Conservation and recovery of threatened birds in the European Union.
Date: 2011-11-07
Institutions: Directorate-General for Environment
Subjects: EC Directive, bird, environmental protection, protected species, protection of animal life, wildlife

Conservation and Recovery of 
Threatened Birds in the 
European Union

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2

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Contents

Introduction to the Birds Directive 

Developing EU Species Action Plans for threatened birds 
  Taking special conservation measures for threatened birds 
  How are species selected for an EU species Action Plan 

New Action Plans for threatened birds in the EU 

Evaluating the implementation of Species Action Plans 

Birds of Dry Grasslands 

Marine and Island Birds 

Vultures, Eagles and Soaring Migrants 

General overview of threats to the habitats of 
  threatened birds 

Natura 2000 and threatened birds 

LIFE for threatened birds 

EU-sector policies’ impact and contribution to threatened  
  birds conservation 

Sustainable use of birds in the EU 
  Hunting 
  Management plans for huntable species in 
  unfavourable conservation status 

Annex: Current list of European bird species with 
recovery plans and their endorsement by EU and 
international agreements 

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Service Information

Author: Boris Barov, BirdLife Europe
Editors: Rob Hume (RSPB) and Kerstin Sundseth 
(Ecosystems Ltd) 

This brochure was prepared for the European 
Commission by BirdLife International as 
subcontractor to the “N2K Group” in the frame of 
Service Contract N#070307/2007/488316/SER/B2 
“Technical and scientiﬁc support in relation to the 
implementation of the 92/43 ‘Habitats’ and 79/409 
‘Birds’ Directives”.

Europe Direct is a service to help you ﬁnd 
answers to your questions about 
the European Union

Freephone number (*)
00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11

(*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 
00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed

More information on the European Union is 
available on the internet (http://europa.eu)

Luxembourg: Publications Oﬃce of the European 
Union 2011. 
ISBN: 978-92-79-20501-9
doi: 10.2779/92566
© European Union, 2011

Reproduction is authorised provided the source 
is acknowledged.

Printed on recycled paper that has been awarded 
the eco-label for graphic paper (http://ec europa.
eu/ecolabel)

Printed in Belgium

Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae has 
a restricted distribution in the 
East Atlantic, breeding only on 
the Portuguese island of Bugio 
with 160–180 breeding pairs. An 
EU Action Plan was adopted in 
1996 and its implementation in 
2006–2010 was supported by a 
LIFE Nature project. As a result the 
tiny population of this globally 
threatened sea bird is now stable.

Cover: Great Bustard Otis tarda 
© Javier Milla
The Great Bustard was heavily 
hunted in the past and by the end of 
the 20th century it survived only in 
small fractions of its former range. 
Due to continuing habitat loss and 
degradation, many local populations 
are on the verge of extinction. Further 
fragmentation of the population 
can be stopped only by large-
scale implementation of habitat 
management schemes.

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

3

Introduction to the Birds Directive

Birds enjoy a special place in the EU biodiversity policy because they are the most easily 
recognisable part of biodiversity and their conservation is possible only through collective 
eﬀorts of all Member States. The ﬁrst piece of Community nature legislation was the Birds 
Directive1, adopted in 1979, which has been in force now for more than 30 years. It and the 
Habitats Directive2 form the key pillars on which the entire biodiversity conservation policy of 
the European Union is built. 

In 2010 it became clear that the EU target to halt the loss of biodiversity could not be achieved 
as threats to species and natural habitats from human activities and climate change are still 
widespread and growing. But we now have evidence that, thanks to the Birds Directive, the fate 
of the most threatened European birds at least has improved. A 2007 article in the prestigious 
journal Science, and other recent studies, demonstrated that many of Europe’s most threatened 
birds have successfully been saved from extinction or further decline thanks to the Directive3. 

The success of the Birds Directive lies in the fact that it addresses the conservation of all wild 
bird species that occur naturally across the land and marine territory of the EU. It requires 
Member States to take all necessary measures to maintain the populations of these wild 
birds at levels determined by ecological, scientiﬁc and cultural needs, having regard also 
to economic and recreational needs. In other words, the Directive is a powerful piece of 
legislation that protects birds across their entire natural range in the EU, irrespective of 
national boundaries. 

By implementing the Birds Directive, all 27 EU Member States can achieve far more together than 
they could if each operated on its own. In particular they can: 
(cid:117)  protect all bird species from persecution and unsustainable exploitation, and establish a 
comprehensive system to manage hunting, which is a legitimate form of use of the bird 
species listed in annexes II/1 (applicable to all Member States) and II/2 (restricted to certain 
Member States);

(cid:117)  take special conservation measures to maintain and restore the habitats of the 192 species 

listed as threatened in Annex I of the Directive;

(cid:117)  establish a coherent network of Special Protected Areas (SPAs), where suﬃcient habitat for 

threatened and migratory birds should be conserved.

Since 1994, all SPAs have formed an integral part of the Natura 2000, the largest and most 
comprehensive international ecological network in the world.

1  Directive 2009/147/EC
2  Directive 92/43/EC
3  International Conservation Policy Delivers Beneﬁts for Birds in Europe. Paul F. Donald, Fiona J. Sanderson, Ian J. Burﬁeld, Stijn M. 

Bierman, Richard D. Gregory, Zoltan Waliczky (Science, 10 August 2007)

Wetland and dehesa

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4

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Developing EU Species Action Plans for threatened birds 

The establishment and management of the Natura 2000 Network 
is by far the most important measure for the conservation of 
Europe’s threatened birds. More than 26,000 sites, covering more 
than 750,000 square kilometres, have been included in the Natura 
2000 Network so far. However, in some cases this alone will not 
be enough to ensure the recovery of certain species whose 
populations have suﬀered sharp declines in the past, or are still 
too vulnerable. 

To help the recovery of such species, the EU has been supporting 
the development of Species Action Plans for priority birds since 
1993 and, more recently, Management Plans for huntable species. 
So far 56 such plans have been approved by the European 
Commission for threatened species and subspecies listed in 
Annex I of the Birds Directive (see Annex 1, page 22). The plans are 
not legally binding, nor do they engage Member States beyond 
their existing legal commitments under the Birds Directive, but 
they do serve as useful management tools in deciding which 
actions to take to ensure the conservation of the species and 
where to set priorities. 

What do Species Action Plans do?
Species Action Plans (and Management Plans for 
huntable species considered to be in unfavourable 
conservation status) help Member States to 
understand the conservation needs of threatened 
birds. They assist Member States in fulﬁlling their 
obligation to restore and maintain bird populations 
at sustainable levels. Each plan analyses and 
evaluates the threats and describes the most 
suitable conservation actions needed for particular 
species and is prepared in close consultation with 
key stakeholders. This creates a useful framework 
for the Member States agencies, conservation 
organisations and land managers to implement 
the right kinds of conservation measures in their 
country. At the same time, the European Commission 
and national governments can use the plans as 
valuable management tools. They help to target the 
limited ﬁnancial and human resources available for 
biodiversity conservation more eﬀectively. 

In reality, in a densely populated continent such as Europe, where nature and human civilisations have coexisted for 
millennia and continue to depend on each other, biodiversity cannot be conserved in isolation. Saving individual 
species won’t prevent habitat loss and degradation – which are the main reasons 
for the demise of entire populations and ecological communities. 

Species Action Plans have been most eﬀective where their actions have been used 
to guide implementation through a combination of:
(cid:117)  targeted species recovery projects (such as the EU LIFE co-ﬁnanced projects);
(cid:117)  integration and implementation across sectors (CAP rural development 

measures, ﬁsheries).

Action Plans will not achieve their mission if they fail to adopt both these approaches.

The integration of biodiversity 
conservation measures into 
key economic sectors and land 
management policies lies at 
the heart of the EU Biodiversity 
Policy. Productive sectors, such 
as agriculture, ﬁsheries, energy 
and forestry, share special 
responsibility to biodiversity 
and must contribute to its 
conservation.

