COMMISSION STAFF WORKING PAPER Reducing early school leaving   Accompanying document to the   Proposal for a   COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION  on policies to reduce early school leaving
Date: 2011-01-31
Institutions: European Commission
Subjects: EU financing, EU programme, dropout, education, education policy, report

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Brussels, 31.1.2011 
SEC(2011) 96 final 

COMMISSION STAFF WORKING PAPER 

Reducing early school leaving 

Accompanying document to the 

Proposal for a  

COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION 

on policies to reduce early school leaving 

SEC(2011) 98 final 
SEC(2011) 97 final 
COM(2011) 19 final 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. 

2. 

2.1. 

2.2. 

2.3. 

2.4. 

3. 

3.1. 

3.2. 

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 4 

UNDERSTANDING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING.................................................. 5 

Definition of early school leaving................................................................................ 5 

The situation in Europe ................................................................................................ 5 

Factors leading to early school leaving ........................................................................ 8 

Impacts on individuals, society and economy............................................................ 11 

TACKLING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING ............................................................. 13 

Identification, monitoring and coordination of policies............................................. 13 

Prevention................................................................................................................... 15 

3.2.1.  Early childhood education and care ........................................................................... 15 

3.2.2.  Structural strategies .................................................................................................... 16 

3.2.2.1.  Prolongation of compulsory education ...................................................................... 16 

3.2.2.2.  Desegregation policies ............................................................................................... 17 

3.2.2.3.  Positive discrimination measures ............................................................................... 19 

3.2.2.4.  Systematic language support...................................................................................... 20 

3.2.2.5.  Increasing permeability of educational pathways ...................................................... 21 

3.2.2.6.  Strengthening vocational pathways............................................................................ 22 

3.3. 

Intervention ................................................................................................................ 23 

3.3.1.  School-wide strategies................................................................................................ 23 

3.3.1.1.  Schools as Learning Communities............................................................................. 23 

3.3.1.2.  Early warning systems ............................................................................................... 25 

3.3.1.3.  Enhancing the involvement of parents ....................................................................... 25 

3.3.1.4.  Networking with actors outside school ...................................................................... 26 

3.3.1.5.  Teacher education, empowerment and motivation .................................................... 27 

3.3.1.6.  Extra-curricular activities ........................................................................................... 28 

3.3.2.  Student-focused strategies.......................................................................................... 29 

3.3.2.1.  Mentoring and tutoring............................................................................................... 29 

3.3.2.2.  Personalised learning.................................................................................................. 30 

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3.3.2.3.  Improving guidance.................................................................................................... 31 

3.3.2.4.  Financial support ........................................................................................................ 32 

3.4. 

Compensation............................................................................................................. 33 

3.4.1.  Second chance programmes ....................................................................................... 33 

3.4.2.  Support to re-enter mainstream education ................................................................. 34 

3.4.3.  Recognition and validation of prior learning ............................................................. 36 

3.4.4.  Targeted individual support ....................................................................................... 36 

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1. 

INTRODUCTION 

1.  Early  school  leaving  (ESL)  has  been  increasingly  recognised  as  one  of  the  main 
challenges  faced  by  European  societies.  For  the  majority  of  young  people,  leaving 
education  and  training  prematurely  is  both  a  result  of  educational,  psychological  and 
social  problems  and  a  cause  of  continuous  social  insecurity.  European  education  and 
training  systems  lose  hundreds  of  thousands  of  young  people  each  year,  who  are  then 
equipped with inadequate skills for later life. 

2. Reducing ESL to less than 10 % by 2020 is a headline target for achieving a number of 
key  objectives  in  the  Europe  2020  strategy  and  one  of  the  five  benchmarks  of  the 
strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and  training  (ET  2020)1. 
Europe  2020  highlights  three  mutually  reinforcing  priorities:  'smart  growth'  based  on 
knowledge  and  innovation,  'sustainable  growth'  promoting  a  greener  economy  and 
'inclusive growth' fostering high employment and social cohesion. High rates of ESL are 
detrimental to the objective of making lifelong learning a reality and a constraint to smart 
and  inclusive  growth  in  Europe.  They  increase  the  risk  of  unemployment,  poverty  and 
social exclusion. ESL represents a waste of individual life opportunities and a waste of 
social and economic potential. 

3.  While  the  number  of  low  qualified  jobs  is  shrinking,  European  economies  are  more 
and more in need of highly skilled employees. Skill mismatches are of growing concern 
in  most  Member  States  and  risk  damaging  Europe's  future  competitiveness.  The 
European  Agenda  for  New  Skills  and  Jobs'2  underlines  the  need  to  raise  overall  skill 
levels and to give priority to the education and training of those at the risk of economic 
and social exclusion, in particular early school leavers. 

4. This document  provides basic data  on  ESL across  Member States, outlines the main 
factors  causing  ESL,  and  presents  examples  of  policies  and  measures  to  prevent  or 
reduce  it.  It  highlights  strategies  against  ESL  that  are  based  on  evidence  consist  of 
prevention, intervention and compensation measures, and involve all relevant actors and 
stakeholders. Most of the policy examples in this document are drawn from the work of 
the Cluster 'Access and Social Inclusion in Lifelong Learning', created in 2006 within the 
framework of the  Education and Training Programme 2010.3 Others were presented by 
Member States separately. The document aims to help policy makers in Member States 
understand the phenomenon of ESL and the factors leading to it. It provides a 'tool kit' 
that supports the development of consistent and comprehensive policy for reducing early 
school leaving. 

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3 

Council  conclusions  of  12  May  2009  on  a  strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in 
education and training (‘ET 2020’) (OJ C119, 28.5.2009); Commission Communication "Europe 
2020 – A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth" - COM(2010) 2020. 
Conclusions of the Council and of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, 
meeting  within  the  Council  of  15  November  2007  on  the  new  skills  for  new  jobs  (OJ  C  290, 
4.12.2007). 
More information on http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningClusters/clusterDetails.cfm?id=15 

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2.  UNDERSTANDING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING 

2.1. 

Definition of early school leaving  

5.  ESL  can  be  defined  as  a  failure  to  complete  upper  secondary  school,  a  failure  to 
complete  compulsory  schooling  or  a  failure  to  gain  qualifications  or  school  leaving 
certificates. At EU level ESL rates are defined by the proportion of the population aged 
18-24  with  only  lower  secondary  education  or  less  and  no  longer  in  education  or 
training.4 Early school leavers are therefore those who have only achieved pre-primary, 
primary,  lower  secondary  or  a  short  upper  secondary  education  of  less  than  2  years 
(ISCED  0,  1,  2  or  3c  short5),  and  include  those  who  have  only  a  pre-vocational  or 
vocational education which did not lead to an upper secondary certification. This is the 
working  definition  adopted  for  this  document.  While  the  term  "early  school  leaving" 
includes all forms of leaving education and training before completing upper secondary 
education or equivalents in vocational education and training, the term "school drop-out" 
is used with a much more restricted meaning: it refers to discontinuing an ongoing course 
in general or vocational education and training. 

2.2. 

The situation in Europe 

6. The Education Council set itself in 2003 a benchmark to reduce the EU average rate of 
early  school  leaving  to  not  more  than  10%  by  2010.  In  2009,  the  ESL  rate  stood  at 
14.4%,  an  18%  reduction  compared  to  the  year  2000.6  With  a  drop  of  3.2  percentage 
points in nine years, progress has been significant: the number of early school leavers has 
been  reduced  by  almost  one  and  a  half  million.  Nevertheless,  progress  has  been 
insufficient  to  reach  the  10%  target  by  2010.  The  Council  has  therefore  renewed  its 
commitment to the 10% benchmark, with a new target date of 2020. To reach this target 
the reduction rate of ESL needs to accelerate significantly. 

7. The EU average rate masks large differences between Member States. Seven Member 
States  have  already  achieved  the  10%  benchmark  (Austria,  Czech  Republic,  Finland, 
Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia), while three Member States have rates higher 
than 30% (Malta, Portugal and Spain). Looking at the relative performance of Member 
States,  there  are  reasons  for  optimism.  All  but  three  (Finland,  Spain,  Sweden)  have 
reduced their rates of ESL since 2000. A number of countries with high ESL rates have 
also  achieved  significant  reductions:  Romania,  Malta,  Italy,  Cyprus  and  Portugal. 
Considerable progress has also been achieved by countries which already had low rates 
of ESL at the beginning of the decade, such as Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands 
and  Poland.  The  strong  progress  of  some  Member  States  in  reducing  ESL  shows  that 
achieving the benchmark is possible, but that reinforced efforts are needed. 

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Council  conclusions  on  "Reference  levels  of  European  Average  Performance  in  Education  and 
Training (Benchmarks)", May 2003. The OECD defines early school leavers as 20-24 year olds 
with education below upper secondary level.  
International Standard Classification of Education, UNESCO 1997. ISCED 3 describes the level 
of upper secondary education. 
Commission staff working document "Progress towards the Lisbon Objectives in Education and 
training. Indicators and Benchmarks 2009" - SEC(2009)1616. 

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Chart 1: Percentage of the population aged 18-24 with at most lower secondary education 
and not in education or training (2009) and evolution 2000-2009 (% relative change)7 

Benchmark 2010 + 2020 

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Croatia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Poland
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Austria
Lithuania
Finland
Denmark
Sweden
Netherlands
Belgium
Germany
Hungary
Ireland
Cyprus
France
Estonia
Latvia
EU-27
Greece
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
MK
Romania
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Italia
Iceland
Spain
Portugal
Malta
Turkey
Liechtenstein

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8. The profile of early school leavers varies considerably within the EU according to the 
highest education level achieved, to their status on the labour market and to their ethnic 
origin.  Moreover,  deconstruction  of  national  averages  often  reveals  significant  regional 
differences. 

9. Over 70% of early school leavers in the EU complete only lower secondary education. 
A very worrying fact is that 18% of early leavers in the EU have completed only primary 
education. This trend is especially strong in Bulgaria (38%) and Portugal (40%).  Some 
countries  offer  ISCED  3C  short  courses,  including  some  vocational  or  pre-vocational 
training,  such  as  in  Cyprus,  Greece,  Luxembourg  and  the  UK.  ESL  as  defined  in  this 
document occurs often after achieving this level of education.8 

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Eurostat (Labour Force Survey), MK= former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Students living 
abroad  for  more  than  one  year  or  more  or  conscripts  on  compulsory  military  service  are  not 
covered  by  the  EU  Labour  Force  Survey,  which  may  imply  higher  rates  than  those  available  at 
national level. This is especially relevant for Cyprus. data for Slovenia and Croatia lack reliability 
due  to  a  small  sample  size;  Bulgaria,  Poland  and  Slovenia:  evolution  refers  to  the  period  2001-
2009, Czech Republic, Ireland, Latvia, Slovakia and Croatia: evolution refers to the period 2002-
2009.  In  FI,  the  educational  attainment  level  is  measured  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  (register 
data). This implies overestimation of the indicator in the country. More information available on 
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/structural_indicators/indicators/social_cohesion 
SEC(2009) 1616, p. 77. 

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Chart  3:  Early  leavers  from  education  and  training  by  highest  educational  level  completed, 
2009 (%) 9 

100.0%

90.0%

80.0%

70.0%

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At mos t primary (ISCED 0-1)

Lower s econdary (ISCED 2)

Upper s econdary s hort (ISCED 3C)

10. In 2009, only 48% of early school leavers in the EU were employed, while 52% were 
either  unemployed  or  outside  the  labour  market.  The  percentage  of  employed  early 
leavers was highest in Malta, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Cyprus. At the other end of 
the spectrum, large numbers of early school leavers were either unemployed or inactive 
in Slovakia (80%), in Bulgaria (73%) and in Hungary (71%).10 

Chart 4: Early leavers from education and training by employment status, 2009 (%)11 

90.0%

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E mploy ed

Not  employ ed  (ac tively   and  not  ac tively   s eek ing   work )

11. For migrant first generation youth, the EU average rate of ESL in 2009 is double that 
for natives (26.4% vs. 13.1%). In Greece, Spain and Italy more than 40% of migrants are 
early  school  leavers.  In  most  other  countries,  ESL  is  three  times  higher  among  first 

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Data  source:  Eurostat  (Labour  Force  Survey),  2009;  Notes:  For  ISCED  1  CZ,  SI,  SK,  LV,  MK 
lack reliability due to small sample size; for ISCED 2 HR, SI, LU; and for ISCED 3C IE, CY and 
LU. 
Data source: Eurostat (Labour Force Survey), 2009. 
Data  source:  Eurostat  (Labour  Force  Survey),  2009  Notes:  Data  from  SI,  HR,  EE,  LU  are 
unreliable for both categories and for LT and MK for employed only. 

