes,  by  developing 
study  programmes  and  evaluating  their  suitability,  by  verifying  study  outcomes  and 
evaluating the distribution of study places across academic disciplines, and by ensuring their 
conformity  with  trends  in  national  economic  development.  Latvia  also  aims  to  increase  the 
share of graduates in natural sciences, engineering and technology programmes. 

In 2010, in collaboration with 16 industry associations and professional organisations, further 
teacher education in accordance with industry needs began to be implemented, with the aim of 
raising the competence of the teachers and supervisors involved in initial and further 
vocational education. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Latvia 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

5.64 % 

5.71 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Latvia’s  level  of  investment  in  education  is  above  the  EU  average.  However,  education  and 
training budgets have suffered significant cuts due to the economic and financial crisis since 
2008.  The  main  challenge  for  Latvia  will  be  to  preserve  expenditure  on  education  and 

- 88 - 

 
 
 
training,  in  a  context  of  strict  fiscal  consolidation,  in  order  to  facilitate  future  growth, 
following the general recommendation resulting from the European Semester 2011. 

Latvia  is  implementing  measures  to  ensure  cost-efficiency  in  all  areas  of  education.  The 
school network has been adjusted to needs and a ‘money follows the pupil’ funding model has 
been  introduced.  Funding  from  the  Structural  Funds  has  been  invested  in  the  creation  of 
competence centres, the development of specialised vocational schools, and the modernisation 
of higher education. 

Latvia intends to increase the funding for higher education by 2015 up to 1.2 % of GDP. At 
present, it constitutes 0.7 % of GDP. It plans to offset a recent decrease with savings arising 
from allocating funding to higher education institutions for certain scholarships in accordance 
with  actual  demand.  In  2011,  less  funding  will  be  required  for  study  loans,  as  loan  interest 
rates have dropped significantly and are not expected to rise again. Enrolment in programmes 
in lower priority areas will also be decreased. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

In line with the recommendation in the Memorandum  of  Understanding,  Latvia  has  adopted 
measures  in  the  areas  of  vocational  and  higher  education.  Such  measures,  supported  by  the 
the 
Structural  Funds,  address 
incompatibility  of  skills  with  the  requirements  of  the  labour  market,  and  structural  reforms 
aimed at modernisation of the higher education sector. 

in  particular  youth  unemployment  associated  with 

- 89 - 

 
 
LITHUANIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

LITHUANIA   

Lithuania 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

60.6 %  79.6 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study 
results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

25.7 %0
6 

24.3 %0
9 

23.0 %0
6 

26.2 %0
9 

20.3 %0
6 

17.0 %0
9 

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

- 

- 

22.2 %09 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

16.5 % 

8.1 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

42.6 %  43.8 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

5.9 % 04 4.0 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 % 10  12.5 % 

15 % 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 90 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

In  order  to  achieve  the  employment  target  of  72.8 %  by  2020,  the  long-term  challenges 
include  increasing  the  labour  supply  by  raising  the  retirement  age,  ensuring  that  the  labour 
force  has  adequate  skills,  implementing  targeted  measures  for  disadvantaged  groups  and 
facilitating  return  to  work  after  childcare.  A  well-designed  and  accessible  lifelong  learning 
system  would  help  to  contain  the  negative  trends  in  adult  lifelong  learning9  and  encourage 
occupational mobility. This requires sufficient incentives to upgrade skills, with one possible 
means being the introduction of a training voucher system for workers, especially targeted at 
the low-skilled and older workers. The new forecasting tools for labour demand will help to 
better match qualifications to what is required by the market. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

At 8.1 % in 2010, Lithuania’s early school leaving rate is below the EU average. The national 
target set for 2020 is to keep the level of early school leavers below 9 %. Lithuania introduced 
a new data collection and monitoring system for early school leaving in 2010 (the Information 
System on Children not in Education and Pupil Absenteeism), which collects regular updates 
and provides data analysis on children living in each municipal territory. Non-attendees who 
miss more than half of the lessons of the compulsory curriculum per month are recorded in 
the  information  system.  The  main  priority  target  groups  are  young  persons,  mainly  males, 
from  rural  areas,  and  young  people  with  special  educational  needs,  with  a  focus  on  lower 
secondary education and vocational training. 

The measures addressing early school leaving cover improving the quality and availability of 
early  childhood  education  and  care,  where  Lithuania  has  strongly  increasing  participation 
rates, although further progress is needed to reach the EU average level. 

Other  measures  include  raising  the  quality  and  efficiency  of  assistance  to  pupils  in  general 
education,  providing  support  for  pupils  with  special  needs  and  pupils  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds, developing vocational education and training and ensuring good quality second-
chance educational provision (e.g. Youth Centres). 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

At  43.8 %  in  2010,  Lithuania  has  one  of  the  highest  levels  of  tertiary  attainment  in  the  EU, 
after  two  decades  on  the  increase.  Participation  in  higher  education  is  remaining  stable. 
Lithuania has made about the same progress as the EU average in increasing the number of 
MST graduates. Nevertheless, in this context a more sustainable gender balance remains to be 
achieved as far as female students are concerned. 

Lithuania  is  implementing  a  number  of  measures  to  sustain  tertiary  attainment  at  the  40 % 
level, such as the state-supported study loan scheme, social scholarships, financial support for 
students  with  disabilities,  or  targeted  scholarships  for  certain  types  of  study  programmes. 

9   Participation in lifelong learning in Lithuania is very low (4.5 % in Lithuania, 13.8 % in the EU in 2009), 
with rates extremely low for the low-skilled (3.2 %) and older workers (1.9 % of 45–54 year olds). 

- 91 - 

 
 
                                                 
Some monitoring of potential decreases in numbers of tertiary education graduates linked to 
the  new  funding  system  for  higher  education  and  the  introduction  of  tuition  fees  may  be 
relevant. 

Having adopted the new Law on Research and Higher Education in 2009, the government is 
keeping  up  its  efforts  to  raise  the  quality  of  higher  education  and  address  the  mismatches 
between the supply of tertiary education graduates and labour market needs. 

4.  MOBILITY 

Lithuania  takes  part  in  the  Comenius,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Erasmus  and  Grundtvig 
programmes, the NordPlus Framework Programme (for schools, higher education institutions 
and  adult  learners)  and  the  Academic  Exchange  Programme,  and  runs  other  projects,  some 
supported  by  the  EU  Structural  Funds,  that  encourage  learning  mobility.  Lithuania  also  has 
learning  mobility  schemes  based  on  bilateral  agreements  with  educational  and  training 
institutions inside the EU and beyond (e.g. Japan, Israel, China). 
As regards tertiary education Lithuania has an outbound long-term mobility (3.6 % of students 
per year) that is slightly above the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (1.2 % of students in 2008/09) is also above the EU average. 

Lithuania  is  among  the  countries  that  recognise  teachers’  participation  in  international 
learning mobility as part of the upgrading of their qualifications. 

The command of foreign languages is the major obstacle to learning mobility in Lithuania. In 
order to address the issue and to facilitate participation in learning mobility, special courses 
for upgrading knowledge of foreign languages are provided. 

Lithuania’s  approach  to  learning  mobility  appears  to  be  fully  in  line  with  the  Council 
Recommendation ‘Youth on the move — promoting the learning mobility of young people’ 
adopted in 2011. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Lithuania  approved  a  Strategy  for  Ensuring  Lifelong  Learning  in  2008,  together  with  an 
Action  Plan  for  its  implementation.  However,  as  the  strategy  and  the  action  plan  are  rather 
general, the targets, deadlines and financing  sources are not clearly indicated, and assessing 
the impact could be challenging. 

The  EU  Structural  Funds  are  one  of  the  largest  sources  of  financing  for  lifelong  learning 
services  in  Lithuania.  Lithuania  began  to  develop  possibilities  for  pupils  aged  14–19  to 
choose  a  learning  pathway  by  way  of  differentiated  or  individualised  curriculum  content 
through  a  School  Improvement  Programme  Plus  project,  supported  by  the  European  Social 
Fund, on the ‘Provision of options for choosing a learning pathway for students aged 14–19, 
phase  II,  wider  differentiation  and  individualisation  of  learning  to  achieve  the  quality  of 
education needed for today’s world of labour’. The project is to be finalised in 2012. 

In  2008  Lithuania  conducted  a  survey  on  future  skills,  the  results  of  which  were  used  in 
forecasting  levels  of  students’  admission  to  vocational  schools  and  higher  education 
establishments in 2009. In 2010, Lithuania started implementing a project for putting in place 
a  monitoring  system  to  ensure  quality  and  efficiency  in  the  provision  of  career  services  in 
general education and in particular in VET, where enrolment is very low. In 2010, a research 
project  on  the  demand  for  specialists  and  skills  was  undertaken,  which  was  a  basis  for 
developing a map of the needs for specialists and skills in the various economic sectors for the 

- 92 - 

 
 
period 2011–2016. Lithuania is continuing to work on the development of the public policy 
framework for forecasting skills demand. 

Although  the  measures  outlined  above  are  consistent  with  the  main  challenges  identified 
during the European Semester, namely the need for a well developed lifelong learning system 
and  for  upgrading  and  forecasting  skills  for  the  labour  market,  the  deterioration  in  lifelong 
indicators seems to suggest the need for a more focused implementation approach. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Lithuania 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 

5.90 % 

4.91 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Public  investment  in  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  has  fallen  since  2000  and  is  now 
slightly below the EU average. 

The  education  budget  in  Lithuania  was  adversely  affected  by  the  economic  crisis  between 
2009 and 2011. The main effects could be observed on the salaries of educational staff, where 
the planned increases at all levels of education were suspended, and salary adjustments were 
made in the higher education and research sector. 

Social support schemes for pupils from disadvantaged families are continued in spite of the 
effects of the crisis. In order to support families with school-age children and provide pupils 
with nourishing meals at school, Lithuania has legal provisions specifying that children from 
low-income families are entitled to free meals and free provision of school supplies for every 
school year. 

Prioritising  investment  in  education  and  training  in  the  context  of  budgetary  restrictions,  in 
order  to  enhance  growth  in  line  with  the  general  recommendation  resulting  from  the  2011 
European Semester, will be a significant challenge for Lithuania. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

Lithuania offers a contrasted picture as regards the performance of its education system, with 
a high rate of tertiary education attainment and relatively low early school leaving levels. At 
the same time it faces major challenges in other areas, such as pre-school education, school 
achievement and adult learning. 

Lithuania  has  taken  several  initiatives  to  strengthen  the  learning  capacity  of  the  school 
population and to maintain achievements at all levels of education. 

Particular  challenges  will  be  for  Lithuania  to  step  up  efforts  to  improve  early  childhood 
education  and  care,  performance  in  specific  subjects  and  adult  participation  in  lifelong 
learning.   

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LUXEMBOURG 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

LUXEMBOURG   

Luxembourg 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

94.7 % 

94.3 %08 

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

(35.1 %)

26.0 %09 

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

22.8 %06

23.9 %09  24.006 

22.2 %09 

22.1 %06

23.7 %09  20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

16.8 %  7.1 % b,u 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

21.2 % 

46.1 % b 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

6.5 % 03 

13.4 % b  8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 5= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u= unreliable 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 94 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Luxembourg education system is simultaneously faced with the diversity of the academic 
population,  which  has  rates  of  foreign  student  participation  of  between  35  and  50 %, 
depending on the educational level, and the multilingual nature of the system, which provides 
teaching in Luxembourgish, German and French in primary education, and also in English at 
the beginning of the lower cycle of secondary education and in certain vocational institutions. 

2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Over the last ten years the education budget in Luxembourg has increased steadily in absolute 
terms, but has dropped slightly as a share of GDP, and is below the EU average (this does not 
include  spending  on  higher  education).  The  country’s  performance  is  fairly  mixed  in 
comparison to other EU countries, with problems in early school leaving and higher education 
attainment.  The  NRP  stresses  the  reforms  already  introduced  in  the  fields  of  primary, 
secondary and professional education as well as professional training. 
With an early school leaving (ESL) rate of 9 % (2008–2009),10 Luxembourg has reached its 
target  and  is  considering  a  more  ambitious  objective.  However,  the  migrant  population  in 
particular  is  still  hit  heavily  by  early  school  leaving.  For  children  from  immigrant  families 
where none or only one of the official languages is spoken at home, gaining proficiency in all 
three  official  languages  is  difficult.  For  students  without  fluency  in  the  three  languages,  a 
number of career paths will be closed. 

Upper secondary attainment, at 76.8 % in 2009, is below the EU average of 78.6 %. This can 
be partly explained by strong net migration, with many young adults that have been educated 
outside the national education system. In addition, tertiary attainment rates (30 % in 2009)11 
are  below  the  EU  average  (32.3 %),  despite  the  strong  demand  for  workers  with  tertiary 
qualifications. This low rate is, however, linked to the fact that Luxembourg does not define 
this  indicator  on  the  basis  of  the  Eurostat  Labour  Force  Survey  (LFS)  (according  to  which 
Luxembourg  has  a  46.6 %  rate),  defining  it  instead  on  the  basis  of  only  the  resident 
population. The NRP underlines the objective of ensuring that 40 % of the resident population 
hold a university (or equivalent) degree and presents a series of measures aimed at achieving 
this  objective.  Several  measures  focus  on  increasing  the  number  of  students  embarking  on 
higher  education.  These  include  allowing  the  validation  of  prior  learning  and  experience  to 
give access to university studies, increasing short higher education studies, establishing a link 
between  higher  education  programmes  and  companies’  needs  in  order  to  promote 
employability  of  higher  education  graduates,  and  offering  financial  support  to  all  students 
whether they are studying in Luxembourg or outside the country. Policy measures to promote 
entry to higher education and to ensure successful completion of studies within a reasonable 
timeframe  are  not  clearly  described  in  the  NRP.  Close  monitoring  of  the  impact  of  these 
measures will be important. 

Adult participation in lifelong learning (13.4 % in 2009) has improved. This would be further 
improved through a coherent and closely monitored lifelong learning strategy, particularly for 
the population aged 55–64 with a low education level. The reform of vocational education and 
training (VET) will provide more possibilities to bridge the gap between vocational training 
and  higher  education.  A  key  challenge  will  be  to  increase  the  quality  and  attractiveness  of 

10   National figure. The Eurostat figure stands at 7.7 %. 
11   National figure. The Eurostat figure stands at 46.8 %. 

- 95 - 

 
 
                                                 
VET studies and to raise the standard to excellent in order to provide a qualified workforce to 
the labour market and offer job prospects to the learners. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (4) 

Take  steps  to  reduce  youth  unemployment  by  reinforcing  training  and  education  measures 
aimed at better matching young people’s skills to labour demand. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

At present Luxembourg does not define the education indicators on the basis of the Eurostat 
Labour Force Survey (LFS) but on the basis of the early school leaver detection system set up 
by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training and on the resident population. 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Luxembourg  has  set  a  national  target  of  10 %  of  school  leavers  by  2020.  However,  if  the 
objective is reached and the rate stabilised by 2015 the national target might be replaced by a 
more ambitious one. 

Luxembourg performs better than the EU average in the area of Early leavers from education 
and  training.  In  2008–2009  the  share  of  early  school  leavers  reached  9 %  (Eurostat  figure: 
7.7 %).  A  decline  in  the  number  of  early  school  leavers  began  in  2003,  due  to  improved 
guidance,  systematic  follow-up  of  students  who  drop  out  and  the  creation  of  new  academic 
possibilities for students with difficulties.  In this area Luxembourg has put in place a set of 
measures  to  address  early  school  leaving,  including  the  promotion  of  success  in  school, 
strengthening counselling activities and implementing a programme to reintegrate pupils into 
school taking into account the diversified origin of the school population (35 % to 50 % of the 
pupils are of foreign origin). A second-chance school was opened in March 2011. 

As regards the quality of teaching at primary and secondary level Luxembourg has also put in 
place  tools  for  monitoring  and  assessing  progress  via  the  agency  for  school  quality 
development (Agence pour le développement de la qualité scolaire — ADQS). 

Participation in early childhood education is slightly above the EU average in Luxembourg. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The  tertiary  education  attainment  rate  in  Luxembourg  is  far  above  the  EU  average  and 
already  above  the  2020  headline  target.  Measured  in  percentage  points,  Luxembourg  is  the 
EU  Member  State  that  has  progressed  most  in  this  area  after  Ireland.  The  number  of  MST 
graduates  in  Luxembourg  has  grown  only  moderately  since  2000  (below  the  EU  average), 
while  the  share  of  female  MST  graduates  is  above  the  EU  average  and  close  to  gender 
balance. 

With regard to tertiary attainment, Luxembourg has set a national target of 40 %. In 2009 the 
share of 30–34 year olds with tertiary education attainment reached 30 %, while the Eurostat 
figure shows a share of 46.6 %. Luxembourg has decided to base the calculation method on 
the  resident  population  in  order  to  better  assess  the  ability  of  the  Luxembourg  education 
system to prepare young people to complete tertiary education. 

- 96 - 

 
 
 
The  measures  taken  focus,  on  the  one  hand,  on  secondary  education  and  aim  to  equip  the 
highest number of future students with the key competencies needed to successfully complete 
tertiary education; on the other hand, they focus on broadening the offer of higher education 
curricula.  .  The  Luxembourg  State  also  gives  financial  contribution  to  students  who  take 
higher or university education. The financial aid can consist of two parts: a grant paid by the 
State into the student's personal account and a loan at an interest rate of only 2%. 

Higher education in Luxembourg features the recent creation of a higher education institution, 
the  University  of  Luxembourg,  established  in  2003  with  three  faculties:  Technology  and 
Information; Law, Economics and  Finance; and  Arts and Human  and  Educational Sciences. 
Several  new  study  programmes  have  been  created  and  integrated  into  the  Bologna  system. 
The University makes higher education in Luxembourg more transparent, as the structure of 
the studies is directly linked to the Bologna Process. Alongside education, the University of 
Luxembourg puts strong emphasis on research. Five principal research priorities have been set 
and are a part of the multiannual contract (2010–2013) signed between the University and the 
government of Luxembourg. 

Despite  the  fact  that  Luxembourg  has  its  own  university,  most  students  undertake  studies 
outside  the  country.  The  high  enrolment  rate  of  tertiary  students  outside  the  country  is  due 
mainly  to  the  size  of  Luxembourg  and  to  the  fact  that  the  national  higher  education  system 
does not provide all third-level studies. 

4.  MOBILITY 

Luxembourg  is  committed  to  promoting  and  facilitating  outgoing/incoming  mobility  for 
learners,  teachers  and  workers,  especially  within  the  ‘Grande  Région’  (‘Greater  region’, 
which  covers  neighbouring  regions  of  LU,  DE,  BE  and  FR).  A  legal  basis  has  been 
established for cross-border vocational training, easing the mobility of trainees, especially for 
jobs for which theoretical training is not available in Luxembourg schools. Given the fact that 
Luxembourg attracts many workers from neighbouring countries, it organises courses in the 
Luxembourgish  language  in  France  and  Germany.  A  Germano-Luxembourgish  secondary 
school has also been created. 

As  regards  tertiary  education,  Luxembourg  has  the  highest  outbound  long-term  mobility 
(80.2 % of students per year) in Europe, affecting the large majority of students, while short-
term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus  programme  (14.1 %  of  students  in  2008/09)  is  clearly 
above the EU average and also the highest in Europe. 

One of the priorities of the University of Luxembourg is the international mobility of students. 
All  bachelor  students  are  legally  bound  to  spend  one  semester  abroad.  The  University  of 
Luxembourg  also  takes  in  students  from  foreign  universities.  Agreements  on  student 
exchanges with foreign universities have been signed or are under negotiation. Financial aid 
(grants  and  loans)  is  provided  for  students  studying  abroad  by  the  national  government  and 
with the help of the Erasmus programme. The mobility of students in initial VET is organised 
via the EU’s Lifelong Learning Programme (Leonardo da Vinci and Grundtvig). 

The mobility of teachers and trainers in initial VET and continuing VET is also organised via 
the  EU-funded  programmes  (Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Grundtvig,  Comenius),  the  VETPRO 
programme and Cedefop study visits. 

 The national language Institute (Institut national des langues) reformed in 2009, which offers 
the teaching of eight languages, also contributes to remove obstacles to mobility. 

- 97 - 

 
 
 
5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

At present Luxembourg does not have a single comprehensive lifelong learning strategy. 

With  the  government  programme  2009–2013,  Luxembourg  is  committed  to  improving  and 
promoting  LLL  by  developing  a  coherent  LLL  strategy.  This  will  involve  establishing  a 
system  for  the  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning,  designing  a  national 
qualifications  framework  and  creating  the  concept  of  the  counselling  centre  (maison  de 
l’orientation) for pupils, students and adults. 

A project ‘Strategy LLL’ (S3L), supported by both the Ministry of Education and the EU, was 
launched in May 2011. The aim is to inform the public about LLL opportunities and to engage 
a national dialogue on LLL. As a follow-up to this process, a white paper will be published 
and will serve as basis for shaping an LLL strategy. 

Luxembourg has created the ‘Agence pour le développement de la qualité scolaire’, with the 
aim of developing a comprehensive quality assurance reference framework in education and 
training at the level of the education system, school, class and individual pupil. 

In the context of the implementation of the education reforms, lifelong learning for teaching 
staff is a main concern of the Ministry of Education and Training. 

Luxembourg faces a need for specific professional skills required by a highly specialised and 
strongly competitive labour market, featuring a large financial services sector. 

The VET reform radically overhauled vocational education in 2008. This reform is scheduled 
to  be  fully  implemented  for  the  school  year  2011/2012.  In  order  to  better  match  VET  with 
present and future labour market needs, all vocational training courses have been reorganised. 
An observatory for training has also been created with the aim of monitoring and analysing 
the  future  careers  of  trainees  and  the  performance  of  VET,  and  carrying  out  prospective 
studies on trends in jobs and market needs. 

As regards the quality of education and the recognition of professional experience, a national 
qualifications framework (NQF) will be established by the end of 2011. It should be linked to 
the EQF. 

One  of  the  biggest  challenges  for  Luxembourg  remains  the  integration  of  children  with  a 
migrant  background  into  the  multilingual  school  system.  With  this  end  in  view  several 
initiatives have been taken to facilitate the schooling of children of different origins. 

As regards adult participation in lifelong learning, Luxembourg has made significant progress 
too (a break in time series in 2009 has, however, contributed to the result) and today performs 
above the EU average. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education, % of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

01=2001, 07=2007 

- 98 - 

Luxembourg 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

3.74 %01 

3.15 %07 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

 
 
 
The overall national budget has decreased slightly since 2009, although the education budget 
has not been affected. 

Public investment in education as a percentage of GDP has dropped slightly since 2000 and is 
currently below the EU average. However, it has to be considered that Luxembourg data do 
not include spending on higher education (for which the EU average is about 1.1 % of GDP). 

The  budget  devoted  to  education  in  2009,  2010  and  2011  (in  absolute  terms)  has  increased 
slightly. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

In line with the recommendation formulated within the first European Semester, Luxembourg 
has adopted a series of measures in the area of education and training in order to ensure better 
matching between the skills of its young people and the needs of the labour market. 

In  this  context  it  has  developed  the  concept  of  counselling  centre  (maison  de  l’orientation) 
providing guidance services for pupils, students and adults. 