Traditional farming and livestock grazing play a vital role to maintain the quality of the habitats for many of the European 
threatened bird species. For example, sheep and cattle grazing is and essential element of the Hungarian puszta on which great 
bustards, Eastern Imperial Eagles and Red-footed Falcons depend.

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How species are selected for an EU species Action Plan

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

5

The so called Red Lists maintained by the World 
Conservation Union IUCN are universally recognised 
as the best system to identify threatened species that 
face a high level of risk of global extinction4. Such 
Red Lists of birds are compiled and annually reviewed 
by BirdLife International at the scale of the European 
continent and provide a starting point for prioritising 
species for conservation action. 

While the EU has relatively few truly endemic5 
species (or subspecies), it nevertheless hosts 
signiﬁ cant populations of many other birds, some 
of which entirely resident in Europe. Others have 
their major breeding, staging or resting areas in 
the EU. For example, most wild geese breed in the 
Arctic region but their entire populations migrate 
and spend the winter in the EU. Migratory birds are 
of particular importance for coordinated actions at 
international level.

Other species have larger global populations that 
only just reach into the EU and for which conservation 
action in the EU is not likely to contribute much to 
their global state. Therefore, when prioritising species 
for the development of EU Species Action Plans it is 
important to take into account both elements: the 
risk of extinction and the relative importance of the 
EU for their population. One such system has been 
developed and proposed by BirdLife (Figure 1).

4 BirdLife International 2008, www.iucnredlist.org
5 ‘Endemic’ is a species whose distribution is limited to one or few distinct 
geographical areas, such as an island, a mountain range or a country.

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Relative size of the EU vs. global population

Relative size of the EU vs. global population

75 100%
–

50–74%

25–49%

1–25%

None (0%)

CR
CR

EN
EN

VU
VU

NT
NT

CR
CR

EN
EN

VU
VU

Global threat status 
(2010 IUCN Red List) 

EU threat status 
EU threat status 
(2004 Birds in the 
(2004 Birds in the 
EU)
EU)

Declining
Declining

Secure, Depleted, 
Secure, Depleted, 
Rare, Localised
Rare, Localised

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Figure 1. A system for prioritising species for conservation action, 
proposed by BirdLife International. Colour indicates a level of priority for 
conservation action – red is top priority.

Europe’s threatened birds
Of the nearly 10,000 bird species in the world, about 530 
occur regularly and naturally in the wild in Europe, 
including about 460 in the EU. According to BirdLife 
International, 12% of the world’s bird species are 
threatened and have a relatively high risk of global 
extinction4. Some 43% of European species are 
considered to be in unfavourable conservation status 
at continental level (BirdLife International 2004a), 
and 48% at the level of the European Union (BirdLife 
International 2004b). 

The Red Kite Milvus milvus is a truly 
European bird, whose almost entire 
world population lives in the EU. Here 
it is considered Near Threatened due 
to a declined and still vulnerable 
population.

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6

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

New Action Plans for threatened birds in the EU

Building on the success of the ﬁ rst Action Plans and following its internal and external 
obligations, the European Commission has continued to fund the development of Action Plans 
for threatened species. In 2008 to 2010 six new plans have been prepared and nine existing 
plans were revised, with the assistance of BirdLife International and a wide circle of experts 
from governments and NGOs. The species were carefully selected to include priority species 
of European and global signiﬁ cance. All new plans can be accessed online at the European 
Commission website. Here we brieﬂ y outline some of them:

Egyptian Vulture
Neophron percnopterus
Endangered, migratory
Threats
Poisoning, electrocution and 
insuﬃ  cient food, windfarms
Priority actions
Prevent risks of poisoning, 
improve powerlines and 
avoid windfarms near important breeding areas. 
Maintain livestock grazing.

Red-footed Falcon
Falco vespertinus
Near threatened, migratory
Threats
Changes in farming methods and 
loss of breeding habitats
Priority actions
Promote suitable land 
management through agri-
environment measures. Maintain nest boxes and 
stop persecution of rooks.

European Roller
Coracias garrulus
Near threatened, migratory
Threats
Changes in farming methods 
and decline of large insects
Priority actions
Promote grazing, bare ground 
and natural vegetation in 
arable lands. Protect individual 
trees and riparian vegetation.

Red Kite
Milvus milvus 
Near threatened, partly migratory
Threats
Poisoning, loss of food base, 
badly located windfarms
Priority actions
Prevent poisoning, map and 
protect nest sites and avoid 
harmful developments nearby.

Marbled Teal
Marmaronetta anguirostris
Vulnerable, migratory
Threats
Wetland drainage and pollution, 
illegal shooting, disturbance
Priority actions
Restoration and improved 
management of wetlands, 
awareness raising among 
hunters, farmers and water managers
Key Member States
Spain, Italy

Semi-collared Flycatcher
Ficedula semitorquata 
Near threatened, migratory
Threats
Not well known, but perhaps 
linked to loss of old oak and beech 
forests.
Priority actions
Identify and monitor threats 
and evaluate impact on the 
population. Protect old oak and beech 
forests with diverse habitat structure.

Great Bustard
Otis tarda
Vulnerable, partly migratory
Threats
Loss of undisturbed open habitats 
with suitable vegetation structure, 
collision with powerlines, 
destruction of eggs and chicks by 
agricultural activities.
Priority actions
Put underground the powerlines where 
risk of collision exists, ensure that agricultural practices 
are protecting chicks and nests, ensure protection 
and management of breeding sites through agri-
environmental measures
Key Member States
Spain, Portugal, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, 
Romania

Photo credits: Egyptian Vulture Ramón Elosegui, Red-footed Falcon Csaba Loki, 
European Roller Gabi Sierra, Semi-collared Flycatcher S. Spasov, Red Kite John Carey, 
Dupont’s Lark © Jamie MacArthur www.ornithography.com, Marbled Teal Damiel, 
Aquatic Warbler Sporava Kakorytsa, Red-breasted Goose Richard Taylor-Jones, 
Spanish Imperial Eagle Juan Martin Simon, Balearic Shearwater J.M. Arcos, Azores 
Bullﬁ nch Pedro Monteiro, Little Bustard Francisco Martin, Great Bustard M. Zumrik, 
Lesser Kestrel Javier Milla

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

7

Aquatic Warbler
Acrocephalus paludicola
Vulnerable, migratory
Threats
Loss of traditional land 
management practices 
and abandonment of wet 
meadows, drainage of wetlands
Priority actions
Protect key sites and restore 
water regime and vegetation management 
in its habitats
Key Member States
Breeding: Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland
On migration: The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Belgium, France, 
Spain, Portugal

Red-breasted Goose
Branta ruﬁ collis
Endangered, migratory
Threats
Changes in the crops and farming 
methods in the wintering areas, illegal 
shooting and disturbance, habitat loss 
through displacement, climate change.
Priority actions
Protection of key sites used for 
roosting and grazing, promote suitable agricultural 
practices ensuring wheat and grass for grazing, protection from 
disturbance and avoid further habitat loss.
Key Member States
Romania, Bulgaria

Spanish Imperial Eagle
Aquila adalberti
Vulnerable, resident
Threats
Electrocution at dangerous 
powerlines; use of poison baits 
and other sources of poisoning
Priority actions
Maintain abundant habitats 
and rabbit prey, improve and 
isolate powerlines and prevent 
poisoning through eﬀ ective 
control and continue conservation actions
Key Member States
Spain, Portugal

Azores Bullfi nch
Pyrrhula murina
Endangered, resident
Threats
Loss of natural habitat to 
invasive plants, food shortage
Priority actions
Restoration of laurel forests, 
prevent encroachment of 
alien vegetation, produce 
saplings of native fruiting trees
Key Member States
Portugal 

Dupont’s Lark
Chersophilus duponti
Near threatened, resident
Threats
Not enough grazing in 
steppes and their loss to 
construction and arable 
farming.
Priority actions
Identify breeding areas and 
improve their management, 
prevent land conversion.