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generation  youth  migrants  than  among  nationals.  By  contrast,  a  few  countries  such  as 
Portugal,  the  UK  and  Norway  show  lower  rates  of  ESL  among  migrants  compared  to 
nationals.12  12.  The  general  trend  holds  also  for  disadvantaged  ethnic  minorities:  ESL 
among Roma population is running even higher in a number of Member States. 

Chart 5: Early leavers from education and training by migrant status, 2009 (rates)13 

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EU-
27  

BE   BG  CZ  DK  DE   EE   IE    EL   ES   FR   IT    CY  LV  LT  LU  HU   MT NL   AT  PL   PT   RO  SI    SK   FI    SE   UK  IS    NO  CH  HR  MK TR  

Natives

Migrants

2.3. 

Factors leading to early school leaving 

13.  The  reasons  for  early  school  leaving  are  highly  individual.  However,  as  a  social 
phenomenon,  ESL  follows  certain  patterns.  These  differ  from  one  country  or  region  to 
another,  and  it  is  impossible  to  establish  a  single  'profile'  of  early  school  leavers  or  a 
comprehensive list of causes leading to ESL.  

14.  Nevertheless,  while  some  early  school  leavers  might  not  have  any  of  the  following 
characteristics  and,  conversely,  some  young  people  with  them  might  be  successful  in 
education, early school leavers are in general more likely to: 

•  come from poor, socially disadvantaged and or low education backgrounds; 

•  come from disadvantaged minorities (such as Roma or other minority ethnic groups) 

or migrant backgrounds; 

•  belong  to  vulnerable  groups,  such  as  youth  from  a  public  care  background,  teenage 
mothers and persons with physical and mental disabilities or other special educational 
needs (SEN);14 

12 

13 

In countries with high recent migration a considerable proportion of migrant early school leavers 
have not attended school education in these countries. They have no or only little experiences with 
education  and  training  in  the  country  and  have  not  been  'produced'  by  it.  They  need  specific 
measures in order to gain qualifications - SEC(2009) 1616, p. 95. 
Data  source:  Eurostat  (LFS).  Data  for  the  Czeck  Republic,  Danemark,  Estonia,  Luxembourg, 
Lithuania,  Hungary,  Malta,  Romania,  Slovakia,  Slovenia,  Croatia,  Iceland,  and  the  former 
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia lacks reliability due to small sample size. Migrants include non-
nationals and those born abroad. 

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•  have  to  contribute  to  the  family  income  or  take  adult  responsibilities,  such  as 

parenthood or caring for family members; 

•  have had a history of disengagement from school, long-term absenteeism, truancy or 

expulsion; 

•  have achieved poorly in school and lack sufficient educational resilience15; 

•  have often changed their place of residence or schools.16 

15. Children of parents who left education and training prematurely have a higher risk of 
becoming  early  school  leavers  themselves.17  The  risk  is  also  increased  in  the  case  of 
household mobility, dysfunctional family dynamics, limited family support for remaining 
in school and home-school conflict. 

16. ESL has also a gender dimension: In the EU, 16.3% of boys are early school leavers, 
compared  to  12.5%  of  girls18.  During  compulsory  education,  boys  tend  to  experience 
more  difficulties  than  girls  in  adapting  to  the  school  environment  and  generally  have 
lower  achievement  levels.  They  are  over-represented  among  pupils  with  disabilities 
(61%)  and  are  more  likely  to  show  emotional  and  behavioural  problems,  or  specific 
learning difficulties (65%).19 

17.  In  some  Member  States  ESL  is  a  predominantly  rural  phenomenon,  has  high 
incidence in remote areas and can be linked to insufficient access to education. In others 
it mostly affects disadvantaged areas in big cities. Some countries experience high levels 
of  early  school  leaving  in  certain  vocational  tracks,  while  others  register  lower  early 
school leaving in, for instance, apprenticeship tracks.20  

18. ESL is often concentrated in schools:  

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20 

See  also:  Active  inclusion  of  young  people  with  disabilities  or  health  problems.  Background 
paper, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2010. 
'Educational  resilience'  refers  to  'the  maintenance  of  positive  adaptation  by  individuals  despite 
experiences of significant adversity'; it enables learners to deal with difficulties and drawbacks in 
their  learning.  It  can  be  built  and  enhanced  by  emphasising  also  feelings  of  confidence,  for 
instance,  as  well  as  addressing  academic  competence.  Luthar,  S.S.,  Cichetti,  D.  and  Becker,  B. 
(2000),  The  construction  of  resilience.  A  critical  evaluation  and  guidelines  for  future  work,  in: 
Child development, 71, p543, cited by NESSE (2009). 
GHK  (2005),  p.9,  NESSE  (2009),  Early  School  Leaving  –  Lessons  from  research  to  policy 
makers, p. 12. 
Anna Christina d'Addio: Intergenerational transmission of Disadvantage: Mobility or Immobility 
across  Generations?  A  Review  for  OECD  countries,  OECD  Social,  Employment  and  Migration 
Papers 2007. 
Eurostat, LFS 2010. Only in a few countries (Bulgaria, Romania and the Czech Republic) there 
are approximately the same proportions of boys and girls leaving school early. Turkey stands out 
from the pattern as having much higher numbers of early school leavers, with girls representing 
the majority of these. Eurydice, Gender differences in educational outcomes, p. 77. 
SEC(2009) 1616, p. 96. 
GHK  (2005),  Study  on  Early  School  Leavers,  Final  Report,  p.77,  Sally  Kendal,  Kay  Kinder 
(2005),  Reclaiming  those  disengaged  from  education  and  learning  –  a  European  Perspective, 
p. 15. 

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•  which  have  a  high  intake  of  pupils  from  socially  disadvantaged  backgrounds  and 

which lack targeted support for these pupils; 

•  in which the school environment is characterised by violence, disruptive behaviour of 

pupils, and high levels of absenteeism; 

•  with  low  levels  of  achievement,  lack  of  subjective  relevance  of  curriculum,  low 
degree of trust towards teachers and low educational expectations of teachers, parents 
and community;21 

•  which have only weak cooperation between schools and families. 

19. On the level of the education system, the following aspects have been identified as 
having a negative influence on ESL: 

•  limited or poor quality provision of early childhood education; 

•  systematic  use  of  class  repetition  and  limited  support  to  those  who  fall  behind  at 

school; 

•  difficult  transitions  between  levels  of  education,  from  primary  to  secondary  or  from 

lower secondary to upper secondary school; 

•  potential dead ends in secondary education, not leading to upper secondary graduation 

or not providing credible career perspectives; 

•  absence of suitable provisions for groups such as migrants and minorities, and 
•  lack of educational second chances.22 

20. There is an obvious relationship between socio-economic status and the risk of ESL, 
but  the  mechanisms  linking  various  kinds  of  disadvantage  to  ESL  are  not  clearly 
recognised;  ESL  is  a  result  of  the  interaction  between  home/family/community  based 
factors, school-based and systemic factors. 

21. Looking more closely at the motivations of young people, some early school leavers 
regard  their  decision  as  a  'positive'  choice.  They  feel  undervalued  and  disrespected  at 
school and underachieve academically. School education appears to them to be irrelevant 
to their lives and they believe that they could achieve more outside formal education and 
training.23 Some of them seek to obtain qualifications later and might even fully re-enrol 
in  education  or  training  either  a  very  short  time  after  dropping  out  of  school,  or  many 
years afterwards.24 The different reasons for leaving education and training prematurely, 
and the different careers of early school leavers in later life, illustrate the complexity of 
the  phenomenon.  Different  measures  need  to  be  implemented  in  parallel  in  order  to 
reduce the different risk factors leading to ESL. 

22. ESL is a process rather than a one-off event; it can be prevented best if the first signs 
of this process are recognised and effective measures to support the pupil in continuing 
education and training are taken. 

21 
22 
23 
24 

NESSE (2009), p. 15. 
OECD (2007), No more failures: ten steps to equity in education, p. 67. 
Dwyer and PRC, 1996, cited by NESSE (2009), p. 14. 
Dekkers and Driesen, 1997, cited by NESSE (2009), p. 13. 

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2.4. 

Impacts on individuals, society and economy 

23.  ESL  has  serious  individual,  social  and  economic  consequences.  It  also  impacts  on 
countries  with  very  low  ESL  rates,  since  ESL  tends  to  be  concentrated  among  the 
weakest groups in societies.  

•  Early school leavers are more likely to be unemployed than those who have completed 
upper secondary education. They are also more likely to be unemployed in the long-
term. 

•  If  employed,  early  school  leavers  are  more  likely  to  work  in  jobs  with  less 

employment security or to work part-time. 

•  They  earn  less,  but  the  size  of  the  'income  penalty'  for  ESL  varies  from  country  to 

country.25 

•  They  face  a  higher  risk  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion.  At  the  level  of  the  EU  in 
2008, the risk-of-poverty rate for those with less than upper secondary education was 
23.5%, compared to 13% for those with upper secondary or post-secondary education 
and 6.6% for those with tertiary education.26 

•  Early  school  leavers  participate  less  in  further  learning  or  adult  education  and  thus, 
participate less in re-training.27 Given future skills requirements, non-participation in 
further learning will increasingly handicap them on the labour market. 

•  Due  to  their  disadvantage  on  the  labour  market,  early  school  leavers  are  more 

dependent on social support throughout their lives. 

•  Early  school  leavers  tend  to  participate  less  in  elections  or  other  democratic 

processes.28 

24. The economic consequences of ESL are likely to get worse. It is the forecast that by 
2020  85%  of  all  jobs  will  require  high  or  medium  qualifications.  The  share  of  jobs 
available for low skilled people will decrease from 20% to less than 15%.29 High rates of 
ESL,  in  combination  with  demographic  change,  risk  increasing  the  shortage  of  skilled 
labour and restricting 'smart growth' in the EU. 

25. There are only few studies which calculate the costs of early school leaving, but their 
estimates, projected over a lifetime, sum up to several hundred thousand EUR per early 
leaver.30 

25 
26 
27 

28 
29 
30 

GHK (2005), p. 90. 
Survey on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) 2008, Eurostat. 
The EU average rate of participation in lifelong learning was only 18% for adults with less than 
upper  secondary  education,  compared  to  36.3%  for  adults  with  upper  secondary  education  - 
SEC(2009) 1616, p. 82. 
NESSE (2009), p.31, see also Shell Jugendstudie 2010 (2010). 
CEDEFOP, 2010: Skills supply and demand in Europe: medium-term forecast up to 2020, p. 13. 
See  for  example  Canadian  Council  of  Learning,  No  "drop"  in  the  bucket,  the  high  costs  of 
dropping out, p.4. See also Dropout Strategie. Grundlagen zur Prävention und Reintegration von 
Dropouts in Ausbildung und Beschäftigung. Projektbericht des IHS Wien November 2007. 

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•  The  National  Audit  Office  of  Finland  has  calculated  the  costs  of  ESL  based  on 
2006/2007  data.  They  conclude  that  the  costs  per  year  per  person  are  27,500  EUR. 
Over the course of adult life (40 years) this amounts to 1.1 million EUR per person.31 

•  A Dutch study estimates that the costs of ESL amount to 1.8 million EUR per person 

over the course of his/her lifetime.32 

26.  These  estimations  have  to  be  treated  with  caution  and  they  provide  only  partial 
information, but they show that ESL creates long-term costs for societies and, at a high 
rate, has major economic impacts. A comparison of these costs with the costs generated 
by measures against ESL concluded that the total costs created by ESL, including social 
costs,  costs  related  to  criminality  and  loss  of  productivity,  exceed  by  far  the  costs  for 
most of the measures aiming to reduce ESL.33 

27.  The  social  consequences,  however,  go  far  beyond  the  strictly  economic  ones. 
Education  generates  wider  social  benefits  in  terms  of  higher  social  cohesion  or  civic 
participation. Both the social and economic benefits for society at large greatly surpass 
the short-term costs of putting in place effective policies and measures against ESL, not 
to mention the personal, social and economic benefits for individuals. 