Luxembourg  has  also  implemented  a  VET  reform  which  comprises  the  establishment  of  a 
validation system for previously acquired professional experience. 

Finally, Luxembourg has decided to introduce a national qualifications framework, which will 
be linked to the EQF and is set to become operational before the end of 2011. 

- 99 - 

 
 
MALTA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

MALTA   

Malta 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

100 % 

93.9 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

24.0 %06 

22.2 %09 

20.3 %06 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

54.2 % 

36.9 % b

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

7.4 % 

18.6 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

4.3 %04 

5.7 %  

8.5 % 03 

9.1 % 10 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 100 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

targets.  Since  Malta  has  few  natural  resources,  economic  growth 

Insufficient  qualifications  and  training  are  another  bottleneck  in  reaching  the  government’s 
employment 
is 
overwhelmingly  dependent  on  its  human  capital.  The  notable  discrepancy  between  the 
demand  for  and  supply  of  skills  in Malta suggests that there is a need to improve the skills 
base of the labour force in order to respond to the structural changes the economy has been 
undergoing since the beginning of the decade and to further attract foreign investment in high 
value-added activities. The NRP describes a number of ongoing programmes aimed at raising 
the  skills  of  the  labour  force,  namely  apprenticeship  and  training  schemes.  The  government 
also plans to invest further in its Scholarship Scheme, specifically in the area of science and 
technology,  and  to  extend  the  existing  postgraduate  support  programme  to  include  post-
doctoral  opportunities  to  support  research  and  innovation  activities.  In  addition,  skills 
shortages in specific high added-value areas have been partly addressed in further and higher 
education  through  the  introduction  of  flexible  courses  in  collaboration  with  industry  and 
university-business forums. 

The  NRP  outlines  a  number  of  measures  to  improve  education  outcomes  with  substantial 
budgetary allocations in 2011.12 A major challenge in this area is the high rate of early school 
leavers, which the NRP sets out to address. Measures aim to improve social and educational 
services  to  students  in  compulsory  education  and  to  introduce  multi-disciplinary  teams 
(including  social  workers,  psychologists,  counsellors)  to  help  truant  children  and  their 
families.  In  addition,  to  make  education  more  attractive,  the  Maltese  government  will 
introduce  vocational  subjects  in  secondary  school  and  extend  the  provision  of  vocational 
subjects at post-secondary level. Some measures are also envisaged to attract adults with less 
than upper secondary education into higher education. The government also plans to set up a 
national  system  for  the  accreditation  of  further  and  higher  education  programmes  and  the 
recognition of informal learning. 

The  set  of  measures  that  target  education  reflect  the  AGS  priorities  and  should  enable 
progress  towards  the  national  benchmarks  within  the  Europe  2020  strategy.  Nevertheless, 
given  the  importance  of  higher  education  for  certain  high  added-value  sectors,  for  instance 
business  and  financial  services  and  ICT,  the  NRP  does  not  appear  sufficiently  ambitious  in 
tackling the challenge of insufficient qualification and training. In addition, the NRP does not 
adequately  analyse  the  sources  of  the  high  rate  of  early  school  leaving,  which  makes  it 
difficult  to  properly  address  the  problem  in  a  comprehensive  way.  Malta’s  early  school 
leaving rate is still the highest in the EU, at 36.8 % vs 14.4 % on average in the EU, despite 
significant progress made in the past. If the same pace of progress is maintained in the decade 
ahead, the national target set by Malta for 2020 (29 %) does not seem ambitious enough. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (3) 

Take action within the period 2011–2012 to 

12   € 340 million out of € 2.9 billion, an increase of € 32 million over 2010. 

- 101 - 

 
 
                                                 
Focus education outcomes more on labour market needs, notably by making additional efforts 
to improve access to higher education and by strengthening the effectiveness of the vocational 
training  system.  Take  further  measures  to  reduce  early  school  leaving  by  identifying, 
analysing  and  measuring  its  causes  by  2012  and  by  setting  up  a  regular  monitoring  and 
reporting mechanism on the success rate of the measures. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

While Malta is the poorest EU performer in terms of the early-leaving rate (36.8 %, compared 
to the EU average of 14.4 % in 2009), the country also showed good progress on this indicator 
over the period 2000–2009 (the ESL rate in 2000 stood at 54.2 %). The Maltese government 
recognises the importance of tackling this issue and of reducing the level of ESL. 

Malta has addressed ESL through a host of policy measures in the three areas of prevention, 
intervention and compensation in the National Reform Programme (NRP) and the national ET 
2020 report of 2011. This is in line with the European Semester recommendation to Malta and 
with the approach outlined in the Council Recommendation on policies to reduce early school 
leaving of 2011. 

Specific short- and medium-term measures include guidance and dropout prevention for high 
school  students  and  their  families;  creation  of  transition  paths  between  compulsory  and 
vocational  education  and  training  (VET);  inclusion  of  VET  and  science  subjects  in  the 
secondary  school  curricula;  increased  learning  opportunities  through  new  educational 
providers and programme accreditation in the area of further and higher education; investment 
in learning infrastructure; review of curricula; and more lifelong learning and adult education 
opportunities. It should be noted in this context that Malta performs above the EU average on 
participation in early childhood education. 

New NRP measures start as early as 2011. Previously, a national core competence policy was 
introduced and streaming in the upper primary years was removed in favour of having mixed-
ability classes. On the one hand, these measures intend to avoid channelling pupils to different 
school types too early. On the other hand, they guide students at risk of early school leaving 
towards  interesting  career  paths  in  work  sectors  in  demand  by  industry  through  vocational 
education  and  training  or  by  giving  them  second-chance  learning  opportunities  in  key 
competences. A diversified offer of schools and programmes will stimulate competition and 
innovative,  more  interesting  learning  and  teaching  environments  in  the  education  sector. 
Certain measures will only yield initial results in 2013. 

Currently,  statistical  reports  are  made  on  pupils  leaving  compulsory  education  and  tracer 
studies are carried out. The skills levels are assessed in the PISA studies. To tackle the high 
rate of early school leaving, the Maltese authorities have expressed their intention to track the 
educational, vocational and employment progress of all Malta’s early school leavers until they 
reach  the  age  of  20.  Advice,  guidance  and  support  services  on  employment  and  education 
options will be provided. In addition, an expert statistician has been commissioned to give a 
clear picture of education and ESL in Malta. The government has set a goal of seeing 85 % of 
young people continue their studies after the age of 16 (the end of compulsory education). 

These  measures  are  consistent  with  the  challenges  identified  during  the  European  Semester 
2011 and in line with the relevant recommendations. 

- 102 - 

 
 
3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

While  Malta’s  tertiary  attainment  rate  is  still  far  below  the  EU  average,  Malta  is  the  EU 
country with the highest growth rate since 2000, the rate almost tripling by 2010. In addition, 
Malta  has  seen  strong  growth  in  the  number  of  MST  graduates  (70 %  over  eight  years), 
compared  to  the  EU  average  (33 %  over  the  same  period)  with  a  slight  improvement  of  the 
gender  balance  too.  The  creation  of  the  Malta  College  of  Arts,  Science  and  Technology 
(MCAST) largely contributed to this increase, in particular the growth of the figure for MST 
graduates.  Measures  undertaken  or  planned  focus  on  further  investment  in  the  capacity  of 
post-secondary  vocational  institutions  such  as  a  new  campus  for  MCAST,  investment  in 
human capital, including more scholarships (such as ESF-funded STEPS), and targeted VET 
programmes.  Non-traditional  adult  learners  who  do  not  fulfil  the  regular  admission  criteria 
may  nevertheless  enter  tertiary  education  under  a  maturity  clause  to  provide  alternative 
pathways  to  a  tertiary  degree.  In  addition,  newly  set  up  accreditation  and  licensing 
mechanisms for new further and higher education providers and programmes will broaden the 
educational offer. 

Skills  shortages  in  specific  high-value  areas  are  being  addressed  in  further  and  higher 
education  through  university-business  forums  and  other  close  ties  with  employers.  Among 
others,  advanced  VET  institutions  such  as  MCAST  offer  flexible  courses  designed  in 
collaboration with industry. 

Measures  to  increase  participation  in  higher  education  include  the  creation  of  the  Malta 
Qualifications  Framework,  revision  of  curricula,  more  information  and  guidance  on  study 
opportunities and scholarships for prospective students, new financial incentives to study and 
validation of non-formal and informal learning. To improve completion rates, the University 
of Malta awards a Higher Education Certificate to students who have successfully completed 
60 ECTS points but do not go for a full Bachelor degree (normally a minimum of 180 ECTS 
points). 

These  measures  are  consistent  with  the  challenges  identified  during  the  European  Semester 
2011 and in line with the relevant recommendations. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Malta has an outbound long-term mobility (10.9 % of students 
per year) that is clearly above the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the EU 
Erasmus programme (1.5 % of Maltese students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. 

The  EU’s  Lifelong  Learning  Programme  with  its  sectoral  sub-programmes  as  well  as  the 
Youth  in  Action  Programme  play  an  important  role  in  fostering  transnational  mobility  in 
Malta. In the higher education sector, mobility flows show a strong imbalance as the number 
of incoming students for credit mobility significantly exceeds the number of outgoing Maltese 
students. Further efforts will therefore be necessary to address this challenge. 

The  national  grants  are  portable  abroad.  In  the  academic  year  2010/2011,  the  two  EU 
programmes  were  suspended  in  Malta,  which  meant  that  EU  funds  could  not  be  used  for 
outgoing mobility from Malta. 

The  University  of  Malta  is  improving  its  management  of  mobility  periods,  including 
promotion,  the  academic  calendar  and  recognition  practices.  It  encourages  teacher  mobility 
and assesses the reports of returning exchange students to further adapt its services. 

- 103 - 

 
 
5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Malta is currently developing its lifelong learning strategy, which is to be in place before the 
end of 2011. The strategy is being put in place by the newly created Directorate for Lifelong 
Learning (DLLL), which also runs adult education courses and an LLL Centre for over 9 900 
registered  learners  and  provides  higher  education  scholarships  to  raise  specific  skill  levels. 
The  training  of  adult  trainers  is  a  priority.  The  DLLL  also  intends  to  develop  skills  for 
creative industries using EU structural funds. 

Malta’s high ESL rate and low employment rate of women and older workers was addressed 
by a number of measures proposed on adult learning courses and alternative access pathways 
to higher education. In addition, the extension of educational opportunities in VET at existing 
post-secondary institutions and the opening of the education market to new providers should 
enhance skills levels further in the labour force. 

MCAST  is  expanding  its  course  offer  and  infrastructure  (equipment,  campus  facilities)  to 
increase  the  attractiveness  of  VET  for  non-traditional  learners  and  increase  the  supply  of 
highly specific job competences in industry. 

Students over 25 years lacking minimum entry qualifications may nevertheless take a higher 
education degree at the University of Malta. MCAST’s courses are also open to older learners 
through  such  a  maturity  clause.  The  ITS  likewise  allows  access  to  courses  with  lower 
qualifications.  Apprenticeship  schemes  and  training  by  the  Employment  and  Training 
Corporation (ETC) offer tailored VET opportunities. 

A 2008 conference looked into the ‘skills for the future’, followed by a workshop with experts 
a  year  later.  Malta  was  also  involved  in  European-level  activities  in  the  field  of  skills 
anticipation with Cedefop. Sectoral skill needs are being explored by a number of ESF-funded 
projects. 

These  measures  are  consistent  with  the  challenges  identified  during  the  European  Semester 
2011 and with the relevant recommendations. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Malta 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 

4.49% 

6.01% 

4.88% 

5.07% 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

On investment in education as a percentage of GDP, Malta has been performing close to the 
EU  average  and  investment  rates  have  increased  between  2000  and  2008,  despite  some 
decline in the period 2005–2007. In 2007 the share of GDP spent on education was above the 
EU average by almost 1 percentage point. In addition, as a result of a relatively low number of 
tertiary  students,  spending  on  tertiary  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  is  relatively  low, 
despite a high level of spending per student. 

In 2008 Malta was hit by the economic crisis but recovered, with exports, business investment 
and employment starting to pick up in 2010. 

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The funding level for the education and training sector increased substantially over the period 
2006–2010, from €193m to €241m despite the crisis years. The 2011 national budget further 
invests in education as a priority sector. 

In the same five-year period, public financial support for the University of Malta and MCAST 
for  both  recurrent  and  capital  expenditure  expanded  considerably,  from  €32m  to  €53m  and 
from  €11m  to  €16m  respectively.  Funds  for  maintenance  grants  and  scholarships  also 
increased from €19m to €22m. 

The  increased  investment  in  the  education  sector  reflects  the  general  recommendation 
resulting  from  the  European  Semester  2011  that  expenditure  be  boosted  in  growth-friendly 
sectors. This effort should allow the national benchmarks within the Europe 2020 strategy to 
be reached. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

Malta faces with a threefold challenge: a high rate of early school leaving, a relatively modest 
rate  of  tertiary  education  attainment  and  a  vocational  training  system  in  need  of 
modernisation. 

The  European  Semester  recommendations  call  in  particular  on  Malta  to  further  address  the 
high  early  school  leaving  (ESL)  rate  by  2012.  The  measures  already  in  place  appear  to  be 
pointing in a positive direction and addressing all the aspects of ESL prevention, intervention 
and compensation, including guidance and monitoring. The evaluation of the impact of these 
measures will be crucial. 

As far as participation in tertiary education is concerned, if the upward trend noted in recent 
years  is  maintained,  it  should  allow  Malta  to  reach  its  ambitious  national  target.  Malta  has 
also been strengthening linkages with business and industry, in particular in tertiary VET, to 
improve effectiveness and address specific skill shortages, in line with the recommendations 
resulting from the European Semester. 

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THE NETHERLANDS 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020, as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

NETHERLANDS   

Netherlands 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

99.5 % 

99.5 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

(9.5 %) 

14.3 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

11.5 %06

13.4 %09 24.006 

22.2 %09 

13.0 %06

13.2 %09 20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

15.4 % 

10.1 %b  17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

26.5 % 

41.4 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

16.4 % 03

16.5 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03= 2003, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

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2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

The Netherlands performs well in education, across all levels of schooling. The percentage of 
early  school  leavers  has  fallen  from  15.4 %  (2000)  to  10.9 %  (2009)  and  is  below  the 
European  average  of  14.4 %.  Tertiary  attainment  of  the  population  aged  30–34  has  risen 
significantly  in  the  last  decade,  from  26.5 %  (2000)  to  40.5 %  (2009),  exceeding  both  the 
current  European  average  of  32.2 %  and  the  2020  European  target.  By  2020,  the  tertiary 
attainment  rate  is  projected  to  reach  45 %.  Rather  than  increasing  participation  in  tertiary 
education further, the government intends to shift the policy focus to quality. 

According  to  the  NRP,  the  government’s  education  policy  focuses  on  creating  the  right 
conditions  to  improve  the  system’s  performance.  Regarding  early  school  leaving,  measures 
focus  primarily  on  prevention,  i.e.  making  sure  that  young  people  do  not  leave  education 
without  basic  qualifications,  although  there  are  no  specific  measures  for  the  hard-to-reach 
groups or those who have already dropped out of school.  

In tertiary education, a high participation rate is accompanied by high drop-out rates, with the 
likelihood  of  graduation  falling  below  70 %.  In  addition,  institutions  need  to  address  the 
growing  challenge  of  combining  an  ever-increasing  number  of  students  with  academic 
excellence.  The  measures  set  out  in  the  NRP  include  the  introduction  of  a  new  funding 
mechanism  in  tertiary  education,  based  on  specialisation  and  on  encouraging  excellence. 
While  the  government  intends  to  invest  up  to  EUR  300  million  between  2011  and  2016  in 
intensifying  teaching  in  tertiary  education,  it  remains  to  be  seen  if  higher  education 
institutions can indeed deliver better quality in the light of rising student numbers. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

The Netherlands performs better than the EU average in the area of early school leaving. The 
share of early school leavers was 10.1 % in 2010, close to the 2020 benchmark of 10 %. The 
Netherlands has set itself the target to reduce the share  of young people aged 18 to 24 without 
basic  qualifications  to  below  8 %  by  2020.  This  target  would  imply  a  reduction  to  a  yearly 
maximum  of  25,000  early  leavers.  In  the  school  year  2009/2010,  there  were  39,600  early 
leavers, a reduction by 3,000 compared to the year before. Based on current trends, the target 
should be reached. 

Tackling  early  school  leaving  is  a  clear  priority  of  the  Dutch  government.  Many  policy 
measures  have  already  been  implemented,  including  the  introduction  of  an  Education 
Database  and  online  absentee  registration  system  and  results-oriented  voluntary  agreements 
with  schools  and  municipalities.  The  comprehensive  Dutch  approach,  in  which  central  and 
local governments, educational institutions and youth care services work together at regional 
level, has been identified as a best practice in the Council Recommendation on early school 
leaving. 

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3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The  share  of  the  population  aged  30–34  with  tertiary  education  attainment  has  improved 
significantly over the last decade and is already above not only the EU average, but also the 
2020  benchmark.  In  2010,  the  attainment  rate  was  41.4 %,  compared  to  the  EU  average  of 
33.6 %  and  2020  benchmark  of  40 %.  By  2020,  the  tertiary  attainment  rate  is  projected  to 
reach 45 % of the population aged 30–34. However, the Dutch government did not provide a 
target for 2020 in its National Reform Programme. Its main argument for not setting a target 
is that the share of the population completing tertiary education in the Netherlands has already 
exceeded the European 2020 target and will rise further in the coming years. 

The Netherlands has made good progress in increasing the number of MST graduates, and the 
growth rate has been above the EU average. However, the share of female MST graduates is 
the lowest among all EU countries. 

Rather  than  focusing  on  further  increasing  participation  in  tertiary  education,  which  may 
negatively  affect  completion  rates,  the  Dutch  government  is  committed  to  further 
improvements  in  the  quality  of  education  and  to  reducing  high  drop-out  rates.  From  2008, 
concrete arrangements with higher education institutions have been made to reduce drop-out 
rates,  although  no  specific  targets  have  been  set,  and  the  government  will  put  in  place 
additional measures, such as more emphasis on selection and guidance and the introduction of 
a fine for students staying too long in tertiary education. 

These measures consistently focus on the main challenges identified for tertiary education in 
the framework of  the European Semester, i.e. high participation  coupled with  high drop-out 
rates and the need to ensure academic relevance and excellence. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, the Netherlands has an outbound long-term mobility (2.3 % of 
students  per  year)  slightly  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  EU  Erasmus  programme-
based short term-mobility (0.8 % of students in 2008/09) is on the EU average. 

Almost  8 %  of  primary  schools  have  actively  been  involved  in  internationalisation.  Pupil 
exchanges  have  been  common  for  some  time  now  in  the  upper  years  of  secondary  school 
(years  4,  5  and  6).  A  considerable  number  of  pupils  in  the  fourth  year  of  senior  secondary 
general  education  (HAVO)  and  years  4  and  5  of  pre-university  (VWO)  education  have 
participated  in  such  exchanges.  The  number  of  MBO  work  placements  abroad  will  be 
gradually  increased.  The  Netherlands  supports  the  emphasis  on  learning  mobility  and  is 
willing to bring its own aims for secondary vocational education into line with the European 
benchmark, which has yet to be determined. The government has earmarked € 10 million for 
2011  for  incoming  and  outgoing  mobility  of  outstanding  students.  Student  financing  is 
portable,  so  that  entire  degree  programmes  can  be  followed  abroad,  provided  that  the 
programmes  are  of  high  quality.  The  government  also  intends  to  develop  a  pilot  mobility 
programme to give teachers in higher education an opportunity to spend time teaching abroad. 
Teachers  will  be  selected  on  the  basis  of  excellence.  Teacher  mobility  in  primary  and 
secondary  education  is  supported  by  means  of  individual  grants,  and  funding  is  provided 
through  the  EU-funded  Comenius  Programme  and  the  Dutch  Promotion  of  International 
Orientation and Cooperation Programme. 

The Netherlands has been making commendable efforts to promote learning mobility among 
less-represented  groups,  such  as  secondary  school  pupils  and  teachers.  Given  the  high 
participation rates in tertiary education, mobility in this sector could be further strengthened to 

- 108 - 

 
 
help reduce drop-out risk by increasing student motivation and improving the overall quality 
of learning. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

The  Netherlands  has  an  explicit  lifelong  learning  strategy,  though  its  implementation  is  not 
captured  in  one  policy  document.    An  inter-ministerial  Learning  and  Working  Project 
Department  (PLW)  was  set  up  in  2005,  with  staff  from  the  Ministry  of  Social  Affairs  and 
Employment  and  the  Ministry  of  Education,  Culture  and  Science,  to  decide  on  specific 
measures  to  promote  adult  learning.  As  regards  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning,  the 
Netherlands  performs  above  both  the  EU  average  and  the  2020  target,  although  in  the  last 
decade there  has  been  limited progress in increasing the rate further. Following a decline in 
the period 2004–2006, the participation rate is now back to the 2003 level. 

PLW built broad regional networks and infrastructure for lifelong learning with the help of a 
subsidy  scheme  and  completed  its  task  at  the  end  of  2010.  Lifelong  learning  should  now 
become part of the core policy-making of sector departments within the ministries involved, 
mainly Education and Social Affairs. It remains to be seen how this will affect the results of 
the Dutch lifelong learning policy and its ambition to increase participation in general, and in 
particular  for  some  hard-to-reach  target  groups,  such  as  low-skilled  people,  older  people, 
jobseekers,  and  small  and  medium-sized  enterprises.  New  policy  measures  focus  on 
awareness-raising  and  improving  procedures  to  recognise  prior  learning.  To  this  end, 
legislation is currently under preparation. 

These actions are consistent with the main principles of lifelong learning strategies agreed at 
EU  level,  in  particular  a  holistic  approach,  flexible  pathways  and  partnerships  between  the 
different stakeholders. There is still a mismatch  between  labour  market  needs  and  the  skills 
obtained  in  the  Dutch  education  system,  in  particular  in  the  VET  sector,  where  there  are  a 
relatively high number of vacancies per unemployed person. The government has proposed a 
new  action  plan  for  secondary  vocational  education  (MBO),  focusing  on  skills,  covering 
2011–2015,  presented  to  Parliament  in  February  2011.  Under  this  plan,  the  government 
assigns  overall  responsibility  for  developing  and  updating  the  qualification  structure  to  the 
newly-created  Education-Business  Alliance.  From  the  2012/2013  school  year  onwards, 
students in vocational training will not have to choose a specific course from the outset, but 
will first be able to enrol in fields of training containing modules from different courses with 
related  content.  It  is  hoped  this  measure  will  help  to  reduce  the  number  of  early  school 
leavers. 

Furthermore, once every three years, a comprehensive survey will be carried out to evaluate 
how satisfied the business community is with the results of the MBO reforms. The findings 
will be published as a separate section of the annual benchmarking exercise conducted by the 
Secondary  Vocational  Education  Council.  From  2012  onwards,  the  MBO  action  plan  will 
provide for a ‘performance kit’ with resources enabling targets to be agreed with individual 
MBO  institutions.  It  is  important  that  provision  be  tailored  to  the  needs  of  business  in  the 
region and dovetail with the key economic areas identified in the government’s memorandum 
on business. 

