COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the White Paper - Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system
Date: 2011-03-28
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: common transport policy, land transport, sustainable development, transport safety

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Brussels, 28.3.2011 
SEC(2011) 391 final 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

Accompanying the White Paper - Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – 
Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system 

SEC(2011) 358 final 
SEC(2011) 359 final 
COM(2011) 144 final 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Roadmap to a Single European 
Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system.....................1 

Introduction.................................................................................................................................7 

I – Current trends and future challenges: Growing out of Oil ....................................................9 

1. 

A look at the recent past ...............................................................................................9 

1.1. 

More efficient, safe and secure transport…..................................................................9 

1.2.  …but no structural change to reduce oil dependency and CO2 emissions .................10 

1.3. 

Encouraging recent developments ..............................................................................10 

2. 

2.1. 

2.2. 

2.3. 

3. 

3.1. 

3.2. 

3.3. 

3.4. 

Assessing transport trends: business as usual is not sustainable ................................11 

Increasing oil price and persistent oil dependency .....................................................12 

Growing congestion and poorer accessibility.............................................................12 

A deteriorating climate and local environment...........................................................14 

Future challenges and constraints...............................................................................15 

Growing competition in world transport markets.......................................................15 

A tight carbon budget for the transport sector ............................................................17 

Strong requirements for infrastructure investments ...................................................19 

The need for a new approach on mobility ..................................................................20 

II – A vision for 2050: an integrated, sustainable and efficient mobility network ...................21 

1. 

2. 

2.1. 

2.2. 

2.3. 

2.4. 

2.5. 

3. 

A great opportunity.....................................................................................................21 

An integrated vision for the various transport segments ............................................22 

Driving conventional cars and trucks out of the cities ...............................................22 

Multimodal interurban travel ......................................................................................26 

A green and efficient freight core network.................................................................28 

Improving the door-to-door experience in long-distance travel .................................30 

A global level-playing field for intercontinental freight.............................................31 

Putting it all together: features and advantages of a new mobility concept ...............32 

III – Strategy: policies to steer change......................................................................................36 

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1. 

An efficient and integrated mobility system...............................................................36 

1.1. 

A Single European Transport Area.............................................................................36 

1.1.1.  A true internal market for rail services .......................................................................37 

1.1.2.  Completing the European aviation sector...................................................................40 

1.1.3.  A maritime “Blue Belt” and a suitable framework for inland navigation ..................44 

1.1.4.  Further integrating the road freight market ................................................................46 

1.1.5.  Multimodal transport of goods: the development of e-Freight...................................50 

1.2. 

Promoting quality jobs and better working conditions...............................................51 

1.2.1.  A social code for mobile road transport workers........................................................52 

1.2.2.  A Social Agenda for waterborne transport .................................................................53 

1.2.3.  A socially responsible aviation sector ........................................................................54 

1.2.4.  An evaluation of the EU approach to jobs and working conditions across transport 

modes ..........................................................................................................................55 

1.3. 

Secure Transport.........................................................................................................56 

1.3.1.  Cargo security.............................................................................................................57 

1.3.2.  High levels of passenger security, low levels of hassle..............................................59 

1.3.3.  Land transport security ...............................................................................................60 

1.3.4. 

‘End-to-End’ security .................................................................................................61 

1.4. 

Acting on transport safety: saving thousands of lives ................................................62 

1.4.1.  Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety ......................................................................62 

1.4.2.  A European strategy for civil aviation safety .............................................................65 

1.4.3.  Safer shipping .............................................................................................................66 

1.4.4.  Rail safety ...................................................................................................................68 

1.4.5.  Transport of dangerous goods ....................................................................................70 

1.5. 

Service quality and reliability.....................................................................................70 

1.5.1.  A better enforcement of passenger rights ...................................................................70 

1.5.2.  Seamless multimodal travelling and integrated ticketing...........................................72 

1.5.3.  Ensuring an uninterrupted mobility following disruptions in the transport system ...73 

2. 

Innovating for the future: technology and behaviour .................................................74 

2.1. 

A European Transport Research and Innovation Policy.............................................74 

2.1.1.  Vehicles for the future ................................................................................................76 

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2.1.2.  A comprehensive alternative fuel strategy .................................................................78 

2.1.3.  Permeating the transport system with advanced information technology ..................80 

2.2. 

Promoting more sustainable behaviour ......................................................................86 

2.2.1.  Fuel and vehicle efficiency labelling ..........................................................................87 

2.2.2.  A certified carbon footprint calculator .......................................................................87 

2.2.3.  Lower speeds for cleaner and safer transport .............................................................87 

2.2.4.  Eco-driving training and applications.........................................................................88 

2.3. 

Integrated urban mobility ...........................................................................................89 

2.3.1.  A new type of urban mobility.....................................................................................89 

3. 

Modern infrastructure and smart funding ...................................................................95 

3.1. 

Transport infrastructure: territorial cohesion and economic growth ..........................95 

3.1.1.  Exploiting the strengths of the individual modes .......................................................96 

3.1.2.  TEN-T policy review: from individual projects to an integrated European network.99 

3.1.3.  Ex-ante project appraisal ..........................................................................................105 

3.2. 

A coherent funding framework.................................................................................107 

3.2.1.  Trends in transport infrastructure financing .............................................................107 

3.2.2.  Transport sector financing needs ..............................................................................107 

3.2.3.  A new funding framework for transport infrastructure ............................................108 

3.2.4.  Private sector engagements.......................................................................................110 

3.3. 

Getting prices right and avoiding distortions............................................................111 

3.3.1. 

“Polluter pays” for external costs .............................................................................112 

3.3.2. 

“User pays” for infrastructure costs..........................................................................118 

3.3.3.  Aligning taxation with transport sustainability goals ...............................................119 

3.3.4.  Transport infrastructure and transport services: subsidies and State aid ..................121 

4. 

4.1. 

4.2. 

4.3. 

4.4. 

4.5. 

The external dimension.............................................................................................124 

Extending internal market rules and reinforcing the transport dialogue with main 
partners .....................................................................................................................124 

Promote energy efficiency and climate change goals in multilateral forums...........124 

An international dialogue on transport security........................................................124 

Extending our transport and infrastructure policy to our neighbours.......................125 

Intensifying cooperation to remove transport barriers..............................................126 

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List of initiatives  

1. A true internal market for rail services...................................................................................................... 40 

2. Completion of the Single European Sky..................................................................................................... 42 

3. Capacity and quality of airports ................................................................................................................. 43 

4. A maritime “Blue Belt” and market access to ports ................................................................................. 45 

5. A suitable framework for inland navigation.............................................................................................. 46 

6. Road freight .................................................................................................................................................. 49 

7. Multimodal transport of goods: e-Freight.................................................................................................. 51 

8. Social code for mobile road transport workers ......................................................................................... 52 

9. A Social Agenda for maritime transport.................................................................................................... 53 

10. A socially responsible aviation sector ....................................................................................................... 54 

11. An evaluation of the EU approach to jobs and working conditions across transport modes .............. 56 

12. Cargo security............................................................................................................................................. 58 

13. High levels of passenger security with minimum hassle ......................................................................... 59 

14. Land transport security ............................................................................................................................. 61 

15. ‘End-to-end’ security ................................................................................................................................. 62 

16. Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety .................................................................................................... 64 

17. A European strategy for civil aviation safety........................................................................................... 66 

18. Safer shipping ............................................................................................................................................. 68 

19. Rail safety.................................................................................................................................................... 69 

20. Transport of dangerous goods................................................................................................................... 70 

21. Passengers’ rights....................................................................................................................................... 71 

22. Seamless door-to-door mobility ................................................................................................................ 73 

23. Mobility Continuity Plans.......................................................................................................................... 74 

24. A technology roadmap ............................................................................................................................... 84 

25. An innovation and deployment strategy................................................................................................... 85 

26. A regulatory framework for innovative transport .................................................................................. 85 

27. Travel information ..................................................................................................................................... 86 

28. Vehicle labelling for CO2 emissions and fuel efficiency .......................................................................... 87 

29. Carbon footprint calculators..................................................................................................................... 87 

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30. Eco-driving and Speed limits..................................................................................................................... 88 

31. Urban Mobility Plans................................................................................................................................. 92 

32. An EU framework for urban road user charging ................................................................................... 92 

33. A strategy for near- ‘zero-emission urban logistics’ 2030....................................................................... 94 

34. A core network of strategic European infrastructure – A European Mobility Network................... 102 

35. Multimodal freight corridors for sustainable transport networks....................................................... 105 

36. Ex-ante project evaluation criteria ......................................................................................................... 106 

37. A new funding framework for transport infrastructure....................................................................... 109 

38. Private sector engagement....................................................................................................................... 111 

39. Smart pricing and taxation...................................................................................................................... 123 

40. Transport in the World: The external dimension ................................................................................. 126 

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Introduction 

Transport is the foundation of any economy as it constitutes the heart of the supply chain. 
Without good transport networks, a proper functioning of the internal market is not possible. 
Transport infrastructure investments boost economic growth; create wealth;  enhance trade, 
geographical accessibility and the mobility of people. They are a highly effective engine of 
job creation. As other world regions are launching huge, ambitious infrastructure investment 
programmes, it is crucial that Europe maintains its competitive position.  

Transport  is  also  a  key  ingredient  for  a  high  quality  of  life,  making  places  accessible  and 
bringing  people  together.  Besides  its  role  as  a  facilitator,  the  transport  industry  in  itself 
represents an important part of the economy: in the EU it directly employs around 10 million 
people and accounts for about 5% of GDP; many European companies are world leaders in 
infrastructure,  logistics,  traffic  management  systems  and  manufacturing  of  transport 
equipment. 

Market integration, economic growth and transport activity are strongly related. In the EU, 
efficient  transport  connections  have  facilitated  the  creation  and  deepening  of  the  internal 
market.  Each  of  the  EU  enlargements  was  accompanied  by  a  strong  growth  of  transport 
activity. Still, a lot needs to be done in order to effectively unite the transport systems of the 
eastern and western part of the Europe and make the enlargement a physical reality. 

The link between internal market and transport was clearly recognised from the beginning of 
European integration. Transport policy was included, as one of the common policies, in the 
Treaty  of  Rome.  A  trans-European  network  policy  was  added  by  the  Maastricht  Treaty  in 
1992 to help achieve the EU internal market and cohesion objectives1. 

In that same year, 1992, the Commission published a White Paper on the common transport 
policy, which was essentially dedicated to market opening, in line with the priorities of the 
time.  Almost  ten  years  later,  the  2001  White  Paper  emphasised  the  need  for  managing 
transport growth by achieving a more balanced use of all transport modes. 

This  White  Paper  takes  again  a  global  look  at  developments  in  the  transport  sector,  at  its 
future challenges and at the policy initiatives that need to be considered. Transport continues 
to  be  a  core  element  of  economic  development,  territorial  and  social  cohesion,  but  has  to 
meet new challenges:  

•  Since  the  last  enlargement,  European  transport  policy  needs  to  cover  almost  the  whole 

continent and 500 million citizens. 

•  The context is one of recovery from the deepest world economic crisis since the 1930s. 
The  crisis  had  followed  a  sharp  increase  in  the  price  of  oil  and  of  other  commodities, 
which was a symptom of growing imbalances in the use of global resources.  

•  At  the  same  time,  the  international  community  agrees  on  the  need  to  drastically  reduce 

world greenhouse gas emissions. 

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Presently, transport policy is governed by the provisions of Title VI, Articles 90 to 100, of the Treaty 
on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). 

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The challenge of establishing a more resource efficient economy is particularly demanding 
for  the  transport  sector,  which  continues  to  rely  almost  entirely  on  oil,  has  emitted  34%2 
more greenhouse gases in 2008 than in 1990 and remains a major source of noise and local 
air pollution.  

The  present  White  Paper  takes  on  the  challenge  of  seeking  a  deep  transformation  of  the 
transport  system,  promoting  independence  from  oil,  the  creation  of  modern  infrastructure 
and multimodal mobility assisted by smart  management and information systems. It is put 
forward together with a Communication providing a roadmap to a low-carbon economy by 
2050  and  a  new  Energy  Efficiency  Plan  2011  and  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  ‘Resource 
Efficiency’ initiative of the Commission.  

The document is organised in three main parts: 

•  “Part  I  –  Current  trends  and  future  challenges:  Growing  out  of  Oil”  identifies  the 
challenges that the transport system is likely to face in the future, based on an evaluation 
of developments in the recent past3 and on an assessment of current trends4. It clarifies, in 
particular, the limits on greenhouse gas emissions that transport will have to respect in the 
context of the action against climate change.  

•  “Part II – A vision for 2050: An integrated, sustainable and efficient mobility network” It 
then  tries  to  formulate  a  plausible  and  desirable  way  for  the  transport  system  to  meet 
those challenges and to deliver better mobility services to citizens and businesses with a 
2050 horizon. The vision is accompanied by goals intended to guide policy action in the 
next decade.  

•  “Part III – Strategy: Policies to steer change” is the operational part of the White Paper. 
It describes the initiatives that need to be taken into consideration in the next ten years to 
meet the goals set in Part I, put the transport sector on a sustainable path and bridge the 
gap between vision and reality.  

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This figure includes emissions from international aviation and maritime transport. 
A detailed analysis can be found in Annex 2: “Ex Post evaluation of Transport Policy 2001-2010” of 
the  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  “Roadmap  to  a  Single  European  Transport  Area  – 
Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system”.  
A description of how transport could evolve up to 2050 if new policies did not intervene to modify the 
trends (reference scenario) can be found in Annex 3: “Reference scenario (2010-2050)” of the Impact 
Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  “Roadmap  to  a  Single  European  Transport  Area  –  Towards  a 
competitive and resource efficient transport system”. 

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I – Current trends and future challenges: Growing out of 
Oil 

1. 

A LOOK AT THE RECENT PAST 

1.1.  More efficient, safe and secure transport… 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

The last decade was marked by an intense transport activity matched by an equally 
intense  transport  policy  agenda.  The  EU  enlargement  and  the  ever  increasing 
integration  of  global  markets  have  boosted  freight  volumes.  The  mobility  of 
Europeans has also grown despite the high level of congestion in many cities. 

EU  transport  policy  has  helped  transport  become  more  efficient,  safe  and  secure. 
Market  opening  has  been  particularly  successful  in  road  and,  spectacularly,  in 
aviation where liberalisation in the 1990s set off an unprecedented growth in both 
the number of passengers flown and the number of routes served inside the EU.  

Transport  has  become  a  lot  safer.  The  number  of  people  killed  in  road  accidents 
was about 40% lower in 2010 than in 2001, although progress was short of the 50% 
target. Maritime transport safety was also improved through successive legislation 
which, among others, outlawed the use of single hull oil tankers and created a pan-
European  system  of  traffic  monitoring.  New  dedicated  agencies  in  air,  rail  and 
maritime transport oversee the safety of EU transport operations.  

People  are  at  the  centre  of  EU  transport  policy.  To  ensure  high  level  of  service 
quality  and  good  working  conditions,  legal  requirements  make  sure  that  neither 
passengers  nor  workers  are  unduly  affected  by  increasing  competitive  pressure  in 
the transport markets. The EU has established a set of passenger rights, first in air 
transport, later in rail and recently also in waterborne and coach transport.  

Security  has  become  a  European  transport  policy  issue  after  11  September  2001. 
EU  security  rules  in  air  and  maritime  transport  have  meanwhile  been  adopted 
covering regulatory standards and inspection regimes. 

National infrastructure had previously partly ignored the needs of the EU internal 
market.  This  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  TEN-T  policy.  After  the  EU 
enlargement  in  2004,  30  projects  were  prioritised.  Some  of  them  have  been 
completed, with very positive effects for the regions involved. The European high-
speed  rail  network  is  developing  and  has  shown  remarkable  success  on  certain 
connections. Many TEN-T projects are however facing planning complications and 
budgetary constraints. The leverage of EU financing is proving to be too weak.  

International  ties  have  been  strengthened.  A  Common  Aviation  Area  (CAA)  is 
being created with neighbouring countries. Comprehensive air transport agreements 
have  been  signed  with  the  USA  in  2007  and  with  Canada  in  2009.  A  Transport 
Community Treaty for South-Eastern Europe has been negotiated. The adoption of 
the Maritime Labour Convention at the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 
2006 – the new ‘Bill of Rights’ for seafarers – has been actively supported by the 

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EU.  Europe’s  representation  in  international  institutions  such  as  International 
Maritime  Organization  (IMO)  and  International  Civil  Aviation  Organization 
(ICAO)  would  be  more  effective  if  the  EU  spoke  with  one  voice,  but  Member 
States are reluctant to accept such an approach. 

1.2.  …but no structural change to reduce oil dependency and CO2 emissions 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Transport continues to be nearly fully dependent on fossil fuels as energy source. 
It  is  the  only  sector  where  greenhouse  gas  (GHG)  emissions  have  almost 
continuously grown over the last 20 years and are now about one third above their 
1990  levels.  Technical  progress  has  delivered  greater  energy  efficiency,  but  not 
enough to offset rising traffic volumes.  

The  successive  tightening  of  vehicle  emission  standards  (“Euro”  classes)  and 
improvements  in  fuel  quality  significantly  reduced  transport-related  emissions  of 
pollutants and particulates. Nonetheless, pollution still exceeds legal limits in many 
urban and other sensitive areas: further action is needed to improve air quality. 

The  poor  environmental  performance  of  the  transport  system  is  also  linked  to 
transport  patterns  presently  dominated  by  road  in  both  freight  and  passenger 
transport.  The  more  efficient  and  cleaner  rail  and  waterborne  modes  failed  to 
exploit their potential in the medium to long distances, which represent two thirds 
of driven kilometres and of emissions. Some factors might explain the low appeal 
of alternatives to road transport: 

–  Investments to modernise the rail network and transhipment facilities have been 
insufficient to address the bottlenecks in multimodal transport. Modal networks 
are  badly  connected.  TEN-T  policy  has  lacked  financial  resources  and  a  true 
continental multimodal perspective; 

–  At the beginning of the 21st century, the railways were the only transport mode 
in  the  EU  that  had  not  been  opened  up  to  competition.  Legislation  prescribing 
market  opening  in  rail  freight  transport  as  of  2007  and  in  international  rail 
passenger transport as of 2010 has been implemented slowly and incompletely in 
the large majority of Member States. Enforcement has been inadequate. National 
passenger  markets,  that  represent  the  largest  share  of  the  business,  are  still 
largely closed. The lack of competition held back service quality and efficiency; 

–  Short  sea  shipping  faces  higher  administrative  burdens  compared  to  the  land-
based  modes.  National  borders  continue  to  cause  inefficiencies  and  additional 
costs in rail. 

–  Charges and taxes do not fully reflect the societal costs of transport. Attempts to 
internalise transport externalities and to remove tax distortions have so far been 
unsuccessful. 

1.3. 

Encouraging recent developments 

11. 

Some of the most effective measures to promote the sustainability of the transport 
system  have  taken  the  longest  time  to  define  and  adopt.  However  a  number  of 
important decisions have now been taken:  

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–  In 2009, in the context of the Climate and Energy package, the EU set itself the 
mandatory  target  of  reaching  a  10%-share  of  renewable  energies  used  in 
transport5 by 2020, and lowering the greenhouse gas intensity of fuels by 6% by 
20206;  

–  In 2009, the EU adopted a Regulation on CO2 standards for new passenger cars7 
and  in  December  2010  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  reached 
agreement  on  the  final  text  of  the  vans  Regulation.  The  impact  will  be 
significant, but will take some time to be fully evident since this is dependent on 
the  existing  fleet  being  replaced.  The  inclusion  of  aviation  in  the  EU  emission 
trading  scheme  (EU  ETS)  from  2012  onwards  will  also  provide  incentives  to 
reduce CO2 emissions and will ensure that forecast growth in emissions is offset 
by equivalent reductions in other sectors; 

–  In  2008,  the  Commission  proposed  a  strategy  covering  all  transport  modes  for 
the internalisation of the most important external costs, namely those linked to: 
congestion, GHG emissions, local pollution and noise. For road freight transport, 
the  Commission  proposed  amending  the  Directive  on  charging  heavy  goods 
vehicles  –  the  so-called  ‘Eurovignette  Directive’  –  to  allow  Member  States  to 
integrate  in  distance-based  charges  the  cost  of  air  and  noise  pollution.  The 
European Parliament and the Council are now negotiating the final version; 

–  In  October  2010,  the  EU  was  at  the  forefront  in  forging  a  global  agreement  in 
ICAO  involving  190  countries  to  reduce  the  impact  of  aviation  on  the 
environment and introducing a framework for market based measures. 

It is still too early to fully appreciate the impact of these measures, but they have set 
in motion a process of transformation in the sector that it is now vital to continue, 
deepen and extend to the 2050 horizon. 

ASSESSING TRANSPORT TRENDS: BUSINESS AS USUAL IS NOT SUSTAINABLE  

Some of the unresolved problems of the past are likely to be exacerbated by current 
the  Commission’s  analysis  of  possible  future 
trends.  This 

is  shown  by 

Directive  2009/28/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  23  April  2009  on  the 
promotion  of  the  use  of  energy  from  renewable  sources  and  amending  and  subsequently  repealing 
Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, OJ L 140, 5.6.2009, p. 16–62. The binding target is set only 
for  land-based  transport  modes.  However,  the  use  of  renewable  energy  sources  in  aviation  and 
maritime transport can contribute voluntarily to the achievement of the 10% target. 
Directive  2009/30/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  23  April  2009  amending 
Directive  98/70/EC  as  regards  the  specification  of  petrol,  diesel  and  gas-oil  and  introducing  a 
mechanism  to  monitor  and  reduce  greenhouse  gas  emissions  and  amending  Council  Directive 
1999/32/EC  as  regards  the  specification  of  fuel  used  by  inland  waterway  vessels  and  repealing 
Directive 93/12/EEC 
Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 setting 
emission  performance  standards  for  new  passenger  cars  as  part  of  the  Community's  integrated 
approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles (23 April 2009). 

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developments given a scenario of unchanged policies (the ‘Reference scenario’ in 
the accompanying Impact Assessment8). 

14. 

This  scenario  assumes  that  in  2010-2020  the  economy  will  recover  from  the 
sluggish growth of the previous decade and revert to historical average growth rates 
(2.2%  per  year),  thanks  to  the  higher  productivity  growth  assumed  in  Member 
States  that  are  catching  up.  The  GDP  growth  rate  is  however  projected  to  slow 
down to 1.6% per year as of 2020 because of demographic ageing and the related 
reduction of the working-age population9. 

2.1. 

Increasing oil price and persistent oil dependency 

15. 

Increasing  demand  and  extraction  costs  will  affect  the  level  and  volatility  of  oil 
price.  Global  oil  demand  is  projected  to  grow  from  84  million  barrels  per  day 
(mb/d)  in  2009  to  about  100  mb/d  in  2035,  according  to  International  Energy 
Agency  (IEA)10.  The  transport  sector  accounts  for  almost  90%  of  the  predicted 
increase in oil use and China alone would account for half of the global increase in 
oil  use  for  transport.  The  Reference  scenario  assumes  a  relatively  high  oil  price 
environment  compared  with  previous  projections11  –  59  $/barrel  in  2005  rising  to 
106 $/barrel in 2030 and 127 $/barrel in 2050 (in year 2008-dollars)12. 

16. 

In the EU, transport depends on oil and oil products for about 96%13 of its energy 
needs14. In the Reference scenario oil products would still represent 90% of the EU 
transport sector needs in 2030 and 89% in 2050. 

2.2. 

Growing congestion and poorer accessibility 

17. 

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Without  policy  change,  total  transport  activity  is  expected  to  continue  growing  in 
line with economic activity. Freight transport activity is projected to increase, with 
respect  to  2005,  by  around  40%  in  2030  and  by  little  over  80%  by  205015. 
Passenger traffic would grow slightly less than freight transport (34% by 2030 and 
51% by 2050).  

The  various  modes  would  in  general  keep  their  relative  share  in  the  absence  of 
significant policy changes. Road transport would maintain its dominant role in both 
passenger and freight transport within the EU, with passenger cars still contributing 
more than two thirds to total passenger transport in 2050. 

For a more detailed description of the Reference scenario see Annex 3 of the Impact Assessment on 
the White Paper on Transport “A Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area”. 
European  Commission,  DG  Economic  and  Financial  Affairs:  2009  Ageing  Report:  Economic  and 
budgetary projections for the EU-27 Member States (2008-2060). EUROPEAN ECONOMY 2/2009, 
http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/publication14992_en.pdf. 
International Energy Agency (2010), World Energy Outlook 2010. 
The oil price projections are the result of world energy modelling with the PROMETHEUS stochastic 
world energy model, developed by the National Technical University of Athens (E3MLab). 
These projections are close to those of the IEA: in its publication “Energy Technology Perspectives 
2010” the IEA assumes 115 $/barrel in 2008 prices for 2030 and 120 $/barrel for 2050. 
The corresponding figure worldwide is very similar: 95%. 
European Commission, EU Energy and Transport in Figures, 2010 
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/publications/statistics/statistics_en.htm. 
Freight transport activity includes international maritime transport. 

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19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

High  congestion  levels  would  seriously  affect  road  transport  in  several  Member 
States  by  2030  without  effective  countervailing  measures  such  as  road  pricing. 
While urban congestion will mainly depend on car ownership levels, the extent of 
urban  sprawl  and  the  degree  of  availability  of  public  transport  alternatives, 
congestion  on  the  inter-urban  network  would  be  the  result  of  growing  freight 
transport activity along specific corridors, in particular where these corridors cross 
urban areas with heavy local traffic. 

Congestion costs are projected to increase by about 50% by 2050, to nearly € 200 
billion annually in the Reference scenario. 

European skies and airports will be saturated. Aviation is expected to grow by over 
50% for passengers and by 125% for freight until 2020.  

The  current  situation  in  terms  of  accessibility16  in  the  EU  suggests  that  there  is  a 
marked  division  between  central  and  peripheral  areas  as  regards  their  transport 
connectivity  and  costs.  Peripheral  areas  have  higher  average  costs  of  transport, 
owing not only to the need for longer trips, but also to the more expensive or less 
efficient transport solutions that are available.  

16 

Accessibility  here  is  based  on  the  concept  of  “potential  accessibility”,  which  assumes  that  the 
attraction  of  a  destination  increases  with  size,  and  declines  with  distance,  travel  time  or  cost.  More 
specifically,  accessibility  is  defined  as  the  generalised  transport  costs  from  zone  i  to  zone  j  for 
segment r (commodity group or trip purpose) in year t, weighed with the traffic volumes. 

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13 

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Source: TRANSTOOLS model 

Figure 1: Change in accessibility between 2005 and 2030 in the Reference scenario 

23. 

The  likely  increases  in  fuel  costs  and  congestion  levels  noted  above  will  lead  to 
further divergences in accessibility. Many peripheral areas, particularly in the new 
Member  States,  will  remain  poorly  connected  to  the  European  transport  network. 
They  will  suffer  disproportionately  more  from  congestion  and  high  fuel  cost  (Cf. 
Figure  1  below),  given  their  high  dependence  on  few  low-capacity  road  axes  and 
regional air connections. Indeed, in the new Member States there are currently only 
around  4.500  km  of  motorways  and  no  high  speed  rail  lines;  the  conventional 
railway lines are often in poor condition. 

2.3. 

A deteriorating climate and local environment 

24. 

In  the  Reference  scenario,  the  share  of  CO2  emissions  from  EU  transport  as  a 
proportion  of  all  EU  emissions  would  continue  increasing,  to  38%  by  2030  and 
almost 50% by 205017, due to the relatively lower decline of CO2 emissions from 
transport compared to power generation and other sectors. Overall, CO2 emissions 
from transport would still be 31% higher than their 1990 level by 2030 and 35% by 

17 

The  CO2  emissions  include  international  maritime  and  aviation  but  exclude  combustion  emissions 
from pipeline transportation, ground activities in airports and harbours, and off-road activities. 

EN 

14 

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25. 

26. 

27. 

2050, owing to the fast rise in the transport emissions  during the 1990s.  Aviation 
and maritime transport would contribute an increasing share of emissions over time. 

In  the  absence  of  new  policies,  renewable  energy  sources  in  transport  would 
increase to just 13% by 205018 and electric propulsion in road transport would not 
make significant inroads19.  

External costs of transport would continue to increase. The rise in traffic would lead 
to  roughly  €  20  billion  increase  in  noise  related  external  costs  (+40%)  and  €  60 
billion in the external cost of accidents (+35%) by 2050. 

NOx  emissions  and  particulate  matter  would  drop  by  about  40%  and  50%, 
respectively,  by  2030  and  roughly  stabilise  afterwards.  As  a  result,  external  costs 
related to the emission of air pollutants would decrease by 60% by 2050. 

3. 

FUTURE CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS 

3.1. 

Growing competition in world transport markets 

28. 

29. 

European  economic  actors  must  confront  a  larger  number  of  global  competitors. 
The World is moving ahead in all fields and the profound changes proposed in this 
White Paper should not only be seen as an opportunity for increasing efficiency, but 
also as a necessary condition for maintaining the competitiveness of the European 
transport and logistics sector which needs to stay one of Europe’s growth engines. 

European  transport  equipment  manufacturers  have  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  a 
comfortable lead over the rest of the world, sharing world markets with few, mostly 
American and Japanese, competitors. This was possible thanks to their superiority 
in  specific  engineering  technologies  and  continuous  investment  in  infrastructure. 
Today, this lead is shrinking as other countries are heavily investing in research and 
development (R&D)  and  infrastructure. China’s R&D spending has been growing 
for several years at double digit rate and this year China is expected to become the 
second largest R&D power in the world, well ahead of major EU Member States. 
Moreover, while China is making a concerted push in the most promising cutting-
edge areas, European research efforts remain diffused. 

30. 

The air transport system and its supply chain, including the high-tech aeronautical 
industry,  are  an  important  contributor  to  the  European  economy  and  to  the 
competitiveness of Europe as a region20. European airlines and airports are among 

18 

19 

20 

The  share  of  renewables  in  transport  reported  here  follows  the  definition  from  the  Directive 
2009/28/EC.  
The Reference scenario, which was finalised in early 2010, does not take into account the re-launch 
(following  Commission  Decision  2010/C  280/08  of  14  October  2010)  of  the  CARS  21  initiative 
(Competitive Automotive Regulatory System for the 21st century). This initiative may trigger a higher 
uptake of electric propulsion vehicles by 2050 than in the Reference scenario, where it is projected to 
be negligible. 
The vital importance of Aviation for the European economy and our societies was highlighted in 2010 
during the Icelandic volcanic eruption in April. 5 days of European airspace closed, involving 100,000 
flights cancelled, 2 million passengers stranded and billions of losses for the economy show to what 
extent Europe depends on an efficient and well functioning air transport sector. 

EN 

15 

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31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

the world leaders, as is the European aeronautical industry. It will be increasingly 
challenging to maintain this position on the global marketplace, owing to capacity 
constraints  in  Europe  and  massive  investments  in  air  transport  infrastructure  in 
other regions. Maintaining a competitive European air transport system and the key 
role of Europe as intercontinental air transport hub will have a wider importance for 
the European economy. 

In high speed rail, the Chinese – so far relying on European, Canadian or Japanese 
technology  –  have  developed  their  own  trains.  The  EU  needs  to  keep  pace  with 
global technological developments and maintain its competitive advantage in high 
value-added transport industries. 

Although  China  is  already  the  biggest  car  producer  in  the  world,  European 
companies are still among the world leaders in conventional cars, trucks and buses. 
They are also investing in the development of alternative fuel solutions and electric 
cars.  In  China,  buyers  of  electric  or  plug-in  hybrid  vehicles  receive  considerable 
incentives.  Such  actions  are  expected  to help  China  achieve  its  goal  of  producing 
one  million  electric  vehicles  per  year  starting  from  2020.  Without  appropriate 
framework conditions to make innovative solutions economically viable, European 
manufacturers risk lagging behind global competitors. 

In shipbuilding, Asian players have a dominant position in the production of cargo 
vessels.  Europe  is  technology  leader  on  passenger  ships,  special  purpose  vessels 
such  as  dredgers  and  in  large  parts  of  the  global  marine  equipment  industry. 
Shipyards  and  equipment  suppliers  are  indispensable  elements  for  maritime 
transport and logistics. At the same time they provide the technical solutions to the 
much needed reduction of GHG and other emissions from shipping. It is therefore 
important  that  Europe  retains  competence  and  at  least  a  critical  mass  of 
shipbuilding. 

European  logistics  companies  –  currently  undisputed  world  leaders  –  also  risk 
losing  market  shares.  For  years,  they  have  benefited  from  the  excellent 
infrastructure, a history of free trade, and little red tape at home. Today, European 
infrastructure  is  increasingly  congested  and  alternatives  appear  elsewhere.  By 
comparison,  China  already  has  the  largest  high  speed  rail  network  in  the  world, 
while North African ports – more flexible than their European counterparts – have 
taken over large shares of the transhipment business. Among the 20 biggest airports 
by  passenger  numbers  and  cargo  volume,  only  six  and  four  respectively  are 
European. The centre of gravity of the world’s transport infrastructure is gradually 
shifting  towards  Asia.  Continuous  investment  in  transport  infrastructure  and 
simplification of administrative procedures are needed to contain this erosion of the 
importance  of  the  EU  as  the  world’s  logistics  platform,  without  which  European 
logistics companies will lose their global leadership. 

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3.2. 

A tight carbon budget for the transport sector 

35. 

In October 2009, the European Council supported the objective of reducing GHG 
emissions  in  the  EU  by  80  to  95%  by  2050  compared  to  1990  levels21.  The 
Commission  has  analysed  global  scenarios22  that  would  allow  meeting  the  2ºC 
objective in a cost efficient way. The results, in line with work of the IPCC, show 
that  halving  world  emissions  by  2050  compared  to  1990  implies  reducing  EU 
domestic emissions23 by around 80% by 2050 compared to 199024. This target sets 
out the boundaries also for developments in the transport sector. 

36. 

The modelling analysis has shown that the transport sector needs to prepare itself 
for  a  reduction  of  its  emissions  by  around  60%  below  1990  levels  in  2050.  This 
would correspond to emissions cuts of around 70% below today’s levels. 

EU Transport greenhouse gas emissions in 200825 

The contribution of the various modes to the GHG emissions of the transport sector was as 
follows in 200826: 71.3% came from road, 13.5% from maritime, 12.8% from aviation, 1.8% 
from inland navigation and 0.7%27 from rail transport.  

While there is no fully reliable data on the split of total emissions into passenger and freight 
transport,  research  shows  that  passenger  transport  accounts  for  around  60%  of  the  total28. 
Travel  surveys  show  that  the  overwhelming  majority  of  trips  (97.5%)  are  ‘short’  distance 
(not longer than 100 km). The remaining 2.5% of trips account however for more than half 
(53%) of all passenger kilometres (pkm)29. Concerning the division between urban and non-
urban  transport,  estimates  point  to  around  a  quarter  (23%)  of  transport  emissions  coming 
from urban areas30,31. 

21 

22 

23 
24 

25 

26 

27 

28 
29 
30 
31 

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), developed economies will need 
to  be  nearly  carbon-free  by  2050  to  avoid  disastrous  effects  of  GHG  emissions  on  the  climate:  B. 
Metz  et  al.  (eds),  Contribution  of  Working  Group  III  to  the  Fourth  Assessment  Report  of  the 
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. 
COM  (2011)112.  Roadmap  towards  a  2050  low-carbon  economy  and  the  accompanying  impact 
assessment. 
Adding up emissions from all sectors excluding international maritime and land use. 
Such  an  objective  would  require  that  total  EU  emissions  are  reduced  from  about  5080  Mt  CO2 
equivalent in 2008 (excluding international maritime bunkers and LULUCF) to around 1120 Mt CO2 
equiv. in 2050. 
At global level, transport produced 22% of global CO2 emissions in 2008 (6604.7 Mt of CO2), being 
the  second-largest  sector  after  electricity  and  heat  generation.  CO2  emissions  from  transport  are 
dominated  by  road,  with  about  73%  of  emissions,  followed  by  international  maritime  (9%)  and 
aviation  (7%).  The  rest  (about  11%)  originates  from  domestic  navigation  and  aviation,  rail  and 
pipeline  transport.  Source:  International  Energy  Agency  (2010),  CO2  Emissions  from  Fuel 
Combustion 2010, OECD/IEA, Paris. 
These  figures  include  international  aviation  and  maritime,  but  exclude  combustion  emissions  from 
pipeline transportation, ground activities in airports and harbours, and off-road activities. 
This  figure  only  includes  emissions  from  diesel  use,  but  not  from  electricity  use.  Looking  at  final 
energy consumption by transport mode, electricity represents about 66% of the energy consumption 
by rail. 
Source: PRIMES-TREMOVE and TREMOVE transport models. 
Source: TRANSTOOLS model. 
Total emissions include international bunker fuels. 
Source: PRIMES-TREMOVE and TREMOVE transport models. 

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17 

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Roughly the following shares in GHG emissions can be identified32: 

(1)  Urban  transport  of  people  and  freight:  responsible  for  ~23%  of  emissions,  is  mostly 
performed by cars (16% of total transport emission), followed by buses (0.5%), motorcycles 
(0.5%) and freight vans (6%). Cycling and walking account for 13% of urban pkm with no 
emissions; 

(2)  Interurban  and  regional  travel  (up  to  500  Km):  responsible  for  ~33%  of  emissions,  is 
mostly performed by cars (~29% of total transport emission), followed by planes (~2%) and 
motorcycles  (~1%).  Coaches  and  buses,  rail  and  inland  navigation  provide  all  together 
around 1%;  

(3)  Intra-EU  and  regional  freight  transport  (long  and  medium  distances):  responsible  for 
~23%  of  emissions,  is  mostly  carried  by  road  (about  19%  of  total  transport  emission), 
followed  by  maritime  (~2.5%)33,  and  inland  navigation  and  rail  which  contribute  together 
around 1.5%;  

(4)  Intercontinental  and  international  travel  (over  500  Km):  responsible  for  over  10%  of 
emissions, it is essentially performed by aviation; 

(5) Intercontinental freight transport: responsible for ~11% of emissions, it is dominated by 
maritime transport. 

Urban
freight
6%

Urban
travel
17%

Inter-
urban
freight
23%

Freight
40%

Share in
transport
emissions

Inter-
continental
freight
11%

Inter-
continental
travel 10%

Passengers
60%

Inter-
urban
travel
33%

Figure 2: Shares in EU Transport greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 (estimates). 

32 

33 

For the purpose of identifying opportunities for reducing GHG emissions from transport, the transport 
system  has  been  broken  down  into  five  broad  segments.  The  figures  are  rough  estimates  (~),  since 
precise data are not always available for these categories. 
Owing  to  lack  of  statistical  data,  the  split  of  CO2  emissions  from  maritime  between  intra-EU  and 
extra-EU is a tentative estimation bound by a high degree of uncertainty. A recent review by CE Delft 
showed that intra-EU CO2 emissions from  maritime could represent between 22% and 54% of total 
maritime  emissions.  (Source:  CE  Delft  (2009),  Technical  support  for  European  action  to  reducing 
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from international maritime transport). 

EN 

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37. 

38. 

39. 

40. 

41. 

Analysis  of  transport  emissions  data  shows  that  the  largest  source  is  passenger 
transport – in particular cars, which are responsible for approximately two-thirds of 
road transport emissions. However, while car emissions are declining, road freight 
emissions  are  still  increasing.  Another  challenge  –  in  a  more  forward-looking 
perspective  –  lies  in  air  and  maritime  transport,  which  are  foreseen  to  have  the 
highest  growth  rates  in  emissions  (150%  and  110%  over  1990  levels  respectively 
by 2050, compared to 13% for road transport in the Reference scenario). 

Transport  emissions  can  be  seen  as  the  product  of  three  broad  components: 
transport  activity  levels,  the  energy  intensity  of  transport  activity  and  the 
greenhouse  gas  intensity  of  the  energy  used  in  transport.  Deep  cuts  in  emissions 
will  require  acting  on  all  three  factors  as  it  is  unlikely  that  technological 
improvement alone will allow for the 60% reduction by 2050. 

Traffic volume has been the strongest driver of transport emissions. It is the other 
side  of  the  coin  of  market  integration  and  of  a  well  functioning  transport  system. 
Traffic  volumes  can  be  curbed  through  demand  management  instruments,  which 
should  not  become  an  impediment  to  economic  efficiency,  regional  cohesion  or 
freedom to travel, but rather a way of providing valuable alternatives to mobility. 

The  energy  efficiency  component  can  be  improved  by  using  the  most  efficient 
(combination of) modes and by improving the efficiency within each mode: this is 
the  idea  embedded  in  the  concept  of  co-modality34.  Improving  the  attractiveness 
(and  thus  modal  share)  of  the  most  efficient  modes,  deepening  modal  integration 
and improving load factors would all reduce energy use and are at the focus of the 
initiatives for the achievement of a Single Transport Area described in Part III. 

The  third  element  requires  action  on  the  GHG  intensity  of  the  energy  used  in 
transport.  The  low-carbon  fuel  standard  established  in  the  Fuel  Quality  Directive 
aims  to  start  this  process.  This  can  involve  either  adopting  lower  carbon  fuels  in 
existing engines or introducing new types of engine technologies that can use low-
carbon energy. Decarbonisation can only be ultimately achieved if alternative, low-
carbon  fuels  are  widely  used  by  ever  more  efficient  vehicles  together  with 
appropriate infrastructure and systems. 

3.3. 

Strong requirements for infrastructure investments 

42. 

The  cost  of  EU  infrastructure  that  would  be  required  to  match  the  demand  for 
transport is estimated at over € 1.5 trillion for 2010-2030. However, in the coming 
years  and  decades  there  will  be  an  increasing  difficulty  in  finding  the  means  for 
investing in transport infrastructure: 

–  an  ageing  society  implies  that  larger  amount  of  resources  will  be  absorbed  by 

social security expenditure; 

34 

The  concept  had  been  introduced  in  2006  in  the  Commission  document  “Keep  Europe  moving  – 
Sustainable  mobility  for  our  continent.  Mid-term  review  of  the  European  Commission’s  2001 
Transport  White  Paper”.  SEC(2006)768.  Co-modality  was  defined  as  the  efficient  use  of  different 
modes on their own and in combination.  

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–  the 2008-9 economic crisis has severely hit public budgets and private lending. It 

will leave a legacy of long consolidation processes; 

–  the introduction of vehicles powered by alternative fuels and the greater use of 
public transport will reduce revenues from excise duties on gasoline and diesel. 

43. 

44. 

These  developments  will  intensify  the  declining  trend  in  transport  infrastructure 
financing from government budget, which, before the financial crisis, was to some 
extent  compensated  by  an  increase  in  private  sector  financing.  The  financing  gap 
needs to be filled through combined efforts by the governments, the EU, financial 
institutions and through new capital markets models and new pricing mechanisms, 
such  as  congestion  pricing.  The  overall  funding  mechanism  needs  to  turn  more 
towards the ‘user pays’ principle. 

Poor  transport  infrastructure  is  an  impediment  to  the  economy.  Numerous  studies 
confirm the relationship between geographical accessibility and economic growth. 
In  particular,  a  recent  study35,  based  on  an  example  from  Germany,  shows  that 
connection  to  the  high  speed  rail  network  significantly  increases  the  economic 
growth rate of cities. 

3.4. 

The need for a new approach on mobility 

45. 

To conclude, business as usual is not a viable option: increasing transport costs for 
businesses  will  hamper  economic  growth,  the  tight  carbon  constraint  on  the  EU 
economy will not be kept, and citizens will be restricted in their individual mobility 
and impoverished by more expensive access to goods and services.  

35 

Ahlfeldt,  Gabriel  M.  and  Feddersen,  Arne  (2010)  From  periphery  to  core:  economic  adjustments  to 
high  speed  rail.  London  School  of  Economics  &  University  of  Hamburg.  (Unpublished), 
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk. 

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II – A vision for 2050: an integrated, sustainable and 
efficient mobility network  

1. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 

51. 

A GREAT OPPORTUNITY  

The global economy is ever more characterised by the emergence of new powerful 
players. The future prosperity of our continent will depend on the ability of all of its 
regions  to  remain  part  of  a  fully  integrated  world  economy.  Efficient  transport 
connections will be vital in making this happen. Curbing mobility is not an option.  