31 

32 
33 

Nuoret  miehet  työelämään.  Mitä  paveluja  ja  toimenpiteitä  tarvitaan  TE-toimistoissa.  Työja 
elinkeinoministerion julkaisuja. Työ ja yrittäjyys 34/2009. 
CEDEFOP (2010) Guiding at-risk youth through learning to work, p. 29. 
The study analyses only the situation in the Netherlands. Roel in t'Veld et.al. Kosten en Baten van 
Voortijdig Schoolverlaten, May 2006, p.18. 

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3.  TACKLING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING 

28. ESL is a social phenomenon and its causes are not purely educational. But the quality 
of  school  education  has  a  strong  impact  on  its  incidence.  Improving  the  quality  of 
education in individual schools and at system level helps all students at the same time as 
reducing the risk of  dropping-out. The  following chart summarises the  basic aspects of 
comprehensive strategies in ESL described within this chapter. 

29. Measures often fulfill preventative functions and intervene in processes at the same 
time; they compensate for missed learning and are also relevant for pupils in compulsory 
education. The categorization of measures is not always unambiguous and there are clear 
overlaps  between  the  different  measures.  ESL  needs  to  be  treated  in  a  comprehensive 
way  and  the  framework  described  in  this  chapter  supports  the  identification  of 
imbalances and gaps in strategies against ESL. 

3.1. 

Identification, monitoring and coordination of policies 

30.  The  factors  triggering  ESL  range  from  the  individual  to  the  social  and  from  the 
immediate  sphere  of  the  pupil  (family,  peers)  to  the  wider  society.  Those  linked  to  the 
education system itself can also extend from the individual school to the overall structure 
of the education system and the opportunities that it offers. Strategies for combating early 
school leaving have to  take as a starting point an analysis of the national, regional and 
local specificities of the phenomenon. 

31.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  collect  and  up-date  regional  and  national  level  data  and 
information  on  ESL,  on  school  absenteeism  and  on  school  avoiding  behaviour  as 

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reported by schools. Data collection can allow for identifying groups of pupils, regions, 
municipalities or schools which are especially affected by ESL. Strong disparities in rates 
of early school leaving might indicate specific structural problems in certain geographical 
areas or educational tracks. 

32.  Policy  design  needs  to  be  based  on  precise  information  in  order  better  to  target 
measures; a system to monitor developments in ESL can help to constantly adapt them. 
Accompanying analysis can provide additional information such as individuals’ reasons 
for leaving education and training early. 

Unique Pupil Number (UK) 

Since 1997, every child in the UK has a unique pupil number. It holds, in an anonymous 
format, details of learner's background as well as educational achievements. It allows to 
assess progress and to log results in school education against the unique pupil numbers. 
Educational interventions can be measured for different types of learners and especially 
measures to support low achievers in education or pupils at risk of dropping out can be 
better evaluated.34 

Education number: better registration, better analysis (Netherlands) 

With the introduction of the so-called ‘Education Number’ the Netherlands moved to a 
system that offers complete and reliable figures on drop-out rates nationally, regionally 
and at the municipal and school levels. Data are linked to socio-economic data (including 
demographics,  ratio  of  native  Dutch  citizens and  ethnic  minorities,  unemployment  rate, 
social benefits) per region, city and district. This created a wealth of information at hand 
for implementing policy and adjusting it when necessary. Results are monitored and the 
system  helps  to  exchange  proven  good  practices  between  the  regions.  In  addition,  an 
interactive  tool,  the  School  Drop-out  Explorer  provides  quantitative  data  on  ESL  at 
national, regional, local and school level. It can compare ESL figures between regions or 
educational  institutions  and  show  multiple  school  years  side  by  side.  This  makes  it 
possible  to  detect  trends  in  ESL.  It  also  gives  background  information,  including 
performance agreements, educational programmes, project examples and the regional and 
national contact persons.35 

33.  Combating  ESL  can  only  be  effective  as  a  coordinated  strategy  across  levels  of 
government and different policy areas. Regions or municipalities face different patterns 
of early school leaving and strategies need to be adapted to their specific situation. At the 
same  time,  a  strong  vertical  coordination  mechanism  linking  local,  regional  and  the 
national government is normally needed to ensure consistent implementation. 

34. In addition, all policies relevant to children and young people should contribute to the 
strategy  against  ESL.  This  concerns  especially  social  policies  and  support  services, 
employment,  youth  and  integration  policies.  Every  new  policy  or  measure  aimed  at 
children,  young  people,  parents  or  professionals  working  with  children  and  young 

34 
35 

http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/management/ims/datamanagement/UPN/ 
The  approach  to  school  drop-out:  Policy  in  the  Netherlands  and  the  results  of  the  2007-2008 
performance agreements, http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/userfiles/file/Engelse_atlas.pdf 

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people,  irrespective  whether  it  is  related  to  the  formal  education  system  or  not,  should 
therefore be tested against its contribution to reducing ESL. 

35. One effective way of approaching cooperation and mainstreaming is to recognise that 
ESL can be seen as a result of a cumulative process. A valuable strategic response may 
lie  in  designing  policies  to  interrupt  the  processes  that  could  culminate  in  ESL.  This 
chapter  looks  at  three  key  stages  in  that  strategy:  prevention,  intervention  and 
compensation. 

3.2. 

Prevention 

36. Preventative strategies seek to tackle the problem even before the first symptoms of it 
are  visible.  They  look  at  pre-conditions  for  successful  schooling  and  the  design  of 
education  and  training  systems.  The  aim  is  to  remove  systematic  obstacles.  Preventive 
strategies  centre  on  early  childhood  education  and  care  and  structural  features  within 
education and training systems. 

3.2.1.  Early childhood education and care 

37.  Good  quality  early  childhood  education  and  care  can  be  a  particularly  successful 
preventive  measure  for  children  at  risk.  It  can  enhance  physical  well-being,  social  and 
emotional  development,  language  development  and  cognitive  skills.  Early  childhood 
education  and  care  offers  children  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  a  better  start  in 
compulsory education.36 

38. This is well documented by PISA data from 200337: children who have participated 
in early education programmes score significantly higher in mathematics at age 15 even 
after accounting for socio-economic status. The provision of a universally available, full-
time,  play-based  education  programme  closes  the  gap  in  achievement  in  social 
development,  numeracy  and  literacy  achievement  between  children  from  socially 
advantaged  and  disadvantaged  backgrounds.38  However,  children  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds  face  particular  barriers  in  accessing  affordable  high  quality  pre-school 
education. 

High quality preschool education for all (Sweden)  

In Sweden,  the provision of high-quality preschool  education for all, well connected to 
school education, is regarded as a meaningful way of preparing for lifelong learning and 
fostering  social  cohesion.  The  Swedish  early  childhood  education  and  care  system  is 
based on: 

•  Adequate resourcing, with high levels of investment in preschool education 

36 

37 

38 

UNESCO  (2008)  Education  for  All,  p.  111;  Commission  Communication  on  Equity  and 
Efficiency in Education and Training - COM(2006) 481, p. 5. 
Programme  for  International  Student  Assessment  (PISA)  is  an  internationally  standardised 
assessment  of  15-year-olds  in  schools.  Three  assessments  have  so  far  been  carried  out.  See 
http://www.pisa.oecd.org. 
Bennet  2008,  UNICEF  Innocenti  Working  Paper  "Early  Childhood  Services  in  the  OECD 
Countries:  Review  of  the  Literature  and  current  policy  in  the  Early  Childhood  field".  See  also 
Alissa Goodman and Paul Gregg (2010) 'Poorer children's educational attainment: how important 
are attitudes and behaviour, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, www.jrf.org.uk 

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•  Appropriate  design,  focused  on  preparing  the  transition  to  formal  schooling,  unitary 
settings  for  1  to  5  or  6  year  olds,  and  on  the  crucial  role  of  inspection  to  improve 
pedagogic practice 

•  Adapted content and organisation for preschool education. Special attention is given 
to  the  integration  of  education  and  care,  to  staff  qualifications,  and  to  the  guidance 
role within the curriculum. Social competences receive emphasis as well as different 
ways of approaching language development for children with a migrant background.39 

3.2.2. 

Structural strategies  

39. The structures of education and training systems influence the rate of ESL. Research 
suggests  that  flexible  education  and  training  systems  with  a  variety  of  recognised 
learning  pathways  and  combined  with  individual  and  school-level  support  offer  more 
educational  opportunities  and  therefore  better  chances  of  diminishing  the  risk  of  ESL. 
For example limiting repetition of school years and replacing it with flexible individual 
support has been associated with lower ESL.40 

3.2.2.1.  Prolongation of compulsory education  

40. Extending  the duration of compulsory education has been a measure of choice in a 
number of countries such as the Netherlands, Hungary, Poland, and Italy. Introducing a 
legal  requirement  to  attend  a  form  of  education  until  an  older  age  can  influence  the 
behaviour  of  families  and  young  people.  However,  the  extension  of  compulsory 
education  does  not  necessarily  lead  to  successful  graduation,  better  qualifications  or  a 
better  transition  from  school  to  work.  It  relates  only  to  the  expansion  of  educational 
opportunities and needs to be accompanied by measures to improve the educational offer 
and  the  variety  of  educational  pathways,  especially  for  pupils  at  risk.  Nevertheless, 
evidence  shows  that  lengthening  the  duration  of  compulsory  education  leads  to  a 
decrease in the number of early school leavers.41 There is also a recent trend of extending 
compulsory education to include at least one year of pre-school provision.42 

41. Alternatively, several countries recently introduced education and training guarantees 
for  young  people  who  are  no  longer  subject  to  compulsory  education,  but  failed  to 
achieve  an  upper  secondary  qualification.  Guarantees  give  young  people  the  statutory 
right  to  upper  secondary  education  and  require  educational  authorities  to  provide 

39 

40 

41 

42 

PLA  in  Sweden,  Preschool  education  in  Sweden  and  the  connection  between  pre-schooling, 
school-age  childcare  and  compulsory  school  in  the  light  of  lifelong  learning,  Final  Report, 
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=88 
European Commission: Improving competences for the 21st Century - SEC(2008) 2177, p. 32 -, 
see  also  Sally  Kendall,  Kay  Kinder  (2005)  Reclaiming  those  disengaged  from  education  and 
learning:  a  European  Perspective,  p.9,  IRIS  (2009)  Thematic  Study  on  Policy  Measures 
concerning  disadvantaged  youth,  p.67.  Eurydice  (forthcoming),  Grade  progression  during 
compulsory schooling in Europe: Regulations and statistics 2009/2010. 
GHK Consulting Ltd (2005) Study on Access to Education and Training, Basic Skills and Early 
School  Leavers;  Oreopoulos  (2009)  "Would  More  Compulsory  Schooling  Help  Disadvantaged 
Youth?" in Gruber (ed, 2009) – The Problems of Disadvantaged Youth, NBER. 
Eurydice (2009) Key Data on Education in Europe. 