The  Ministry  of  Education,  Culture  and  Science  uses  various  tools  to  regulate  educational 
provision.  The  so-called  ‘macro-efficiency’  test  is  designed  to  ensure  that  there  are  not  too 
many  graduates  in  a  field  for  which  there  is  no  demand  in  the  Netherlands.  In  order  to 
stimulate  the  creation  of  new  jobs,  the  Ministry  has  decided  that  education  programmes  for 

- 109 - 

 
 
jobs  in  new  areas  of  the  economy  have  a  greater  chance  of  being  approved  than  education 
programmes leading to traditional jobs. 

Overall, these measures are in accordance with the general principles agreed at EU level for 
better matching of skills needs with labour market requirements. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Netherlands 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

4.96 % 

5.46 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Public investment in  education as a percentage of GDP in the Netherlands has increased by 
half a percentage point since 2000 and is now clearly above the EU average. 

Since  the  onset  of the crisis, the Netherlands has adopted  reductions in education grants, as 
well as a wage freeze and a freeze of the general and vocational education budget. In 2011, 
the  government  also  proposed  cutting  the  budget  for  government-funded  higher  education 
institutions.  Considerable  changes  in  funding  mechanisms  and  re-allocation  of  funds  have 
also been proposed, such as the replacement of scholarships for master’s programmes with a 
social loan system. The overall education policy of the new government is to push education 
institutions to deliver more quality with the same or less funding, by becoming more efficient 
and focused, and by concentrating on the primary processes of education. More performance-
based funding will be introduced at all levels. Extra money will be given to raise the quality 
of  the  primary  processes  (i.e.  education/teaching),  while  the  budget  not  contributing  to  the 
primary processes will be cut. 

While  recognising  the  need  to  focus  on  efficiency  in  a  context  of  budgetary  restrictions,  it 
would also be important for the Netherlands to continue to actively invest in education, in line 
with  the  general  recommendations  issued  at  the  end  of  the  European  Semester,  to  preserve 
and/or reinforce economic growth. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

The  Netherlands  has  strengthened  the  implementation  of  its  lifelong  learning  strategy  by 
setting up new structures ensuring inter- and intra-governmental coordination. 

The Netherlands performs well at all levels of education and has set out to raise performance 
further by improving quality rather than increasing participation, which is already high. This 
is  in  line  with  the  challenges  identified  in  the  European  Semester  to  ensure  academic 
relevance and excellence. In order to raise long-term student mobility rates, which are below 
the  EU  average,  the  government  has  earmarked  € 10  million  for  incoming  and  outgoing 
mobility  of  outstanding  students.  In  addition  to  Community  instruments,  a  specific  national 
instrument, BIOS, promotes mobility of teachers in primary and secondary schools. Mobility 
is thus linked to performance and quality improvement, in line with the Europe 2020 goals. 

Should further budget cuts appear to be necessary, a challenge for the Netherlands will be to 
match them with the general recommendation resulting from the European Semester 2011 for 

- 110 - 

 
 
 
‘smart’ fiscal consolidation intended to preserve or prioritise growth-enhancing expenditure in 
sectors such as education and training. 

- 111 - 

 
 
POLAND 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020  headline  target  and  the  related  national  targets,  along  with  mobility,  lifelong  learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

POLAND   

Poland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

58.3 % 

70.9 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

23.2 % 

15.0 %09

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

19.8 %06

20.5 %09

24.0 %06

22.2 %09 

Science 

17.0 %06

13.1 %09

20.2 %06

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

7.4 %01 

5.4 % 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

12.5 % 

35.3 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

5.0 % 04 

5.3 %  

8.5 % 03 

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01= 2001, 03= 2003, 04= 2004,  06 = 2006,  09 =2009 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 112 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Poland has been carrying out extensive reforms to modernise all levels of its education system 
and  has  improved  its  results  in  OECD  PISA  studies.  The  numbers  leaving  school  early  are 
considerably  below  the  EU  average,  and  higher  education  attainment  is  slightly  above 
average. However, the education system faces serious difficulties in providing adequate skills 
required by the labour market. Skills and jobs mismatches, especially among young people, 
should be addressed by implementing the proposed effective lifelong learning strategy, reform 
of  the  higher  education  system,  linking  it  better  with  labour  market  needs,  and  further 
investment in vocational education programmes, targeting the low-skilled and older workers 
in  particular.  Work  has  already  started  on  implementing  the  National  Qualifications 
Framework  on  top  of  the  national  register  of  qualifications  (scheduled  for  2012).  A  policy 
document, ‘The prospect of Lifelong Learning’, is soon to be adopted. The NRP sets out plans 
for legislative amendments to link education more closely to the needs of the labour market, 
e.g.  by  enabling  schools  to  implement  training  courses  preparing  to  confirm  qualifications. 
The NRP also envisages facilitating the transition from education to first employment and job 
creation  in  new,  less  crisis-prone  industries.  In  addition,  Poland  is  addressing  challenges  in 
this area through higher education reform, expected to be implemented in the second half of 
2011.  The  reform  is  intended  to  encourage  universities  to  provide  more  flexible,  higher-
quality  curricula  which  would  reduce  the  skills  mismatch  by  involving  employers  in  the 
education  process  and  by  strengthening  university-business  links  to  ensure  an  appropriate 
range of fields of studies that meet labour market needs. Access to tailored and individualised 
support programmes, including dedicated training and apprenticeship programmes leading to 
a first vocational experience, is low. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (4) 

Implement  the  proposed  lifelong  learning  strategy,  enhance  apprenticeships  and  dedicated 
vocational  training  and  education  programmes  for  older  workers  and  low-skilled  workers. 
Strengthen links between science and industry by implementing the ‘We build on Knowledge’ 
programme  (‘Budujemy  na  Wiedzy’).  Implement  the  higher  education  reform  programme 
‘Partnership  for  Knowledge’  (‘Partnerstwo  dla  Wiedzy’)  so  as  to  better  align  educational 
provision with labour market needs. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Poland is one of the best performers in the EU regarding early school leaving, with a rate of 
5.4 % in 2010, against an EU average of 14.1 %. Poland intends to reduce this rate to 4.5 % by 
2020. 

Poland  is  undertaking  several  preventive  and  compensating  measures  to  tackle  early  school 
leaving,  such  as  extending  the  duration  of  comprehensive  education  at  the  level  of  lower 
secondary school to prevent early segregation, or organising training courses and classes for 
adults who want to improve their education and competences. 

- 113 - 

 
 
As  regards  preventive  measures,  Poland  will  have  to  put  particular  emphasis  on  increasing 
participation in early childhood education and care. While the rate has increased significantly 
since 2000, it still is the lowest among the EU Member States (67.5 % against EU average of 
92.3 %).  New  legislation  (2011)  aims  to  simplify  the  setting  up  of  nurseries,  to  encourage 
enterprises  to  set  up  nurseries  and  ensure  the  legal  employment  of  ‘nannies’.  As  from  the 
school  year  2011/2012,  all  five-year-olds  and  from  2014,  all  four-year-olds  will  have  a 
guaranteed  right  to  pre-primary  education,  but  the  number  of  public  kindergartens  and 
nurseries  is  currently  insufficient  and  will  need  to  be  increased.  The  state  budget  will  grant 
financial support to activities implemented by local governments. 

To  improve  analysis  and  monitoring,  the  modernisation  of  the  SEI  (System  of  Educational 
Information)  decided  in  2011  and  to  be  implemented  as  of  2013,  will  support  the 
identification of failures to fulfil compulsory pre-primary preparation, compulsory schooling 
and education. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The rate of tertiary education attainment was 35.3 % in 2010, slightly above the EU average 
of  33.6 %.  Progress  in  the  period  2000-2009  has  been  one  of  the  strongest  in  the  EU.  The 
proposed national target to attain 45 % by 2020 is an ambitious goal but in accordance with 
the past trend. In 2008, the share of drop-outs from higher education amounted to 36 %. 

Poland has made significant progress in increasing the number of MST graduates, for which 
the growth rate has been almost three times the EU average, resulting in a doubling of the 
number of graduates since 2000. The rise in number is also coupled with a better gender 
balance. There is, however, scope for a further increase in the number of MST graduates. 

The  biggest  challenges  in  modernising  the  higher  education  system  are  to  ensure  that  the 
subjects  offered  are  a  better  match  for  the  needs  of  the  labour  market  and  to  improve  the 
quality  of  teaching  to  provide  students  with  the  more  practical  knowledge  required  by 
employers  that  will  help  them  find  a  first  job  after  graduation.  In  line  with  the  specific 
recommendation  issued  in  the  framework  of  the  European  Semester,  Poland  is  addressing 
these challenges through higher education reform, which is expected to be implemented in the 
second  half  of  2011.  The  reform  is  intended  to  encourage  universities  to  provide  more 
flexible,  higher-quality  curricula,  which  would  reduce  the  skills  mismatch  by  involving 
employers in the education process and by strengthening university-business links in order to 
ensure an appropriate range of fields of studies meeting labour market needs. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Poland has an outbound long-term mobility (1.8 % of students 
per  year)  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme (0.5 % of students in 2008/09) is also below the EU average. 

Mobility  in  Poland  is  mainly  financed  under  the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme,  Youth  in 
Action  and  several  national  and  bilateral  programmes.  The  main  barriers  identified  include 
lack of language competences and shortcomings in recognition of learning outcomes. These 
barriers  are  being  addressed  by  work  on  the  National  Qualification  Framework  and  by 
introducing compulsory foreign language lessons at different educational levels. 

The implementation at national level of the principles of cooperation developed in the areas of 
EQF,  EQARF,  ECVET  and  EUROPASS  will  also  be  important  for  reducing  barriers  to 
mobility in learning. 

- 114 - 

 
 
These measures consistently address the challenges identified. 

To promote the mobility of young people in vocational education in particular, the Ministry of 
National  Education  disseminates  examples  of  good  practice.  This  is  supported  by  a  special 
survey on international cooperation and student exchanges between VET schools. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Poland has made progress in developing its lifelong learning strategy. The document named 
Lifelong Learning Perspective is set to be finally adopted by the Council of Ministers before 
the end of 2011. 

As  indicated  in  the  outcome  of  the  European  Semester,  the  biggest  challenge  facing  the 
education and training system, including VET, is to respond better to the needs of the labour 
market, given the particularly high unemployment rate among young people under the age of 
25 (26% in March 2011). 

In  line  with  the  specific  European  Semester  recommendation,  improving  the  relevance  of 
education  and  training  to  the  labour  market  and  maximising  access  to  lifelong  learning  and 
continuing  training,  particularly  for  the  low-skilled  and  for  groups  at  risk  such  as  the 
unemployed  or  older  workers  (the  participation  of  adults  in  lifelong  learning  is  only  5.3 %, 
against the EU average of 9.1 %.) is on the policy agenda. It would also be beneficial to foster 
closer  partnerships  between  education/training  providers  and  employers,  for  example  by 
reinforcing work-based learning in VET, including apprenticeships (starting from first grades) 
to facilitate the transition of young people from education to work through practical training, 
and by increasing incentives for employers to take on young workers. 

The reform of the VET system is in progress and is expected to be implemented in 2012/2013. 
Proposed  changes  include  increasing  the  attractiveness  of  VET  and  better  matching  it  with 
labour market needs. The reform of higher education also aims to ensure closer cooperation 
and links with employers, in line with the European Semester indications. 

Another challenge is to improve guidance services, especially for young people, in both VET 
and tertiary sectors, to inform them about the prospects of finding a job after graduation in the 
studies  of  their  choice.  Fostering  entrepreneurship  attitudes  at  all  stages  of  education  and 
training will also be important. 

Poland has also reported several measures to carry out a skills forecast and to use it to shape 
the education and training on offer nationally and regionally. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Poland 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

4.89 % 

5.09 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

- 115 - 

 
 
 
Investment in education has remained stable since 2000 and is close to the EU average, 5.09 % 
versus EU average of 5.07 %.   

Poland  does  not  report  any  explicit  influence  of  the  crisis  on  public  education  budgets  or 
reform in any sector of education. School teacher salaries actually increased by 7 % in 2010. 
Combined with increases in previous years, the overall salary increase for teachers was 30 % 
compared to 2007. 

In  addition  to  new  curriculum  and  delivery  models,  reforms  aiming  to  raise  participation  in 
pre-primary and primary education have not been affected by the crisis. The European Social 
Fund co-finances major reforms of the Polish education system. 

The  increase  in  spending  on  higher  education  recorded  since  2007  (16.8 %  over  four  years) 
was  maintained.  Moreover,  spending  on  higher  education  is  being  rationalised:  while 
maintaining the rate of growth in the level of finance for universities, an additional grant will 
be awarded to entities promoting academic excellence (Krajowe Naukowe Ośrodki Wiodące 
— KNOW — Leading National Scientific Centres).   

The budget for education in 2011 is estimated at 37.2 billion zł (about € 9.3 billion), which is 
6.3 % higher than in 2010 (35 billion zł — € 8.75 billion). 

Developments observed in the Polish education and training budget are fully consistent with 
the call for preserving and promoting growth-enhancing investment that resulted from the 
European Semester 2011. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

The  document  Lifelong  Learning  Perspective,  to  be  adopted  in  late  2011,  and  its 
accompanying  Action  Plan,  represent  significant  progress  towards  developing  a  national 
lifelong learning strategy as recommended in the framework of the European Semester. The 
new comprehensive approach can play a key role in fostering human capital development and 
constitute a guiding principle for all Polish sectoral strategies. 

Consistent  with  the  challenges  identified  during  the  European  Semester,  Poland  is 
modernising its vocational training system through a package of proposals set forth in 2011, 
to  be  implemented  from  2012–13  onwards.  This  should  enable  Poland  to  increase  the 
provision  of  apprenticeship  places,  and  to  promote  dedicated  vocational  training  aimed  at 
developing the skills of both the older and the unskilled workforce. 

Poland  is  also  implementing  a  new  higher  education  reform  adopted  in  2010,  intended  to 
reduce  skills  mismatches,  in  line  with  the  European  Semester  recommendation,  by 
introducing  a  novel  approach  based  on  learning  outcomes,  which  is  consistent  with  the 
objectives of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). 

- 116 - 

 
 
PORTUGAL 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020  headline  target  and  the  related  national  targets,  along  with  mobility,  lifelong  learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

PORTUGAL   

Portugal 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

78.9 % 

88.2 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

95 % 

Reading (18 EU countries) 

26.3 %  17.6 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Maths (25 EU countries) 

30.706 

23.7 %09 24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

Science (25 EU countries) 

24.506 

16.5 %09 20.2 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

43.6 % 

28.7 %  

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

11.3 % 

23.5 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

4.3 %04 p

5.8 %p 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

04= 2004, 05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 117 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Implement  the  measures  as  laid  down  in  Implementing  Decision  2011/344/EU  and  further 
specified  in  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding  of  17  May  2011  and  its  subsequent 
supplements. 

Agreements  under  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding  on  Specific  Economic  Policy 
Conditionality, 17 May 2011 

Education and training 

4.10.  The  Government  will  continue  action  to  tackle  low  educational  attainment  and  early 
school  leaving  and  to  improve  the  quality  of  secondary  education  and  vocational  education 
and training, with a view to increasing efficiency in the education sector, raise the quality of 
human capital and facilitate labour market matching. To this purpose, the Government will: 

i.  Set  up  an  analysis,  monitoring,  assessment  and  reporting  system  in  order  to  accurately 
evaluate  the  results  and  impacts  of  education  and  training  policies,  notably  plans  already 
implemented  (concerning  cost  saving  measures,  vocational  education  and  training  and 
policies to improve school results and contain early school leaving). [Q4-2011] 

ii. Present an action plan to improve the quality of secondary education services including via: 
(i)  the  generalisation  of  trust  agreements  between  the  Government  and  public  schools, 
establishing  wide  autonomy,  a  simple  formula-based  funding  framework  comprising 
performance  evolution  criteria,  and  accountability;  (ii)  a  simple  result-oriented  financing 
framework for professional and private schools in association agreements based on fixed per-
class funding plus incentives linked to performance criteria; (iv) a reinforced supervisory role 
of the General Inspectorate. [Q1-2012] 

iii. Present an action plan aimed at (i) ensuring the quality, attractiveness and labour market 
relevance of vocational education and training through partnerships with companies or other 
stakeholders;  (ii)  enhancing  career  guidance  mechanisms  for  prospective  students  in 
vocational educational training. [Q1-2012] 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

The  current  rate  of  early  school  leaving  (2010)  at  28.7 %  is  the  second  highest  in  the  EU 
(average 14.1 %).  However,  Portugal has shown a rapid improvement  on this indicator  over 
the last decade (43.6 % in 2000 and 31.2 % in 2009). Nevertheless, it continues to be a major 
structural weakness of the national education system. 

Portugal has set an ambitious national target to cut the rate of early school leaving to 10 % by 
2020, with an interim target of 15 % in 2014. It proposes the following intermediate targets: 
27 % in 2011, 23 % in 2012 and 19 % in 2013. 

The authorities say progress relies on a number of ongoing measures implemented in the last 
few  years  and  should  be  continued  with  a  view  to  attaining  the  national  target.  These 
measures  include  the  diversification  of  supply  at  secondary  level,  the  implementation  of 
projects to prevent and correct low achievement and school drop-out, and the reorganisation 
of the schools network, contributing to improving pupils’ integration across education cycles. 
Particular  emphasis  is  now  put  on  the  Education  2015  Programme  to  commit  schools  and 

- 118 - 

 
 
schools  clusters  to  achieving  the  national  objectives  of  improving  students’  basic  skills  in 
mathematics and Portuguese, and reducing grade retention rates and early school leaving. The 
‘New Opportunities’ initiative, which has improved the availability of vocational training in 
basic and secondary education, supports the reorganisation of education and training guidance 
services  to  be  implemented  over  the  school  year  2011/2012.  Finally,  the  extension  of 
compulsory education to the age of 18, adopted in 2009, complemented by financial support 
to  low  income  families,  will  likely  contribute  to  raising  the  rate  of  secondary  education 
completion as from 2013/2014. 

The  newly-elected  government  has  indicated  that  several  policy  changes  should  be 
implemented in the short to medium term. However, there is no indication of change in the 
national target of 10 % early school leavers in 2020, which is in line with the commitment to 
reduce early school leaving under the Memorandum of Understanding. It is therefore essential 
to  ensure  swift  implementation  of  measures,  accompanied  by  close  monitoring  of  their 
effects. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

While  the  current  rate  of  tertiary  attainment  (2010)  at  23.5 %  is  still  below  the  EU  average 
(33.6 %),  Portugal  has  made  significant  progress  since  2000  (11.3 %).  Portugal  also  made 
strong progress in increasing the number of maths, science and technology graduates and now 
stands above the 2010 EU benchmark level.  

Portugal has set a national target of 40 % tertiary graduates by 2020 and an intermediate target 
of 30 % for 2014. 

The  National  Reform  Programme  emphasises  Portugal’s  renewed  and  more  diversified 
framework for higher education open to new layers of society. Between 2005 and 2009, the 
proportion  of  the  population  aged  20  enrolled  in  higher  education  increased  by  19 %,  the 
number of students over the age of 23 enrolled for the first time in higher education increased 
11 times and the number of graduates increased by 20 %, which was accompanied by a more 
specialised scientific base. 

Ongoing  measures  expected  to  contribute  to  attaining  the  national  target  include  extending 
compulsory  education  to  the  age  of  18;  the  Confidence  Contract  signed  in  2010  by  the 
government and all public universities, polytechnics and higher education institutions aiming 
to provide the labour market with an additional 100 000 graduates in four years; the increase 
in  the  supply  of  EQF  level  5  technical  specialisation  courses;  extension  of  the  distance 
learning supply network, aiming at multiplying by four the number of students enrolled; the 
increase  in  the  supply  of  professionally-oriented  Master’s  degrees  to  attract  30  000  new 
students in the next four years; the progressive integration of young people following a New 
Opportunities pathway; the implementation of new conditions for access to higher education 
for  those  over  the  age  of  23;  and  finally  the  quality  assurance  action  of  the  Agency  for  the 
Evaluation and Accreditation of Higher Education. Development Programmes signed in 2010 
under  the  Confidence  Contract  guaranteed  availability  of  the  necessary  funding  for  higher 
education institutions, while in return, institutions made a commitment to implement austerity 
measures and to optimise resources. 

Recent  developments  in  the  socio-economic  situation  may  have  an  adverse  effect  in  the 
attainment of the national target and will require close monitoring of the measures adopted, in 
particular the implementation of the Confidence Contract. 

- 119 - 

 
 
4.  MOBILITY 

Portugal has implemented several measures to promote outgoing/incoming learning mobility 
of students in various education sectors. Regarding pre-school and school education, Portugal 
has  relied  mainly  on  the  transnational  mobility  actions  supported  by  the  Lifelong  Learning 
Programme. Regarding virtual mobility, besides eTwinning, there was also emphasis on the 
International Network of European Clubs for schools, a Portuguese initiative covering about 
25  countries  and  intended  to  promote  knowledge  about  the  EU  and  cooperation  among 
students. 

In the field of vocational education and training, to facilitate the mobility of citizens within 
the  EU,  the  Instituto  do  Emprego  e  Formação  Profissional  provides  information  on  the 
education  and  training  system,  the  National  System  for  the  Recognition,  Validation  and 
Certification  of  Competences  and  the  Portuguese  Professions  Framework.  The  Youth  in 
Action Programme has contributed support to a wide number of projects promoting informal 
and  non-formal  learning  mobility  through  youth  exchanges,  transnational  youth  initiatives, 
voluntary  activities  abroad  and  youth  exchanges  with  neighbouring  partner  countries.  The 
‘INOV  Programme’  facilitates  and  promotes  the  international  mobility  of  young  graduates, 
providing internships in enterprises and international organisations. 

Under the Confidence Contract, higher education institutions made a commitment to invest in 
internationalisation,  and  a  number  of  strategic  alliances  with  internationally  renowned 
institutions  have  already  been  established.  It  is  also  worth  mentioning  that  low-income 
students now receive Erasmus grants that are 50 % higher, and that the loan system for higher 
education  student  mobility  established  in  2007  supported  more  than  14  000  students  in 
December  2010.  Regarding  learning  mobility  of  teachers  and  other  higher  education  staff, 
bursaries  provided  by  the  Foundation  for  Science  and  Technology  allow  beneficiaries  to 
acquire knowledge and experience abroad. Also, the Welcome II Programme under the Marie 
Curie  Action  has  supported  the  recruitment  of  European  researchers  to  work  in  Portuguese 
institutions. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

In Portugal, the lifelong learning approach has become an integrated element across the entire 
framework that governs the education and training sector, although there is no formal single 
document  setting  out  a  lifelong  learning  strategy.  Efforts  to  modernise  and  reform  the 
education and training system include the development of the National Qualifications System, 
including  the  RVCC  process,  the  implementation  of  the  ‘New  Opportunities’  initiative,  and 
various interventions in pre-primary, basic, secondary and higher education. In particular, pre-
primary  education  has  been  extended  to  all  children  aged  between  three  and  five,  with 
universal access provided for five-year-olds. Significant improvements were made during the 
period 2000–2009. Nevertheless, Portugal still performs below the EU average in this area. 