Balearic Shearwater
Puﬃ  nus mauretanicus
Endangered, migratory
Threats
Accidental by-catch in ﬁ shing gear (e.g. 
longlines), nest predation by cats and 
genets and marine pollution
Priority actions
Reduce predation in colonies, develop 
and promote safe ﬁ shing methods 
and mitigation measures, apply strict 
marine pollution prevention measures
Key Member States
Spain, marine areas of France, Portugal, UK, Ireland

Litt  le Bustard
Tetrax tetrax
Vulnerable, partly migratory
Threats
Farm machinery killing females and 
chicks, shortage of insect food, loss of 
farm mosaics with suitable vegetation 
structure and habitat fragmentation
Priority actions
Modify harvesting methods to protect 
birds from killing, maintain diverse 
habitats in the farmland, ensure that 
SPAs holding the species are suitably managed
Key Member States
France, Italy, Portugal, Spain

Lesser Kestrel
Falco naumanni
Vulnerable, migratory
Threats
Shortage of large insects and loss of 
habitats suitable for hunting them, 
transformation of dry cereals to 
irrigated crops
Priority actions
Maintain grazing and cereal 
cultivation, reduce pesticide use, 
protect colonies and roosting trees
Key Member States
France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain

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8

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Evaluating the implementation of Species Action Plans

Bird populations respond rapidly to threats and changing environmental conditions and their 
population trends are indicative of those changes. To be eﬀ ective the species recovery process should 
be iterative – in order to learn from experience. Monitoring and reviewing of the implementation of 
Species Action Plans is therefore essential. It allows conservation managers to check the eﬀ ectiveness 
of the plans so far, improve their actions where needed, and use resources eﬃ  ciently. 

Of the 56 Species Action Plans for Annex I bird species approved in the EU, the implementation 
of 31 plans has been reviewed at least once. By looking at how action plans achieve their targets 
scheduled for the short, medium and long-term, one could compare the progress made between 
the years. Such comparison could be made for 17 action plans for which three separate assessments 
were available (Figure 2). 

Reviewing the action plans involves evaluating their implementation through a system of scores. 
By comparing the scores one can judge the relative eﬀ ort made to implement each Species Action 
Plan, to compare across countries and to see which actions are implemented better than others. 

According to the results of the 2010 assessment of 17 such plans (Figure 4), highest levels of 
implementation have been achieved in species which are well covered by protected areas (e.g. Fea’s 
and Zino’s Petrels, Dalmatian Pelican) or are localised in few places (e.g. the endemic Laurel Pigeons 
of the Canary Islands and Madeira). 

On the contrary, implementation has been weaker for species that are dispersed over large areas 
(e.g. Lesser-spotted Eagle, Lesser Kestrel) and whose conservation requires tackling large-scale land-
use pressures, such as agricultural intensiﬁ cation, commercial ﬁ sheries or urbanisation, all of which 
are causing habitat loss and degradation (e.g. Little Bustard, Balearic Shearwater). 

The progress with implementation of the plans in diﬀ erent countries can be generalised and 
compared using country scores. As the number of species in each country is diﬀ erent, average 
scores were used for this purpose (Figure 5). However, this information is only indicative and does 
not represent the overall eﬀ ectiveness of a given country to conserve species.

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medium

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unknown

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Figure 2. Number of EU SAPs for globally threatened species achieving their 
recovery targets (unknown, none, short, medium and long). Comparison for 17 
SAPs across three assessments could be made, including the following species: 
Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae, Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira, Dalmatian 
Pelican Pelecanus crispus, Red-breasted Goose Branta ruﬁ collis, Marbled Teal 
Marmaronetta angustirostris, Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus, Eastern 
Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca, Spanish Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti, Lesser 
Kestrel Falco naumanni, Great Bustard Otis tarda, Audouin’s Gull Larus audounii, 
Madeira Laurel Pigeon Columba trocaz, White-tailed Laurel Pigeon Columba 
junonae, Dark-tailed Laurel Pigeon Columba bollii, Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus 
paludicola, Blue Chaﬃ  nch Fringilla teydea, and Azores Bullﬁ nch Pyrrhula murina.

Population trends of the European species on the global Red List (2010)

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

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42

3

9

26

7

stable
decreasing
increasing

19

14

7

Global

Europe
SOWB (2010)                     BiE2 (2004)                          BiEU (2004)

European Union

Figure 3. Comparison of the population trends of threatened bird 
species in the EU, Europe and globally, based on three BirdLife 
International assessments: State of the World Birds (2010), Birds in 
Europe (2004) and Birds in the European Union (2004). The ﬁ gure 
shows that the trends of those species in the EU is on average 
more favourable than for their European and global population.

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4

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Blue Chaffinch 
Balearic Shearwater 
Audouin’s Gull

Dark-tailed Laurel Pigeon 
Eleonora's Falcon 
Dalmatian Pelican 
Bearded Vulture
Cinereous Vulture 
Eastern Imperial Eagle 
Bonelli's Eagle 
Fea’s Petrel 

Madeira Laurel Pigeon 
Lesser Spotted Eagle 
White-tailed Laurel Pigeon
Little Bustard 
Lesser Kestrel 
Zino’s Petrel 

Figure 4. Average implementation of 17 Action Plans assessed in 2010. (4 = full 
implementation, 3 = signiﬁ cant progress, 2 = some progress, 1 = no implementation).

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

9

Information about the 
implementation of action 
plans was collected through 
questionnaires and literature 
review from 35 countries and 
territories, including 18 EU 
Member States. As threatened 
birds are not evenly distributed 
in all countries  some countries 
have been underrepresented in 
this assessment (e.g. UK, Latvia, 
Lithuania presented with only 
1 species), while others (e.g. 
Portugal, Spain, Greece, Bulgaria 
and Italy) have been represented 
with 7 to 11 species.

The implementation of action 
plans was generally highest in 
countries with small number of 
applicable plans (e.g. Austria) and 
in countries with strong traditions 
and systems of species recovery 
work (e.g. France, Hungary, 
Slovakia, Poland, Estonia) where 
implementation was driven by 
legislation or active voluntary 
working groups. Notable eﬀ  orts 
have been made in Portugal and 
Spain, the Member States with 
highest number of threatened 
species, that was often with the 
help of EU LIFE funding.

Increasing

Stable

Azores Bullﬁ nch, EN
Zino’s Petrel, EN
Eastern Imperial Eagle, VU
Spanish Imperial Eagle, VU
Lesser Kestrel, VU

Aquatic Warbler, VU
Marbled Teal, VU
Bonelli’s Eagle, LC
Red-footed Falcon, NT

Decreasing

Balearic Shearwater, CR
European Roller, NT
Dupont’s Lark, NT
Egyptian Vulture, EN

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No. species

Average NIS

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Austria

Poland

France

Estonia

Germany

Slovakia

Hungary

Spain

Czech Republic
Portugal

Malta

Greece

Cyprus

Romania

Bulgaria

Italy
Lithuania

Latvia

United Kingdom
Slovenia

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Figure 5. Average implementation of 17 Action Plans by the Member States (plans 
assessed in 2010 for the species presented in Figure 4).

Blue Chaﬃ  nch, NT
Dalmatian Pelican, VU
Bearded Vulture, LC

Cinereous Vulture, 
NT

Audouin’s Gull, NT

Eleonora’s Falcon, LC
Fea’s Petrel, NT
Lesser Spotted Eagle, LC
Madeira Laurel Pigeon, NT
Red Kite, NT

Little Bustard, VU

Trends uncertain (stable or increasing)
Dark-tailed Laurel Pigeon, NT
White-tailed Laurel Pigeon, EN

Trends uncertain (stable or decreasing)
Semi-collared Flycatcher, NT
Red-breasted Goose, EN

Decreasing

Stable

Increasing

Trends before SAP

Figure 6. Comparison of the population trends change, as an indicator of the Action Plan impact. It can 
be deduced that the status of species in the top and middle cells has improved, at least partly because of 
implementation of Action Plans. Species in blue font have only recently adopted SAPs whose implementation is still limited.