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adequate education and training courses for them. Such measures, particularly combining 
education or training with employment, are also used to target youth unemployment.43  

Prolongation of compulsory education in Poland 

Poland gradually expanded over the last 10 years the duration of compulsory education. 
In 1999, compulsory education was extended from the age of 14 to 16, in parallel with 
the  introduction  of  a  comprehensive  school  system  and  the  postponement  of  student 
tracking.  Poland  also  introduced  an  obligatory  0  grade  aimed  at  preparing  for  primary 
school  and  lowered  the  age  of  beginning  of  the  compulsory  education  from  7  to  6. 
According  to  the  legislation  adopted  in  2009,  compulsory  pre-primary  education  will 
start at the age of 5 as of 2011, and compulsory primary education at the age of 6 as of 
2012.44 

Prolongation of compulsory education in Italy 

In 2007, Italy raised the length of compulsory education from 8 to 10 years (to 16 years), 
and established a right and a duty to obtain an upper secondary school qualification or a 
vocational  qualification  requiring  at  least  three  years,  by  the  age  of  18.  Previously, 
compulsory education had lasted only until the age of 14 and upper secondary education 
and vocational training were voluntary. The reform was implemented in parallel with the 
expansion  and  diversification  of  initial  VET  tracks  and  the  introduction  of  a  new 
apprenticeship track.45 

3.2.2.2.  Desegregation policies 

42. The accumulation of students from disadvantaged backgrounds in certain schools has 
been identified as a systemic cause for consistent high ratios of educational failure and 
ESL. 'Compositional effects' vary across different countries.46 However, socio-economic 
background is the main segregation factor in European school systems. It often interplays 
with other socio-cultural factors such as migrant background or minority status. Multiple 
disadvantages  can  result  in  particularly  severe  forms  of  segregation,  to  the  point  of 
referral to special education, which in turn increases the risk of ESL.47 

43.  Desegregation  policies  aim  to  change  the  social  composition  of  'disadvantaged' 
schools and to provide better access for children from low socio-economic backgrounds 

43 

44 
45 

46 

47 

IRIS, p.67; Kendall, Kinder (2005) mention the legal obligation for county authorities in Norway 
to provide a follow-up service for young people aged 16 to 19 and not in education, training or 
employment.  In  addition  everyone  between  14  and  19  has  the  statutory  right  3  years  upper 
secondary education. 
The impact of the 1999 Education Reform in Poland, OECD Education Working Paper No. 49. 
Summary  Report  of  the  PLA  on  'Measures  targeted  at  disadvantaged  youth'  in  Naples,  Italy,  in 
2009; http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=94 
PISA  data  show,  for  instance,  that  the  impact  of  the  socio-economic  status  (SES)  of  individual 
pupils  is  not  the  same  in  the  different  EU Member  States.  The  same  goes  for  the  impact  of  the 
aggregated socio-economic status of schools. 
Careful  attention  needs  to  be  given  to  whether  separate  schooling  is  in  the  best  interest  of  the 
pupils  involved.  Biased  assessments  of  pupils  with  disadvantaged  or  migrant  backgrounds  may 
lead  to  a  significant  overrepresentation  in  special  education.  Multicultural  diversity  and  Special 
Needs  Education,  Summary  Report,  European  Agency  for  Development  in  Special  Needs 
Education, 2009. 

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improve 

to schools with higher socio-economic composition. A more balanced social composition 
the  educational  attainment  of  children  from  socially 
of  schools  can 
disadvantaged and low-education backgrounds without lowering attainment levels of the 
class  as  a  whole.  It  also  reduces  the  level  of  behavioural  problems  which  are  often 
concentrated  in  disadvantaged  schools.48  This  entails  controlling  the  conditions  of 
entrance to individual schools as a mean of ensuring a broader socio-economic 'balance' 
in their population.  

44. Desegregation policies are often contested by parents, who fear decreasing academic 
performance levels and want to ensure that their children attend schools with high socio-
economic status. This can result in a so-called “white flight”, i.e. the tendency of parents 
with  higher  socio-economic  status  to  transfer  their  children  to  other  schools  when  they 
perceive the proportion of pupils from lower socio-economic backgrounds to be too high. 
Attempts  to  increase  the  social  mixity  of  schools  therefore  need  the  firm  political 
commitment  of  the  relevant  educational  authorities,  combined  with  measures  to  ensure 
school quality. 

Active desegregation policy (Hungary) 

Hungary  has  a  large  Roma  minority  with  worrying  education  indicators.  15%  of  the 
Roma  pupils  do  not  attend  school  beyond  primary  level  and  only  2%  attend  higher 
education. ESL and repetition rates are very high. Many Roma pupils attend segregated 
schools or segregated streams within schools and therefore education results remain low. 
In  order  to  change  the  situation,  the  government,  in  co-operation  with  the  Hungarian 
Institute  of  Educational  Research  and  Development  and  the  Roma  Education  Fund, 
promotes  the  development  of  “integrated  education”  through  grants  and  technical 
assistance.  Schools  benefitting  from  this  programme  must  ensure  that  their  school 
population  reflects  the  socio-economic  balance  and  composition  of  their  district.  They 
take  a  fixed  quota  of  multiply-disadvantaged  students  and  foster  school  quality  by  e.g. 
extracurricular activities. 

As  from  September  2007  schools  also  have  to  prioritise  enrolment  based  on  residence 
criteria.  EU  Structural  Funds  support  additional  equity  measures  and  Hungarian 
authorities  introduced  the  condition  that  projects  funded  within  state  programmes  are 
required to contribute to the desegregation of the school system.49 

School desegregation (Bulgaria) 

Roma grassroots organizations in nine towns and one mainstream school in Blagoevgrad 
initiated  school  desegregation  actions.50  3.500  Roma  children  from  Roma-only  schools 
were integrated into mainstream schools following a model developed in 2000 with the 

48 

49 

50 

Alex  Hugh  David,  The  'collateral  impact'  of  pupil  behaviour  and  geographically  concentrated 
socio-economic disadvantage, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 31, p.261-276. 
PLA in Hungary, (De)segregation in Education, Final Report,  
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=21 
The towns were Berkovitsa, Montana, Pazardjik, Pleven, Plovdiv, Sliven, Sofia, Stara Zagora, and 
Vidin.  Six  of  the  school  desegregation  projects  were  supported  by  the  Open  Society  Institute’s 
Roma Participation Programme in the period 2000-2005 and by the Roma Education Fund from 
2005 till now.  

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launch  of  the  first  desegregation  project  in  the  town  of  Vidin.  The  model  includes 
motivational  campaigns  among  Roma  parents  to  enrol  their  children  into  mainstream 
schools  outside  the  Roma  neighbourhoods,  planned  enrolment  of  Roma  children  in 
mainstream  schools  to  avoid  re-segregation  in  the  new  schools,  provision  of  academic 
support  for  Roma  children  who  need  to  catch  up  with  their  peers,  extra  curriculum 
activities  involving  Roma  and  non-Roma  students,  and  school  bus  transportation  for 
Roma students who live far away from their new schools. 

Evaluations  show  that  Roma  children  in  integrated  classes  achieved  better  results  in 
school  education  than  their  peers  from  segregated  schools.  At  the  same  time  school 
achievements of non-Roma pupils’ remained stable. Socializing Roma children with non-
Roma  peers  at  this  early  stage  of  their  lives  is  also  of  great  importance  for  their  social 
inclusion. 

3.2.2.3.  Positive discrimination measures 

45. Many Member States have introduced measures of positive discrimination, mainly by 
allocating  additional  resources  to  schools  with  a  more  disadvantaged  pupil  population. 
These  schools  can  improve  their  educational  offer,  provide  additional  support  to  their 
pupils  and  create  innovative  learning  environments  adapted  to  their  specific  needs. 
However,  the  application  of  this  principle  raises  questions.  One  is  how  to  identify  and 
quantify  socio-economic  disadvantage  within  the  pupil  population.  Measuring  the  per 
capita  income  of  the  area  where  the  school  is  located  is  a  pragmatic  but  imprecise 
approach. Children can attend schools outside their area of residence and disadvantaged 
schools in prosperous neighbourhoods do not benefit from this measurement. Indicators 
which focus on the personal situation of each pupil – family income, ethnic origins, and 
lone  parent-families  -  are  more  precise,  but  complexity  of  measurement  is  much 
greater.51 

Zones of Educational Priority (Cyprus) 

Zones  of  Educational  Priority  (ZEP)  are  formed  by  a  network  of  schools  in 
disadvantaged areas characterised by low socio-economic and educative level, high rates 
of  school  failure,  drop-out,  functional  illiteracy  and  a  high  percentage  of  non-Cypriot 
students.  The  networks  are  composed  of  high  schools,  primary  schools  and 
kindergartens. ZEPs aim to create democratic schools that support social inclusion of all 
children, respect diversity, improve literacy and reduce early school leaving and school 
failure. ZEPs receive additional funding and posts for coordinating tasks. 

Actions taken by ZEPs include the reduction of the number of children per classroom, the 
employment  of  teachers  speaking  the  mother  tongue  of  migrant  pupils,  free  meals,  and 
afternoon activities (groups, clubs). 

The Ambition réussite programme (France) 

51 

See  also  Summary  Report  of  the  PLA  in  Belgium  on  School  integration  of  immigrant  children, 
positive discrimination measures, support to school drop-outs in 2006;  
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=20 

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The  programme  Ambition  réussite  (Ambition  to  succeed),  reformed  in  2006,  is  a 
comprehensive  programme  that  provides  additional  resources  through  networking  of 
schools,  partnerships  between  stakeholders,  supervision  and  monitoring.  It  focuses  on 
eliminating inequalities in achievement between schools in deprived districts and schools 
in more prosperous neighbourhoods. 

Funding  is  not  allocated  to  single  schools,  but  to  networks  of  schools  (249  networks 
across the country). They propose projects e.g. focussing on an improved organisation of 
timetables,  on  bridging  actions  in  transition  years,  and  on  innovative  pedagogies.  The 
programme  allows  allocation  of  additional  staff  and  organisation  of  a  range  of  extra 
support (evening classes, vocational guidance and grants for pupils).52 

PROA - Reinforcement, Guidance and Support Programme (Spain) 

The “Programas de Refuerzo, Orientación y Apoyo” is a territorial cooperation project 
between  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  the  Autonomous  Communities,  supported  by 
European  Social  Funds.  It  provides  extra  resources  to  education  establishments  to 
address inequalities in education and to prevent social exclusion. It offers extra support 
for  pupils  facing  difficulties  in  primary  and  secondary  education,  as  well  as  targeted 
support  for  secondary  schools  hosting  large  numbers  of  pupils  from  socially 
disadvantaged  backgrounds.  These  measures  include  career  counselling  and  guidance, 
support for pupils with behavioural problems or learning difficulties, etc. The numbers of 
schools  with  available  targeted  programmes  has  been  extended  from  143  in  2005  to 
3.343 in 2010.53 

3.2.2.4.  Systematic language support 

46.  Language  acquisition  is  a  vital  factor  in the  educational  success  of  children  from  a 
migrant  background  or  from  disadvantaged  minorities,  such  as  the  Roma.  Systematic 
support through policies for language development is one of the main policy levers for 
improving the academic performance of children with a different mother tongue.54 

47. While early immersion in the language of instruction is important for the acquisition 
of  communicative  language,  a  systematic  provision  of  continued  support  throughout 
education  is  essential  for  the  acquisition  of  the  academic  level  of  the  language  of 
instruction.  This  requires  the  provision  of  a  clear  and  consistent  language  curriculum 
across levels of education, supported by assessment tools and integrated into mainstream 
core curriculum, as well as an adequate number of qualified teachers of the language of 
instruction as a second language. At the same time, positively valuing multilingualism in 
schools and offering possibilities for supporting and validating knowledge of the mother 
tongue  can  offer  children  from  migrant  or  minority  background  self  confidence  and 
identification with school and enrich learning across the whole school. 

52 

53 

54 

Summary  Report  of  the  PLA  in  France  on  'Fight  against  failure  in  school  and  inequality  in 
education' in 2007; http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=23 
Summary  Report  of  the  PLA  in  Spain  on  'Schools  as  learning  Communities'  in  2008; 
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=87 
NESSE (2008) – Education and Migration: Strategies for integrating migrant children in European 
schools and societies. 

EN 

20 

   EN 

 
                                                 
Structured system for language development (Sweden) 

Sweden  has  a  structured  curriculum  for  Swedish  as  a  Second  Language,  which  can  be 
taken as a subject throughout primary and secondary education. Assessment in Swedish 
and  Swedish  as  a  Second  Language  are  equivalent  for  promotion  to  higher  education 
levels, including tertiary admissions. There are specific teacher training programmes for 
Swedish as a Second Language, which can be chosen as a specialisation in initial teacher 
education, as well as in-service training available in this subject. Children from a migrant 
background  are  also  entitled  to  support  both  for  Swedish  and  for  the  mother  tongue 
during  early  childhood  education  and  care  and  can  choose  their  mother  tongue  as  a 
school subject in primary and secondary education, equivalent to other school subjects. 
Moreover,  individualised  study  support  and  guidance  can  be  provided  in  the  students' 
mother tongue.55 

3.2.2.5.  Increasing permeability of educational pathways 

48. Overly rigid education systems and too strong an emphasis on academic prerequisites 
for  accessing  advanced  education  levels  can  discourage  students  with  lower  academic 
performance from remaining in education and training. In order to motivate students to 
continue education and training, alternatives to ESL must offer credible perspectives and 
allow students to continue education and training also at later stages of their career. This 
means a high degree of permeability of educational pathways which avoids educational 
tracks  leading  to  'dead-ends'  offering  no  opportunities  for  further  progression.  Several 
Member  States  have  developed  flexible  approaches  to  combine  general  education, 
vocational training and first practical work experience. They target students who want to 
start working as early as possible and allow them at the same time to continue education. 