Progress  made  since  2005  under  the  ‘New  Opportunities’  initiative  can  be  summarised  as 
follows:  (i)  around  50 %  of  students  enrolled  in  secondary  education  follow  a  vocational 
pathway; (ii) around 1 million active workers were or are involved in qualification processes 
with  the  support  of  European  Structural  Funds;  and  (iii)  the  ongoing  implementation  of  a 
system  ensuring  the  integrated  management  of  education  and  training  offers,  as  well  as 
permeability between different education and training modalities. Access to higher education 
for  those  over  the  age  of  23  and  the  availability  of  more  Technical  Specialisation  Courses 
have also contributed to strengthening the lifelong learning dimension. 

- 120 - 

 
 
Recent  initiatives  to  improve  skills  forecasting  include:  (i)  the  functioning  of  the  Sectoral 
Councils  for  Qualification,  whose  main  aim  is  to  identify  updating  needs  relative  to  the 
National Qualifications Catalogue; (ii) preparatory work to develop a national system for the 
forecasting  of  skills  and  competences;  and  (iii)  the  action  of  the  working  group13  with  the 
objective  of  identifying  100  professions  with  strategic  importance  for  developing  the 
Portuguese economy, for which new training schemes will be provided, especially to ensure 
the retraining of the unemployed. 

The government intends to make an in-depth assessment of the ‘New Opportunities’ initiative 
which may bring changes in policy regarding skills and qualifications. However,  there should 
be continued strong emphasis on developing the National Qualifications System, as well as on 
ensuring the quality, attractiveness and labour market relevance of vocational education and 
training.   

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Portugal 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

5.42 % 

4.89 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

On  investment  in  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP,  Portugal  is  performing  below  the  EU 
average, as spending levels have been declining slightly since 2000 and investment rates are 
likely  to  decrease,  due  to  budget  cuts  adopted  and  further  fiscal  consolidation  measures 
included in the agreement on an Economic Adjustment Programme for 2011–14 signed with 
the  joint  mission  of  the  Commission,  the  International  Monetary  Fund  (IMF),  and  the 
European Central Bank (ECB). 

The  Ministry  of  Education  budget  for  2011  was  cut  by  8.3 %  compared  with  2010  and  by 
9.2 %  compared  with  2009.  The  Ministry  of  Science  Technology  and  Higher  Education 
budget was also subject to an overall reduction. 

Measures  to  achieve  savings  in  basic  and  secondary  education  include  reductions  in  wages 
common  to  all  public  administration  officials  earning  more  than  EUR  1  500  a  month,  the 
freezing of career progression for teachers and other school staff, the review of remuneration 
criteria  for  management  posts,  changes  in  criteria  for  the  allocation  of  social  benefits  for 
pupils  and  students,  and  the  review  of  criteria  for  the  public  subsidising  of  private  and 
cooperative schools. 

Following  the  signature  of  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding  supporting  international 
financial assistance from the European Union and the IMF, Portugal made a commitment to 
reduce costs in education, with the aim of saving EUR 195 million by rationalising the school 
network  through  the  creation  of  schools  clusters,  lowering  staff  needs,  centralising 
procurement and rationalising transfers to private schools in association agreements. 

13 Set up under the Initiative for Competitiveness and Employment. 

- 121 - 

 
 
 
                                                 
7.  CONCLUSIONS 

With a view to improving the quality of the education and training system, Portugal is taking 
measures to tackle early school leaving and low educational attainment. Measures include the 
diversification of supply at secondary level, the reorganisation of the schools network and the 
implementation  of  specific  projects  addressing  low  achievement  at  school.  The  Education 
2015  Programme  has  the  potential  to  provide  the  right  framework  for  better  coordinated 
measures in this area. 

Portugal  should  also  continue  with  its  efforts  to  make  its  education  and  training  system, 
particularly  its  vocational  training  system,  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  labour  market. 
Enhancing career guidance services remains an issue to be addressed.       

- 122 - 

 
 
ROMANIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

ROMANIA   

Romania 

EU average 

EU benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

67.6 % 

82.3 %09

85.2 % 

Reading 

41.3 %  40.4 %09

21.3 % 

91.7 %0
9 

20.0 %0
9 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

52.7 %06 47.0 %09 24.0 %06  22.2 %0

9 

Science 

46.9 %06 41.4 %09 20.3 %06  17.7 %0

9 

95 % 

17.0 % 

15 % 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

22.9 % 

18.4 % 

16.0 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

8.9 % 

18.1 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4-week period) 

1.4 %04 

1.3 %  

8.5 %03 

9.1 %   12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 = 2001, 03 = 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 = 2007, 08 = 2008, 09 = 2009, e = estimate, b = break, p = provisional 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries; maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 123 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Implement the measures laid down in Council Decision 2009/459/EC, as amended by Council 
Decision  2010/183/EU,  together  with  the  measures  laid  down  in  Council  Decision 
2011/288/EU  and  further  specified  in  the  Memorandum  of  Understanding  of  23  June  2009 
and its subsequent supplements and in the Memorandum of Understanding of 29 June 2011 
and its subsequent supplements. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Romania is implementing an ambitious reform under the new Education Law at all levels of 
education.  Nevertheless,  the  challenge  of  early  school  leaving  is  not  addressed  explicitly  in 
the reform. With only 14.6 % of early school leavers employed one year after finishing their 
studies,  compared  with  35 %  of  secondary  and  60.9 %  of  tertiary  graduates,14  early  school 
leaving is a major cause of unemployment, feeding a vicious circle of poverty and educational 
under-achievement. 

At 18.4 % in 2010, Romania has an early school leaving rate above the EU average and is one 
of the few Member States where early school leaving has increased during the last three years, 
undermining  some  of  the  progress  in  the  previous  decade.  Furthermore,  the  increasing  ESL 
rate  is  coupled  with  poor  basic  skills,  with  more  than  2  in  5  pupils  among  15  year-olds 
classified  as  low  achievers  according  to  PISA.  The  main  cause  of  early  school  leaving  is 
poverty, and its incidence is significantly higher in rural areas, where the barriers to access to 
upper secondary education are biggest, and among the Roma population. 

Romania has no coherent system for collecting data on and monitoring early school leaving 
and  is  not  using  evidence-based  policies.  Recent  progress  in  improving  data  availability  in 
this area should be continued and consolidated. The main priority target groups for measures 
against early school leaving are young people from rural and disadvantaged areas, of Roma 
origin  or  with  special  educational  needs,  with  a  focus  on  lower  secondary  education  and 
vocational training. 

The  main  measures  addressing  early  school  leaving  include  improving  the  quality  and 
availability  of  early  childhood  education  and  care,  providing  support  for  students  from 
disadvantaged areas  and  for  developing vocational education and training and  continuing to 
develop  second-chance  educational  provision.  A  number  of  measures  planned  in  the  new 
Education  Law,  such  as  postponing  tracking,  lengthening  lower  secondary  education  and 
introducing after-school programmes, can also contribute to addressing early school leaving. 
Other measures, such as the introduction of per-capita financing, the planned decentralisation 
of  pre-university  education  and  the  consolidation  of  the  school  network,  would  need  to  be 
managed carefully. 

Overall,  there  is  a  need  to  consolidate  all  existing  programmes  in  order  to  identify  a  few 
priority  measures,  adequately  budgeted  and  based  on  clear  identification  and  monitoring  of 
the  groups  at  risk  of  early  school  leaving.  Although  early  school  leaving  is  one  of  the 

14   http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2010/02/RO1002019I.htm. 

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priorities  for  European  Social  Fund  in  Romania,  these  resources  have  been  insufficiently 
accessed so far. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The expansion of tertiary education needs to continue in order to match the requirements of a 
competitive economy. At 18.1 % in 2010, Romania still has the lowest tertiary attainment in 
the  EU,  despite  doubling  graduation  rates  during  the  last  decade.  In  recent  years  enrolment 
and completion rates  have been  on  a downward trend. Participation in tertiary education by 
students  from  urban  areas  is  double  the  rate  for  rural  areas.  Attracting  more  students  from 
lower-income families, particularly from rural areas, remains a big challenge. 

Furthermore,  high  youth  unemployment  among  tertiary  graduates  reveals  wide  gaps  in  the 
quality of tertiary education and mismatches between tertiary offers and labour market needs, 
which will create a major bottleneck once economic growth resumes. Current efforts in this 
area  should  be  continued,  particularly  using  the  tracer  studies  in  the  pipeline.  Additional 
levers for influencing the education offered by tertiary institutions can be identified. 

One  area  in  which  Romania  has  made  progress  is  the  increase  in  maths,  science  and 
technology graduates, where the growth rate has been above the EU average and the gender 
balance has also improved. 

The national report mentions a number of measures planned, such as free tuition for students 
from disadvantaged backgrounds or the introduction of a study loan programme, which could 
give low-income students better access to tertiary education. While raising the attainment rate, 
the government also needs to continue its efforts to improve the quality of tertiary education 
and align it to the needs of the labour market. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Romania has an outbound long-term mobility (2.0 % of students 
per  year)  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme (0.3 % of students in 2008/09) is also clearly below the EU average. 

The new Education Law encourages all learning mobility, and particularly for future teachers 
and doctoral and post-doctoral students. Learning mobility for these two target groups is also 
supported from structural funds. As insufficient funding has been identified as one of the main 
barriers, the planned study loan agency could contribute to increasing learning mobility. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Adult participation in lifelong learning in Romania remains stagnant at very low levels (1.3 % 
in  2010).  The  adoption  of  a  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy,  continuing  progress  towards  the 
national  qualifications  framework,  the  revision  of  the  occupations  classification  and  the 
planned  revision  of  the  legislative  framework  in  the  sector  of  adult  education  should  be 
accompanied by programmes stimulating participation in lifelong learning. Although the NRP 
mentions  programmes  and/or  projects  to  stimulate  continuing  vocational  training  for 
employees  and  to  involve  social  partners  in  order  to  correlate  the  education  and  training 
systems  with  trends  on  the  labour  markets,  further  incentives  for  employers  engaging  in 
continuing  vocational  training  and  closer  integration  with  active  labour  market  policies  are 
needed to scale up participation, particularly by low-skilled adults. 

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Considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the  area  of  skills  forecasting,  with  a  number  of 
initiatives at local, regional and sectoral levels. At regional and local levels, structural funds 
are financing a number of schemes on integration of graduates into the labour market, skills 
forecasting  and  strategic  planning  of  the  vocational  education  offer.  A  number  of  structural 
funds projects are aiming to reinforce the school guidance network. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Romania 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 

2.86 % 

4.25 %07 

4.86 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

07 = 2007 

As regards investment in education, Romania considerably improved spending levels between 
2000 and 2007 in both absolute and relative terms, but is still below the EU average. 

Under  the  Education  Law,  education  should  receive  6 %  of  GDP,  but  recent  budgets  were 
probably much lower. In general, the economic crisis between 2009 and 2011 had a negative 
effect  on  the  education  budget.  Teachers’  and  education  staff  salaries  were  cut  by  25 % 
starting with July 2010, and this was only partially offset in January 2011. 

Romania aims to attract additional funding from the structural funds in the next period. This is 
crucial  considering  the  current  low  absorption  rate  for  the  ESF  and  the  current  budgetary 
constraints. Strengthening administrative capacity in the education sector is crucial for better 
accessing structural funds. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

The main policy challenge for Romania is to improve the quality of the education and training 
system.  The  recent  rise  in  early  school  leaving  rates  combined  with  poor  basic  skills,  as 
indicated  by  PISA,  are  at  the  root  of  skill  mismatches  on  the  labour  market.  The  ambitious 
education reform agenda implemented via the new education law includes relevant reforms, 
such  as  improving  the  quality  of  early  childhood  education  and  care,  and  postponing  early 
tracking, but it should be reinforced by streamlining and broadening programmes for student 
support. 

Current  efforts  to  better  align  higher  education  offer  to  labour  market  needs  should  be 
sustained, and additional reforms are necessary for broadening access to higher education. A 
broader  offer  of  tuition-free  places  for  disadvantaged  students  or  study  loan  programmes 
could open access for low income students.  

Finally, increasing adult participation in lifelong learning is crucial, particularly for the low-
skilled.  This  requires  additional  fiscal  and  financial  incentives.  Not  only  the  long-term 
competitiveness  but  also  the  economic  recovery  risks  otherwise  to  be  constrained  by  the 
inadequate skills levels of the work force.          

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SLOVAKIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

SLOVAKIA   

Slovakia 

EU average 

EU benchmarks

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

76.1 % 

77.9 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

27.8 %  22.3 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

20.9 %06 21.0 %09 24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

20.2 %06 19.3 %09 20.3 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

6.7 %02 

4.7 % 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

10.6 % 

22.1 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4-week period) 

3.7 %03

2.8 %  

8.5 %03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

02 = 2002, 03 = 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 = 2007, 08 = 2008, 09 = 2009, e = estimate, b = break, p = provisional 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries; maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

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2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

By  means  of  the  2020  targets,  the  NRP  establishes  a  longer-term  vision  for  the  necessary 
modernisation of the Slovak economy, i.e. recognising the importance of education and R&D 
and the need to increase the employment participation rate and strengthen social inclusion. 

The high prevalence of skills mismatches is another distinctive feature of the Slovak labour 
market. 

A  number  of  measures  are  planned  to  improve  the  relevance  of  school  education  and 
vocational  education  and  training  to  labour  market  needs.  The  government  has  also  set  a 
target  for  the  basic  competences  assessed  by  the  Programme  for  International  Student 
Assessment (PISA) and plans to increase investment in school infrastructure, particularly in 
information  and  communication  technology  (ICT).  Other  plans  aim  to  reduce  the 
administrative burden within schools and to introduce school quality assessment systems and 
work-based  learning  schemes  in  vocational  education  and  training  (VET).  Overall,  a 
comprehensive package of reforms has been launched to tackle the skills mismatches on the 
labour market with the aid of better education and training. 

Plans  to  review  the  adult  learning  and  continuing  VET  system  are  another  positive 
development, as a  recent  law on this subject does not respond  to the challenges adequately. 
Although  the  new  plans  have  some  positive  aspects,  they  do  not  appear  to  put  forward  any 
incentives to boost adult participation in lifelong learning, which remains one of the lowest in 
the EU (2.8 % against the EU average of 9.3 % in 2009). 

The  trade  balance  remains  negative  and  high-tech  exports  have  a  large content  of  high-tech 
imports, suggesting that considerable scope remains for expansion of the higher value-added 
sectors. One basic prerequisite, however, is an appropriately skilled workforce that could be 
employed  in  those  sectors.  Against  this  background,  most  indicators  on  the  degree  of 
innovation  capacity  in  the  Slovak  economy  are  weak  or  very  weak  (e.g.  R&D  spending, 
spending  on  and  quality  of  tertiary  education,  number  of  patents,  etc.)  and  several  even 
deteriorated  over  the  last  decade.  Tertiary  education  attainment  remains  low  (17.6 %),  well 
below  the  EU  average  (32.3 %).  The  quality  of  tertiary  education  in  particular  remains  an 
issue,  as  suggested  by  a  variety  of  indicators  (university  rankings,  number  of  international 
publications, low attraction of students from abroad, etc.) and the relatively high proportion of 
students studying abroad despite free tertiary education being provided at home. 

Reforms proposed in higher education tackle many of the current problems; however, much 
will  depend  on  implementation.  Slovakia  has  set  an  ambitious  target  of  40 %  tertiary 
education  attainment,  which  is  in  line  with  the  Europe  2020  headline  target.  The  NRP, 
however,  provides  no  information  on  how  it  will  be  achieved.  Given  the  current  figures,  a 
considerable effort will be required to secure a high completion rate for current students and 
to  attract  people  already  on  the  labour  market  into  higher  education.  Greater  investment  in 
higher education and closer cooperation with businesses (including on design of curricula) to 
increase its relevance to the labour market are also instruments to develop a well-functioning 
knowledge  triangle  (education,  research  and  innovation),  to  make  private  and  public 
investment  in  R&D  more  effective  and  more  attractive  and  progressively  to  build  the 
innovation  capacity  of  the  Slovak  economy.  Against  this  background,  higher  education 
institutions  that  focus  on  supporting  not  only  outgoing  but  also  incoming  students  and 
researchers would promote mobility conducive to high-quality education and research. 

- 128 - 

 
 
Overall,  the  consolidation  strategy  does  not  sufficiently  safeguard  growth-enhancing 
expenditure, including on transport infrastructure and education. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation 1 

 (…)  safeguard  growth-enhancing  expenditure  and  use  available  room  to  increase  revenue 
through environmental and property taxes and by increasing the efficiency of VAT collection. 

Recommendation 5 

Speed up the implementation of planned education, vocational education and training reforms 
and take steps to improve the quality of higher education and its relevance to market needs. 
Develop  a  framework  of  incentives  for  both  individuals  and  employers  to  encourage 
participation of the low-skilled in lifelong learning. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Slovakia is the top performer in the area of early school leaving (4.7 % in 2010). The target 
set for 2020 (6 %) takes into account the expected increase in the proportion of marginalised 
Roma children who are at higher risk of not completing secondary education. 

However, this best performance in terms of the share of pupils leaving school early is coupled 
with  average  results  in  terms  of  the  quality  of  education.  According  to  the  OECD’s  PISA 
survey,  school  education  is  dominated  not  only  by  average  performance  but  also  by  great 
differences  between  the  best-performing  and  poor-performing  schools.  In  this  regard,  the 
Slovak  government  has  set  the  target  that,  while  maintaining  the  drop-out  rate  at  6 %,  the 
quality of primary education should be improved (average score of 505 in PISA by 2018). 

Both  the  National  Reform  Programme  and  the  ET  2020  national  report  acknowledge  the 
importance of integrating the marginalised Roma population in order to keep the early school 
leaving rate low. The government will assess the role of special schools (where most Roma 
children  are  placed),  increase  the  number  of  specialised  education  staff  and  pedagogical 
assistants  and  improve  access  to  VET  for  disadvantaged  groups.  The  government  will 
strengthen both pre-primary education in kindergartens and the ‘class zero’ system to prepare 
children from marginalised communities for school. 

Slovakia  will  launch  a  central  register  of  pupils  and  children  in  order  to  gather  statistics, 
including on early school leaving. It will also put in place a school quality assessment system 
with a new integrated system of internal and external evaluations aiming at improving school 
management. 

One important factor to prevent early school leaving is the possibility for early school leavers 
who  do  not  finish  compulsory  school  to  continue  their  studies  at  a  secondary  vocational 
school in a two-year vocational programme. At the same time, they have a chance to complete 
courses  required  for  compulsory  education.  Any  individual  who  has  dropped  out  of 
compulsory  attendance  at  primary  or  secondary  school  has  a  second  chance  to  complete 
primary  school,  at  any  time,  by  taking  up  the  educational  course  and  continuing  his  or  her 
studies  at  any  secondary  school.  Pupils  who  suspend  their  studies  at  secondary  school  have 
the possibility to complete their secondary education at a later date, by following full-time or 
part-time (external) forms of study. 

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3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Despite  the  progress  made  since  2000  (10.6 %),  Slovakia  still  has  a  low  tertiary  attainment 
rate with 22.1 % compared with the European average of 33.6 % in 2010. Both the National 
Reform  Programme  and  the  ET  2020  national  report  give  priority  to  increasing  to  40 %  the 
share of the population aged 30–34 years with tertiary educational attainment or equivalent. 
This  ambitious  target  is  in  line  with  the  Europe  2020  headline  target.  However,  the  reports 
give no information on how this figure will be achieved. 

Slovakia’s  main  instruments  to  increase  participation  in  tertiary  education,  particularly  by 
under-represented groups, are the grants for socially disadvantaged students and students with 
disabilities. Besides these, every student in Slovakia can apply for a (low-interest) loan from 
the National Student Loan Fund. 

In addition to the low attainment rate, quality remains an issue, as suggested by a number of 
indicators, such as university rankings, and by the relatively high share of students choosing 
to  study  abroad.  Improving  the  quality  of  higher  education,  as  called  for  in  the  Council 
Recommendation adopted in the framework of the first European Semester, should be given 
priority  in  the  years  ahead.  As  higher  education  is  suffering  from  low  investment  with 
negative  consequences  for  quality,  the  measures  planned  in  the  areas  of  accreditation  and 
quality  assurance  and  of  institutional  financing  are  the  first  steps  in  the  right  direction. 
Slovakia  also  intends  to  put  greater  emphasis  on  research  and  on  excellence  in  higher 
education  and  to  encourage  closer  cooperation  between  universities  and  businesses,  making 
higher education more relevant to the needs of the labour market. To this end, an information 
system is planned which would show both the demand for certain professions and the levels 
of the salaries. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As  regards  tertiary  education,  Slovakia  has  an  outbound  long-term  mobility  (10.7 %  of 
students per year) clearly above the EU average (2.8 %), while short-term mobility under the 
EU Erasmus programme (0.7 % of students in 2008/09) is slightly below the EU average. 

Learning  mobility  for  pupils,  trainees,  students,  learners  and  also  education  staff  is  mainly 
supported  by  the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme.  The  LLP  funds  are  being  topped  up  by 
national co-financing (EUR 760 000 annually). Other national instruments (including internet 
information portals) are in place. 

The  national  grant  programme  is  targeted  at  supporting  outgoing  and  incoming  mobility  of 
students,  PhD  students,  higher  education  staff  and  researchers  (annual  budget  of 
EUR 900 000). 

A new act, adopted in 2009, on pedagogic and vocational employees should facilitate mobility 
of teachers and validation of learning acquired abroad. 

Slovakia  is  trying  to  promote  mobility  by  making  greater  use  of  Europass,  increasing  the 
number of study programmes in English in Slovakia and tightening cooperation with regional 
authorities. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Slovakia  adopted  its  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy  in  2007,  followed  by  a  specific  Law  on 
Lifelong Learning. This law establishes the basis for implementation of the national system of 
qualifications,  the  national  qualifications  framework  and  the  system  for  validation  of  non-

- 130 - 

 
 
formal and informal learning, together with the system for monitoring skills needs. The law 
neither  defines  any  specific  set  of  financial  incentives  for  promoting  lifelong  learning  nor 
provides any incentives to boost participation. 

Meanwhile,  according  to  Eurostat’s  Labour  Force  Survey  (LFS),  participation  in  lifelong 
learning in Slovakia is amongst the lowest in the EU (2.8 % against the EU average of 9.1 % 
in 2010). This is particularly critical for the low-skilled who are the hardest hit on the labour 
market,  especially  during  economic  downturns,  as  highlighted  in  the  Commission  Staff 
Working Document accompanying the Council Recommendation on the European Semester. 
The statistics show that Slovakia has the lowest employment rate for low-skilled people in the 
EU (14.3 % in 2009 compared with the EU average of 46.2 %), which suggests that they have 
very limited access to the labour market without further training. 

The  Lifelong  Learning  Strategy  focuses  mainly  on  education  and  training  for  the  adult 
population  by  introducing  mechanisms  for  validating  non-formal  learning,  information  and 
guidance systems and participation in OECD’s PIAAC programme. Part of the strategy is the 
lifelong guidance strategy which will be reviewed to respond to changing skills requirements 
on the labour market and to improve the information and guidance services to individuals via 
a network of career guidance centres. Timely revision of the strategy is crucial, as the current 
split of guidance services — one provided by public employment services and one provided by 
the  education  system  —  seems  to  create  inefficiencies  and  contributes  indirectly  to  skills 
mismatches.    