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10

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Birds of dry grasslands

The original grassland ecosystems that covered much 
of SW and E Europe (such as the steppes) have long 
been replaced by agricultural land. The ﬁ elds, pastures 
and meadows that replaced them mimic the ecological 
conditions of steppes and provide suitable living 
conditions for a great variety of birds, both resident 
and migratory, that have adapted to live alongside 
traditional farming. Agricultural and grassland habitats 
in Europe harbour the greatest diversity of birds. No 
fewer than 173 species are considered to be dependent 
on agricultural habitats. Among them, the steppic birds 
have adapted to arable lands with mixed cultivations 
and crops that include pasture, cereals, fodder crops 
and grazed fallow land. This type of farmland holds 
the biggest number of threatened species (83%) of any 
other agricultural habitat. 

Because agricultural land is simple in structure, some 
patches of vegetation or non-cultivated land are 
extremely important to maintain biodiversity. Forest 
patches, hedges, ditches, wetlands or rocky habitats 
oﬀ er a refuge and suitable breeding conditions in 
which invertebrates and larger animals can breed, hide 
or roost. The presence of such micro-habitats in the 
farmland mosaic is essential to maintain biodiversity.

Modern farming practices change the landscape and 
greatly reduce the diversity and abundance of plants and 
animals. The most typical scenarios described as threats 
in recovery plans are the substitution of dry cereals with 
permanent cultures (e.g. olives and vineyards), or the 
introduction of crops that require more water, fertiliser 
and mechanisation. The loss of fallow land as an element 
of the farming mosaic is also an important factor in 
countries with intensive farming systems.

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Red-footed Falcon

The Red-footed Falcon suﬀ ers from losing its 
breeding habitat and from changed farming 
practices that replace grasslands and cereals with 
maize and sunﬂ ower. The new cultures support 
fewer insects, which are also more diﬃ  cult to hunt. 
This comes on top of its chronic ‘housing problem’: 
the falcons nest in rooks’ nests and rook colonies 
are disappearing or moving to urban areas, where 
the falcons cannot follow.

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Little Bustard

The European Little Bustard population is struggling to 
maintain its numbers. The main reason for its unfavourable 
state is the adoption of modern farming practices such as 
mechanised harvesting. Females and recently hatched chicks 
fall victim to farm machinery moving at high speed and even 
at night. This selective pressure on the population leads to 
reproductive females becoming increasingly rare.

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European Roller

The European Roller is the only 
representative of its colourful family of 
birds breeding in Europe. It is a typical 
grassland bird that requires a mosaic of 
farmland habitats, in which to hunt large 
insects. It also needs trees with holes to 
breed in which are often found along 
rivers and small forest patches.

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Threats

Irrigation schemes bring formerly unproductive 
land into intensive production, with increased 
use of agrochemicals and complete 
shifts of crops and land uses. Once 
irrigated the farms are often converted 
to more proﬁ table crops, such as 
vegetables, olives or vineyards, which 
leave little space for the original 
diversity of organisms living in the 
typical traditional farm mosaic. The 
use of poisons to control pests or for 
persecuting predators is a sad relict, 
with grave consequences to threatened 
birds such as the Eastern Imperial Eagle, 
Red Kite or other unintended victims. 

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

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Typical threats to this group of birds
(cid:2)(cid:3)Crop or grassland improvements such as increased 
use of fertilisers, pesticides or new crop varieties. 
(cid:2)(cid:3)The replacement of traditional crops, such as wheat 
with maize, sunflower, barley, or perennial crops 
such as olive plantations and vineyards.

(cid:2)(cid:3)Irrigation of dry arable land and its conversion 
to intensively cultivated fields with increased 
application of pesticides, leading to a drastic 
reduction of invertebrate animals.

(cid:2)(cid:3)Abandonment of marginal land or its conversion to 

other land-uses.

(cid:2)(cid:3)Disappearance of non-productive habitat features, 
such as field margins, natural vegetation, wetlands.

(cid:2)(cid:3)Cultivation of grasslands; conversion of hay 

meadows to silage.

(cid:2)(cid:3)Crop specialisation and monocultures.
(cid:2)(cid:3)Drainage of wetlands and depletion of aquifers.

Reduced breeding success

Decreasing prey has 
immediate impact on the 
productivity and breeding 
success of many birds in this 
group. Their oﬀ spring starve to 
death and cannot support the 
growth of the population.

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12

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Marine and island birds

Europe’s seas cover some 47 million km2, which is 
almost ﬁ ve times the area of the continent itself. 
A large proportion of the sea areas constitute 
international waters. The importance of the marine 
ecosystems and biodiversity to our civilisation is huge, 
ﬁ shing is just one of the most obvious examples. Fish 
are an essential component of many European diets. 
The European Union ﬁ shing ﬂ eet grounds 6% of the 
world’s marine ﬁ sh catch, making the EU27 the ﬂ eet 
with the third largest ﬁ shing capacity. Our impact 
on the marine environment goes well beyond the 
European seas.

European Seabirds
Europe’s seas support 62 bird species, or around 
12% of all European birds. Seven of these are listed 
as threatened or near-threatened on the IUCN Red 
List (www.iucnredlist.org), including the critically 
endangered Balearic Shearwater Puﬃ  nus mauretanicus, 
the endangered Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira 
and the vulnerable Steller’s Eider Polysticta stelleri. 
According to BirdLife 45% of Europe’s seabird species 
have an unfavourable conservation status at European 
level (BirdLife International 2004). All of these species 

are totally dependent on marine and coastal habitats 
throughout their life cycles. The distribution of seabirds 
in our seas is not even: 51 species occur in the seas of 
northwest Europe, 14 in Macaronesia and 13 in the 
Mediterranean and Black Seas.

Seabirds in particular are among the most visible 
elements of biodiversity in an otherwise cryptic 
marine environment. The populations of many 
seabirds have suﬀ ered from exploitation in the past 
and are now threatened. The number and size of their 
nesting colonies have fallen dramatically because 
of overﬁ shing and because of threats at the colony: 
habitat destruction and invasive species.

Besides ﬁ shing, the European seas provide goods and 
services such as aquaculture, carbon storage, climate 
regulation, shipping, oil and gas extraction, aggregate 
and mineral extraction, energy generation, waste 
disposal (involving millions of tonnes of sewage sludge 
and dredged materials annually), military activities, 
and recreation – the Mediterranean is the top tourist 
destination globally. 

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Threats to birds at sea
Marine birds today are extremely vulnerable 
to threats that kill individuals or lead to loss 
of their habitat and prey. At sea, birds are 
threatened by over-exploitation of their prey 
species by: 
(cid:2)(cid:3)commercial ﬁ sheries, 
(cid:2)(cid:3)incidental catches on ﬁ shing gear (on 

longlines and by entanglements in nets), 

(cid:2)(cid:3)bottom trawling, 
(cid:2)(cid:3)pollution with oil, chemicals and plastics,
(cid:2)(cid:3)increasing boat traﬃ  c, 
(cid:2)(cid:3)artiﬁ cial structures, and 
(cid:2)(cid:3)climate change.

Balearic 
Shearwater

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Islands 
One of the key features that makes islands so important 
for birds is that islands provide predator-free breeding 
sites. Unfortunately, this makes island breeding seabirds 
especially vulnerable to threats to which they have had 
no chance to adapt in the course of evolution. 

The most common threats to island birds 
The colonial breeding and wide ranging habits of 
many seabird species expose them to introduced and 
or native predators, soil erosion, vegetation change, 
disturbance and coastal development. Threats include:
(cid:117)  Habitat destruction, e.g. building on the shoreline, 
construction of infrastructure, clearing of native 
vegetation or overgrazing. Due to the limited area 
of islands, their capacity to absorb such pressures is 
limited.

(cid:117)  Pollution Human activities produce increasing 
amounts of waste, both solid and liquid, whose 
management is more diﬃ  cult on islands due to the 
scarcity of land and water and the absence of long 

rivers that can carry waste water away from the 
interior. Saline intrusion into the aquifers can also be 
a problem.