Preserving mobility will only be possible by making it sustainable. The European 
transport  system  has  developed  in  a  context  of  generally  cheap  oil,  expanding 
infrastructure,  technological  leadership  and  limited  environmental  constraints,  but 
now  has  to  adapt  to  different  framework  conditions.  The  projected  growth  of  the 
emerging  economies  and  of  world  population  is  bound  to  put  pressure  on  natural 
resources. As discussed in Part I, if no action is taken, transport will remain almost 
completely  dependent  on  oil  and  particularly  vulnerable  to  two  powerful  drivers: 
the  growing  imbalance  between  global  demand  and  supply  of  oil  and  the  need  to 
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 

Moving away from oil will be inevitable. This is not only a great challenge, but also 
an opportunity for rethinking the way mobility is organised in our society and for 
addressing  a  number  of  other  serious  and  yet  unresolved  concerns:  high  levels  of 
congestion,  noise  and  air  pollution  in  cities;  thousands  of  deaths  and  millions  of 
injuries  on  European  roads.  Equally  Europe’s  security  will  be  enhanced  by 
diversifying  away  from  a  dependence  on  oil  supplies  increasingly  from  unstable 
parts of the world. 

Moreover,  technological  challenge  also  provides  a  great  opportunity.  A  deep 
transformation  can  bring  about  considerable  progress  in  a transport  system  that  is 
otherwise  heading,  at  best,  for  only  marginal  improvements  in  efficiency.  Service 
levels  need  not  be  compromised  in  the  face  of  the  new  constraints.  Structural 
changes in transport can improve the quality of life and of the environment while at 
the same time preserving people’s freedom to travel and the competitiveness of EU 
industry. 

Transforming  transport  and  making  it  more  efficient,  cleaner,  safer  and  more 
reliable  will  not  be  possible  with  just  a  small  number  of  selected  interventions. 
Transport  is  a  complex  system  that  is  based  on  the  interaction  of  infrastructure, 
vehicles, information technology, rules and behaviour. All these elements must be 
part of a common vision for change. 

Solutions  that  are  impracticable  or  have  little  impact  if  adopted  by  only  few 
individuals  and  operators,  can  become  effective  if  they  are  at  the  heart  of  a  new 
system:  mass  production  can  lower  the  cost  of  clean  technologies;  the  frequency 
and  security  of  public  transport  will  increase  if  there  are  more  users;  sufficient 
volumes  can  justify  dedicated  freight  corridors  ensuring  more  reliable  transport; 

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52. 

53. 

54. 

55. 

more bicycles and fewer vehicles on the road make cycling more pleasant and less 
dangerous. 

A transformation of transport is also a great opportunity for vehicle and equipment 
manufacturing industry and for logistic operators, since other regions of the world 
will face similar constraints on resources, while global demand for mobility keeps 
growing.  The  best  technology  will  benefit  from  an  expanding  market  for  its 
commercialisation. 

Personal mobility and, notably, road transport are a global issue. The IEA36 projects 
the number of cars in the world to increase from around 750 million today to more 
than  2.2  billion  by  2050.  These  cars  would  have  to  be  much  cleaner  and  more 
efficient  than  today.  China  is  already  the  world  largest  car  market,  but  also  has  a 
programme  of  massive  investments  in  railways.  Being  capable  of  serving  these 
international  markets  will  be  crucial  for  the  EU  industry.  On  the  other  hand, 
delayed action and timid introduction of new technologies could condemn the EU 
transport industry to irreversible decline. 

More  generally,  the  ability  to  minimise  the  use  of  previously  abundant  resources 
will  be  the  key  to  future  competitiveness.  In  line  with  the  flagship  initiative 
“Resource  efficient  Europe”  set  up  in  the  Europe  2020  Strategy37,  the  paramount 
goal  of  European  transport  policy  is  to  help  establish  a  system  that  offers  high 
quality mobility services while using less resources. In practice, transport has to use 
less energy, cleaner energy and better exploit a modern infrastructure. 

The  following  sections  demonstrate  how  to  meet  those  challenges  while 
maintaining  the  balance  between  economic,  social  and  environmental  concerns. 
The  vision  inspires  the  strategy  of  European  Transport  Policy  in  the  coming 
decades  and  provides  the  basis  for  concrete  proposals  for  the  immediate  future. 
Naturally, it is based on today’s available information and understanding of likely 
technological developments. There will be inevitable surprises, but we must make 
many  choices  in  the  immediate  future  –  which  infrastructure  to  build,  which 
technology to invest in, what equipment to buy – which will have consequences for 
several decades to come and must be guided by a vision of the future: a ‘wait and 
see’ approach cannot be afforded. At the same time, given future uncertainties, it is 
important  to  ensure  that  policy  is  sufficiently  flexible  and  robust  to  cope  with 
unexpected developments.  

2. 

AN INTEGRATED VISION FOR THE VARIOUS TRANSPORT SEGMENTS 

2.1. 

Driving conventional cars and trucks out of the cities 

56. 

The  urban  context  poses  the  biggest  challenges  to  the  sustainability  of  transport. 
Cities  currently  suffer  the  most  from  congestion,  poor  air  quality  and  noise 
exposure.  Urban  transport  is  an  important  source  of  transport  emissions.  69%  of 

36 
37 

International Energy Agency (2010), Energy Technology Perspectives 2010. 
COM (2010) 2020, EUROPE 2020 A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. 

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57. 

58. 

59. 

60. 

61. 

38 
39 

40 

41 
42 
43 

road accidents occur in cities38. At the same time, the subsidiarity principle cautions 
for a careful approach at the European level. 

The  urban  dimension  will  become  even  more  important  as  the  percentage  of 
Europeans living in urban areas is projected to increase from 74% today to around 
85% in 205039. The design of sustainable cities is one of the greatest challenges of 
policy makers. 

Fortunately,  the  urban  environment  offers  many  alternatives  in  terms  of  mobility. 
Switching to cleaner energy is facilitated by the lower requirements for the range of 
vehicles40. Public transport choices are more widely available, as well as the option 
of  walking  and  cycling.  Demand  management  and  enlightened  land-use  planning 
can also contribute significantly to lower traffic volumes. 

Today, in Europe, cars are the most popular passenger mode41. The success of cars 
can  be  traced  back  to  their  multi-functionality:  they  provide  door-to-door,  always 
available  and  weather-proof  transport,  with  the  additional  benefits  of  privacy  and 
capability  of  covering  both  short  and  long  distances.  However  this  multi-
functionality  has  a  significant  drawback:  the  private  car  is  rarely  the  optimal 
transport  mode  to  use  from  an  energy  efficiency  perspective.  According  to  data 
from  the  UK42,  60%  of  cars  on  the  road  have  only  one  occupant.  The  percentage 
grows to approximately 85% for commuting and business trips. 

In the coming decades, owing to lack of urban space and increasing costs of energy 
and  infrastructure  use,  travel  should  not  continue  to  be  centred  on  multi-purpose 
vehicles  that  typically  run  under-utilized.  Smaller,  lighter  and  more  specialised 
passenger vehicles are likely to become widespread. Large or long-range vehicles 
will increasingly be used only when these characteristics are needed. 

In  urban  areas,  walking  and  cycling,  together  with  public  transport,  often  provide 
better  alternatives  not  only  in  terms  of  emissions,  but  also  of  speed43:  they  could 
readily substitute the large share of trips which cover less than 5km. In addition to 
lowering  greenhouse  gas  emissions,  they  bring  major  benefits  in  terms  of  better 
health, lower air pollution and noise emissions, less need for road space and lower 
energy  use.  Accordingly,  facilitating  walking  and  cycling  should  become  an 
integral part of urban mobility and infrastructure design. 

Source: European Road Safety Observatory – Care database – 2009 data. 
United  Nations,  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs/Population  Division  (2009),  World 
urbanisation prospects – The 2009 revision, http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm 
Recent trial of electric vehicles in the UK revealed that the average daily mileage of users is 23 miles 
(37 km). http://www.cabled.org.uk/ 
Passenger cars carried out 82% of all passenger transport on land measured in pkm.  
United Kingdom Department for Transport, 2008, Transport Trends: 2008 edition. 
The recent feasibility study for a central London cycle hire scheme considered that cycling is time-
competitive with all other modes over distances up to 8km.  
http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/businessandpartners/cycle-hire-scheme-feasibility-full-report-
nov2008.pdf.  
A web based quantitative study amongst both cyclists and non cyclists undertaken in 2006 also found 
that speed is perceived to be one of the main positive ‘drivers’ of cycling to work in Central London. 
Source: TfL, 2008, Cycling in London. 

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62. 

63. 

64. 

65. 

44 

45 

46 

47 

Public transport has to gain a higher share than today in the transport mix, become 
easily accessible for everyone and fully integrated with non-motorised modes. The 
use  of  integrated  electronic  tickets  and  smart  cards  can  provide  public  transport 
operators and authorities with real time statistical data on users’ behaviour. While 
respecting legislation on personal data protection, this information can be used both 
to optimise the planning of the service and to design marketing strategies aimed at 
increasing the use of public transportation. 

Public transport could also be boosted by a wider range of options, some based on 
existing concepts (trolleybuses) or on new ways of operating the service (Bus Rapid 
Transit44;  use  of  smaller  buses  outside  rush  hours;  ‘transport-on-demand’  through 
advance reservation systems). Information on the available choices and the ability 
to purchase tickets is being revolutionised through personal mobile communication 
devices.  Perceived  waiting  times45  can  be  drastically  reduced,  eliminating  the 
uncertainty  and  frustration  of  not  knowing  when  the  next  bus  or  train  will  arrive. 
The higher share of travel by collective transport can allow increasing the density 
and  frequency  of  service  and  the  reinforcement  of  urban-rural  links,  thereby 
generating a virtuous circle for collective transport modes. 

In Europe, an important factor is the ‘greying of the population’, which will require 
transport  services  to  be  adapted  to  an  increasingly  ageing  population.  Elderly 
people, aged 65 or more, will account for 29% of the total population by 2050 as 
opposed  to  17%  today.  Around  one  in  six  people  in  the  EU  has  a  disability46,47. 
Quality,  reliability,  security  and  accessibility,  notably  for  persons  with  reduced 
mobility, safety of public transport will be essential to the greater uptake of public 
transport. 

For  many,  personal  transport  will  however  remain  the  only  alternative  due  to  the 
complexity  of  their  daily  journey.  Using  more  fuel-efficient  vehicles  will  be  a 
necessity.  Reducing  the  weight  and  size  of  cars  will  be  crucial  for  saving  energy 
under  stop/start  city  traffic  conditions  and  for  reasons  of  space  –  but  lightweight 
downsized vehicles can introduce safety compatibility issues with large vehicles, so 
collision  avoidance,  guidance  systems  and  partial  segregation  may  be  needed. 
These will also help elderly drivers. 

Bus Rapid Transit is public transport service operated by buses, typically on dedicated lanes with high 
frequency and longer stop spacing. 
Research suggests that passengers perceive waiting times to be greater than actual waiting times at a 
bus  stop,  and  therefore  real-time  passenger  information  systems  could  potentially  reduce  the 
perceived waiting time for buses when providing accurate information. Source: Mishalani et al. 2006. 
Passenger Wait Time Perceptions at Bus Stops, Journal of Public Transportation. Vol. 9, No. 2, 2006 
pp.89-106. 
European  Commission,  DG  Economic  and  Financial  Affairs:  2009  Ageing  Report:  Economic  and 
budgetary projections for the EU-27 Member States (2008-2060). EUROPEAN ECONOMY 2|2009, 
http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/publication14992_en.pdf.  The  “baseline”  scenario 
of this report has been established by the DG Economic and Financial Affairs, the Economic Policy 
Committee,  with  the  support  of  Member  States  experts,  and  has  been  endorsed  by  the  ECOFIN 
Council. 
European Commission, DG Employment: People with disabilities have equal rights – The European 
Disability Strategy 2010-2020, 
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=738&langId=en&pubId=591&type=2&furtherPubs=no 

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66. 

67. 

68. 

69. 

70. 

71. 

New  engines  using  cleaner  energy  sources  should  help  to  reduce  GHG  emissions 
while  contributing  to  other  goals.  Everyday  commuting  or  shopping  trips  do  not 
require the extended range that some new technologies are still unable to offer, and 
captive fleets of urban buses, taxis and delivery vans are particularly suitable for the 
introduction  of  alternative  propulsion  systems  and  fuels.  These  could  make  a 
substantial  contribution  in  reducing  the  carbon  intensity  of  urban  transport  while 
providing  a  test  bed  for  new  technologies  and  opportunity  for  early  market 
deployment.  

Finally,  town  planning,  access  regulation  including  Low  Emission  Zones,  stricter 
controls  on  parking,  pricing  policies  and  alternative  forms  of  accessibility 
(eGovernment,  tele-working,  etc)  could  significantly  influence  mobility  choice. 
Town planning and appropriate governance, at the level of functional urban areas, 
are  crucial.  They  should  aim  at  the  creation  of  compact  cities,  favouring  good 
coordination  between  transport  planning,  brown  field  regeneration  and  new 
settlements.  The  use  of  standard  technologies  (for  example  for  electronic  tolling) 
and  of  common  criteria  (for  example  on  the  type  of  vehicles  that  are  admitted  in 
Low  Emission  Zones)  would  help  reduce  production  costs  and  facilitate  users’ 
compliance. 

As  regards  freight  transport,  cities  will  have  to  better  exploit  the  potential  for 
optimising urban logistics. This can be achieved through a change in the planning 
and  organisation  of  the  urban  transport  system,  the  widespread  deployment  of 
alternative  vehicles  and  propulsion  systems  and  the  full  use  of  the  potential  of 
modern information technologies. 

The  interface  between  long  distance  and  last  mile  transport  could  be  organised 
more  efficiently  by  the  consolidation  of  freight  at  multimodal  logistics  centres 
located  on  the  outskirts  of  cities,  possibly  coupled  with  distribution  centres  and 
collection points within the city. The aim is to limit individual deliveries, the most 
‘inefficient’ part of the journey, to the shortest possible route. Companies may need 
to  share  their  loads  in  an  effort  to  reduce  empty  and  inefficient  runs.  Information 
technology would assist similar practices with better cargo and travel planning and 
tracking and tracing capability.  

The last mile delivery could be performed with smaller and cleaner trucks. The use 
of  new  engines  and  energy  carriers  –  electric,  hydrogen  and  hybrids  –  will 
necessarily  be  part  of  the  strategy  to  reduce  the  carbon  intensity  of  city  logistics. 
New engines would also have the advantage of silent operation, allowing a greater 
portion of freight transport within the urban areas to take place at night time. This 
would  ease  the  problem  of  road  congestion  during  morning  and  afternoon  peak 
hours. 

Altogether, urban transport is where there is the largest scope for a different type of 
mobility and for abatement of emissions. Estimates suggest that emissions of urban 
passenger  transport  could  be  reduced  by  up  to  88%48  relative  to  a  scenario  at 
unchanged  policies  through  a  combination  of  measures  related  to  fuel  efficiency 

48 

Source:  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  on  Transport  “A  Roadmap  to  a  Single  European 
Transport Area”.  

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standards  (44%  reduction),  decarbonising  energy  supply  (42%  reduction),  spatial 
planning and shift to slow modes and to public transport (2% reduction). 

72. 

Whereas  each  city  would  have  its  own  preferred  strategy  for  the  substitution  of 
conventional  petrol  and  diesel  vehicles  –  with  different  emphasis  on  soft  modes, 
public  transport  and  clean  vehicles  –  their  gradual  phase  out  and  eventual 
elimination from the urban environment is the necessary ingredient of any strategy 
aiming at a significant reduction of oil dependence and greenhouse gas emissions. 
Interoperable  technologies  and  technical  standards  would  be  needed  to  avoid 
fragmentation  and  loss  of  scale  economies,  whilst  respecting  the  subsidiarity 
principle. Action by Member States and at local level is crucial.  

2.2.  Multimodal interurban travel 

73. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

Approximately  63%  of  car  emissions  relate  to  travel  on  non-urban  roads  and 
motorways,  representing  73%  of  total  car  travel  on  passenger-kilometre  basis49. 
Non-urban road travel is also the responsible for the most fatalities, i.e. 61% of the 
total50. This is also a major segment of activity for railways (both conventional and 
high-speed)  and  coaches,  which  provide  a  safer  and  cleaner  way  of  moving  over 
medium and long distances. 

In  the  future,  more  efficient  vehicles,  new  engines  and  a  wider  use  of  renewable 
energy  in  power  generation  will  enhance  the  performance  of  all  modes.  Aviation 
can improve through greater recourse to new generation medium-sized aircraft for 
regional flights, better air traffic management and possibly biofuels.  

There  is  also  scope  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  rail  locomotives.  Further 
electrification of railway lines would have to be considered. At present, 50% of the 
EU  rail  network  and  80%  of  passenger  traffic  is  electrified51.  Where  further 
electrification  is  not  economically  viable,  more  efficient  locomotives  and  other 
alternatives to diesel traction (e.g. biofuels, hydrogen) may offer routes to reducing 
air pollutant and GHG emissions.  

For road vehicles, range issues mean that the ability for some new technologies to 
play a role in this segment is more limited. Nevertheless, it is estimated that up to 
30% reduction in CO2 emissions for passenger cars could be achieved with current 
technology,  and  there  is  more  potential  from  further  technological  development 
including greater electrification of propulsion systems. Downsizing of cars can also 
play an important role in ensuring the same level of mobility in this segment with 
lower energy consumption and GHG emissions. Finally, better traffic management 
can also contribute to better energy use. 

77. 

Technological improvements across modes can be expected to save energy and to 
cut  emissions  per  passenger-kilometre  by  up  to  90%  in  2050  in  interurban  and 

49 
50 
51 

Source: PRIMES-TREMOVE and TREMOVE transport models. 
Source: European Road Safety Observatory – Care database – 2009 data. 
Community of European Railway and Infrastructure Companies (2010), A closer look at the railways: 
Annual Report 2009-2010; http://www.cer.be/media/2011_CER_2009-2010_Annual_Report.pdf 

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regional  travel  (up  to  500  km)52.  However,  this  will  not  solve  the  problem  of 
travel  volumes, 
congestion,  which  would  worsen  with 
notwithstanding the introduction of advanced traffic management technologies.  

the  growth 

in 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

82. 

More sustainable and efficient interurban travel also requires a systematic choice in 
favour  of  the  most  efficient  mode  among  the  public  and  private  transport  means. 
Despite progress in all modes, their relative position in terms of energy efficiency is 
unlikely to change, owing to their intrinsic characteristics53, so in order to achieve 
further  energy  savings  and  emission  reductions  in  interurban  passenger  transport, 
coaches and railways will need to take a greater share in traffic, partly substituting 
cars and planes. The creation of the Single European Railway Area is essential to 
this purpose.  

Regional  aviation  would  remain  a  sensible  option  for  peripheral  areas  that  do  not 
have  high  traffic  volumes  or  alternative  connections,  but  in  other  cases  rail  could 
offer  a  better  alternative  for  journeys  of  up  to  3-4  hours.  Increasing  use  of  high 
speed  lines  mean  rail  should  be  competitive  over  much  greater  distances.  High 
Speed Rail could undertake some 176 billion more passenger kilometres by 2050, 
relative  to  2005,  outpacing  the  increase  in  aviation  (some  67  billion  passenger 
kilometres) for journeys below 1,000 km54. But high load factors are essential: the 
environmental performance of an empty train is very poor. 

Promoting  better  modal  choices  will  require  greater  integration  of  the  modal 
networks: airports, ports, railway, metro and bus stations, car hire spots and parking 
areas,  should  increasingly  be  merged  and  conceived  as  multimodal  connection 
platforms for passengers. 

Better  modal  choices  will  also  have  to  be  guided  by  prices  that  reflect  all  costs 
associated to transport. This is a necessary development also in view of the funding 
needs of transport. Road users would need to become accustomed to paying for the 
they  generate.  An 
infrastructure 
interoperable system for electronic tolling – associated with or relying on a single 
open  in-vehicle  platform  for  all  applications  –  should  ideally  become  available  in 
all vehicles. 

the  negative  externalities 

they  use  and 

Preparing ahead of a journey should become easier, and travelling simpler. Online 
travel planners can provide passengers with complete door-to-door information in a 
concise and easy-to-understand manner. Passenger online information and booking 
systems  including  electronic  payment  and,  possibly,  integrated  ticket  or  payment 
systems  for  all  means  of  transport  will  facilitate  journeys  comprising  different 
modes.  Real  time  information  could  be  instantly  provided  in  case  of  delays  or 
disruptions expected to occur on the remaining legs of the journey.  

52 

53 

54 

Source:  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  on  Transport  “A  Roadmap  to  a  Single  European 
Transport Area”. 
Airplanes have to spend extra energy to keep airborne. Cars have a larger frontal area per person than 
coaches,  which  matters  over  long distances  where  most  energy  is  used  to  win  air  resistance.  Trains 
have an even smaller frontal area per person and the additional advantage of low rolling resistance. 
Source:  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  on  Transport  “A  Roadmap  to  a  Single  European 
Transport Area”. 

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83. 

84. 

85. 

An  aged  society  will  demand  transport  services  that  are  safe,  secure,  comfortable 
and user-friendly. In the transport system of the future, it would the possible to limit 
the occurrence of accidents to close to zero. This can be achieved by the universal 
application  of  Intelligent  Transport  Systems 
that  will  enable  ubiquitous 
communication  between  infrastructure  and  vehicles,  and  among  the  vehicles. 
Automatic  collision  avoidance  systems  on-board  vehicles  can  minimize  the 
probability of collision also with pedestrians, cyclists or objects. 

When  travelling  across  the  EU,  citizens  should  be  able  to  take  advantage  of 
common general principles of passenger rights applied in all transport modes. In the 
occurrences  of  major  delays  or  trip  cancellations,  they  should  benefit  from 
protection  of  their  rights  including  appropriate  compensations.  Better  and  more 
integrated  modal  choices  and  Intelligent  Transport  Systems  are  likely  to  facilitate 
the  transfer,  exchange  and  sharing  of  the  personal  information  relating  to 
passengers.  As  a  consequence,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ensure  data  protection  and 
transparency in relation to all such processing of personal data. 

In conclusion, there is ample margin for organising intra-EU travel in a safer and 
cleaner  way  (83%  CO2  emissions  reduction  relative  to  a  scenario  at  unchanged 
policies by 2050), mostly through decarbonising energy supply (45%) and energy 
saving technologies (35%). 

2.3. 

A green and efficient freight core network 

86. 

87. 

88. 

89. 

55 

56 

Intra-EU  freight  transport  is  mostly  carried  by  trucks  (47.3%),  followed  by 
seagoing  ships  (37.8%),  rail  (11.2%)  and  inland  waterways  (3.7%)55.  Trucks 
dominate  inland  EU  freight  transport  with  a  76.1%  share  of  the  tonne-kilometres 
and  about  94%  of  the  CO2  emissions.  Air  cargo  has,  by  comparison,  a  marginal 
share of volumes, although it carries a significant share of value56.  

One of the great challenges for transport is to reduce the environmental impact of 
intra-EU  freight  transport  without  sacrificing  its  efficiency.  The  key  to  efficient 
transport is the consolidation of large volumes for transfer over long distances, in 
between  the  so-called  first  and  last  miles.  Waterborne  and  rail  transport  are 
particularly suited for this, as is seen elsewhere in the world. While encouraging the 
use  of  the  most  efficient  solution  in  all  distances,  it  is  above  some  300  km  that  a 
significant  rebalancing  should  take  place,  with  30%  of  road  freight  shifting  to 
multimodal solutions by 2030, and more than 50% by 2050. 

These long-hauls could use specially developed freight corridors optimised in terms 
of  energy  use  and  emissions,  but  also  attractive  to  operators  for  their  reliability, 
limited congestion and low operating and administrative costs.  

These corridors would represent the freight part of a ‘core network’ or backbone of 
the  EU  transport  system.  They  would  link  major  urban  centres  and  ports,  and 
integrate regular services on sea, on rail freight lines and on inland waterways, plus 

For air and sea: only domestic and intra-EU-27 transport is included (Source: European Commission 
(2010), EU Energy and Transport in Figures). 
Data on the value of goods carried by air exist only for exchanges with third countries, where aviation 
accounts for 0.6% of the total volume, but for 22% of the total value. 

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road transport assisted by traffic management tools, capability for alternative fuels 
and  multi-modal  hubs.  Such  corridors  would  need  to  offer  simplification  of 
administrative procedures, optimisation of schedules to cargo tracking and tracing. 
The  administrative  burden 
transport  should, 
accordingly, be considerably reduced. Formalities related to the transport of goods 
could be performed only once – independent of the number of transhipments – and 
electronically. 

to  multimodal  freight 

linked 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

An  efficient  management  of  intra-EU  freight  flows  cannot  be  fully  achieved 
without the removal of obstacles of administrative or regulatory nature. Full market 
opening would have to be accompanied by uniform enforcement of common safety, 
security,  environmental  and  social  legislation.  The  systematic  exchange  of 
information between national supervisory authorities would allow a smooth follow-
up after the detection of an infringement, ensuring an effective, non discriminatory 
and dissuasive enforcement policy across the whole EU territory. 

Removing barriers to market entry and modal integration would strengthen the role 
of  multinational  and  multimodal  logistic  operators.  Users  would  have  a  wider 
choice among transport services and their providers. 

Multimodal  transport  would  have  a  greater  role  in  long  distance  freight  transport 
(over some 300 km), but the large part of the shipments that take place over short 
and  medium  distances57  would  mostly  remain  on  trucks.  In  view  of  this,  it  is 
important  to  improve  their  efficiency,  for  example  through  enabling  better 
aerodynamic  performance,  and  to  encourage  development  and  the  uptake  of  new 
engines and cleaner fuels.  

The  use  of  sustainable  biofuels  would  reduce  the  emissions  from  road  freight 
transport. By 2050, biofuels could represent around 40% of energy consumption in 
long  distance  road  freight,  where  electrification  has  a  lower  potential.  However 
producing these biofuels so as to achieve significant levels of GHG savings remains 
challenging.  Road  infrastructure  may  in  the  future  be  equipped  with  automatic 
guidance  systems.  This  technique  would  save  energy  as  well  as  minimise 
congestion and accidents. 

Some containerised freight transport could be shifted to inland waterways and short 
sea shipping where there is still spare capacity. The energy efficiency of the vessels 
would  be  improved.  Switching  to  alternative  fuels  such  as  liquefied  natural  gas 
offers some GHG reduction potential as well as air pollution benefits.  

Considerable  investment  would  be  needed  to  expand  the  capacity  of  the  rail 
network.  Rail  freight  may  grow  by  an  additional  360  billion  tonne-kilometres  by 
2050,  that  is,  an  87%  increase  relative  to  200558.  Rather  than  building  new  lines, 
much can be achieved with an upgrade of the existing network by increasing speed 
(in  particular  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  EU),  deploying  ERTMS,  creating  city 
bypasses,  establishing  sidings  and  terminals  allowing  for  1,000  m  trains,  and 

57 

58 

More than half of all goods (in terms of weight) in road transport are moved over distances below 50 
km and more than three quarters over distances below 150 km. 
Source:  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  on  Transport  “A  Roadmap  to  a  Single  European 
Transport Area”. 

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widening the loading gauge on main corridors. New rolling stock with silent brakes 
and automatic couplings should gradually be introduced. 

2.4. 

Improving the door-to-door experience in long-distance travel 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 

100. 

Air  transport  is  the  only  transport  mode  that  is  capable  of  competitive 
intercontinental  passenger  transport.  At  the  moment,  there  are  no  practical 
alternatives in sight for these long distances. 

Currently,  European  airlines  carry  about  30%  of  worldwide  air  passengers.  The 
geographic position of Europe allows the European air transport system not only to 
connect Europe’s citizens and businesses with the rest of the world, but also to be 
an air transport hub for the traffic between other regions of the world. 

In the future, the importance of air transport will continue to grow. EU air transport 
activity  would  more  than  double  between  2005  and  2050  (some  120%  increase). 
For medium distance travel (below 1,000 km) High Speed Rail would increasingly 
compete  with  aviation  (though  for  low  traffic  inter-regional  routes  small  aircraft 
may  retain  an  advantage),  so  almost  all  the  increase  (90%  by  2050)  in  the  air 
transport activity would originate from journeys above 1,000 km59. 

In aviation, the growth of transport can be reconciled with ambitious environmental 
objectives  through  the  inclusion  of  aviation  in  the  EU  ETS,  the  Single  European 
Sky, SESAR and the Clean Sky project.  

In order to face rising competition and to maintain its position as a global platform 
for  passenger  and  cargo  transport,  Europe  will  need  to  invest  in  airport  and  other 
infrastructure  capacity.  Modern  air  traffic  control  technologies  are  foreseen  to 
increase  flight  capacity  and  safety.  Existing  intercontinental  hubs  should  be 
provided  with  the  necessary  infrastructure  and  technology  upgrades  to  absorb 
volumes much higher than today. All major airports should be linked to the railway 
network, preferably high speed. Efficient connection to closest urban centres must 
be ensured with adequate rail and bus services. By reinforcing and developing the 
safety record of European aviation, flying to, from and via Europe will continue to 
be an attractive component of global airline travel. 

101. 

Travel  time  optimisation  should  also  take  into  consideration  pre-  and  post-flight 
time in an effort to improve the overall door-to-door travel experience. With the use 
of modern and passenger friendly technologies the hassle associated with personal 
security screening should be reduced to the minimum. Integrated travel information 
will allow passengers to check at any time and place the status of their flight and 
adapt travel arrangements. 

102. 

In this vision, long haul air transport continues to grow substantially. The impact of 
planes on the climate will have to be reduced in line with EU CO2 reduction goals. 
Fuel burned per seat in today’s new aircrafts is 70% less than that of early jets60. 

59 

60 

Source:  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  on  Transport  “A  Roadmap  to  a  Single  European 
Transport Area”. 
Intergovernmental  Panel  on  Climate  Change.  1999.  Special  Report  on  Aviation  and  the  Global 
Atmosphere. Section 9.2.2 

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Recent  reports  indicate  that  technology  innovation  could  lead  to  fuel  efficiency 
improvements compared to today of the order 35-45% by 2025 and 60% by 2050. 
More  efficient  air  traffic  management  (ATM)  and  operations  could  contribute  an 
additional  reduction  of  between  6  and  13%  per  flight  by  202061.  The  remaining 
energy  needs  of  future  aircrafts  will  be  covered  with  renewable  energy  such  as 
second and third generation biofuels. 

2.5. 

A global level-playing field for intercontinental freight 

103. 

In intercontinental freight transport, the vast majority of goods by volume is carried 
by sea. This is unlikely to change in the coming decades: intercontinental trade will 
continue to rely almost exclusively on maritime transport, which will continue to be 
a global business. The challenge for Europe is two-fold: reduce negative impacts of 
transport by promoting quality shipping while maintaining and possibly extending 
market shares of EU operators. Progressing towards these goals requires first of all 
a  global  level-playing  field  with  common  rules  and  high  standards  that  are 
universally applied and enforced on a flag neutral basis. 

104.  Maritime  standards  are  developed  and  agreed  through  international  organisations 
and bilateral or multilateral negotiations with international partners. EU-level action 
will focus on proposing new ideas, developing common EU positions and voicing 
these positions in a uniform way.  

105. 

106. 

107. 

108. 

By  2050,  the  entry  points  into  European  markets  will  multiply.  Certain  ports  will 
develop  or  become  major  intercontinental  hubs  along  the  northern  and  southern 
coastlines,  avoiding  at  the  same  time  unnecessary  traffic  crossing  Europe.  A 
possible  melting  of  the  sea-ice  in  parts  of  the  Arctic  Sea  may  open  up  new  and 
shorter  shipping  routes  to  the  Pacific.  As  a  consequence,  Arctic  ports  in  Norway 
and possibly Russia may become new gateways into continental Europe. 

The role of international hubs has to be seen also in a context of increased use of 
Short  Sea  Shipping  for  intra-EU  freight  transport.  Ports  have  a  major  role  as 
logistics centres and require efficient multimodal connections. 

Although  maritime  is  on  average  the  best  performing  mode  in  terms  of  GHG 
emissions per tonne-km, the increasing volumes of emissions cannot be neglected: 
by 2050, the activity level is projected to double, and intra and extra-EU maritime 
taken together would represent about 24% of all transport emissions. 

There is substantial scope to improve the environmental record of shipping through 
both technology and better operation. A report62 commissioned by the International 
Maritime  Organisation  assessed  the  potential  reduction  of  CO2  by  using  known 
technologies and practices – excluding the use of low-carbon fuels – in the range of 
58% to 75% by 2050, depending on the ship type. A recent report by IEA deems 

http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_sr/?src=/Climate/ipcc/aviation/index.htm 
61 

For  the  European  airspace,  total  savings  due  to  improved  en-route  design  and  flight  planning 
represented approximately 36,000 tonnes of fuel in 2009, corresponding to 120,000 tonnes of CO2. 
Eurocontrol (2009), Performance Review Report. 
Buhaug,  Ø.  et  al.  2009.  Second IMO GHG  study  2009;  International  Maritime  Organization  (IMO) 
London, UK. http://www.ce.nl/publicatie/second_imo_ghg_study_2009/941  

62 

EN 

31 

   EN 

 
                                                                                                                                                      
109. 

110. 

3. 

111. 

112. 

113. 

114. 

115. 

feasible to reduce CO2 emissions in shipping by up to 40% per tonne-km by 2030 
and by up to 60% per tonne km in 205063. 

The  use  of  low  GHG  biofuels,  projected  at  some  40%  of  the  maritime  bunker 
fuels64,  can  add  to  the  energy  efficiency  gains.  Overall,  the  emissions  from 
maritime bunker fuels could be cut by 40% by 2050 compared to 2005 levels. 

Apart from CO2 emissions, maritime transport will also have to address problems 
linked to air pollution. LNG and biogas have the potential for replace bunker fuels 
as  major  energy  source,  in  particular  for  short  sea  shipping.  Renewable  energy 
(wind and solar) or fuel cells could be used for propulsion and for running onboard 
equipment. 

PUTTING  IT  ALL  TOGETHER:  FEATURES  AND  ADVANTAGES  OF  A  NEW  MOBILITY 
CONCEPT 

The  well-being  of  people  and  the  competitiveness  of  businesses  in  Europe  will 
continue to depend on the ability to access opportunities using an efficient transport 
system.  Surveys  on  business  investments  consistently  indicate  good  transport 
connections as one of the most relevant criteria in the decision over the localisation 
of  an  economic  activity.  Similarly,  a  well  performing  transport  system  features 
prominently among the characteristics of cities that are ranked high in the surveys 
on quality of life.  

Clean  engines  and  alternative  fuels  will  constitute  a  decisive  factor  in  making 
mobility  less  polluting  and  less  dependant  on  oil,  contributing  at  least  half  of 
overall GHG emission cuts in transport. The technological race for clean vehicles is 
a global one and remaining a frontrunner is vital for the EU manufacturing industry. 

Clean  fuels  would  not  address  all  challenges  and  their  use  will  have  to  be 
reconciled  with  resource  efficiency  constraints.  Vehicles  must  also  become  more 
energy  efficient:  using  less  energy  will  be  equally  important  as  using  cleaner 
energy.  

It will be necessary to optimise each journey with respect to energy use through a 
generalised  increase  of  load  factors,  a  systematic  utilisation  of  the  most  efficient 
mode and more integrated approaches to land-use and transport planning. 

The modal mix has to be better adapted to the particular needs of each journey and, 
in the case of passengers, to the overall travel experience. This will only be possible 
in  a  system  that  is  highly  integrated,  and  that  is  based  on  a  continuous  and 
ubiquitous exchange of information. The use of information technology to optimise 

63 

64 

The  emission  reductions  result  from  a  combination  of:  improved  new  build  vessel  designs  (30%); 
improved maintenance and technical retrofit (20%); and operational improvements (40%). IEA, 2009, 
Transport, Energy and CO2. Moving Toward Sustainability. Chapter 8. 
http://www.iea.org/w/bookshop/add.aspx?id=365 
Source:  Impact  Assessment  on  the  White  Paper  on  Transport  “A  Roadmap  to  a  Single  European 
Transport Area”. 

EN 

32 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
116. 

117. 

118. 

all  aspects  of  personal  travel  and  freight  transport  is  likely  to  become  one  of  the 
most distinctive traits of future transport systems. 

Consolidation  of  volumes  entails  greater  use  of  buses,  rail  and  air  transport  for 
people  and  wider  recourse  to  waterborne  and  rail  transport  for  freight.  In  both 
cases,  speed  might  be  traded  in  exchange  for  reliability  and  lower  costs.  For 
passengers,  the  use  of  high  quality  collective  transport  might  also  represent  an 
opportunity to better exploit travel time. 

Private cars will still represent a popular way of getting around, but would be used 
more moderately and account for a lower percentage of journeys. With appropriate 
pricing  of  infrastructure  and  of  externalities,  driving  a  car  would  cost  more,  but 
drivers would get a better service in terms of non-congested roads, easier parking 
and  safer  travel.  For  urban  transport,  innovative  solutions  such  as  Personal  Rapid 
Transit  and  ultra-compact  autonomous  electric  networked  vehicles  may  provide 
cost-effective,  emissions-free  individual  transport  –  especially  for  urban  journeys 
that on public transport would require several changes. 

The  problem  of  congestion  will  not  disappear  through  the  introduction  of  cleaner 
engines  and  fuels  alone.  A  better  integration  of  all  modes  of  transport  in  a  truly 
multimodal  vision,  together  with  more  extensive  use  of  information  and 
communication technologies will not only allow greater energy efficiency, but will 
also  be  the  key  to  a  more  efficient  exploitation  of  the  transport  network.  The 
transport  system  is  likely  to  evolve  towards  the  model  of  the  telecommunication 
sector,  where  multinational  operators  provide  their  services  over  a  network  that 
integrates seamlessly different technologies (Fibre optics, Satellite, ADSL, WiFi…) 
adapted  to  different  circumstances,  while  ensuring  guaranteed  service  level  and 
notably guaranteed availability. 

119. 

An integrated transport system where logistic operators provide a wide spectrum of 
services  and  seek  skilled  professionals  would  also  create  favourable  opportunities 
for  workers.  Convergence  in  social  conditions  will  allow  to  base  competition  on 
service  quality  and  resource  efficiency  rather  than  on  the  minimisation  of  labour 
costs. 

120.  Modal integration will call for more investment in infrastructure and for integrated 
management of cross-border and multi-modal infrastructure. This development can 
already be observed along certain freight corridors. Infrastructure managers would 
have to increasingly consider their business in the context of a multimodal network 
that  has 
to  serve  multiple  service  providers.  Greater  separation  between 
infrastructure  managers  and  service  providers  could  contribute  to  more  efficient 
network exploitation, but appropriate incentives for investment need to be ensured. 

121. 

122. 

In  parallel,  an  increasing  separation  between  passenger  and  freight  traffic  can  be 
expected,  which  would  facilitate  the  optimisation  of  traffic  flows  with  different 
needs and characteristics. 

Greater efficiency can offset growing congestion costs. Less private traffic on the 
roads would particularly benefit freight. Personal mobility would also be enhanced 
by  greater  quality  and  availability  of  public  transport.  This  would  also  reduce 
accidents, noise and improve air quality. 

EN 

33 

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123. 

To  develop  consistently  with  this  vision,  the  transport  system  will  have  to  reach 
certain goals in terms of deployment of sustainable fuels and propulsion systems, in 
terms of optimisation of logistic chains and modal choices and in terms of efficient 
exploitation of the network. The box below presents ten such goals, which should 
be  interpreted  as  benchmarks,  guiding  policy  action  and  helping  assess  progress 
towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system.  

Developing and deploying new and sustainable fuels and propulsion systems 

(1) 

(2) 

Halve  the  use  of  ‘conventionally-fuelled65’  cars  in  urban  transport  by  2030;  phase 
them out in cities by 2050; achieve essentially CO2-free city logistics in major urban 
centres by 203066. 

Low-carbon sustainable fuels in aviation to reach 40% by 2050; also by 2050 reduce 
EU CO2 emissions from maritime bunker fuels by 40% (if feasible 50%67). 

Optimising  the  performance  of  multimodal  logistic  chains,  including  by  making 
greater use of more energy-efficient modes 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

30%  of  road  freight  over  300  km  should  shift  to  other  modes  such  as  rail  or 
waterborne  transport  by  2030,  and  more  than  50%  by  2050,  facilitated  by  efficient 
and  green  freight  corridors.  To  meet  this  goal  will  also  require  appropriate 
infrastructure to be developed. 

By  2050,  complete  a  European  high-speed  rail  network.  Triple  the  length  of  the 
existing high-speed rail network by 2030 and maintain a dense railway network in all 
Member States. By 2050 the majority of medium-distance passenger transport should 
go by rail. 

A fully functional and EU-wide multimodal TEN-T ‘core network’ by 2030, with a 
high  quality  and  capacity  network  by  2050  and  a  corresponding  set  of  information 
services. 

By 2050, connect all core network airports to the rail network, preferably high-speed; 
ensure that all core seaports are sufficiently connected to the rail freight and, where 
possible, inland waterway system. 

Increasing  the  efficiency  of  transport  and  of  infrastructure  use  with  information 
systems and market-based incentives  

(7) 

Deployment  of  the  modernised  air  traffic  management  infrastructure  (SESAR68)  in 
Europe  by  2020  and  completion  of  the  European  Common  Aviation  Area. 
Deployment  of  equivalent  land  and  waterborne  transport  management  systems 

65 

66 
67 

The  term  ‘conventionally  fuelled’  refers  to  vehicles  using  non-hybrid,  internal  combustion  engines 
(ICE). 
This would also substantially reduce other harmful emissions. 
Cf. Commission Communication “A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 
2050”, COM (2011)112. 
In accordance with the European ATM Master plan: 

68 
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air/sesar/deployment_en.htm 

EN 

34 

   EN 

 
                                                 
(ERTMS69,  ITS70,  SSN  and  LRIT71,  RIS72).  Deployment  of  the  European  Global 
Navigation Satellite System (Galileo). 

(8) 

(9) 

By 2020, establish the framework for a European multimodal transport information, 
management and payment system. 

By 2050, move close to zero fatalities in road transport. In line with this goal, the EU 
aims at halving road casualties by 2020. Make sure that the EU is a world leader in 
safety and security of transport in all modes of transport. 

(10)  Move  towards  full  application  of  “user  pays”  and  “polluter  pays”  principles  and 
private  sector  engagement  to  eliminate  distortions,  including  harmful  subsidies, 
generate revenues and ensure financing for future transport investments. 

124. 

The following “Part III –  Strategy: Policies to steer change”  of  the  White  Paper 
identifies the initiatives that could facilitate the achievement of these goals and the 
transition  towards  the  new  type  of  transport  and  mobility  broadly  outlined  in  the 
previous  paragraphs.  The  various  actions  and  measures  indicated  in  this  strategy 
will  be  further  elaborated.  The  Commission  will  prepare  appropriate  legislative 
proposals and implement the necessary policy measures. Each of its proposals will 
be  preceded  by  a  thorough  impact  assessment,  considering  EU  added  value  and 
subsidiarity aspects. 

69 

70 
71 

72 

In  accordance  with  the  European  Deployment  plan  for  ERTMS:  cf.  Commission  Decision 
C(2009)561. 
In accordance with the EasyWay 2 Implementation Plan: cf. Commission Decision C(2010) 9675.  
Directive 2002/59/EC establishing a Community vessel traffic monitoring and information system (OJ 
L 208 of 5.8.2002), as amended by Directive 2009/17/EC (OJ L 131 of 28.5.2009). 
Cf. Directive 2005/44/EC. 

EN 

35 

   EN 

 
                                                 
III – Strategy: policies to steer change 

1. 

AN EFFICIENT AND INTEGRATED MOBILITY SYSTEM 

125. 

126. 

127. 

128. 

The EU has opened to competition most of its transport markets since the 90’s, but 
barriers to a smooth functioning of the internal market persist. The objective for the 
next decade is to create a genuine Single European Transport Area by eliminating 
all the residual barriers between modes and national systems, easing the process of 
integration and the emergence of multinational and multimodal operators. 

Addressing  inefficiencies  within  individual  modes  is  important  from  a  transport 
system perspective, since a poorly performing mode or interface is not only harmful 
in the absence of alternatives, but can also act as the weak link that compromises 
the functionality of a multimodal chain. 

The  achievement  of  a  fully  integrated  transport  system  is  delayed  today  by  a 
number of remaining regulatory and market failures. Regulatory barriers to market 
entry,  technical  incompatibilities  between  modes,  burdensome  administrative 
procedures or indeed imperfect and outdated legislation are the biggest problems. 

Open transport markets and a more competitive environment can create tensions if 
the  prevailing  employment  and  working  conditions  as  well  as  safety  and  security 
standards are too dissimilar at national level. A higher degree of harmonisation and 
enforcement of social rules as well as measures to enhance minimum standards of 
service  and  of  users’  rights  must  be  an integral  part of the  strategy for the  Single 
European Transport Area.  

129. 