Recent reforms focused on VET and its relevance to labour market needs, including creation 
of skills councils at national, regional and sectoral levels. Among other tasks, these councils 
are  involved  in  defining  qualifications  standards  and  developing  the  national  system  of 
qualifications.  With  the  aim  of  improving  their  relevance  to  the  labour  market,  the 
government also plans to introduce work-based learning schemes in VET. However, there is a 
risk that the planned system of forecasting skills needs could become a tool used only for the 
purpose  of  lifelong  learning  and  retraining  of  the  adult  population,  in  particular  the 
unemployed. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Slovakia 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 

3.93 % 

3.59 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Investment  in  education,  as  a  percentage  of  GDP,  has  decreased  since  2000,  whereas  it  has 
risen in the EU as a whole. Slovakia is therefore lagging behind the EU average and the gap 
has become wider. The low level of investment has negative consequences on the quality of 
the education and training system, both because it does not attract a critical mass of talents to 
the teaching profession and because it has insufficient means to modernise the infrastructure 
of the institutions. 

The crisis has had a negative effect on public investment in education. After 2009, when the 
budget was increased by 9 % compared with 2008, there were decreases of 0.5 % in 2010 and 
of 4 % in 2011. This same level of expenditure is also planned for 2012 and 2013. 

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Investment  in  higher  education  followed  the generally  negative  trend.  In  2009  there  was  an 
increase of 9.5 % compared with 2008, but this was followed by a decrease of 4 % in 2010. 
This same level of expenditure is also expected in 2011 and 2012. 

Structural funds are a major source of funding for the whole education and training system in 
Slovakia. 

Overall,  as  identified  in  the  framework  of  the  European  Semester,  the  challenge  is  still  to 
make  sure  that  budgetary  consolidation  safeguards  and  even  increases  growth-enhancing 
expenditure, such as on education. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS  

The planned education and training reforms provide an opportunity to respond to the manifold 
challenges by taking speedy measures on both vocational education and training and tertiary 
education.  To  improve  the  quality  of  higher  education,  the  planned  measures  focus  on 
financing, quality assurance and labour market relevance. Reforms in VET will focus on skills 
mismatches and better forecasting. Increasing adult participation in lifelong learning remains 
a  big  challenge:  efforts  need  to  be  redoubled,  in  particular  with  regard  to  the  low-skilled. 
Finally, implementation of the  reforms  needs  to be accompanied by  adequate  financing  and 
investment, in line with the outcome of the European Semester.   

- 132 - 

 
 
SLOVENIA 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

SLOVENIA   

Slovenia 

EU average 

EU benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

85.2 % 

91.3 %09 

85.2 % 

91.7 % 

- 

95 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

Science 

16.5 %06

16.5 %06 

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

17.7 %06

20.3 %09  24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

13.9 %06

14.8 %09  20.3 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

6.4 %01  5.0 % u, p

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

18.5 % 

34.8 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4-week period) 

13.3 %03

16.2 %  

8.5 %03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 = 2001, 03 = 2003, 06 = 2006 08 = 2008, 09 = 2009,  p = provisional, u = unreliable 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries; maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

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2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Slovenia  already  has  a  very  low  rate  of  early  school  leaving  (5 %  compared  with  the  EU 
average of 14 %) and a rather good  rate of tertiary education  attainment  (34.8 % against the 
EU average of 33.6 %). The target for 2020 is to maintain these results and increase the higher 
education attainment rate further. The NRP also envisages intensive investment in training to 
improve  key  skills  and  employability,  with  the  aim  of  reducing  skills  mismatches.  It  also 
describes  plans  to  improve  pathways  from  education  to  the  labour  market,  with  a  focus  on 
providing career guidance services throughout the education system. Within higher education, 
policy efforts are being geared to shortening the average number of years of study, increasing 
the  proportion  of  graduates  and  strengthening  the  vocational  element.  The  Scholarship  Act 
has been amended (it is currently going through the parliamentary procedure) with the aim of 
improving  links  between  educational  institutions  and  employers,  particularly  with  a  view  to 
targeting deficit professions, in the light of rising graduate unemployment. Finally, there are 
plans to modernise the employment service with the objective of matching the supply of skills 
to labour market needs better. However, the NRP contains no plans to improve the system to 
identify current and projected labour market needs in a timely manner. Currently, the public 
employment  service  provides  only  a  partial  picture  of  the  skills  required  by  employers, 
without  any  forward-looking  element  in  the  form  of  improved  career  guidance  and  human 
capital investment. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation 2 

Increase  the  employment  rate  of  older  workers  through  later  retirement,  and  by  further 
developing active labour market policies and lifelong learning measures. 

Recommendation 5 

Set  up  a  system  to  forecast  skills  and  competencies  needed  to  achieve  a  responsive  labour 
market.  Evaluate  the  effectiveness  of  the  public  employment  service,  notably  on  career 
guidance  and  counselling  services,  to  improve  the  matching  of  skills  with  labour  market 
needs. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

With an early school leaving rate of 5 % in 2010, Slovenia is one of the best performers in the 
EU  (EU  average:  14.1 %).  Its  target  is  to  keep  the  rate  at  5 %  up  to  2020.  Slovenian  pupils 
achieve  relatively  high  scores  in  international  achievement  tests  (PISA  and  PIRLS),  which 
suggests that the good quantitative performance is coupled with good-quality education. 

Nevertheless,  despite  the  favourable  data,  Slovenia  recognises  that  measures  are  needed  to 
prevent drop-outs or to mitigate and reduce them when they nevertheless occur. Measures are 
therefore focusing on prevention, intervention and compensation. The Elementary School Act 
provides for the following prevention and intervention measures: remedial classes for pupils 
with learning disabilities, supplementary education for children whose native language is not 
Slovene,  education  of  children  with  special  needs,  additional  professional  and  learning 

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assistance,  along  with  the  possibility  of  extending  pupil  status  for  two  years  following  the 
nine-year basic education. 

Compensation measures include various short vocational education and training programmes 
offered  particularly  to  young  adults.  The  network  of  Lifelong  Learning  Centres  formed  in 
2008 and funded by the European Social Fund provide a means of moving education closer to 
the  individual’s  home,  opening  education  to  the  wider  environment  and  interconnecting  the 
numerous  educational  organisations  that  offer  formal  and  informal  education  and  training 
programmes. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

There has been considerable progress with the tertiary or equivalent attainment rate (34.8 % in 
2010)  which  is  above  the  EU  average  of  33.6 %.  Moreover,  the  attainment  rate  of  young 
people  is  significantly  higher  than  that  of  older  workers.  The  situation  is  set  to  improve 
further  as  overall  entry  rates  into  tertiary  programmes  are  rather  high.  Slovenia  has  set  the 
target of increasing the level of tertiary education from 34.8 % of the younger generation in 
2010  to  40 %  by  2020  so  as  to  meet  the  needs  both  of  the  labour  market  and  of  society  at 
large. 

As  for  the  number  of  graduates  in  maths,  science  and  technology  (MST)  graduates,  the 
growth  rate  has  been  well  below  the  EU  average,  although  the  number  of  graduates  has 
increased by 15.4% in Slovenia.  The share of female graduates has not yet reached the EU 
average. The overall share of MST graduates (24 %) is still relatively low, despite favourable 
employment opportunities and projected new job openings in these fields. 

With  the  numbers  in  enrolling  generations  decreasing,  the  number  of  places  available  has 
exceeded  the  number  of  acceptances  for  entry  into  the  higher  education  programmes  for 
several successive years. Therefore, the higher education offer is no obstacle to inclusion of 
younger generations in tertiary education. Free regular study in the first and second cycles and 
numerous  forms  of  indirect  support  for  students  (scholarships,  health  insurance,  subsidised 
accommodation,  meals  and  transport,  tax  relief  for  student  work,  etc.)  further  stimulate  or 
clear the way for studies. The new financing system adopted in 2011 enables higher education 
institutions  to  obtain  funds  for  special  measures  aimed  at  increasing  access  to  higher 
education. 

Despite  the  rising  graduation  rates,  the  system  shows  some  signs  of  inefficiency.  Tertiary 
education suffers from a high drop-out rate with only around 65 % of those entering finishing 
their  studies.  In  addition,  students  take  more  than  six  years,  on  average,  to  complete  their 
studies  at  undergraduate  level  which  is  one  of  the  longest  times  among  OECD  countries. 
These  long  studies  are  partly  due  to  high  repetition  rates.  As  also  highlighted  in  the 
Commission  Staff  Working  Document  adopted  in  the  framework  of  the  first  European 
Semester,  since  this  long  duration  of  tertiary  studies  also  has  a  negative  impact  on 
employment prospects, policy efforts geared to shortening the average number of years spent 
in tertiary education are justified. 

To modernise higher education, special attention is being paid to implementation of the new 
National Higher Education  Programme for 2011–2020 that covers all tertiary education and 
includes both higher education institutions and vocational colleges. The National Programme 
addresses the link between education and science, cultural policy and business; as such, it has 
the potential to contribute to the quality and efficiency of higher education and excellence in 
research.  The  main  objectives  of  the  National  Programme  include  creation  of  structural 
partnerships between higher education institutions and the business community, international 
mobility, fair access to higher education and unimpeded completion of studies. 

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4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Slovenia has an outbound long-term mobility (2.1 % of students 
per  year)  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme (1.0 % of students in 2008/09) is above the EU average. 

The  majority  of  learning  mobility  in  Slovenia  is  supported  by  the  Vseživljenjsko  učenje 
(Lifelong  Learning)  and  Mladi  v  akciji  (Youth  in  Action)  European  Action  Programmes. 
There  are  also  some  national  schemes  to  support  learning  mobility  that  are  financed  from 
national funds on the basis of annual calls for tender, which are mostly intended for students 
at tertiary level for study programmes that are rare or not available in Slovenia. 

The  Lifelong  Learning  Programme  is  the  basic  measure  to  promote  learning  mobility  for 
education staff, Comenius for teachers, headmasters and future teachers, Erasmus for teaching 
staff in higher education, Leonardo da Vinci for professionals in the vocational education and 
training system and Grundtvig for adult education professionals. 

The  major  obstacle  is  still  recognition  of  knowledge  gained  from  learning  mobility.  In 
addition, some students from a lower socio-economic background cannot afford to engage in 
mobility. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Slovenia adopted a comprehensive Lifelong Learning Strategy in 2007. The cornerstones are 
improving  the  quality  of  education  and  training  by  updating  the  programmes,  curricula  and 
knowledge  maps,  developing  educational  and  learning  strategies,  improving  access  to 
education, recognising the knowledge gained and strengthening research and cooperation with 
non-governmental institutions and social partners. 

While the strategy itself is built on the concept of learning from cradle to grave, currently two 
areas are receiving special attention and funding: pre-school education and adult education. In 
the case of pre-school education, the focus is on ensuring permanent high-quality pre-school 
education and access, in particular in areas with high migration, while in adult education it is 
on offering further training to enter or re-enter the labour market. 

Slovenia  has  made  progress  on  developing  a  national  qualifications  framework.  These 
developments  have  been  coupled  with  continuing  reforms  in  vocational  education  and 
training.  The  focus  is  on  recognition  of  non-formally  acquired  knowledge  and  skills,  better 
inclusion of key competences in the education system and stronger use of instruments such as 
Europass, the EQF, ECVET and EQARF. 

Making vocational education and training more attractive remains a challenge. The change in 
the  structure  of  post-secondary  education  reflects  declining  interest  in  vocational  upper 
secondary  programmes,  which  is  creating  a  skills  deficit  in  the  labour  market.  Slovenia 
therefore  plans  to  increase  the  number  of  study  programmes  and  professional  standards  for 
which  students  can  obtain  skills  and  professional  qualifications 
in  post-secondary 
programmes. Further investment in training, as announced in the country’s National Reform 
Programme,  with  the  aim  of  improving  skills  and,  consequently,  long-term  employability 
should remain a priority. 

Development of career guidance and counselling services has been high on the policy agenda 
since  the  end  of  the  90s.  Implementation  of  the  Labour  Market  Regulation  Act  of  January 
2011,  which  puts  particular  emphasis  on  guidance  and  counselling,  is  a  step  forward.  In 
response  to  the  need  for  better  matching  of  skills  to  the  demands  of  the  labour  market, 

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Slovenia is currently making efforts to introduce career guidance services in the whole cycle 
of education and to provide information on future professional careers. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Slovenia 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education, % of GDP 

5.89 %01 

5.22 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Investment in education in Slovenia is above the EU average. Although Slovenia was among 
the EU countries hit hardest by the economic crisis in terms of real GDP, so far education and 
training have maintained the same level of funding as before the crisis. Funding for research 
and higher education has increased. 

In 2008, public expenditure by the state and municipalities on formal education in Slovenia 
totalled EUR 1 937.8 million or 5.19 % of GDP15, of which 2.35 % was intended for primary 
education, 1.15 % for secondary education and 1.21 % for tertiary education. 

Almost half (45.2 %) of the funds for formal education were earmarked for primary education, 
23.3 %  for  tertiary,  just  over  one  fifth  (22.1 %)  for  secondary  and  9.4 %  for  pre-school 
education. In the breakdown of all costs for educational institutions, public expenditure made 
up  88 %,  private  spending  11.5 %  and  international  costs  0.5 %.  The  programme-oriented 
budget  introduced  in  2009  aims  to  make  more  effective  use  of  public  funds,  improve 
transparency and increase inter-sectoral cooperation. 

Given the current budgetary constraints, continuing to prioritise investment in education and 
training will remain an important issue. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS IN RELATION TO THE CHALLENGES IDENTIFIED IN THE EUROPEAN 

SEMESTER 

While  Slovenia  has  a  well-performing  education  system,  there  are  shortcomings  with 
matching  the  skills  obtained  in  the  education  system  to  the  needs  of  the  labour  market. 
Although Slovenia recognises the importance of a national forecast of future skills needs on 
the labour market, it has no plans to develop a comprehensive system to identify current and 
projected labour market needs. Further efforts should be made to address deficit professions 
efficiently and design a long-term system for analysing and forecasting future skills needs. 

The  implementation  of  the  measures  related  to  career  guidance  and  counselling  services 
foreseen  in  the  Labour  Market  Regulation  Act  will  require  close  monitoring  and  regular 
evaluation.    

15     According to the Statistical information No. 23/2010 published by the Statistical Office of the Republic of 
Slovenia, the share of public expenditure spent on formal education in 2008 has been revised to 5.19% of 
GDP from 5.22% of GDP as published by Eurostat. 

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SPAIN 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

SPAIN   

Spain 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

100.0 % 99.3 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

95 % 

Low achievers 

(15 year-olds; 

PISA study 
results) 

Reading 

Mathematics 

16.3 %  19.6 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

24.7 %06 23.7 %09

 24.006 

22.2 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Science 

19.6 %06 18.2 %09

 20.306 

17.7 %09 

Early leavers from education and training 

(age 18–24) 

29.1 %  28.4 % b

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 

(age 30–34) 

29.2 % 

40.6 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

10.5 % 05

10.8 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

05= 2005, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 =2008, 09 =2009 b = break 

PISA: reading: 25 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 138 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2. 

EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Combating the worryingly high levels of early school leaving is, as Spain rightly recognised 
in its NRP, a precondition for addressing the high unemployment rates among young people 
and reducing the risk of social exclusion. The very high rate of early school leaving (31.2 %, 
i.e.  more  than  twice  the  European  average)  contrasts  sharply  with  very  high  tertiary 
educational  attainment  (39.4 %).  The  Spanish  NRP  draws  attention  to  specific  programmes 
for  reducing  early  school  leaving  that  have  already  been  introduced  in  a  bid  to  get  young 
people  to  stay  on  in  the  education  system  at  least  until  they  get  their  compulsory  education 
certificate. The measures mainly consist of reinforcement, guidance and support programmes 
(PROA)  and  Initial  Professional  Qualification  Programmes  (PCPI).  They  are  backed  by  the 
Ministry  of  Education's  Action  Plan  2010–2011  and  are  run  in  conjunction  with  the 
Autonomous  Communities  through  a  specific  programme  to  reduce  early  school  leaving. 
Measures  to  promote  vocational  training  have  led  to  more  places  and  new  options  in 
vocational  training  programmes.  2011  will  show  the  first  results  of  these  measures.  It  is 
essential  that  the  commitments  on  reducing  early  school  leaving  be  sustained  and  follow  a 
broad perspective. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (2) 
Adopt  the  proposed  pension  reform  to  extend  the  statutory  retirement  age  and  increase  the 
number of working years for the calculation of pensions as planned; regularly review pension 
parameters  in  line  with  changes  to  life  expectancy,  as  planned,  and  develop  further 
measures to improve lifelong learning for older workers. 

Recommendation (6) 

Assess by the end of 2011 the impacts of the labour market reforms of September 2010 and of 
the reform of active labour market policies of February 2011, accompanied, if necessary, by 
proposals  for  further  reforms  to  reduce  labour  market  segmentation,  and  to  improve 
employment opportunities for young people; ensure close monitoring of the effectiveness of 
the  measures  set  out  in  the  National  Reform  Programme  to  reduce  early  school  leaving, 
including through prevention policies, and facilitate the transition to vocational education and 
training. 

3. 

EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1. Early school leaving 

As  stressed  in  the  European  Semester  analysis,  early  school  leaving  remains  a  very  serious 
problem affecting 28.4 % of the 18–24 age group (2010 data). The rate has been high for over 
a  decade,  with  the  percentage  diminishing  only  slightly  in  2009  (-0.7 %)  and  more 
significantly in 2010 (-2.8 %). It impacts on participation in lifelong learning (LLL) and the 
chances  of  young  people  getting  a  foothold  in  the  labour  market  (the  youth  unemployment 
rate stands at 41.6 %). Given the current high ESL rates and the slow progress achieved in the 

- 139 - 

 
 
 
 
past, Spain's national target of getting the figure down to 15 % by 2020 (intermediate target 
for 2015: 23 %) appears ambitious. 

Spain  attaches  great  importance  to  achieving  this  target  by  way  of  regulations,  plans  and 
programmes  either  adopted  or  in  process  of  adoption;  these  were  mentioned  in  the  2011 
Spanish  ET2020  national  report  and  in  the  2011  National  Reform  Programme  (NRP).  The 
Sustainable Economy Act of February 2011 also addresses the challenges in the education and 
training system, in particular in the area of vocational training. 

Most  measures  to  reduce  ESL  referred  to  in  the  European  Semester  analysis  —  such  as 
increasing  the  availability  of  Initial  Professional  Qualification  Programmes  (PCPI)  or  the 
Ministry  of  Education’s  2010–2011  Action  Plan,  are  intervention  measures  focusing  on 
students in the last years of compulsory secondary education. 

Preventive  measures  are  implemented  mainly  through  the  Reinforcement,  Guidance  and 
Support Plan (PROA) referred to in the European Semester analysis. These measures mainly 
target migrants and include improving admission requirement for pupils in public schools to 
avoid  school  segregation;  promoting  foreign  pupils'  access  to  non-compulsory  education 
stages  and  to  adult  education;  and  improving  the  recognition  and  validation  of  academic 
certificates. 

In addition, free education has been extended to pre-school for 3 to 5 years-olds. The Educa 3 
plan (started in 2008 with an annual investment of over €100m) will continue until 2012, to 
increase the number of places offered for children aged 0 to 3. 

Compensation  measures  target  young  drop-outs  with  a  view  to  helping  them  re-enter  the 
education  and  training  system  by  setting  up  guidance  and  counselling  units,  by  improving 
access to formal education — facilitating access to the ESO certificate (Educación Secundaria 
Obligatoria) and to intermediate VET — and provisions to enhance vocational training, in line 
with the specific European Semester recommendation. 

The Ministry of Education action plan includes a research programme to encourage analysis 
and  monitoring  of  the  situation  in  this  area  and  is  therefore  a  positive  step  towards 
implementing  the  European  Semester  recommendation  on  keeping  a  watch  on  the 
effectiveness of the NRP measures. 

A  report  was  commissioned  by  the  General  Education  Committee  for  the  analysis  and 
monitoring  of  the  Spanish  and  international  educational  benchmarks  in  the  Education  and 
Training Strategy 2020.  

The working group in charge of the report would also carry out the monitoring and reviewing 
of the main actions taken to decrease early leaving of education and training. The document 
"European  Educational  Objectives:  Education  and  Training  Strategy  2020.  Spanish  Report 
2010-11" was adopted by the Ministry of Education and the Autonomous Communities on 18 
October 2011. 

3.2. Tertiary Attainment 

Spain clearly performed above the EU average of 33.6 % in 2010 and has already reached the 
EU  benchmark  for  2020  of  40 %.  There  has  been  rapid  progress  in  the  recent  past,  with 
Spain’s rate of tertiary attainment increasing by 11.4 percentage points from 29.2 % in 2000 to 
40.6 % in 2010. Spain’s national target for 2020 is 44 % (intermediate target for 2015: 41%). 

The  adaptation  to  the  Bologna  process  will  be  completed  during  the  academic  year  2010–
2011.  The  most  significant  measure  adopted  in  Spain  to  improve  and  modernise  higher 

- 140 - 

 
 
education  has  been  the  2015  University  Strategy,  adopted  in  January  2009.  It  includes  the 
social dimension as a cross-cutting objective within the European Higher Education Area. 

With the aim of encouraging equality and equal opportunities the Ministry of Education has 
included  new  broader  Scholarship,  Grant  and  Equity  programmes  in  the  2010–2011Action 
Plan. 

In its NRP Spain states that it intends to focus on the monitoring and quality assurance of new 
qualifications. These measures will help tackle the challenges of improving the employability 
and  adaptability  of  graduates,  and  encouraging  excellence, 
internationalisation  and 
independence of university institutions. Further increases in tertiary attainment should focus 
primarily on tertiary level vocational education and training (VET). 

4.  MOBILITY 

Spain  is  adopting  measures  to  promote  mobility,  equity  and  better  language  skills.  A 
scholarship and grant system has been designed to provide access to education and facilitate 
equal  opportunities,  academic  performance  and  mobility,  and  the  Spanish  National  Agency 
for European Educational Programmes (OAPEE) fosters participation in the mobility aspects 
of the Lifelong Learning Programme. As regards tertiary education, Spain remains the most 
popular destination for incoming Erasmus students. 

Spain  shows  outward  bound  long-term  mobility  (1.2 %  of  students  per  year)  below  the  EU 
average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus  programme  (1.4 %  of 
students  in  2008/09)  is  above  the  EU  average.  In  higher  education  the  focus  of 
internationalisation and mobility forms part of the 2015 University Strategy. 

Future plans are to expand mobility in VET, including complementary grants for the Erasmus 
VET programme. 

To boost quality vocational training and mobility opportunities, policies are being developed 
in  conjunction  with  the  Autonomous  Communities  as  part  of  the  2010–2011  Territorial 
Cooperation Programmes. 

Mobility of teachers in the various Autonomous Communities is enhanced by training stays 
and  on-the-job  training  modules.  Most  of  these  measures  can  be  embedded  in  the 
comprehensive framework offered by the Council Recommendation ‘Youth on the move — 
promoting the learning mobility of young people’. 

The  Ministry  of  Education  is  also  directing  a  European  mobility  project  for  counsellors 
(Project  Academia)  in  conjunction  with  all  regional  administrations,  so  that  counsellors 
include a European dimension and mobility element in their work. 