(cid:117)  Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are particularly 

detrimental on islands due to the fragility of the 
native species. On the other hand prevention and 
eradication are feasible on islands, but are almost 
impossible on the mainland.

The European islands, especially in the Mediterranean and 
Macaronesian regions, are particularly rich in endemic 
species. The native laurel forests of Madeira and the Azores 
have been reduced to tiny remnants of their former size, 
but are still home to endemic birds such as the globally 
Endangered Azores Bullﬁ nch and White-tailed Laurel 
Pigeon and the near threatened Madeira Pigeon and 
Dark-tailed Pigeon. On the drier Canary Islands there are 
several other remarkable endemic species and subspecies: 
the near threatened Blue Chaﬃ  nch and the Fuerteventura 
Stonechat, as well as the Canarian sub-species of the 
endangered Egyptian Vulture.

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Zino’s Petrel 

Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira is Europe’s 
rarest seabird and one of the rarest birds in 
the world, nesting only on a few mountain 
ledges in the rugged central massif of Madeira 
island. Once on the edge of extinction, with 
numbers down to a few dozen pairs, intense 
conservation action in recent decades, led 
by the Parque Natural da Madeira (PNM) with 
support from SPEA (BirdLife in Portugal) and 
others, has seen its population grow to almost 
80 breeding pairs. However, it is still listed as 
Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

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Invasive Alien Species 
An introduced species can become 
‘invasive’ when it starts to compete for 
resources, destroy the habitat, introduce 
pathogens, breed with or simply eat a 
native species. IAS are especially harmful 
to island birds: it is estimated that IAS are 
the cause of more than half of the world 
bird extinctions. In the EU, IAS bring 
enormous costs to society, estimated at 
more than 12 billion Euro per annum6 for 
the last 20 years.

6 Shine et al. 2009

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14

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Vultures, eagles and 
soaring migrants

There are 39 species of diurnal birds of prey (also known 
as raptors) in the 27 EU member states. Among them 
are some of the most spectacular masters of the sky, 
such as the vultures, eagles and kites. According to data 
compiled by BirdLife, 62% of the birds of prey in Europe 
have an unfavourable conservation status, which is a 
disproportionately high number in comparison to other 
groups of birds. Historically raptors have been heavily 
persecuted by man, but this practice has long been 
banned by legislation. Still, raptors continue to face 
new threats today and their populations either recover 
slowly, or not at all. Worryingly the number of European 
raptors on the global Red List has increased from seven 
to ten in the last decade, reﬂ ecting genuine reductions 
in the populations of several species as a result of 
modern threats. 

Threatened raptors in the EU
The European raptor most threatened globally 
is the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, 
which is endangered in the global Red List and 
rapidly declining in most countries. 

Five species are listed as vulnerable: 
(cid:2)(cid:3)Saker Falcon Falco cherrug
(cid:2)(cid:3)Greater-spotted Eagle Aquila clanga 
(cid:2)(cid:3)Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca 
(cid:2)(cid:3)Spanish Imperial Eagle A. adalberti 
(cid:2)(cid:3)Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. 

Three other are listed as near threatened: 
(cid:2)(cid:3)Red Kite Milvus milvus (which is virtually 

endemic to Europe)

(cid:2)(cid:3)Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus 
(cid:2)(cid:3)Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus.

At the same time, some of the most remarkable success 
stories in bird conservation are focused on birds of 
prey. Over the last 15 years Species Action Plans were 
developed for 19 European raptors and adopted by the 
EU (17 species) and the Bern and Bonn Conventions (two 
more species). 

Threats to scavengers
Human activities with high land use impact (e.g. 
agriculture, forestry, mineral resource extraction, 
urbanisation) are among the greatest threats to birds 
in Europe, because they cause permanent loss of 
suitable habitat. Scavengers and large birds of prey are 
very sensitive, because they require large expanses of 
preserved habitat and do not easily coexist with humans. 
Once exposed to a threat, their populations are slow 
to recover and remain vulnerable for a long time, even 
after the immediate reason for the decline is eliminated. 
However, some threats are speciﬁ cally important for this 
group of birds, because being on the top of the food 
chain makes them particularly vulnerable.

Poison baits
Poisons form the most important threat for 
all scavenging birds of prey in Europe today 
(vultures, kites, buzzards and some eagles). It 
is caused by the illegal use of baits to poison 
terrestrial predators, to protect livestock 
and game. Although the use of poison 
baits is strictly prohibited in the EU it is still 
widespread in many countries.

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Poisonous substances
Pesticides that are legally used in agriculture 
are often used illegally in poison baits (e.g. PCB 
organochlorines). As these chemicals are easy to obtain 
on the free market, the control 
of their application remains a 
huge challenge. Other sources of 
secondary poisoning include the 
consumption of inappropriately 
disposed poisoned animals 
(e.g. rodents) at rubbish dumps, 
consumption of dead livestock 
treated with veterinary medicines 
or consumption of lead pellets 
(lead shot).

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Eastern imperial eagle Aquila heliaca

This magniﬁ cent eagle was formerly distributed throughout 
the steppes from Central Europe to Mongolia, but its European 
population was nearly extinct. Thanks to concerted conservation 
eﬀ orts in its Pannonian stronghold, the EU population has seen a 
dramatic recovery. From as few as 20 pairs left, there are now 200 and 
numbers are growing. There is much more work to be done before 
its status is again secure, but recent achievements through LIFE and 
other funding have paved the way to its recovery.

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Threats to soaring birds on migration
The larger and broad winged raptors, storks and 
pelicans are collectively referred to as ‘soaring 
birds’, due to the fact that they cannot maintain 
active ﬂ apping ﬂ ight over long distances. Instead 
they depend on rising hot air (thermals) over the dry 
land, on which they can soar and glide along their 
migratory routes, avoiding seas and high mountains 
on the way. This energy saving, passive ﬂ ight method 
also makes them extremely vulnerable to dangers, 
especially at the so called bottleneck sites – places 
where geographical features concentrate the migratory 
routes of soaring migrants. 

There are two broad types of threats common for many 
species in this category.
(cid:117) Habitat changes at stopover sites, where birds need 
to store energy before crossing ecological barriers, 
can limit the available prey or safe roosting places, 
thus reducing the ﬁ tness and survival of soaring 
birds during this challenging journey. With the help 
of radio and satellite tracking it has been possible to 
study the eﬀ ect of the loss of good habitats to e.g. 
urbanisation. 

(cid:117) For all soaring birds the collision with aerial 

structures, such as power-lines and wind turbines, 
represents a signiﬁ cant threat when these structures 
are badly located. While some species can cope 
with the impacts of these threats, others are already 
threatened by other factors and this additional 
mortality can bring them over a tipping point.

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

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Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus

The smallest of the vulture species is currently the most threatened 
European raptor. It is also a truly migratory species, spending the 
entire non-breeding period in Sub-Saharan Africa. Egyptian vultures 
live many years but reproduce very slowly. Therefore if adult birds 
die the overal loss to the population is very diﬃ  cult to compensate. 
The most widespread threats to this species are poisoning, followed 
by the scarcity of food resources in its changing habitats related 
to agricultural intensiﬁ cation, decline of grazing livestock and 
increased sanitation of rural areas. The recent expansion of wind 
farms and electric grids has increased the number of casualties by 
collision and electrocution. 

Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus

The population of the largest European vulture has been increasing by 
10–20% since the adoption of its action plan in the mid-1990s. Active 
conservation measures in Spain, France and Greece have been extremely 
successful in bringing this magniﬁ cent bird back from the brink. Key threats 
– persecution and disturbance by forestry operations – have been addressed 
by legal measures and with the designation of protected areas. The decline 
of grazing wildlife and livestock, especially in the mountain regions, remains 
the main obstacle to its further recovery. Poisoning is a critical threat to the 
species, whose home range extends well beyond the largest of protected 
areas. Restoring the population to its pre-decline levels and recolonisation 
of countries from which it has gone extinct remains very unlikely due to the 
permanent loss of suitable habitats. Therefore, this long lived and slowly 
reproducing species is likely to remain dependent on conservation measures 
for a long time.