In  the  following  sections,  proposals  are  formulated  which  address  some  of  these 
issues. They are grouped in five broad categories: 

(1) 

Removal of regulatory, administrative and technical barriers 

(2)  Measures related to the quality of jobs 

(3) 

(4) 

Security aspects 

Safety aspects 

(5)  Measures related to the quality of services 

1.1. 

A Single European Transport Area 

130. 

131. 

A  crucial  condition  for  meeting  the  goals  presented  in  Section  II.3  –  particularly 
with respect to the development of multimodal transport for passengers and freight 
– is the removal of all obstacles of administrative or regulatory nature that still hold 
back each transport mode. 

In  certain  segments  of  the  transport  industry  –  notably  rail  domestic  passenger 
services,  road  cabotage  and  port  services  –  markets  are  still  not  fully  open  to 
the  poor 
competition.  In  other  segments  such  as  rail  freight 
implementation  of  existing  rules  and  other  barriers  keep  deterring  market  entry. 

transport, 

EN 

36 

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lack  of 

interoperability  hinder 

technical  specifications  and 

Different 
the 
development of multimodal intelligent transport systems and the operation of cross-
border  services,  particularly  in  rail  and  in  air  traffic  management.  Different 
administrative  requirements  –  such  as  different  liability  regimes  and  multiple 
transport documents – increase the cost of international and multimodal operations 
and  have  an  impact  on  the  commercial  speed  of  freight  flows.  There  is  still 
considerable scope for improving the efficiency of the transport system through the 
removal of regulatory, administrative and technical barriers.  

1.1.1.  A true internal market for rail services 

132. 

A  necessary  condition  for  establishing  a  Single  European  Transport  Area  is  the 
creation  of  Single  European  Railway  Area,  by  completing  the  market  opening 
process,  including  the  award  of  public  service  contracts,  strengthening  the  role  of 
the  European  Rail  Agency,  enhancing  the  separation  between  infrastructure 
managers  and  service  providers,  and  developing  an  integrated  approach  to  freight 
corridor management. 

Completing the market opening process 

133. 

Although  the  Commission  considers  that  modal  shift  towards  environmentally 
friendlier modes, notably rail, will be necessary to meet emissions and fuel security 
targets, this should be achieved by ensuring a level playing field across modes and 
by  making  rail  services  efficient  and  attractive.  The  lack  of  competition  to 
incumbent  operators,  which  often  enjoy  a  de  facto  monopoly  situation  on  the 
national market, is one of the reasons explaining the low quality and efficiency of 
services.  Evidence  from  countries  where  the  opening  of  the  rail  market  is  most 
advanced shows that improved and innovative services have led to a rising market 
share of rail. 

134.  Whereas  markets  for  rail  freight  services  have  been  fully  opened  to  competition 
since January 200773 and those for international passenger transport services as of 1 
January  201074,  domestic  passenger 
to 
competition. 

transport  remains 

largely  closed 

135. 

The Commission has recently published a study on the regulatory options available 
for domestic passenger market opening75. The study concludes that genuine market 
opening will have considerable positive impacts on the rail sectors throughout the 
EU. The evidence supports the Commission view that market opening will lead to 
innovation  and  improved  quality,  so  generating  increased  passenger  levels.  In  a 
growing market, employment levels can be maintained alongside efficiency gains. 

73 

74 

75 

As provided for in Directive 2004/51/EC, amending Council Directive 91/440/EEC of 29 July 1991 
on  the  development  of  the  Community’s  railways.  In  practice,  however,  many  barriers  still  exist 
including  those  stemming  from  the  incomplete  and  incorrect  implementation  of  Community  law  by 
Member States. 
Council Directive 91/440/EEC of 29 July 1991 on the development of the Community’s railways, as 
amended inter alia by Directive 2007/58/EC. 
Everis, Study on Regulatory Options on Further Market Opening in Rail Passenger Transport, Final 
Report, 09/09/2010. 

EN 

37 

   EN 

 
                                                 
Based  on  the  findings  of  this  study  and  other  input,  the  Commission  will  put 
forward a new initiative on domestic passenger transport market opening in 201276. 

Open procedures for public service obligations (PSO) 

136. 

The  rules  on  the  provision  of  services  in  the  framework  of  public  service 
obligations are laid down in specific pieces of legislation for air services77, inland 
transport78  and  maritime  transport79.  For  inland  transport,  Regulation  1370/2007 
excludes  the  rail  sector  from  the  obligation  to  award  public  service  obligation 
contracts  through  an  open  tendering  procedure.  Thus,  most  local  and  regional 
services,  as  well  as  a  potentially  significant  share  of  long-distance  services,  are 
operated  under  PSO  but  attributed  to  operators  through  direct  award.  The 
introduction of open procedures to award the service – the so-called competition for 
the market instead of competition in the market – could lead to more attractive and 
innovative services at lower cost.  

137. 

Regulation  1370/2007  requires  Member  States  to  provide  the  Commission  with  a 
progress report with regard to the award of public contracts by June 201580. On the 
basis  of  these  reports  and  other  studies  and  lessons  from  the  air  and  maritime 
sectors,  the  Commission  will  propose  an  initiative  for  the  introduction  of 
competitive  tendering  for  public  service  contracts,  aimed  at  ensuring  the  efficient 
provision of high quality services. 

Governance  and  enforcement:  a  stronger  role  for  the  European  Rail  Agency, 
unbundling and infrastructure managers 

138. 

Prior to market opening, competition regulation was very limited in the rail sector, 
and  safety  regulation  often  undertaken  by  incumbent  rail  operators.  To  make 
market  opening  effective,  but  at  the  same  time  ensure  that  safety  levels  were 
maintained  and  improved,  specialised  national  institutions  were  created  by  EU 
legislation.  This  system  includes  the  National  Safety  Authorities  (NSAs)  and  the 
Regulatory  Bodies.  The  Commission  receives  frequent  complaints  that  this 
decentralised  system,  while  justified  to  cater  for  the  still  remaining  technical 
differences between national rail systems, is not adequate to ensure the creation of a 
real European market for rail services. 

139. 

For  example,  the  NSAs  are  responsible  for  the  certification  of  the  railway 
undertakings  and  the  authorisation  to  place  vehicles  and  subsystems  into  service. 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

Communication  from  the  Commission  concerning  the  development  of  a  Single  European  Railway 
Area, COM(2010) 474. 
Articles 16-18 of Regulation (EC) No 1008/2008 of the European Parliament and the Council of 24 
September 2008 on common rules for the operation of air services in the Community (Recast), 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:293:0003:0020:EN:PDF.  
Regulation (EC) No 1370/2007 of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 October 2007 on 
public passenger transport service by rail and by road and repealing Council Regulations (EEC) Nos 
1191/69 and 1107/70, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:315:0001:0013:EN:PDF.  
Article  4  of  Council  Regulation  (EEC)  No  3577/92  of  7  December  1992  applying  the  principle  of 
freedom to provide services to maritime transport within Member States (maritime cabotage), 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31992R3577:EN:HTML. 
Cf. Article 8(2) of the Regulation. 

EN 

38 

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The  approach  to  safety  certification  and  authorisation  is  based  on  the  principle  of 
mutual recognition and should, in principle, allow the free provision of rail services 
and circulation of trains across the EU. However, the current legislative framework 
allows  NSAs 
to  make  further  checks  before  accepting  certificates  and 
authorisations  granted  by  other  NSAs.  This  leads  to  considerable  delays  and 
substantial cost burdens for rail operators. The Commission is considering how to 
address  this  problem:  it  appears  it  will  be  necessary  to  strengthen  the  role  of  the 
European  Railway  Agency,  and  review  the  share-out  of  responsibilities  between 
NSAs and the European Agency. 

The task of the Regulatory Bodies is to ensure fair and non-discriminatory access to 
the  rail  network  and  to  rail-related  services  and  to  check  whether  charging  and 
capacity  allocation  principles  are  properly  applied.  However,  the  Member  States’ 
regulatory bodies encounter difficulties in carrying out their supervision duties over 
infrastructure  managers,  often  owing  to  a  lack  of  staff  and  other  resources. 
Difficulties  are  compounded  in  cases  where  the  regulatory  body  does  not  have 
sufficient 
incumbent  rail 
undertaking  or  the  ministry  which  exerts  ownership  rights  over  the  incumbent 
operator. The recent proposal for a recast of the first railway package81 provides for 
the  extension  and  reinforcement  of  their  powers  as  a  first  step  to  addressing  this 
issue. However, further action is necessary, perhaps creating a network of national 
regulatory authorities.  

infrastructure  managers, 

independence  from 

the 

In  some  Member  States,  close  structural  integration  of  infrastructure  management 
and rail service operation by the historical or incumbent operator persists. This may 
result in operational decisions being taken to protect incumbents against newcomers 
and  in  income  from  track  access  charges  being  diverted  to  support  service 
operators.  The  Commission  considers  much  of  this  is  contrary  to  existing  rail 
legislation and is pursuing a number of infringement cases as a result. The first rail 
package recast also includes provisions to address key problems. Nevertheless, the 
Commission  believes  that  further  action  will  be  required  to  ensure  fair  and  non-
discriminatory  access  to  the  rail  infrastructure  and  to  rail-related  services.  On  the 
basis of further evaluation, it will make a proposal to ensure an effective structural 
separation between infrastructure management and rail service provision. 

in  creating  competition  between 

The  Commission  recognises  that  while  the  current  regulatory  approach  should  be 
successful 
infrastructure 
management remains a natural monopoly. While this is inevitable on a local scale 
(it would not be cost effective to build competing infrastructure) the Commission, 
in coordination with regulatory bodies, will keep infrastructure management under 
close scrutiny, to ensure it is efficient and that pricing and investment decisions are 
consistent with the goal of fostering railway development and effective competition 
in the provision of rail transport services. 

train  operators, 

140. 

141. 

142. 

143. 

In the long term, the Commission considers there may be a case to establish pan-
European  infrastructure  managers,  ensuring  co-ordinated  development  along  key 
corridors,  but  allowing  competition  or  benchmarking  between  different  route 
managers. 

81 

Proposal for a Directive establishing a single European railway area (recast), COM(2010)475. 

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39 

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Integrated approach to freight corridor management 

144. 

145. 

146. 

Rail  freight  should  be  most  competitive  vis-à-vis  road  over  long  distances,  where 
the costs of transhipment for first and last-mile delivery are relative small compared 
to  total  shipping  costs.  But  this  is  not the  EU  experience:  instead,  the  operational 
and  technical  barriers  to  inter-state  traffic  (particularly  the  establishment  of  new 
freight  flows),  and  a  tendency  to  prioritize  passenger  services,  often  leads  to  rail 
freight being seen as expensive and unreliable. 

Technical  barriers  are  being  addressed  through  Commission  legislation  based  on 
the  basic  interoperability  and  safety  directives.  To  overcome  some  of  the 
operational  barriers,  Regulation  913/2010  –  which  entered  into  force  on  9 
November  2010  –  establishes  a  European  rail  network  for  freight  based  on 
international freight corridors. 

The  Regulation  foresees  the  coordination  between  all  parties  and  countries 
involved,  namely  on  the  allocation  of  cross-border  capacity,  on  the  timing  of 
investment,  on  infrastructure  standards  and  on  the  determination  of  track  access 
charges.  The  Commission  will  have  to  monitor  progress  and  ensure  that  the 
integrated  management  of  corridors  functions  well  in  practice.  The  reasons  for 
developing freight dedicated rail corridors and the advantages of such an approach 
are discussed more in detail in Section 3 below.  

1. A true internal market for rail services 

•  Open the domestic rail passengers market to competition, including mandatory award of 

public service contracts under competitive tendering. 

•  Achieve  a  single  vehicle  type  authorisation  and  a  single  railway  undertaking  safety 

certification by reinforcing the role of the European Railway Agency (ERA). 

•  Develop  an  integrated  approach  to  freight  corridor  management,  including  track  access 

charges. 

•  Ensure  effective  and  non-discriminatory  access  to  rail  infrastructure,  including  rail-
related  services,  in  particular  through  structural  separation  between  infrastructure 
management and service provision82. 

1.1.2.  Completing the European aviation sector 

Seamless air travel through a Single European Sky 

147. 

The European aviation sector is one of the best performing parts of the European 
economy.  Creating  a  single  market,  extending  this  to  our  immediate  neighbours, 
allowing  for  competition,  negotiating  balanced  open  skies  agreements  with  other 
parts of the world, furthering technological advances and enforcing high standards 
in  terms  of  quality,  equity  and  environmental  performance  have  contributed  to 
strengthening the sector. But global competition is increasing and much can be lost. 

82 

The  preferred  options  for  unbundling  should  ensure  the  development  of  competition,  continued 
investment and efficiency in the cost of service provision. 

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40 

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148. 

Recent  events,  such  as  the  volcanic  ash  crisis83,  but  also  the  overall  growth 
perspective84 prove how urgent it is to move towards an even better integrated EU 
airspace. The Single European Sky (SES) legislation, since the adoption of the first 
package  in  200485  and  the  revision  and  extension  of  the  legislation  in  2009,  has 
broken  with  the  tradition  of  a  national,  fragmented  approach  in  air  traffic 
management (ATM) and of intergovernmental coordination shifting towards a truly 
genuine European framework, with effective cooperation between Member States, 
the  European  institutions  and  agencies,  Eurocontrol  and  stakeholders  and  with  an 
efficient  social  dialogue.  Recognising  that  the  performance  of  the  European 
aviation system is dictated by its weakest links, the emphasis is placed increasingly 
on the performance of the network at European level. 

149. 

The SES initiatives aims at tripling capacity, reducing ATM costs per flight by half, 
improving safety by a factor of 10 and reducing the environmental impact of each 
flight by 10%86. A key enabler for accelerating the full implementation of the SES 
is the deployment of new ATM technologies and procedures (SESAR). 

150. 

The SES acquis include: 

–  The  creation  of  a  Network  manager  function  to  manage  scarce  resources 
(airspace  design,  transponder  code  allocations,  radio  frequencies)  from  a  pan-
European perspective; 

–  The  establishment  of  Functional  Airspace  Blocks  to  optimise  provision  of  air 
navigation  services  (ANS)  at  the  level  of  air  navigation  service  providers, 
regardless of state boundaries; 

–  The introduction of a Performance Scheme aiming at increasing the performance 
of  ANS  in  four  key  performance  areas:  safety,  environmental  targets,  cost 
efficiency and flight efficiency. 

The Performance Scheme needs to be implemented from 2012 to 2014; the Single 
Network  Manager  function  will  be  created  in  2011;  and  the  Functional  Airspace 
Blocks  should  be  established  by  2012.  Delivering  the  SES  within  the  agreed 
milestones is of the utmost importance for the future of European aviation87. 

In  the  context  of  the  creation  of  a  single  Network  Manager  function,  the 
relationship between the European Union and Eurocontrol88 needs to be redefined 
to establish the legal and financial framework for the latter organisation to support 
the Single European Sky policy. The current voluntary scheme of Eurocontrol for 

Information note to the Commission on the impact of the volcanic ash cloud crisis on the air transport 
industry, SEC(2010)533 of 27.04.2010. 
See above para 98. 
Regulations (EC) 549/2004, 550/2004, 551/2004, 552/2004, OJ L96, 31.03.2004, p.1-26, as amended 
by Regulation (EC) 1070/2009 of 21.10.2009, OJ L300, 14.11.2009, p. 34 
Routes for intra-European flights are some 15% less efficient than domestic flight routes; on average, 
aircraft fly 49 km longer than strictly necessary due to airspace fragmentation. 
Declaration from the High level Conference on the Roadmap towards implementing the SES, Madrid 
25-26.02.2010. 
The  European  Organisation  for  the  Safety  of  Air  Navigation  (Eurocontrol)  is  the  intergovernmental 
organisation responsible for coordinating and planning air traffic control in Europe. 

151. 

152. 

83 

84 
85 

86 

87 

88 

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41 

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the implementation of the SES should be consolidated through an inter-institutional 
framework in line with the Single Sky regulation. 

2. Completion of the Single European Sky 

•  Achieve  a  truly  seamless  Single  European  Sky  and  deploy  the  future  air  traffic 

management system (SESAR) in the agreed timeframe. 

•  Establish  the  appropriate  legal  and  financial  framework  to  support  the  Single  European 
Sky policy, consolidate the relationship between the European Union and Eurocontrol. 

More efficient use of airport capacity 

153. 

154. 

Airports  play  a  capital  role  in  the  aviation  chain.  Their  well-functioning  and 
efficiency  is  a  key  economic  parameter  for  their  airline  clients  and  for  businesses 
that  work  in  close  coordination  with  them  –  such  as  independent  groundhandlers. 
They are central for the successful delivery of the Single European Sky reform. 

The  lasting  success  of  the  European  Aviation  market  is  also  dependent  on  the 
ability  to  tackle  the  capacity  challenge,  and  its  negative  impacts  on  the  economy, 
passenger experience and delays. Despite the impact of the financial and economic 
crisis  on  the  aviation  industry  and  on  traffic  levels,  long-term  trends  point  to 
capacity constraints on the ground and in the sky. In  its survey  of  138 airports in 
2008, Eurocontrol has highlighted that, despite a 41% increase in airport capacity 
between  2007  and  2030,  11%  of  demand  will  not  be  accommodated  in  the  most 
favourable scenario and 25% in the most challenging one. 19 airports will function 
at full capacity 8 hours/day in the former case; 39 airports in the latter89.  

155.  Whilst  for  certain  airports  there  is  a  need  for  additional  infrastructure,  some 
congestion problems can be tackled by a better system of slot allocation. Currently, 
airport  slots  are  allocated  on  an  administrative  basis  as  prescribed  by  Regulation 
95/9390. This Regulation, which aimed at ensuring that access to congested airports 
was  organized  through  a  system  of  fair,  non-discriminatory  and  transparent  rules 
for  the  allocation  of  landing  and  take-off  slots,  has  been  amended  in  200491.  The 
amendment  contained  a  number  of  technical  improvements  –  such  as  provisions 
with regard to enforcement, clearer definitions, better monitoring tools and stricter 
sanctions against abuse or non-compliance with the allocation rules.  

156. 

Nevertheless, problems remain: the ability of new entrants and of growing carriers 
to compete with established carriers is impeded due to a lack of available slots from 
the pool. At those airports where demand consistently exceeds capacity, pool slots 
tend  only  to  be  available  at  unattractive  times  or  are  not  available  as  series.  This 
impedes the optimal use of airport capacity. There is, moreover, a lack of certainty 
regarding the legal framework of the secondary trading and there are concerns over 
the degree of independence of slot coordinators. A study on the implementation of 

89 
90 

91 

Source: EUROCONTROL Long-Term Forecast: IFR Flight Movements 2008-2030.  
Council  Regulation  95/93  of  18  January  1993  on  common  rules  for  the  allocation  of  slots  at 
Community airports, as amended by subsequent legal acts, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1993R0095:20090630:EN:PDF 
By Regulation (EC) No 793/2004. 

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42 

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157. 

the Slot Regulation including mechanisms for primary slot allocation is underway 
and is expected to bring recommendations for a change in the policy to be proposed 
by the Commission.  

Apart from better use of airport capacity, we need to deal with the foreseen increase 
in the demand for air transport. Part of the answer can be high speed trains which 
provide a suitable alternative to short haul- and feeding flights, freeing up capacity 
for  longer  flights.  This  will  however  require  a  much  more  effective  integration 
between the two modes. Rail-air infrastructural nodes will have to be developed to 
ensure  seamless  transition  of  passengers  from  the  train  to  the  plane.  More 
importantly,  the  great  challenge  will  be  to  allow  access,  integration  and  efficient 
use  of  data  by  all  actors  to  support  bi-modal  air-rail  travel.  The  Commission  will 
study  possible  options  and  propose  initiatives  aiming  at  these  goals.  At  the  same 
time,  the  Commission  will  continue  to  work  on  other  approaches  to  deal  with 
capacity  problems  in  the  context  of  the  Community  Observatory  on  Airport 
Capacity. 

Ground-handling activities in airports 

158. 

159. 

160. 

Ground-handling services contribute to the efficiency of air transport. The market 
for  ground-handling  services  has  been  gradually  opened  by  Directive  96/67/EC92. 
The  Directive  stipulates  that  in  the  larger  EU  airports  access  to  the  market  for 
suppliers  of  ground-handling  services  is  open  and  that  for  certain  categories  of 
services,  in  the  case  where  the  number  of  suppliers  is  limited;  this  number  of 
suppliers may be no fewer than two for each category of service. 

According to studies carried out by the Commission so far93, main objectives of the 
legislation  were  achieved:  the  number  of  providers  has  increased,  prices  have 
tended  to  fall,  while,  according  to  the  airlines,  the  average  quality  of  services 
improved. 

However, negative aspects persist: it remains difficult for new providers to enter the 
market  where the airport manager or the dominant carriers offer their services. In 
addition,  certain  provisions  of  the  Directive  are  sometimes  subject  to  different 
interpretations. The Directive is also questioned by some stakeholders as regards its 
social,  safety  and  security  aspects.  Finally,  the  recent  experiences  with  difficult 
winter weather conditions have also demonstrated that airports are part of a system 
where  certain  quality  standards  and  emergency  plans  need  to  be  developed 
including all actors. The Commission will make a proposal to clarify and improve 
the conditions for market entry also with the aim of ensuring that all airports meet 
minimum quality standards. 

3. Capacity and quality of airports 

•  Revise the Slot Regulation to favour more efficient use of airport capacity. 

92 

93 

Council  Directive  96/67/EC  of  15  October  1996  on  access  to  the  groundhandling  market  at 
Community airports, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1996L0067:20031120:EN:PDF.  
Both studies are available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air/studies/airports_en.htm.  

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•  Clarify  and  improve  conditions  to  enter  and  provide  quality  services,  including 
groundhandling:  ensure  that  all  actors  in  an  airport  system  meet  minimum  quality 
standards. 

•  Airport Capacity – develop an approach to deal with future capacity problems including 

better integration with the railway network. 

1.1.3.  A maritime “Blue Belt” and a suitable framework for inland navigation 

161.  Maritime transport accounts for more than a third of all intra-EU freight transport 
activity. In contrast to other transport modes, transport by sea between EU ports is 
often still considered as going beyond the external borders of the Internal Market, 
thus  requiring  extensive  administrative  procedures  (e.g.  customs,  veterinary  and 
plant protection controls, port formalities). 

A “Blue Belt” for short sea shipping 

162. 

Following  the  Commission’s  Action  Plan  to  establish  a  European  maritime 
transport space without barriers94, customs procedures will be facilitated for certain 
companies as of 1 January 201295, and port formalities as of 19 May 201296. The 
objective is to facilitate intra-EU maritime transport in a “Blue Belt”, the sea area 
surrounding the European Union. In this Blue Belt, intra-EU maritime transport can 
be operated with as little administrative burden as possible, and “Blue Lanes” (i.e. 
fast-track procedures) will be created in ports for Community goods to ensure their 
speedy transit. Monitoring technologies, notably those developed by the European 
Maritime  Safety  Agency  based  in  Lisbon  (EMSA),  will  be  used  to  control  vessel 
movements  and  integrate  them  in  seamless  logistics  chains  originating  and 
terminating in EU territory97. 

163. 

As  part  of  the  effort  to  simplify  the  procedures  in  maritime  transport,  the 
Commission  will  shortly  examine  the  possibility  to  exempt  experienced  captains, 
under  certain  conditions  and  in  certain  ports,  from  the  obligation  of  using  pilot 
services when manoeuvring in the port (Pilot Exemption Certificates). 

Reducing administrative costs through eMaritime 

164.  Many  ports  use  advanced 

information  systems,  but 

is  almost  no 
interoperability between these port information systems. Often, the same data have 
to  be  provided  (manually)  at  each  port  call,  resulting  in  waste  of  time  and  data 
errors. The e-Maritime initiative will promote interoperability between the systems 
of  all  maritime  transport  stakeholders,  including  shippers,  logistics  operators  and 
ports’ and inland waterways’ administrative authorities. 

there 

94 
95 

96 

97 

COM(2009) 10 final of 21.1.2009. 
Commission  Regulation  (EU)  No  177/2010  amending  Regulation  (EEC)  No  2454/93  laying  down 
provisions  for  the  implementation  of  Council  Regulation  (EEC)  No  2913/92  establishing  the 
Community Customs Code. OJ L 52 of 3.3.2010. 
Directive  2010/65/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  on  reporting  formalities  for 
ships arriving in and/or departing from ports of the Member States, O.J. L 283 of 29.10.2010. 
In a further step, facilitation for Community Goods transported on ships navigating between EU ports 
but calling during the journey at a non-European port will be addressed. 

EN 

44 

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165. 

The  e-Maritime  initiative  will  also  build  on  relevant  EU  directives  –  such  as  the 
Directive  establishing  an  EU  Vessel  Traffic  Monitoring  and  Information  System 
(SafeSeaNet)98 – and be aligned with the advanced electronic means of managing 
and  exchanging  transport  related  information  such  as  e-Customs  and  e-Freight;  it 
would  need  open  links  to  other  modal  systems  in  the  spirit  of  an  integrated 
intermodal transport system. 

Market access to ports 

166.  While  many  ports  operate  in  a  competitive  environment,  technical-nautical  and 
cargo-handling  services  are  often  restricted  to  monopolies  or  to  a  few  established 
operators.  The  Commission’s  attempts  to  open  market  access  to  port  services99 
were rejected by the European Parliament. In line with stakeholders’ requests, the 
Commission has not put forward any further legislative proposal100. It is currently 
applying and enforcing the basic rules of the Treaty in the port sector, and closely 
monitoring the market development. Should this situation reveal to be insufficient 
or generate uncertainty, legislative proposals might be considered again101. 

167. 

Competition  between  ports  can  be  significant  and  calls  for  a  level-playing  field. 
Information  on  funds  that  public  authorities  make  available  to  any  port  should  be 
transparent.  Under  Directive  2006/111/EC102,  the  obligation  to  maintain  separate 
accounts – between the activities that receive public financing and those which do 
not – already exists for ports with an annual turnover above € 40 million. Since a 
large  number  of  ports  –  some  of  which  very  relevant  to  the  European  transport 
system – have a smaller turnover, the Commission will evaluate the need to lower 
this  threshold.  Furthermore,  as  existing  administrative  structures  in  ports  differ 
widely,  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  some  common  reporting  and  accounting 
principles. Concession holders play also a fundamental role regarding efficiency of 
ports. In this context, it is important to ensure that the conditions under which Port 
authorities select concession holders are fully transparent and competitive. 

4. A maritime “Blue Belt” and market access to ports 

The European Maritime Transport Space without Barriers should be further developed into a 
“Blue  Belt”  of  free  maritime  movement  in  and  around  Europe,  and  waterborne  transport 
should be used to its full potential. 

•  Integrate  the  use  of  monitoring  tools  by  all  relevant  authorities,  ensure  the  full 
interoperability between ICT systems in the waterborne sectors, guarantee the monitoring 
of vessels and freight (Blue Belt) and set up appropriate port facilities (“Blue Lanes”). 

98 
99 

100 
101 

102 

Directive 2002/59/EC. 
E.g the proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on market access to 
port services, COM(2004) 654 final. 
Cf. Communication on a European Ports Policy, COM(2007) 616 final. 
Commission staff working document: Impact Assessment on the Communication on a European Ports 
Policy, SEC(2007) 1339, 18.10.2007.  
Commission Directive 2006/111/EC of 16 November 2006 on the transparency of financial relations 
between  Member  States  and  public  undertakings  as well as on financial transparency within certain 
undertakings, OJ L 318, 17.11.2006, p. 17–25. 

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45 

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•  Establish a framework for the granting of Pilot Exemption Certificates in EU ports. 

•  Review restrictions on provision for port services. 

•  Enhance the transparency on ports’ financing, clarifying the destination of public funding 

to the different port activities, with a view to avoid any distortion of competition. 

Further removing the hurdles to fully using the potential of inland waterway transport 

168. 

169. 

170. 

The  inland  waterway  transport  market  is  fully  liberalised  since  the  1990s.  Due  to 
the fact that the European inland waterway network cannot be considered complete 
without  the  participation  of  third  countries  (in  particular  for  the  Danube  and  the 
Rhine),  the  overall  regulatory  framework  is  fragmented,  and  some  barriers  to  the 
internal market remain or have emerged.  

The institutional framework in Europe is dispersed among various actors: the EU, 
its Member States, third countries, Intergovernmental River Commissions based on 
international agreements (e.g. for the Rhine and for the Danube), the UN-ECE. This 
structure sometimes leads to overlapping activities and creates inefficiencies.  

The  comprehensive  action  programme  for  the  promotion  of  inland  waterway 
transport  NAIADES,  launched  by  the  Commission  in  2006,  is  recognised  for 
having created a momentum for a common European policy, based on legislative, 
coordination and support measures. The Commission will ensure the continuity of 
the  implementing  measures  and  address  new  challenges  through  a  comprehensive 
approach  involving  all  relevant  actors  and  providing  support  where  needed:  e.g. 
strengthen  the  market  position  of  inland  waterway  transport  by  integrating  it  in 
multimodal  logistics,  improve  its  environmental  performance,  and  deploy  new 
technologies including River Information Services (RIS)103. 

5. A suitable framework for inland navigation 

•  Establish an appropriate framework to optimise the Internal Market for Inland waterway 
transport,  and  to  remove  barriers  that  prevent  its  increased  use.  Assess  and  define  the 
necessary  tasks  and  mechanisms  for  their  execution,  also  with  a  view  to  the  wider 
European context. 

1.1.4.  Further integrating the road freight market 

171. 

Road transport dominates the commercial transport market, but at the same time it 
is a fragile and highly fragmented sector composed of a vast majority of very small 
undertakings  whose  profit  margins  are  directly  dependant  on  labour  costs  and  on 
the fluctuation of oil prices. To reap the full benefits of open markets and ensure its 
social acceptance, it is necessary to work towards establishing a level playing field 
concerning  rules  on  social  standards,  safety,  and  road  use  charging  –  and  their 
enforcement. 

103 

Cf. section 2.1.3 below. 

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46 

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Harmonised enforcement of rules for professional road transport 

172. 

173. 

174. 

175. 

176. 

Road  transport  undertakings  face  unequal  treatment  in  different  Member  States 
owing to divergences in the control and sanction systems. This creates unnecessary 
administrative  burdens  and  uneven  conditions  of  competition,  as  well  as  raising 
safety  concerns.  To  address  these  problems,  the  Commission  will  propose  to 
harmonise  and  enhance  the  enforcement  policies  so  that  in  the  Single  European 
Transport  Area  operators  are  treated  on  an  equal  footing  when  facing  checks  and 
when  infringing  the  social,  technical,  safety  and  market  rules  established  at  EU 
level. 

The  checks  of  social  rules  should  be  made  more  cost-effective.  While  rules  on 
driving time and rest periods are of paramount importance to prevent accidents due 
to  driver  fatigue  and  to  safeguard  drivers  working  conditions,  firms  that  do  not 
comply with these rules can gain a sizeable undue competitive advantage. The basis 
of  the  controls  carrying  out  by  national  enforcement  or  police  officers  during 
checks  are  the  data  recorded  by  the  tachographs.  The  tamper-proof  digital 
tachograph  fitted  since  2006  on  all  new  vehicles  generate  more  trustworthy  data. 
Cases  of  manipulation  and  frauds  have  however  been  found.  While  the 
administrative  burden  for  undertakings  which  comply  with  the  rules  should  be 
reduced,  the  EU  should  make  sure  that  the  controls  become  fully  effective  in 
preventing and detecting manipulation or misuse of the tachographs. 

The current regulations on access to the market and admission to the profession104 
already foresee the creation of a European register of road transport undertakings. 
The  necessary  measures  to  put  it  in  operation  through  the  interconnection  of 
national registers have to be taken before the end of 2012.105 The European register 
will  allow  exchange  of  information  on  infringements  committed  by  non  resident 
undertakings. 

As  a  first  step,  this  register  will  focus  on  exchange  of  information  on  the  serious 
infringements  as  prescribed  by  the  legislation,  but  subsequently,  the  Commission 
intends to make a proposal for the information contained in the register also to be 
used  to  target  checks  and  in  real  time  during  roadside  checks  (e.g.  control  of  the 
validity of the licence). As a result, checks will become quicker, more targeted and 
the  overall  administrative  burden  on  those  undertakings  which  properly  comply 
with the rules will considerably diminish. 

Enforcement  of  EU  legislation  requires  that  sanctions  in  case  of  infringement  are 
proportionate,  non  discriminatory  and  effective.  A  recent  report106  showed  the 
existence  of  substantial  differences  in  the  Member  States  in  terms  of  type  of 
penalties,  categorisation  of  infringements  and  fines  applied  in  the  field  of  social 
road transport legislation. For the same infringement, a road transport undertaking 
can  receive  a  fine  up  to  10  times  higher  in  one  country  than  in  another.  The 

104 

105 
106 

Regulation  (EC)  No 1071/2009 of  the  European Parliament  and of  the Council  of 21 October  2009 
establishing common rules concerning the conditions to be complied with to pursue the occupation of 
road transport operator and repealing Council Directive 96/26/EC. 
Art. 16 (5) of Regulation (EC) No 1071/2009. 
Report from the Commission analysing the penalties for serious infringements against the social rules 
in road transport, as provided for in the legislation of the Member States (COM(2009)225). 

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47 

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to  harmonise 

Commission  will  propose 
these  sanctions.  The  European 
Parliament107 has already asked the Commission to make use of the provisions of 
the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU, which allow establishing minimum rules 
with  regard  to  the  definition  of  criminal  offences  and  sanctions,  where  the 
approximation  of  criminal  laws  and  regulations  proves  essential  to  ensure  the 
effective implementation of a Union policy. 

177. 

The work of the enforcement bodies in the Member States plays an essential part in 
the application of the legislation. Many different authorities are involved depending 
on  the  institutional  set  up  of  each  Member  State;  these  include  police  forces, 
ministries  of  transport  and  of  labour,  and  dedicated  enforcement  agencies.  A 
harmonised approach on the minimum training of enforcement officers would lead 
to a more homogeneous application of the EU legislation. It would also favour the 
exchange  of  information,  for  example  on  techniques  to  detect  manipulations  of 
tachographs, and to disseminate more systematically the information on regulatory 
progress at European level. The Commission will therefore make a proposal aiming 
at the harmonisation of the training of enforcement officers. 

Road cabotage for freight 

178. 

179. 

Road  cabotage  is  the  possibility  for  an  operator  to  carry  goods  within  a  Member 
State other than the one in which it is established. It is a way for operators to reduce 
their  empty  returns  after  an  international  trip  and  seek  business  opportunities 
particularly  in  cross-border  areas.  However,  given  the  differences  still  existing 
across the European Union, particularly on taxation and social rules, it is feared that 
a  full  opening  of  cabotage  could  result  in  a  significant  shift  in  jobs  between 
countries and generate additional traffic.  

The rules on access to market adopted by the legislator in 2009108 strike a balance 
between  these  two  considerations.  Hauliers  willing  to  perform  national  transport 
operations in another Member States on a systematic basis can do so by creating a 
subsidiary in this Member State, so that they are submitted to the same rules as their 
competitors. Those who prefer not taking this step are allowed up to three cabotage 
operations  within  a  limit  of  seven  days  after  an  international  transport109.  These 
rules offer more flexibility than the previous ones adopted in 1993110, but they still 
restrict hauliers in their choice of contracts for optimal routing. 

180. 

The  Commission  considers  that,  given  the  pressing  needs  to  ensure  market 
efficiency  and  the  proposed  steps  to  harmonise  enforcement  of  rules,  further 
opening of the market should be pursued. 

107 

108 
109 

110 

Report on penalties for serious infringements against the social rules in road transport, INI/2009/2154 
(Ranner report). 
Regulation (EC) N° 1072/2009 
The three cabotage operations can either all take place in the country of unloading of the international 
operation, or as a maximum of one operation per country in other Member States. 
Member  States  could  prevent  an  undertaking  from  performing  cabotage  during  one  year  after  one 
month of cabotage operations. 

EN 

48 

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Maximum weights and dimensions of road vehicles 

181. 

182. 

183. 

184. 

The  maximum  size  and  weight  of  road  vehicles  are  governed  by  Directive 
96/53/EC111.  The  Directive  –  which  sets  minimum  standards  and  maximum  sizes 
and weights that vehicles must respect to have access to the road networks of all the 
Member  States  –  was  conceived  in  the  1990’s  to  accompany  the  opening  of  the 
international road transport market. 

The  evolution  of  containerisation,  the  need  to  ensure  the  economic  and 
environmental efficiency of transport and the development of aerodynamics devices 
to improve the energy efficiency of vehicles call for a fresh look at this legislation.  

Some in the road industry argue that significantly heavier and longer trucks would 
bring efficiency gains, and could be used without jeopardising safety or damaging 
infrastructure.  Further  independent  work  is  currently  being  undertaken  for  the 
Commission to assess the issue and determine conditions for progress. 

It does in any case appear to the Commission that there would be a good case for 
limited change to the current dimensions, to allow fitting (or retrofitting) vehicles 
with aerodynamic devices that could reduce fuel consumption112. Limited changes 
may also be necessary to accommodate new standards of intermodal vehicles and to 
deal with electric vehicles. 

6. Road freight 

•  Review the market situation of road freight transport as well as the degree of convergence 
on,  among  others,  road  user  charges,  social  and  safety  legislation,  transposition  and 
enforcement  of  legislation  in  the  Member  States,  with  a  view  to  further  opening  road 
transport  markets.  In  particular,  the  elimination  of  remaining  restrictions  on  cabotage 
should be pursued. 

•  Review the rules on the tachograph to make it more cost-effective, give access to the EU 
register  on  road  transport  undertakings  to  police  and  enforcement  officers  when  they 
carry  out  roadside  checks;  harmonise  sanctions  for  infringement  to  EU  rules  on 
professional transport; harmonise training of enforcement officers. 

•  Adapt  the  legislation  on  weight  and  dimension  to  new  circumstances,  technologies  and 
needs  (e.g.  weight  of  batteries,  better  aerodynamic  performance),  and  to  make  sure  it 
facilitates  intermodal  transport  and  the  reduction  of  overall  energy  consumption  and 
emissions. 

111 

112 

COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 96/53/EC of 25 July 1996 laying down for certain road vehicles circulating 
within the Community the maximum authorized dimensions in national and international traffic and 
the maximum authorized weights in international traffic, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31996L0053:EN:HTML.  
Loosening  current  stringent  restrictions  on  vehicle  length  would  allow  more  aerodynamic  design  of 
the trucks, and the retrofitting of devices such as boat tails that can produce a drag reduction of 12%. 
This would bring about fuel savings of about 6%. Sharpe, R.B.A. (2009) Technical options for fossil 
fuel  based  road  transport  Paper  produced  as  part  of  contract  ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053  between 
plc; 
European  Commission  Directorate-General  Environment 
http://eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/EU-Transport-GHG-2050-Paper-1-Technical-options-for-f-
fuel-road-transport-11-02-10.pdf. 

and  AEA  Technology 

EN 

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1.1.5.  Multimodal transport of goods: the development of e-Freight 

185. 

186. 

187. 

188. 

189. 

The simplification of freight and transport information exchange could substantially 
reduce the cost of multimodal transport. This concerns in particular the possibility 
for  economic  operators  to  provide  information  only  once  –  in  electronic  form  – 
(‘single window’) and to have the goods and vehicles controlled only once and at 
the same place (‘one stop administrative shop’)113. Such development will require 
connecting and completing the networks for the exchange of information between 
administrations and for facilitating the access to this information by businesses.  

This vision of a paper-free, electronic flow of information associating the physical 
flow of goods with a paperless trail built by  ICT includes the ability to track  and 
trace  freight  along  its  journey  across  transport  modes  and,  in  line  with  the  EU 
competition rules, to automate the exchange of content-related data for regulatory 
or  commercial  purposes.  This  will  be  made  more  practical  and  affordable  by 
emerging technologies such as radio frequency identification (RFID) and the use of 
global satellite navigation systems such as Galileo. 

Freight should be identifiable and locatable regardless of the mode it is transported 
on.  A  necessary  condition  for  this  is  that  standard  interfaces  within  the  various 
transport modes are put in place and their interoperability across modes is assured. 
The  Commission  will  create  the  appropriate  legislative  framework  for  the 
deployment  of 
technological 
components  contributing  to  the  e-Freight  concept,  while  ensuring  the  appropriate 
technical security for the protection of personal data and the compliance with data 
protection legislation. 

technologies  and  other 

tracking  and 

tracing 

Currently, different modes of transport use different transport documents (CMR for 
road,  Bill  of  Lading  for  maritime,  etc…),  a  situation  which  creates  administrative 
costs for multimodal transport and puts it in an unfavourable position in comparison 
to single mode transport. To promote multimodal transport, it is therefore essential 
to create a single transport document for the carriage of goods in any mode. Within 
the overall framework of e-Freight114, the single transport document will be digital. 
As  transport  documents  are  to  a  large  extent  a  reflection  of  the  applicable  legal 
regime  to  the  contract  for  carriage  of  the  goods,  these  two  actions  are  dealt  with 
together. In order for a single transport document to be established, the underlying 
liability regime needs to be created. 

There current weaknesses and gaps in liability regimes are both within sectors and 
across  sectors.  The  absence  of  a  European  liability  regime  for  relations  between 
railway  undertakings  and  infrastructure  managers  represents  a  barrier  to  the  entry 
on  the  rail  market  by  operators  of  other  Member  States.  Rules  on  liability  have 
typically developed along modal lines, and this creates friction costs at the nodes, 
between two or more transport modes since this is where one modal liability system 
comes  into  contact  with  another.  The  recently  adopted  ‘Rotterdam  Rules’  UN 

113 

114 

Communication from the Commission of 18 October 2007: Freight transport Logistics Action Plan, 
COM(2007) 607 final, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0607:FIN:EN:PDF. 
Idem., p.3. 

EN 

50 

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Convention115  deals  with  multimodal  transport  involving  a  sea  leg.  It  has  been 
signed by a limited number of EU Member States. Any comprehensive multimodal 
proposal of the Commission will have to take the global convention into account. 

7. Multimodal transport of goods: e-Freight 

Create  the  appropriate  framework  to  allow  tracing  goods  in  real  time,  ensure  intermodal 
liability and promote clean freight transport:  

•  Put  in  practice  the  concepts  of  ‘single  window’  and  ‘one-stop  administrative  shop’;  by 
creating  and  deploying  a  single  transport  document  in  electronic  form  (electronic 
waybill),  and  creating  the  appropriate  framework  for  the  deployment  of  tracking  and 
tracing technologies, RFID etc.). 

•  Ensure that liability regimes promote rail, waterborne and intermodal transport. 

1.2. 

Promoting quality jobs and better working conditions 

190. 

191. 

192. 

193. 

The transport sector employs 10 million people which amount to 4.5% to the total 
employment  in  the  EU.  The  human  factor  is  a  crucial  component  of  any  high 
quality  transport  system.  The  efficient  functioning  of  the  transport  system  would 
not be possible without well trained and highly motivated workers who are satisfied 
with their jobs.  

In  an  ageing  society  where  the  labour  force  will  soon  start  shrinking,  transport 
labour force is ageing more than the average of the economy (26% aged over 50, 
versus  22%).  There  is  consensus  that  labour  and  skill  shortages  will  become  a 
serious  concern  for  transport  in  the  future.  Skills  on  new  technologies  (IT,  green 
energies), on sustainable ways of transport, or on customer care cannot be taken for 
granted and obtained easily. Education and training will be essential. Even before 
the recent economic crisis, the sector had suffered from skill shortages and a tight 
labour supply. 

Today’s share of female workers in the transport sector is lower than the average in 
the economy (21% vs. 35%). An analysis of the reasons of this imbalance will be 
undertaken and, on this basis, specific measures to render the sector more attractive 
to female workers will be proposed.  

The underlying objective of the whole set of EU social rules in the transport sector 
is  the  protection  of  transport  workers  against  adverse  effects  on  their  health  and 
safety  caused  by  inadequate  working  conditions.  High  standards  of  working 
conditions and good career prospects across modes and countries are necessary to 
preserve  the  human  capital  in  the  sector.  However,  diverging  social  standards  at 
national  level  hamper  the  harmonized  social  development  of  European  transport. 
Such  a  variety  of  rules  increases  the  vulnerability  of  mobile  workers,  encumbers 
transport operators with heavy bureaucracy, distorts competition and renders some 
pieces of EU law difficult to enforce. Convergence in this field would be essential. 

115 

United Nations Convention on Contracts for the international carriage of goods wholly or partly by 
see,  
http://www.rotterdamrules2009.com/cms/uploads/pdf/Ch_XI_D_8.pdf.  

EN 

51 

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194. 

195. 