5. 

LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

An Action Plan for Lifelong Learning focusing on adult learners is in advanced preparation 
and will be submitted to the Council of Ministers shortly. It has been drafted in consultation 
with  the  main  stakeholders  and  the  Autonomous  Communities.  The  main  objectives  are  to 
find better ways of coordinating resources, reduce the number of adults without a secondary 
compulsory  schooling  certificate,  combat  the  problem  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion  of 
immigrant and disadvantaged groups, enhance a culture of lifelong learning and monitor the 
sector with a view to improving its quality and efficiency. 

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The economic and financial crisis has had a negative effect on budgets for adult education in 
general, but the creation of online communication and information plans is helping to promote 
lifelong learning and inform citizens of what adult education is available. 

In  formal,  non-formal  and  informal  education,  action  is  being  taken  at  central  and  regional 
level  to  facilitate  access  to  lifelong  learning  (Open/distance  University,  collaboration  with 
Armed Forces, ‘Mentor Classrooms’, etc.). 

Lifelong learning is a common objective for both the Ministry of Education and the Ministry 
of Labour and Immigration. Both institutions are working on such issues as the recognition of 
professional skills acquired through work experience or via non-formal education. 

In 2009 Spain adopted regulations on the certification procedure for professional competences 
acquired through work experience and informal training channels, following the results of an 
experimental  programme  conducted  in  2003  and  the  work  conducted  by  the  Ministries  of 
Education, and Labour and Immigration, in coordination with the Autonomous Communities 
and with the participation of the General Council for Vocational Training. 

Work has been in progress since 2003 to pinpoint the skills and qualifications demands of the 
labour market. The National Catalogue of Professional Qualifications, currently in preparation 
for Government approval, comprises 518 different qualifications. 

Measures to adapt VET to labour market demands include curriculum reforms to revise and 
broaden  vocational  training  and  the  corresponding  certificates.  Since  2009,  50  VET 
certificates  have  been  published  and  a  further  64  are  due,  many  of  them  in  the  energy  and 
water related occupations. 

In-service training for teachers, trainers and educators is guaranteed by law. Since 2010 the 
Cooperation Programme for Teachers' Lifelong Learning has been especially concerned with 
basic competences, ICT, multilingualism and school management quality systems. 

The Ministry of Education is promoting a comprehensive plan to set up an integrated system 
of  vocational  guidance.  Work  in  2010–2011  targets  regional  administrations,  guidance 
providers and potential users. 

Other measures Spain has identified as of strategic importance for its education and training 
system  include:  foreign  language  learning  (the  Language  Action  Plan  is  operational  for  the 
period 2010–2012); information and communication technologies (through the ICT initiative 
‘School 2.0’); and the promotion of innovation, creativity and entrepreneurship (opening the 
education  and  training  system  to  the  business  world  and  linking  it  to  labour  market  needs). 
The measures outlined above would appear to be positive moves to deal with the challenges 
identified in the European Semester analysis, in particular the need to improve employment 
opportunities for young people. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Spain 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

4.28 % 

4.62 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education, % of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

- 142 - 

 
 
 
 
In terms of investment in education as a percentage of GDP for the period 2000-2008, Spain 
performs  at  below  EU  average  levels,  but  the  increase  in  spending  on  education  as  a 
percentage of GDP has been faster since 2000 than on EU average. Since the Spanish GDP 
increased more rapidly than the EU average, investment in education has in fact grown faster 
than in the EU as a whole in absolute terms. 

Investment  in  education  in  Spain  has  been  stable  after  2008,  in  2009  the  expenditure  on 
education was 4.98% in relation to GDP, and in 2010 the estimated figure was 4.91%. 

Available figures indicate that in 2011 the total education and training budget was down by 
around 4 % compared to 2010. At the central level, the budget of the Ministry of Education 
for  non-university  education  and  tertiary  education  was  €  2897m  in  2010  and  €2801m  in 
2011.  The  total  education  and  training  budget,  including  the  resources  of  the  Autonomous 
Communities, was € 44 483m in 2010 and € 42 738m in 2011. 

Most of the budget decrease affects the pay of teachers and related academic staff working in 
the  public  or  private  government  dependent  (concertado)  education  system.  In  general  staff 
expenditure accounts for around 80 % of all education and training expenditure in Spain, and 
the pay cuts have been between 5 % and 10 % for civil servants. 

Pre-primary  education,  ESL,  vocational  training  and  promoting  equality  by  way  of 
scholarships  and  grants  were  defined  as  priorities  by  the  government,  which  therefore 
maintained or even increased their budget allocations in spite of the economic and financial 
crisis. Money spent on scholarships and grants increased by 3.86 % in 2010 and by a further 
2.58 % in 2011. 

Analysing  detailed  figures  on  Spanish  education  budgets  can  be  somewhat  complex,  due  to 
the multiple institutional levels involved (central government and Autonomous Communities) 
and to different data aggregation methods. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

Spain’s  early  school  leaving  (ESL)  indicator  remains  high  despite  a  series  of  far-reaching 
measures undertaken in recent years, such as preventive action targeting  special groups  like 
the migrant population. It is important then that this area of action remains a clear priority and 
that the political momentum is maintained if the ambitious national ESL target is to be met. 

The  difficult  transition  from  secondary  education  to  an  attractive  and  efficient  vocational 
education and training system is having a negative effect on youth unemployment rates and 
social  exclusion.  In  this  context,  the  Sustainable  Economy  Act  is  expected  to  bring  about 
improvements, in particular as regards vocational training.    

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SWEDEN 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

SWEDEN   

Sweden 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

83.6 % 

94.7 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

12.6 %  17.4 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

18.306 

21.1 %09

24.006 

22.2 %09 

Science 

16.406 

19.2 %09

20.306 

17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

7.3 %  9.7 % b, p 16.0 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

31.8 %  45.8 % p

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

17.5 %01

24.5 % 

8.5 %03

9.1 % p 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 144 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Early  school  leaving  plays  an  important  role  in  labour  market  exclusion,  as  both  youth  and 
adult  unemployment  rates  are  more  than  twice  as  high  for  people  who  have  not  completed 
upper  secondary  education.16  Reducing  early  school  leaving  is  an  obvious  way  of  bringing 
unemployment  down  and  making  the  labour  force  more  productive.  The  incidence  of  early 
school leaving has, however, not diminished over the last decade (2000: 7.3 %, 2009: 10.7 %), 
but  the  trend  has  been  more  positive  since  2006.17  According  to  the  national  target,  the 
percentage of 18–24 year-olds who have not completed upper secondary school and who are 
not  studying  should  be  less  than  10 %  by  2020.  Combined  with  a  decline  in  educational 
quality, as revealed by the PISA tests, and the low attractiveness of the teaching profession, 
early school leaving can lead in the long run to skills shortages and become a bottleneck for 
growth  in  a  highly  open  and  export-oriented  economy.  The  National  Reform  Programme 
includes  ongoing  reforms  which  can  have  an  impact  on  early  school  leaving,  notably  the 
reform  of  upper  secondary  education,  by  stronger  differentiation  of  the  vocational  and 
academic  tracks,  the  introduction  of  an  apprenticeship  scheme,  and  stronger  support  at  the 
transition  between  lower  and  upper  secondary  education.  However,  the  ongoing  reforms 
would benefit from a more coherent strategy to reduce early school leaving, monitoring and 
evaluating  the  impact  of  measures  taken,  and  a  stronger  focus  on  groups  at  risk,  such  as 
migrant youth or boys. 

Sweden has a tertiary education attainment (43.9 %, 2009) well above the EU 2020 headline 
target. However, drop-out rates from higher education are rather high and the throughput of 
university  students  is  slow,  showing  that  there  is  scope  for  greater  efficiency  in  higher 
education. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

At 9.7 % in 2010, Sweden performs better than the EU average in early school leaving and is 
already below the target of 10 % set for 2020. However, Sweden is one of the few countries in 
the EU in which early school leaving rates have not decreased since 2000. There has been no 
progress  in  upper  secondary  school  leavers,  while  the  number  of  pupils  having  difficulties 
graduating from lower secondary education is increasing, especially among boys with migrant 
background.  Early  school  leavers  are  particularly  vulnerable  on  the  Swedish  labour  market 
and are at high risk of unemployment, as well as social exclusion and poverty. 

A number of systemic reforms are currently being implemented, notably the reform of upper 
secondary  education,  introducing  more  curriculum  differentiation  between  academic  and 
vocational tracks, and mainstreaming a new apprenticeship track. The reform of the transition 
from lower to upper secondary will both increase entry requirements for upper secondary and 

16   Unemployment rates among persons with no upper secondary education are more than double the 

corresponding rates for those who have completed upper secondary education in both the youth segment 
(33.4 % vs 15.4 % in Q4 2010) and among adults (11.3 % vs 5.6 %). 

17   However, the statistics have to be taken with caution due to breaks in the series for this indicator. 

- 145 - 

 
 
                                                 
introduce a one-year personalised transition programme for pupils who do not meet the entry 
requirements. 

Sweden has the data infrastructure to monitor developments in early school leaving at school 
and local level. The Government intends to monitor the situation of ‘risk populations’ such as 
young  men  and  newly  arrived  migrants.  From  the  autumn  2011  municipalities  will  find  it 
easier to monitor early school leaving, as upper secondary institutions will have the obligation 
to notify municipal authorities about enrolments and drop-outs. 

Between 2009 and 2011 additional funding has been made available to adult VET and adult 
high  school  education,  and  a  temporary  increase  in  student  support  has  been  introduced  for 
early school leavers aged 20–24 who are unemployed. 

As evidence shows, early school leaving plays an important role in labour market exclusion, 
which  further  translates  into  social  exclusion.  While  the  above  measures  provide  the  right 
response to the policy challenge and are in line with the Commission’s assessment during the 
European Semester, they would benefit from a more integrated and coherent approach, better 
focusing and close monitoring. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

45.8 % of young adults in Sweden had tertiary education attainment in 2010, well above the 
EU 2020 headline target and exceeding Sweden’s national target for 2020. Sweden continues 
the modernisation of its higher education, by introducing a new quality evaluation system and 
by introducing from 2013 quality based resource allocation for higher education institutions.  
A  temporary  boost  in  funding  in  tertiary  education  between  2010  and  2011  allowed  the 
creation  of  additional  student  places  in  higher  education.  The  newly  established  higher 
vocational  education  programmes  have  high  demand,  and  high  insertion  rates  on  the  labour 
market for graduates.  

Sweden has an inclusive higher education system, opened to lifelong learning. An important 
part  in  the  Swedish  higher  education  system  of  life  long  learning  is  the  possibility  to  take 
short courses, not necessarily leading to formal degrees.   

However, rather high average age of university entrants (22.1 years in 200718), drop-out rates 
(46%  in  2008)19  and  a  relatively  slow  throughput  of  university  students  lead  to  a  relatively 
late entry of graduates into the labour market. OECD calculations estimate that this leads to 
one  of  the  highest  cumulative  expenditure  per  student  over  the  average  duration  of  tertiary 
studies.  There  is  scope  for  further  improving  the  efficiency  of  higher  education,  while 
maintaining its important role in  lifelong learning. There was limited progress  in increasing 
the number of MST graduates, which grew between 2000 and 2008 by less than half the EU 
average, with the female share of MST graduates on the other hand clearly above EU average.  

The level of study support has been increased with effect from July 2011 and has been more 
closely linked to study results in order to accelerate the throughput of students. There has also 
been recent progress in advancing the entry to tertiary education. A study identifying the main 
causes of dropping-out from higher education was published in 2011. 

18   When excluding incoming students the average age of university entrants in Sweden are 20.9 years.  
19   OECD, Education at a Glance 2010. Includes students entering single courses who may never intend to 

study all courses needed for a degree, an estimated 40% in Sweden. 

- 146 - 

 
 
                                                 
While  Sweden  has  a  well-performing  tertiary  education  system  in  international  comparison, 
rather  high  drop-out  rates  and  rather  slow  throughput  suggest  that  there  is  scope  for  further 
improvement. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education Sweden has an outbound long-term mobility (3.0 % of students 
per  year)  near  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme (0.6 % of students in 2008/09) is below the EU average. 

Sweden introduced tuition fees for non-EU/EEA students from 1 July 2011, accompanied by 
new  programmes  of  scholarships  for  non-EU/EEA  students.  Student  mobility  has  recently 
been increasing in Sweden. A number of initiatives are aimed at promoting outward mobility: 
an  inquiry  on  improvements  in  the  use  of  student  support  for  studies  abroad  and  a  pilot 
scholarship programme for promoting outward mobility of teachers and students (2010-2011) 
are ongoing. Sweden has taken steps to set up a National Qualifications Framework, relating 
it to the public education and training system as a first step and towards introducing ECVET. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Sweden has not formulated a specific strategy for lifelong learning, but has a well developed 
and coherent lifelong learning approach. Adult participation in lifelong learning is among the 
highest  in  the  EU  and  has  been  supported  by  additional  government  grants  during  the 
economic recession. 

With regard to flexible pathways, the reformed upper secondary education will bring in higher 
levels  of  tracking  and  more  differentiated  pathways,  with  greater  curriculum  differentiation 
between  the  academic,  VET  and  apprenticeship  tracks.  VET  graduates  will  no  longer 
automatically qualify for entry to higher education, but will be entitled to additional courses in 
upper secondary schools or in municipal adult education in order to become eligible. 

The National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (NAHVE) collects information about 
skills needs and ensures that higher vocational education programmes are aligned with labour 
market  needs.  The  reformed  upper  secondary  vocational  programmes  will  be  advised  and 
supported  by  tripartite  National  Programme  Councils,  which  will  also  follow  up  how 
successful graduates are in finding jobs. A study on demand and supply for higher education 
qualifications is being carried out by the National Agency for Higher Education. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Sweden 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

Investment in education 
Public spending on education,% of GDP 

7.21 % 

6.74 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

Sweden  allocates  over  6 %  of  GDP  to  education,  and  hence  has  the  third  highest  rate  of 
investment in education (after Denmark and Cyprus) among the EU Member States. 

- 147 - 

 
 
 
While Sweden experienced a sharp drop in GDP in 2009, the country’s strong fiscal position 
allowed  the  government  to  invest  more  in  education,  with  a  view  to  countering 
unemployment. 

Additional  publicly  funded  places  in  higher  education,  adult  education  and  continuing 
vocational training were among the main countercyclical measures taken during the economic 
crisis.  This  brought  about  an  increase  in  the  number  of  people  in  education  and  training  in 
2010–2011,  meeting  the  increased  demand  for  education  caused  by  the  dip  in  the  labour 
market. In Sweden education has enjoyed a priority in terms of investment, which has been 
maintained during the economic crisis.   

When the economic crisis hit Sweden, ESF funds were offered to support projects that would 
help employees at risk of dismissal to get more up-to-date training that would help them stay 
in their jobs or find new jobs if actually dismissed. Following this some €55m was paid out to 
around  70  projects  that  strategically  helped  both  individuals  as  well  as  small  and  larger 
companies to come through the crisis, and come out stronger. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS IN RELATION TO THE CHALLENGES IDENTIFIED IN THE EUROPEAN 

SEMESTER 

Sweden  has  a  broad-based  and  modern  education  system.  There  is  further  scope  for 
improvement in consolidating the reduction of the early school leaving rate and in reversing 
the decline in the quality of school education, as shown by PISA. Current reforms, such as the 
reform  of  upper  secondary  education,  initiatives  in  the  area  of  vocational  education  and 
training,  and  measures  that  support  the  transition  between  the  different  levels  of  education, 
have strong potential to remedy the situation, but should be monitored carefully. 

The ongoing efforts for modernisation of higher education address many of the challenges in 
the  area.  Increasing  efficiency  in  higher  education,  by  continuing  initiatives  aimed  at 
accelerating throughput or reducing drop-out, could have a positive impact in terms of both 
public finances and the labour market and would thus help boost Sweden’s growth potential.   

- 148 - 

 
 
UNITED KINGDOM 

Starting with the country’s performance in relation to the education and training benchmarks 
and  the  challenges  identified  during  the  first  Europe  2020  European  Semester,  this  country 
summary  analyses  the  country’s  situation  on  the  basis  of  the  ET  2020  national  reports  and 
other available sources. It focuses on key areas for the implementation of ET 2020 as well as 
Europe  2020  and  the  European  Semester,  i.e.  measures  relevant  for  achieving  the  Europe 
2020 headline targets and the related national targets, along with mobility, lifelong learning, 
skills matching, and investment in education and training. 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

UNITED KINGDOM  

United Kingdom 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 

(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

100 % 

97.3 %09

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

Low achievers 

(15 year-olds; 

PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

19.0 %06

18.4 %09

21.3 % 

20.0 %09 

17.0 % 

15 % 

19.8 %06 20.2 %09  24.0 %06 

22.2 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Science 

16.7 %06

15.0 %09 20.3 %06 

17.7 %09 

Early leavers from education and training 

(age 18–24) 

18.2 % 

14.9 % b 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 

(age 30–34) 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 

(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

29.0 % 

43.0 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

   40 % 

20.0 % 07 

19.4 % 

8.5 % 03 

9.1 % 10 

12.5 % 

15 % 

01 =2001, 03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, e08 =2008, 09 =2009, = estimate, b = break, p = provisional, 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

- 149 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Analysis  presented  in  the  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  accompanying  the 
Recommendation  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated 
Guidelines for the economic and employment policies of the Member States 

UK performance is better than the EU average on participation in early childhood education, 
on  reducing  the  number  of  low  achievers  in  reading,  maths  and  science,  on  completion  of 
upper secondary education and in adult education. Rates of participation in higher education 
are currently good, but could be adversely affected by the introduction of tuition fees of up to 
£ 9 000 p.a. for degree courses in England. Problems in vocational education have prevented 
significant increases in medium level skills. According to a report of the Government’s ‘UK 
Commission  for  Employment  and  Skills’  (UKCES),20  based  on  current  trends  the  UK’s 
relative international position is unlikely to improve between 2010 and 2020, and for low and 
intermediate level skills the UK is projected to remain ranked in the bottom half of the OECD 
countries. 

While the share of people aged 25–64 having attained high skill levels is, at 33.4 %, high in 
the  UK  (EU:  25.2 %),  in  2009,  the  share  of  adults  having  completed  ISCED21  level  3 
education was low, at 41.2 % compared to 46.8 % on average for the EU. UK public spending 
on education as a percentage of GDP has grown since 2000 and is now above the EU average, 
but educational performance (as measured by PISA scores) remains static. The OECD22 notes 
that an insufficient supply of high-quality vocational programmes and tertiary education study 
places is hampering human capital formation and growth. 

The  measures  which  have  been  announced  to  promote  skills  should  help  alleviate  the 
bottlenecks. The increase in annual funding for adult apprenticeships will be up to £ 250 m per 
year,  with  sufficient  funding  in  place  for  75 000  more  adults  by  2014–15.  Other  measures 
such as student loans for advanced further education courses and Lifelong Learning Accounts 
may  assist  in  overcoming  this  bottleneck.  There  will  be  a  £ 2.5 bn  pupil  premium  fund  to 
support  the  education  of  disadvantaged  children  and  a  new  national  scholarship  fund  to 
support  students  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds,  reaching  £ 150 m  per  year  by  2014–15. 
The  budget  details,  where  available,  specify  a  maximum  limit  but  no  minimum.  Thus,  the 
level  of  ambition  is  high,  but  more  details  on  certain  schemes  are  required  to  make  a  full 
assessment  of  the  plans’  effectiveness  (for  example  on  the  extent  to  which  employers  will 
actually  provide  the  extra  apprenticeship  places  for  which  funding  is  being  made  available, 
and  on  the  new  targeting  mechanisms  for  support  to  students  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds — see below). 

The  measures  in  the  NRP  were  supplemented  on  12  May  by  the  publication  of  a  document 
entitled ‘Supporting Youth Employment’, which summarised the Government’s approach to 
this  problem  and  announced  some  new  measures.  These  included  implementing  the 
vocational  education  reforms  recommended  by  a  recent  independent  review,  requiring 
secondary  schools  to  offer  careers  advice,  providing  apprenticeships  for  ‘up  to  10 000’ 
vulnerable  young  people  and  trialling  new  ‘sector-based  academies’  to  train  up  to  50 000 
young unemployed people to work in particular sectors. Given that these measures were not 
included in the NRP, it was not possible to conduct a full analysis of them. However, as with 

20   UK Commission for Employment and Skills, Ambition 2010 Report, August 2010. 
21   International Standard Classification of education. Level 3 is broadly equivalent to upper secondary 

education. 

22   OECD Economic Survey of the UK, March 2011. 

- 150 - 

 
 
                                                 
some  of  the  rest  of  the  package,  while  these  are  clearly  all  steps  in  the  right  direction,  the 
number  of  people  for  whom  help  is  envisaged  appears  small  relative  to  the  size  of  the 
problem, and there is a lack of evidence on whether the target numbers will be reached and of 
how much the new initiatives will really add to current levels of support. 

The proportion of UK 18–24 year-olds who are early leavers from education and training, at 
15.7 %, is higher than the EU average of 14.4 % and much higher than the EU target of 10 %. 
The problem is more acute for boys than girls. In England, the number of 16–24 year-olds not 
in education, employment or training was 938 000 in the final quarter of 201023, a record high. 
Furthermore, pupils’ educational performance in the UK remains strongly related to parents’ 
income and background.  

Plans to tackle early school leaving include raising the age for leaving compulsory education 
from  16  to  17  in  2013  and  to  18  from  2015.  A  coordinated  range  of  policy  measures  and 
investment  has  not  yet  been  specified.  Plans  to  make  more  money  available  for 
apprenticeships  and  to  create  a  new  type  of  ‘technical’  school  in  24  localities  should  make 
vocational  education and  training more accessible for young people. However, according to 
the  National  Institute  of  Economic  and  Social  Research  neither  the  expansion  of 
apprenticeships nor the expansion of the work experience scheme are sufficient to address the 
scale of the youth unemployment problem. 

Furthermore, some further reforms may exacerbate the problem of early school, leaving in the 
UK. In England, the ‘Education Maintenance Allowance’ (EMA) — a payment of up to £ 30 
per week to children from poorer families who remain in post-16 education — was closed to 
new applicants as of January 2011 and replaced with a smaller, more targeted bursary scheme; 
total funding was reduced from £ 560 m to £ 180 m. The government draws on research by the 
National  Foundation  for  Education  Research  which  says  that  90 %  of  students  who  receive 
EMA  would  still  continue  with  their  education  without  the  payment.  However,  Institute  for 
Fiscal Studies (IFS) research shows that the EMA has raised participation as well as boosting 
grades; the costs of providing the allowance are offset by the financial gains of getting young 
people into training. There remains a risk that this new policy will not be as effective as the 
EMA in tackling educational disadvantage, suggesting a case for specific short and medium-
term nationwide measures to drive greater progress. 