Lower cycle of vocational secondary education (Luxembourg) 

In  Luxembourg  more  flexible  education  conditions  have  been  promoted  under  the 
programme  Projet  cycle  inférieur  de  l’enseignement  secondaire  technique  (PROCI)  to 
allow students in a ‘preparatory system’ to access a lower cycle of ‘vocational secondary 
education’ and to subsequently enter vocational training. The lower cycle of ‘vocational 
secondary education’ offers general instruction in the first 3 years of secondary education 
(ages  12  –  14).  Students  are  then  able  to  choose  the  learning  pathway  (vocational  or 
professional training) which best suits their abilities and interests. This enables students 
both  to  expand  their  knowledge  and  to  positively  orientate  themselves  in  the  education 
system. Career guidance is also strengthened.56 

Diversified, flexible pathways (Italy) 

In  2006  Italy  introduced  a  didactic  methodology  called  “alternanza  scuola  lavoro”  that 
allows students aged 16 to 18 to continue education, alternating school and work periods. 
It can be applied both in lyceums and in technical and vocational schools. The aim is to 

55 

56 

OECD (2010) – OECD Review of Migrant Education: Sweden; 
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/45/40/44862803.pdf 
Projet pilote cycle inférieur PROCI 2003 – 2007. Rapport d'évaluation. 
http://www.men.public.lu/publications/postprimaire/rapport_evaluation/070321_rapport_proci/07
0321_rapport_evaluation_proci.pdf 

EN 

21 

   EN 

 
                                                 
 
 
increase flexibility and the permeability of pathways and to address the educational and 
vocational  needs  of  students.  Moreover  it  encourages  guidance  and  motivates  the 
development  of  personal  talents  and  interests.  This  approach  is  based  on  agreements 
between  public  and  private  institutions  and  in  particular  between  schools  and  other 
regional actors.57 

Production schools (Denmark) 

The production schools in Denmark combine compulsory schooling with VET. They are 
independent institutions with statutes approved by the local authority; the social partners 
are  represented  on  the  school  board.  The  objective  is  to  strengthen  the  personal 
development of the pupils and improve their chances in the education system and on the 
labour market. Young people can obtain qualifications that enable them to complete an 
education  on  upper  secondary  level  leading  up  to  a  professional  qualification.  The 
pedagogical  theory  and  practice  of  the  production  schools  is  built  around  activities  in 
various workshops combined with instructions in theory. The professional standard at the 
workshop is used as an educational tool to develop personal and social competencies. In 
addition, the school offers teaching in general subjects in order to prepare the participants 
to commence a regular youth education programme.58 

3.2.2.6.  Strengthening vocational pathways 

49.  Enhancement  of  vocational  pathways  as  an  alternative  to  general  upper  secondary 
education is a discernable trend. Reforms in this direction are on-going in many Member 
States, and they address both the quality of vocational education and training (VET) and 
its links to the general education system. 

50.  VET  can  respond  to  several  of  the  factors  leading  to  ESL.  It  can  increase  the 
motivation  to  learn  and  can  offer  students  more  flexibility  and  a  more  appropriate 
pedagogy. It can also address the labour market aspirations of young people, in particular 
when  it  is  combined  with  company  training.  However,  the  limited  evidence  available 
indicates  that  ESL  is  more  frequent  in  VET  than  in  general  education  in  several 
countries.  Reasons  include  the  structure  of  VET  provision,  its  image  and  social  status, 
but  also  the  generally  weaker  socio-economic  background  of  VET  students  and  their 
often weaker academic performance.59 Structural strategies to reduce ESL in VET should 
analyse  the  specific  factors  leading  to  drop-out,  the  needs  of  VET  students,  their 
motivation and their future perspectives. 

51. The degree of flexibility and the variety of vocational training is identified as a key 
factor in helping young people find appropriate education and training opportunities. In 
order to be successful in reducing ESL, VET must be of high quality and high status, and 
lead  to  recognisable  qualifications.  Based  on  strong  quality  assurance  mechanisms,  it 
should  offer  extended  and  meaningful  work  experience  and  match  labour  market 
opportunities.  

57 

58 

59 

PLA in Italy, Measures targeted to disadvantaged youth, Final Report,  
http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=94 
http://www.eng.uvm.dk/Uddannelse/Upper%20Secondary%20Education/Production%20 
Schools.aspx 
Kendall, Kinder (2005), p. 9. 

EN 

22 

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Providing attractive alternatives to ESL (Spain) 

The national ESL rate of 31% during the last years masks significant regional differences 
in Spain. Many early school leavers drop out from VET, which is often associated with 
school  failure,  has  a  low  prestige  and  only  few  links  with  the  rest  of  the  educational 
system. 

In the Basque Country, however, ESL stood at 14.3% in 2007 (less than the EU average), 
and  VET  constitutes  a  strong  feature.  Significant  efforts  including  the  support  of 
European Social Funds have improved its labour market relevance by establishing close 
co-operation  between  enterprises  and  training  providers.  Large  investments  were  also 
made in order to improve the technical equipment of training centres and to align it with 
the equipment used in enterprises. 

Providers of initial training offer also continuous training – which has a positive effect on 
the  morale  and  motivation  of  trainees.  The  employment  rate  of  VET  graduates  is 
constantly  monitored;  quality  is  constantly  evaluated,  and  strict  quality  standards  are 
applied in most training centres. VET in the Basque Country displays very low drop-out 
rates.60 

3.3. 

Intervention  

52.  Intervention  aims  to  avoid  ESL  by  improving  the  quality  of  education  and  training 
and  providing  targeted  support  to  pupils  or  groups  of  pupils  at  risk.  School-wide 
strategies address all pupils, but are especially beneficial to those at risk of dropping-out. 
They  look  at  school  development  in  general,  early  warning  systems  and  networks  with 
outside  actors  to  support  the  work  of  the  school.  Student-focused  strategies  build  on 
early  detection  of  support  needed  for  learning  and  motivation  and  take  a  multi-
professional and holistic approach in addressing them, and provide individual guidance 
and support. The following chapter outlines examples of both school-wide and student-
focused strategies. 

3.3.1. 

School-wide strategies 

53.  School-wide  strategies  focus  on  improving  the  overall  school  climate  and  making 
schools  places  where  young  people  feel  comfortable,  respected  and  responsible.  They 
seek  to  maintain  the  motivation  of  all  people  to  engage  in  learning  by  offering  various 
activities,  opening  up  schools  to  local  community,  working  closely  with  parents  and 
involving both students and their parents to decisions concerning school. Such structures 
are able to react to the first indications of problems that could lead to ESL. 

3.3.1.1.  Schools as Learning Communities 

54.  Schools  that  ensure  the  well-being  of  all  students  and  that  are  physically  inspiring 
and  comfortable  places  for  learning  are  more  likely  to  motivate  pupils  to  continue 
education and training and to address risk factors early and effectively. Similarly, schools 
that meet the different learning styles by proving activities such as team work or drama 
and the use of new technologies can effectively help pupils who prefer 'learning by doing' 

60 

Summary Report of the PLA in Spain. 

EN 

23 

   EN 

 
                                                 
and  get  motivated  by  active  forms  of  learning.  Practicing  school  democracy  in  daily 
decisions of school life may help overcome problems of disaffection. 

55. A promising concept in this context is the one of 'schools as learning communities'. 
Schools striving for 'learning communities' agree on a common vision, basic values and 
objectives of school development. This common vision shared by teachers, parents and 
other  stakeholders  increases  commitment  and  supports  the  development  of  school  level 
curricula, the organisation of teaching and learning, assessment and evaluation. 

56.  'Learning  communities'  use  the  diverse  expertise  and  knowledge  within  the  school; 
the traditional roles of teachers and students may be reversed. For instance, students with 
good  ICT  skills  can  share  their  expertise  with  their  peers  and  teachers.  The  ethos  of 
learning  communities  is  based  on  openness,  dialogue,  inquiry,  risk-taking,  trust  and 
professionalism.  Teachers  have  the  resources  and  encouragement  to  try  out  new  and 
innovative  teaching  strategies,  to  make  learning  more  effective  and  to  ensure  high 
motivation  of  each  student  to  carry  on  learning.  'Learning  communities'  build  on 
leadership that supports this process; school leaders that assume a 'developmental mind-
set',  inspire  teachers  and  students  to  seek  improvement  and  support  them  in  taking 
ownership of a goal-oriented learning process. 

Learning Communities (Spain) 

The  Learning  Communities  are  a  flagship  initiative  implemented  in  several  Spanish 
regions,  aiming  to  ensure  school  success  for all  by  mobilising  all  key  actors  around  an 
educational  project.  The  initiative  started  in  the  Basque  country  in  2000  where  it  is 
implemented in 28 centres. In Spain around 100 centres are carrying out projects based 
on the “learning communities” concept. 

It is based on projects adapted to the specific needs of each school, involving a selection 
of  methodologies.  Learning  communities  usually  centre  on  pedagogic  innovation,  e.g. 
dialogic learning or a pedagogy aiming at promoting respectful and open exchange and 
solidarity  between  the  students  and  school  staff.  Pupils,  teachers  and  school  leaders, 
parents,  community  stakeholders  and  education  authorities  are  all  involved  in  defining 
and  building  a  project  for  the  school,  and  are  actively  engaged  in  learning  from  each 
other. 

The implementation of the initiative comprises several phases. The first step is reflection 
and an open brainstorming on the motivation for change. In order to continue, the project 
must  be  approved  by  the  most  relevant  actors  (teachers,  the  headteacher,  families  and 
administration).  Once  a  school  decides  to  adhere  to  the  project,  all  the  stakeholders 
together  need  to  decide  what  to  improve,  both  in  academic  and  non-academic  ways.  A 
mixed  committee  in  which  all  relevant  stakeholders  are  represented  follows  up  the 
implementation of the different steps of the transformation of the school into a learning 
community.61 

Rural education project (Romania) 

61 

Summary Report of the PLA in Spain. 

EN 

24 

   EN 

 
                                                 
The  rural  education  project  is  a  nation-wide  project  aiming  at  increasing  the  quality  of 
education  in  rural  areas,  raising  completion  rates  of  compulsory  education  and 
facilitating  transitions  towards  upper  secondary  and  higher  education.  This  large  scale 
intervention  integrated  four  components  for  closing  the  achievement  gap  between  rural 
and urban areas: Firstly, a school-based teacher professional development model, based 
on open distance learning and supported by a teacher mentorship scheme was developed 
to suit the needs of remote communities. Secondly, an investment in school infrastructure 
and teaching and learning materials aimed at making the school environment in deprived 
schools  more  pupil-friendly.  Thirdly,  a  school-community  grants  programme  aimed  to 
empower schools and communities, build local project management capacity, supporting 
school  development  programmes  and  the  establishment  of  Local  Educational  Councils. 
Fourthly,  the  establishment  of  a  National  Education  Database  for  monitoring  school 
achievements,  an  essential  part  for  evidence-based  policymaking.  The  project  was 
successful  in  increasing  transition  rates  towards  upper  secondary  education  and  in 
narrowing the gap in achievement scores between urban and rural schools.62 

3.3.1.2.  Early warning systems 

57.  There  are  several  warning  signs  which  help  to  identify  pupils  at  risk  of  ESL.  The 
most  obvious  is  truancy  or  absenteeism.  Long  periods  of  absenteeism  lead  to  growing 
alienation  from  school  and  make  it  difficult  for  students  to  return  to  the  class  room. 
Others signs are sudden decline in performance, frequent change of schools (either due to 
school  problems  or  due  to  family  reasons),  family  problems,  regular  misconduct, 
aggressive behaviour or being affected by bullying or violence. While truancy often starts 
only  during  lower  secondary,  the  underlying  problems  might  have  developed  already 
during  primary  school.63  Early  warning  systems  within  the  school  can  help  to  identify 
pupils at risk before they start to become alienated from school, play truant or drop-out. 