Equally,  poor  industrial  relations  in  parts  of  the  EU  transport  industry,  and  the 
resulting  strikes  and  other  disruptions,  have  a  very  significant  economic  cost,  as 
well  as  disrupting  the  lives  of  individual  passengers  and  undermining  the 
competitiveness of the modes most affected. Improved but realistic social dialogue 
is vital. It will be important to align the competitiveness and the social agenda in 
order to prevent social conflicts, which have proved to cause significant economic 
losses to the sectors concerned. 

The transport system has to cope with globalisation. Since labour costs represent at 
least  one  third  of  the  overall  cost  of  transport  operations,  employers  reduce  these 
costs  in  particular  by  redirecting  recruitment  towards  third  countries  or  other 
Member  States  where  work  is  less  expensive.  In  this  respect,  unfair  competition 
should be avoided through action aimed at raising minimum standards both in the 
EU and internationally.  

1.2.1.  A social code for mobile road transport workers 

196. 

197. 

198. 

199. 

200. 

To fully exploit the Internal Market and to contribute to the wider policy objectives 
of sustainable transport in terms of road safety, fair competition and good working 
conditions of mobile workers, it is crucial to ensure a harmonised set of transparent 
social,  security  and  competition  standards  (social  code)  in  road  transport  evenly 
applicable throughout Member States.  

Such a common social code would not only improve the social situation of around 5 
million road transport workers, but would contribute to the further integration of the 
market.  The  thorough  application  of  adequate  social  standards  would  directly 
contribute  to  creating  a  sustainable  transport  system  and  would  eliminate  an 
important obstacle to the liberalisation of cabotage. 

A social code should be specifically addressed to mobile workers and employers to 
make  them  liable  or  co-liable  –  as  appropriate  –  for  compliance  with  common 
minimum working standards. It should cover such issues as: terms and conditions 
of employment, health insurance and care, a better organisation of work and resting 
periods of drivers to enable the reconciliation of their work and family life, as well 
as gender equality.  

The  social  code  should  also  address  the  problem  of  disguised  self  employment, 
which  creates  legal  uncertainty and vulnerability of certain groups of workers not 
covered by any social protection rules. Member States, with participation of social 
partners,  shall  be  encouraged  to  exchange  practices  and  experiences  on  how  to 
identify and counter disguised self-employment.  

For  the  sake  of  simplification  and  better  efficacy,  the  social  code  should  be 
established  by  means  of  a  social  dialogue  agreement  in  the  road  transport  sector 
with the possibility of it being transposed into a Council decision. This would also 
guarantee that standards are tailored to the real needs and capabilities of all sides of 
industry. 

8. Social code for mobile road transport workers 

EN 

52 

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•  Encourage and support the dialogue between social partners in view of an agreement on a 
social code for mobile road transport workers, addressing also the problem of disguised 
self-employment. 

1.2.2.  A Social Agenda for waterborne transport 

201. 

202. 

203. 

204. 

The growing shortages of seafarers have become an issue of global concern in light 
of the recent rapid growth of the maritime industry. This situation affects also many 
countries in the EU, and in a similar way the inland waterway transport sector. The 
ensuing  declining  maritime  know-how  in  EU  may  also  affect  the  efficiency  of 
maritime clusters that depend on seafaring expertise.  

Urgent  action  is  therefore  necessary.  The  Commission  will  present  a  set  of 
proposals  within  a  “Social  Agenda  for  the  Maritime  Transport”  aimed  at 
reinforcing the attractiveness of the maritime profession in the EU, promoting the 
employment  of  European  seafarers  in  order  to  preserve  the  know-how  in  Europe, 
and increasing maritime safety.  

In  global  competition,  flags  applying  low  labour  and  safety  standards  have  an 
unfair competitive advantage. This can only be counteracted with the development 
and  enforcement  of  a  good  international  framework.  A  decisive  step  in  this 
direction  was  the  adoption  of  the  ILO  Maritime  Labour  Convention  (MLC)  in 
2006.  An  agreement  of  the  European  social  partners  laying  down  the  MLC’s 
standards  related  to  minimum  requirements  for  seafarers  to  work  on  board  a  ship 
has been integrated into EU law, thereby complementing existing EU legislation on 
employment  and  social  matters116.  With  a  view  to  a  harmonised  enforcement, 
further reflection is needed to define and implement the respective responsibilities 
of the Flag state, the Port state as well as the labour supplying state in order to be 
able to control the working and living conditions on board ships calling at EU ports, 
regardless of their flag and of the nationality of the crew. 

The competencies of crews on board EU ships – including non-European seafarers 
– are a crucial element for safety, security, the protection of the environment and 
quality  shipping  and  are  regulated  at  EU  and  international  level  (the  STCW 
Convention  adopted  by  the  International  Maritime  Organisation  –  IMO);  these 
provisions are regularly upgraded to adapt them to new technologies and changes in 
the industry. In the same way well trained port workers, satisfied with their working 
conditions, are essential for the safe, secure and efficient  operation  of ports. Both 
issues will be equally addressed in the Social Agenda.  

9. A Social Agenda for maritime transport 

•  Implement the measures identified  for action in the Maritime Social Agenda, following 
up  to  the  Commission’s  Strategic  goals  and  recommendations  for  the  EU’s  maritime 
transport policy until 2018. 

116 

Directive 2009/13 of 16 February 2009. 

EN 

53 

   EN 

 
                                                 
•  Enhance the enforcement of the Maritime Labour Convention (MLC) of the International 
Labour Organization (ILO) with regard to Flag States, Port States and labour supplying 
States.  

•  Include all or part of the currently excluded seagoing workers within the scope of several 
EU labour law directives or grant them an equivalent level of protection by other means. 

•  Update  the  seafarers  training  Directive  (2008/106/EC)  following  a  revision  of  the 
International  Maritime  Organization  (IMO)  Convention  on  the  training  and  the 
certification  of  seafarers  (STCW  Convention).  Establish  a  mutually  recognisable 
framework on the training of port workers in different fields of port activities. 

1.2.3.  A socially responsible aviation sector 

205. 

206. 

Aviation employment is increasingly of a transnational nature, a tendency that with 
the  on-going  consolidation  of  the  sector  will  continue  and  even  accelerate  in  the 
coming  years.  Some  form  of  supervision  of  the  applicable  social  standards  in  the 
aviation  sector  could  become  necessary,  in  particular  as  regards  flying  personnel, 
for  which  the  nature  of  the  contracts  and  applicable  social  legislation  varies  from 
one Member State to another. 

Legal clarity could be enhanced as to the law applicable to the mobile staff in civil 
aviation,  notably  for  the  flying  personnel  belonging  to  an  airline  based  in  several 
Member  States.  In  particular,  it  should  be  clarified  to  which  extent  Directive 
1996/71/EC  concerning  the  posting  of  workers,  as  well  as  Regulation  (EC)  No 
593/2008  on  the  law  applicable  to  contractual  obligations,  concern  the  flying 
personnel.  At  the  same  time,  European  Works  Councils  in  the  transnational  EU 
airlines  should  be  enhanced  through  the  implementation  of  Directive  2009/38/EC 
on the establishment of a European Works Council117. 

207. 

The implementation of the Single European Sky gives rise to specific concerns for 
the air traffic management (ATM) sector. The Madrid conference on Air transport 
held  in  February  2010  endorsed  a  roadmap  that  highlighted  the  need  for  specific 
consultation mechanisms at Union level on the social dimension of ATM. 

10. A socially responsible aviation sector 

•  Establish  a  mechanism  to  analyse  the  impact  of  regulatory  developments  on  working 

conditions in the air transport sector. 

•  Establish Europe-wide minimum service and quality standards for workers in the whole 
aviation  value  chain  (including  ATM  and  ground  handling).  Encourage  the  European 
social  partners  to  address  the  issue  of  prevention  of  conflicts  and  of  disturbance  of 
minimum service in the whole aviation value chain. 

117 

Directive  2009/38/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  6  May  2009  on  the 
establishment  of  a  European  Works  Council  or  a  procedure  in  Community-scale  undertakings  and 
Community-scale groups of undertakings for the purposes of informing and consulting employees, OJ 
L 122, 16.5.2009, p. 28. 

EN 

54 

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1.2.4.  An evaluation of the EU approach to jobs and working conditions across transport 

modes 

208. 

209. 

210. 

211. 

212. 

Together  with  European  social  legislation,  European  social  dialogue  is  a  major 
instrument for improving labour standards and modernising labour markets – a tool 
from which the transport sector has largely benefited118. Social partners have a first-
hand  idea  of  the  conditions  in  the  workplace.  This  makes  social  dialogue  an 
instrument of choice which should continue to be supported and facilitated by the 
Union. With the soon to be ended exception of seaports, all modes of transport have 
set up social dialogue committees. Further encouragement is needed underlining the 
fact  that  negotiated  agreements  between  social  partners  have  the  possibility  of 
being  transposed  into  EU  law.  The  Commission’s  role,  according  to  Articles  154 
and 155 TFEU, is to promote and support such collective agreements at European 
level,  and,  if  requested  by  their  signatories,  to  propose  implementing  them  by  a 
Council decision. 

The  inland  navigation  sector,  which  is  increasingly  faced  with  a  shortage  of 
personnel,  notably  nautical  crews  and  entrepreneur-successors,  provides  a  good 
example.  Social  partners  are  working  on  recommendations  for  improved  working 
and living conditions on-board of vessels, on specific working time arrangements, 
on  EU  job  profiles  and  manning  requirements  and  the  establishment  of  minimum 
standards for training and education as well as on recommendations against social 
dumping and unfair competition in the inland waterway transport sector. 

The Commission intends to promote social dialogue and agreements between social 
partners  on  the  issues  mentioned  above  also  in  the  aviation  sector119.  The  ‘Civil 
Aviation’ Sectoral Social Dialogue Committee would be the appropriate framework 
to pursue this work. 

Finally,  in  the  railway  sector,  Directive  2005/47/EC  lays  down  the  working 
conditions  of  mobile  workers  engaged  in  interoperable  cross-border  services.  It  is 
also based on a social dialogue agreement which provides for minimum standards 
concerning  working  conditions,  driving  times  and  rest  periods  for  international 
transport. The question of the number of consecutive rest periods away from home 
and of compensation for such rest away from home is currently under renegotiation 
between  the  social  partners,  while  the  enforcement  of  the  working  time  rules  and 
the need to harmonise working conditions also for domestic rail services still need 
to be assessed.  

Despite  progress  achieved  so  far,  working  conditions  and  social  standards  in  the 
transport  sector  are  still  perceived  as  less  advantageous  than  in  the  economy  as  a 
whole. For all its merits, the social dialogue approach has its weak points which the 
Commission  should  contribute  to  strengthen,  in  collaboration  with  the  social 
partners.  Some  capacity  building  may  be  required  in  some  cases,  stronger 
commitment  of  the  parties  in  other  cases.  The  Commission  should  support  and 
facilitate  a  much  deeper  analysis  according  to  its  institutional  role  in  the  social 

118 
119 

SEC(2010) 964 “On the functioning and potential of European sectoral dialogue”. 
A  precedent  exists  in  the  European  Agreement  on  the  Organisation  of  Working  Time  of  Mobile 
Workers in Civil Aviation, concluded on 22 March 2000 by employers’ and employees’ associations 
in the civil aviation sector and implemented by Directive 2000/79/EC. 

EN 

55 

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213. 

214. 

dialogue  process.  Such  an  evaluation  will  also  indicate  more  clearly  the  limits 
beyond  which  social  dialogue  must  be  complemented  with  conventional  law 
making. 

The evaluation should also identify opportunities for increasing the quality of work 
in  transport  as  a  whole.  Positive  spill-over  can  be  expected  to  come  from  the 
exchange  of  best  practice  between  the  modes  in  fields  such  as  promoting  gender 
equality,  preventing  labour  accidents,  and  language  and  logistics  training.  Skills 
required  from  workers  in  different  modes  can  be  similar,  notably  regarding 
logistics,  where  training  has  to  meet  a  fast  pace  of  technological  and  economic 
change.  An  improvement  in  the  qualifications  of  the  logistics  professions  would 
result  in  a  better  performance  of  modal  chains  and  more  informed  decisions  on 
modal  choices.  It  would  also  increase  labour  mobility  and  career  perspectives 
within and between the modes. 

A  particular  role  in  the  training  effort,  to  make  it  much  better  focussed,  could  be 
played  by  social  partners  with  the  creation  –  building  on  the  experience  coming 
from the new strategy on clean and energy-efficient vehicles – of a Skills Council 
for the exchange of information on skill needs and best practices on training. Such a 
multi-modal  platform  with  expertise  coming  from  all  transport  modes  could  help 
avoid damaging skill shortages by indicating in time the need to dedicate additional 
training efforts to a given field. 

11. An evaluation of the EU approach to jobs and working conditions across transport 
modes 

•  Conduct an appraisal of the sectoral social dialogue processes taking place in the various 
segments of the transport sector to the end of improving social dialogue and facilitating 
its effectiveness. 

•  Ensure  employee  involvement,  in  particular  through  European  Works  Councils,  in 

transnational companies in the sector. 

•  Address  quality  of  work  in  all  transport  modes,  with  respect  to,  notably,  training, 
certification, working conditions and career development, with a view to creating quality 
jobs,  developing  the  necessary  skills  and  strengthening  the  competitiveness  of  EU 
transport operators. 

1.3. 

Secure Transport 

215. 

216. 

The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 led to an international consensus on the 
need to improve transport security. The forums for this international effort were the 
International  Civil  Aviation  Organisation  (ICAO),  the  International  Maritime 
Organisation (IMO) and the World Customs Organization (WCO). 

The  EU  now  has  substantial  legislation  in  the  area  of  aviation  and  maritime 
transport  security,  where  measures  have  been  developed  for  protecting  both 
passengers and cargo. In relation to land transport security, efforts have been made 
to  spread  best  practices,  for  example  in  emergency  planning,  through  regular 
contacts with Member State officials. 

EN 

56 

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217. 

218. 

At  the  EU  level,  transport  security  translates  into  two  main  strategies:  policy 
formulation  and  regulation,  and  monitoring  (inspection)  activities,  covering 
national competent authorities, airports, ports and port facilities and ships, to ensure 
correct implementation of the acquis. The scope of current inspection regimes will 
need to be assessed and if necessary modified. The question of financing transport 
security  will  finally  need  to  be  solved.  Consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
application of Article 222 TFEU, which envisages the Union and its Member States 
acting jointly in a spirit of solidarity if a Member State is the subject of a terrorist 
attack or the victim of a natural or man-made disaster. 

A common approach and a single set of rules in the EU is essential for high level 
security in the EU. In aviation, this approach not only provides for high levels of 
security  to  citizens,  but  also  allows  that  passengers,  baggage  and  cargo  travelling 
within  the  EU  benefit  from  “One  Stop  Security”.  It  means  that  in  principle  no 
further controls are required at EU transfer points once security controls have been 
performed at the EU airport of departure. The effect of One Stop Security in terms 
of  eliminating  redundant  standards  and  procedures  is  a  major  ‘value  added’  of 
European  security  policy.  The  same  can  be  said  about  the  Commission’s 
inspections  of  EU  airports  and  ports,  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  acquis. 
Proposals enhancing security will need to protect privacy and personal data. 

1.3.1.  Cargo security 

Action Plan on air cargo security 

219.  When,  on  30  October  2010,  viable  explosive  devices  were  found  in  cargo 
shipments originating from Yemen and transferring to US-bound flights at airports 
in  Germany  and  the  UK,  the  need  for  further  strengthening  air  cargo  security  in 
Europe  had  become  clear120.  Following  the  incident,  a  high-level  group  drafted  a 
report  with  an  action  plan  to  close  security  gaps  and  to  develop  a  further  co-
ordinated approach at EU and international level for additional security measures. 
The report was endorsed by Council in December 2010 which asked for a speedy 
implementation of the action plan and a progress report for summer 2011. 

220. 

The Commission intends to bring forward legislative proposals notably in relation 
to  cargo  originating  from  outside  the  EU.  The  proposals  will  draw  on  experience 
gained  within  the  EU  and  internationally  so  far  and  will  also  take  into  account 
methods applied within the customs sector with the Authorised Economic Operator 
(AEO) programme.  They will follow a  risk  based  approach  and require improved 
data  quality  of  advance  information  about  shipments  while  further  improving 
supply chain security in third countries: through mutual recognition of security and 
trade programs of relevant third countries in order to benefit from security controls 
that  already  exist  in  third  countries.  Any  new  approach  must  mitigate  the  risk  of 
consignments departing from third countries for the EU and have minimal impact 
on transfer cargo handling at EU airports. 

120 

In 2005,  the  EU  Customs  Code was  amended –  in  accordance with  the WCO SAFE  Framework  of 
Standards to secure and facilitate global trade – to introduce strengthened Safety and Security rules 
involving  a  common  EU  Risk  Management  framework,  advance  cargo  information  and  the  EU 
Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) program. 

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221. 

The Member States and the Commission should as a matter of urgency strengthen 
the compliance monitoring of the cargo and mail rules. The Commission has to date 
made  30  cargo  inspections  at  Member  State  airports  and  the  results  of  these 
inspections show that implementation of EU rules must be improved. The number 
of  EU  inspections  will  be  increased  and  Member  States  must  take  action  to 
strengthen  national  monitoring  programmes.  The  proper  implementation  of  cargo 
rules  is  linked  to  effective  staff  training.  Standardised  training  packages  for  staff 
involved  in  air  security  ensure  robust  and  harmonised  security.  Capacity  building 
on transport security in third countries must receive greater attention in EU external 
assistance  programmes,  including  through  workshops  with  the  support  of  bodies 
such as the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC). 

Enhanced security of cargo in ports 

222. 

223. 

In response to the increased security concerns, and in particular the September 11 
events,  many  countries  took  unilateral  actions  in  order  to  tackle  potential  threats. 
The United States, for example, introduced a 100% scanning requirement for US-
bound maritime cargo at export, to be implemented by 1 July 2012. In an extensive 
Impact Assessment performed in 2008, the Commission pointed out that “if 100% 
scanning  at  export  was  implemented  in  European  ports,  it  would  be  excessively 
costly,  would  be  unlikely  to  improve  global  security,  would  absorb  resources 
currently allocated to EU security interests, and would disrupt trade and transport 
within the EU and worldwide”121. 

On this basis, the EU does not consider implementing 100% scanning of containers 
at  export.  It  advocates  shifting  the  policy  focus  towards  developing  a  package  of 
measures to cope with the wide diversity of security risks and address supply chain 
security  not  only  from  a  national  perspective  but  also  as  a  global  and  complex 
challenge.  This  alternative  package  would  nevertheless  be  based  on  the  principle 
that  all  exports,  as  well  as  imports,  undergo  comprehensive  and  effective  multi-
layered  risk  management  processes  using  a  range  of  methods  and  technologies 
commensurate to the risks associated with specific consignments. No consignment 
would go unassessed. 

224. 

As an integral part of the multi-layered risk management policy, the intention of the 
EU  is  to  intensify  international  cooperation  to  maximise  effectiveness  and 
efficiency of the foreseen measures. The Commission will count in particular on the 
constructive cooperation with the US. 

12. Cargo security 

•  Implement the Action Plan on Strengthening Air Cargo Security, define new rules on Air 

Cargo screening as necessary and enhanced security of cargo in ports. 

•  Complete an EU-wide one-stop security system for air cargo. 

121 

Cf. Secure trade and 100% scanning of containers, Commission staff working document, SEC(2010) 
131 final. 

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1.3.2.  High levels of passenger security, low levels of hassle 

225. 

226. 

227. 

228. 

229. 

A common European aviation security policy has been developed in the aftermath 
of the 9/11 attacks. The rules have been updated regularly to address evolving risks 
and  threats.  On  25  December  2009  the  attempted  terrorist  attack  with  hidden 
explosives on Northwest Airlines flight 253 from Amsterdam to Detroit reminded 
once again of the limits of aviation security.  

These  incidents  highlight  the  fact  that  aviation  security  is  facing  ever  evolving  or 
new  types  of  threats;  threats  to  which  the  traditional  security  methods  applied  at 
airports  may  not  always  give  an  adequate  and  efficient  response.  EU  aviation 
security  legislation  requires  control  methods  and  equipment  standards  to  be 
constantly  improved  in  order  to  apply  up-to-date  security  measures.  EU  Member 
States  are  invited  to  test  innovative  equipment  and  methods.  For  example,  some 
started  to  trial  and  deploy  security  scanners  at  their  airports,  a  recent  technology 
capable  of  identifying  prohibited  articles,  such  as  knifes  or  explosives,  carried 
under clothes or right on the skin. 

Still in 2011, the Commission is expected to make a proposal for allowing airports 
to  use  security  scanners122  –  under  certain  conditions  –  as  a  regular  screening 
method.  The  Commission’s  internal  assessment  that  will  accompany  any  legal 
proposal  must  justify  the  need  for  defining  and  imposing  common  EU  standards, 
requesting  basic  detection  performance  and  ensuring  compliance  with  European 
fundamental rights and health provisions. 

Common EU standards contain the underlying principles for aviation security. They 
allow for ‘One Stop Security’ within the EU where, in principle, no further controls 
of  passengers,  luggage  and  cargo  are  required  at  EU  transfer  points  once  security 
controls have been performed at the EU airport of departure. As of April 2011, the 
One  Stop  Security  arrangement  is  in  principle  extended  to  passengers  originating 
from  US  airports  with  the  potential  to  create  an  even  wider  area  of  passenger 
facilitation and security. 

Currently  available  security  scanners  have  the  potential  for  enhancing  the  quality 
and efficiency of security checks, but other, still more innovative technologies are 
in  the  pipeline.  While  the  Commission  is  in  general  looking  for  smarter  ways  of 
applying controls to passengers and their luggage, it also works on the development 
of  more  effective  and  efficient  technology  such  as  modern  scanners  for  luggage, 
including  liquids,  or  persons,  explosive  detection  systems  or  smart  chips.  such 
technologies  should  underpin  the  development  of  a  ‘Check  point  of  the  future’  – 
such  as  security  corridors  which  would  allow  a  high  number  of  passengers  being 
controlled  with  minimum  hassle.  Exploring  new  methods  of  control  is  critical  to 
enhancing security at all points in the process. 

13. High levels of passenger security with minimum hassle 

122 

Communication  from  the  European  Commission  to  the  Council  and  the  European  on  the  use  of 
security scanners at EU airports, COM (2010) 311. 

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Promote  improved  screening  methods,  fully  respecting  fundamental  rights;  such  methods 
should underpin  development  of  a ‘Check point of the future’ – such as security  corridors 
which would allow a high number of passengers being controlled with minimum hassle and 
intrusion.  They  should  also  support  security  provision  in  other  vulnerable  areas  such  as 
major transport interchanges.  

•  Promote,  also  through  funding,  the  development  of  more  effective  and  privacy-friendly 
technologies  (scanners,  detectors  of  new  explosives,  smart  chips,  etc)  as  well  as  more 
privacy-friendly solutions in existing technologies. 

•  Define  common  detection  performance  standards  and  certifications  procedures  for 

detection equipment. 

1.3.3.  Land transport security 

230. 

231. 

Land  transport  security  has  been  handled  differently  from  air  and  maritime 
transport  security,  owing  to  its  decentralised  character,  but  also  reflecting  the 
current absence of a legal basis for EU action, as well as the lack of a leading and 
legally  competent  international  organisation  (like  IMO  or  ICAO)  to  deal  with  the 
subject. 

Land  transport,  in  particular  urban  transport,  has  increasingly  been  targeted  by 
terrorism and organised crime in the last decade. This has been the case in relation 
to  urban  and  commuter  rail  transport  (Madrid  bombings  in  March  2004,  London 
bombings in July 2005), and to long-distance rail (failed attack on regional trains in 
Germany in July 2006). The cost, both in human lives from terrorist attacks and in 
economic terms due to organised crime targeting the transport of goods, is high. 

232.  While  EU  competence  in  relation  to  urban  transport  security  is  limited,  personal 
security in the urban context is a key factor to increase the attractiveness of public 
transport.  The  development  of  land  transport  security  policy  must  reflect  political 
obligations,  legal  bases  and  specificities  of  each  sector  of  land  transport.  Security 
must not be an obstacle  to  the  flow  of transport and trade and support the  further 
opening of the markets. 

233. 

234. 

In  line  with  the  need  to  better  address  all  aspects  of  land  transport  security,  the 
Commission’s work with National Focal Points on Urban Transport Security should 
be  extended  to  cover  local  and  regional  rail,  as  well  as  high-speed  rail.  The 
establishment of a permanent expert group on land transport security is envisaged, 
also  as  a  forum  for  exchanges  of  views  with  stakeholders,  taking  account  of 
previous experience in the areas of aviation and maritime transport security. 

A shortcoming of the current ‘modal’ approach to security is that it does not take 
sufficiently  into  account  the  increased  vulnerability  of  multimodal  transport  hubs. 
Consideration should therefore be given to the setting of security standards also for 
these facilities. 

235. 

The  European  Commission  has  in  close  cooperation  with  the  Member  States 
developed an EU Chemical, Biological, Radioactivity and Nuclear (CBRN) Action 

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Plan123, which introduces an all-hazard approach to reduce the threat of and damage 
from CBRN incidents of accidental, natural or intentional origin, including acts of 
terrorism.  In  view  of  the  new  integrated  approach  set  out  in  the  Internal  Security 
Strategy124, the forthcoming Communication on Transport Security Communication 
will,  in  2011,  further  develop  ideas  on  how  best  enhance  the  level  of  security  in 
transport, in particular for major transport hubs and public transport. 

14. Land transport security 

•  Work with Member States on the security of land transport, establishing as a first step a 
permanent  expert  group  on  land  transport  security  and  introducing  further  measures 
where EU action has added value. Special focus will be put on urban security issues. 

1.3.4. 

‘End-to-End’ security 

236.  While many tools for protecting cargo security exist in the European Union, there 
are  currently  no  rules  in  place  for  the  European  land  transport  supply  chain  in  its 
entirety.  In  principle,  one  could  imagine  monitoring  and  screening  each  cargo 
shipment  all  along  the  logistics  chain,  but  such  an  approach  would  nevertheless 
increase  security  related  costs  to  unsustainable  levels  and  could  still  prove 
inefficient. The Commission promotes a less costly and potentially more effective 
solution  of  profiling  economic  operators  based  on  their  level  of  compliance  with 
certain reliability criteria. 

237. 

238. 

239. 

The  Commission  proposes  to  build  upon  the  experience  gathered  with  AEOs  and 
‘known  consignors’  to  develop  an  ‘end-to-end’  security  management  system 
involving  a  harmonised  Joint  Risk  Assessment  of  operators  involved  in  a  entire 
transport  supply  chain,  independently  of  the  transport  mode  used.  ‘End-to-end’ 
security certificates delivered to compliant operators would entitle them to benefit 
from security facilitations related to operations at any stage of the supply chain. To 
avoid duplication of efforts and reduce red tape, the new certificate would equally 
be integrated in the existing systems for secure maritime and air transport.  

The  initiative  would  aim  at  enhancing  supply  chain  security  in  order  to  provide 
greater  protection  for  all  European  freight  transport  against  possible  terrorist 
attacks,  without  impeding  the  free  flow  of  goods.  The  system  would  be  based  on 
risk  management  and  not  on  the  elimination  of  risk.  Procedures  for  restoring  the 
functioning of the supply chain after a major terrorist attack or any other distortion 
linked  to  security  would  therefore  be  integrated  in  the  design  of  European  and 
national Mobility Continuity Plans125. 

Finally, international cooperation must be further strengthened in all the aspects of 
transport security where joint efforts can bring considerable synergies (such as the 
exchange of intelligence information on international terrorism) and where national 
competences  are  not  clearly  defined  (for  instance  navigation  on  international 
waters). 

123 
124 
125 

COM(2009) 273 of 24 June 2009. 
COM(2010) 673 of 22 November 2010.  
The  topic  of  Mobility  Continuity  Plans  is  explored  more  in  details  in  part  3.5.3.  “Ensuring  an 
uninterrupted mobility following disruptions in the transport system” 

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15. ‘End-to-end’ security 

•  Increase  the  level  of  security  along  the  supply  chain  without  impeding  the  free  flow  of 
trade. ‘End-to-end’ security certificates should be considered taking into account existing 
schemes. 

•  Joint Security Assessment covering all modes of transport. 

•  Integrate potential effects of terrorist and criminal attacks in the preparation of mobility 

continuity plans (cf. Initiative 23)  

•  Pursue  international  cooperation  in  the  fight  against  terrorism  and  other  criminal 

activities like piracy. The external dimension (cf. Initiative 40) is crucial. 

1.4. 

Acting on transport safety: saving thousands of lives 

1.4.1.  Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety 

240. 

241. 

Road  safety  is  a  major  societal  issue  and  a  great  concern  to  citizens  and 
governments  all  across  Europe.  Although  significant  improvements  have  been 
reached in the framework of the third European action programme for road safety 
up to 2010, much still needs to be done to get to a ‘zero-vision’. 

As  a  contribution  to  this  ambitious  goal,  and  as  outlined  in  its  new  policy 
orientations on road safety for 2011-2020126, the Commission proposes to halve the 
overall  number  of  road  deaths  in  the  European  Union  by  2020  starting  from  the 
results reached in 2010. 

242.  Meeting this target will require defining a strategy of actions on road injuries and 
first aid, targeted actions for specific categories of road users while at the same time 
addressing new societal challenges ahead. 

243.  Within  the  next  ten  years,  road  safety  policies  will  have  to  adapt  to  emerging 
challenges  and  concerns  such  as  population  ageing,  urban  congestion,  increasing 
unsafe behaviours (drugs, medicines, use of mobile phones while driving, etc.), and 
a  potential  decline  in  public  resources  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  road 
infrastructure.  Enforcement  remains  a  key  factor  in  creating  the  conditions  for  a 
considerable  reduction  in  the  number  of  deaths  and  injuries.  The  cross-border 
exchange of information on road safety offences on which a proposal127 is currently 
examined in the European Parliament and in the Council represents a first attempt 
to better addressing the issue at European level. Further steps might be envisaged, 
building on the experience gained once the proposed Directive will be applicable. 

Road safety technology 

244. 

Technology is expected to contribute a great deal to the improvement of the safety 
record of road transport. A wider deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems that 
can  detect  incidents,  support  traffic  supervision,  and  provide  information  to  road 

126 
127 

COM (2010) 389 final. 
COM(2008) 151 final of 19.3.2008. 

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245. 

246. 

247. 

users  in  real  time  will  considerably  improve  traffic  safety.  In  the  near  future, 
road 
cooperative  systems  allowing  vehicles 
infrastructure  and  other  road  users,  will  also  contribute  to  better  road  safety.  It  is 
important  to  accelerate  the  deployment  of  advanced  in-vehicle  driver  assistance 
systems and safety and security-related ITS systems128. 

to  communicate  with  both 

The  possibility  of  extending  the  implementation  of  advanced  driver  assistance 
systems  such  as  lane  departure  warning,  anti  collision  warning  or  pedestrian 
recognition  systems  by  retrofitting  them  to  existing  commercial  and/or  private 
vehicles should also be further assessed. Accelerated deployment and broad market 
take-up  of  such  safety  enhancing  applications  needs  to  be  supported  in  order  for 
their full potential to be unleashed. 

ITS technology should also contribute decisively to improving the effectiveness and 
speed  of  rescue,  and  in  particular  through  the  adoption  of  the  pan-European 
emergency call service fitted to vehicles, eCall. Technological developments, such 
as  in-vehicle  systems  providing  real-time  information  on  prevailing  speed  limits 
could  contribute  to  improve  speed  enforcement.  Since  light  commercial  vehicles 
are becoming increasingly numerous on the roads, which also increase the risk that 
they get involved in accidents, the fitting of speed limiters on such vehicles should 
also be examined along the lines already identified by the Commission. 

After being placed on the market, vehicles should continue to meet safety standards 
throughout their lifetime. The current system of roadworthiness testing129 needs to 
evolve  to  include  checks  on  the  electronic  safety  devices  and  new  propulsion 
systems  of  the  vehicles  of  the  future.  This  will  also  require  the  setting  up  of  a 
European  electronic  platform  with  a  view  to  facilitating  the  access  to  the 
information  necessary  for  performing  such  tests  by  testing  centres  and  other 
involved  parties.  Also,  the  obligation  to  regularly  test  the  vehicle  should  be 
extended  to  powered  two-wheelers  in  an  effort  to  reduce  the  number  of  accidents 
involving this type of vehicles. 

A comprehensive strategy on road injuries 

248. 

249. 

Road  safety  strategies  traditionally  focus  on  the  reduction  of  road  fatalities. 
However,  road  injuries  are  often  overlooked  and  have  become  a  major  health 
problem.  In  2009,  about  1,500,000  people  were  injured  on  the  roads  of  the 
European Union, with huge economic and human costs to society. 

Reducing  the  number  and  the  severity  of  injuries  by  improving  emergency  and 
post-care services will be one of the priority actions in the EU for the next decade. 
Therefore, the Commission will develop the elements of a comprehensive strategy 
of action concerning road injuries and first aid, with the help of all relevant actors. 
Initially, it would seek to find a common understanding of definitions and concepts 
relating  to  casualties  (notably  the  definition  of  major  and  minor  injuries),  to 
improve and harmonise data collection and to identify courses of action to improve 
prevention and intervention, including their socio-economic impact. On this basis, 

128 
129 

Cf. section 0 below on ITS. 
Cf. Directive 2009/40/EC as amended by Directive 2010/48/EU. 

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specific  actions  could  be  identified,  such  as  exchanges  of  good  practices, 
development  of  intervention  guides,  promotion  of  the  creation  of  mixed  rescue 
units between Member States, etc., and a measurable injuries reduction target could 
be set. 

Training and education 

250. 

251. 

252. 

The  current  approach  as  regards  driver  training  remains  too  fragmented  and 
specialised.  The  Commission  proposes  to  promote  a  wider  approach  and  sees 
education  and  training  as  an  overall  process,  a  lifelong  ‘educational  continuum’. 
The Commission also intends to extend training and education to all road users and 
to encourage traffic education and training offers adapted to each age group. 

The  driving  licence  test  should  not  be  restricted  to  checking  the  candidate’s 
knowledge  of  the  Highway  Code  or  his/her  ability  to  carry  out  manoeuvres.  In 
order  to  increase  the  safety  of  powered  two-wheelers  and  to  reduce  the 
consequences  of accidents, the Commission will promote riders’ education on the 
need  and  advantages  of  using  personal  protective  equipment,  airbags,  eCall  and 
advanced braking systems, and will foresee appropriate anti-tampering measures. 

In addition, once the provisions of the Third Driving Licence Directive130 become 
fully applicable, the Commission will define guidelines on driver education in order 
to  include  minimum  standards  for  instructors  in  cooperation  with  the  Member 
States. 

Vulnerable users 

253. 

Vulnerable  road  users  represented  45%  of  all  road  deaths  in  2008.  The  safety  of 
cyclists  and  pedestrians  is  mainly  related  to  urban  management,  where  local 
authorities  have  the  competence  to  carry  out  most  of  the  actions.  But  significant 
the 
scope  remains  for  a  concerted  action  within 
Commission’s  Urban  Mobility  Action  Plan.  For  elderly  people,  several  measures 
will  be  envisaged  such  as  ensuring  fitness  to  drive,  conceiving  appropriate 
infrastructure design and signalling, and providing adequate passive safety devices. 
To  improve  the  safety  of  motorcyclists,  the  Commission  will  encourage  research 
and technical developments aimed at increasing the safety of powered two wheelers 
and reducing the consequences of accidents. On-going efforts to better adapt road 
infrastructure  to  powered  two-wheelers  (e.g.  safer  guardrails)  will  also  be 
continued. 

implementation  of 

the 

16. Towards a ‘zero-vision’ on road safety  

•  Harmonise and deploy road safety technology – such as driver assistance systems, (smart) 
speed limiters, seat-belt reminders, eCall, cooperative systems and vehicle-infrastructure 
interfaces – as well as improved road worthiness tests including for alternative propulsion 
systems. 

130 

Directive 2006/126/EC of 20 December 2006 on driving licences (Recast), OJ L403 of 30.12.2006. 
Member States shall apply the provisions as from 19 January 2013. 

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•  Develop  a  comprehensive  strategy  of  action  on  road  injuries  and  emergency  services, 
including  common  definitions  and  standard  classifications  of  injuries  and  fatalities,  in 
view of adopting an injuries reduction target. 

•  Focus on training and education of all users; promote the use of safety equipment (seat-

belts, protective clothes, anti-tampering). 

•  Pay  particular  attention 

to  vulnerable  users  such  as  pedestrians,  cyclists  and 

motorcyclists, including through safer infrastructure and vehicle technologies. 

1.4.2.  A European strategy for civil aviation safety 

254. 

255. 

256. 

257. 

258. 

Although  the  EU  has  a  high  standard  of  aviation  safety,  it  is  still  not  the  safest 
region in the world. The safety performance of the Member States also varies. With 
the increasing complexity of the aviation sector, and growing volumes of air traffic, 
the EU will need to maintain constant vigilance to preserve and further improve its 
safety record. In order to achieve this, the EU should move to a safety management 
system  that  is  pro-active,  evidence-based  and  takes  action  in  advance  to  prevent 
accidents from happening. 

Such a system must necessarily rely on a basis of prescriptive rules, complemented 
by  performance-based  rules  and  oversight.  It  requires  constant  collection  of 
information to enable hazards to be identified and risks measured and mitigated. To 
this  purpose  safety  information  must  be  complete,  in  standard  form,  analysed  to 
extract the pertinent safety facts, and made readily available to the decision-makers. 
At the moment this is still not the case, and the EU aviation safety strategy should 
aim at putting in place the means to build such a system. 

the  system  approach 

For  a  consistent  implementation  of  the  EU-wide  strategy  across  all  aviation 
domains, 
is  essential.  Having  established  a  Safety 
Management System covering all aspects of aviation activity, the EU will have to 
develop  performance  targets  for  the  various  domains.  In  addition,  common 
priorities and objectives for the Union as a whole and for Member States should be 
defined  and  revised  regularly.  The  central  role  of  the  European  Aviation  Safety 
Agency (EASA) will have to be developed. 

The deployment of the technological arm of the Single European Sky – SESAR – 
will  contribute  to  enhancing  the  safety  level  in  air  traffic  over  Europe.  It  is 
important that adequate European  legislation supports the timely, coordinated and 
effective  deployment  of  this  innovative  technology  and  that  compatibility  is 
ensured  with  standards  developed  elsewhere  in  the  world,  and  notably  with 
NextGen in the United States. 

A  robust  aviation  safety  system  in  the  EU  has  direct  implications  for  Third 
countries,  both  for  operators  flying  to  and  from  the  EU  and  for  the  aeronautical 
industry.  It  will  therefore  be  necessary  to  cooperate  with  third  countries,  in 
particular the US, to achieve regulatory convergence, mutual recognition in case of 
equivalent  safety  levels,  and  to  give  technical  assistance  to  countries  in  need  for 
support. 

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259. 

The EU will have to work closely with ICAO in order to achieve safety goals set by 
the  international  aviation  community.  In  this  respect,  the  Memorandum  of 
Understanding  on  a  Global  Safety  Information  Exchange,  signed  in  September 
2010 by the Commission with the International Air Transport Association (IATA), 
the  International  Civil  Aviation  Organization  (ICAO)  and  the  US  Department  of 
Transportation  (DOT)  paves  the  way  to  the  creation  of  a  comprehensive  global 
information  exchange  system  which  will  contribute  to  improving  aviation  safety 
and greater transparency of safety information. Furthermore the transition by ICAO 
towards  the  Continuous  Monitoring  Approach  (CMA)  as  a  new  methodology  for 
overseeing  aviation  safety  across  the  world,  offers  great  opportunities  to  better 
identify  and  mitigate  safety  risks,  while  focusing  the  resources  of  ICAO  and 
Member States on where they are most needed. 

17. A European strategy for civil aviation safety 

European aviation safety is high but not the best in the world. Our aim should be to become 
the safest region for aviation. In order to do so, we will develop a comprehensive European 
aviation  safety  strategy,  building  on  the  work  of  the  European  Aviation  Safety  Agency 
(EASA), which includes the following aspects: 

•  Improve the collection, quality, exchange and analysis of data by reviewing legislation on 

occurrence reporting in civil aviation. 

•  Adapt  the  regulatory  safety  framework  to  the  development  of  new  technologies 

(SESAR). 

•  Ensure  the  implementation  of  the  EU  aviation  safety  strategy  consistently  across  all 

aviation domains. 

•  Promote  transparency  and  exchange  of  safety  information  with  ICAO  and  other 
international  aviation  partners,  in  particular  in  the  framework  of  the  Global  Safety 
Information Exchange initiative; cooperate with non-EU countries, in particular the U.S., 
on safety matters on regulatory convergence, mutual recognition and technical assistance. 

•  Develop a Safety Management System at EU level that incorporates safety performance 
targets  and  measurements  in  order  to  identify  the  risks  and  to  achieve  continued 
improvement in safety levels. 

1.4.3. 

Safer shipping 

260. 

EU  action  in  the  field  of  maritime  safety  and  protection  of  the  environment 
complements  the  international  framework  as  defined  within  the  International 
Maritime  Organisation  (IMO).  The  transposition  of  IMO  rules  into  the  EU  legal 
system ensures their enforcement across the entire European Union. In addition, the 
EU  plays  an  important  role  in  improving  international  standards  by  initiating  and 
contributing directly to their adoption at international level. 

Passenger Ship Safety 

261. 

There is increasing waterborne mobility and leisure activity in the EU, where 22 out 
of  27  Member  States  are  coastal  countries,  with  4  being  island  states.  There  are 

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more  than  200  million  passengers  on  board  ships  in  the  EU  every  year.  Major 
accidents  involving  passenger  ships  in  EU  waters  are  thankfully  rare,  but  if  they 
happen  they  can  be  terrible  tragedies  (Herald  of  Free  Enterprise,  Estonia).  A 
proactive approach to passenger ship safety is essential.  

262.  With  this  in  mind,  simplification  and  clarification  of  the  complex  EU  regulatory 
framework – with due account to the relevant IMO rules – will facilitate the work 
of  Member  State  authorities.  Technical 
innovations  and  developments  at 
international level also need to be taken into account. Safety rules need to reflect, 
among others, that passenger ships are no longer only built from steel but also from 
other materials, such as Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP). Finally, with over 70% of 
the  world’s  ro-ro  passenger  fleet  operating  in  EU  waters,  and  taking  into  account 
the  increasing  size  and  capacity  of  passenger  ships,  emphasis  must  be  put  on 
ensuring the safety of such craft. The Commission will work in close collaboration 
with  EMSA  on  a  modernisation  of  the  passenger  ship  safety  legislation  to  face 
these challenges. 

Enhancing SafeSeaNet and sharing functions for coastguards in the EU 

263. 

264. 

The  European  Maritime  Safety  Agency  (EMSA)  has  received  the  task  to  manage 
SafeSeaNet, the central  tool  of  the  European maritime information system for  the 
surveillance of ships and of data on dangerous goods. Further work will be done to 
enhance  the  features  of  SafeSeaNet  in  particular  by  satellite-based  information  as 
well  as  ensuring  compatibility  with  River  Information  Services  (RIS)  and  the  e-
Maritime  initiative  and  openness  to  other  modal  systems.  The  objective  is  to 
develop SafeSeaNet into the core system for all relevant maritime tools supporting 
maritime  safety  and  security  and  the  protection  of  the  marine  environment  from 
ship-source  pollution.  It  will  thus  provide  the  essential  contribution  to  the 
establishment of a common information sharing environment for the surveillance of 
the EU maritime domain131. 

institutions.  Certain  Coastguard 

The  idea  of  a  European  Coastguard  has  already  been  discussed  between  the 
European 
from 
coordination at European level or be performed more efficiently at European level 
(e. g. the EU LRIT data centre). In full respect of the principles of subsidiarity and 
proportionality, 
the  Commission  will  examine  several  options:  structured 
cooperation between Member States, ad hoc or permanent coordination of Member 
States coastguards, handover of certain functions to EU bodies. 

functions  could  benefit 

An EU register and EU flag for EU shipping 

265. 

The  need  to  ensure  a  level  playing  field  for  the  EU  maritime  industry  and  to 
guarantee a high level of safety for the benefit of EU citizens calls for a uniform, 
high  level  of  quality  for  EU  flags.  At  the  moment,  there  are  still  EU  flags  in  the 
grey  and  black  list  of  the  Paris  Memorandum  of  Understanding  on  Port  State 
control. 

131 

COM(2009)538 and COM(2010)584. 

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266. 

267. 