Council  Recommendation  on  the  implementation  of  the  Integrated  Guidelines  for  the 
economic and employment policies of the Member States 

Recommendation (3) 

Take steps by 2012 to ensure that a higher share of young people enter the labour market with 
adequate skills and to improve the employability of 18 to 24 year-olds who left education or 
training  without  qualifications.  Address  skill  shortages  by  increasing  the  numbers  attaining 
intermediate skills, in line with labour market needs. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

As pinpointed in the outcome of the European Semester, early school leaving remains a major 
challenge for the UK, especially in the light of high youth unemployment, and of the reduced 

23   Source: UK Department for Education, Statistical release ‘NEET statistics Quarterly brief’, table 1(b) (dated 

24 February 2011). 

- 151 - 

 
 
                                                 
 
cash incentives for disadvantaged young people who remain in education (which result from 
government  policy  target  such  funds  on  the  most  needy).  The  UK  performs  below  the  EU 
average,  with  a  rate  of  14.9 %,  compared  to  the  EU  average  of  14.1 %  in  2010;  this  is 
considerably  higher  than  the  EU  target  of  10 %,  and  the  ESL  rate  has  decreased  only 
moderately over the past decade (18.2 % in 2000). 

The UK has not established a national target for reducing early school leaving but has recently 
undertaken  a  number  of  measures  to  analyse  and  monitor  this  phenomenon,  including  the 
publication of data on young people and education, development of local authority systems to 
monitor  young  people’s  participation  in  education,  and  (in  Scotland  only)  the  provision  of 
information to young people. 

The  UK  is  focusing  particularly  on  prevention  measures  to  stop  potential  problems 
developing  into  barriers  to  the  participation  of  young  people  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds. In addition to boosting participation in early childhood education, where the UK 
already performs above the EU average, these measures include providing schools with extra 
funding  if  they  take  disadvantaged  students,  the  aim  being  to  raise  their  attainment  levels. 
Measures  have  been  introduced  to  provide  15  weekly  hours  of  early  education  to  the  20 % 
most  disadvantaged  2  year-olds.  Policies  to  increase  the  number  of  schools  that  are  run  by 
parents, head teachers and teachers are also referred to. 

Northern  Ireland  aims  to  increase  the  proportion  of  school  leavers  achieving  Level  2 
qualifications  with  a  coordinated  range  of  strategies  tackling  such  things  as  school 
improvement, a revised curriculum, literacy and numeracy targets and barriers to learning for 
at-risk groups. 

The UK Government believes that the best measure to prevent early school leaving is to raise 
overall attainment in schools. It has introduced a new performance measure of the number of 
pupils who have secured a ‘C’ grade in core subjects (the ‘English Baccalaureate’) and will 
provide  extra  school  funding  for  measures  that  help  disadvantaged  pupils  achieve  more. 
Under the heading of ‘measures to prevent early school leaving’, the UK report also refers to 
such  diverse  policies  as:  the  teaching  of  ‘systematic  synthetic  phonics’  (to  help  literacy 
acquisition); devolving power to school heads and teachers; and rationalising grants to local 
authorities  for  preventative  approaches.  In  Scotland,  the  Government  aims  to  offer  post-16 
learning for every young person who wants it. The Welsh government has highlighted learner 
attainment at age 15 as a key priority area.   

As measures to compensate for early school leaving, the UK highlights: the decision to raise 
the  education  participation  age  in  England  to  17  (in  2013)  and  18  (in  2015),  and  the 
commitments  to  fund  training  for  young  people  who  do  not  possess  a  Level  2  or  3 
qualification and to expand the funding for apprenticeships, which seems quite ambitious. 

The measures in place are in line with the specific recommendation issued in the framework 
of  the  European  Semester,  that  the  UK  ‘take  steps  by  2012  to  ensure  that  a  higher  share  of 
young people enter the labour market with adequate skills and to improve the employability 
of  18  to  24-year-olds  who  left  education  or  training  without  qualifications...’.  In  addition, 
boosting the consistency, coordination and balance between ESL prevention, intervention and 
compensation  is  likely  to  improve  overall  effectiveness.  The  measures  for  improving  basic 
skills  are  also  consistent  with  the  recommendation  to  provide  young  people  with  adequate 
skills  for  the  labour  market.  Producing  a  significant  impact  by  increasing  the  numbers 
attaining intermediate skills, in line with labour market needs, will be particularly important. 

- 152 - 

 
 
3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The UK has progressed significantly from 29 % in 2000 to the current tertiary attainment rate 
of 43 % (2010), which is well above the EU average (33.6 %). The growth in the number of 
MST graduates exceeded the EU benchmark but, at the same time, was below the EU average. 

No national target has been set. As measures to increase higher education entrance rates, the 
UK  refers  to:  allowing  universities  to  recruit  an  additional  10 000  students  in  2010/11; 
allowing  universities  to  charge  students  up  to  £ 9 000  a  year  (not  in  Scotland);  obliging 
universities  to  invest  some  of  their  additional  income  in  improving  access;  mitigating  any 
negative  impact  of  the  increased  fees  on  students  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds,  in  line 
with  the  challenge  identified  in  the  framework  of  the  European  Semester.  The  Welsh 
Government will ensure that Welsh domiciled students will not have to pay higher university 
fees, wherever in the UK they decide to study. 

Measures  to  improve  completion  rates  of  students  in  higher  education  include  taking  into 
account each university’s retention rates when drawing up its agreement with the government 
on improving access. In Scotland, those institutions that recruit large numbers from the most 
deprived neighbourhoods will receive additional funding to improve retention. 

The  implications  of  the  significant  increases  in  tuition  fees  combined  with  specific 
arrangements for disadvantaged groups will require careful monitoring to ensure that they do 
not  discourage  participation  in  higher  education  by  people  from  socially  disadvantaged 
backgrounds,  nor  attainment  rates,  in  accordance  with  the  indications  of  the  European 
Semester. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As  regards  tertiary  education,  the  UK’s  outbound  long-term  mobility  (0.6 %  of  students  per 
year) is well below the EU average (2.8 %) and in fact the lowest in the EU, while short-term 
mobility under the EU Erasmus programme (0.3 % of students in 2008/09) is also well below 
the EU average. 

Examples  of  recent  measures  to  promote  outgoing  /  incoming  student  mobility  are:  pilot 
projects  to  test  approaches  to  the  application  of  credits  in  UK  VET;  339  new  collaborative 
links between UK HEIs and HEIs from the rest of the world; and bilateral study programmes 
which  have  enabled  over  1600  UK  students  since  2007  to  spend  three  weeks  in  China  and 
India.  The  UK  also  reports  improvements  in  the  academic  recognition  of  foreign 
qualifications and/or periods of study abroad. 

The  Scottish  and  Welsh  Governments  have  funded  projects  to  promote  outward  student 
mobility. 

Specific steps to promote the learning mobility of teachers and other educational staff, or to 
identify and reduce any obstacles to learning mobility, are not mentioned, apart from financial 
compensation to cover the cost of replacing teachers on Comenius placements. 

In an increasingly globalised economy, most countries now recognise that it is beneficial both 
to individuals and to the economy for students to undertake a part of their studies abroad. The 
benefits  include  the  acquisition  of  key  competences  that  employers  value  such  as 
communication  skills,  an  understanding  of  other  cultures  and 
languages,  personal 
management,  teamwork,  the  development  of  personal  networks  etc.  Further  targeted  efforts 
would therefore be appropriate to improve the UK’s weak educational mobility performance, 
in particular as regards outbound students. 

- 153 - 

 
 
5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

The United Kingdom appears to have an explicit comprehensive lifelong strategy. Although 
the approach to lifelong learning is well developed, however, no further progress is reported 
in this area. 

Adult participation rates in LLL are more than twice the EU average. 

In particular, the Scottish education system is one of the few in the EU that has a coherent and 
comprehensive LLL strategy to support the long-term development of education and training 
reform  across  all  sectors  and  levels.  The  strategy  is  based  on  evidence  and  supported  by 
agreed financing arrangements and performance targets. 

Consistent with the recommendation of the European Semester to provide young people with 
adequate  skills  for  the  labour  market  and  to  improve  the  employability  of  those  who  left 
school without qualifications, the UK reports measures in VET and adult education to reduce 
and  prevent  unemployment.  Recent  measures  to  improve  skills  forecasting  have  included  a 
series of proposals with increased focus on basic skills, simplifying funding arrangements and 
reducing central bureaucratic control over colleges and training organisations. 

In Scotland, an integrated employment and skills (IES) service has been put in place to make 
it quicker and easier for job-seekers to access professional advice, and a new Labour Market 
Intelligence framework will set out a clear strategy for improving LMI provision and access. 

Such positive developments, in particular to improve the supply and quality of VET, could be 
enhanced, in particular by way of specific measures to take the results on board in planning 
processes with a view to increasing the critical mass of potential beneficiaries. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

UK 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

4.46 % 

5.36 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Investment  in  education  (public  spending  on  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP)  has  shown 
significant growth since 2000 and is now above the EU average. 

long-term  growth 

During  the  recent  budget  cutting  exercise,  the  education  and  training  budget  remained 
relatively protected in comparison to other policy areas. The Government has prioritised areas 
which  support 
(including  schools,  early  years  provision,  and 
apprenticeships),  core  universal  frontline  services,  and  services  which  protect  the  most 
disadvantaged,  including:  funds  to  support  the  attainment  of  the  most  disadvantaged  and  to 
provide incentives for good schools to take on pupils from poorer backgrounds; 15 hours free 
early  years  education  for  3  and  4  year-olds  and  disadvantaged  2  year-olds;  Sure  Start 
Children’s Centres, offering universal services for all families and targeted services focused 
on the neediest ones; and an expansion of 16–19 age group provision. 

The  ministry’s  administrative  budget  will,  however,  be  reduced  by  a  third  by  2014–15,  and 
schools and other frontline services will have to make further savings. 

The Government is also encouraging a greater diversity of organisations providing education 
and giving schools and local authorities greater flexibility over their budgets. 

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In  further  education,  funding  will  be  targeted  at  learners  with  very  low  levels  of  skills, 
unemployed people, adult apprenticeships, and at giving a second chance to 19 – 24 year-olds 
without a secondary level qualification. Learners and employers will be expected to pay for 
intermediate and higher level training courses: new FE loans will be introduced from 2013–14 
for learners aged 24 years or more on courses above secondary level 3. 

This  is  consistent  with  the  specific  European  Semester  recommendation  on  addressing 
shortages in intermediate skills in line with labour market needs. 

In higher education, to boost investment resources against a background of growing student 
demand,  universities  in  England  will  charge  students  up  to  £ 9 000  a  year  for  the  teaching 
elements  of  their  courses  (the  cost  of  accommodation  etc.  is  already  paid  by  students). 
Students will start to repay loans when they earn £ 21 000 or more p.a. The maintenance grant 
for students from households with an income up to £ 25 000 p.a. will be increased. As pointed 
out earlier in this document, in accordance with the indications of the European Semester, the 
impact of tuition fees combined with arrangements for disadvantaged students will have to be 
monitored  to  ensure  that  this  does  not  lead  to  lower  participation  and  attainment  rates  in 
tertiary education. 

7.  CONCLUSIONS 

Tackling early school leaving (ESL) remains a challenge in the UK in terms of boosting the 
employability  of  young  job-seekers.  The  measures  in  place  are  consistent  with  the 
recommendation  that  the  UK  ‘take  steps  by  2012  to  ensure  that  a  higher  share  of  young 
people enter the labour market with adequate skills and to improve the employability of 18 to 
24-year-olds  who  left  education  or  training  without  qualifications...’  and  may  become  even 
more effective through mutual coordination. 

To improve the employability of young people without qualifications, the UK is giving more 
emphasis  to  the  acquisition  of  basic  skills,  which  are  in  turn  essential  for  the  acquisition  of 
further  skills.  To  improve  the  match  between  skills  and  labour  market  needs,  the  UK  is 
simplifying  requirements  for  education  and  training  providers  and  facilitating  access  to 
occupational guidance for job-seekers. 

The  impact  of  tuition  fees  in  higher  education  will  have  to  be  monitored  to  prevent  any 
negative effects on participation and attainment rates. 

- 155 - 

 
 
 
 
CROATIA 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

CROATIA   

Croatia 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

45.9 %03

68.8 %09 

85.2 % 

91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

22.5 %09 

21.3 % 

20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

33.2 %09  24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

18.5 %09  20.2 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

8.0 %02 

3.9 % u 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

16.1 % 

22.6 % u 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

1.8 % 03

2.0 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 % 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

02= 2002,

 03

= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 

=2008,

 09 

=2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional, u=unreliable 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ 

2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Not applicable. 

- 156 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Croatia  has  already  reached  the  2010  EU  benchmark  as  regards  early  school  leaving  (ESL) 
and Croatia’s performance in this area is among the best in Europe. Data from the Ministry of 
Science,  Education  and  Sports  (MoSES)  showing  developments  in  this  area  over  the  last 
decade reflect a decrease from 8 % to 3.9 %. 

The  Teacher  Training  Agency  is  putting  in  place  emergency  and  prevention  programmes 
focusing on groups at risk, comprising children from families of lower educational attainment, 
pupils  with  difficulties  and  Roma  children.  This  measure  follows  the  outcomes  of  a  study 
carried  out  by  MoSES  in  cooperation  with  the  Social  Research  Institute  which  showed  that 
truancy  often  leads  to  early  school  leaving  and  the  pupils  concerned  often  come  from  these 
backgrounds. 

The  following  national  measures  have  contributed  to  good  results  as  regards  prevention  of 
ESL in Croatia: 

- 

- 

- 

- 

School is compulsory from the age of six to 15, and for children with special needs, 
to the age of 21. County and city offices share responsibility for sending children to 
school  using  their  information  on  permanent  residents  in  geographical  areas  and 
primary schools in that same area.  

According to the ‘Act on Textbooks for Primary and Secondary Schools’ (2006), free 
textbooks  have  been  provided  to  all  primary  school  pupils  since  2007  in  order  to 
secure education on equal terms for all. 

The ‘Act on Early Childhood Education, Primary and Secondary Education’ entitles 
pupils to free local transportation to school. 

In 2005, a project was implemented providing an adequate number of schools in each 
county,  which  secured  education  for  pupils  (including  pupils  with  special  needs)  in 
vicinity of their home, allowing them to grow up in their families. 

For the purpose of avoiding drop-outs at all levels of education, there exists particular need to 
support the development and functioning of services supporting pupil/students who are 
experiencing hardship and need temporary psychological support and counselling.  In that 
respect and with the main aim of better inclusion of preschool children/pupils/students with 
disabilities or in need of temporary assistance or advising in education and capacity building 
of educational institutions, Ministry of Science, Education and Sports prepared a grant 
scheme (Integration of disadvantaged groups in regular education system,  4.038.000 €) in 
order to support formal education institutions in increasing the number of persons at a 
disadvantage who are both enrolling and completing their education; to support actions 
aiming at improving quality of education of persons at a disadvantage  as well as to facilitate 
social inclusion of persons at a disadvantage in educational institutions. Projects will start 
with implementation in 2012. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

Tertiary education attainment rate in Croatia, at 22.6 %, is below the EU average, although the 
rate has risen by over 5 percentage points over the last decade. In the area of MST graduates, 
the increase since 2000 is of 127.2 %,  higher than the EU average. 

- 157 - 

 
 
 
The government adopted a decision to subsidise costs for the first year of regular study for all 
students. Many different types of indirect student support exist in Croatia, including support 
for meals, accommodation, local transport, health insurance, tax relief for parents with student 
children and for disadvantaged  students who did not have access to higher education due to 
the civil war. Approximately 40 % of students are studying free of charge. 

These temporary measures are being further developed as they do not meet the observed needs 
of the student population. 

Croatia plans to use the EU fund ‘Instrument for Pre-Accession’ (IPA) to adjust the curricula 
according  to  the  Croatian  Qualifications  Framework,  to  support  disadvantaged  groups, 
introduce curricula in the English language, strengthen student services, financial governance 
in higher education institutions and analytic and statistical systems. 

To  respond  to  the  need  to  restructure  the  financial  governance  of  Croatian  universities,  the 
Ministry  organised  a  conference  with  speakers  from  several  European  countries  presenting 
their national implementation practices.  

A new law plans to abolish the present inadequate system of tuition fees, and enrolment fees 
has  been  proposed  instead.  In  October  2011  the  Agency  was  admitted  to  full  European 
Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA) membership. 

The  Agency  for  Science  and  Higher  Education  is  currently  conducting  an  external  quality 
assurance evaluation in 20 higher education institutions. 

Finally, the system for academic staff will be reformed and institutions will receive autonomy 
to set criteria for hiring their staff. This has hitherto been under the responsibility of a series of 
committees. 

4.  MOBILITY 

International learning mobility has been adopted as a strategic priority for the development of 
the  higher  education  system.  Full  accession  to  mobility  programmes,  the  Lifelong  Learning 
Programme and Youth in Action Programme, is a pre-accession requirement for the Republic 
of Croatia to become a member of the European Union.  

Since Croatia joined the Bologna Process in 2001, the Ministry has made continuous efforts to 
strengthen  institutional  capacity  for  mobility  as  regards  training  of  staff  at  the  Ministry, 
sectoral agencies and international relations offices of higher education institutions. 

Preparations  for  accession  to  the  Lifelong  Learning  Programme  and  Youth  in  Action 
Programme  included  the  establishment  in  2007  of  the  Agency  for  Mobility  and  EU 
Programmes.  Since  2011,  Croatia  has  been  fully  implementing  the  Lifelong  Learning 
Programme which has significantly increased participation at all levels. The Croatian National 
Agency for LLP is the contact point for Europass and Euroguidance. Croatia has appointed a  
representative to the Eurydice network and has set up a Eurydice Unit in MoSES. 

An  internet  portal,  ‘Study  in  Croatia’,  was  launched  in  November  2010.  This  is  a 
comprehensive source of information about higher education in Croatia aimed at prospective 
international students. 

- 158 - 

 
 
 
5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Regarding adult participation in lifelong learning, Croatia’s performance with 2 % is clearly 
below the EU average and has improved little since 2000. 

Croatia will explicitly outline Lifelong Learning in the new law in order to facilitate entry into 
higher  education  by  non-traditional  learners  and  to  regulate  the  introduction  of  quality  non-
degree  programmes.  The  aim  is  to  integrate  all  LLL  programmes  in  internal  accreditation 
systems, which will allow higher education institutions to establish procedures for validation 
of non-formal and informal learning. 

Croatia  established  13  VET  Sector  Councils,  each  of  them  composed  of  20  members 
appointed by the Minister, whose role is to identify and define the qualifications needed in the 
VET sector, to define and make known the needs of the labour market, and to analyse existing 
and  needed  competences.  These  VET  Councils  also  provide  suggestions  for  curricular 
networks and VET institutions. 

In March 2011, a technical specification National Information System for Science and Higher 
Education  (NISSHE)  was  developed.  Its  aim  is to develop  a national information collection 
and  analysis  system  of  higher  education  provision  in  Croatia.  This  operation  will  create  a 
robust  national  system  providing  data  relevant  for  the  development  of  educational  policies, 
which is not possible with the current, dispersed information systems. 

Croatia is actively supporting the goals set at the EU level, which are stipulated in the 2006 
“Communication  on  Adult  Learning:  It  is  Never  Too  Late  to  Learn”,  and  the  2007  “Action 
Plan on Adult Learning: It is Always a Good Time to Learn”. In recent years, the Government 
of  the  Republic  of  Croatia  has  accordingly  made  significant  institutional  and  legislative 
changes in the adult education sector. The Adult Education Act passed in 2007 regulated, for 
the  first  time,  the  normative  framework  for  making  adult  education  an  integral  and  equally 
important part of the Croatian education system. In 2008, four by-laws ensued from the Adult 
Education  Act:  the  By-law  on  Public  Certificates  in  Adult  Education,  the  By-law  on 
Standards  and  Specifications  in  Adult  Education  Institutions,  the  By-law  on  the  Contents, 
Form  and  Method  of  Keeping  Pedagogical  Documentation  and  the  By-law  on  Records  in 
Adult Education Institutions. Since 2003, the MoSES has supported the concept set forth in 
“A Literate Croatia: The Way to a Desirable Future”, through projects funded entirely by the 
state budget. Accordingly, primary education, as well as vocational training, is free of charge 
for  the  participants.  The  aim  is  to  increase  the  overall  level  of  literacy  and  to  reduce 
unemployment  by  enabling  individuals  over  the  age  of  15  to  finish  primary  education  and 
complete a training programme for simple occupations. 

By  means  of  EU  funding,  specifically  within  IPA  IV  Component  OP  Human  Resources 
Development, Ministry of Science, Education and Sports has prepared interventions with the 
intention of improving Croatia’s adult and higher education system and enabling learners of 
all ages to acquire competencies in order to better respond to labour market needs. 

Within grant scheme Regional network of local learning institutions (€ 3.407.682,34) total of 
20  grants  were  awarded  to  most  successful  adult  education  institutions  with  the  aim  of  
developing  an  effective  educational  and  training  system  that  is  responsive  to  labour  market 
needs, primarily in the ten selected counties but also across the entire territory of the Republic 
of Croatia as well as with the aim to  improve key competencies and other competencies of 
adult  learners  which  will  enable  them  to  participate  more  actively  in  the  labour  market. 
Similar activities are planned to be supported in the next IPA 2010-2011 programming period 
within the grant scheme “Capacity Building of the Adult Education Institutions” whose main 

- 159 - 

 
 
 
 
aim is to strengthen the capacities of the adult education institutions in order to improve the 
quality  of  the  adult  education  provision  and  thus  positively  affect  labour  market 
competitiveness of adult learners.  

Furthermore,  with the aim  of further strengthening the capacity of the adult education  (AE) 
system at national level with a special focus on a selected number of the ten most vulnerable 
counties,  service  contract  titled  Regional  network  of  local  learning  institutions  is  being 
implemented  with  the  aim  of  improvement  of  the  capacity  of  adult  education  institutions  in 
the  ten  selected  counties;  provision  of  assistance  in  disseminating  information  on  the 
methodology  for  modernizing  existing  and/or  designing  new  short  AE  programmes  and 
awareness-raising  activities  for  potential  adult  learners  regarding  adult  education  training 
programmes and regional networks established.  

Improved  quality  of  AE  programmes,  modernised  provision,  highly  qualified  teachers, 
introduction  of  quality  assurance  system  are  just  some  of  the  requirements  for  better  AE 
system. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Croatia 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

3.72 %02 

4.33 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
02= 2002 
Public  investment  in  education,  as  a  percentage  of  GDP,  significantly  increased  in  Croatia 
since 2000, but is still nearly one per cent of GDP below the EU average. 

Due to the economic crisis, cuts in the budget have been applied in several areas. 

The  National  Programme  of  Measures  for  the  Implementation  of  Compulsory  Secondary 
Education  has  been  temporarily  postponed  and/or  cancelled  (free  textbooks,  free  local 
transportation to schools, increase in numbers of pupils per class, closing of schools). 

The Ministry has instructions on employing teachers to replace those who retire. Teachers are 
replaced  only  after  examination  of  required  documents  and  consent  by  the  Management 
Board. 

Furthermore, due to a budget decrease, funds for new buildings have been limited, and funds 
for teaching equipment and school libraries have been cut. 

Budgetary  provisions  for  higher  education  in  2011,  compared  to  2010,  rose  by  0.7 %; 
however, this was a 1.8 % decrease compared to 2008. There are plans to raise the budget for 
2011, to give an increase of 0.5% over the 2008 budget.  