Digital absence portal (Netherlands) 

Schools  in  the  Netherlands  report  absences  to  a  single  digital  portal,  which  will  then 
notify the relevant local authorities automatically. Schools do not have to find out which 
local  authority  or  supervisor  they  are  obliged  to  contact  for  an  individual  pupil.  In 
addition,  all  notifications  follow  a  fixed  procedure  and  after  notification,  the  relevant 
officer  treats  the  absence  in  consultation  with  the  school.  The  portal  makes  it  easy  to 
report  absences  and  gives  schools  and  teachers  more  time  to  react  and  prevent  young 
people from dropping out of school.64 

3.3.1.3.  Enhancing the involvement of parents 

58.  If  key  actors  such  as  parents  are  disengaged,  it  deeply  undermines  the  success  of 
school  education  and  means  that  warning  signs  are  more  easily  missed.  Cooperation 
between  families  and  school  is  indispensable  especially  for  pupils  at  risk  of  ESL. 
low-education 
However,  parents 

socio-economically  disadvantaged  and 

from 

62 
63 

64 

EN 

Forthcoming World Bank implementation report. 
Kendall,  Kinder 
(2005); 
Ausbildungslosigkeit, p. 22. 
http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/actueel_vervolg.php?id=262.  The  approach  to  school  drop-
out:  Policy  in  the  Netherlands  and  the  results  of  the  2007-2008  performance  agreements, 
http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/userfiles/file/Engelse_atlas.pdf 

(2007),  Schulabbrueche 

Irene  Hofmann-Lun 

et.al 

und 

25 

   EN 

 
                                                 
backgrounds are often reluctant to contact the school. They might believe themselves to 
be  unwelcome,  have  their  own  experiences  of  school  failure  or  might  not  expect 
appropriate support from the school. Sometimes, schools may find it difficult to reach out 
to  families  because  of  a  real  or  perceived  attitude  of  non-cooperation  among  some 
families.  Building  trusting  relationships  between  parents  and  schools  is  a  crucial  and 
challenging task in reducing ESL. Innovative approaches which support communication 
with parents, which create partnerships between parents and schools and which enhance 
mutual understanding do exist, but are not yet sufficiently widespread. 

59.  A  number  of  countries  have  successfully  introduced  school  mediators  or  teaching 
assistants who often provide the missing link between the school and the parents. This is 
a successful approach particularly for communities with a distrust of school authorities, 
or for parents who do not speak the language of instruction. School mediators often have 
a  role  in  facilitating  access  to  education,  including  early  childhood  education  and  care, 
and in the reinsertion of students who have dropped out. 

The Home-School Community Liaison (Ireland) 

The initiative aims to establish collaboration between parents and teachers for children's 
learning,  targeting,  in  particular,  families  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  and/or 
neighbourhoods. In order to overcome parents' own negative experiences with school, the 
initiative  tries  to  recover  trust  by  recognising  parents  as  belonging  to  the  school  (e.g. 
parents’  rooms),  offering  adult  education  courses,  involving  parents  in  teaching 
mathematics and reading for primary school children, and involving parents of children 
with special needs in helping their own child in class. Parents thus gain knowledge and 
understanding of learning and can better support their children at home. 

Another  key  feature  of  the  programme  is  the  'home-school  coordinator',  who  acts  as  a 
mediator and contact person. The coordinator regularly visits families and can intervene 
in  particular  in  crisis  situations,  after  absences  from  school  or  in  cases  of  disruptive 
behaviour.65 

3.3.1.4.  Networking with actors outside school  

60.  Difficulties  at  school  often  have  their  roots  outside.  Solving  problems  at  school 
cannot  be  done  effectively  without  tackling  the  range  of  problems  that  put  children  in 
difficulty,  which  can  include  drug  or  alcohol  use,  sleep  deficits,  physical  abuse  and 
trauma. Some of the most successful measures have been those which provide a holistic 
solution by networking different actors and so support the whole person. Partnerships at 
the local level seem to be highly effective ways of doing this.  

The School Completion Programme (Ireland) 

This  measure  of  ESL  prevention  favours  strongly  cross-community  and  cross-sectoral 
approaches  based  on  the  development  of  local  strategies.  Schools  are  grouped  into 
clusters  of  secondary  and  primary  schools.  Each  cluster  has  a  local  management 
committee  composed  of  principals,  voluntary  and  statutory  agencies  including  County 
Development  Boards,  Local  Drug  Task  Forces,  Area  Partnerships  (local  organisations 

65 

Summary Report PLA Ireland. 

EN 

26 

   EN 

 
                                                 
focussing  on  social  inclusion),  the  local  programme  coordinator,  parents,  community 
interests, etc. The committee develops and oversees the implementation of an integrated 
plan to tackle early school leaving.  

The clusters of schools receive extra-funding to organise activities such as academic and 
non-academic  support  for  pupils  on  a  continuous  basis.  In  order  to  avoid  the 
stigmatisation  effect  of  singling  out  individual  pupils  for  support  activities,  most 
activities target the whole class or school.66 

Regions take action (Netherlands) 

The  Ministry  of  Education  made  agreements  with  municipalities  and  schools  in  39 
regions for the period 2008-2011 in order to reduce early school leaving. Municipalities, 
schools and care institutions can decide themselves on the measures to be implemented. 
It  is  the  result  that  counts.  Any  school  that  manages  to  reduce  its  drop-out  rate  will 
receive € 2.000 for each drop-out less than the number it had in the reference year (2005-
2006). Furthermore, additional funds are available for educational programmes aimed at 
reducing drop-out rates.  

Funds  provided  under  the  agreements  are  allocated  to  the  schools.  Via  the  local 
governments,  schools  can  also  call  on  the  services  of  care  institutions,  the  police  and 
judicial  authorities.  At  the  end  of  this  programme,  it  will  be  analysed  which  of  the 
measures had the greatest impact on early school leaving.67 

3.3.1.5.  Teacher education, empowerment and motivation 

61. Any strategy to decrease ESL should include a well-prepared and motivated teaching 
force.  However,  teachers  are  often  discouraged  when  constantly  faced  with  difficult 
teaching  and  working  conditions.  Schools  in  socially  disadvantaged  areas  or  with  a 
disadvantaged intake often experience high teacher turnover; this has a highly disruptive 
effect on the educational offer, the quality of teaching and on the reputation of the school. 

62. While  these schools  usually rely  on a handful  of  dedicated and committed teachers 
who choose to stay despite the difficulties, it is essential that teacher education prepares 
future  teachers  to  deal  with  diversity  in  the  classroom,  with  pupils  from  disadvantaged 
social backgrounds and with difficult teaching situations. It is also essential to improve 
school climate  and  working conditions -  especially in disadvantaged areas - in order to 
have a more stable teaching force. 

Comenius Project: THE GOLDEN 5 

The  project  aimed  at  helping  teachers  turn  difficult  classroom  situations  –  typically  in 
mixed-ability  secondary  classes  –  into  empowerment,  by  successfully  addressing 
diversity,  lack  of  motivation  and  social  and  personal  development  drawbacks.  It 
concentrated  on  improving  teachers’  competences  step-by-step  and  developing  new 
strategies for classroom management, building relationships, social climate, personalised 

66 

67 

Summary  Report of  the  PLA  in  Ireland, Preventive  and  compensatory measures  to  reduce  early 
school leaving, http://www.kslll.net/PeerLearningActivities/PlaDetails.cfm?id=22 
http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/english.php 

EN 

27 

   EN 

 
                                                 
learning and  family-school relationship. Resources on the project's website support and 
motivate the teachers and bring them into contact with colleagues elsewhere. Materials in 
five languages have been in use since 2004 and are available via an international on-line 
network  allowing  registered  teachers  access  and  the  opportunity  to  contribute  to 
continued improvements. (www.golden5.org) 

We need all Youngsters - Courses on diversity for VET teachers (Denmark) 

Within this initiative, in service courses for ’contact teachers’ at VET colleges have been 
developed,  the  aim  being  that  the  contact  teachers  acquire  knowledge  about  and 
pedagogical  tools  to  handle  immigrant  students.  The  course  focuses  on  the  students’ 
social lives at the colleges and on their social and personal backgrounds. Other in-service 
courses  address  all  VET  teachers  to  help  them  capitalise  on  the  diversities  within 
immigrant groups. They provide methods to address students with various learning styles 
and  clarify  the  connection  between  language  learning,  culture  and  identity,  including 
language acquisition, communicative competence and second language pedagogy. 

The  courses  are  optional  and  typically  take  place  during  working  hours.  An  evaluation 
showed  that  the  development  of  courses  led  to  innovative  programmes  with  well 
functioning tools and methods, which have been adopted by educational institutions.68 

3.3.1.6.  Extra-curricular activities 

63.  Activities  after  and  outside  school  can  raise  self-esteem,  improve  motivation  and 
support learning processes. The aim of such activities is on the one hand to keep children 
off  the  street,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  provide  them  with  the  support  (supervision  of 
homework,  recreational  activities  etc.)  that  more  fortunate  children  receive  from  their 
families.  The  importance  of  non-formal  and  also  non-academic  education  for  reducing 
ESL  is  uncontested;  after-school  activities  need  to  find  the  right  balance  between 
supporting  homework  and  bringing  learning  into  spaces  such  as  sports  and  community 
centres.  

64.  In  certain  areas,  schools  might  be  the  only  institution  available  with  facilities  that 
allow  for  non-formal  education  activities  outside  school  hours.  Opening  the  school  to 
educators other than teachers can also help to overcome reluctance towards education as 
well as developing better cognitive and emotional abilities and a sense of belonging. Also 
art  projects,  either  as  part  of  the  curricula  or  in  addition,  have  been  shown  to  have 
positive impacts on pupils' motivation and learning.69 

Open Schools in Naples (Italy)  

In  the  region  of  Campania,  a  flagship  social  inclusion  scheme  called  Open  Schools 
(Scuole  Aperte)  aims  to  tackle  disengagement  of  pupils.  Over  40%  of  schools  in  the 
region take part, and 250 projects were funded in the school year 2008-09. The projects 
can be implemented by all schools, from pre-schools to upper secondary.  

68 

69 

http://www.brugforalleunge.dk/fileadmin/bruger_upload/Billeder/Publikationer/English_ 
Summary_evaluation_BFAU_final-version.pdf 
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation: Serious Play. An evaluation of arts activities in Pupil Referral 
Units and Learning Support Units. 

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Three-quarters of Open School projects are run by schools in association with local civil 
society;  many  co-operate  with  local  authorities  or  universities.  In  2008-09,  the  scheme 
enabled  the  organisation  of  1,350  on-going  after-school  classes  in  disadvantaged  areas. 
The most popular ones are theatre and music workshops, ICT courses and workshops that 
promote  intercultural  co-operation  or  active  citizenship.  Such  activities  are  run  by 
schools,  NGOs  or  religious  organisations.  The  workshops  are  organised  outside  school 
hours  and  are  open  for  all  children,  including  those  who  have  already  abandoned 
mainstream  education.  They  provide  a  way  to  re-engage  them  and  also  many  children 
who were at risk of dropping out in learning.70 

Tanoda centres (Hungary) 

In  Hungary,  the  European  Social  Fund  supported  the  creation  of  a  network  of  centres 
("Tanoda") aimed at providing children from disadvantaged backgrounds, mainly but not 
exclusively Roma, with the extra support. The Centres help children with homework, and 
also  organises  art  and  sport  activities.  For  academic  support,  courses  are  provided  by 
local school teachers, who can identify difficulties at school and provide pupils with an 
extra  support  in  the  afternoon.  School  performance  and  attendance  have  dramatically 
risen since the Centres started to work. Key success factors are the direct involvement of 
representatives  of  the  Roma  community  and  of  parents,  as  well  as  a  culture  of  respect 
towards children and young people.71 

3.3.2. 