268. 

in 

Directive 2009/21/EC on compliance with flag State requirements represents a first 
the 
step 
implementation of this Directive and will assess the overall level of performance of 
EU flags.  

this  direction.  The  Commission  will  continuously  monitor 

Furthermore the position of the European shipping sector is being challenged by the 
impressive growth of the maritime transport sectors of emerging economies in Asia 
and  elsewhere.  Those  competitors  have  the  advantage  of  cheap  financing  and 
labour,  huge  ship-building  facilities  and  the  biggest  and  more  rapidly  developing 
ports in the world. While the competitive advantage of European maritime transport 
is based on a quality approach with strict safety, security, environmental and social 
standards, in the medium- or long-term there is a danger that the EU could become 
dependent on maritime transport services provided by third countries. 

A European Register (implying an EU flag) could be created to serve as a tool for 
sustaining  the  competitive  advantage  of  European  maritime  transport  services.  It 
would  not  challenge  the  existing  registers  (flags)  of  the  EU  Member  States.  It 
would  provide  for  a  sign  of  recognition,  similar  to  those  used  today  by  the 
European aviation industry. In essence, the EU sign would represent a quality label 
certifying safe, secure, environmentally friendly ships manned by highly qualified 
professionals. A favourable treatment for ships qualified for the European register 
could be considered.  Ships  in the Register could benefit from  reductions on, inter 
alia, port dues related to environmental performance, lower insurance costs or less 
frequent inspections. 

269. 

The idea to establish in the long term a European register and flag for ships could 
also  apply  to  the  inland  waterway  fleet.  A  step  in  this  direction  has  already  been 
made by the standardised “European Vessel Identification Number” (ENI) and the 
development of a European Hull Database. 

18. Safer shipping 

•  Work with the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) to modernise passenger ship 

safety legislation. 

•  Develop  SafeSeaNet  into  the  core  system  for  all  relevant  maritime  information  tools 
needed  to  support  maritime  safety  and  security  and  the  protection  of  the  marine 
environment from ship-source pollution.  

•  Assess  the  feasibility  of  the  creation  of  an  EU  register  and  EU  flag  for  maritime  and 
inland  waterway  transport.  In  essence,  the  EU  sign  would  represent  a  quality  label 
certifying  safe,  secure,  environmentally  friendly  ships  manned  by  highly  qualified 
professionals.  

•  Assess  the  feasibility  of  shared  functions  for  coastguards  in  the  EU,  in  particular,  to 

ensure maritime safety, security and environmental protection.  

1.4.4.  Rail safety 

270. 

A safe, modern and integrated railway network is one of the EU’s major priorities. 
The  European  Railway  Agency  (ERA)  was  set  up  to  help  create  this  integrated 

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271. 

272. 

273. 

274. 

railway area by reinforcing safety and interoperability. ERA also acts as the system 
authority  for  the  development  of  the  European  Rail  Traffic  Management  System 
(ERTMS),  which  is  the  single  signalling  standard  eventually  to  be  deployed 
throughout Europe132. The gradual opening of the railway market in the EU has not 
had any negative effects on the overall level of safety. Railways remain a very safe 
mode of transport in which a risk of a serious accident for passengers is kept to the 
very minimum. 

The  development  and  improvement  of  railway  safety  is  mainly  an  issue  for  the 
railway undertakings and infrastructure managers. Through the certification system 
these  two  main  players  should  demonstrate  that  they  have  in  place  a  system  to 
manage  safety  and  satisfy  requirements  for  the  safe  operation  on  the  relevant 
network. 

However,  other  players  such  as  wagon  keepers  or  maintenance  workshops  also 
contribute  to  rail  operations.  This  is  why  in  2006  a  debate  was  open  in  the  rail 
sector on the relations to be established between certified and non-certified players 
and the opportunity to extend the regime of mandatory certification to the latter. 

In order to progressively achieve a harmonised safety certification of all entities in 
the  sector,  the  Commission  will  also  evaluate  the  feasibility  of  relying  on  a 
European  standard  for  designing  and  implementing  safety  management  standards. 
The  Commission  intends  to  enhance  the  certification  of  entities  involved  in  the 
manufacturing  and  maintenance  of  safety  critical  components  used  in  the  rolling 
stock and the infrastructure. 

A number of common safety targets and common safety methods were adopted by 
the  Commission  in  the  last  two  years.  It  is  important  that  ERA  follows  up  the 
correct  application  of  these  measures.  It  is  also  important  that  indicators  are 
monitored  and  that  results  of  investigation  following  important  accidents  are 
discussed at European level. The dramatic accident of Viareggio (Italy) of 30 June 
2009  led  to  the  adoption  of  an  action  plan  with  several  measures  already 
implemented  or  under  development,  including  a  Task  Force  on  freight  wagon 
maintenance  focusing  on  wagon  axles’  maintenance.  That  Task  Force  already 
delivered  concrete  results,  but  also  showed  that  it  is  important  to  avoid  that 
National Safety Authorities, in the aftermath of serious  accidents, adopt measures 
that create new barriers and hamper the development of the internal market for rail. 

19. Rail safety 

•  Progressively achieve a sector-wide approach to safety certification in the rail transport 
sector,  building  on  existing  approaches  for  infrastructure  managers  and  railways 
undertakings and evaluating the possibility to rely on a European standard. 

•  Enhance  the  role  of  ERA  in  the  field  of  rail  safety,  in  particular  its  supervision  on 
national  safety  measures  taken  by  National  Safety  Authorities  and  their  progressive 
harmonisation. 

132 

The  proposals  for  accelerating  the  implementation  of  ERTMS  are  central  to  rail  safety  and  are 
discussed in section 0 below. 

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•  Enhance the certification and maintenance process for safety critical components used to 

built rolling stocks and railway infrastructures. 

1.4.5.  Transport of dangerous goods 

275. 

Rules  for  ensuring  the  safe  transport  of  dangerous  goods  have  been  developed 
independently  for  each  transport  mode.  The  rules  for  maritime  transport  emanate 
from  the  International  Maritime  Organisation.  The  rules  for  rail  have  been 
established by OTIF, the Intergovernmental Organisation for International Carriage 
by Rail. Rules for road and inland navigation result from the work of UN-ECE, the 
Economic Commission for Europe of the United Nations. Therefore, a cargo to be 
transported  by  different  means  of  transport  is  subject  to  cumulating  rules,  thus 
leading to complications and additional costs compared to a transport using a single 
mode. This is particularly inconvenient for maritime transport of containers despite 
sea  transport being particularly well-suited for such  low-cost-high-risk cargo. The 
Commission  therefore  intends  to  streamline  the  rules  to  ensure  interoperability 
between the different modes for the transport of dangerous goods. 

20. Transport of dangerous goods 

•  Streamline  the  rules  for  the  intermodal  transport  of  dangerous  goods  to  ensure 

interoperability between the different modes. 

1.5. 

Service quality and reliability 

276. 

The  quality  of  passenger  transport  services  is  an  aspect  that  will  gain  increasing 
importance in the coming years, in view of the ageing of the population and of the 
need  to  promote  more  resource  efficient  public  transport.  Attractive  frequencies, 
reliability and intermodal integration are the main characteristics of service quality. 
The  availability  of  information  over  travelling  time  and  routing  alternatives  is 
equally relevant. Finally, quality consists also in the ability to provide the elderly, 
disabled persons and transport users with special needs with a high-standard level 
of services. 

1.5.1.  A better enforcement of passenger rights 

277. 

Currently, general passenger rights, including the rights of disabled passengers and 
passengers  with  reduced  mobility  are  governed  in  the  EU  acquis  for  air,  rail,  sea 
and inland waterways transport as well as for transport by bus and coach. Due to 
the  distinct  characteristics  of  the  different  transport  modes  and  their  markets  – 
differences  on  the  company  size,  revenues  and  number  of  routes  as  well  as 
differences  in  the  length  and  the  conditions  of  the  trip  –  the  precise  contents  of 
these  rights  vary,  but  the  typology  of  rights  guaranteed  by  the  four  existing 
regulations  for  transport  by  air,  rail,  waterways  and  road  are  comparable:  namely 
the  right  to  information,  reimbursement,  re-routing,  assistance  while  waiting  to 
travel, and compensation under certain conditions. The Commission will present a 
Communication on these common principles applicable to all passenger rights.  

278. 

In the short term, the objective is twofold: to significantly improve the application 
of the existing legal frameworks through uniform and consistent interpretation and 
a  more  harmonised  and  efficient  enforcement  at  EU  level,  notably  through  the 

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279. 

280. 

281. 

network  of  National  Enforcement  Bodies;  secondly,  to  contribute  to  develop  a 
worldwide  approach  to  passenger  care  by  including  appropriate  provisions  in 
bilateral and multilateral international agreements. 

The Commission will review the existing modal passenger rights legislation with a 
view to define a minimum set of passenger rights common to all transport modes, 
both  through  binding  and  non-binding  instruments.  The  Commission  will  also 
assess  the  need  to  adopt  new  legislative  measures  aiming  at  modernisation  or 
clarification  of  certain  provisions  on  air  passenger  rights,  also  covering  airline 
bankruptcy and problems related to the mishandling of luggage. 

The  Commission  will  then  work  for  further  improvements  for  passengers  with 
reduced mobility (PRM), not only through their specific rights, but through a better 
access to infrastructure.  

Currently there is no European legislation on the rights of passengers which, in the 
course  of  one  journey,  use  two  or  more  transport  modes  and  have  bought  the 
different tickets under a single purchase contract. Such travellers may be exposed to 
higher  costs  in  the  case  of  delays  (because  of  missed  connections)  or  loss  of 
luggage  (because  the  final  destination  is  not  at  the  end  of  the  route  on  which  the 
luggage  was  lost).  The  Commission  will  work  on  promoting  and  developing  the 
concept of integrated tickets and may, therefore, propose to include the question of 
the  rights  of  passengers  with  integrated  tickets  on  multimodal  journeys  on  any  of 
the current or future legislative frameworks. 

282. 

The  Commission  envisages  to  propose  a  single  EU  regulation  (an  “EU  Codex”) 
covering  all  issues  related  to  passenger  rights  for  all  modes  of  transports,  which 
might  include  rights  in  case  of  disruption  of  travel,  price  transparency  vis-à-vis 
consumers  and  non-discrimination,  treatment  of  PRM,  mishandled  luggage,  and 
more harmonised enforcement measures and sanction schemes. 

21. Passengers’ rights 

•  Develop a uniform interpretation of EU Law on passenger rights and a harmonised and 
effective enforcement, to ensure both a level playing field for the industry and a European 
standard of protection for the citizens. 

•  Assemble  common  principles  applicable  to  passengers’  rights  in  all  transport  modes 
(Charter  of  basic  rights),  notably  the  ‘right  to  be  informed’,  and  further  clarify  existing 
rights.  At  a  later  stage,  consider  the  adoption  of  a  single  EU  framework  Regulation 
covering passenger rights for all modes of transports (EU Codex).  

•  Improve  the  quality  of  transport  for  elderly  people,  Passengers  with  Reduced  Mobility 

and for disabled passengers, including better accessibility of infrastructure. 

•  Complete  the  established  legislative  framework  on  passenger  rights  with  measures 
covering  passengers  on  multimodal  journeys  with  integrated  tickets  under  a  single 
purchase contract as well as in the event of transport operator’s bankruptcy. 

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•  Improve the level playing field at international level through the inclusion of care quality 
standards in bilateral and multilateral agreements for all modes of transport, with a view 
to further passengers’ rights also in the international context. 

1.5.2. 

Seamless multimodal travelling and integrated ticketing 

283. 

284. 

285. 

286. 

287. 

Swift travel across Europe should be seamless with single tickets or billing systems 
and door-to-door information readily available. The challenge is to access, integrate 
and use the data to deliver meaningful real time and personalised travel information 
services  to  the  user.  This  is  especially  needed  for  cross  border  and  multimodal 
travel. 

In  line  with  the  ITS  Action  Plan133  and  following  the  adoption  of  the  necessary 
specifications  under  the  ITS  Directive  in  support  of  EU-wide  multimodal  travel 
information  services134,  it  will  be  essential  to  ensure  EU-wide  multimodal  travel 
information  platforms  that  could  provide  possible  commercial  services.  Access  to 
public information shall be available to private operators who can provide this and 
other value added services. 

New forms of electronic ticketing on mobile devices (smart cards, mobile phones, 
etc.) gradually take over from the old paper ticket. To use the full possibilities that 
the new technologies offer, it is vital to have interoperable systems in place. Much 
is left to be done, as each mode has developed its own solutions, sometimes local, 
sometimes global as for air transport. 

For  public  transport  the  IFM  project135  has  set  up  a  road  map  to  European 
interoperability and showed the interoperability of three main national systems. The 
next step will be further pilots and a set-up of the needed framework on a European 
level.  For  the  rail  sector,  the  ticketing  component  of  TAP-TSI  needs  to  be 
developed and implemented. 

The  successful  liberalisation  of  air  transport  in  the  EU  has  lead  to  strong 
competition  and  a  dynamic  market  where  consumers  can  benefit  from  the  many 
travel options available to them. Regulation (EC) No 1008/2008 on common rules 
for the operation of air services in the Community and Regulation (EC) No 80/2009 
on  a  Code  of  Conduct  for  Computerised  Reservation  Systems  (CRS)  include, 
respectively, provisions concerning the display of travel options in CRS and price 
information  for  air  transport  services  when  these  are  offered  to  consumers.  These 
provisions are aligned with the objective of safeguarding price transparency in the 
airline  sector  and  to  allow  consumers  to  compare  prices  in  a  competitive 
environment. 

288. 

Recent commercial developments in air transport services include increased direct 
distribution  by  airlines  –  which  falls  outside  of  the  CRS/travel  agency  channel  – 

133 

134 

135 

Action  Plan  for  the  Deployment  of  Intelligent  Transport  Systems  in  Europe,  COM(2008)886  of 
16.12.2008. 
Directive 2010/40/EU on the framework for the deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems  in the 
field of road transport and for interfaces with other modes of transport, OJ L207 of 6.8.2010 
The  “Interoperable  Fare  Management  Project”  (IFM-Project)  is  an  FP7-funded  project  that  aims  to 
make public transport networks more user-friendly by facilitating access, http://www.ifm-project.eu. 

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and the unbundling of ancillary services. This means that services that used to be 
normally  included  in  the  total  price  of  the  ticket  now  have  to  be  purchased 
separately.  Such  industry  practices  can  contribute  to  the  development  of  a 
competitive  air  transport  sector  and  to  greater  consumer  choice,  but  need  to  be 
monitored to avoid possible abuses. 

22. Seamless door-to-door mobility 

•  Define the measures necessary for further integrating different passenger transport modes 

to provide seamless multimodal door-to-door travel. 

•  Create  the  framework  conditions  to  promote  the  development  and  use  of  intelligent 
systems  for  interoperable  and  multimodal  scheduling,  information,  online  reservation 
systems and smart ticketing. This could include a legislative proposal to ensure access of 
private service providers to travel and real time traffic information. 

1.5.3.  Ensuring an uninterrupted mobility following disruptions in the transport system 

289. 

290. 

291. 

The ash cloud crisis in April 2010 and the weather-related disruptions towards the 
end  of  2010  have  shown  that  the  capacity  of  the  EU  transportation  system  to 
tolerate  and  absorb  disruption  triggered  by  natural  or  man-made  disasters  is  not 
sufficient  to  fulfil  its  basic  function,  which  is  to  ensure  a  seamless  mobility  of 
people  and  goods.  It  has  therefore  highlighted  the  need  to  build  greater  resilience 
into  Europe’s  transport  system  to  preserve  the  mobility  of  passengers  and 
businesses in case of disruptive events. 

The lessons drawn suggest that, besides obstacles of a more structural nature such 
as missing links in the transport network and the lack of Single Transport Area, the 
vulnerability of the EU transport system can be attributed to the inadequate level of 
preparedness and cooperation between all actors, which has been felt at three levels. 

First, at this stage, no Member State has currently in place emergency mechanisms 
to preserve the mobility of passengers and goods in case of a major disruption of its 
transport  system.  At  the  same  time,  since  there  is  no  systematic  coordination 
between the existing business continuity plans of transport operators, the mobility 
of  passengers  and  goods  –  especially  cross-border  –  is  not  necessarily  ensured  in 
crisis situation. This low level of preparedness has resulted in a lot of ‘operational’ 
obstacles to  a  timely  and  efficient re-routing of passengers and goods (no ease of 
restrictions such as night or week end bans…) and has led to a suboptimal use of 
crisis-dedicated resources. 

292. 

Second, there is evidence that the information management (access to information 
as well as sharing and communication of information to/between involved actors) 
which is a key factor in crisis situations is not sufficiently efficient. As a result, the 
quality  of  information  made  available  to  transport  users,  market  operators  and 
Member States is not adequate for them to take well informed decisions. 

293. 

Third, the reaction of Member States has been mostly unilateral and uncoordinated. 
As a result, solidarity between Member States was limited, and where existent, only 
level.  Increased  cooperation  would  have  accelerated 
occurred  at  bilateral 

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considerably the recovery phase and would have allowed the re-routing of transport 
users in a more effective and timely manner. 

294. 

295. 

In  the  aftermath  of  the  ash  cloud  crisis,  the  European  Commission  proposed  the 
development of an EU-wide mobility plan for passengers and goods to be activated 
in  case  of  a  sudden  transport  crisis  in  the  EU  triggered  by  natural  or  man-made 
disasters or terrorist attacks. 

Among the measures aimed at preserving the mobility of passengers and goods in a 
crisis situation, the Commission will explore possible ways to enhance the level of 
preparedness of the different actors concerned, including Member States, industry 
and  international  partners,  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  information  management 
and  to  improve  institutional  cooperation.  The  temporary  lifting  of  operational 
restrictions such as night flight restrictions or weekend bans for trucks could also be 
envisaged to facilitate the full use of remaining capacity for the transport of goods. 

23. Mobility Continuity Plans 

•  Ensure the definition of mobility plans to ensure service continuity in case of disruptive 
events.  The  plans  should  address  the  issue  of  prioritisation  in  the  use  of  working 
facilities,  the  cooperation  of  infrastructure  managers,  operators,  national  authorities  and 
neighbouring countries, and the temporary adoption or relaxation of specific rules.  

2. 

INNOVATING FOR THE FUTURE: TECHNOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR 

296. 

297. 

Changing  the  current  transport  paradigm,  and  achieving  the  goals  presented  in 
Section  II.3  with  respect  to  the  development  and  deployment  of  sustainable  fuels 
and propulsion systems and to the improvements in the efficiency of transport and 
of  infrastructure  use,  cannot  rely  on  a  single  technological  solution,  but  rather 
requires a new concept of mobility supported by a cluster of new technologies.  

It  is  also  important  to  develop  the  related  social,  business  and  organisational 
innovations. Indeed, considering the future challenges, technology can be expected 
not  only  to  help  perform  more  efficiently  the  same  actions  as  today,  but  also  to 
satisfy  the  same  needs  in  different  ways.  For  this  reason,  this  section  brings 
together the technological and behavioural aspects. 

2.1. 

A European Transport Research and Innovation Policy 

298. 

299. 

Technological innovation can help the transition to a more efficient and sustainable 
European  transport  system  by  acting  on  three  main  factors:  vehicles’  efficiency 
through  new  engines,  materials  and  design;  cleaner  energy  use  through  new  fuels 
and  propulsion  systems;  better  use  of  network  and  safer  operations  through 
information and communication systems. 

Until now, transport research and innovation policy did not adequately support the 
development and deployment of the key technologies that are needed to develop the 
EU transport system into a modern, efficient and user-friendly system. A rethink of 
policy  is  therefore  necessary.  A  systems’  approach  is  required,  taking  care  of 

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300. 

301. 

302. 

303. 

infrastructure  and  regulatory  requirements,  coordination  of  multiple  actors  and 
large demonstration projects to encourage market take-up 

Internationally,  Europe  has  to  seek  win-win  cooperation  with  partners  who  are 
already competitors in many fields of transport. In air transport this is the case with 
the USA and especially China. We should promote European standards, supporting 
them  through  public  and  private  partnerships  in  R&D.  In  parallel  we  must  make 
sure  that  the  European  commitment  to  realise  the  Single  European  Sky,  includes 
international  cooperation  in  order  to  ensure  interoperability  across  the  globe. 
Partnerships  such  as  the  EU-USA  Memorandum  of  Cooperation  on  civil  aviation 
research  support  a  strong  and  credible  role  of  Europe  in  global  standard  setting. 
Opportunities for a global approach are to be explored as regards the development 
and uptake of sustainable low-carbon fuels in aviation. 

In rail, the focus is on interaction with Asia, where China appears as a main partner 
and  competitor  especially  regarding  high  speed  trains.  There  is  a  window  of 
opportunity  in  the  next  5  years  to  make  ERTMS  the  international  standard.  That 
will  help  our  rail  equipment  industry  to  compete  in  the  Asian,  US  and  possibly 
Latin America markets. In road transport, Japan is a key partner in the development 
of  alternative  energy  engines  and  in  ITS,  but  cooperation  is  needed  with  multiple 
actors, particularly at demonstration level. Research cooperation on fuels cells for 
heavy duty vehicles proved to be fruitful with Australia and USA. Similar steps can 
be  taken  for  the  development  and  demonstration  of  bio-ethanol  engines,  where 
China  and  Brazil  are  our  key  partners.  In  urban  traffic  and  decarbonisation, 
CIVITAS  FUTURA  will  be  an  area  of  future  development  especially  with 
Mediterranean countries. 

The  automotive  sector  is  considered  one  of  the  largest  corporate  investors  in 
research  and  development.  Other  sectors  of  the  transport  industry,  such  as 
aeronautics,  space,  shipbuilding  and  civil  engineering,  also  make  substantial 
investments  in  the  development  of  new  technologies.  The  energy  industry  is 
investing in research on alternative fuels and delivery systems. However, the efforts 
of  the  industry  are  not  always  successful  because  of  the  difficulties  in  the 
demonstration and pre-commercial phases of the innovation chain, often due to the 
high  number  of  stakeholders  involved  or  to  the  magnitude  of  the  required  efforts 
(for  example,  a  demonstration  project  for  a  new  generation  of  merchant  ships 
would  require  several  hundred  million  Euros).  Initiatives  stimulating  both 
innovation and market take-up are needed to overcome these challenges. 

The  necessary  framework  conditions  must  be  established  in  order  to  support  the 
market  introduction  of  promising  technologies136.  The  European  Union  has  an 
important  role  to  play  through  setting  long-term  objectives,  establishing  open 
standards,  promoting  interoperability,  co-ordinating  expenditures,  encouraging  the 
application  of  best  practices,  and  ultimately  through  defining  a  clear  and  stable 
legal and regulatory framework. The Europe 2020  Flagship  initiative: ‘Innovation 
Europe’ proposes to do so by strengthening every link in the innovation chain. 

136 

COM(2009)  279  final,  Communication  “A  sustainable  future  for  transport:  Towards  an  integrated, 
technology-led and user friendly system”. 

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304. 

A research framework for transport in the form of a Strategic Transport Technology 
Plan (STTP) could contribute to tackling these problems and better align transport 
research  and  innovation  with  EU  objectives.  Following  the  approach  of  the 
Strategic  Energy  Technology  Plan,  the  STTP  would  establish  a  technology 
roadmap  identifying  areas  where  joint  European  research  and  innovation  efforts 
will bring the greatest European added value. 

2.1.1.  Vehicles for the future 

305. 

Vehicles in all transport modes need to become cleaner, safer and more silent. The 
transport system overall will need to become safer and more secure. In many cases, 
the  new  materials,  propulsion  systems  (electric,  fuel  cells,  etc)  and  ICT  tools  to 
manage and integrate the complex systems required for this radical transformation 
have already been developed. The technologies are available but need to make their 
way  promptly  to  wider  deployment.  In  addition  to  supply-side  measures,  green 
public  procurement,  such  as  foreseen  under  the  Clean  Vehicle  Directive  for 
publicly owned fleets, can be an effective instrument137. Generally speaking, public 
and  commercial  fleets  could  become  the  early  adopters  that  are  needed  to  create 
critical  mass.  In  particular,  the  high  potential  of  electromobility,  be  it  through 
hybrid vehicles or pure battery based cars or light commercial vehicles for shorter 
trips, needs to be exploited. 

CO2 and energy efficiency standards 

306. 

307. 

308. 

137 
138 

The success of the EURO standards on conventional pollutants demonstrates that, 
in the presence of market failures, technological standards can be an effective way 
of  accelerating the introduction  of  cleaner vehicles, by providing  fixed  targets  for 
the  industry  and  avoiding  ‘wait  and  see’  strategies  of  manufacturers.  Minimum 
standards  can  thus  be  instrumental  in  maintaining  Europe’s  position  as  a  global 
trend-setter. 

Together with the Climate and Renewable Energy Package of 2009, the EU put in 
place  a  regulation  on  CO2  emission  standards  for  new  passenger  cars,  setting 
binding  targets  for  2012/2015  and  2020.  However,  such  standards  are  currently 
non-existent  for  other  vehicle  categories  and  modes,  such  as  locomotives  and 
railcars, vessels and aircraft.  

A reliable and realistic method is needed to certify the fuel consumption and CO2 
emissions of complete heavy duty vehicles as well as trailers and semitrailers. The 
Commission  has  started  work  on  the  development  of  such  a  method.  As  for  rail 
vehicles, the average weight – and thus energy consumption – has been increasing 
over  time  due  to  a  perceived  need  to  improve  ride  comfort138.  Whereas  an 

Cf. Clean Vehicle Portal: www.cleanvehicle.eu 
According to a recent study, a 10% increase in train mass resulted in energy consumption increases of 
0.5-1%  for  high-speed  trains;  2-3%  for  long  distance/conventional  trains;  5-7%  for  suburban  trains 
and 6-8% for urban trains. Hazeldine, Pridmore, Nelissen and Hulskotte (2009) Technical Options to 
reduce  GHG 
for  non-Road  Transport  Modes.  Paper  3  produced  as  part  of  contract 
ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053  between  European  Commission  Directorate-General  Environment  and 
AEA  Technology  plc;  http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/UPDATED-EU-Transport-
GHG-2050-Paper-3-Technical-options-for-non-road-modes-30-10-09.pdf  

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309. 

310. 

311. 

improvement  in  energy  efficiency  has  not  been  a  main  concern  of  the  rail  sector, 
the situation might well change in the future139. 

The  International  Maritime  Organisation  has  prepared  a  draft  text  on  mandatory 
requirements  for  an  Energy  Efficiency  Design  Index  for  new  vessels  and  on  the 
Ship  Energy  Efficiency  Management  Plan  for  all  ships  in  operation.  While 
agreement on these items could not yet be reached, the EU will continue to work 
towards  adoption  of  the  index,  as  it  will  continue  to  actively  support  a  global 
agreement on tackling CO2 emissions. 

As regards air transport, the ICAO Assembly has requested the development of “a 
global CO2 standard for aircraft” by 2013140. The Commission will provide its full 
support to the international negotiations. 

The  energy  efficiency  of  vehicles  should  continue  increasing  in  the  long  term  to 
ensure  that  the  available  energy  supply  from  alternative  fuels  can  match  the 
expected  increase  in  transport  demand.  Presently  implemented  and  proposed  CO2 
standards  imply  limits  on  energy  consumption  only  as  long  as  the  main  supply 
comes  from  fossil  sources.  With  decreasing  CO2  intensity  of  transport  fuels,  fuel 
consumption  could  go  up  again.  Therefore,  energy  efficiency  standards  may  in 
future need to replace the present CO2 standards. The combination of targets for the 
CO2 intensity of transport fuels and standards for the energy efficiency of vehicles 
should  ensure  that  the  two  objectives  of  decarbonisation  of  transport  and 
substitution  of  oil  by  alternative  fuels  are  achieved  simultaneously,  and  in  a  cost 
efficient way.  

Standards for controlling noise pollution 

312. 

The  World  Health  Organisation  concluded  that  noise  has  emerged  as  the  leading 
environmental  nuisance  and  represents  the  third  biggest  environmental  burden  of 
disease  (after  air  pollution  and  exposure  to  Second  Hand  Smoke)141.  Transport 
noise,  particularly  from  road  traffic,  but  also  from  rail  and  aviation,  is  a  major 
contributor to noise pollution in urban areas. While type-approval noise limits for 
road vehicles, including their tyres, have been tightened over the years, the overall 
exposure  to  noise  generated  by  road  vehicles  has  not  improved  due  to  increasing 
traffic  volumes.  Electric  or  hybrid  vehicles  could  help  in  providing  a  solution. 
Noise pollution from railways remains one of the main barriers for expanding their 
use  in  urban  areas  and  along  densely  populated  rail  freight  corridors;  and  aircraft 

139 

140 
141 

According  to  a  study,  aluminium  car  bodies,  articulated  trains  and  lightweight  coach  interior 
equipment  could  each  achieve  weight  savings  of  2%  to  5%  on  a  single  vehicle  and  1%  to  2%  if 
applied to the whole fleet. It was estimated that double deck trains and wide body trains could achieve 
savings greater than 10% on a single vehicle and 2% to 5% for the whole fleet. The same study also 
proposed  benchmarks  in  terms  of  ‘best  in  class’  weight  per  seat.  CE  Delft  suggested  that  for  high-
speed  trains  (where  a  higher  mass  is  necessary  for  stability)  the  Japanese  Shinkansen  at  537kg/seat 
should be the target. In contrast, for suburban trains 342kg/seat would be the benchmark. Buurgaard 
Neilsen et al (2005) Tracks for Energy Saving, CE Delft in: Hazeldine et al. 2009. 
2010 ICAO Assembly Resolution (A37-19) paragraph 24(e). 
Health  and  environment  in  Europe:  Progress  assessment,  Copenhagen,  WHO  Regional  Office  for 
Europe  2010;  http://www.euro.who.mťen/what-we-do/health-topics/envirorimental-health/Climate-
change/publications/2010/health-and-environment-in-europe-progress-assessment  

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noise  is  often  the  reason  for  the  difficulty  of  expanding  airport  capacity  at  major 
European hubs. 

313.  Moreover  the  role  of  L-category  vehicles  (mopeds,  motorcycles,  quads  etc.)  is  of 

particular importance for certain conventional pollutants and noise142. 

314. 

It is also crucial that the method of measurement of energy consumption, noise and 
air  pollutant  emissions  fully  reflects  real  world  use  in  order  to  avoid  perverse 
incentives for manufacturers143. 

Potential new or unconventional transport systems and vehicles  

315. 

Looking  forty  years  ahead,  it  can  be  foreseen  that  certain  radically  new 
technologies  and  concepts  will  emerge  over  the  next  decades.  Based  on  a  recent 
assessment carried out for the Commission144, it has been found that in particular in 
road transport there appears to be the largest number of options145. In rail transport, 
magnetic levitation seems to be the only technology that could be deployable at a 
relatively  early  stage  in  light  of  the  experience  of  Transrapid  and  recent 
developments in Japan146. In waterborne transport mainly wind-based concepts but 
also  LNG  and  nuclear  energy  could  have  a  significant  impact  on  emissions  and 
appear to be deployable in the medium-term. Widespread deployment of many of 
the  unconventional  technologies  for  aviation  seems  however  unlikely  until  2050, 
although  the  development  of  alternative  fuels  for  aviation  is  accelerating.  Other 
possibilities  such  as  unmanned  airborne  vehicles  and  unconventional  freight 
delivery systems (pneumatic pipelines etc) could be more closely examined in this 
context.  

2.1.2.  A comprehensive alternative fuel strategy 

316. 

The transport sector is for 96% dependent on oil. Alternative long-term options for 
substituting  oil  as  energy  source  for  propulsion  in  transport  are  electricity, 
hydrogen,  and  liquid  biofules.  Synthetic  fuels  can  be  seen  as  a  technology  bridge 

142 

143 

144 

145 
146 

For example, hydrocarbons emitted by L-category vehicles are estimated to reach approximately 55% 
of total hydrocarbon emissions of the road transport sector by 2020, if no additional measures will be 
introduced. This is mainly due to the significant reductions of hydrocarbon emissions from the other 
road  transport  categories.  Mopeds  are  already  today  one  of  the  most  significant  contributors  to 
hydrocarbon emissions, anticipated to be at 36% of total emissions by road transport by 2012. 
The  average  efficiency  of  an  engine  is  strongly  related  to  the  way  it  is  used.  In  Europe,  the  New 
European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is the official driving cycle used for vehicle type approval, but there 
is some discrepancy (typically 10-20%) between the fuel consumption as measured on the NEDC and 
that in real world driving Sharpe, R.B.A. (2009) Technical options for fossil fuel based road transport 
Paper  produced  as  part  of  contract  ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053  between  European  Commission 
Directorate-General Environment and AEA Technology plc. 
http://eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/EU-Transport-GHG-2050-Paper-1-Technical-options-for-f-
fuel-road-transport-11-02-10.pdf 
Wynn, D and Hill, N. (2010) Review of potential radical future transport technologies and concepts. 
Task  9  Report  VI  produced  as  part  of  contract  ENV.C.3/SER/2008/0053  between  European 
Commission 
plc; 
Technology 
http://www.eutransportghg2050.eu/cms/assets/EU-Transport-GHG-2050-Report-VI-Radical-
technologies-and-concepts-04-06-10-FINAL.pdf 
EXPLAIN: dual mode transit, electric trolley-trucks, self-drive vehicles 
http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/company/others/eco-report/_pdf/p38-p41.pdf; 
http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nb20080826a3.html 

Directorate-General 

Environment 

AEA 

and 

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317. 

318. 

319. 

320. 

from  fossil  to  biomass-based  fuels;  methane  (natural  gas  and  biomethane)  as  a 
complementary fuel; and LPG as supplement. 

The  different  transport  modes,  require  different  options  for  alternative  fuels.  It  is 
generally  thought  that  road  transport  could  be  powered  by  electricity  over  short 
distances,  hydrogen  and  methane  up  to  medium  distances,  and  biofuels/synthetic 
fuels, LNG and LPG over long distances. Railways could be further electrified or 
use biofuels. Biomass-derived kerosene appears, at the moment, the only alternative 
for  aviation.  Waterborne  transport  could  be  powered  by  biofuels  (all  vessels), 
hydrogen (inland waterways and small boats), LPG and LNG (short sea shipping), 
LNG and nuclear (deep sea). 

There are growing indications that the indirect land use impact of first generation 
biofuels might question  the GHG  benefits of some of  these fuels.  More advanced 
biofuels, based on waste and algae and requiring less primary resources, will need 
to come to market, and their use should focus on the modes where the use of non-
liquid  fuels  can  not  be  an  alternative,  such  as  aviation  and  long-distance  road 
transport. Hydrogen and fuel cell technology development and market preparation 
are  supported  by  a  Joint  Technology  Initiative.  The  European  Green  Cars 
initiative147 gives priority support to electric vehicles and the further optimisation of 
the  internal  combustion  engine.  The  Commission  is  also  undertaking  a  study  to 
investigate  the  feasibility  and  the  impact  of  the  use  of  alternative  fuels  in 
aviation148. 

Reaching a higher share of alternative fuels in transport’s energy demand has long 
been one of the EU’s policy objectives due to growing concerns about security of 
energy supply. However, the market uptake of alternative fuels has been slow and 
fragmented across Member States149. 

As part of the Climate and Renewable Energy Package of 2009, the EU has agreed 
on  a  binding  target  requiring  that  the  share  of  renewable  energy  reaches  10%  by 
2020  in  the  final  energy  use  of  transport150,  and  that  fuel  suppliers  progressively 
reduce  the  greenhouse  gas  intensity  of  the  energy  that  they  supply  for  the  road 
sector  to  achieve  a  6%  lower  GHG  intensity  by  2020.  To  achieve  these  targets 
Member  States  have  been  providing  financial  incentives,  as  currently  available 
alternatives are not price competitive with oil. 

321. 

In order to further facilitate the efforts of Member States, and of the transport and 
energy  industry,  the  Commission  will  put  forward  in  the  second  half  of  2011  a 
comprehensive alternative fuel strategy that is in line with the objective of resource-

http://www.green-cars-initiative.eu. 
SWAFEA–Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy for Aviation  

147 
148 
http://www.swafea.eu/Home/tabid/38/Default.aspx 
149 

Liquefied  petroleum  gas  (LPG)  was  the  first  alternative  fuel  in  the  market;  it  has  currently  a  total 
share  of  3%  and  it  is  offered  at  27,000  filling  stations  in  Europe,  particularly  in  the  Netherlands, 
Poland and Bulgaria. Natural gas has been introduced as motor fuel first in Italy in the 1940s, but has 
then  remained  at  a  constant  market  share  of  around  2%;  a  strong  build-up  of  natural  gas  filling 
stations and cars has been seen in Germany in recent years. Biofuels benefited strongly from subsidies 
in Sweden and Germany. 
Directive 2009/28/EC of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources 
and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC. 

150 

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322. 

323. 

efficiency  of  the  Europe  2020  strategy,  and  will  help  the  EU  to  put  an  end  to  oil 
dependency in the longer term. 

EU  action  is  particularly  necessary  as  high-level  coordination  is  required  across 
multiple policy areas – transport, energy, climate and environment, industrial, trade, 
agriculture, employment, health and consumers, research – and stakeholders – the 
automotive  industry  (vehicle  manufacturers  and  suppliers),  fuel  and  energy 
suppliers,  grid  managers,  component  manufacturers,  infrastructure  managers, 
network operators, scientific and standardisation bodies, EU, national and regional 
authorities, municipalities and consumers. 

The  relationship  between  vehicles  capable  of  running  on  alternative  fuels  and  the 
appropriate  refuelling  infrastructure  is  often  described  as  a  ‘chicken  and  egg’ 
problem.  The  EU  should  take  a  leading  role  by  working  with  Member  States  at 
national  and  regional  levels  on  the  gradual  build-up  of  charging  and  refuelling 
infrastructures. Ensuring interoperability and reliability is required for the EU-wide 
free  circulation  of  vehicles,  vessels  and  aircraft  that  are  powered  by  alternative 
fuels.  Not  only  the  road  network,  but  airports  and  ports  will  need  to  be  upgraded 
and modernised in order to allow for the transition.  

2.1.3.  Permeating the transport system with advanced information technology  

Further developing the modal systems… 

324.  Many  applications  of  ICT  (Information  and  Communication  Technology)  to 
transport exist in all modes and prove their utility in improving transport efficiency 
by  making  vehicles  and  the  infrastructure  more  intelligent.  Increasingly,  these 
systems  are  also  at  the  heart  of  market  integration  since  they  are  essential  to 
transport  operations  and  the  lack  of  interoperability  creates  a  barrier  between 
borders.  On  the  other  hand  ICT  can  simplify  and  harmonise  administrative 
procedures and thus reduce the cost associated to trans-border operations. 

325. 

326. 

327. 

In  road  transport,  Intelligent  Transport  Systems  (ITS)  are  an  important  tool  to 
achieve  policy  objectives,  such  as  increased  safety  and  lower  congestion,  as 
underlined in the Action Plan for the Deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems 
in Europe (the ITS Action Plan151) and the related ITS Directive152.  

Overall it is estimated that the benefit of ITS in terms of road safety and congestion 
on roads can amount to a 10% reduction in fatalities per year (3,500 lives) and 10% 
reduction  in  congestion  costs  (€  12.3  billion).  In  addition  ITS  can  contribute  to 
environmental  and  climate  change  objectives  through  the  improvement  of  energy 
efficiency,  a  more  efficient  use  of  infrastructure  and  vehicle  capacity,  and  by 
allowing to choose the most efficient transport mode for a given route. 

In the last decade, on-board telematic units have been introduced in road vehicles to 
control,  report,  command  or  record  events.  Specific  applications  exist  for 
commercial  vehicles  such  as  the  digital  tachograph,  or  electronic  tolling.  For 
passenger  vehicles  more  and  more  sophisticated  applications  are  added  to  the 

151 
152 

Cf. footnote 133. 
Cf. footnote 134.  

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existing  control  functions.  Work  to  try  and  standardise  the  interfaces  of  such  in-
vehicle platform and, ideally, to build an architecture that would enable the parallel 
operation  of  different  such  applications  (safety,  tolling,  information,  etc…)  on 
single open platform is ongoing. 

328. 

Indeed,  a  critical  success  factor  for  the  wide-spread  introduction  of  road  user 
charging will be the ability to provide road users with one single electronic tolling 
service.  Today  a  truck  from  Lisbon  to  Bratislava  via  Lyon,  Milan,  Munich  and 
Vienna needs at least 7 different contracts with toll operators and 7 on-board units, 
and this in addition to at least a digital tachograph and an on-board computer. To 
avoid  such  a  proliferation  of  devices  and  simplify  the  life  of  drivers,  the  EU  has 
already  adopted  a  Directive  setting  up  a  European  Electronic  Toll  Service  which 
now needs rapid implementation153. 

329.  Work to standardise the interfaces of an electronic in-vehicle platform and, ideally, 
to  build  an  architecture  that  would  enable  the  parallel  operation  of  different 
applications  (safety,  tolling,  information,  etc…),  has  been  the  subject  of  past 
research  projects  and  is  currently  been  further  analysed  within  the  context  of  the 
ITS Action plan. The automotive industry and the telecom sector have been coming 
closer to each other to address such issue, but a clear regulatory boost is necessary 
to promote the introduction of such platform on all vehicles by 2020. 

330. 

331. 

Building on this platform, relying on the regulatory framework for the exchange of 
transport and data  information, it is also important to deploy  a  set of mature road 
ITS applications for which specifications are being designed from the ITS Directive 
and  should  be  ready  by  2014.  The  harmonised  deployment  of  critical  road  safety 
and  security-related  information  services  must  be  ensured  by  appropriate  legal 
instrument. 

the 

road 

information  between  vehicles  and 

The  development  of  cooperative  Intelligent  Transport  Systems,  based  on  an 
infrastructure 
exchange  of 
(infrastructure to infrastructure (I2I), vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle to 
vehicle (V2V) communications), is progressing rapidly. In addition to the required 
technical feasibility, it is essential to evaluate the impact of the introduction of such 
systems  to  the  wider  community  of  stakeholders,  and  notably  road  infrastructure 
authorities  and  telecom  operators.  Building  on  the  results  of  EU-funded  research 
projects,  field  operational  trials,  current  standardisation  work,  and  relying  on 
specifications  to  be  developed  through  the  ITS  Directive,  the  Commission  will 
further  support  the  development  of  such  systems,  leading  to  a  viable  deployment 
model by 2020. 

332. 

In rail transport, control-command and signalling, as well as traffic management 
systems  are  still  often  incompatible  between  Member  States  and  represent  one  of 
the reasons borders are still a major barrier, hampering the development of rail in 
Europe. This has led to the creation of a European Railways Traffic Management 
System (ERTMS). Today, ERTMS encompasses two main components: 

153 

(EETS)  –  Directive  2004/52/EC  on  the  interoperability  of  electronic  road  toll  systems  in  the 
Community, OJ L166 of 30.4.2004. 

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–  GSM-R,  the  radio  system  used  for  exchanging  voice  and  data  information 

between the track and the train; 

–  ETCS,  the  European  Train  Control  System154,  harmonising  the  speed  control 
systems,  the  divergences  in  which  constitute  today  one  of  the  major  technical 
problems for trains running on international routes. It is made up of an on-board 
and a trackside module. 

333. 

Signalling  systems  bring  about  considerable  economic  advantages  because  they 
allow more trains to operate safely on a given section of track than would otherwise 
be  possible  with  other  methods  of  safe  working.  ERTMS  will  replace  the  many 
incompatible systems that exist on the European network by a single system which 
is more modern, more sophisticated, safer and compatible at EU level. 

334.  With  a  view  to  ensure  that  the  main  European  lines  are  equipped  within  a 
reasonable time period, the Commission has set concrete requirements for lines to 
be  equipped  by  specific  dates155.  In  practice,  the  main  freight  hubs  should  be 
interconnected over the period 2015-2020. 

335. 

336. 

337. 

154 

155 

156 

Furthermore,  there  will  be  a  need  to  develop  the  next  generation  of  rail  traffic 
management  systems  which  will  contribute  to  transform  the  present  technologies 
into an integrated rail traffic management system. 

Also  in  waterborne  transport  the  use  of  ICT  tools  can  lead  to  optimisation  of 
routes  and  better  fleet  and  cargo  planning.  This  is  indeed  one  of  the  aims  of  e-
Maritime  and  of  River  Information  Services.  The  advantages  of  the  e-Maritime 
initiative  in  reducing  administrative  costs  in  shipping  were  described  in  section  0 
above. 

River  Information  Services  (RIS)  stands  for  harmonised  information  services  in 
support  of  traffic  and  transport  management  in  inland  navigation,  providing 
geographical,  hydrological  and  administrative  information  on  the  waterway  and 
enables  the  electronic  reporting  of  cargo  and  voyage  data  and  the  tracking  and 
tracing  of  vessels.  The  information  provided  supports  amongst  others  navigation, 
traffic  management,  accident  abatement,  fleet  management,  transport  planning, 
execution  and  monitoring156.  Some  studies  on  inland  waterways  transport  report 
that  through  such  measures  a  reduction  in  emissions  of  around  40%  could  be 
possible.  