Despite the decrease of the State budget for national education because of the economic crisis, 
the  budget  for  international  learning  mobility  significantly  increased.  This  is  a  direct 
consequence of the full implementation of the European Lifelong Learning Programme since 
January 2011. 

- 160 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
By means of funding from IPA IV Human Resources Development OP 2007-2013 the total of 
47.37 m euros are allocated for the purpose of enhancing overall educational system in 
Croatia. 

- 161 - 

 
 
 
ICELAND 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

ICELAND   

Iceland 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

57.8 %  95.1 % 09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

14.5 %  16.8 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

Science 

- 

- 

17.0 %09 24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

17.9 %09 20.2 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

29.8 % 

22.6 % 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

31.0 % 

40.9 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

29.5 % 03

25.2 % 

8.5 % 03

9.1 % 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03

= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 

=2008, , 09 

=2009, e= estimate, b = break, p = provisional 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Not applicable. 

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3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Regarding  early  leavers  from  education  and  training,  the  situation  in  Iceland  is  improving, 
but it still has a significantly higher share than the average in the EU. 

To  analyse  and  monitor  developments,  Iceland  has  taken  measures  such  as  annual  data 
collection on registrations and graduation from schools for each age group. Headmasters have 
also  taken  part  in  surveys  to  tackle  early  school  leaving.  Furthermore,  research  on  early 
school  leaving  is  being  conducted  at  the  University  of  Iceland.  Iceland  also  takes  part  in 
international  surveys,  such  as  a  recent  OECD  survey  on  graduations  and  drop-out  in  upper 
secondary education. 

Iceland undertakes specific measures to tackle early school leaving. The right of students with 
difficulties to specific learning aids is ensured in laws on pre-primary education, primary and 
secondary education, upper secondary education and teacher education adopted in 2008. The 
laws  particularly  target  students  not  having  Icelandic  as  their  first  language.  The  legislation 
from 2008 ensures the access of all students up to the age of 18 to upper secondary education. 

In  addition,  in  2011,  the  government  adopted  a  decision  to  secure  the  right  of  every  young 
person up to the age of 25 to education at upper secondary school level.  

Upper  secondary  schools  have  the  freedom  to  develop  flexible  study  paths  and  have 
developed  study  programmes  based  on  job  skills  rather  than  academic  skills.  A  new  formal 
certificate after two years of study has been legalised to give more students the opportunity to 
graduate.  This  is  done  according  to  the  national  qualification  framework  adopted  in  the 
recently  published  general  section  of  the  national  curriculum  guide  for  upper  secondary 
schools. The financing of schools  on the basis of the number of pupils registered who have 
taken part in formal evaluation is deemed to be an incentive for schools to monitor and take 
action to prevent drop-outs. 

Laws on adult education adopted in 2010 aim to create opportunities for early school leavers 
to re-enter education, and possibilities for informal and non-formal education to be accredited. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

In Iceland, the share of the population with tertiary education attainment has improved and is 
now above the EU 2020 benchmark. 

In  underrepresented  geographical  areas,  higher  education  centres  have  been  established  and 
special programmes have been offered to prepare students for university. 

Over  the  last  two  years,  the  government  has  increased  funding  for  student  loans  to  enable 
students  from  less  advantaged  backgrounds  to  enter  higher  education.  A  2011  government 
project aims to provide financial support for the long-term unemployed to allow them to enter 
higher education or pre-tertiary education. 

The model for government funding is an incentive for higher education institutions to increase 
completion rates. The system, which is the same for public and private institutions, is based 
on the number of students taking examinations in each course each year. Since 2010, a fixed 

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sum,  which  rises  according  to  the  level  of  studies,  has  been  added  for  each  student  that 
graduates. 

To safeguard the activities of public universities outside Reykjavik, the Minister of Education, 
Science and Culture launched a new policy in 2010 to set up a collaborative network between 
universities.  Among  other  things,  this  offers  a  common  information  system,  a  joint  student 
register and web tool for distance education, a common administrative and support service, a 
joint centre for graduate studies, the use of the same system for performance assessment and 
cooperation with regional knowledge centres and lifelong learning centres. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Iceland has an outbound long-term mobility (18.2 % of students 
per  year)  clearly  above  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus programme (1.2 % of students in 2008/09) is also above EU average. 

Iceland participates actively in the Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) as well as in similar 
Nordic programmes. 

The  LLP  National  Agency  actively  promotes  the  possibilities  offered  by  the  Lifelong 
Learning  Programme.  Iceland’s  participation  in  LLP  is  very  high.  For  instance,  98 %  of 
secondary  schools  and  60 %  of  primary  schools  have  participated  in  Comenius  partnership 
projects that involve mutual visits for teachers and classes. Participation in Erasmus has led 
universities to offer a wide range of courses and programmes taught in English. 

The  University  of  Iceland  runs  an  information  office,  which  also  accommodates  the  LLP 
Agency,  on  studies  abroad  which  is  open  to  the  public.  Students  can  get  loans  from  the 
Student Government Loan Fund to  finance  studies abroad as well as in Iceland. Mobility is 
facilitated by the fact that all higher education institutions use the European Credit Transfer 
System  and  the  diploma  supplements.  Iceland  is  in  the  process  of  implementing  learning 
outcomes and quality measures in line with Bologna standards. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

As regards adult participation in lifelong learning, this has fallen, but from a very high level, 
and Iceland still performs significantly above the EU average. 

There is no specific legislation or special policy document on lifelong learning in Iceland. 

The work on a national qualifications framework, covering all levels and forms of education 
in  a  lifelong  learning  perspective,  has  been  undertaken  jointly  by  the  authorities,  social 
partners  and  providers.  It  has  enabled  stakeholders  to  identify  competencies  acquired  in 
education  today  more  clearly.  Work  will  continue  in  the  second  half  of  2011,  by  analysing 
and forecasting skills needs for different professions in a more focused and consistent way. 

Occupational  Councils,  appointed  for  all  branches  of  VET,  started  their  main  work  in 
February 2010, in cooperation with providers. An Occupational Committee composed of their 
chairmen was also established to serve as a forum of coordination and cooperation between 
different VET sectors. There are plans to set up Professional Councils to define more directly 
and in more detail the needs of each profession. 

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The Act on Adult Education contains provisions on the recognition of providers, recognition 
of non-formal and informal learning and certification of curricula in adult education, as well 
as for funding the Adult Education Fund. 

The Adult Education Fund has strengthened the work of the lifelong learning centres operated 
by  social  partners  in  the  country.  There  are  guidance  counsellors  both  within  the  formal 
system and in the lifelong learning centres. A separate budget has been earmarked for a VET 
fund to support companies that provide apprentices with workplace learning.    

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Iceland 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

5.93 % 

7.57 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
Investment  in  education  as  a  percentage  of  GDP  has  increased  significantly  since  2000,  to  
one of the highest levels in Europe. The increase in Iceland was higher than for the EU as a 
whole, widening the gap between Iceland and the EU average.  

The  economic  and  financial  crisis  led  to  a  reduction  of  the  education  budget  in  all  sectors 
between 2008 and 2009. The cuts mainly affected staff costs, replacement of equipment and 
maintenance costs, and led to measures such as cuts in teaching hours, merging of classes or 
pre-primary  provision  and  mixing  of  age  groups  in  schools.  This  trend  continued  in  2010, 
with  the  exception  of  adult  education,  for  which  there  was  a  significant  increase  in  public 
investment in 2010, based on an agreement between the social partners and the government. 

The  cuts  did  not  affect  government  funding  for  student  loans,  which  was  considerably 
increased as a reaction to the 2008 economic crash (+ 37 % between 2008 and 2009, + 18 % 
between 2008 and 2010). 

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NORWAY 

1.  BENCHMARKS 

NORWAY   

Norway 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. primary) 

79.7 % 

96.6 %09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

17.5 % 

14.9 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

Science 

- 

- 

18.2 %09 24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

15.8 %09 20.2 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

13.3 % 

17.4 %  

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

37.7 % 

47.3 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

17.1 % 03

17.8 %   8.5 % 03

9.1 %  

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03= 2003, 06 

=2006, 09 =2009 

PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Not applicable. 

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3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Norway performs below the EU average as regards early school leaving, with a rate of 17.4 % 
compared  to  the  EU  average  of  14.1 %  in  2010.  The  situation  has  deteriorated  since  2000 
(13.3 %). 

The  ET2020  national  report  puts  the  focus  on  Lower  and  Upper  Secondary  education  and 
training.  Regarding  the  former,  the  national  report  refers  to  a  White  Paper  ‘Motivation  — 
Mastering  —  Possibilities  in  Lower  Secondary  Education’  (Stortingsmelding  no  22  (2010–
2011)  that  aims  to  increase  pupils’  motivation  to  learn  and  to  give  them  experience  in 
achieving better qualifications. With a view to Upper Secondary education, the national report 
refers to the initiative 'New Chances/New Possibilities', ‘Ny Giv’. 

One key feature is improved cooperation with county municipalities. As a result, a common 
set of indicators has been drawn up with a view to producing comparable data on school drop-
outs.  The  so-called  ‘Transition  project’,  introduced  in  autumn  2010,  focuses  on  providing 
follow-up action for pupils with the poorest results to improve their reading, literacy, writing 
and  numeracy  skills.  The  ‘Follow-up  Project’  (’Oppfølgingsprosjektet’)  is  a  joint  project 
between  the  follow-up  service  and  the  Norwegian  Labour  and  Welfare  Administration 
(NAV), focusing on young people that are neither in school, nor at work. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

The share of young people with a tertiary degree went up between 2000 and 2010 by about 10 
percentage points, amounting to 47.3 %. This is above the European average (33.6 %) and the 
EU benchmark to be met by 2020. 

The share of graduates in the fields of mathematics, science and technology (MST) in Norway 
amounts to 11.7 % and is below the EU average (41.5 %). The gender balance has improved 
over the years (26.8 % in 2000) but the share of females — now 30.1 % — is still below the 
EU average (32.3 %). 

In  2009,  the  Norwegian  government  presented  a  White  Paper  setting  out  its  ‘Education 
Strategy’.  It  confirms  the  principle  of  free  higher  education.  A  total  of  3 800  new  student 
places  were  created  on  the  basis  of  updated  needs  estimates.  The  White  Paper  contains, 
among other things, measures (1) to monitor how higher education institutions follow up their 
students,  (2)  to  arrange  seminars  on  best  practice  to  reduce  drop-out  and  (3)  to  improve 
teaching methods. The White Paper also addresses cooperation between higher education and 
the world of work with a view to improving cooperation between universities and enterprises. 

Increasing  completion  rates  was  one  of  the  main  aims  of  the  2003  quality  reform  in  higher 
education that set up,  among other things, (1) a significant financial incentive for education 
institutions  to  improve  completion  rates,  as  budget  allocations  in  part  depend  on  student 
completion rates; (2) a support system for students, in which loans are converted into grants 
only  if  studies  are  completed  on  schedule  and  successfully;  (3)  new  forms  of  student 
guidance,  evaluation  and  assessment;  and  (4)  an  ‘Individual  Education  Plan’  that  sets  out 
student plans and is a tool to compare plans and real progress. 

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4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Norway has an outbound long-term mobility (5.1 % of students 
per  year)  clearly  above  the  EU  average,  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme (0.6 % of students in 2008/09) is below the EU average. 

In 2009, the Norwegian government presented a White Paper on the ‘Internationalisation of 
Education’, setting out new measures to ensure the development of skills which are needed in 
an  increasingly  globalised  world  and  guiding  principles  for  the  internationalisation  of 
education in Norway. 

One  issue  is  to  render  Norwegian  education  institutions  more  attractive  for  foreign students 
and  academics  (in  particular  by  creating  Master  programmes  in  English).  The  ET2020 
national  report  points  out  evidence  that  universities  and  large  university  colleges  have 
established solid arrangements for receiving foreign students, while smaller institutions tend 
to face difficulties in this respect. 

The other issue is to increase participation in learning mobility during all phases of learning. 
Raising awareness of the added value of international mobility is considered important. The 
Norwegian  Mobility  Survey  (drawn  up  by  the  Norwegian  Centre  for  International 
Cooperation in Higher Education, SIU) presents  an annual analysis of factors that influence 
ingoing  and  outgoing  mobility  to  and  from  Norway,  including  the  main  barriers  to 
international learning mobility. It identifies as key obstacles among Norwegian students their 
reluctance to leave the country, partly because they do not see the need to move abroad, and 
lack of information about possibilities of studying abroad. 

There is an economic incentive for exchange and mobility in the Norwegian funding system. 
Every  educational  institution  is  given  disbursement  for  the  total  number  of  ingoing  and 
outgoing  students.  Norwegian  higher  education  students  are  entitled  to  portable  grants  and 
loans from the State Educational Loan Fund. The same amount is paid regardless of whether 
the beneficiary studies in Norway or abroad. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Norway  does  not  have  a  dedicated  lifelong  learning  strategy.  However,  a  White  Paper  on 
Education  and  Training  (Stortingsmelding  no  44  (2008  –  2009)  ‘Utdanningslinja’)  presents 
measures for providing a coherent and comprehensive strategy. The White Paper was debated 
in  the  Norwegian  Parliament  in  March  2010  and  covers  all  levels  of  the  education  system, 
including  adult  education,  with  a  strong  focus  on  the  fact  that  many  young  people  fail  to 
complete  upper  secondary  education.  The  ET  2020  national  report  stresses  the  benefits  of 
education  for  individuals,  society,  the  labour  market  and  the  welfare  state  and  presents  the 
Norwegian  government’s  aim  to  strengthen  the  education  system’s  capacity  to  form  a  basis 
for  lifelong  learning  through  introducing  new  measures  in  primary  and  lower  secondary 
schools,  upper  secondary  education  and  training,  vocational  schools,  higher  education  and 
formal and non-formal adult education. 

Regarding  new  skills  and  jobs,  the  government  strives  to  improve  forecasting  models. 
Statistics  Norway  published  in  2010  a  report  entitled  ‘Demand  and  supply  of  labour  by 
education  towards  2030’  with  forecasts  for  future  demand  and  supply  of  skills.  The 
underlying  model  (MOSART)  will  be  further  developed  to  present  forecasts  at  a  more 
detailed  level.  The  Ministry  of  Education  and  Research  is  working  towards  a  system  that 
would not only help to project future skills needs but also provide a forum for discussion with 

- 168 - 

 
 
a view to anticipating changing skills needs. In particular, a partial forecast model for future 
supply and demand for teachers is under preparation. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Norway 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

5.42 %01 

6.51 % 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 
01= 2001 
Concerning Investment in education, Norway has one of the highest levels of public spending 
on education in Europe, amounting in 2008 to 6.51 % of GDP (in comparison to 5.07 % as the 
EU average). 

The  Norwegian  government’s  point  of  view  is  that  evidence  from  the  management  of  the 
economic  crisis  in  the  1980s  showed  the  importance  of  investing  in  education  in  times  of 
crisis.  In  response  to  the  recent  crisis,  the  parliament  adopted  in  February  2009  a  financial 
stimulus package with several measures in the field of education and training. 

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1.  BENCHMARKS 

TURKEY   

TURKEY 

Turkey 

EU average 

EU Benchmarks 

2000 

2010 

2000 

2010 

2010 

2020 

Participation in early childhood education 
(4 years old — year before start of comp. 
primary) 

11.6 %  32.5 % 09

85.2 %  91.7 %09 

- 

95 % 

Reading 

Low achievers 
(15 year-olds; 
PISA study results) 

Mathematics 

Science 

- 

- 

- 

24.5 %09

21.3 %  20.0 %09  17.0 % 

15 % 

42.1 %09 24.0 %06 22.2 %09 

30.0 %09 20.2 %06 17.7 %09 

- 

- 

15 % 

15 % 

Early leavers from education and training 
(age 18–24) 

58.8 % 

43.1 % 

17.6 % 

14.1 % 

10 % 

10 % 

Tertiary education attainment 
(age 30–34) 

- 

14.7 % 

22.4 % 

33.6 % 

- 

40 % 

Adult participation in lifelong learning 
(age 25–64; 4 week period) 

1.2 % 03

2.5 %  

8.5 % 03

9.1 % 

12.5 % 

15 % 

Source: Eurostat (UOE, LFS) and OECD (PISA) 

03= 2003, 06 = 2006, 07 =2007, 08 

=2008, 09 

=2009PISA: reading: 18 EU countries, maths and science: 25 EU countries 

‘EU Benchmarks’ are defined as ‘EU average performance levels’ (weighted averages) 

2.  EUROPE 2020: OUTCOME OF THE EUROPEAN SEMESTER 

Not applicable. 

3.  EUROPE 2020 HEADLINE TARGETS 

3.1.  Early school leaving 

Although  Eurostat  data  suggest  that  the  proportion  of  early  school  levers  has  decreased  by 
15.7 percentage points between 2000 and 2010, Turkey has the highest recorded rate in this 

- 170 - 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
report  compared  to  EU-27.  One  possible  reason  for  this  could  be  the  short  duration  of 
compulsory  primary  education  (now  eight  years,  extended  from  only  five  a  decade  ago). 
Another reason is inequality in education according to social class, region and gender. Girls 
are significantly more at risk of leaving school early than boys, probably because of cultural 
and economic reasons. In 2007, 39.4 % of dropouts were boys, and 55 % girls. Geographical 
differences are a third reason: remote rural regions and villages have some of the highest rates 
of early school leaving. 

The country has set a target of 100 % schooling in primary and 12-year compulsory secondary 
education to increase participation in school education and has taken a number of measures to 
monitor  developments  which  will  indirectly  reduce  early  school  leaving.  The  measures 
include  e-school,  a  computerised  web-based  data  management  system  which  follows  every 
student  for  the  entire  duration  of  schooling  until  graduation;  and  Accelerated  Classroom 
Education Programmes, short-term transition programmes reintegrating 10–14-year-olds that 
have left education back into primary school. In the framework of the e-school management 
system, the so-called ‘Progressive non-attendance management’ implemented by the Ministry 
of  National  Education  (MoNE)  is  a  tool  to  solve  non-attendance  through  following  up 
individuals  in  primary  education.  In  addition,  the  Ministry  of  Education,  together  with  the 
Ministry  of  Labour,  has  drawn  up  an  ‘Action  plan  to  enhance  the  relationship  between 
Employment and Vocational Education’ to provide vocational education and training in line 
with the needs of labour market. 

3.2.  Tertiary attainment 

While the tertiary education attainment rate is far below the EU average, Turkey has made 
progress in increasing the number of MST graduates, for which the growth rate has been 
clearly above the EU average. 

instructor 

Turkey  has  launched  a  number  of  measures  to  increase  tertiary  education  attainment.  For 
instance,  universities  have  been  given,  by  law,  the  possibility  of  starting  distance  education 
programmes using ICT. In addition, the number of academic staff has been increased thanks 
to 
training  programmes,  and  staff  development  programmes  have  been 
implemented.  Moreover,  financial  resources  in  tertiary  education  have  been  improved,  and 
there are funds directed to providing equal opportunities. A public financial management and 
control system has been established by law and self-assessment has been established in many 
areas.  Furthermore,  to  increase  rates  of  entry  into  higher  education  and  to  widen  access  for 
underrepresented groups, new universities have been established. The number has grown from 
130 in 2008 to 165 in 2011, responding to increasing demand for tertiary education. Finally, to 
improve completion rates of students in tertiary education, students who stop their studies can 
re-apply within five years and continue the same courses. 

4.  MOBILITY 

As regards tertiary education, Turkey has an outbound long-term mobility (1.5 % of students 
per  year)  clearly  below  the  EU  average  (2.8 %),  while  short-term  mobility  under  the  EU 
Erasmus programme (0.3 % of students in 2008/09) is also below the EU average. 

In  the  framework  of  the  EU-funded  Lifelong Learning  Programme  and  Youth  Programmes, 
the Turkish National Agency manages mobility in education. 

To promote learning mobility, measures implemented include: (1) in school education — the 
ministry  promotes  mobility  easing  procedures  with  circular  letters  to  the  target  groups 

- 171 - 

 
 
 
(administrators, teachers, staff of provincial directorates, inspectors and students) and ‘Project 
coordination teams’ established in  81 provincial directorates  and  (2) in higher education — 
within  the  scope  of  ‘Regulation  on  Establishing  Common  Education  and  Training 
Programmes’, cooperation with higher education institutions abroad is encouraged to support 
mobility both for undergraduates and graduates. The Council of Higher Education participates 
in international projects as a partner to increase mobility (Farabi Exchange Programme). 

To  promote  learning  mobility  for  teachers,  the  main  source  of  funding  is  the  EU  Erasmus 
programme.  In  addition,  the  Council  of  Higher  Education  promotes  the  mobility  of  staff 
through projects such as ‘Post Doctorate Research Support’ and ‘Master Research Support’. 

The  biggest  challenge  in  increasing  mobility  is  that  financial  resources  available  remain  far 
below actual demand. 

5.  LIFELONG LEARNING, NEW SKILLS AND JOBS, OTHER MEASURES 

Turkey  is  in  the  process  of  developing  and  implementing  a  coherent  and  comprehensive 
lifelong learning strategy. With regard to the schooling rate in 2012/13, the following targets 
are  planned:  pre-primary  education  50 %,  primary  education  100 %,  secondary  education 
100 %  and  tertiary  education  33 %.  As  concerns  adult  participation  in  lifelong  learning, 
Turkey  has  made  progress  in  relative  terms,  but  the  participation  rate  remains  among  the 
lowest  in  Europe.  One  programme  to  remedy  the  situation  is  the  so-called  ‘Mother  and 
daughter  at  school’  adult  education  programme.  Concerning  the  principles  of  shared 
responsibility, effective financial mechanisms, flexible pathways, quality initial education and 
targeted continuing training, Turkey’s lifelong learning strategy paper has 16 priorities, which 
are coherent with the Europe 2020 objectives. 

In order to improve the assessment of future skills requirements and to match skills better with 
the  needs  of  the  labour  market,  Turkey  has  developed  several  initiatives  since  2009.  A 
National  Careers  Information  System  has  been  introduced  to  facilitate  access  to  vocational 
guidance programmes for all ages. An Action Plan was released in July 2010 to strengthen the 
relationship  between  employment  and  vocational  education  as  well  as  to  tackle  and  reduce 
unemployment. Furthermore, there have been measures in primary education to improve the 
development of skills, such as guidance for teachers on children’s skills development in areas 
such  as  social  sciences,  technology  and  mathematics.  Turkey  has  created  a  National 
Professional  Information  System  to  follow  career  development  processes  and  support 
guidance in schools. 

6. 

INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 

Investment in education 

Public spending on education,% of GDP 

Source: Eurostat (UOE) 

01= 2001, 06= 2006 

Turkey 

EU average 

2000 

2008 

2000 

2008 

3.48 % 

2.86 %06 

4.88 % 

5.07 % 

Public investment in education as a percentage of GDP has decreased since 2000 in Turkey, 
but  as  a  result  of  robust  economic  growth  it  still  increased  in  absolute  terms  over  the  same 
period.  The  economic  and  financial  crisis  has  affected  education  and  training  budgets.  In 

- 172 - 

 
 
 
2009, the allocation for education as a share of GDP was 3.8 %; it decreased to 3.4 % in 2010 
and rose again to 3.8 % in 2011. 

In 2011, the Ministry of Education took the largest share of the central management budget in 
Turkish history, with 34.112.163TL. 

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