Student-focused strategies 

65. Together with the development of school-wide strategies, education systems need to 
provide individual support to young people who are at risk of dropping out. Redressing 
difficulties,  which  can  be  of  social,  cognitive  or  emotional  nature,  is  of  paramount 
importance. And they need to be adapted to the individual needs. Academic performance 
does not necessarily have to determine later school careers; however, without sufficient 
'educational  resilience',  the  capacity  to  cope  with  difficulties  and  drawbacks,  there  is  a 
high  chance  that  negative  experiences  will  cumulate  and  result  in  ESL.  Traditional 
'academic  support'  measures  aim  to  help  pupils  with  academic  difficulties  to  'catch  up' 
with  their peers.  Resilience-building puts more emphasis on feelings of  confidence, for 
instance, as well as addressing academic competence. 

66. Building resilience, offering mentoring and tutoring to students at risk, strengthening 
personalised learning approaches, and providing maintenance allowances are some of the 
measures  which  address  the  specific  needs  of  individual  pupils  and  go  beyond  school-
wide strategies. 

3.3.2.1.  Mentoring and tutoring 

67. A key feature of several effective ESL prevention programmes is mentoring. Some 
programmes are based solely on this measure, with key personnel working directly with 
pupils  at  risk.  Besides  school  education  staff,  they  often  involve  also  other  community 
members,  including  businesses  and  community  volunteers.  They  can  be  regarded  as 
'impartial  outsiders'  by  pupils  who  are  disengaged  from  the  school  environment. 

70 
71 

Summary Report PLA Italy. 
Summary Report PLA Hungary. 

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'Mentoring', however, can mean different things in different contexts and support offered 
can  range  from  academic  help  to  social  work.  What  characterises  a  student-focused 
support programme as 'mentoring' is the one-to-one approach. 

68.  Mentoring  programmes  are  in  general  expensive,  time-  and  space-consuming.  For 
this reason, tutoring in small groups is often a preferred alternative. Tutoring can be done 
by teachers, but also by out-side persons with appropriate background or training. They 
support pupils with low achievement levels and help them to cope with their difficulties 
in school. They can also help students in transitional periods. 

Care and Advisory Teams (The Netherlands) 

Every  child  who  needs  mentoring  should  receive  it.  This  entails  good  cooperation 
between  all  partners  in  the  care  sector.  Schools  play  a  central  role  in  this:  they  are  the 
place where dropping out occurs and the place where it can be combated. For this reason, 
Care  and  Advisory  Teams  are  already  in  place  at  many  schools  (95  %  of  secondary 
schools, 82 % of vocational institutions). These teams are made up of professionals who 
identify  dangers  early  and  take  appropriate  action.  They  get  into  direct  contact  with 
Youth  Services,  social  workers,  the  police  and  judicial  authorities  and  organise  the 
necessary  help  to  prevent  young  people  from dropping  out.  They  try  to  make  sure  that 
mentoring is available when needed. 

Tutoring programmes (French-speaking Community of Belgium) 

The  tutoring  programme  supports  pupils  in  upper-secondary  education  to  reduce  year 
repetition  and  facilitate  transition  to  higher  education.  This  programme  was  created  in 
1989 and aims at schools with a large population with socio-economic disadvantage and 
immigrant backgrounds. The tutors are university or college students who offer support 
to groups of 3 to 8 students in a specific course. Even if the programme is not a one-to-
one, the additional support has proved to be very useful for the pupils.72 

3.3.2.2.  Personalised learning  

69. For a diversity of social, emotional and cultural reasons, adjusting to the demands of 
formal  education  can  be  difficult  for  pupils.  Personalised  learning  programmes  that 
include agreement of objectives and goals, specific programmes, division of labour and 
responsibilities  can  help  to  overcome  the  barriers  that  would  normally  prevent 
progression in learning. Personalised learning brings benefits for all pupils, not just those 
at  risk  of  dropping  out,  as  individual  strengths  can  be  better  exploited  and  weaknesses 
addressed  in  a  more  targeted  way.  Evidence  shows  that  it  should  however  be  properly 
resourced and integrated into flexible individual learning pathways. For students at risk, 
it could even be the preferred approach. 

Personalised programmes for educational success (France) 

In  France,  primary  level  students  with  severe  and  persistent  learning  difficulties  are 
identified  by  their  teacher,  who  implements  a  personalised  programme  for  educational 
success  (programme  personalisé  de  réussite  educative  -  PPRE).  Within  the  PPRE  the 

72 

Summary Report PLA Belgium. 

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school agrees a 'contract' with the pupil and his or her family, which includes a help and 
support  programme  during  and  outside  school  hours,  defines  objectives,  means  and 
resources attributed to the pupil and to his or her family. The objective is to avoid school-
year repetition or to benefit from an unavoidable repetition. 

The Mission Générale d'Insertion (France) 

The  'General  mission  of  integration'  is  a  cross-cutting  pattern  of  interventions  targeting 
pupils who have been identified as at high risk of leaving school without a diploma and 
without  minimum  qualifications.  The  programme  tries  to  prevent  drop-out  by  offering 
personalized  guidance,  tailored  to  the  specific  needs  of  each  individual  student  and 
provided by a team of teachers and educational staff ("group of insertion help"). 

But  the  programme  also  prepares  pupils  who  have  left  the  school  system  without  a 
diploma  less  than  a  year  before  to  undertake  specific  training  courses  for  access  to 
qualifications.  "Re-motivation  actions"  follow  individualised  methods,  and  provide 
active guidance and apprenticeship possibilities. These are the actions which receive the 
biggest  number  of  pupils  (more  than  30  000  in  2005/06)  and  after  which  72%  of  the 
beneficiaries go back to education or training.  

3.3.2.3.  Improving guidance 

70.  The  growing  variety  of  learning  pathways  reinforces  the  need  for  transparent  and 
timely  information  on  learning  and  career  opportunities.  Young  people  often  find  it 
difficult to make the right choice or they lack a clear idea of what a certain occupation 
involves. The systematic provision of career and academic guidance can have a positive 
effect  on  school  completion,  especially  in  vocational  pathways.  It  can  prevent  young 
people from taking wrong decisions regarding their future career developments. Besides 
schools, public employment services try to provide services with multi-channelling, self-
service options, personalised support and up-skilling schemes. 

71. Pupils at risk often have less access to high quality guidance. Moreover, once ESL 
occurs,  the  links  to  school-based  guidance  services  are  severed.  Evidence  shows  that 
guidance services should enhance their contribution to reducing ESL by helping students 
to  overcome  learning  difficulties,  developing  individual  action  plans  or  intervention 
strategies in collaboration with families. Guidance services have a key support role and it 
is important that they remain accessible even after an individual has dropped out.73 

Career Orientation and Guidance (The Netherlands) 

A  number  of  good  practice  examples  in  career  orientation  and  guidance  in  the 
Netherlands have been investigated to determine success factors. 

LOEKS puts pupils in pre-vocational secondary education in touch with professionals in 
various secondary vocational sectors by offering them fieldwork simulations. Instructors 
in  secondary  vocational  and  mentors  in  prevocational  secondary  education  cooperate. 
While  the  instructors  run  the  fieldwork  simulations,  mentors  are  responsible  for 

73 

See also CEDEFOP (2010) Guiding at-risk youth through learning and work, OECD/EU (2004) 
Career Guidance. Handbook for policy makers. 

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preparatory and follow-up activities. They also guide and observe the pupils during their 
visits.  CHAMPS  ON  STAGE  is  a  work  placement  and  mentoring  project  that  helps 
youngsters to choose the right study course. The programme  mediates  between schools 
and organizations acting as match-maker. Pupils receive training in applying for jobs and 
attend work placements. Instructors and mentors cooperate closely. 

Easy access to labour market data (Czech Republic) 

The National Institution of Technical and Vocational Education has developed an on-line 
labour  market  information  system  for  teaching  staff,  advisors  and  graduates  to  support 
them  in  making  informed  career  choices  or  in  giving  career  advise.  In  addition,  the 
Institute  has  developed  learning  facilities  on  issues  like  how  to  write  a  CV,  how  to 
behave  in  a  job  interview  etc.  E-learning  tools  have  been  made  available  to  train 
educational counsellors and teachers. 

Improving guidance and recognition (Luxembourg)  

The  vocational  guidance  services  (Orientation  Professionnelle  –  O.P.)  which  act  under 
the authority of the employment services, automatically take in charge unqualified young 
people  leaving  school.  These  young  people  attend  an  individual  guidance  and 
information  interview  where  they  are  informed  about  the  possibilities  of  entering  a 
vocational training program or continuing their studies.74 

3.3.2.4.  Financial support 

72. Policies against ESL need to take account of the financial difficulties that cause many 
young  people  to  leave  school  early.  Some  Nordic  countries  have  traditionally  provided 
study allowances as part of a policy of 'citizen entitlement'. Financial incentives can also 
be conditional, e.g. based on regular school attendance. 

73. Another form of financial stimulus for young people to stay on at school is to make 
their  families'  social  benefits  dependent  on  their  doing  so.75  Though  there  are  positive 
experiences with this measure in some countries, it should be noted that conditional cash 
transfers on their own do not necessarily ensure positive learning outcomes or an intrinsic 
motivation to stay in education and training. They should therefore be accompanied by 
targeted  measures  to  support  pupils  at  risk  in  their  learning.  Moreover,  when  such 
conditional cash transfers take place in highly unequal educational settings, they tend to 
reinforce the patterns of exclusion.  

Scholarships in Latvia 

To  help  vocational  education  students  to  stay  at  school  in  the  economically  difficulty 
conditions,  Latvia  implements  a  major  ESF  project  (ESF  ~  €  31  million)  that  provides 

74 
75 

http://www.adem.public.lu/adem/missions/op/index.html 
Since  2009,  for  instance,  social  benefits  for  children  at  compulsory  school  age  in  Slovakia  are 
based  on  the  condition  that  the  children  attend  school  regularly.  Minimum  Income  Scheme  in 
Slovakia, First Report 2009, April 2009. 

EN 

32 

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scholarships, as a financial incentive, to students. 26,038 students were supported in the 
framework of the project in 2009.76 

Educational Maintenance Allowance (United Kingdom) 

The Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) is a conditional cash transfer, the aim of 
which is to decrease dropout rates in the transition from compulsory to post-compulsory 
education  in  the  UK.  As  such,  it  is  targeted  at  individuals  who  have  completed  their 
general  certificate  of  secondary  education  (GCSE).  If  they  choose  to  undertake  any 
academic  or  vocational  course  that  involves  at  least  12  hours  of  guided  learning  per 
week, and if their household income is below £30,000 per year, they are eligible for the 
programme.  The  payments  consist  of  a  weekly  allowance.  It  has  been  on  offer 
nationwide since September 2004. 

In  England  the  scheme  was  tested  in  various  forms  by  56  of  the  150  local  education 
authorities.  It  showed  that  EMA  motivated  young  people  to  stay  in  education  and 
training. It had fewer effects on those who already left education and training.77 

3.4. 

Compensation  

74.  Compensatory  strategies  create  opportunities  for  those  who  left  education  and 
training  prematurely,  but  want  to  gain  the  qualifications  they  missed  at  a  later  stage  in 
their  life.  The  aim  is  also  to  reintegrate  young  adults  in  danger  of  social  exclusion  by 
offering a range of tailor-made education and training opportunities. 

75. While avoiding drop-out altogether is the better outcome, the second chance route is 
an important option offers an essential opportunity to continue education and training for 
those who have left mainstream education early. Nevertheless early school leavers often 
face  barriers  to  continue  learning;  many  of  their  difficulties  are  linked  to  previous  bad 
experiences  at  school  and  lack  of  confidence  in  own  ability  to  learn.78  In  second  and 
further educational chances dropout becomes more likely. . 

3.4.1. 

Second chance programmes 

76. Whether young adults can benefit from a second chance in education depends on why 
they  dropped  out  of  the  'first  chance  system'.  It  depends  on  their  previous  learning 
experiences, on their social or learning difficulties, on their living conditions and on the 
set-up  of  the  programme.  Targeted  measures  often  follow  a  360-degree  approach  and 
look at academic performance, wellbeing and psychological recovery of the young adults 
concerned.  