Decision  2006/679/EC  concerning  the  technical  specification  for  interoperability  relating  to  the 
control-command  and  signalling  subsystem  of  the  trans-European  conventional  rail  system  and 
Decision  2006/860/EC  concerning  the  technical  specification  for  interoperability  relating  to  the 
control-command and signalling subsystem of the trans-European high-speed rail system, 
Commission Decision of 22.7.2009 amending Decision 2006/679/EC as regards the implementation 
of  the  technical  specification  for  interoperability  relating  to  the  control-command  and  signalling 
subsystem of the trans-European conventional rail system. 
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/rail/interoperability/ertms/doc/edp/edp_en.pdf.  
RIS  are  regulated  through  Directive  2005/44/EC  –  which  defines  binding  rules  for  data 
communication and RIS equipment as well as the minimum level of RIS Services – and through the 
Commission  Regulations  defining  the  technical  guidelines  and  specifications  identified  under  the 
Directive. The Directive provides the framework for the deployment of harmonised and interoperable 
RIS systems and services.  

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338.  Maximising the benefits of RIS require a continued deployment of RIS services and 
systems,  the further development of services and specifications, the integration of 
new  technologies,  the  exploitation  of  RIS  data  for  logistical  purposes  and  the 
interoperability  and  interconnectivity  with  other  modal  traffic  and  transport 
management  systems  such  as  SafeSeaNet  to  achieve  continuous  monitoring  and 
support to sea-river transport. 

339. 

In aviation, SESAR is the technological component of the Single European Sky – 
as described in Section 0 above – and the best example of how traffic management 
systems  underpin  market  integration.  Indeed,  because  of  the  global  nature  of  air 
transport,  interoperability  issues  go  beyond  the  EU.  Cooperation  with  the  US 
NextGen157 is becoming operational, and the two world regions will lead the overall 
ATM modernisation and performance improvement at global (ICAO) level. Europe 
has therefore a unique chance to determine new global standards. Cooperation with 
further  international  partner  countries  will  open  business  opportunities  for  the 
European industry. 

340. 

The  case  of  aviation  is  not  isolated.  In  maritime,  rail  and  road  there  are  also 
opportunities to develop products that set international standards and open up new 
markets for EU manufacturers.  

…and 
Multimodal Information and Management Plan (EIMIP) 

integrating  them 

in  a  common  framework:  the  European  Integrated 

341. 

342. 

One fundamental barrier affecting equally the transport of passengers and of freight 
is the limited or very inefficient, if at all existent, exchange of operational, traffic 
and travel data among the various stakeholders, even more so across the modes of 
transport. This is no longer viable in a world where, increasingly, transport is not 
only about moving people or goods from point A to point B, but about knowing in 
real time where people and goods are. 

For  multimodal  freight  operations,  knowing  the  exact  location  and  real-time 
capacity  of  multimodal  exchange  platforms  between  rail,  road  and  inland  water 
transport  would  allow  an  optimised  planning  of  freight  transport  operations, 
including  the  cross-modal  end-to-end  traceability  of  the  transported  goods. 
Likewise,  for  passengers  transport  it  is  no  longer  acceptable  that  road  traffic 
information or traffic management remain confined to a single regional centre and 
are not shared with the adjacent conurbations or regions. Similarly, passengers on a 
given  journey  should  dispose  of  all  possible  real-time  information  (e.g.  on  train, 
metro, parking, car-sharing, bicycle sharing) to allow them to select ‘en-route’ the 
best possible travel option. 

343. 

For both freight and passenger transport, users want to be able to buy multimodal 
transport  services  through  integrated  ticketing.  Whereas  specific  initiatives  have 
been  taken  to  improve  the  situation  and  which  should  lead  to  preliminary  results, 

157 

NextGen is an umbrella term for the ongoing transformation of the United States National Airspace 
System basically shifting the ground-based system of air traffic control to a satellite-based system of 
air traffic management. http://www.faa.gov/nextgen/ 

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mostly  at  modal  level  by  2015158,  the  general  availability,  interoperability  and 
sharing by stakeholders of the relevant transport data and information, which would 
facilitate  and  boost  the  creation  and  uptake  of  ICT  solutions,  is  still  missing. 
Building  on  those  initiatives,  it  is  crucial  to  set  the  general  framework  that  will 
complement and foster synergies between all existing initiatives in all modes. 

344. 

Accompanied  by  an  appropriate  regulatory  framework,  a  “European  Integrated 
Multimodal Information and Management Plan” (EIMIP) based on common open 
platforms  for  radio  navigation,  positioning,  transport  and  traffic  management  and 
information  systems  would  ensure  a  coordinated  use  of  scarce  resources  and 
provide integrated intermodal travel information and other value added services to 
citizens and companies. 

Fostering innovation and deployment of urban transport technologies 

345. 

Satellite-based  applications,  on-board  equipment,  public  transport  electronic 
ticketing, electric networked vehicles, fuel cells, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Personal 
Rapid  Transit  (PRT),  freight  pipelines…:  there  are  many  new  technologies  and 
organisational innovations that could contribute to reducing congestion, emissions 
and  to  improve  mobility  in  urban  areas.  Typically,  innovations  and  new 
technologies in transport require critical mass adoption and the adaptation/upgrade 
of  the  transport  and  energy  infrastructure.  This  can  be  a  long-term  process  and  is 
not  without  risk  of  stranded  investments.  As  part  of  their  strategy  for  minimising 
risk,  cities  should  support  each  other  in  implementing  and  evaluating  cost  and 
benefits of new concepts. 

346.  Market  deployment  requires  multi-stakeholder  co-operation,  involving  technology 
providers,  energy  and  infrastructure  providers  and  cities  themselves  –  as  well  as 
support  from  financial  bodies.  The  Commission  will  look  at  ways  of  fostering 
partnerships  for  smart  mobility  and  of  building  consensus  on  future  deployment 
pathways. 

347. 

Large  scale  demonstrations  of  new  technologies  are  necessary  to  prove  their 
benefits, viability and users’ acceptance under a broad range of different conditions. 
They  are  key  in  preparing  the  ground  for  deployment.  The  CIVITAS  initiative 
demonstrated  the  advantage  of  combining  supportive  policy  measures  with 
technology demonstrators. 

24. A technology roadmap 

Fragmentation  of  research  and  development  efforts  in  Europe  is  most  harmful,  and  joint 
European efforts will bring the greatest European added value in areas such as: 

•  Clean, safe and silent vehicles for all different modes of transport, from road vehicles to 
ships, barges, rolling stock in rail and aircraft (including new materials, new propulsion 

158 

For  example,  the  ITS  Directive  for  road,  the  eFreight  initiative  for  freight  transport,  e-maritime 
initiative to be launched soon or TAP-TSI (Telematic Applications for Passenger Services) and TAF-
TSI  (Technical  Specifications  of  Interoperability  on  Telematic  Applications  for  Freight)  for  the  rail 
sector. 

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systems  and  the  IT  and  management  tools  to  manage  and  integrate  complex  transport 
systems).  

•  Technologies to improve transport security and safety.  

•  Potential  new  or  unconventional  transport  systems  and  vehicles  such  as  unmanned 

aircraft systems, unconventional systems for goods distribution,…  

•  A sustainable alternative fuels strategy including also the appropriate infrastructure. 

•  Integrated  transport  management  and  information  systems,  facilitating  smart  mobility 
services,  traffic  management  for  improved  use  of  infrastructure  and  vehicles,  and  real-
time  information  systems  to  track  and  trace  freight  and  to  manage  freight  flows; 
passenger/travel information, booking and payment systems. 

•  Intelligent infrastructure (both land and space-based) to ensure maximum monitoring and 
inter-operability  of  the  different  forms  of  transport  and  communication  between 
infrastructure and vehicles. 

•  Innovations  for  sustainable  urban  mobility  following  up  the  CIVITAS  programme  and 

initiatives on urban road pricing and access restriction schemes. 

25. An innovation and deployment strategy 

Identify  the  necessary  innovation  strategies  including  the  appropriate  governance  and  the 
financing  instruments  in  order  to  ensure  a  rapid  deployment  of  results  developed  in  the 
research process. Examples are: 

•  Deployment of smart mobility systems such as the air traffic management system of the 
future  (SESAR),  the  European  rail  traffic  management  system  (ERTMS)  and  rail 
information  systems,  maritime  surveillance  systems  (SafeSeaNet),  River  Information 
Services  (RIS),  ITS,  and  the  next  generation  of  multimodal  traffic  management  and 
information systems. 

•  Definition and deployment of an open standard electronic platform for vehicle on board 

units, performing various functions including road charging.  

•  Development  of  a  plan  for  investment  in  new  navigation,  traffic  monitoring  and 
communication  services  to  allow  for  the  integration  of  information  flows,  management 
systems  and  mobility  services  based  on  a  European  Integrated  Multimodal  Information 
and management Plan. Demonstration projects for electro mobility (and other alternative 
fuels) including recharging and refuelling infrastructure and intelligent transport systems 
focussing  in  particular  on  those  urban  areas  where  air  quality  levels  are  frequently 
exceeded. 

•  Smart  mobility  partnerships  and  demonstration  projects  for  sustainable  urban  transport 

solutions (including demonstrators for road pricing schemes etc). 

•  Measures to promote increased replacement rate of inefficient and polluting vehicles.  

26. A regulatory framework for innovative transport 

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Identify  the  necessary  regulatory  framework  conditions  through  standardisation  or 
regulation:  

•  Appropriate  standards  for  CO2  emissions  of  vehicles  in  all  modes,  where  necessary 
supplemented  by  requirements  on  energy  efficiency  to  address  all  types  of  propulsion 
systems; 

•  Vehicle standards for noise emission levels; 

•  Ensure that CO2 and pollutant emissions are reduced under real-world driving conditions 

by proposing at the latest by 2013 a revised test cycle to measure emissions; 

•  Public procurement strategies to ensure rapid up take of new technologies; 

•  Rules on the interoperability of charging infrastructure for clean vehicles;  

•  Guidelines and standards for refuelling infrastructures;  

•  Interface  standards  for  infrastructure-to-infrastructure,  vehicle-to-infrastructure,  and 

vehicle-to-vehicle communications; 

•  Access conditions to transport data for safety and security purposes; 

•  Specifications and conditions for transport related smart charging and payment systems; 

•  Better implementation of existing rules and standards.  

2.2. 

Promoting more sustainable behaviour 

348. 

349. 

User  behaviour  plays  a  determining  role  in  the  success  or  failure  of  new 
technologies. Users, apart from ‘early adopters’, are often unwilling to change their 
customary  way  of  travelling  and  transporting  goods,  whereas  the  uptake  of  new 
technologies  might  require  modifying  deep-rooted  habits.  For  example,  although 
electric vehicles already on the market may not be suitable for long-distance travel, 
they  respond  to  the  needs  of  urban  mobility  and  their  use  would  greatly  benefit 
local air quality. However, users of electric cars would have to accept switching to 
another  vehicle  or  to  public  transport  means  for  their  long-distance  journeys.  A 
different approach toward ownership of personal vehicles might also be warranted. 
Such difficulties linked to various aspects of our behaviour need to be recognised 
and further explored in order to make progress towards sustainable mobility. 

Another aspect is that of information and perception. Transport users, customers of 
equipment  and  even  operators  may  not  have  the  ability  of  making  truly  informed 
decisions for lack of relevant, correct and well presented data. Wrong perception or 
uncertainty  may  also  influence  decisions,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the 
overestimation  of  waiting  times  for  public  transport.  The  integrated  ticketing 
system  outlined  in  Section  1.5.2  is  an  essential  way  to  increase  awareness  of  the 
users on the various options to complete their journeys. 

27. Travel information 

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•  Promote awareness of the availability of alternatives to individual conventional transport 

(drive less, walk and cycle, car sharing, park & drive, intelligent ticketing etc.). 

2.2.1.  Fuel and vehicle efficiency labelling 

350. 

Information on the relative performance of vehicles is particularly effective at the 
time of purchase. The car labelling Directive 1999/94/EC establishes requirements 
for  the  provision  of  consumer  information  for  cars.  However  analyses159  have 
indicated that the implementation of this Directive may not have been as effective 
as  desired.  In  addition,  a  more  uniform  approach  to  the  provision  of  information 
and a widening of the scope to other classes of vehicles could be desirable. 

28. Vehicle labelling for CO2 emissions and fuel efficiency 

•  Review the labelling Directive to make it more effective. This will, inter alia, consider the 
extension  of  the  scope  to  light  commercial  and  L-category  vehicles,  and  the 
harmonisation  of  the  label  and  vehicles  fuel  efficiency  classes  throughout  the  Member 
States. 

•  Support  the  market  take-up  of  fuel  efficient,  safe  and  low-noise  tyres  beyond  the 

performance requirements set in type approval160.  

2.2.2.  A certified carbon footprint calculator 

351. 

Carbon- and environmental foot-printing of transport services is an area where a lot 
of  initiatives  from  the  industry  are  already  taking  place.  However  many  schemes 
have  been  developed  by  individual  companies  and  do  not  provide  data  that  is 
comparable  with  that  from  other  schemes.  Efforts  are  under  way  to  develop 
standardised methodologies and their rapid completion is desirable to provide a tool 
to companies wishing to procure less environmentally damaging transport services 
and to passengers wanting to travel in a more environmentally friendly way. 

29. Carbon footprint calculators 

•  Encourage  business-based  GHG  certification  schemes  and  develop  common  EU 
standards in order to estimate the carbon footprint of each passenger and freight journey 
with  versions  adapted  to  different  users  such  as  companies  and  individuals.  This  will 
allow better choices and easier marketing of cleaner transport solutions. 

2.2.3.  Lower speeds for cleaner and safer transport 

352. 

Over  the  course  of  the  last  two  centuries,  slower  transport  modes  have  gradually 
been  replaced  by  faster  ones.  Based  on  the  quasi-constancy  of  time  budgets  of 
around 1 hour per day, travelling at higher speed allowed people and goods to cover 

159 

160 

ADAC e.V., 2005, Study on the effectiveness of Directive 1999/94/EC relating to the availability of 
consumer  information  on  fuel  economy  and  CO2  emissions  in  respect  of  the  marketing  of  new 
passenger cars. http://ec.europa.eu/clima/studies/transport/vehicles/docs/final_report.pdf  
This  includes  the  adoption  of  all  implementing  measures  of  the  tyre  labelling  Regulation  (EC)  No 
1222/2009. It would achieve 5% fuel savings on the total EU fleet by 2020. 

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353. 

354. 

355. 

larger  distances  during  the  same  amount  of  time.  This  clearly  resulted  in  greater 
transport volumes.  

The  relation  between  speed  and  European  mobility  and  social  cohesion  is  an 
element that should be acknowledged. Many Europeans now live and work a great 
distance  away  from  their  home  regions  and  countries  and  from  their  families. 
Increasing the cost and time of travel would negatively affect labour mobility and 
social cohesion.  

At  the  same  time,  it  is  clear  that  reducing  speed  is  an  extremely  effective  way  to 
reduce not only the risk of accidents but also fuel consumption. At the moment, a 
voluntary  agreement  limits  passenger  car  speeds  to  250km/h.  A  reduction  in  the 
maximum designed speed could favour the introduction of lighter, quieter and more 
economical tyres and braking systems. 

The lack of speed limitation in light commercial vehicles (vans) leads to potential 
distortions in decision making in favour of less energy efficient but faster smaller 
vehicles. It may be desirable for such vehicles to be speed limited in the same way 
as heavier commercial vehicles to ensure a level playing field. 

2.2.4.  Eco-driving training and applications  

356. 

In  addition  to  the  regulatory  and  market  instruments  that  provide  incentives  for 
change  in  user  behaviour,  the  deployment  of  Intelligent  Transport  Systems 
themselves,  as  outlined  in  Section  2.1.3,  may  facilitate  this  shift.  A  number  of 
Member  States  already  promote  eco-driving  through  training  or  awareness 
campaigns,  and  the  Commission  supports  eco-driving  dissemination  through 
various projects161 and it may consider the inclusion of eco-driving requirements in 
future revisions of the driving licence Directive162.  

357.  With technological progress in vehicles, the driver’s influence on fuel consumption 
will be, in longer time horizon, diminishing. ITS can however be used to enhance 
the  eco-driving  behaviour  and  especially  secure  its  contribution  to  reducing  GHG 
emissions by direct and real-time feedback to the driver. 

30. Eco-driving and Speed limits 

•  Include  eco-driving  requirements  in  the  future  revisions  of  the  driving  licence  directive 
and take steps to accelerate the deployment of ITS applications in support of eco-driving. 
Fuel  saving  techniques  should  also  be  developed  and  promoted  in  other  modes  –  for 
example continuous descent for aircrafts. 

•  Examine  approaches  to  limit  the  maximum  speed  of  light  commercial  road  vehicles,  in 
order  to  decrease  energy  consumption,  to  enhance  road  safety  and  to  ensure  a  level 
playing field. 

161 
162 

See e.g. Ecodriven at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/intelligent/projects/steer_en.htm. 
Directive 2006/126/EC of 20 December 2006 on driving licences (Recast), OJ L403 of 30.12.2006. 

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2.3. 

Integrated urban mobility 

358. 

359. 

360. 

361. 

Europe’s  cities  are  its  main  engines  of  economic  growth,  but  the  trend  to 
urbanisation  is  leading  to  increased  congestion,  GHG  emissions,  air  pollution, 
noise, wasteful consumption of energy and avoidable associated costs. Some recent 
land-use trends have increased urban sprawl, compromising sustainability.  

A  considerable  part  of  EU  policy  and  legislation  relevant  to  transport  applies  to 
metropolitan as well as to other areas. EU legislation on noise and emissions from 
vehicles  and  air  quality  legislation  are  examples  of  general  legislation  having  its 
primary  effect  in  metropolitan  areas.  Other  examples  are  rules  on  public 
procurement  and  on  public  service  contracts.  The  refinement  and  development  of 
EU legislation will also in the future provide an important contribution to achieving 
transport policy goals in urban and metropolitan areas. 

Action targeted directly at transport in urban and metropolitan areas is however best 
defined and implemented at local level: Europe’s urban areas are diverse and, while 
facing more or less the same challenges under different circumstances, they are at 
different  stages  of  development,  have  different  geographic,  topographic  and 
weather characteristics and have different needs. There is a need to better integrate 
European transport policy with local initiatives, for example within the framework 
of Cohesion Policy. 

In recent years, EU policy and legislation respecting the subsidiarity principle and 
targeting  urban  mobility  have  been  developed  –  including  a  Green  Paper  and  an 
Action  Plan  on  Urban  Mobility163.  Significant  funding  has  been  provided  through 
the Structural and Cohesion Funds164. EU-funded initiatives, often supported by the 
Framework Programmes for research and technological development, have helped 
to develop and evaluate  a  wealth  of innovative approaches. Direct engagement of 
local  authorities  through  the  Covenant  of  Mayors  has  proved  to  be  a  successful 
bottom-up tool to promote sustainable energy, including sustainable transport. The 
CIVITAS Initiative demonstrated the substantial benefits of networking and mutual 
learning 
integrated  approach.  Compatible  rules,  schemes  and 
technologies facilitate implementation and enforcement. Agreeing standards at EU 
level enables volume production resulting in lower costs.  

through  an 

2.3.1.  A new type of urban mobility 

362. 

The necessary transition from a primarily car based personal mobility in cities to a 
mobility based on walking and cycling, high quality public transport and less-used 
and  cleaner  passenger  vehicles  is  the  central  strategic  challenge  for  cities  in  the 
decades to come. In addition to this, cities need to find solutions for a cleaner and 
safer  delivery  of  goods  and  services.  These  transformations  are  not  only  about 
transport,  but  are  basically  a  transition  to  a  new  way  of  life  in  an  urban 
environment. 

163 

164 

Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - Action Plan on Urban Mobility, 
COM/2009/0490 final 
For example, the URBACT II programme which supports exchange and learning between cities, also 
supported transport-related projects. 

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363.  Most cities have been working on elements of this transition for a long time seeking 
to  compromise  quality  of  city  life  and  car  traffic.  Cities  in  the  Netherlands  and 
Denmark have a long tradition for promoting cycling. London and Stockholm are 
two well-known examples of cities applying urban road pricing. Cities with existing 
waterways  are  experimenting  using  them  for  transport  of  passengers,  especially 
commuting. These differentiated experiences constitute a valuable knowledge pool 
for European cities in developing long term sustainable city transport. 

364. 

365. 

366. 

Developing  multi-modality  in  urban  passenger  transport  will  help  facilitate  the 
transition to a more sustainable transport system. The interfaces and links between 
urban  and  interurban  transport,  including  all  the  information  components  as 
reflected in the ITS and Urban Mobility Actions plans, are especially important. 

In  urban  freight  logistics,  research  suggests  that  the  present  management  of 
terminals  and  interchanges  is  often  inefficient.  New  business  models  are  likely  to 
develop.  Land  planning  decisions  on  the  localisation  of  production  and  retail 
activities must be taken jointly with those on transport infrastructure, combining the 
various facilities whenever appropriate and feasible (e.g. shopping malls, car parks 
and collective transport terminals). Key questions are how to attract investors and 
select locations for these facilities, what are the respective roles of the public and 
the  private  sector,  and  what  should  be  the  quality  indicators  for  terminals  and 
interchanges. 

the 

An important prerequisite for using public transport is to be aware of the services 
offered  and 
information  and 
terms  and  conditions.  The  spread  of 
communication  technologies  interconnecting  a  substantial  part  of  the  European 
population  increases  the  possibilities  for  providing  the  consumer  with  relevant 
travel information. Real-time information provided online or at bus and metro stops 
on  the  position  of  vehicles  and  their  arrival  times  provides  vital  information  for 
journey planning. Similarly, mobile devices could provide real time information on 
the cost and speed of reaching a certain destination with different (combination of) 
modes. 

Urban transport governance, Urban Mobility Plans and Mobility Management 

367. 

Achieving  integrated  and  sustainable  urban  transport  is  an  increasingly  complex 
task  which  touches  many  stakeholders  and  interests.  Long  delays  in  planning  are 
often a result of insufficient involvement of relevant actors and stakeholders in the 
planning process. Competencies for policies which impact transport within the city 
often  lie  outside  the  local  government.  A  greater  coordination  of  all  authorities 
having  an  influence  on  the  transport  system  is  highly  desirable,  possibly  bringing 
together  the  responsibilities  for  land-use  and  transport  planning,  public  transport, 
road  use  and  transport  infrastructure.  Equally  desirable  is  an  extension  of  the  co-
ordination  of  such  authorities  beyond  the  strict  city  borders,  so  to  cover  entire 
metropolitan  areas  or  regional  transport  systems  and  their  connection  to  trans-
regional networks. 

368. 

It  is  clear  that  significant  changes  in  urban  mobility  require  comprehensive  and 
integrated  actions  that  bring  together  land-use  planning,  road  use  and  parking, 
transport  pricing,  infrastructure  development,  public  transport  policy  and  much 
more. This has to be accompanied by sound financial planning, securing sources of 

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369. 

370. 

371. 

372. 

funding  and  appropriate  financing  mechanisms.  Auditing  urban  transport  systems 
by  local  authorities  helps  evaluate  the  performance  of  passenger  and  freight 
transport, and identify the main bottlenecks. Urban Mobility Plans are meant to do 
all this, providing a coherent framework for different actions. They also represent a 
primary way to promote walking, cycling and public transport. 

The  preparation  of  Urban  Mobility  Plans  also  offers  an  opportunity  for  dialogue 
with the citizens, for reflection on long term needs and for setting goals. There are 
many cities that establish Urban Mobility Plans, but unfortunately this is not yet the 
norm and this practice needs to be further encouraged. 

It is not for the Commission to develop such Urban Mobility Plans which are to be 
elaborated  under  local,  regional  and  national  institutional  arrangements.  The 
Commission  can  nevertheless  encourage  the  necessary  coordination  by  providing 
improved  forums  for  discussion,  continuing  to  facilitate  the  exchange  of  best 
practices,  so  as  to  engage  cities  in  common  objectives.  An  effective  governance 
structure  and  an  overall  strategic  Urban  Mobility  Plan  should  however  be 
developed  for  projects  being  submitted  to  EU  funding,  under  the  new  principles 
promoted by the 5th Cohesion Report on regional policy instruments.  

Based on the ongoing work under the research project CIVITAS and in the context 
of the Covenant of Mayors, consideration should also be given to the possibility of 
establishing a European framework for such Urban Mobility Plans. This could set 
out a planning process and typology of possible measures stemming from European 
best  practice  to  achieve  sustainable  urban  transport  and  include  monitoring  of  a 
select  number  of  common  targets.  Such  a  European  framework  would  become 
mandatory over time for European cities and support  efforts of local and regional 
authorities to promote more effective urban transport policies. Clearly, the content 
and mix of measures to be set out in individual Mobility Plans would be entirely for 
local and regional authorities to decide. 

Cities  and  urban  areas  play  a  crucial  role  in  the  transformation  towards  a  low 
carbon  society.  They  will  have  to  adapt  their  infrastructure  to  reduce  carbon 
emissions  while  continuing 
to  ensure  citizens’  well-being  and  economic 
performance.  In  particular,  cities  and  urban  areas  will  have  to  reduce  the  energy 
consumption  and  adapt  energy  networks.  The  Commission  intends  to  launch  a 
Smart  Cities  Initiative  during  2011.  This  cross-sectoral  partnership  will  fully 
integrate urban mobility issues. It will reinforce the search for new solutions which 
can  serve  as  examples  for  other  European  cities  and  display  a  high  potential  for 
replication. 

373.  Mobility Management is a narrower concept to manage the demand for car use by 
changing  attitudes  and  travel  patterns.  At  the  core  of  Mobility  Management  are 
‘soft’  measures  like  information  and  communication,  organising  services  and 
coordinating  activities  of  different  partners.  These  soft  measures  often  help  to 
promote ‘hard’ measures – for example by encouraging use of new tram lines, bike 
lanes, park and ride systems, etc. Mobility Management measures (in comparison to 
hard  measures)  do  not  necessarily  require  large  financial  investments  and  often 
have a high benefit-cost ratio. 

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374.  Mobility  Management  is  not  only  a  responsibility  of  local  authorities.  Quite  a 
significant  number  of  companies  and  other  large  employers  have  put  in  place 
initiatives to address  the traffic generated by  their activities and, in particular, the 
traffic generated by their workers and customers. The magnitude of change brought 
about  by  Corporate  Mobility  Management  (CMM)  initiatives  can  be  quite  large 
(15-20%  reduction  in  drive-alone  travel165)  and  cost-effective.  Indeed,  these 
initiatives have the potential to save money for both employers and employees. 

31. Urban Mobility Plans 

•  Establish  procedures  and  financial  support  mechanisms  at  European  level  for  preparing 
Urban  Mobility  Audits,  as  well  as  Urban  Mobility  Plans,  and  set  up  a  European  Urban 
Mobility Scoreboard based on common targets. Examine the possibility of a mandatory 
approach  for  cities  of  a  certain  size,  according  to  national  standards  based  on  EU 
guidelines. 

•  Link regional development and cohesion funds to cities and regions that have submitted a 
current,  and  independently  validated  Urban  Mobility  Performance  and  Sustainability 
Audit certificate. 

•  Examine 

the  possibility  of  a  European  support  framework  for  a  progressive 

implementation of Urban Mobility Plans in European cities.  

•  Integrated urban mobility in a possible Smart Cities Innovation Partnership. 

•  Encourage large employers to develop Corporate/Mobility Management Plans. 

Urban pricing and access rules 

375. 

376. 

Space is a precious commodity in cities. Charging for the use of infrastructure is an 
important element in the decision over the allocation of space to different uses and 
users.  Moreover,  the  scarcity  of  public  funds  to  meet  the  challenges  of  urban 
transport  infrastructure  will  require  the  development  of  innovative  financing 
schemes. Differential charging according to location, time and type of transport can 
be very effective in optimising capacity, promoting sustainable travel patterns, and 
stimulating market deployment of clean and efficient technologies.  

Different  forms  of  urban  pricing  schemes  and  of  access  restrictions  will  probably 
become  more  widespread  and  this  can  be  confusing  to  users  and  even  act  as  a 
barrier  to  the  free  flow  of  goods  and  people.  An  operational  and  technical 
framework  will  likely  enhance  acceptability,  and  interoperability  standards  for 
tolling equipment would enable large scale production of the equipment and reduce 
production costs, while avoiding confusion for users. 

32. An EU framework for urban road user charging 

165 

OECD  /  International  Transport  Forum  (2010),  Effective  Transport  Policies  for  Corporate  Mobility 
Management. 

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•  Develop  a  validated  framework  for  urban  road  user  charging  and  access  restriction 
schemes and their applications, including a legal and validated operational and technical 
framework covering vehicle and infrastructure applications.  

Urban logistics 

377. 

378. 

379. 

Inefficient urban logistic can result from urban circulation of heavy goods vehicles 
(HGV)  used  for  long-distance  freight,  concentration  of  deliveries  at  few  selected 
hours  of  the  day  and  sharing  of  infrastructure  by  local  and  long  distance  traffic. 
Technical and organisational innovation can considerably improve the situation.  

The  design  of  HGV  is  not  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  urban  environment. 
While  the  loading  factors  of  big  trucks  are  optimal  for  consolidated  interurban 
flows,  they  are  too  high  for  the  needs  of  typical  end  customers.  The  use  of  these 
vehicles  for  final  deliveries  implies  a  lot  of  empty  runs  and  the  large  dimensions 
and engines accentuate the problems of congestion and emissions. 

The  transhipment  of  cargo  from  long-distance  trucks  to  cleaner  urban  trucks  and 
vans  performed  in  logistics  centres  located  outside  the  cities  has  the  potential  to 
solve  the  problems  listed above.  Such  consolidation centres already  exist in some 
branches  of  the  economy,  such  as  manufacturing  or  retail  trade,  but  the  practice 
could be extended to other sectors to optimise the functioning of logistics systems; 
some  pilot  projects  support  this  conclusion  with  very  encouraging  results166. 
Consolidation  centres  could  also  develop  as  multimodal  hubs,  facilitating  the 
integration  of  different  transport  modes.  ITS  will  contribute  strongly  to  assuring 
quality and reliability of delivery services whilst optimising capacity and reducing 
trips. 

380.  More  generally,  the  use  of  alternative  vehicles  for  local  distribution  would  have 
various advantages, including silent operation, which could lift objections to night 
deliveries and allow a more balanced use of the network throughout the day167.  

381. 

Another element not to be overlooked is the potential of inland waterways to reduce 
the  traffic  related  to  last-mile  deliveries.  Inland  ports  are  typically  located  very 
close to the city centre and therefore close to the final destination of the transported 
goods. Inland waterways are most effective for bulk transport, which makes them 
particularly well suited for the evacuation of waste or the transport of construction 
materials, two products relevant for urban logistics. However, in many cities inland 
ports are blocked in their development by expanding housing and leisure areas. It is 

166 

167 

A  report  on  the  two  pilot  projects  for  construction  materials  in  the  London  area  (one  for  Heathrow 
airport and one for the city of London) indicated savings amounting to 2% of the overall construction 
costs,  greatly  reduced  loading/unloading  times,  reliability  increase  to  nearly  100%,  a  drop  in  the 
number  of  trucks  by  up  to  68%  and  in  CO2  emissions  by  up  to  75%,  considerably  lower  material 
waste and higher productivity. Construction Logistics Consolidation Centres. An examination of new 
supply  chain  techniques  –  managing  and  handling  construction  materials,  October  2004.  Transport 
for London, London Construction Consolidation Centre, Interim Report, May 2007. 
A pilot project in the Netherland on night deliveries, with silent certified equipment (trucks, forklifts) 
and specially trained drivers, led to considerable time and cost savings – respectively one hour over a 
35  km  distance  and  €  35.000  per 
truck/year  –  with  very  high  social  acceptability. 
www.piek_international.com. 

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382. 

383. 

384. 

385. 

therefore  important  that  cities  reserve  sufficient  space  along  the  river  banks  for 
logistics operations to allow the present and future expansion of inland ports. 

There are many examples of innovative vehicles and transport modes being used in 
urban freight. Local train and subway networks can be used during the night when 
passenger  traffic  is  low168.  Electric  bicycles  and  tricycles  can  access  with  light 
loads  areas  normally  restricted  to  pedestrians169.  These  modes  are  unlikely  to 
become  true  alternatives  to  trucks  for  mainstream  urban  logistics,  but  can 
efficiently complement them for certain specific operations. 

through  adaptation  of 

Traffic  re-organisation 
intelligent 
infrastructure can also be source of optimisation. Multi-use lanes – used for traffic, 
parking  or  loading/unloading  depending  on  the  time  of  the  day  –  have  proven  to 
enhance  the  capacity  of  the  streets170.  More  sophisticated  tools,  such  as  online 
booking  of  time  slots  for  cargo  unloading,  are  currently  being  tested  and  could 
prove efficient. 

the  physical  and 

Finally,  many  companies  from  the  express  delivery  industry  are  investing  in  the 
deployment of automatic collection points, from which recipients can retrieve their 
parcels at their best convenience rather than at a fixed time. The solution could be 
extended to other sectors, such as internet shopping, to reduce unnecessary trips and 
time loss. 

The  innovative  solutions  described  above  have  the  potential  to  considerably 
enhance the efficiency of urban logistics, but their dissemination and market uptake 
take place at a deceivingly slow speed. A major reason for this lies with the conflict 
of  interest  between  different  stakeholders,  and  in  particular  between  logistics 
operators  and  residents.  The  public  authorities  have  a  clear  role  to  balance  the 
different needs at stake and, when needed, to compensate residents for losses they 
incur following the necessary expansion of logistics-related activities. 

33. A strategy for near- ‘zero-emission urban logistics’ 2030 

•  Produce best practice guidelines to better monitor and manage urban freight flows (e.g. 
consolidation  centres,  size  of  vehicles  in  old  centres,  regulatory  limitations,  delivery 
windows, unused potential of transport by river). 

•  Define a strategy  for moving towards ‘zero-emission urban logistics’, bringing together 
aspects  of  land  planning,  rail  and  river  access,  business  practices  and  information, 
charging and vehicle technology standards. 

•  Promote  joint  public  procurement  for  low  emission  vehicles  in  commercial  fleets 

(delivery vans, taxis, buses…). 

168 

169 

170 

For  example,  in  Paris  a  RER  regional  line  is  used  for  freight  transport  by  the  supermarket  chain 
Monoprix: http://cata-online.fr/monoprix/rapport_dd/. 
Freight cycles are used for deliveries of loads of up to 158 kg in seven French and two other European 
cities. See: http://www.lapetitereine.com/fr/index.php. 
Such solutions have notably been put in place in Spain in Barcelona and Bilbao. 

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3. 

MODERN INFRASTRUCTURE AND SMART FUNDING 

3.1. 

Transport infrastructure: territorial cohesion and economic growth 

386. 

Transport infrastructure is a prerequisite for the mobility of people and goods and 
the  competitiveness  and  territorial  cohesion  of  the  European  Union.  The  EU  is 
endowed  with  a  dense  transport  network171,  but  overall  the  resources  to  maintain 
and upgrade it are declining. 

387.  Moreover,  a  considerable  disparity  in  the  quality  and  availability  of  infrastructure 
persists  within  the  EU.  The  infrastructure  endowment  gap  is  most  evident  in  the 
meagre 4,800 km of motorways in the Member Sates which joined the EU in 2004 
and 2007. These new Member States do not have high speed rail lines and – more 
importantly – their conventional railway lines are often in poor condition. This gap 
needs to be closed and an infrastructure of high and uniform quality should span the 
entire EU. 

388. 

389. 

390. 

Competitiveness,  economic  growth  and  prosperity  rely  on  efficient  transport 
infrastructure.  Several  studies  have  analysed  the  link  between  infrastructure  and 
economic  growth.  The  majority  of  these  have  shown  positive  impacts  of 
infrastructure 
investments  on  GDP,  despite  significant  variations  between 
countries172. Moreover, there are indications that particularly low endowments can 
inhibit economic growth173. 

Infrastructure  shapes  mobility.  The  efforts  towards  a  more  sustainable  transport 
system  need  to  include  a  reflection  on  the  required  characteristics  of  the  network 
and must foresee adequate investments. Not only cleaner fuels need the support of 
dedicated infrastructure, but, as discussed in Section 3 above, new vehicles cannot 
be  expected  to  be  the  only  solution  for  the  reduction  of  transport  emissions,  nor 
would  they  address  the  problem  of  congestion  in  large  parts  of  the  network.  A 
network  that  supports  more  efficient  operations  and  a  greater  use  of  more 
sustainable modes is also needed. 

The  challenge  is  thus  to  improve  the  existing  network  and  render  it  capable  of 
connecting  all  regions  of  Europe  in  a  way  that  is  efficient  in  economic  and  in 
energy  terms.  This  can  be  achieved  by  creating  a  backbone  network  of  selected 
corridors that carry large volumes of traffic with high efficiency and low emissions, 
thanks  to  the  consolidation  of  large  volumes,  the  extensive  use  of  more  efficient 
modes  in  multimodal  combinations  and  the  wide  application  of  advanced 
technologies and low-carbon fuels. Within this backbone or ‘core network’, widely 
deployed information technology tools would optimise procedures (e-Freight) and 
traffic flows. 

171 

172 

173 

Around  5  million  km  of  paved  roads,  more  than  66,000  km  of  which  are  motorways;  more  than 
210,000 km of rail lines, slightly more than half of which is electrified, including around 6,000 km of 
high-speed  rail  lines;  moreover,  around  40,000  km  of  navigable  inland  waterways;  over  450 
commercial airports and around 1,200 sea ports. 
See COMPETE Annex 6 
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/wcm/infrastructure/studies/2006_10_compete.zip  for  a  EU  perspective 
and  Aschauer,  David  Alan  (1989).  “Is  Public  Expenditure  productive?”  Journal  of  Monetary 
Economics, 23 (2), March, 177 – 200 for evidence from the USA. 
5th EU Cohesion Report. 

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3.1.1.  Exploiting the strengths of the individual modes 

Better hinterland connections for Short Sea Shipping – Motorways of the seas 

391. 

392. 

Indeed,  the  very  long  European  coastline  offers  opportunities  for  a  much  greater 
use of short sea shipping (notably E-W and W-NE). Seaports should not become 
the  bottlenecks  of  global  supply  chains.  A  continuous  improvement  of  the 
efficiency  and  infrastructure  capacity  of  seaports,  along  with  the  further 
improvement  of  their  hinterland  connections,  is  essential  to  meet  user  needs. 
Adequate infrastructure for greener fuels and energy supply for ships in ports will 
also be needed. 

A  European  infrastructure  policy  for  ports  should  pay  particular  attention  to 
ensuring the availability of ports well connected to the land transport system along 
the entire EU coastline. For such an approach to allow over time a more balanced 
distribution of entry and exit flows into the European transport system, ports would 
also need to improve further the availability, quality and reliability of their services 
as developed above in Section 0 above. 

Untapped potential in Inland Waterway Transport 

393. 

394. 

395. 

It is also commonly recognised that inland waterways have a lot of spare capacity. 
The EU waterway network connects the major seaports and many cities and centres 
of commerce and industry, often along major transport corridors.  

The  efficiency  and  competitiveness  of  inland  navigation  is  largely  determined  by 
the  quality  and  conditions  of  the  waterway  infrastructure,  including  smaller 
waterways, where efforts need to focus  on the maintenance of the waterways, the 
upgrading of certain sections to the prevailing standard of the entire waterway link 
and  the  extension  of  the  existing  network,  notably  by  closing  gaps  (‘missing 
links’)174.  The  investments  need  increasingly  to  take  into  account  the  possible 
effects  of  climate  change  which  are  likely  to  affect  the  navigability  of  the 
waterways. 

River  port  infrastructure  and  multimodal  connections  are  also  crucial.  The  inland 
waterway  network  includes  around  350  important  inland  ports,  with  a  wide 
disparity  between  the  Western  and  Eastern  part  of  the  European  Union  in 
equipment,  facilities,  productivity  and  management.  In  many  river  ports  in  the 
Eastern  part  of  the  EU,  significant  investments  are  needed  for  transhipment  and 
storage  facilities,  whereas  in  the  northern  range  several  sea/river  ports  are 
confronted  with  a  lack  of  spare  capacity,  resulting  in  long  waiting  times  at 
terminals.  

396. 

Besides  ports’  infrastructure,  the  quality  of  the  connections  (road,  rail)  to  the 
hinterland  is  crucial.  The  competitiveness  of  supply  chains  involving  inland 
waterway transport often depends on the efficiency of the port operations, since the 
costs for transhipment, pre- and end-haulage typically add up to more than 50% of 

174 

Examples of the latter are the Seine-Scheldt link, and in the longer term the connection between the 
Rhone and the Moselle/Rhine river systems. 

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the  door-to-door  transport  costs.  Sufficient  attention  has  to  be  paid  to  measures 
improving the interface function of inland ports.  

Rail corridors for freight and high speed lines for passengers 

397. 

398. 

399. 

The EU has a well developed railway network, which is slightly longer than in the 
United  States  (215.9  versus  203.6  thousand  kilometres).  However,  in  the  EU,  the 
infrastructure  is  shared  between  passengers  and  freight  trains.  Since  freight  trains 
operate at slower speeds and must give right of way to the faster passenger trains, 
they  typically  have  long  running  times  and  suffer  considerable  delays  in  case  of 
traffic disturbances. As a result, the efficiency of European freight transport by rail 
is much lower than in North America, where most rail lines are freight dedicated. 
According to some estimates, while the costs per tonne/km in the EU amount to 8 
cents, they are close to 1 cent in the US175. 

Such  a  huge  difference  in  operating  costs  advocates  the  creation  of  a  freight-
dedicated  network  in  Europe  or  at  least  of  corridors  where  rail  freight  would  be 
given  sufficient  priority  to  become  competitive.  This  is  the  aim  of  Regulation 
913/2010 concerning the establishment of a European rail network for competitive 
freight,  which  includes  the  definition  of  nine  initial  rail  freight  corridors,  the 
establishment  of  ‘one  stop  shops’  to  request  capacity  and  the  setting  of  priority 
rules for freight and passenger trains. 

The  Regulation  also  foresees  the  implementation  of  infrastructure  standards  and 
coordinated investments at corridor level. Harmonisation of maximum weights and 
lengths  of  trains  at  a  high  level  –  for  example  1  km  –  for  selected  corridors,  or 
functional  sections  of  the  corridors,  would  have  positive  implications  for  the 
efficiency  of  rail  transport176.  Demonstration  projects  and  tests  with  longer  and 
heavier  trains  are  already  taking  place.  Coordination  of  investments  is  also 
important:  in  the  case  of  the  deployment  of  ERTMS  along  a  corridor  crossing 
several countries, as a longer migration period by one party would impose the costs 
of  dual  equipment  (ERTMS  &  national  systems)  on  all  others.  Finally,  long 
distance and freight traffic should be as much as possible isolated from interference 
with  local  commuting  traffic:  rail  bypasses  of  city  nodes  should  also  be  in  the 
priority list for investments. 

175 

176 

COMPETE  Final  Report.  Annex  1:  Analysis  of  operating  costs  in  the  EU  and  the  US,  Version  2, 
14.7.2006, p.57. 
Current  infrastructure  is  not  always  capable  of  accommodating  such  longer  trains;  the  length  of 
sidings and yard tracks is a critical issue. The maximum axle load on major corridors typically ranges 
between 20 and 22.5 tonnes per axle, and the possibility of harmonising it at a higher level should be 
considered.  Larger  loading  gauges  would  contribute  to  higher  transport  efficiency  especially  for 
voluminous  cargo  and  certain  types  of  intermodal  loading  units.  Positive  experience  with  a 
combination  of  enlarged  loading  gauges  and  higher  axle-loads  has  been  made  in  Sweden  with 
transport efficiency – in terms of payload per train-meter – up to 50% higher than even that of North-
American  double-stack  container  trains.  Wider  loading  gauges  would  also  enable  wider,  more 
efficient passenger trains. 

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400. 

401. 

The impact assessment177 on the Regulation on rail freight corridors demonstrated 
that investments of € 3.2 billion on the analysed portion of the network would yield 
an internal rate of return of 18.7%.  

As regards passenger rail, the development of high speed lines is the key to absorb 
some  of  the  medium-distance  travel  currently  performed  by  aviation  and  private 
cars. In the urban context, investments in rail, light rail, underground and trams will 
be necessary to reduce the use of private cars. 