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16

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

General overview of threats to the habitats of threatened birds

Did the introduction of the Common Agricultural Policy  
into the new member states result in similar major 
declines in key bird populations? In the German state of 
Saxony-Anhalt, after 1990, farming shifted from rotational 
cultivation (e.g. root-crops) to oilseed rape and winter 
cereals, which led to a reduction in grassland area and 
increased insecticide and herbicide use. In the same period, 
Red Kite numbers fell by 50% from more than 40 nesting 
pairs to about 20 pairs per 100 km2 (Nicolai et al. 2009).

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

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Birds are vital component of any healthy ecosystem and 
they play an important ecological role. Birds belong to 
the top levels of the food web and their populations 
are aﬀected both directly and indirectly by underlying 
changes, for example through their habitats or the 
organisms they feed on. Many of the threatened birds 
show some degree of specialisation to particular habitat 
features on which they depend. The loss or alteration 
of these special features is particularly detrimental 
to those birds, known as habitat specialists. Human 
activities in the wider environment often lead to 
ecological simpliﬁcation, a direct result of the loss of 
species diversity.

In addition to their breeding grounds, migratory species 
are exposed to threats and pressures both in their 
non-breeding range and along their migratory routes. 
While the eﬀects of some threats can be compensated 
by more successful breeding, other threats cannot be 
compensated and their negative impact accumulates.

The following table summarises the most commonly 
reported threats to the habitats of threatened bird 
species in three key ecosystems in the EU as identiﬁed 
by EU Species Action Plans.

Recent biodiversity trends in the EU
According to recent reports of conservation status of 
habitats and species in the EU (EEA, 2010):
(cid:117)  Only 21% of the forest habitat types are in favourable 

conservation status. 

(cid:117)  70% of the species and 76% of the habitats linked 

to agro-ecosystems are in unfavourable  
conservation status.

(cid:117)  Farmland birds have declined with about 50% since 
1980, worse than any other group of birds in the EU.

(cid:117)  Of 152 bird species associated with grassland 
habitats, 89 (59%) are considered as having 
unfavourable status.

Threat

Habitat loss and 
degradation

Invasive alien species

Farmland and 
grasslands

Forests

Marine and 
coastal areas

Irrigation 
Replacement of extensively 
managed crops 
Loss of grasslands to other 
land-uses 
Loss of habitat diversity and 
natural elements 
Depletion of prey 
Inappropriate levels of  grazing 
Abandonment and 
overgrowth with shrubs

Invasive vegetation 
Loss of natural species 
diversity (e.g. competition 
by IAS) 

Construction in coastal zone 
Loss of intertidal ecosystems 
Dredging and bottom 
trawling 
Drainage and pollution of 
wetlands

Fragmentation of suitable 
habitats 
Loss of nest sites 
Disturbance by operations
Loss of habitat diversity (e.g. 
specialised micro-habitats) 
Increased risk and exposure to 
natural disasters and threats 
Limited movements and 
exchange of individuals

Invasive vegetation 
Food resource depletion
Exotic plantations

Invasive marine species 
Predators on islands 
Food web disruptions

Pollution and nutrient load

Pesticides 
Fertilisers

Soil acidiﬁcation 
Increased nutrient loads 
Pesticides

Overexploitation and 
unsustainable use

Intensiﬁcation of farming
Increased mechanisation
Loss of set aside/fallow

Logging, especially clearfells
Loss of mature trees and 
structural diversity

Climate change

Accelerate habitat changes
Salinisation 
Loss of wetlands 
Impacts on prey

Intense forest ﬁres
Changes in the hydrology 
(e.g. drainage of peat bogs 
and mires)

Eutrophication 
Marine litter 
Oil and chemical pollution
Toxic algae blooms 

Depletion of ﬁsh and other 
marine organisms
Incidental catch in ﬁshing 
gear

Surface temperature rising
Coastal squeeze e.g. loss of 
intertidal habitats 
Changing erosion/accretion

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18

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Natura 2000 and threatened birds

The identiﬁcation and conservation of the key territories 
(sites) where a species breeds, uses for feeding, 
roosting and stop-over during migration is a critical 
requirement in any species recovery eﬀort. In the EU, 
the establishment of the Natura 2000 Network is the 
main tool and legal requirement that follows directly 
from the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. Under the 
Birds Directive, sites need to be classiﬁed for 192 species 
of birds listed in Annex I of the Directive. Member 
States must classify sites for other regularly occurring 
migratory bird species not listed in Annex I, bearing 
in mind the need to protect their breeding, moulting 

Figure 7. Map of the Natura 2000 Network

and wintering areas and staging posts along their 
migration routes, for example wetlands of international 
importance. These sites are called Special Protection 
Areas (SPAs) and are included directly into the European 
Natura 2000 Network. SPAs must be subject to special 
habitat conservation measures in order to ensure the 
survival and reproduction of the migratory and Annex I 
birds in their area of distribution.

Natura 2000 is an ecological network of sites spanning 27 
EU countries, which includes over 26,000 sites so far, 
covering about one-ﬁfth of the EU’s land area. The Natura 
2000 Network extends also the marine environment 
where the designation of sites is still ongoing. 

The review of Species Action Plans carried out recently by 
BirdLife shows that there has been signiﬁcant progress 
with the inclusion of threatened birds’ populations 
in Natura 2000. For the large majority of the species 
Natura 2000 holds more than half or even 100% of their 
population at any given stage of their life cycle. For 
other species, which are still more common or are thinly 
dispersed over large areas, their inclusion in protected 
areas is lower. Their conservation must be therefore 
achieved through other means. For example, agri-
environmental schemes and improved management 
of the forests has been vital to implement the action 
plans of several species, such as the Spanish and Eastern 
Imperial Eagles, Great Bustard, Lesser Kestrel and others. 

IBA overlap analysis: 
relationship between 
Important Bird Areas and 
Protected Areas

Legend

Not Protected

Protected

Sources
Important Bird Areas: BirdLife International, 2011

Protected Areas: World Database on Protected Areas
 (WDPA), compiled by UNEP-WCMC 
(WDPA custodian), 2010

Natura 2000: European Environment Agency, 2010

Bathymetry: Reproduced from the GEBCO Digital Atlas
published by the British Oceanographic Commission
(of UNESCO) and the International Hydrographic
Organisation (2003).

Topography: Reproduced from GLOBE Digital
Elevation Model. The Global Land One- kilometre
Base Elevation (GLOBE) Digital Elevation Model, 
Version 1.0 National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administraton , National Geophysial Data Centre,
235 Broadway, Boulder, Colorado 80305-3328
U.S.A

Map created January 2011

-

0

250

500

1,000

kms

Projection - European Terrestrial Reference System
1989 Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

Figure 8. Protection status of IBAs with occurrence of 17 threatened species with EU action plans, whose implementation was assessed in 2010: 
Balearic Shearwater (Puﬃnus mauretanicus), Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax), Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), Zino's Petrel (Pterodroma madeira), Dalmatian 
Pelican (Pelecanus crispus), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Fea’s Petrel (Pterodroma feae), Audouin’s Gull (Larus 
audounii), White-tailed Laurel Pigeon (Columba junionae), Dark-tailed Laurel pigeon (Columba bollii), Madeira Laurel Pigeon (Columba trocaz), Blue 
Chaﬃnch (Fringilla teydea), Lesser-spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina), Eleonora’s Falcon (Falco eleonorae), Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraeetus fasciatus), Bearded 
Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus).

Conservation Threatened Sp brochure.indd   18

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

19

LIFE for threatened birds

The LIFE fund has been the main tool used by the 
Commission to stimulate the implementation of priority 
conservation measures for the threatened species 
and habitats in the EU. For example during 1992–2003 
LIFE-Nature has invested some €367 million in projects 
targeting threatened bird species. This ﬁ gure is not yet 
ﬁ nal for the current LIFE+ period, but estimates were 
made for a subset of threatened birds during their 
action plan reviews (Figure 9).