77.  Second  chance  schools  need  to  provide  a  different  learning  environment  which 
responds  to  the  specific  needs  of  their  learners,  such  as  smaller  learning  groups,  more 
teachers  per  student,  more  personalised  and  innovative  teaching,  flexible  and  multiple 

76 

77 

78 

ESF  Funding  –  Operational  Programme  'human  Resource  Development',  Ministry  of  Finance 
August  2009,  http://www.esfondi.lv/upload/04-kohezijas_politikas_nakotne/op/1_DP_2009-08-
04_ENG.pdf 
For more information http://ema.direct.gov.uk/; the Institute for Fiscal Studies (UK) evaluated the 
scheme, http://www.ifs.org.uk/projects/98. 
GHK (2005), p. 107 

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pathways and more elements of vocational training. Second chance programmes have to 
be relevant to their students, have to be able to provide sufficient incentives to maintain 
learning  and  need  to  be  flexible  to  students'  varied  needs.  And  they  need  to  pass  the 
crucial test of providing successful students with accreditation which is recognised on the 
labour  market  and  allows  them  to  continue  education  and  training  within  mainstream 
education and training system. 

Belvárosi Tanoda Alapitvány Foundation (Hungary) 

Hungary's Belvárosi Tanoda Secondary School is part of the network of Tanoda centres 
which aim at providing children from disadvantaged backgrounds with the extra support 
in  education.  The  Belvárosi  Tanoda  is  a  second  chance  school  for  students  who  have 
dropped out of upper secondary education. It focuses on teaching adapted to the students' 
personalities  and  abilities  and  helps  students  to  finish  upper-secondary  and  pass  their 
final exams. The school offers no full-year classes, but organises small study groups per 
subject.  One-to-one  teaching  is  used  when  necessary  and  possible;  every  student  pairs 
with a teacher for help both in learning and in other aspects of life. The student signs a 
contract with personal objectives for the school year and learns according to a personal 
timetable. 

The  facilities,  which  do  not  resemble  typical  school  buildings,  create  a  family 
atmosphere and ensure a safe and accepting environment for the young adults. Rooms are 
used  in  a  flexible  manner,  including  leisure,  cultural  and  sports  activities  as  well  as 
personal  and  team  discussions.  One  of  the  main  objectives  is  to  create  a  rich  social 
climate with various opportunities to learn social roles and develop self-esteem. 

In  2007,  the  school  had  100  full-time  and  35  part-time  students  in  general  upper 
secondary  education  and  employed  18  full-time  and  13  part-time  teachers  and  6 
additional staff members.79 

3.4.2. 

Support to re-enter mainstream education 

78. For reintegrating young early school leavers into the mainstream education system, a 
period  of  transition  between  the  previous  (and  failed)  school  experience  and  a  more 
successful one is often determinant. Seldom does a pupil return to school if he or she has 
not received any help. Transition programmes aim to bridge this gap and to avoid the risk 
of not being in employment, education or training in this crucial period of life. 

Project Learning for Young Adults (Slovenia) 

The  ‘Project  Learning  for  Young  Adults’  (PLYA)  is  a  long-standing  programme  that 
focuses on vulnerable young adults who have dropped out of school. The programme is 
voluntary,  and  lasts  from  at  least  three  months  up  to  one  year,  depending  on  the 
expectations and motivation of its participants. The programme is free of charge and co-
financed by the European Social Fund, the Ministry of Social Affairs and by interested 
local communities.  

79 

Second  Chance 
Lászlo 
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/3/55/41533212.pdf 

Limbacher,  A 

School 

in  Hungary,  OECD 

2008, 

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Due  to  the  complex  multi-faceted  problems  faced  by  the  target  group,  alternative 
pedagogical and counselling methods are employed to re-integrate them into education, 
training  or  employment.  The  success  of  the  programme  lies  in  the  provision  of  an 
individualised,  supportive  learning  environment  and  a  flexible  approach  tailored  to  fit 
local circumstances and the needs of each young person. The role of the mentor is crucial 
in  supporting  the  individual  through  this  transition.  Mentors  act  as  role  models, 
demonstrating  what  individuals  can  achieve  and  supporting  them  in  dealing  with  the 
wide  range  of  problems  they  face.  The  mutual  trust  and  respect  between  mentors  and 
students is an effective way of ensuring the young person’s engagement.  

The  voluntary  aspect  of  this  programme  contributes  to  building  self-discipline  and 
motivation but there is also a need for compulsory elements to help maintain the young 
person’s engagement (e.g. individual agreements). The main strength of the PLYA is the 
comprehensive and person-centred approach that supports the participants in all aspects 
of their reintegration journey.80 

Transition classes (France) 

Transition  classes  give  an  opportunity  to  pupils  at  risk  to  gradually  regain  confidence, 
catch up on missed learning and be reintegrated in regular classes enabling them to rejoin 
their year groups as smoothly as possible and without losing any time. 

A  transition  class  consists  of  few  students  who  receive  intensive  tuition  from  a 
substantial number of teachers over a period of three months to one year. The educational 
project  is  developed  by  staff  and  teachers  under  the  supervision  of  the  head  of  the 
transition centre. The centre is established outside school, but it is closely monitored by 
the  inspectorate.  Transition  classes  have  shown  high  success  rates:  between  75%  and 
80%  of  pupils  return  to  regular  school.  The  critical  success  factor  seems  to  be  the 
underlying concept combined with the high level of motivation and skills of teachers and 
other pedagogical staff engaged in the programme.81 

With the school year 2010, France introduced a comparable scheme, the 'micro-lycées', 
which  support  young  people  in  re-entering  mainstream  education  and  achieve  the 
baccalaureate.  They  are  linked  to  the  national  education  system,  but  provide  a  more 
targeted support. 

Sas transition centres (Belgium) 

Sas is a programme of school reinsertion targeting 13 to 17-year-olds who have dropped-
out from school. Some Sas centres work in more direct cooperation with schools or even 
run within schools, others operate on school-independent level within the framework of a 
formalised partnership between the centre, students and their parents. 

The basic principle is to offer a sabbatical period of maximum one year to allow pupils to 
explore  other  fields  of  activity  (e.g.  art-related),  providing  them  with  an  experience, 
which  may  reinforce  self  esteem  and  may  equip  them  to  face  the  challenges  of  school 
more easily. 

80 
81 

http://www.guidance-europe.org/english/slovenia/guidanceyoung/practice/plya/ 
Summary Report PLA in France. 

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Even  though  the  pupils  are  not  registered  as  school  leavers,  the  period  spent  in  Sas 
centres is not recognised as a year of education. Pupils have to restart at the same point 
they left. The idea behind this approach is to avoid stigmatisation linked to the attendance 
of  second  chance  schools.  The  main  objective  is  to  bring  pupils  back  to  mainstream 
school: academic education should take place within the school.82 

3.4.3.  Recognition and validation of prior learning 

79.  The  recognition  and  validation  of  prior  learning  and  especially  of  informal  or  non-
formal learning outcomes is a measure strongly linked to guidance and coaching. It can 
play an important role in motivating young adults to maintain education and training or 
to re-enter it. It often leads to increased self-confidence as it contradicts the experience of 
learning  difficulties  and  failure.  It  is  relevant  for  planning  further  learning:  validating 
prior learning helps learners to think about what they have achieved so far and to identify 
their strengths and skills. This helps them to identify their long-term goals and what they 
need to do to achieve them.83 Advice and guidance during this process can help to ensure 
that the recognition of learning outcomes develops into a starting point for new learning. 
But  what  is  equally  important  is  the  availability  of  learning  opportunities  and  a  clear 
perspective how to use the recognition of learning outcomes in later careers. 

New Opportunities Initiative (Portugal) 

The aim of the New Opportunities Initiative is to involve by 2010 over 650.000 young 
adults in courses of double certification at the upper secondary education level. Those at 
risk  of  leaving  school  without  a  qualification  shall  be  integrated  in  occupational  paths. 
The  initiative  also  focuses  on  the  recognition  of  existing  competences  and  learning 
outcomes, using the National Qualification Catalogue as a tool. 

The  initiative  has  a  decentralised  approach,  implemented  by  a  network  of  public  and 
private teaching and training providers. A panel of national and international experts has 
been appointed to perform external monitoring and validation of the initiative. And first 
successes  are  already  visible:  Changing  education  and  training  paths  at  the  upper 
secondary  level  has  already  allowed  reversing  students’  losses,  reducing  failures  and 
preventing  early  drop-outs.  The  young  adults  enrolled  in  double  certification  courses 
(2007-08)  at  the  upper  secondary  education  level  is  40%  of  the  total  at  this  level,  an 
amount near the 50% of the OECD countries and the initiative goal by 2010. 

3.4.4.  Targeted individual support 

80. ESL can be part of a situation of serious social, academic and/or emotional distress. 
These  young  adults  face  high  risk  of  completely  dropping  out  of  education,  training  or 
employment.  Contrary  to  popular  belief,  they  come  from  all  social  classes,  although 
socio-economic  disadvantage  is  still  strongly  represented  among  them.  They  may  need 
special  and  integral  support  in  order  to  return  to  education  or  training.  It  is  crucial  for 
many  young  people  with  turbulent  relationships  with  schooling  to  recognise  their 
abilities,  see  them  as  partners  in  the  education  process  and  support  their  active 
involvement. 

82 
83 

Summary Report PLA in Belgium. 
CEDEFO (2009) European Guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning, p. 51. 

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81. Existing programmes operate outside and within mainstream schooling. They provide 
a learning experience which reinforces self esteem and equips pupils with the necessary 
skills to face the challenges of school more easily. They offer learning alternatives that 
centre on the needs and life situation of the early school leavers. The appropriateness and 
efficacy of the different programmes depends very much on the context. 

Youthreach centres (Ireland) 

Youthreach provides second-chance education for unemployed early school leavers aged 
15-20.  It  is  administered  in  out-of-school  centres,  operating  full  time  on  a  year-round 
basis.  They  are  small  in  size,  with  about  50  pupils  each.  The  duration  of  stay  in 
Youthreach is an average of 18 months. 

The  intervention  of  the  Centre  is  holistic.  Bringing  pupils  back  to  mainstream  school 
happens  but  is  not  the  main  aim  of  the  project.  Youthreach  provides  formal  education 
with the main objective of supporting pupils to pass the leaving certificate. In addition, 
Youthreach  provides  medical  treatments,  psychological  and  family  support;  self-
development  activities  helping  young  adults  handle  emotions  and  frustration, 
assertiveness, nutrition; and sport and leisure opportunities.84 

Action Locale pour Jeunes (Luxembourg) 

'Action  Locale  pour  Jeunes'  is  a  public  institution  acting  under  the  authority  of  the 
“Vocational Training Service” (Ministry of Education). The ALJ supports young people 
during their transition from school to work, but also provides counselling for young drop-
outs. They contact them individually and interview them about their reasons of leaving 
school  and 
training 
opportunities,  transfer  to  another  school  or  training  institution  (including  institutions 
abroad)  or  supports  them  in  finding  work.  Since  September  2005,  a  special  task  force 
assesses the  competences of migrant pupils in order to offer them the most appropriate 
education or training opportunities.85 

their  current  personal  situation.  The  ALJ  proposes 

them 

PLUS programmes (the Netherlands) 

The programme is intended for young people aged 12 to 23 who are cognitively capable 
of  obtaining  a  basic  qualification  but  who  face  an  accumulation  of  personal  problems 
which  prevents  them  from  completing  their  education  in  a  regular  study  programme. 
These  young  people  need  comprehensive  assistance  to  a  degree  which  is  beyond  the 
capacity  of  the  education  sector.  The  PLUS  programme  initiates  a  process  intended  to 
redress  problems  and  help  them  to  focus  again  on  their  education  and  gain  basic 
qualifications.  Local  authorities  are  closely  involved  in  the  programme;  they  ensure 
sustainability and continuation. Also various local budgets may be used in addition to the 
education budget.86 

84 
85 

86 

PLA Ireland, Final Report. 
Ministère  de  l'éducation  nationale  Luxembourg:  Le  décrochage  scolaire  au  Luxembourg,  2009, 
p.26; http://www.alj.lu. 
http://www.aanvalopschooluitval.nl/vervolg.php?h_id=10&s_id=57&v_id=64& 
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