Information technology to optimise road transport 

402.  With  respect  to  the  rail  and  waterborne  modes,  road  transport  is  less  resource 
efficient  due  to  its  physical  characteristics  such  as  surface  friction,  aerodynamics 
and  engine  efficiency.  It  is  also  responsible  for  higher  levels  of  air  pollution, 
congestion and accidents. However, road transport has the important advantages of 
speed,  flexibility  and  reliability  and  is  the  only  mode  capable  of  door-to-door 
deliveries. 

403. 

Road will presumably remain the main mode for short- and medium-range (below 
300 km) freight of non-bulk materials and – while the aim is to reduce drastically 
its role in the longer distances – it will still need to absorb large volumes of traffic 
until  the  infrastructure  is  fully  adapted  to  a  high  share  of  multimodal  freight. 
Similar  considerations  apply  to  passenger  traffic  on  intermediate  distances. 
Accordingly, infrastructure policy for road transport needs to focus on enabling the 
use of cleaner fuels and in deploying the ICT tools to optimise traffic flows, avoid 
accidents and allow fuel-savings techniques178. Examples of such ICT applications 
for  road  include  information  and  reservation  systems  for  safe  and  secure  parking 
areas for trucks. 

Modernising the Single European Sky infrastructure 

404. 

In  the  future,  the  aviation  sector  will  have  to  cope  with  increased  demand  for  air 
travel  while  at  the  same  time  reducing  its  environmental  footprint.  The 
implementation of the SES is crucial for addressing these challenges. The extended 
and  revised  SES  legislation  adopted  in  2009179  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
binding  performance  scheme  with  targets  agreed  at  EU  level  for  capacity,  cost-
efficiency and environmental performance. The performance scheme will drive the 
optimisation  of  routes  and  flights  structure  leading  to  a  reduction  in  the  current 
fragmentation of the European Air Traffic Management system and improving the 
overall  performance  of  the  European  aviation  network.  The  SES  acquis  has  been 
described in Section 0 above. 

405. 

The SES cannot be fully achieved, nor the future performance requirements of the 
network  delivered,  without  the  synchronised  deployment  of  a  harmonised  and 

177 
178 

179 

SEC (2008) 3028 of 11.12.2008. 
Studies suggest that platooning of trucks using electronic systems to link and to transmit information 
between  them  can  lead  to  fuel  savings  in  the  order  of  10-25%.  Shladover,  S.E.  Energy  Savings  by 
Automated Driving, in ITS World Congress. 2007. Beijing. 
Regulations (EC) 549/2004, 550/2004, 551/2004, 552/2004, OJ L96, 31.03.2004, p.1-26, as amended 
by Regulation (EC) 1070/2009 of 21.10.2009, OJ L300, 14.11.2009, p. 34. 

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modernised  ATM  infrastructure  based  on  new  technologies  and  procedures 
developed  and  validated  in  the  SESAR  Programme.  The  size  of  the  capital 
expenditure  for  the  deployment  of  SESAR  is  estimated  at  30  bn  EUR180  over  the 
timeframe 2008-2025. The funding and financing of the new ATM infrastructure is 
an  issue  for  many  stakeholders  in  the  current  economic  context.  It  is  therefore 
important to establish appropriate financing and funding mechanisms that facilitate 
investments that enable to pool and manage public and private funds for deploying 
SES  technologies  and  procedures.  Failing  to  establish  such  mechanisms,  in  due 
time,  would  lead  to  non-synchronised  deployment,  which  would  hinder  the 
performance of the entire network and compromise expected benefits. There is also 
the  risk  of  losing  ground  with  competing  ATM  modernisation  initiatives,  such  as 
the USA’s NextGen programme. 

406. 

The  Deployment  strategy  should  promote  favourable  conditions  for  stakeholders 
and  private  investors  by  reducing  deployment  risks.  This  strategy  consists  in 
implementing all system, procedural, regulatory and human enablers supporting the 
SESAR  operational  concept.  It  will  require  the  joint  efforts  of  stakeholders:  EU 
institutions,  Member  States,  civil/military  service  providers/users,  airports, 
equipment/aircraft  manufacturers,  ATM  staff  and  pilots.  Defining  an  appropriate 
governance  based  on  SES  instruments  and  that  ensures  coordination  and 
synchronisation  of  the  deployment  across  the  stakeholders  and  between  airborne, 
ground and space segments is considered as a main priority as well as the biggest 
challenge for preparing the deployment of SES technologies and procedures. 

3.1.2.  TEN-T policy review: from individual projects to an integrated European network 

407. 

408. 

409. 

Transport infrastructures have traditionally been developed by EU Member States. 
However, with decision 1692/96/EC of the EP and the Council181 the EU adopted 
guidelines for the development of the trans-European transport network (TEN-T) in 
support of Community objectives, such as facilitating the functioning of the Internal 
Market and strengthening economic and social cohesion. 

The  Guidelines  for  the  development  of  the  TEN-T  as  currently  in  force,  include 
modal  networks  for  road,  rail,  inland  waterways,  ports  and  airports  as  well  as 
provisions for relevant traffic management systems. 30 Priority Projects of common 
interest  –  which  aim  at  removing  bottlenecks  and  completing  missing  links  along 
major  trans-European  routes  –  overlay  this  network  and  have  been  the  highest 
priority for Community action for many years. 

TEN-T  planning  and  implementation  has  so  far  not  been  driven  sufficiently  by  a 
coherent  European  design.  National  infrastructure  planning  remains  to  a  large 
extent disconnected from planning at EU level, and is mainly done at a modal level 
rather than in an integrated way across countries and modes of transport. The lack 
of  international  cooperation  and  coordination  typically  produced  a  number  of 
inefficiencies:  lack  of  joint  traffic  forecasts  leading  to  differing  investment  plans; 
disconnected  or  even  contradictory  timelines;  lack  of  joint  investment  calculation 

180 

181 

European Air Traffic Management Master Plan, Edition 1 – 30 March 2009, p. 84. 
http://www.sesarju.eu/sites/default/files/documents/reports/European_ATM_Master_Plan.pdf  
As recast with decision 661/2010. 

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99 

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and  joint  financial  structures;  incompatible  technical  characteristics;  inadequate 
joint management of cross-border infrastructure projects. 

410.  Moreover,  national  and  European  infrastructure  projects  have  largely  focused  on 
developing  individual  priority  projects  rather  than  on  creating  a  network. 
Infrastructure  planning  and  assessment  of  individual  projects  failed  to  give  an 
accurate representation of wider effects of infrastructure projects and of how these 
projects  contribute  to  the  overall  infrastructure  network182.  Also  another  main 
weakness  of  the  existing  priorities  is  that  it  does  not  actively  promote  synergies 
between policy and infrastructure measures. 

411. 

A  corridor  approach  to  infrastructure  investment,  overcoming  cross-border 
difficulties,  appears  promising  and  in  line  with  the  establishment  of  an  efficient 
core network. Good progress on two corridors has been achieved in the framework 
of  the  multimodal  Brenner  Corridor  Platform  and  the  ERTMS  –  Rail  Freight 
Corridor  Rotterdam-Genova.  Both  structures  have  developed  along  important  rail 
freight corridors, bringing together stakeholders from Member States, infrastructure 
managers  and  transport  operators  that  allowed  analysing  the  traffic  flows  beyond 
the pure viewpoint of infrastructure development. 

Planning and implementing the new TEN-T Core network 

412. 

413. 

414. 

415. 

The TEN-T planning framework will be based an a dual layer planning approach, 
consisting  of  a  comprehensive  network  as  the  basic  layer  and  a  core  network, 
overlaying  the  latter  and  representing  the  strategically  most  important  part  of  the 
trans-European  transport  network,  integrating  the  Eastern  and  Western  part  of  the 
European  Union  and  shaping  the  Single  European  transport  area.  It  should  also 
ensure adequate transport connections to the world markets, in particular supporting 
the  progressive  integration  of  neighbouring  countries  into  the  European  transport 
system (Cf. section 4.4 below). 

The  comprehensive  network  would,  essentially,  result  from  an  updating  and 
adjustment  of  the  current  TEN-T  and  directly  reflect  the  relevant  existing  and 
planned  infrastructure  in  Member  States.  The  core  network,  on  the  other  hand, 
would be drawn up on the basis of a European planning methodology. 

The  core  network  will  represent  the  backbone  of  a  European  integrated  transport 
system. It will ensure efficient multi-modal links between EU capitals, entry points 
into  the  European  transport  systems  and  economic  centres  by  focussing  on  the 
completion 
and 
bottlenecks/bypasses,  and  by  making  extensive  use  of  already  existing 
infrastructure and on upgrading and expanding this where required. 

links,  mainly 

of  missing 

cross-border 

sections 

The core network shall be the result of a genuine European planning approach and 
provide for a coherent and transparent identification of projects of common interest 
that contribute to accomplishing this network. These projects are of different type, 
ranging  from  the  building  of  new  and  the  upgrading  of  existing  rail,  road,  inland 

182 

See  Commission  Staff  Working  Document  “The  new  Trans-European  Transport  Network  Policy  – 
Planning and implementation issues” (SEC (2011) 101 of 19.1.2011) for an analysis of successes and 
shortcomings of the current TEN-T framework. 

EN 

100 

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waterway  or  terminal  infrastructure  to  intelligent  and  innovative  solutions  which 
boost the efficient infrastructure use within and across modes and the shift to low 
carbon transport. 

416.  While  representing  the  long  term  infrastructure  ambition  for  Europe,  the  Core 
Network should also be set up to make available in the short and medium term the 
infrastructure  needed  to  serve  the  internal  market,  by  targeting  key  bottlenecks 
hampering the smooth functioning of the European transport market. In most cases 
the  Core  network  should  therefore  be  formed  of  existing  infrastructure.  However, 
missing  geographical  links,  mostly  cross-border  between  national  networks  and 
bottlenecks  and  new  infrastructure  in  the  new  Member  States,  as  well  as  missing 
modal links connecting modes of transport, should equally be a priority under the 
Core Network. 

417. 

418. 

419. 

In  the  medium  term,  the  priority  would  therefore  not  be  to  make  available  high 
capacity links on the entire core network but to adjust the infrastructure capacity to 
real  traffic  needs.  In  that  context,  increased  capacity  stemming  from  modal 
integration  as  well  as  from  the  intelligent  use  of  the  infrastructure  through 
deployment  of  traffic  management  systems,  will  also  limit  the  need  to  build  new 
and costly infrastructure to the above priorities.  

A transport system that is articulated around a multimodal backbone and that relies 
on  optimal  modal  choices  to  enhance  its  efficiency  must  benefit  from  efficient 
multimodal  terminals  placed  strategically  along  the  network.  The  objective  is  to 
minimise  the  number  and  ‘friction’  of  transhipment  operations.  This  ‘friction’  is 
particularly relevant in freight transport, where cargo requires external services in 
the form of administration and handling, but is also present in passenger transport, 
where  interchanges  may  hamper  the  overall  feeling  of  comfort  and  security  of  a 
journey. Multimodal terminals for freight are required at sea and river ports and in 
correspondence  to  logistic  consolidation  centres  at  the  outskirts  of  cities. 
Multimodal stations must be developed for passenger transport in the urban context, 
while better rail/airport connections must be devised for long distance travel.  

important  role 

The  availability  of  reliable  and  updated  information  regarding  nodes  and  links  is 
essential  for  an  efficient  integration  of  transport  modes.  The  e-mobility  initiative 
this  regard183.  Indeed,  Information  and 
will  play  an 
Communication  Technology  (ICT)  solutions  have  a  large  potential  for  optimising 
the  use  of  existing  infrastructure  with  relatively  low  levels  of  investment  and 
environmental  impact  compared  to  the  building  of  new  infrastructure.  They  will 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  future  TEN-T,  and  their  further  development  both 
within  and  across  modes  shall  be  boosted.  Their  uptake  should  be  encouraged  by 
requiring minimum deployment rules on TEN-T infrastructure. 

in 

420. 

Galileo, the European Global Navigation Satellite System, once operational will be 
able to support existing ITS solutions and to become the basis for the development 
of improved and more integrated applications. 

183 

Cf. COM(2007) 607 – Green transport corridors. 

EN 

101 

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421. 

422. 

One  way  for  transport  infrastructure  to  contribute  to  low  carbon  transport  is  the 
provision  of  relevant  recharging  and  refuelling  facilities  for  innovative  vehicle 
technologies according to established standards. The ‘core network’ should test best 
practices and technologies with a view to minimising the environmental impact of 
transport. 

The  greening  of  infrastructure  is  an  important  parameter  to  consider  in  the 
maintenance  and  development  of  infrastructure.  Infrastructure  should  be  planned 
and  constructed  in  a  way  to  minimise  land  fragmentation  and  interference  with 
environmentally sensitive areas, for example by including eco-ducts or eco-bridges, 
multifunctional zones and ‘green’ urban elements184. Attention should also be paid 
to  construction  materials,  which  can  enhance  durability,  reduce  maintenance 
requirements, and improve safety and CO2 performance.  

423.  Moreover, new projects and infrastructure upgrades will need to be made resilient 
to  foreseen  negative  impact  of  climate  change  such  as  rising  sea  level  and  more 
extreme  weather  including  floods,  droughts  and  more  frequent  storms.  They  will 
also need to reflect EU legislation on road safety and security185. 

424. 

Decisions on EU funding or co-funding of transport infrastructure projects should 
take all the above elements into account. 

34.  A  core  network  of  strategic  European  infrastructure  –  A  European  Mobility 
Network 

•  Define  in  new  TEN-guidelines  a  core  network  of  strategic  European  infrastructure 
integrating  the  eastern  and  western  part  of  the  European  Union  and  shaping  the  Single 
European Transport Area. Foresee appropriate connections with neighbouring countries. 

•  Concentrate European action on the components of the TEN-T network with the highest 
European added value (cross border missing links, intermodal connecting points and key 
bottlenecks). 

•  Deploy  large  scale  intelligent  and  interoperable  technologies  (SESAR,  ERTMS,  RIS, 

ITS, etc.) to optimise the capacity and the use of infrastructure. 

•  Ensure that EU-funded transport infrastructure takes into account energy efficiency needs 
and  climate  change  challenges  (climate  resilience  of  the  overall  infrastructure, 
refuelling/recharging stations for clean vehicles, choice of construction materials…). 

A corridor approach to improve governance… 

425. 

The  core  network  should  have  a  prescriptive  nature,  i.e.  Member  States  directly 
involved  in  projects  –  supported  by  a  menu  of  instruments  at  Union  level  –  shall 
make  binding  commitments  to  implement  these  projects  within  the  agreed  time 
frame.  The  strength  of  the  commitment  is  vital  for  investors  to  maximise 
predictability and certainty, which will assist in minimising costs. 

184 
185 

‘Green Infrastructure’ http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/info/pubs/docs/greeninfrastructure.pdf 
Directive  2008/96/EC  on  road  infrastructure  safety  management  and  Directive  2004/54/EC  on 
minimum requirements for tunnels in the Trans-European Road Network. 

EN 

102 

   EN 

 
                                                 
426. 

427. 

428. 

429. 

430. 

To  a  large  extent,  core  network  infrastructure  exists  already,  but  its  performance 
needs to be improved. A ‘corridor approach’ will be adopted as a way to implement 
effectively  core  network  projects:  a  number  of  corridors,  drawing  on  the  core 
network,  will  be  identified  and  subject  to  development  in  line  with  evolving 
capacity needs.  

Infrastructure  improvements and transport policy measures should closely interact 
within  those  corridors,  and  their  realisation  should  be  implemented  through 
the 
appropriate  corridor  structures.  These  structures  could  bring 
Commission,  Member  States,  the  regions,  the  local  authorities,  but  also  the 
infrastructure managers, transport operators, and of course the financiers and, when 
appropriate,  neighbouring  countries.  They  could  also  facilitate  the  creation  of 
Special Purpose Vehicles, anchors of any consortium-based financing arrangement, 
which could take loans or issue project bonds to finance partly or fully the cost of 
construction. 

together 

Corridors, for which corridor structures are established, should be set-up within two 
years  of  the  entry  into  force  of  the  future  Guidelines  and  would  be  determined 
starting  from  important  entry  points  into  the  network,  integrating  the  main  cross-
border  sections  and  physical  bottlenecks  still  to  be  realised.  Corresponding  to  the 
main trans-national traffic flows, they could be expected to be partially based upon 
the  current  TEN-T  Priority  Projects,  the  ERTMS  corridors  and  the  rail  freight 
corridors  resulting  from  Regulation  913/2010,  but  should  evolve  to  include 
multimodal  corridors,  integrating  operators  and,  beyond  the  pure  infrastructure, 
allow for the deployment of transport services along the corridor. 

Corridors  could  be  set  up  under  the  aegis  of  a  European  Coordinator  with  a 
secretariat  supported  by  Commission  services  but  also  drawing  on  Member  State 
resources.  The  Coordinator  would  be  responsible  for  overall  coordination  issues 
following  up  on  the  implementation  of  the  corridor  in  question,  reporting  to  the 
Commission, ensuring transparency and accountability. 

A  Multi-annual  corridor  Development  plan  would  identify,  within  a  binding 
timetable, major needed investments and smaller scale short term improvements; it 
should  also  address  interoperability  and  operational  bottlenecks.  It  would  allow 
coordination  of  EU  and  national  infrastructure  policies  in  the  transport  sector  and 
even synchronisation of EU and national funding. Consideration should be given to 
the adoption of such Multi-annual corridor development plans in form of a Union 
decision. As such, it would constitute a contract where both the Union and Member 
States  would  commit  themselves  to  the  improvement  of  the  corridor.  Such 
Development plans would ensure long term availability of public funding, needed 
in  most  transport  infrastructure  projects,  and  would  also  facilitate  innovative 
funding  schemes  to  be  deployed  on  the  corridor,  backed  by  transport  revenues 
generated  from  transport  operations  on  the  corridor.  They  would  foster  at  project 
level the synergies and added value sought by the Commission between EU funds 
and national sources of funding. They would also be a basis for public funding to 
facilitate project financing, including through appropriate legal structures. Finally, 
they would also facilitate the governance issues linked to revenue collection. 

EN 

103 

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…and to support pilot projects for innovative and clean transport services 

431.  Many  policy  developments  and  measures  targeted  at  multimodal  and  innovative 
freight transport solution would be implemented within such corridors. Regulation 
923/2009 reviews the rules governing the Marco Polo programme to make it more 
effective, but further review is needed to support multimodality in particular within 
the Core network corridors. 

432. 

433. 

434. 

435. 

One of the obstacles to the development of efficient and environmentally friendly 
multimodal  transport  is  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  potential  transport  options.  For 
shippers  and  forwarders,  the  complexity  of  multimodal  transport  requires  either  a 
higher  management  and  administrative  effort  or  a  ‘leap  of  trust’  by  outsourcing 
transport  services  to  third-party  logistics  providers.  Promoting  such  new  business 
practices would appear particularly promising within a corridor.  

To  better  exploit  the  potential  of  rail  transport,  both  single  wagonload  traffic  and 
intermodal  traffic  need  to  be  developed  in  terms  of  efficiency,  reliability  and 
accessibility. For Single Wagonload traffic special attention should be given to the 
‘last-mile’  (industrial  sidings  and  public  rail  freight  terminals),  where  a  policy 
promoting the (re-)establishment and modernisation of facilities, accompanied by a 
regulative framework ensuring open effective and non-discriminatory access to last 
mile  and  to  train  formation  facilities  is  important  to  stimulate  the  use  of  rail 
transport.  In  addition,  the  use  of  automatic  coupling  systems  would  considerably 
improve the efficiency and flexibility of rail operations on a corridor. 

Furthermore,  a  programme  to  promote  the  use  of  available  best  practices  and 
innovative  technologies  for  saving  fuel  and  emissions  should  be  launched.  The 
spread of innovation is currently inhibited by the highly fragmented structure of the 
freight industry, particularly across the tail of small operators. A carefully designed 
programme  combining  awareness  raising  campaigns,  grants  and  instruments  to 
facilitate  access  to  credit  could  correct  this  market  failure.  Through  a  “Clean 
Freight  Partnership”  involving  representatives  of  the  sector  and  authorities,  the 
programme would first certify the potential CO2 savings of individual measures and 
launch information campaigns in promotion offices across the TEN-T network. In a 
second step, it would support the acquisition of certified technologies for reducing 
vehicle emissions, the implementation of fleet and advanced logistics management 
systems as well as training in eco-driving. 

Finally, worth mentioning is the sharp increase of the transport volumes in cross-
Alpine freight transport which inevitably led to problems as regards environment, 
congestion  and  safety186.  As  a  result,  people  living  in  the  affected  areas  are  less 
willing  to  tolerate  the  growth  of  traffic  and  its  negative  effects  and  are  putting 
pressure on authorities to find a sustainable solution. While large-scale investments 
into  alternative  rail  infrastructure  to  carry  large  quantities  of  goods  have  been 
initiated,  discussions  on  new  ways  of  managing  heavy  goods  vehicle  traffic  have 
been  launched  in  several  Member  States  and  also  in  Switzerland,  with  which  the 
EU  has  an  agreement  on  land  transport.  However,  it  is  in  the  Union’s  interest  to 
promote  a  concerted  approach  safeguarding  the  free  movement  of  goods  and 

186 

Land transport has more than doubled during the past 20 years. 

EN 

104 

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preventing isolated national initiatives to the detriment of a smooth functioning of 
the  whole  European  transport  system.  Building  on  the  existing  Alpine  Traffic 
Observatory,  the  Commission  will  therefore  promote  a  coordinated  reflection  on 
new  solutions  to  manage  the  freight  traffic  across  the  Alps  in  a  more  sustainable 
way,  which  if  successful  could  be  replicated  in  other  geographical  areas  with 
similar problems. 

35. Multimodal freight corridors for sustainable transport networks 

•  Create  in  the  context  of  the  ‘core  network’  multimodal  freight  corridor  structures  to 
synchronise  investments  and  infrastructure  works  and  support  efficient,  innovative  and 
multimodal transport services, including rail services over medium and long distances. 

•  Support multimodal transport and single wagon load business, stimulate the integration of 
inland  waterways  into  the  transport  system  and  promote  eco-innovation  in  freight 
transport. Support the deployment of new vehicles and vessels and retrofitting.  

3.1.3.  Ex-ante project appraisal 

436. 

437. 

438. 

439. 

The  method  of  selecting  projects  eligible  for  EU  funding  will  have  to  evolve 
towards  one  which  puts  greater  emphasis  on  European  added  value  and  on  the 
contribution to the effectiveness of the overall EU transport system, but also on the 
compatibility  with  other  EU  policy  goals,  such  as  reducing  greenhouse  gas 
emissions and loss of biodiversity. 

Besides  demonstrating  their  EU  added  value,  projects  should  also  be  based  on 
‘services  rendered’  to  the  users  and  be  capable  of  generating  sufficient  revenue. 
Infrastructure  planning  in  Europe  has  had  the  tendency  to  be  based  more  on  a 
geographical approach than on the actual service needed by end users. It has often 
resulted  in  projects  with  weak  economic  viability  proving  difficult  to  finance  and 
absorbing large resources – both financial and non-financial.  

Besides  creating  the  needed  certainty  for  private  investors  during  the  project 
assessment and authorisation phase, conditions must be put in place to allow private 
investors to make positive business cases for infrastructure projects.  

In  the  past,  the  lack  of  proper  ex-ante  appraisals  methodology  did  not  allow  for 
projects  selection  based  on  socio-economic  and  environmental  criteria.  To 
overcome  this  shortcoming,  the  Commission  issued  a  Guide  on  Cost-Benefit 
Analysis  (CBA)  in  2002  (last  updated  in  2008187)  to  assist  Member  States  and  to 
maximise the contribution of infrastructure investments to the economic and social 
development of regions and cities. This method is now used by all Member States 
in the preparation of infrastructure projects to be co-financed by the Commission.  

440. 

The  European  added  value  of  projects  will  be  defined  as  the  value  of  spill-over 
effects to non-investing countries and regions. Cross-border projects typically have 
high  spill-over  effects,  but  lower  direct  economic  effects  compared  to  purely 

187 

http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/guides/cost/guide2008_en.pdf 

EN 

105 

   EN 

 
                                                 
441. 

442. 

443. 

national  projects  and  therefore,  they  are  likely  not  implemented  without  EU 
support. 

All projects co-financed by the EU (Cohesion, Agricultural and Fisheries Policies) 
need to contribute to EU energy efficiency and environmental goals and have to be 
subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or a Strategic Environmental 
Assessment  (SEA)  –  depending  on  their  nature.  Certainty  for  investors  requires 
further  progress  towards  establishing  a  workable  and  effective  framework  for  the 
environmental  impacts  of  projects,  including  aspects  that  are  not  presently 
considered, notably the contribution to climate change and climate resilience.  

The assessment and the authorisation of projects has to be carried out in an efficient 
and  transparent  manner  that  limits  time,  cost  and  uncertainty  –  factors  which 
usually  represent  obstacles  for  private  investors  to  engage  in  infrastructure 
investments.  Today,  for  major  TEN-T  projects,  the  preparatory  phase  –  starting 
with  the  initial  design  and  leading  to  building  permit  and  contracting  of  works  – 
may  take  twice  as  long  as  actual  construction  works.  When  maturity  for 
construction has been reached, previous appraisals are often questioned on the basis 
of  new  elements  and  parties  involved  feel  not  consulted,  simply  because  the 
procedures took years or even decades. 

Therefore,  procedures  for  projects  of  overriding  European  interest  should  be 
streamlined, taking particular care of two aspects: the establishment of reasonable 
time  limits  for  completing  the  whole  cycle  of  procedures  and  continuous 
communication efforts to that implies a true involvement. This may result in one-
stop-shop procedures for Strategic Impact Assessments and Environmental Impact 
Assessments  and  a  communication  framework  that  is  in  line  with  the  project 
implementation. In order to encourage Member States to engage more with private 
sector and consider implementation of user-pays principles, a screening of TEN-T 
project proposals to identify those with PPP potential should be included in the ex-
ante evaluation process. 

36. Ex-ante project evaluation criteria 

•  Introduce ex-ante  project  evaluation criteria ensuring that projects duly demonstrate the 

EU added value or are based on ‘services rendered’ and generate sufficient revenue. 

time 

•  Streamline procedures for projects of overriding European interest, in order to ensure (i) 
reasonable 
the  whole  cycle  of  procedures;  (ii)  a 
communication  framework  that  is  in  line  with  the  project  implementation;  and  (iii) 
integrated planning which takes environmental issues into account in early stages of the 
planning procedure. 

limits  for  completing 

•  Introduce  PPP-screening  to  the  ex-ante  evaluation  process  to  ensure  that  the  option  of 

PPP has been carefully analysed before a request for EU funding is being asked.  

EN 

106 

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3.2. 

A coherent funding framework 

3.2.1.  Trends in transport infrastructure financing188 

444. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  EU,  investments  in  inland  transport  infrastructures 
steadily declined from 1.5% of GDP in 1975 to 1.0% of GDP in 1982 and stayed 
around that level until 1995. Thereafter the decline continued and reached less than 
0.8%  in  2008,  the  lowest  recorded  level  ever.  In  the  Eastern  part  of  the  EU,  the 
share of investments remained stagnant at around 1% of GDP until 2002 and then 
grew  sharply  to  1.9%  of  GDP  in  2008.  However,  the  overall  trend  in  the  EU  has 
been declining. 

445.  While  the  western  countries  of  the  EU  increasingly  directed  their  investment 
toward rail (share of rail has increased from 29.5% in 1995 to 33.4% in 2008), the 
eastern EU countries invested heavily in roads, which increased their share of total 
inland  investments  from  66%  in  1995  to  84.4%  in  2005.  However,  recent  years 
indicate a turn in the trend combined with significant increases in rail investments. 
Investments in inland waterways remained steadily around 2% of total investments 
between 1995 and 2008. 

446. 

447. 

448. 

By comparison, the volume of inland transport infrastructure investment in the US 
grew by 36% from 1995 to 2001, was then steadily falling until 2007 and has been 
growing  since.  The  data  show  5%  growth  in  2008  in  real  terms,  driven  by  the 
federal economic stimulus programme. 

The  overall  declining  trend  in  transport  infrastructure  financing  from  government 
budgets was to some extent offset by an increase in private sector financing, mainly 
through  PPPs.  However,  the  effects  of  the  financial  and  sovereign  debt  crisis  are 
constraining government funding and impacting the capability of the private sector 
to obtain long-term bank loans. The new capital requirements for banks (Basel III) 
will likely continue to keep the pressure on long-term bank lending. 

During the financial crisis, the increased lending for transport projects by European 
Investment Bank (EIB) and other Multilateral Financial Institutions played a crucial 
role. EIB lending, for example, amounted to € 79.1 billion in 2009, of which € 13.9 
billion was lent to projects in the transport TENs and major transport axes, which is 
about  20%  more  than  in  2008.  However,  multilateral  banks,  similarly  to 
commercial ones, face capital constraints and cannot increase their lending forever. 

3.2.2.  Transport sector financing needs 

449. 

The  data  on  traffic  volume  and  network  length  show  that  expenditure  across 
Member  States  has  not  kept  up  with  the  growth  in  demand  in  recent  years.  In 
addition,  investments  have  tended  to  favour  new  construction  over  maintenance, 
resulting  in  chronic  maintenance  backlogs  in  many  countries.  Road  traffic  has 
grown  much  faster  than  road  capacity  in  many  countries,  resulting  in  congestion 
and increased costs in terms of travel time and delays.  

188 

Based on International Transport Forum data: Trends in the transport sector 1970-2008, OECD/ITF 
2010. 

EN 

107 

   EN 

 
                                                 
450. 

451. 

Transport  infrastructure  is  not  yet  adequate  across  the  EU  and  big  funding 
requirements  remain.  The  cost  of  EU  infrastructure  development  to  match  the 
demand for transport has been estimated at over € 1.5 trillion for 2010-2030. The 
completion  of  the  TEN-T  network  requires  about  €  550  billion  until  2020  out  of 
which some € 215 billion can be referred to the removal of the main bottlenecks. 
This  does  not  include  additional  investment  in  vehicles,  equipment  and  charging 
infrastructure  which  may  require  an  additional  trillion  to  achieve  the  emission 
reduction goals for the transport system. 

To fill this transport infrastructure financing gap, well diversified and deep sources 
of  finance  both  from  public  (EU,  National and  regional governments)  and  private 
(financial  institutions  and  corporate)  sources  are  required.  Greater  private  sector 
engagement  through  new  capital  markets  models  is  needed;  new  pricing 
mechanisms, such as congestion pricing, for example, should be introduced and the 
overall  funding  mechanisms  need  to  be  turned  more  towards  the  “user  pays” 
principle189.  In  the  meantime,  public  financing  should  not  duplicate  unprofitable 
transport infrastructures. Whilst some regional infrastructure may be necessary for 
local development, their duplication may only lead to waste of public resources. 

3.2.3.  A new funding framework for transport infrastructure 

452. 

453. 

454. 

Although considerable progress has been made with respect to the implementation 
of TEN-T priority projects, a completion of the planned projects within the agreed 
timeframe of the TEN-T guidelines seems highly unlikely. 

The expected delay is partly due to the available TEN-T Programme budget, which 
is  limited  in  size  and  providing  relatively  low  co-funding  rates  for  works  of 
maximum  30%  for  cross-border  sections  of  Priority  Projects,  maximum  20%  for 
other sections of Priority Projects and maximum 10% for non-Priority Projects. For 
studies  the  TEN-T  Programme  budget  does  provide  up  to  50%  co-funding  for  all 
projects  of  common  interest190.  The  situation  is  different  for  the  Structural  Funds 
(ERDF  and  Cohesion  Fund),  which  provide  higher  amounts  and  higher  rates  of 
project  co-funding  –  (85%)  in  convergence regions  and  (50%)  in  competitiveness 
regions. 

Under the current financial perspectives (2007-2013), TEN-T projects are financed 
mostly  by  Member  States  (around  70%),  with  support  from  EU  instruments:  the 
TEN-T Programme provides € 8 billion (mainly to co-finance preliminary studies 
due to the higher co-funding rate as explained above), while the European Regional 
Development  Fund  (ERDF)  and  the  Cohesion  Fund  account  for  €  43  billion  (co-
financing  of  the  construction/rehabilitation  of  infrastructure).  The  EU  budget 
contribution is about 13%191 and the EIB financing contributes a further 16%192. An 

189 

190 
191 

In a context of increasing budgetary constraints in most European countries, the needed infrastructure 
investment  would  have  to  be  financed  by  the  users  themselves.  The  German  Maut  –  although  it 
applies  only  to  heavy  duty  vehicles  above  12t  –  allows  the  collection  of  between  €  4  and  5  billion 
yearly; in 2010 it covered the cost of all investments in road infrastructure at the level of the federal 
government. 
Regulation (EC) No 680/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2007. 
2% from TEN-T budget, 9% from Cohesion and 2% from the European Regional Development Fund. 

EN 

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455. 

456. 

457. 

integrated  funding  framework  for  transport  that  allows  better  coordination  of  the 
Cohesion  and  Structural  Funds  with  the  transport  policy  objectives  is  needed  in 
order  to  accelerate  the  implementation  of  infrastructure  projects  and  increase  the 
EU  budget  efficiency.  In  addition,  Member  States  need  to  ensure  that  sufficient 
funding  is  available  to  adequately  maintain  their  transport  infrastructure  and  they 
need to reflect it accordingly in their budgetary planning.  

Such a transport funding framework has many benefits. Firstly, leveraging the EU 
funding through better coordination would increase the impact and the potential of 
achieving  the  objectives of the TEN-T guidelines,  including  economic,  social  and 
environmental  cohesion.  It  will  build  on  the  reflections  put  forward  in  the  5th 
Cohesion report, namely introducing conditionality in order to ensure that a certain 
number of key TEN-T projects of high EU added value get financed.  

EU  funding  of  projects  is  to  a  large  extent  already  subject  to  conditionality,  as 
foreseen in Article 13 of Regulation (EC) 680/2007 laying down general rules for 
the granting of Community financial aid in the field of the trans-European transport 
and  energy  networks.  The  conditionality  could,  for  example,  be  subject  to  the 
compliance of Member States with EU law, to the pooling of funds of EU Member 
States  along  corridors  and  to  the  progress  of  Member  States  towards  the  planned 
completion of the TEN-T core network.  

Secondly, other sources of funding and transport revenues can be considered in the 
context  of  this  funding  framework.  These  funds  could  include  revenues  provided 
under the Eurovignette directive193 as well as other schemes for the internalisation 
of external costs. Adopting as far as possible the ‘user pays’ principle and allowing 
private  investors  to  charge  the  full  cost  of  construction  and  maintenance  would 
create  acceptable  revenue  streams,  which  in  turn  will  make  infrastructure 
investments more attractive to private capital.  

458. 

Thirdly, it allows for a coordinated effort on the part of the Commission, the Trans-
European  transport  Executive  Agency,  and  others  (EIB  and  other  international 
financial  institutions  for  example)  to  help  the  Member  States  to  develop  an 
adequate project pipeline. 

37. A new funding framework for transport infrastructure 

•  Develop  an  infrastructure  funding  framework  with  sufficient  conditionality  to  provide 
support  for  the  completion  of  the  TEN-T  core  network  as  well  as  other  infrastructure 
programmes, encompassing the investment strategies of both the TEN-T programmes and 
the Cohesion and Structural Funds, and considering revenues from transport activities. 

•  Provide  EU  support  for  developing  and  deploying 

improve 
infrastructure  use  efficiency  and  decarbonisation  (new  road  network  pricing  and  tolling 
systems, ITS and capacity improvement programs). 

technologies 

that 

192 

193 

Overall, EIB has committed to provide at least EUR 75 billion for trans-European transport projects in 
2004-2013. 
Public acceptability of charging schemes would be higher in cases where revenues from transport, or 
at least part thereof, are earmarked to infrastructure projects. 

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•  Link TEN-T funding to progress towards the completion of the TEN-T core network and 

on the pooling of national resources along corridors. 

3.2.4.  Private sector engagements 

459.  With the pressures on public sector budget resources set to continue, unlocking the 
potential  of  private  finances  has  become  even  more  urgent.  New  financial 
instruments  that  can  increase  the  leverage  of  the  public  sector  budget  support 
should be developed. The project bonds initiative, which can support the financing 
of Private Public Partnerships (PPP) on a bigger scale, is an example of the type of 
financial instrument that addresses this issue. 

460. 

In  many  Member  States,  PPPs  are  established  as  valuable  additional  options  for 
transport infrastructure investments. The Commission has taken a more active role 
in promoting PPPs194 and also the Monti report of April 2010195 considered PPPs as 
a  viable  solution  to  the  lack  of  resources  for  important  EU  infrastructure 
investments.  Nevertheless,  there  are  many  Member  States  who  lack  the  capacity 
and  legal  framework  to  enable  a  systematic  approach  to  PPP  screening  and 
procurement.  The  feasibility  studies  necessary  to  determine  the  value  for  money 
and to manage the procurement and contract management of a PPP can be daunting. 
Further  EU  support,  both  financial  and  non-financial,  could  come  from  a 
coordination framework involving Commission services, including the TEN-T EA, 
to  assist  in  both  the  screening  of  projects  for  PPP  potential  and  PPP  procurement 
procedures.  

461. 

PPPs for the transport sector can be further promoted in the context of the European 
PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) established in September 2008 as a joint Commission 
and EIB initiative. EPEC responds to public sector needs by ensuring collaboration 
between  the  competent  national  “PPP  task  forces”  and  promotes  best  practices  to 
encourage the development of PPPs.  

462. 

Furthermore,  the  EIB  and  the  Commission  have  jointly  launched  two  dedicated 
facilities:  

–  First,  the  Loan  Guarantee  Instrument  for  TEN-T  Projects  (LGTT),  which  is  a 
EUR  1  billion  instrument  supporting  PPP  projects  in  cases  of  traffic  revenue 
shortfalls.  To  date,  the  LGTT  has  been  used  in  4  PPP  arrangement  and  17 
projects are in the pipeline. 

–  Second,  in  2010,  the  Commission  took  a  stake  in  the  Marguerite  Fund,  which 
makes  equity  investments  in  transport  and  energy  infrastructure  projects.  The 
Fund  will  operate  under  market  conditions  and  has  a  target  size  of  EUR  1.5 
billion. About a third of its equity and quasi-equity investments are expected to 
be invested in companies that own or operate transport infrastructure. 

463. 

No viable capital market solution has emerged to replace the wrapped bond market. 
To  address  the  gaps  in  debt  financing  for  large  infrastructure  projects,  primarily 

194 
195 

Communication- COM (2009)615 of 19 November 2009. 
http://ec.europa.eu/commission_2010-2014/president/news/press-releases/pdf/20100510_1_en.pdf 

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464. 

465. 

financed through PPPs, and revive the infrastructure bond market, the Commission, 
in cooperation with international financial institutions, can play an important role in 
facilitating the issuance of project bonds by project companies. 

The  EU  project  bond  initiative  can  help  infrastructure  project  promoters  enhance 
the credit quality of their senior debt, thereby providing access to the institutional 
bond  market  as  an  alternative  to  the  bank  loan  market,  which  results  in  more 
competitive  pricing  for  the  project  financing.  The  Commission’s  role  will  be  to 
absorb a capped amount of risk in a project in order to enhance the credit quality of 
the whole project.  

Transport  project  bonds  could  be  an  interesting  long  term  investment  opportunity 
for  institutional  investors  such  as  insurance  companies  or  pension  funds.  The  EU 
project  bond  initiative  could  also  be  considered  in  designing  the  financing 
mechanisms for large pan-European programs, such as the Single European Sky Air 
Traffic  Management  Research  (SESAR)  project;  following  the  establishment  of  a 
self  funding,  not-for-profit  entity  that  is  initially  capitalized  by  proportional 
contributions from stakeholders. 

38. Private sector engagement 

•  Establish  an  enabling  framework  for  the  development  of  PPPs:  (i)  introduce  a  formal 
screening  of  TEN-T  projects  to  identify  those  with  PPP  potential,  (ii)  create  a 
standardized and predictable PPP procurement process for TEN-T projects over time; and 
(iii)  revise  TEN-T  regulations  accordingly  so  as  to  accommodate  the  PPP  procurement 
process and payment mechanisms. 

•  In  the  context  of  the  cooperation  framework  established  between  the  Commission 
services and EPEC, encourage MS to use  more PPPs, while acknowledging that not  all 
projects  are  suitable  for  this  mechanism,  and  provide  relevant  expertise  to  Member 
States. 

•  Participate  in  designing  new  financing  instruments  for  the  transport  sector,  particularly 

the EU project bond initiative. 

3.3. 

Getting prices right and avoiding distortions 

466. 

467. 

Price  signals  play  a  crucial  rule  in  many  decisions  that  have  relevant  and  long-
lasting effects on the transport system. The localisation of a factory, the outsourcing 
of  an  activity,  the  organisation  of  retail  distribution,  the  purchase  of  a  house:  all 
these choices are typically influenced by the availability and cost of transport. 

It is therefore important that correct and consistent monetary incentives are given to 
users, operators and investors, so that their decisions on the mode of travel, on the 
technologies to deploy or on the type of infrastructure to invest in, are also the most 
desirable from the point of view of society. The internalisation of externalities and 
the  elimination  of  distortionary  subsidies  are  part  of  the  effort  to  align  market 
choices with societal concerns for sustainability. 

468. 

Internalisation  of external  costs is also necessary to establish a level playing field 
between  modes.  This  is  most  urgently  needed  between  road,  rail  and  aviation, 

EN 

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469. 

470. 

which  are  often  in  direct  competition.  Today,  the  charging  principles  applied  in 
road,  rail  and  air  transport  are  so  different,  that  they  render  impossible  any 
comparison between the three modes196. 

An  additional  argument  in  favour  of  correct  pricing  is  the  increasing  difficulty  in 
finding  the  means  for  subsidising  public  transport  and  investing  in  transport 
infrastructure  (Cf.  para  19).  It  will  be  necessary,  on  the  one  hand,  to  find  new 
sources  of  revenues  and,  on  the  other  hand, to  make  sure  that,  on  balance,  public 
forms of transport and clean vehicles remain economically competitive. This could 
be  achieved  by a wider application of the polluter-pays and user-pays principle197 
and by the elimination of tax distortions and unjustified subsidies. 

At the same time, a more visible link between polluter-pays and user-pays charges 
on the one hand and the use of the proceeds to fund sustainable transport projects 
on the other would enhance users’ acceptability of new charging schemes. To give 
an  example,  a  fraction  of  the  tolling  on  international  axes  could  be  earmarked  to 
fund the construction of cross-border projects of common European interest. 

3.3.1.  “Polluter pays” for external costs 

471. 

The internalisation of external costs198 aims at ensuring that prices incorporate all 
relevant  externalities  generated  by  transport  users.  It  is  useful  to  distinguish  two 
type of externalities which are typically addressed by different instruments: 

•  The  ‘global’  externality  of  GHG  emissions,  that  is  linked  to  the  use  of  fossil 

fuels and that can be addressed via fuel taxes or cap & trade systems; 

•  The ‘local’ externalities – air pollution, noise, congestion, accidents – that can be 
addressed  by  charges  differentiated  according  to  place,  time  and  vehicle 
characteristics199. 

196 

197 
198 

Rail  pays  for  wear  and  tear  on  the  entire  network,  both  for  freight  and  passengers.  In  road,  the 
recovery of infrastructure variable costs is applied on some roads in some Member States, but is not 
mandatory  at  EU  level.  On  the  other  hand,  on  some  road  segments  construction  costs  are  also 
recovered (toll motorways), both from lorries and passenger cars, which is generally not the case for 
railways.  Road  vehicles  pay  very  high  fuel  taxes,  but  the  share  of  infrastructure  cost  recovery  or 
internalisation  in  them  is  not  determined.  Aviation  pays  charges  for  use  of  infrastructure,  but  is 
exempted from taxation. The list of examples could be further prolonged. 
Cf. footnote 189. 
“Transport users have to pay costs that are directly related to the use of their mode of transport (fuel, 
insurance, etc.). Such costs are considered private in the sense that they are paid directly by the user. 
However, transport users also generate negative externalities that involve a cost to society, such as 
delays to other drivers as a result of congestion, health problems caused by noise and air pollution 
and, in the longer term, the effects of greenhouse gas emissions on climate change, but users do not 
bear  those  costs  directly  (external  costs).  Such  costs  are  real,  even  if  they  do  not  always  have  an 
explicit market value: expenditure on police and infrastructure management, hospital charges, public 
health spending and loss of quality of life. They are generally borne by the State and its citizens. The 
sum of the private and external costs of transport gives its social cost. Only a price based on the total 
social costs generated by the transport user will help give the right price signal and take account of 
the services used and the consumption of scarce resources”. Extract from the Communication from 
the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council, the  Economic  and Social  Committee  and 
the  Committee  of  the  Regions,  Strategy  for  the  internalisation  of  external  costs,  COM(2008)  435 
final, page 3. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0435:FIN:EN:PDF 

EN 

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472. 