Once the species in need of action were identiﬁ ed 
and the necessary conservation actions clear, LIFE 
was the element of the bird conservation strategy 
of the EU that helped with the development, testing 
and implementation of conservation actions on the 
ground. To focus the project applicants to the need of 
implementing the action plans, LIFE oﬀ ered increased 
(up to 75%) co-ﬁ nancing to projects that aimed at 
priority species. Each year LIFE has supported on 
average 30–40 projects targeting birds, among which 
at least ﬁ ve are exclusively for priority species. 

In relation to threatened birds in particular, the 
contribution of LIFE has been very successful. This is 

j

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15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

LIFE Nature and LIFE+ Nature 2004–2010

number of projects
budget

€ 30,000,000
€ 28,000,000
€ 26,000,000
€ 24,000,000
€ 22,000,000
€ 20,000,000
€ 18,000,000
€ 16,000,000
€ 14,000,000
€ 12,000,000
€ 10,000,000
€ 8,000,000
€ 6,000,000
€ 4,000,000
€ 2,000,000
€ 0

Marmaronetta angustirostris
Aquila adalberti
Aquila pomarina
Larus audounii
Columba bollii
Pterodroma feae
Columba junoniae
Fringilla teydea
Pterodroma madeira
Aquila heliaca
Falco naumanni
Branta ruficollis
Puffinus mauretanicus
Tetrax tetrax
Columba trocaz
Gypaetus barbatus
Falco eleonorae
Aegypius monachus
Acrocephalus paludicola
Hieraeetus fasciatus
Pelecanus crispus

Figure 9. The ﬁ gure shows the estimated ﬁ nancial contribution of 
LIFE projects between 2004 and 2010 to the implementation of the 
action plans of 17 threatened species reviewed in 2010.

conﬁ rmed by the fact that eight out of the 23 best 
LIFE projects in 2009 were projects targeting the 
conservation of threatened birds. Furthermore, thanks 
to LIFE it was possible to bring several bird species back 
from near-extinction. Below are some examples.

The return of the Spanish Imperial Eagle
Thanks to targeted strategic support from the LIFE programme, the Spanish Imperial 
Eagle population has increased six-fold in the past 15 years. This has seen numbers of the 
species increase from a vulnerable 50 reproductive pairs in 1995 to a much more stable 
300 pairs in the Iberian peninsula today. 
Since 1992 LIFE has funded a three-phase action programme for the conservation of the 
Spanish imperial eagle, with separate but connected projects taking place simultaneously 
in Castilla y Leon, Castilla la Mancha, Extremadura, Andalucia and Madrid. In total, LIFE 
has invested more than 10 million Euros into conservation of this species. Of course, 
measures targeted at conserving the habitat of such a top predator as the Imperial Eagle 
beneﬁ t many other species.

Saving the Priolo and its forest
LIFE03/NAT/P/000013 (2009) (Best of the Best in 2009)
The Azores Bullﬁ nch (‘Priolo’) was one of the most threatened European birds (until 
recently critically endangered). Focused conservation action funded by LIFE and other 
donors helped to relieve the threat of extinction to this bullﬁ nch and its native laurel 
forest. The Priolo project succeeded in generating a high level of mobilisation from local 
and regional stakeholders in the Azores towards this goal. Extremely positive trends were 
seen both in recovery of native vegetation and in bullﬁ nch numbers: the population levels 
at the end of the project reached about 775 individuals – almost three times higher than 
in 2005. 

Dalmatian Pelicans at Lake Mikri Prespa
LIFE02/NAT/GR/008494 (Best of the Best in 2008)
Following successful ecological restoration funded by LIFE, the Prespa lakes, shared 
between Greece, Albania and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), 
host the world’s largest breeding colony of Dalmatian Pelicans, an estimated 20% of the 
entire world population of this vulnerable species. Two factors that contributed to this 
remarkable success: the restoration of the lake’s productive ecosystem and controlling 
persecution and poaching. The conservation project at the Prespa Lakes is a model 
transboundary cooperation, which is now strengthened with a trilateral agreement and 
a plan of actions between the governments of the three countries.

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20

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

EU sector policies impact and contribution to threatened 
birds conservation

While species recovery is one of the core tasks of the EU 
biodiversity policy, European biodiversity is primarily 
aﬀected by human activities (drivers) outside the 
direct inﬂuence of the environmental sector, such as 
agriculture, forestry, ﬁsheries and urbanisation. Among 
these, agriculture is still the most important, as half 
of the EU territory is covered by farmland (including 
grasslands). Forests cover another 42% of the EU and 
forestry is another major driver, as 75% of EU forests 
are commercially exploited (e.g. for ﬁbre and biomass). 
In the marine environment, ﬁshing and aquacultures, 
maritime transport and resource extraction are the 
main human activities aﬀecting marine biodiversity.

Therefore the conservation of threatened birds 
depends also on broader land-use and water-use 
patterns. The fundamental condition is to ensure that 
the relevant policies take into account biodiversity 
and avoid as far as possible any negative impacts. 
Agriculture and forestry, for example, can not only 
co-exist with threatened birds, but actually improve 
and maintain their habitats if suitable measures are 
taken. Once this is ensured (e.g. through participatory 
planning and eﬀective impact assessment) the next 
step is to bring in agriculture, ﬁsheries, forestry, 
transport and energy into actively supporting nature 
conservation objectives through targeted funding or 
stimulation of favourable management practices. 

The Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata breeds on 
the wet meadows in Northern Europe and in the 
tundra but migrates along the coasts and feeds in 
wetlands. It is therefore exposed to a range of factors 
inﬂuenced by land-use.

Some key ecological objectives for these sectoral 
policies are to:

1)  Ensure that further exploitation of natural resources is 

sustainable

  Our civilisation depends on the already scarce natural 

resources of our planet. Their overuse is the fundamental 
cause for most of the environmental degradation, including 
biodiversity loss. For example, the greater use of biomass 
from agriculture and forestry has the potential to further 
degrade habitat quality for many specialised organisms. Any 
measure towards sustainability should therefore take into 
biodiversity needs. As EU moves towards a greener and low 
carbon economy, biodiversity needs should be considered.

2)  Maintain the presence of natural features within man-

made ecosystems
Semi-natural and other High Nature Value areas are 
extremely important habitat for Europe’s threatened birds. 
For example, more than 400 IBAs in Europe consist of 
grasslands used for agriculture. Field margins and forest 
patches in lowland areas play the role of ecological refuges 
for biodiversity. Their preservation is essential for the 
survival of biodiversity in the farmland. 

3)  Ensure the connectivity of natural ecosystems
  Many species are dispersed and their populations cannot 

be suﬃciently represented in protected areas. For example, 
some forest dwelling species such as the White-backed 
Woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos and Capercaillie Tetrao 
urogallus depend on very rare resources and thus live in low 
densities across the landscape. Their local populations must 
be functionally connected to ensure their reproduction and 
survival. Therefore the forest habitats beyond the protected 
areas should maintain at least a minimum amount of suitable 
living conditions to enable such animals to migrate. If the 
habitats between protected areas are ecologically unusable 
for them, even the most representative populations included 
in protected areas would be ecologically isolated and prone 
to extinction.

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

21

Sustainable use of birds in the EU

Hunting 
Article 7 of the Birds Directive regulates the hunting of 
birds. Hunting and taking of birds is only authorised for 
the species listed in Annex II of the Directive. But also 
for these species hunting has to comply with certain 
rules, for example:
(cid:117)  hunting must not jeopardise the conservation 

eﬀorts for these species, and it must comply with the 
principle of ‘wise use’ 

(cid:117)  Member States must prohibit hunting during the 

breeding season and during the period of return of 
migratory species to their breeding grounds

(cid:117)  according to Article 8 Member States must prohibit 
the use of hunting methods which are non-selective 
(e.g. trapping birds with nets) – these methods are 
listed in Annex IV of the Directive 

(cid:117)  to derogate from these rules very strict conditions 

have to be fulﬁlled (Article 9).