In the Communication on the Strategy for the internalisation of external costs200 and 
in  its  Technical  Annex201  the  Commission  has  indicated  that  the  principle  for 
charging  externalities  and  making  the  ‘polluter  pay’  should  be  that  of  marginal 
social  cost  pricing.  It  has  also  laid  down  a  common  methodology  to  charge  all 
external costs across the whole transport sector. 

Internalisation of greenhouse gas emissions 

473. 

474. 

475. 

476. 

477. 

199 

200 
201 
202 

203 
204 

It  can  be  considered  that  fuel  taxation  as  imposed  by  the  Energy  Taxation 
Directive202  effectively  internalises  for  road  transport  the  cost  of  climate  change 
linked to GHG emissions. This is because fuel taxes are levied in proportion of fuel 
use and therefore of GHG emissions. However, under the current framework rules 
this  is  not  achieved  in  a  consistent  manner  as  minimum  rates  as  well  as  national 
rates in force do not set a consistent price signal on the CO2 content of the energy 
products used.  

The  Directive  on  energy  taxation  fixes  minimum  levels  of  excise  duties  on  fuels 
across the European Union203. The current Directive is under revision with a view 
to  determine  taxation  on  the  basis  of  the  energy  component  and  of  the  carbon 
content rather than of the volume of fuel. The new approach would clearly identify 
the CO2 element in fuel taxation and send a more visible price signal to the users. 
Together with a reduction in the number of exemptions, the new approach to excise 
duties  would  eliminate  present  distortions.  Co-benefits  in  the  form  of  lower  local 
pollution levels can also be expected as optimised energy taxation would act as an 
incentive for cleaner fuels. 

In theory, this approach could further develop by replacing the CO2 component of 
fuel  taxation  with  the  inclusion  of  land  transport  in  an  emissions  trading  scheme. 
This needs to be properly assessed and compared with the potential disadvantages 
of this approach, such as increased implementation costs. 

Air transport will be included in the EU-ETS from 2012 onwards, which will allow 
the internalisation of the CO2 cost204.  

In maritime transport, climate change costs are not internalised currently. The EU 
preferred  option  is  to  reach  an  international  agreement  within  IMO  on  a  global 

The accident externality could also be addressed by insurance mechanisms that take into account the 
owner’s profile. 
See footnote 38.  
SEC(2008) 2207, accompanying COM(2008) 435. 
Council  Directive  2003/96/EC  of  27  October  2003  restructuring  the  Community  framework  for  the 
taxation of energy products and electricity, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:283:0051:0070:EN:PDF.  
Op.cit, note 20. 
The key elements are the following: the exchange of rights to emit will begin in 2012; every flight that 
leaves or arrives at a European airport is covered, including those of foreign companies; in 2012 the 
emissions  cap  will  be  set  at  97%,  based  upon  a  baseline  value  (calculated  as  an  average  over  the 
period 2004-2006) – this will fall to 95% in 2013 until 2020; 15% of permits will be auctioned, 82% 
of the allowances will be provided free of charge, and 3% will be allocated to a special reserve for 
new  entrants  and  fast  growing  airlines.  The  revenue  generated  from  auctions  should  be  used  in  the 
fight against climate change, to the extent that Member States decide so, in line with the principle of 
subsidiarity. 

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market-based  instrument  such  as  cap  and  trade  or  a  bunker  fuel  levy  to  avoid 
introducing distortions in international competition. 

Internalisation of local externalities 

478. 

479. 

480. 

481. 

482. 

In road transport, most of the local externalities can be best internalised through 
charging the use of road infrastructure. 

As  regard  freight  transport,  road  charging  is  currently  governed  at  the  European 
level by a directive adopted in 1999, the so-called ‘Eurovignette Directive’ revised 
in  2006205.  The  Directive  concerns  only  heavy  goods  vehicles.  It  fixes  the 
maximum charges that can be applied to vehicles at the level corresponding to the 
recovery  of  infrastructure  costs  –  including  both  construction  costs  and  operation 
costs206.  The  application  of  infrastructure  charges  is  optional  according  to  the 
Directive.  

The Commission’s proposal amending the Directive207 to enable the internalisation 
of external costs is expected to be adopted later in 2011. It is a first and transitional 
step which will help forerunner Member States to gain more practical experience in 
internalising external costs. It must therefore be rapidly adopted and implemented. 
However,  such  a  framework  provides  only  a  small  degree  of  harmonisation 
between Member States. While some Member States do not charge at all for the use 
of roads, 21 Member States implement road charging, all applying different pricing 
strategies and techniques208. 

This ‘patchwork’ of road charges may impede the smooth functioning of the road 
freight  internal  market.  This  is  why  the  Commission  in  its  2008  strategy  on 
internalising  the  transport  external  costs  had  already  envisaged  reviewing  it, 
considering further steps in road charging.  

The  Commission  believes  that  any  further  steps  in  the  strategy  to  internalise 
external  costs  in  road  freight  transport  should  primarily  move  away  from  such  a 
patchwork  and  seek  to  accelerate  the  convergence  of  the  national  road  charging 
policies. These steps will require the gradual phasing in of a mandatory harmonised 
internalisation  system  for  commercial  vehicles  on  the  entire  inter-urban  network 
used  by  trans-European  traffic  before  2020.  Such  initiative  will  put  an  end  to  the 
situation  of  today  when  international  hauliers  have  the  Eurovignette,  5  national 
vignettes and 8 different tags and tolling contracts to drive on the European tolled 
roads.  It  will  build  as  far  as  possible  on  the  European  Electronic  Tolling  Service 
planned  to  be  offered  as  from  2013  in  the  framework  of  the  Directive  on  the 

205 
206 

207 

208 

Include ref. 
Since  the  2006  revision,  a  modulation  of  the  charges  is  allowed  depending  on  the  environmental 
performance  of  the  vehicle  (EURO  class)  or  on  the  congestion  level,  but  within  the  limit  of 
infrastructure costs (i.e. the differentiation of charges cannot generate additional revenue). 
Proposal  for  a  Directive  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  amending  Directive 
1999/62/EC  on  the  charging  of  heavy  goods  vehicles  for  the  use  of  certain  infrastructures 
COM(2008)436 final  
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0436:FIN:EN:PDF. 
Ranging from  time-based  charges (vignettes)  to distance-based  charges  levied  through tollbooths or 
electronic systems using Data Short Range Communication technologies or a combination of satellite 
positioning and mobile communication technologies. 

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interoperability  of  electronic  tolling  system209.  With  this  respect,  the  Commission 
will  also  closely  monitor  that  the  promises  made  by  the  Directive  on  the 
interoperability of electronic tolls will be fulfilled at the date agreed and will take 
any initiative required if not. 

For  passenger  cars,  road  user  charges  have  remained  confined  to  motorway 
networks  or  isolated  tolled  motorway  sections  in  individual  Member  States.  They 
have  therefore  remained  outside  the  scope  of  European  legislation,  with  the 
Commission  limiting  itself  to  verify  that  national  rules  comply  with  the  Treaty 
principle  of  non-discrimination.  The  situation  has  now  changed.  Road  charging 
applied  to  cars  is  increasingly  considered  as  a  way  to  generate  new  revenue  and 
influence traffic and travel behaviour, and is likely to be implemented widely in the 
next  decade.  Already  now,  seven  –  and  soon  eight  –  Member  States  apply  time-
based  charges,  i.e.  vignettes  purchased  to  obtain  the  right  of  using  the  main  road 
networks for a certain period of time. 

As regards time-based charges, the experience has revealed that it may be difficult 
to  assess  whether  such  user  charges  levied  on  motorists  are  proportionate  and  do 
not  discriminate  occasional  users  which  are  typically  tourists  from  other  Member 
States.  This  situation  creates  legal  uncertainty  for  national  governments  applying 
them.  The  Commission  will  therefore  evaluate  existing  time-based  road  charging 
schemes  applied  to  passenger  cars  and  wherever  necessary  clarify  the  rules 
applicable to ensure their compatibility with the EU Treaties. 

Time based charges should however be seen as a transitional instrument to prepare 
the  introduction  of  more  efficient  forms  of  road  charging,  like  distance  based 
charging schemes or congestion charging. The latter, although more complicated to 
implement, will be more effective to properly internalise external cost and optimise 
the  road  capacities.  In  order  to  promote  such  schemes,  the  Commission  will 
develop  guidelines  for  the  application  of  internalisation  charges  to  all  vehicles, 
covering  the  social  costs  of  congestion,  local  pollution,  noise  and  accidents  and 
provide 
the 
implementation of schemes along such guidelines. 

launch  pilot  projects  for 

to  Member  States  who 

incentives 

The long-term goal would be that the user charges applied to all vehicles and on the 
whole network to reflect at least the marginal cost of infrastructure (wear and tear), 
congestion,  air  and  noise  pollution.  The  existing  rules  to  prevent  abusive  charges 
would  be  maintained  and  the  revenue  could  be  used  to  finance  projects  which 
reduce  the  externalities  of  transport.  The  Commission  will  also  encourage 
appropriate schemes to fully account for the external costs of accidents; it is argued 
that more accurate insurance schemes (such as pay-as-you-drive) would be the right 
tool for this purpose. 

the  2001  Directive  on 

In  railways, 
the 
internalisation  of  environmental  costs  on  top  of  the  infrastructure  costs  only  on 
condition that “such charging is applied at a comparable level to competing modes 
of  transport”,  i.e.  to  road.  The  Directive  also  allows  charging  for  scarcity  of 

infrastructure  charges210,  allows 

483. 

484. 

485. 

486. 

487. 

209 
210 

Directive 2004/52/EC  
Op. cit., note 2. 

EN 

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488. 

489. 

490. 

491. 

492. 

capacity  during  periods  of  congestion,  but  subject  to  the submission  of  a  plan  for 
solving the capacity problem. 

Particularly relevant in the case of rail is the noise externality. Noise is one of the 
most widespread public health threats in industrialised countries, not only a matter 
of comfort. The contribution of rail transport to noise pollution (with freight trains 
as the largest source) is considerable, with about 10% of the population exposed to 
significant  noise  levels.  The  European  Union  has  already  acted  on  this  issue, 
adopting  measures  in  the  environmental211  and  rail  interoperability  fields212. 
However, given the long lifetime of rolling stock, it will take several years before 
overall  noise  emissions  can  be  reduced  significantly  if  no  additional  measures 
addressing the existing fleet are introduced. A retrofit programme, would allow to 
set up ambitious rail noise legislation and to ban noisy wagons within a decade213. 

In  2010,  the  Commission  made  a  proposal  for  noise-differentiated  infrastructure 
access  charges214  –  an 
intermediate  step  which  allows  some  degree  of 
internalisation – but does not incorporate the full cost of the noise externality in the 
infrastructure access charge.  

All in  all, before  2020,  the  Commission will develop a common approach for the 
internalisation  of  noise  and  local  pollution  costs  on  the  whole  rail  network.  Later 
on, if earlier measures do not reach their objective, it will propose the phasing of a 
mandatory  internalisation  system  in  parallel  with  similar  proposals  for  the  road 
sector. 

In  aviation,  there  is  currently  no  internalisation  of  local  externalities  such  as 
aircraft  noise  and  NOx.  Directive  2009/12  defines  the  airport  charge  as  a  levy 
collected for the benefit of the airport managing body and paid by the airport users 
for the use of facilities and services, which are exclusively provided by the airport 
managing body and which are related to landing, take-off, lighting and parking of 
aircraft, and processing of passengers and freight. 

The  Directive  allows  airports  to  ‘modulate’  their  charges  as  a  function  of  public 
policy requirements and several Member States already make use of this provision 
by,  for  example,  modulating  charges  for  flights  causing  environmental  nuisance 
(time  of  day,  aircraft  type).  However,  the  underlying  philosophy  of  the  Directive 
(based on the ICAO approach) is cost-relatedness, i.e. the charges collected should 
relate  to  the  cost  of  providing  the  necessary  infrastructure.  Similarly,  airport 
charges do not take into account the cost of congestion, being the same regardless 
of the hour at which a flight is operated (peak or off-peak hour).  

211 
212 
213 

214 

Environmental Noise Directive 2002/49/EC providing for noise maps and action plans. 
TSI Noise, introducing noise limit values for new and renewed vehicles. 
The  impact  assessment  to  the  proposal  on  retrofitting  existing  wagons  (SEC(2008)  2203) 
demonstrated the very high EU added value of the initiative. The benefits for the affected population, 
in terms of reduction of externalities, are currently estimated at € 9 billon. The estimated costs of the 
measure would reach € 700 million and the additional costs in terms of maintenance are estimated at € 
400  million.  Member  States  invest  each  year  several  hundred  millions  in  ‘passive’  noise  reduction 
measures. 
COM(2010) 475 of 17.9.2010. 

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493. 

494. 

495. 

496. 

497. 

In  maritime  transport,  other  than  the  GHG  emissions  from  shipping,  covered 
earlier  in  this  document,  externalities  from  shipping  include  sulphur  and  nitrous 
oxide emissions (SOx, NOx), noise (at sea and at berth), and pollution (e.g diffuse 
oil pollution, litter and waste water, introduction of alien/invasive species through 
ballast water). 

Port charging can be a policy instrument for encouraging the use of less polluting 
ships as already provided in Directive 2000/59/EC, which foresees that the fees for 
reception of ship-generated waste may be reduced if a ship can demonstrate that it 
produces  reduced  quantities  of  ship-generated  waste215.  The  Commission  is  in 
favour of such a sustainable approach216, which could be fine-tuned to allow clear 
identification of the nature and scope of external costs internalised. 

As  for  local  noise  and  air  pollution,  the  Commission  adopted  in  2006  a 
recommendation on the promotion of shore-side electricity for use by ships at berth 
in EU ports217. Shore-side electricity means providing electricity to ships at berth in 
ports from the national grid instead of ships producing electricity using their  own 
engines. This eliminates local air and noise emissions from ships’ engines while at 
berths  in  port218.  While  promoting  the  use  of  cleaner  types  of  fuels,  is  also 
important to follow a path towards ‘zero emission/zero waste ships’ as described in 
the EU’s Maritime Transport Strategy until 2018. 

The international character of shipping makes it difficult to internalise the cost of 
air  pollution  at  sea.  The  Baltic  Sea  and  the  North  Sea  and  English  Channel  and 
recently  parts  of  the  US  and  Canadian  coastlines  (200  miles)  were  designated  as 
Sulphur Emission Control Areas, where a strictly regulatory approach was adopted 
through the mandatory use by 2015 of distillate fuels (0.1% mass sulphur content in 
fuels). Including other fragile areas, such as the Mediterranean or Black Sea, on the 
list of protected environments will be advocated. Anyhow, a global switch to low 
sulphur fuel (0.5%) will become progressively mandatory by 2020. 

A major part of inland waterways navigation in Europe takes place on the Rhine 
and  its  tributaries  where  it  is  subject  to  the  rules  of  the  Mannheim  Convention. 
Article 3 thereof, stating that “no duty based solely on navigation may be levied on 
vessels or their cargoes or on rafts navigating on the Rhine or its tributaries”, has 
been interpreted as forbidding any charges on navigation – including internalisation 
of external costs. Any revisions of these rules will have to go through international 
negotiations, as contracting parties to the Convention include Switzerland which is 
not  an  EU  Member  State.  Similar  problem  exists  on  the  Danube  –  another 
important trans-European inland waterway, the navigation on which is governed by 

215 

216 

217 

218 

Directive 2000/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2000 on port 
reception facilities for ship-generated waste and cargo residues – Commission declaration,  
http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/Notice.do?val=236999:cs&lang=en&list=236999:cs,&pos=1&page=1&nbl=1&pgs=10
&hwords=&checktexte=checkbox&visu=#texte.  
Communication from the Commission on a European Ports Policy, COM(2007) 616 final, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2007:0616:FIN:EN:PDF 
Commission Recommendation 2006/339/EC of 8 May 2006 on the promotion of shore-side electricity 
for use by ships at berth in Community ports, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:125:0038:0042:EN:PDF.  
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/transport/ships.htm 

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a  Convention  in  which  Croatia,  Moldova,  Russia,  Ukraine  and  Serbia  take  part 
along  EU  countries.  The  Commission  will  develop  by  2020  an  approach  to  the 
internalisation  of  external  costs  in  IWT;  it  will  later  examine  mandatory 
application. 

3.3.2.  “User pays” for infrastructure costs 

498. 

Since  externality  charges  could  be  levied  in  connection  with  the  use  of 
infrastructure,  externality  charges  and  charges  for  recovering  or  pre-financing  the 
cost  of  infrastructure  are  currently  addressed  by  the  same  pieces  of  legislation 
(Eurovignette Directive219, Railway infrastructure charges Directive220). 

499.  Whereas marginal social cost pricing can apply also to variable costs linked to the 
use of infrastructure (namely wear and tear), other principles are generally followed 
in recovering fixed cost of infrastructure (construction costs) that do not depend on 
the use. The presence of wider socioeconomic benefits and of positive externalities 
justifies some level of public funding, but the ‘user-pays’ principle is increasingly 
adopted, also in view of the need for the consolidation of public budgets.  

500. 

501. 

In  railways,  according  to  the  2001  Directive  on  infrastructure  charges221,  user 
charges must be set at the cost that is directly incurred as a result of operating the 
train service. The charging of mark-ups to obtain full infrastructure costs recovery 
is  allowed  but  only  if  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  “the  market  can  bear  it”.  The 
Directive  also  allows  infrastructure  charges  modulations  to  take  into  account 
environmental  costs.  In  practice,  these  charging  principles  are  applied  in  very 
different ways by Member States and the actual level of charges continues to differ 
considerably.  This  is  why  the  Commission  proposal  to  recast  the  existing  rail 
market  access  legislation  issued  in  September  2010222  contains  more  detailed 
provisions clarifying how such principles must be implemented. 

Airport  infrastructure  and  operating  costs  are  partly  recovered  via  aeronautical 
revenues (airport charges), non-aeronautical revenues (revenue from shops rentals, 
car  parks,  for  example)  and  by  airport  self-financing  means.  As  a  result  of  the 
creation  of  the  European  aviation  market  in  1992  and  of  the  introduction  of 
competition at European and international level, European airports are increasingly 
operated  as  ‘normal’  businesses  in  a  competitive  environment,  although  the 
situation of hundreds of airports in the European Union is very diverse. European 
legislation, in the form of the airport charges Directive 2009/12, takes into account 
the diversity of European airports and financing modes and does not seek to impose 
one  single  financing  system  for  infrastructure  financing  and  operating  costs.  The 

219 

220 

221 
222 

Directive 1999/62/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 17 June 1999 on the charging of 
heavy goods vehicles for the use of certain infrastructures as amended by Directives 2006/38/EC and 
2006/103/EC. 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1999L0062:20070101:EN:PDF.  
Directive  2001/14/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  the  Council  of  26  February  2001  on  the 
allocation  of  railway  infrastructure  capacity  and  the  levying  of  charges  for  the  use  of  railway 
infrastructure as amended by subsequent legislation, 
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:2001L0014:20071204:EN:PDF.  
Op. cit., note 2. 
COM(2010)474 of 17 September 2010 

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502. 

503. 

Directive is to be transposed by March 2011 and the Commission will report on its 
implementation by 2013.  

In maritime transport, the situation regarding infrastructure charges widely differs 
among Member States depending on the ports system in place, with operational and 
investment costs being sometimes recovered through port charges, concessions and 
other earnings; in other cases, construction and dredging costs are directly borne by 
the  state.  The  Commission  insists  on  the  need  for  more  transparency  on  the 
different items that compose port dues and on the level of charging, as well as for 
greater correspondence with relevant costs. It will continue to monitor the level of 
port  charges  and  their  relation  to  underlying  cost.  The  Commission  may  consider 
further actions in this field if market conditions and developments would so require. 

In  the  future,  transport  users  are  likely  to  pay  for  a  higher  proportion  of 
infrastructure construction costs than it is presently the case. This would contribute 
to  less  distorted  modal  choices  and  more  efficient  decisions  on  organisation  and 
localisation  of  activities.  The  recuperation  of  construction  costs  should  be  done 
over  a  period  that  is  consistent  with  the  economic  life  of  the  facility.  Concession 
schemes might be considered, as well as pre-financing through congestion charges 
in case of extension works. 

3.3.3.  Aligning taxation with transport sustainability goals 

504.  Many  branches  of  transport  are  treated  favourably  in  terms  of  taxation,  in 
comparison  to  the  rest  of  the  economy:  tax  treatment  of  company  cars,  VAT 
exemptions on international sea and air transport, etc. Some of these arrangements 
can  provide  conflicting  incentives  with  respect  to  the  efforts  to  improve  the 
efficiency  of  the  transport  system  and  reduce  its  external  costs.  The  following 
proposals  have  the  aim  of  suggesting  possible  corrections  to  achieve  greater 
consistency between the various elements of transport taxation. 

Company cars 

505. 

Company cars are defined as passenger light-duty vehicles, which companies lease 
or  own  and  which  employees  use  for  their  personal  and  business  travel.  They 
account  for  roughly  50  percent  of  all  new  passenger  car  sales  in  the  EU223. 
Company  car  taxation  includes,  among  other  elements,  the  fiscal  treatment  of 
benefits in kind to employees, rules on the separation between private and business 
use  and  capital  allowance  regimes  for  employers.  The  situation  in  most  Member 
States is that the taxation regime for company cars artificially promotes the use of 
such  cars  beyond  merits.  In  particular,  when  looking  at  the  tax  treatment  of  the 
fringe benefits related to the use of company cars at the employee level, it can be 
observed that these benefits are in most EU member States undertaxed compared to 
what would be the tax neutral treatment. 

223 

Copenhagen Economics, 2009, Company Car Taxation. Subsidies, welfare and environment.  
http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/gen_info/economic_analysis/tax_
papers/taxation_paper_22_en.pdf 

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506. 

The consequences of this distortion are significant. A recent study224carried out for 
the Commission estimated that direct tax revenue losses may approach 0.5% of EU 
GDP  (€  54  billion)  for  the  18  EU  Member  States  included  in  the  study.  Welfare 
losses  from  distortions  of  consumer  choice  resulting  in  an  increased  car  stock, 
higher  car  prices  and  increased  fuel  use  are  substantial,  perhaps  equal  to  0.1  to 
0.3% of GDP (€ 15 billion to € 35 billion). CO2 emissions are boosted by incentives 
to buy more fuel and larger cars, by about 21-43 Mt (equivalent to around 2-5% of 
road transport emissions). 

507. 

The  Commission  will  assess  a  possible  revision  of  company  car  taxation  to 
eliminate distortions and favour the deployment of clean vehicles.  

Vehicle taxation 

508. 

At  present,  there  is  little  EU  legislation  on  passenger  car  taxation  and  Member 
States  apply  diverse  national  rules.  Vehicle  taxation  (circulation  taxes  and 
registration  taxes)  is  not  only  linked  to  the  environmental  performance  of  the 
vehicle, but also to parameters such as value, cylinder capacity, engine power and 
weight.  However,  the  majority  of  the  Member  States  has  introduced  car  taxes, 
during the last years, which are differentiated on the basis of the CO2 performance 
of  individual  passenger  cars.  This  situation  may  be  a  source  of  distortions  on  the 
Internal Market, possible double taxation, tax-induced cross-border transfer of cars, 
administrative  procedures,  extra  costs,  time  losses  and  various  obstacles  for  both 
the European citizen and the car industry and trade225.  

Value added tax 

509. 

510. 

224 
225 

226 

227 

At  present,  transport  services,  like  any  other  service  supplied  by  a  taxable  person 
within the EU, are subject to VAT. Where VAT is applied, the supply of passenger 
transport  is  taxed  pursuant  to  where  the  transport  effectively  takes  place, 
proportionate  to  the  distances  covered  and  may  be  subject  to  a  reduced  rate  of  a 
minimum of 5% by the Member States226,227.  

The  EU  VAT  legislation  nevertheless  leaves  scope  for  passenger  transport  to 
continue  to  be  exempted  through  derogations  accorded  to  Member  States. 
Currently,  the  practices  applied  by  Member  States  differ  greatly.  While  for 
international passenger transport, sea and air are exempt of VAT in the whole of the 
EU-27,  VAT  is  payable  on  inland  waterways,  rail  and  road  transport  in  Belgium, 
Germany,  Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  France  levies  VAT  on  inland  waterways, 

Idem Footnote above. 
COM (2002) 431, Communication on Taxation of Passengers cars in the European Union - options for 
action at national and community levels  
The information on the current VAT rates applied in the EU Member States is available at:  
http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/vat/how_vat_works/rates/vat_rate
s_en.pdf 
In  2005,  the  European  Commission  consultation  paper  on  VAT  concluded  that  “The  current  rule 
governing  passenger  transport  services,  which  is  taxation  according  to  the  distance  covered,  has 
proven  to  be  very  impractical  and  difficult  to  apply  in  an  internal  market  without  fiscal  borders.  It 
implies  that  a  coach  company  which  transports  tourists  from  Paris  to  Amsterdam  needs  to  apply 
French,  Belgian  and  Dutch  VAT  to  each  relevant  part  of  the  journey,  and  pay  the  corresponding 
amount of VAT to the tax authority of each of these respective Member States.”  

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Greece and Austria do so on rail and road transport, while Poland and Slovenia on 
road  transport  only228.  In  addition,  exemptions  related  to  international  transport, 
allowing certain passenger transport providers to purchase some goods and services 
free of VAT, have been in force since the introduction of VAT for international sea 
and  air  transport.  This  means  that  the  VAT  treatment  of  passenger  transport 
combines different exemptions, depending on the kind of means of transport used 
to provide the transport and the place where the transport is deemed to take place. 

511. 

512. 

Those exemptions result in a complexity of the current VAT system applicable to 
passenger transport and it is questionable if these rules ensure a level paying field in 
the sector. It is therefore important for the good functioning of the internal market 
and  of  the  competition  between  modes  to  harmonise  VAT  rules  in  the  transport 
sector. A study229 carried out for the Commission in 1997 found that “By 2005, the 
estimates suggest that High Speed Rail (HSR) might have anywhere between 36,203 
and  295,900  fewer  passengers  if  the  existing  VAT-induced  distortion  was  not 
removed. This distortion represents up to 1.3% of HSR traffic…” . 

In December 2010, the Commission adopted a Green Paper on the future of VAT230 
by  which  it  launched  a  public  consultation  on  how  the  EU  VAT  system  can  be 
strengthened  and  improved,  to  the  benefit  of  citizens,  businesses  and  Member 
States. In the light of the complexity of the VAT treatment of passenger transport 
and  the  possible  economic  distortions  it  might  provoke,  the  topic  is  addressed  in 
those reflections. 

3.3.4.  Transport infrastructure and transport services: subsidies and State aid 

513. 

The transport sector receives a great number of explicit or implicit subsidies. The 
construction  of  transport  infrastructure  –  apart  from  concession  motorways  –  is 
mostly  funded  from  public  money.  Operators  of  passenger  connections  to/from 
remote or underdeveloped areas receive compensations in the framework of Public 
Service  Obligations  (PSO)231.  In  the  case  of  railways,  even  connections  between 
densely  populated  areas  can  be  subsidised.  It  is  estimated  that  in  cities  the 
operational costs of public transport are subsidised at around 50%.  

514.  Whereas there may be circumstances in which external benefits of transport justify 
subsidies from an efficiency perspective, it is important, particularly at times when 
public  funding  becomes  scarce,  to  assess  the  merits  of  subsidies  to  infrastructure 
and to operational costs.  

515. 

The question of whether public funding of transport infrastructure constitutes State 
aid within the meaning of Article 107§1 of the TFEU is regularly raised. Existing 

228 

229 

230 

231 

European  Commission,  DG  TAXUD.  2010.  VAT  Rates  Applied  in  the  Member  States  of  the 
European Union, 
http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/vat/how_vat_works/rates/vat_rate
s_en.pdf 
KPMG. 1997.A study of the VAT Regime and Competition in the Field of Passenger Transport, 
http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/pass_tran_kpmg_final.pdf  
“Towards  a  simpler,  more  robust  and  efficient  VAT  system”,  COM(2010)  695.  Commission  Staff 
Working Document SEC(2010) 1455 supplements the Green paper  
Cf.  discussion  on  PSO  in  part  III.1  A  single  transport  area:  removing  the  remaining  barriers  to 
effective co-modality. 

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516. 

517. 

518. 

519. 

guidelines on state aid in railways232 and airports233 only cursory address the issue, 
concentrating on the assessment of compatibility of State aid measures with Article 
107§3 of the TFEU. As a result, the state aid character of a public intervention in 
infrastructure building is regulated by the jurisprudence of the Courts. 

In  many  cases  the  private  sector  might  lack  the  incentives  and/or  the  financial 
capability  to  provide  transport  infrastructure  at  an  optimal  level  from  the  point  of 
view of society. This is particularly the case of ‘basic’ infrastructure that has a life 
span  and  amortisation  time  that  exceed  the  time  horizon  acceptable  for  private 
investors or for which the costs cannot be recovered by adequately charging users 
(e.g. breakwaters in ports)234.  

As the issue of the State Aid nature of the public funding of basic infrastructure and 
of the parallel profitability of commercially funded activities may lack clarity, the 
Commission  will  aim  at  providing  clarification  and  uniform  treatment  of  public 
funding  to  transport  infrastructure.  The  clarification  of  the  legal  framework, 
however,  does  not  detract  from  the  need  to  apply  a  comprehensive  and  uniform 
cost/benefit  analyses  to  different  infrastructure  projects  to  identify  funding 
priorities. 

Public budgets also intervene in funding transport services. Apart from the case of 
non-profitable links with remote areas performed for public service reasons, several 
transport  activities  are  deemed  worthy  of  support  because  of,  for  example,  their 
lower environmental impact or social function (rail, public transport). In the future, 
the  possibility  to  charge  for  transport  externalities  would  modify  the  relative 
position  of  the  different  modes  and  possibly  eliminate  the  need  for  correcting 
imbalances via subsidies to operations.  

Public  funding  is  also  provided  in  case  of  activities  exposed  to  international 
competition. This is notably the case of maritime where the role of the Commission 
is  to  assess  what  forms  of  public  support  might  be  useful  in  promoting  safe  and 
environmentally sound shipping and employment of Europeans on board ships and 
on shore without adverse effects on competition in the internal market. Since 1989 
the  EU’s  aim  has been to encourage the re-flagging towards EU registers and the 
enhancement of the European maritime cluster. The international dimension of the 
maritime  industry  and  the  persisting  risk  that  European  ship-owners  might  leave 
Europe  substantially  weakening  the  European  maritime  cluster  and  its  knowledge 
and  employment  basis,  make  the  issue  of  public  support  for  the  industry 
particularly  important.  Fierce  international  competition  and  the  lack  of  an 
international level-playing field for shipping – which have justified the granting of 
State aid so far – are still there to a large extent. Guidelines on State aid to maritime 

232 

233 

234 

Communication from the Commission: Community guidelines on state aid for railway undertakings, 
2008/C  184/07,  part  2:  Public  financing  of  railway  undertakings  by  means  of  railway  infrastructure 
funding. 
Communication from the Commission: Community guidelines on the financing of airports and start-
up aid to airlines departing from regional airport, 2005/C 312/01. 
These  types  of  issues  are  referred  to  in  economics  as  ‘market  failures’  due  to  the  existence  of 
incomplete financial markets, public goods’ characteristics, large indivisibilities and positive network 
externalities. 

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transport have been adopted in 1997 and in 2004. A review of the latter should be 
carried out in 2015/2016. 

39. Smart pricing and taxation 

Phase I (up to 2016) 

Transport charges and taxes should be restructured. They should underpin transport’s role in 
promoting European competitiveness, while the overall burden for the sector should reflect 
the total costs of transport in terms of infrastructure and external costs. 

•  Revise motor fuel taxation with clear identification of the energy and CO2 component. 

•  Phase  in  a  mandatory  infrastructure  charge  for  heavy-duty  vehicles.  The  scheme  would 
introduce  a  common  tariff  structure  and  cost  components  such  as  the  recovery  of  wear 
and tear, noise and local pollution costs to replace the existing user charges.  

•  Evaluate existing car road charging schemes and their compatibility with the EU Treaties. 
Develop  guidelines  for  the  application  of  internalisation  charges  to  road  vehicles, 
covering the social costs of congestion, CO2 – if not included in fuel tax – local pollution, 
noise  and  accidents.  Provide  incentives  to  Member  States  who  launch  pilot  projects  for 
the implementation of schemes along such guidelines. 

•  Proceed  with  the  internalisation  of  external  costs  for  all  modes  of  transport  applying 

common principles while taking into account the specificity of each mode. 

•  Create  a  framework  for  earmarking  revenues  from  transport  for  the  development  of  an 

integrated and efficient transport system. 

•  Issue guidelines providing clarification concerning public funding to the different modes 

of transport and to transport infrastructure, where necessary. 

•  Reassess  transport  taxation  where  necessary,  namely  by  linking  vehicle  taxation  to 
environmental  performance,  reflecting  on  possible  way  forward  to  review  the  current 
VAT  system  concerning  passenger  transport,  and  revising  company  car  taxation  to 
eliminate distortions and favour the deployment of clean vehicles. 

Phase II (2016 to 2020) 

•  Building on Phase  I, proceed to the  full and  mandatory internalisation of external costs 
(including noise, local pollution and congestion on top of the mandatory recovery of wear 
and tear costs) for road and rail transport. Internalise costs for local pollution and noise in 
ports and airports, as well as for air pollution at sea, and examine mandatory application 
of internalisation charges on all inland waterways on EU territory. Develop market based 
measures to further reduce GHG emissions. 

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4. 

THE EXTERNAL DIMENSION 

4.1. 

520. 

521. 

Extending  internal  market  rules  and  reinforcing  the  transport  dialogue  with 
main partners 

The  international  role  of  the  EU  is  particularly  important  for  maritime  and  air 
transport,  which  are  intrinsically  global  industries.  To  maintain  a  prominent 
position in these markets in the next decades, Europe needs to speak with one voice 
in  those  instances  that  bring  together  governments,  industry  representatives  and 
regulators  at  a  global  level.  More  effective  coordination  between  Member  States 
needs to be ensured. In that respect, new opportunities of the EU’s representation in 
international forums as foreseen under the Lisbon Treaty shall be fully explored. 

Strategic  and  sectoral  dialogues  are  already  in  place  with  some  of  our  major 
partners like the United States, Russia, China, Japan, Canada and Australia and we 
intend to extend them to Brazil, India and South Africa. The emerging economies 
will play an increasing role in commerce with the EU but they also need an in depth 
modernization  of  their  transport  system.  The  EU  could  then  share  its  transport 
expertise,  use  its  technical  leadership  and  promote  its  interoperability  standards 
worldwide. 

4.2. 

Promote energy efficiency and climate change goals in multilateral forums 

522. 

Efforts carried out by the EU to reduce CO2 and other pollutant emissions, as well 
as  to  improve  energy  efficiency,  would  be  ineffective,  and  its  competitiveness 
would  be  undermined,  if  its  main  partners  do  not  follow  similar  strategies.  It  is 
therefore  of  crucial  importance  to  promote  the  EU  strategies  through  the  main 
existing  international  forums  (such  as  the  International  Transport  Forum)  or 
organisations  (like  ICAO  or  IMO),  as  well  as  through  regular  bilateral  dialogues. 
We  should  also  join  efforts  and  funds  in  the  field  of  research  with  our  main 
transport partners to develop more efficient transport systems and vehicles. 

4.3. 

An international dialogue on transport security 

523. 

524. 

Following the 9/11 attacks, a lot has been done – under the initiative of the EU – to 
develop counter measures (at first in air transport, but quickly followed by similar 
measures  in  maritime)  to  prevent  such  dramatic  event  to  take  place  again. 
Terrorism  is  a  global  threat  and  can  only  be  successfully  tacked  internationally. 
Therefore international cooperation and harmonisation of security and privacy rules 
and  practices  are  of  utmost  importance  at  the  bilateral  (e.g.  EU–US  transport 
security dialogue) or multilateral level (ICAO, IMO). 

Action is also needed to counter the risks of piracy, where EU action should focus 
on  early  prevention  measures  to  put  in  place  in  the  zones  at  risk.  An  integrated 
approach  should  involve  the  EU’s  main  partners  and  the  countries  concerned  and 
include  better  monitoring,  strengthened  information  exchange,  capacity  building 
and fighting poverty and corruption as the root causes of this kind of threat. 

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4.4. 

Extending our transport and infrastructure policy to our neighbours 

525. 

526. 

527. 

528. 

529. 

Closer economic integration and increased mobility of goods and passengers with 
our neighbours will be one of the key challenges that Europe will have to face in 
the future. New trends and routes in transport might gain greater importance in the 
coming decades and this will definitely have an impact on the development of the 
infrastructure that connects with these routes and it will also have an impact on the 
development and the change of location of the main gateways to the EU. 

The  extension  of  the  major  trans-European  transport  axes  to  the  neighbouring 
countries has been an important objective for the Union and is also a shared interest 
with the neighbouring countries. In this context, while developing the intra-EU rail 
freight corridors for speedy and competitive cross-border transport, their extension 
to neighbouring countries should be actively pursued. 

The  Commission  is  therefore  preparing  a  Communication  to  set  conditions  for  a 
renewed transport policy with its neighbouring partners. The objective is to provide 
a  single  policy  umbrella  for  promoting  transport  infrastructure  and  market 
development  in  the  EU’s  neighbourhood  through  transport,  enlargement,  foreign 
and neighbourhood policies with various political and financial initiatives, to make 
transport more efficient and to bring it closer to the EU’s standards. 

The  ash  cloud  crisis  in  April  2010  showed  the  vulnerability  not  only  of  the 
European  transport  system,  but  also  of  the  links  to  its  neighbours.  This 
demonstrated  the  need  for  even  greater  international  efforts  to  ensure  assistance 
mechanism and increase resilience of the system.  

The  EU  has  in  the  recent  past  established  successful  transport  cooperation 
frameworks  at  regional  level  with  its  main  partners.  EUROMED,  with  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  the  Northern  Dimension  Partnership  for  Transport  and 
Logistics  (NDPTL),  the  South-East  Europe  Transport  Observatory  (SEETO),  as 
well as the EU-Africa transport forum. The aim of such cooperation frameworks is 
to provide customized mutual answers on issues that affect transport development 
in  these  areas.  Such  partnerships  should  be  extended  in  the  future  as  they  have 
shown to be not only a powerful tool to strengthen transport relations, but also to 
improve political regional cooperation. The model of the Western Balkan Transport 
Treaty  could  be  used  to  extend  EU  rules  to  other  neighbouring  countries. 
Cooperation with neighbouring partners in shared sea-basins is also important. 

530. 

The  completion  of  the  European  Common  Aviation  Area,  covering  58  countries 
and  a  population  of  1  billion,  would  create  a  truly  integrated  aviation  market 
covering  the  EU  and  its  closest  regions.  It  would  provide  unified  regulatory 
approaches  in  safety,  security  and  other  areas  of  importance  to  aviation,  giving  a 
concrete expression in transport to the Union’s neighbourhood policy. 

531. 

Finally, such cooperation should also include research and innovation partnerships 
to  find  common  answers  to  the  challenges  related  to  interoperability  of  transport 
management systems, security and safety. 

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4.5. 

Intensifying cooperation to remove transport barriers 

532. 

533. 

534. 

EU companies face a number of restrictions when trying to expand their businesses 
in third markets. In this context, widening market access for EU transport industry 
products  needs  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  efforts  to  eliminate  trade  barriers. 
Promotion  of  shared  social  and  environmental  standards  is  needed  to  allow  the 
transport sector to become truly global and to avoid unfair competition, while there 
is  a  need  to  adopt  common  technical  standards  on  a  world  basis  (that  could  be 
based on EU ones)  to  strengthen the competitiveness and  the  sustainability  of the 
transport industry as a whole. 

In aviation, the comprehensive air transport agreements with the United States and 
Canada can be considered as a benchmark for the whole sector globally. However, 
the  time  has  come  to  expand  this  policy  to  Europe’s  other  major  economic  and 
commercial partners, in particular in Asia, Latin America and the Middle-East. For 
maritime transport, it is also vital to improve exchanges and cooperation with major 
countries worldwide, reflecting the global nature of the shipping business.  

Another step to improve competitiveness of the EU is through engagement with our 
trading  partners  to  eliminate  the  barriers  to  investment,  to  attract  international 
capital  to  aviation,  thereby  normalising  the  sector  by  allowing  mergers  and 
acquisitions  like  in  any  other  sector  of  the  economy.  Furthermore  reduce 
administrative burdens for carriers, and to ensure maximum efficiency in customs 
or other procedures when entering the EU. Creating a framework for exchange of 
transport  documentation  and  clear,  simple  and  efficient  procedures  could  lead  to 
establishment of dedicated fast transport corridors between the EU and its trading 
partners. 

535.  With  regard  to  maritime  transport,  after  the  repeal  of  the  exemption  for  liner 
shipping  conferences  on  trades  to  and  from  the  EU,  the  Commission  is  taking 
appropriate  steps  to  advance  the  removal  of  price  fixing  exemptions  for  liner 
conferences that exist in jurisdictions outside the EU235. 

536. 

537. 

The Arctic region has come into the focus of many countries, not only linked to its 
natural resources, but also in view of Arctic  commercial navigation,  opening new 
and  shorter  shipping  routes.  Concerted  international  action  is  required  to  match 
commercial activities with the aim to protect this maritime basin. 

Last  but  not  least,  Europe  needs  to  speak  with  one  voice  in  the  relevant 
international transport organisations. Its economic power and its integrated policies 
should  be  reflected  legally  in  a  global  framework.  Full  membership  of  the  EU  in 
ICAO,  IMO  and  other  international  bodies,  would  better  project  our  policies  and 
defend our interests. 

40. Transport in the World: The external dimension 

235 

See  Council  Regulation  (EC)  No 1419/2006  of  25  September  2006  repealing  Regulation  (EEC) No 
4056/86 laying down detailed rules for the application of Articles 85 and 86 of the Treaty to maritime 
transport, and amending Regulation (EC) No 1/2003 as regards the extension of its scope to include 
cabotage and international tramp services, recital 11. 

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Transport is fundamentally international. Because of this, most actions in this White Paper 
are  linked  to  challenges  related  to  the  development  of  transport  beyond  the  EU  borders. 
Opening up third country markets in transport services, products and investments continues 
to  have  high  priority.  Transport  is  therefore  included  in  all  our  trade  negotiations  (WTO, 
regional  and  bilateral).  Flexible  strategies  will  be  adopted  to  ensure  the  EU’s  role  as  a 
standard  setter  in  the  transport  field.  To  that  end,  the  Commission  will  focus  on  the 
following areas of actions: 

•  Extend  internal  market  rules  through  work  in  international  organisations  (WTO,  ICAO, 
IMO, OTIF, OSJD, UNECE, the international river commissions etc) and where relevant 
attain  full  EU  membership.  Promote  European  safety,  security,  privacy  and 
environmental standards worldwide. Reinforce the transport dialogue with main partners. 

•  Complete the European Common aviation area of 58 countries and 1 billion inhabitants. 
Conclude  comprehensive  air  services  agreement  with  key  economic  partners  (Brazil, 
China, India, Russia, South Korea etc.) and eliminate air transport investment restrictions 
in 3rd countries. Promote SESAR technology deployment in the world.  

•  Take action in multilateral forums and bilateral relations to promote policy targeted at the 

energy efficiency and climate change goals of this White Paper.  

•  Continuously use multilateral (in ICAO, IMO and WCO) and bilateral layers to tackle the 
issue of terrorism, envisaging international agreements and enhanced security dialogues 
with  strategic  partners,  starting  with  the  US.  Cooperate  on  joint  threat  assessments, 
training  of  third  countries  officers,  joint  inspections,  piracy  prevention,  etc.  Ensure 
recognition of the EU concept of ‘one stop security’ system internationally. 

•  Develop a cooperation framework to extend our transport and infrastructure policy to our 
immediate neighbours – to deliver improved infrastructure connections and closer market 
integration – including in the preparation of mobility continuity plans. 

•  Cooperate  with  Mediterranean  partners  in  the  implementation  of  a  Mediterranean 

Maritime Strategy to enhance maritime safety, security and surveillance.  

•  Take  appropriate  steps  to  advance  the  removal  of  exemptions  for  liner  shipping 

conferences outside the EU. 

•  Build on established research and innovation partnerships to find common answers to the 
challenges related to interoperability of transport management systems, sustainable low-
carbon fuels, security and safety. 

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