In the framework of its Sustainable Hunting Initiative, 
the European Commission has issued a Guide on 
Hunting under the Birds Directive. For huntable species 
that are in unfavourable conservation status, the 
European Commission, together with stakeholders and 
Member States, has prepared management plans that 
deﬁne priority measures to be taken to return these 
species to a favourable status. 

Management plans for huntable species in 
unfavourable conservation status
The main tenet set in the Birds Directive for hunting of 
selected bird species is that any use of wild birds must 
satisfy the principle of wise and ecologically balanced 
use. This goes in particular for those huntable species 
that are in unfavourable conservation status. 

Irrespective of whether hunting is among the reasons 
for the decline of these species, hunters have a special 
responsibility and interest to work with others to bring 
these populations back to favourable conditions. 

The management plans for these species deﬁne the 
actions necessary to reverse the negative trends in their 
populations, including habitat restoration measures or 
(if necessary) temporary hunting restrictions or bans. 
Thus the management plans, just like the Species Action 
Plans, are also recovery plans – their primary aim is to 
recover the target species to a favourable state through 
identifying and prioritising conservation actions.

A regular system of evaluating and updating the 
management plans is desired. This would include an 
assessment of the results achieved during the ﬁrst 
three years. During this process new objectives for the 
next period should be identiﬁed that will lead most 
eﬀectively to the recovery of the populations and the 
achievement of the long-term objective to restore the 
species to a favourable conservation status.

Approved plans
Plans which have been approved by the national 
Delegates of the Member States in the ORNIS 
Committee and NGOs such as FACE, BirdLife 
International, OMPO and Wetlands International: 

(cid:117)(cid:0) Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa
(cid:117)(cid:0) Velvet Scoter Melanita fusca
(cid:117)(cid:0) Curlew Numenius arquata (near threatened on the 

global Red List)
(cid:117)(cid:0) Pintail Anas acuta
(cid:117)(cid:0) Red-crested Pochard Netta ruﬁna
(cid:117)(cid:0) Skylark Alauda arvensis
(cid:117)(cid:0) Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur

Plans which have been ﬁnalised in 2009:
(cid:117)(cid:0) Scaup Aythya marila
(cid:117)(cid:0) Common Gull Larus canus
(cid:117)(cid:0) Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria
(cid:117)(cid:0) Lapwing Vanellus vanellus
(cid:117)(cid:0) Common Quail Coturnix coturnix
(cid:117)(cid:0) Redshank Tringa totanus

Black-tailed Godwits 

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22

Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

Annex

Current list of European bird species with recovery plans and their endorsement by EU and 
international agreements (as of June 2011).

Recovery plan

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Species
Pterodroma feae Fea's Petrel

Pterodroma madeira Zino's Petrel

Puffi  nus mauretanicus Balearic Shearwater

Phalacrocorax aristotelis European Shag

P.a. desmarestii only

Phalacrocorax pygmeus Pygmy Cormorant

Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian Pelican

Botaurus stellaris Great Bittern

B.s. stellaris only

Anser erythropus Lesser White-fronted Goose

Branta rufi collis Red-breasted Goose

Marmaronetta angustirostris Marbled Teal

W Med population only

Aythya nyroca Ferruginous Duck

Polysticta stelleri Steller's Eider

Oxyura leucocephala White-headed Duck

Milvus milvus Red Kite

Gypaetus barbatus Lammergeier

Neophron percnopterus Egyptian Vulture

Aegypius monachus Cinereous Vulture

Accipiter gentilis Northern Goshawk

A.g. arrigonii only

Accipiter nisus Eurasian Sparrowhawk

A.n. granti only

Aquila pomarina Lesser Spotted Eagle

Aquila clanga Greater Spotted Eagle

Aquila heliaca Imperial Eagle

Aquila adalberti Spanish Imperial Eagle

Hieraaetus fasciatus Bonelli's Eagle

Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel

Falco vespertinus Red-footed Falcon

Falco eleonorae Eleonora's Falcon

Falco biarmicus Lanner Falcon

Falco cherrug Saker Falcon

Falco rusticolus Gyrfalcon

Alectoris graeca Rock Partridge

A.g. whitakeri only

NT

EN

CR

VU

VU

EN

VU

NT

VU

EN

NT

EN

NT

VU

VU

VU

VU

NT

EN

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SPEC 1

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SPEC 1

Non-SPECE

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 3W

SPEC 1

SPEC 2

SPEC 3

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

Non-SPEC

Non-SPEC

SPEC 2

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 3

SPEC 2

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 3

SPEC 2

x

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x

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(VU)

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EN

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EN

R

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EN

H

(VU)

D

VU

EN

(R)

(D)

x

x

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x

x

x

x

x

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x

x

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x

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2004

2010

2010

2004

2004

2008

2011

2008

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1996

1996

2000, 2011

2000

1996

1996

1996

1996, 2008

1999, 2006

1999

x

1996, 2008

in prep.

1996, 2010

x

x

1996, 2006

2004

2010

2010

2010

2010

2008

2010

2010

2010

2010

1999

2008

1996

1996

1996

1999

1999

1996

1996, 2008

1999

1996, 
2000, 2011

2009

2000

2000

2006

2000

2000

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Conservation Threatened Sp brochure.indd   22

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Conservation and Recovery of Threatened Birds in the EU

23

Recovery plan

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* Middle European 
populations only

D.m. canariensis, 
D.m. thanneri only

NT

NT

VU

VU

NT

NT

CR

NT

NT

NT

EN

NT

NT

VU

NT

NT

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SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 2

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 2

Non-SPEC

SPEC 3

SPEC 1

SPEC 2

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

SPEC 1

Species
Perdix perdix Grey Partridge

Crex crex Corncrake

Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Swamphen

Fulica cristata Red-knobbed Coot

Tetrax tetrax Little Bustard

Chlamydotis undulata Houbara Bustard

Otis tarda Great Bustard

Cursorius cursor Cream-coloured Courser

Gallinago media Great Snipe

Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit (**)

Numenius tenuirostris Slender-billed Curlew

Larus audouinii Audouin's Gull

Sterna dougallii Roseate Tern

Columba trocaz Madeira Laurel Pigeon

Columba bollii Dark-tailed Laurel Pigeon

Columba junoniae White-tailed Laurel Pigeon

Coracias garrulus European Roller

Dendrocopos major Great Spotted Woodpecker

Chersophilus duponti Dupont’s Lark

Acrocephalus paludicola Aquatic Warbler

Ficedula semitorquata Semi-collared Flycatcher

Fringilla teydea Blue Chaffi  nch

Loxia scotica Scottish Crossbill

Pyrrhula murina Azores Bullfi nch

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NE

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(R)

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S

(H)

(VU)

D

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DD

(EN)

x

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2004

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2000

1996, 
2000, 
2006

2000

2000

1999, 2011

2010*

1996

2004, 2006

2004, 
2006, 
2009

2004

2010*

2010*

2010*

2010*

1996, 2010

2000

2003

2008

1996

1996

2000

1996

1996

1996

2008

2000

2008

E
F
I
L
g
n

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d
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x

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x

x

x

x

2003, 2008

2008

2010

1996

2000

2010*

1996, 2009

2009

Legend: 
Global Red List category is provided according to IUCN Red List (2010). 
SPEC categories and European Threat Status according to BirdLife International (2004) Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and 
conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International. (BirdLife Conservation Series No. 12). 
** Limosa limosa Black-tailed godwit has a Management Plan in the EU and a Single Species Action Plan under AEWA.
For more information about the conservation of threatened birds in the EU, including links to the latest documents please visit the European 
Commission website: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/wildbirds/threatened/index_en.htm 

Conservation Threatened Sp brochure.indd   23

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K
H
-
3
1
-
1
1
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1
9
4
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